Iaps 18 Pre-Conference Student Workshop

IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP

VIENNA, 5 and 6 JULY 2004

RESEARCH ABSTRACTS SUBMITTED BY THE 26 PARTICIPANTS

MENTORS

Carole Després Guido Francescato Sigrun Kabish Maria Nordstrom Andrew Seidel Esther Wiesenfeld IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP

31 MARCH 2004

Ms Claire Henderson-Wilson

School of Health and Social Development Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, Deakin University 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, Victoria Australia [email protected]

PhD Program: Full-time student undertaking three year PhD candidature. Examination is by submission of a 100,00 word thesis titled “Living High but Healthy: Impacts of access to nature on inner city highrise residents’ health, wellbeing and effective functioning”. Estimated date of submission is February 2006.

Supervisors: Dr Mardie Townsend and Associate Professor Lawrie St Leger.

Inner city highrise apartment living in Australia: Can access to nature make it healthier?

ABTRACTS Page 2 IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP

There is a growing body of research which suggests that life in the inner city may be detrimental to human health (Parsons, 1991; Rohde & Kendle, 1994). Highrise apartment living has been found to impact negatively on residents, being associated with lower physical activity, behavioural problems, respiratory problems and social isolation (Evans, Wells & Moch, 2003; Jackson, 2002). Despite this awareness, highrise apartment living in the major cities of Australia is increasing rapidly.

Since 1996, the growth in Australia’s urbanisation has accelerated, with the City of Melbourne estimating that between 1996 and 2000, the number of inner city apartment dwellers increased almost three-fold (City of Melbourne, 2000). Similarly, Sydney’s Central Business District population tripled between 1991 and 1997 (Dean, 2000). Such trends are expected to continue in Australia’s major cities.

Contact with nature, for example, parks, gardens, pets and bodies of water (ie. lakes, rivers, the sea), has been shown to alleviate some of the negative effects of living in the inner city. Research suggests that nearby nature (eg. ‘green’ common spaces) can result in positive human health benefits ranging from: enhancement of mental wellbeing (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989; Wells, 2000), to improved social integration (Kuo, Sullivan, Coley & Brunson, 1998) to reduction of crime (Kuo & Sullivan, 2001), and to promotion of individuals’ ability to deal effectively with daily life challenges (Kuo, 2001).

Recent research conducted by Kuo (2001) in the United States of America demonstrates a positive link between ‘green environments’ in highrise developments and the effective management of challenging life events. In addition, Kuo (2001) has also found a connection between contact with nature for highrise residents and their strengthened ability to cope with poverty and the hardships of life in public housing.

The present study investigates the association between differing levels of access to natural environments (parks, gardens, pets and bodies of water) and the health, wellbeing and effective functioning of highrise residents in inner city Melbourne and Sydney. This study is the first of its kind to be conducted in Australia and extends the work by Kuo (2001), to include participants who vary in socioeconomic status, tenure and geographic location.

The study hypothesises that ‘inner city highrise residents with good access to ‘green spaces and bodies of water’ will report better effectiveness regarding everyday functioning and higher levels

ABTRACTS Page 3 IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP of health and wellbeing than those reported by inner city highrise residents with poor access to ‘green spaces and bodies of water’. Good and poor access to ‘green spaces and bodies of water’ is defined through utilisation of Kuo’s (2001) Photo Rating Technique.

In order to determine the hypothesis, the study employs two methods of data collection: distribution of a self-completed questionnaire comprised of psychometrically validated self- report measures to a sample of 600 highrise residents and semi-structured face-to-face interviews with a sub-sample of 300 residents.

Being one year into the PhD candidature, to date the theoretical framework and literature review have been developed, and the pilot study conducted. Large scale administration of the questionnaire has begun and this paper will report on the preliminary results.

Results of this study should provide urban planners, park managers, and government bodies with evidence to ensure future Australian urban development enhances inner city public health and wellbeing, particularly inner city populations under stress (eg. public housing).

References:

City of Melbourne. 2000. Housing survey- new inner city residents, Melbourne. Dean, P. 2000. Sydney: A city gone global. In Archis, (The Dutch on-line journal of Architecture, City and Visual Culture). Evans, G. W., Wells, N. M., & Moch, A. (2003). Housing and Mental Health: A review of the evidence and a methodological and conceptual critique. Journal of Social Issues, 59(3), 475-500. Jackson, L. E. (2002). The relationship of urban design to human health and condition. Landscapes and Urban Planning, 993, 1-10. Johnston, J. (1990). Gaining Public Support for Wildlife in the City. In Green Cities - Ecologically Sound Approaches To Urban Space (Ed. by Gordon, D.) Canada: Black Rose Books Ltd. Kaplan, R. & Kaplan, S. 1989. The experience of nature: A psychological perspective. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. Kuo, F. E. (2001). Coping With Poverty: Impacts of Environment and Attention in the Inner City. Environment and Behavior, 33(1), 5-34. Kuo, F.E., & Sullivan, W. C. (2001). Environment And Crime In The Inner City: Does Vegetation Reduce Crime? Environment and Behavior, 33(3), 343-367.

Kuo, F. E., Sullivan, W. C., Coley, R. L., & Brunson, L. (1998). Fertile Ground for Community: Inner-City Neighborhood Common Spaces. American Journal of Community Psychology, 26(6), 823-851. Parsons, R. 1991. The potential influences of environmental perception on human health. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11, 1-23. Rohde, C.L.E. & Kendle, A.D. 1994. Report to English nature- human wellbeing, natural landscapes and wildlife in urban areas: A review. Bath: University of Reading, Department of Horticulture and Landscape and the Research Institute for the Care of the Elderly. Wells, N. M. (2000). At Home With Nature: Effects of 'Greenness' on Children's Cognitive Functioning. Environment and Behavior, 32(6), 775-795.

Ms Cecily Maller

School of Health & Social Development, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences Deakin University, Australia [email protected]

PhD Program Status - Full time, on-campus. Requirements - Submission of a thesis, up to 100,000 words (due August, 2005). Supervisors : Dr Mardie Townsend & Associate Professor Lawrence St Leger.

Nature in the Schoolyard: Investigations into the Potential of ‘Hands-on’ Contact with Nature to Improve the Mental Health & Wellbeing of Primary School Children.

Recent work on the health and wellbeing benefits of contact with animals and/or plants indicates the natural environment may have significant psychological and physiological effects on health and wellbeing of children (Wells, 2000; Taylor et al, 1998). These studies demonstrate that children function better cognitively and emotionally in green environments (Taylor et al, 2001; Wells, 2000) and have more creative play in green areas (Taylor et al, 1998). Other work has demonstrated that children have an abiding affiliation with nature, even in economically impoverished urban communities (Taylor et al, 1998; Kahn, 1997). Direct experience of nature could play a significant role in children’s affective, cognitive, and evaluative development (Kellert, 2002), but further study is needed.

The literature indicates increasing concern about the lack of time humans, particularly children, spend in outdoor environments (Kellert, 2002; Orr, 2002; Pyle; 2002; Stilgoe, 2001), the increasingly limited opportunities to encounter and interact with the natural world (Orr; 2002; Frumkin, 2001), and the fact that modern society insulates people from outdoor environmental stimuli (Stilgoe, 2001; Simpson, 1994). For children, concerns focus on the detrimental effects on cognitive and emotional development (Kellert, 2002), the paucity of opportunities to develop an ethic of care for the environment and empathy for other living creatures/fellow humans (Kahn, 2002), a lack of understanding about the interconnectedness of all life forms, and many other valuable lessons to be learned from nature (Orr, 2002; Capra, 1997).

In Australia, many schools are incorporating nature-based activities into their curricula. Although most programs appear successful, few have been evaluated, particularly in terms of the health-promoting role played by the nature-related elements. This paper will report on preliminary results of a research program investigating the health benefits of contact with nature for primary school children. The potential benefits to the mental health of children from hands- on contact with nature (i.e. those activities that enable children to personally have contact with key elements of nature, such as plants, and animals) via environmental education and/or nature- based programs are investigated in a Western cultural context via urban primary schools in Melbourne, Australia. The aim of this research is to explore the potential of ‘hands-on’ contact with nature, via nature-based environmental education activities encountered during primary schooling, to promote the mental health and wellbeing of urban Victorian primary school children. Specifically, this study examines nature-based activities such as school gardens and/or those activities run by the environmental education organisations, where children have the opportunity to directly engage with the natural environment. Research Questions include: 1) To describe the extent and type of ‘hands-on’ nature-based programs implemented in urban Victorian primary schools; 2) To determine the perceptions of principals, key staff members, and parents as to the effects on mental health and wellbeing of children participating in those programs and the effects on the school community as a whole; 3) To determine the health promotion potential of ‘hands-on’ nature-based programs, and the enablers and barriers to the implementation of these programs in urban Victorian primary schools.

The research program comprises a survey of primary school principals, detailed case studies, and examination of the literature. Preliminary results from the survey will be presented along with an outline of the later stages of the program (not yet commenced) and an overview of the literature. It is anticipated that findings will be useful for validation of many nature-based programs already initiated by schools, and provide greater incentive to governments, educators, and researchers to develop these programs further.

References Capra, F. 1997. Turn, Turn, Turn: Understanding Nature's Cycles. In: A Garden in Every School: Cultivating a Sense of Season and a Sense of Place, March 15 1997, pp. 1-9. Martin Luther King Middle School: Center for Ecoliteracy. Frumkin, H. 2001. Beyond Toxicity Human Health and the Natural Environment. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 20, 234-240.

Herrman, H. 2001. The Need for Mental Health Promotion. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 35, 709-715. Kahn, P. H., Jr. 2002. Children's Affiliations with Nature: Structure, Development, and the Problem of Environmental Generational Amnesia. In: Children and Nature: Psychological, Sociocultural, and Evolutionary Investigations (Ed. by Kahn, P. H. J. & Kellert, S. R.), pp. 93-116. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. Kahn, P. H., Jr. 1997. Developmental Psychology and the Biophilia Hypothesis: Children's Affiliation with Nature. Developmental Review, 17, 1-61. Kellert, S. R. 2002. Experiencing Nature: Affective, Cognitive, and Evaluative Development in Children. In: Children and Nature: Psychological, Sociocultural, and Evolutionary Investigations (Ed. by Kahn, P. H. J. & Kellert, S. R.), pp. 117-151. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. Orr, D. W. 2002. Political Economy and the Ecology of Childhood. In: Children and Nature: Psychological, Sociocultural, and Evolutionary Investigations (Ed. by Kahn, P. H. J. & Kellert, S. R.), pp. 279-303. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. Pyle, R. M. 2002. Eden in a Vacant Lot: Special Places, Species, and Kids in the Neighborhood of Life. In: Children and Nature: Psychological, Sociocultural, and Evolutionary Investigations (Ed. by Kahn, P. H. J. & Kellert, S. R.), pp. 304-327. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. Simpson, R. 1994. Urbanization: A Major Environmental Challenge to Health. In: Ecological Public Health: From Vision to Practice (Ed. by Chu, C. & Simpson, R.), pp. 47-51. Nathan: Institute of Applied Environmental Research, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia and Centre for Health Promotion, University of Toronto, Canada. Stilgoe, J. R. 2001. Gone Barefoot Lately? American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 20, 243- 244. Taylor, A. F., Kuo, F. E. & Sullivan, W. C. 2001. Coping With ADD: The Surprising Connection to Green Play Settings. Environment & Behavior, 33, 54-77. Taylor, A. F., Wiley, A., Kuo, F. E. & Sullivan, W. C. 1998. Growing up in the Inner City: Green Spaces as Places to Grow. Environment & Behavior, 30, 3-28. Wells, N. M. 2000. At Home With Nature: Effects of "Greenness" on Children's Cognitive Functioning. Environment & Behavior, 32, 775-795.

Key Words - Nature, Children, Mental Health, Schools, Urban Environments

Jenny Millar

Ph.D. Candidate School of Architecture, University of Dundee Supervisors: Mr Brian Adams (School of Architecture, University of Dundee) and Professor Seaton Baxter (School of Design, University of Dundee)

Child Responsive Architecture: A Learning Tool An Investigation into Children’s Perceptions of Architectural Space

“There are children playing in the street who could solve some of my top problems in physics, because they have modes of sensory perception that I lost long ago.”

J Robert Oppenheimer, Physicist

With regard to works previous (Stea &Taphanel, Tolman, Vygotsky et al), this hypothesis is formulated that, in relation to perception of space in the western world, young children have a fundamentally different understanding to that of adults. If this holds true, it could raise certain issues with the ways in which architects design buildings in terms of spatial awareness, orientational understanding and building language.

This paper discusses the background to the hypothesis, outlines the questions that must be answered in order to improve the building design process and highlights the methodologies by which these questions will be addressed.

Concerning cerebral lateralization, it has been demonstrated that pre-school children exercise their right hemisphere in an intensive way whilst simultaneously exercising their left hemisphere in the processing of language and through the production of speech (Springer, SP & Deutch, G, 1998). However, at the onset of formal education, the right hemisphere processes of imagination and intuition appear to be disregarded; hence the left becomes the dominant hemisphere (Edwards, B, 2001). The functions of the left hemisphere, through schooling, are being formalised – the logic is being aligned – whilst the right hemisphere is given much less

ABTRACTS Page 9 IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP encouragement and so logic appears to surpass intuition. In regards to spatial awareness – a logical understanding of space takes over from the base intuition of youth.

It is suggested that in the western world, men and women only use half the mental capacity that it is available to them (Ornstein, R, 1975). By focussing on the left hemisphere and in many ways ignoring the education and the potential of the right, western civilisation is not reaching the potential that it could if using the brain to its full extent. (Ornstein, R, 1975) Those who receive formal schooling, especially from a young age, tend to become much more reliant on logical methods, rather than spatial methods of learning and understanding (Molfese, DL & Segalowitz, SJ, 1998).

It is possible that, at present, the design of the built environment not only inhibits children, but also, due to a lack of understanding into their needs, is giving out signals to which they have a completely different response than adults expect of them (Stea & Taphanel, 1974). When considered, this highlights certain moral issues regarding how designers should respond to the people for whom they are designing. If children do indeed have a different perception of space to that of adults, then how can designers maximize the use of this knowledge and understanding to the fullest potential when creating space?

By applying the fields of child psychology, sociology and neurology to the notion of architectural space, the intent of this research is to determine the most crucial ways in which children’s perceptions and reactions differ, in some ways substantially, to those of adults. It will be tested by natural investigation, within two spatially different buildings with separate groups of children and adults of Scottish working class culture by looking at their personal and social cognitive maps by means of physical, verbal, drawn and written outputs. The natural potential for further research into this, in the future, would be to initiate a design based study to create a child specific space which then responds correctly to the needs of children and could be used to evaluate the conclusions.

References ORNSTEIN, R (1975), The Psychology of Consciousness, Jonathan Cape, London STEA, D & TAPHNEL, S, Theory and Experiment on the Relation Between Environmental Modelling (Toy Play) and Environmental Cognition, from CANTER D & LEE, T (eds), (1974), Psychology and the Built Environment, Architectural Press, Kent, England TOLMAN, EC, (1961), Behaviour and the Psychological Man, University of California Press, California

VYGOTSKY, LS, (1978), Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Mental Processes, (COLE, M, JOHN-STEINER, V, SCRIBNER, S & SOUBERMAN, E (Eds)), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA SPRINGER, SP & DEUTSCH, G, (1998), Left Brain/ Right Brain Perspectives from Cognitive Neuroscience (5th ed.), WH Freeman and Company, New York EDWARDS, B, (2001), The New Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain, Harper Collins Publishers, London GOLDSTEIN, EB, (2002), Sensation and Perception (5th ed), Wadsworth Group, California MOLFESE, DL & SEGALOWITZ, SJ (eds), (1998), Brain Lateralisation in Children, The Guilford Press, New York

Keywords: Architecture, Spatial Perception, Children

#364 Yi-Ling Lin, Master Student, Graduate Institute of Multicultural Education, National Hualien Teachers College, Hualien, Taiwan. E-mail: [email protected] Yung-Jaan Lee (corresponding author), Prof. Ph.D., Graduate Institute of Architecture and Urban Planning, Chinese Culture University, Taipei, Taiwan 111; [email protected]

From Local Identity to Explore the Preservation and Reuse of Historic Buildings: A Case Study of Pinetum Hostel, Hualien, Taiwan

Historic buildings, which carry collective memories of Taiwanese, have gradually disappeared. The preservation and reuse of historic buildings have become Taiwan’s new paradigm of architectural discourses and practices. The preservation and reuse of historic buildings, suggesting emancipation and transformation of public spaces, have become the dominant trend of socio-cultural development in Taiwan. They are not only the transformation of the spatial functions, but also an important perspective of socio-cultural development. They are the spatial practice process of the “lived conservation” mechanism. Moreover, they are the linkage between local identity and residents.

This works uses the “Pinetum Hostel” in Hualien, Taiwan as an example and adopts related discourses of historic buildings, reuse, and local identity to explore the preservation of historical buildings with regard to the transformation of future spatial reform. The Pinetum Hostel used to be the office of the Naval Administration in the Japanese colonial period. This site was taken by Taiwanese government in the wake of the end of WWII. It is the only Japanese military remains preserved in good condition in Hualien. On July 13, 2000, Hualien County Government officially classified the Pinetum Hostel a “Special Historic Attraction Zone.” This work will use literature review, in-depth interview, and iconographic approaches to investigate the relationships between local identity and historical building preservation. Furthermore, this work will explore cultural image behind the preservation and reuse of historic buildings. Finally, this work suggests a reflexivity movement for the preservation and reuse of historic buildings. Reference Barker, C. (2000), Cultural Studies: Theory and Practice, London: Sage. Delafons, J. (1997), Politics and Preservation: A Policy History of the Built Heritage, 1882- 1996, London: E & FN Spon.

Entrikin, J. N. (1991),. The Betweenness of Place: Toward a Geography of Modernity, London: Macmillan. Entrikin, J. N. (1994), Place and Region, Progress in Human Geography, 18 (2): 227-233. Gehl, J. (1987), Life between Buildings: Using Public Space. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Rubin, H. J. & R. S. Rubin (1995). Qualitative Interviewing: The Art of Hearing Data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Short, J.R., The Urban Order: An Introduction to Cities, Culture, and Power. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996. Williams, D. R, M. E. Patterson, J. W. Roggenbuck & A. E. Watson (1992), Beyond the Commodity Metaphor: Examining Emotional and Symbolic Attachment to Place, Leisure Sciences. pp. 29-46.

KEYWORDS Local Identity, Preservation, Historic Buildings

#431 YeonKoo HONG Ph.D in Psychology Psychology Department, University of Surrey, U.K [email protected] Supervisors: Prof. David Uzzell and Dr. Lynne Purvis

An Integrated Approach to Behavior Setting Analysis on an Open-Plan Office

Theoretical framework

A behaviour setting can be viewed as a small-scale social system comprising people and inanimate components (Barker, 1968). Various components within the temporal and spatial boundaries of the system interact in an orderly and highly regulated fashion to fulfil essential setting functions.

As a result of constant person-environment interaction, behaviour settings become associated with particular patterns of behaviour (Bechtel, 1982). Thus, analyzing the behavioural patterns occurring within each setting as well as its context and internal dynamics can help to understand and evaluate the impact of the physical aspects of the setting in relation to its key functions and objectives.

Conceiving of the environment in behaviour setting terms makes it clear that physical features of the workplace environment and behaviour patterns within the enclosure must be closely interrelated. Thus, workspaces and facilities must not only create a desired mood or atmosphere but also facilitate actions of people for organizational purposes.

Research methodology

The overall conceptual framework of the study comes from Wicker’s (1987, p.618) view on behavior setting in which a setting is analyzed based on ‘setting facets and elements’. There are three main facets and their components as the elements: 1) context (social & organizational environment), 2) internal dynamics (personal cognitions & motives functional activities, and social processes), and 3) resources (people, space, behavioural objects, and information & reserves).

In the process of substantive theorizing (Wicker, 2002 p.119), research questions are explored and working theories are developed from surveys as well as subjective occupant accounts, and later refined, elaborated, and modified in relation to the objective patterns of behaviour. Then, developed from the behaviour setting K21 survey (Barker, 1968; Wicker, 1979; Bechtel, 1987), Behaviour Setting Analysis attempts a quantitative measure of environment-behaviour interdependence within and between the elements of setting ‘resources’: people, space, and behavioural objects.

Thus, using an integrated approach to BSA, the study looks at the overall environment-behavior fit of a behavior setting as a workplace system in relation to setting functions and organizational goals.

Research problem

The present study assesses the open plan office environment in relation to physical structure (arrangement of the groups in an open space, individual workstation boundaries and activities, facility use and locations, privacy issues and physical distractions), interpersonal and social relationships, and the attitudes and perceptions among office users.

In addition, the study will compare over a 6 month period of time the working environments and the effect of the physical changes on the individuals, groups, and organization as a whole.

Research setting

The setting of particular interest is an open plan office environment in a University Library, staffed by people who have recently been migrated from a set of closed group offices. The open setting consists of about 28 regular occupants from 4~5 different work groups.

Research objectives

Overall, the objectives of the study are 1) to describe key behavioral characteristics of office users in relation to the office environment, 2) to identify social and physical variables from the environment that affect or interact with the office users’ cognitions, motivations, and social processes, 3) to assess the structure of social interactions among individuals as well as groups, 4) to assess the interdependence and boundaries among workstations and facilities, 5) thus, to evaluate the overall environment-behavior fit in the workplace system for the setting functions and organizational goals.

Data collection

For the data gathering, a) activity and environmental attitude survey questionnaires, b) individual interviews, c) Behaviour Setting Analysis questionnaire, and c) observations and office photographs are conducted as the main tools.

As a longitudinal comparative study, the initial data gathering was taken place in late November 2003 (about a month after the move into the open plan office from enclosed group offices) and another will be in late May, 2004.

Findings (preliminary)

The initial findings of the study show that most of the participants saw the open office environment quite satisfactorily, and regarded the office environment as helping to develop a better sense of group as a whole. They generally considered the physical changes as improvement or better than before, and yet perceived them as not well consulted with them.

It was also found that satisfaction on the individual equipment is an important element of overall satisfaction on the facilities and the physical environment, and senior members of the office occupants expressed relatively low level of satisfactions about the facilities and the physical environment as positively correlated with their satisfaction level on the organizational supportiveness.

Conclusion (preliminary)

Due to the relatively collaborative type of the work activities of the occupants, the open office environment seems to bring them a moderate level of satisfaction on the close individual workstation setup while increase the opportunities of natural interactions among the occupants.

However, degrees of satisfaction on the physical environment are negatively associated with the amount of individual solo work requiring high level of concentration and psychological privacy as well as the distraction factors from the surroundings or locations of individual workstations.

Physical boundaries and facility use seemed to clearly reflect the delineation of the social boundaries of the organization.

References

Barker, R. (1968). Ecological psychology: Concepts and methods for studying the environment of human behavior. C.A: Stanford University Press Bechtel, R. (1977). Enclosing Behavior. AZ: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc. Bechtel, R. (1982). Contributions of ecological psychology to the evaluation of environments. International review of applied psychology, 31, 153-167. Bechtel, R. (1987). Ecological psychology. In R. Bechtel, R. Marans, & W. Michelson (Eds.), Methods in environmental and behavioral research (pp. 191-215). NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Inc. Wicker, A.W. (1979). An introduction to ecological psychology. CA: Wadsworth, Inc. Wicker, A.W. (1987). Behavior settings reconsidered: temporal stages, resources, internal dynamics, context. In D. Stokols & I. Altman (Eds.), Handbook of environmental psychology (Vol. 2. pp. 613-653). New York: Wiley. Wicker, A.W. (2002). Ecological Psychology: Historical contexts, current conception, prospective directions. In R. Bechtel & A. Churchman (Eds.), Handbook of environmental psychology (2nd ed., pp.114-126). New York: Wiley.

Carina Weingaertner-Kohlscheen

Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) Built Environment Analysis Unit, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden.

Supervisor : Örjan Svane, associate professor, KTH - Built Environment Analysis

MAMMUT – Managing the Metabolism of Urbanisation. Pilote studies in Stockholm and Dar es Saalam

Urbanisation is people moving to cities – resulting in a need for new buildings and infrasystems, new institutions, often a new way of life; but also in leaving something behind. How does this relate to the sustainability challenge? If migration is unavoidable, urbanisation gives opportunities for addressing the long-term objectives of sustainable development. At KTH, Stockholm, a cross-disciplinary research project is presently initiated, that explores the urbanisation process of Dar es Salaam and Stockholm. In this process, stakeholders face different options while seeking to shape the city’s urban development. The analysis of these options show the extent to which - guided by objectives of sustainability - the urbanization process can be managed. Environmental impacts originated by the exchange of resources between the city and its hinterlands - the metabolism - will indicate to what extent sustainability is attained.

As a preliminary part of the project mentioned above, this paper discusses pilot studies developed through workshops and information gathered from existing literature. The last 50 years in the urbanization process of Stockholm and Dar es Salaam are briefly studied. The concept of Situations of Opportunities is used as a research tool for delimiting and defining the relevant units of analysis of the case studies. A Situation of Opportunity is a moment in the process of urbanisation, when stakeholders have a greater possibility than average to influence its future development.

For each city, one Situation is described to exemplify the possibilities and limitations with this research strategy. In historical situations like the ones discussed here, there is a factual outcome in physical form, institutional framework, new ways of life and environmental impacts. There were, however, also alternatives to the factual outcome. These alternatives combined with the factual outcome shape the Field of Options that was available to the stakeholders. In this study,

ABTRACTS Page 17 IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP the Field of Options is illustrated through the factual outcome and one contra-factual scenario. Thus for each Situation and each Scenario there is a brief description and analysis of its resulting physical urban structure, the institutions needed for development and operation and the resulting ways of life of the households as well as a brief qualitative assessment of its main environmental impacts. The environmental impacts of the actual solution and the scenario will then, to some extent, be compared.

For Stockholm the chosen Situation of Opportunity is the development of the Underground system in the 1940’s. Discussions about the need for an Underground system in Stockholm got momentum in the early 30’s due to major traffic problems in the city. The decision was taken in 1941 and construction started in 1945, reaching its near-mature state in 1978. The Underground influenced the physical urban structure of the city not only due to construction of rail network and tunnels, but also because near its stations new housing areas and local centres for shopping and public services developed. Social implications of this public transport system included: facilitation of commuting mentality (living in one part of the city and working in another) and imposition of time restrictions to users because the Underground shuts down at night. Institutions that played important roles in the development and implementation of the Underground were Stockholm City and the company Stockholm Tramways (SS), which in 1967 became Stockholm Lokaltrafik (SL). SL remains the main company running the Underground, although since the 90’s operation activities have been subcontracted to a separate company (Connex). Environmental impacts related to the development of the Underground result from the changes in the city’s physical configuration, as well as the influence of the institutional structures and changes in the ways of life. Some of the impacts are briefly accessed and described. The alternative scenario is based on the use of private cars and buses instead of commuting with the Underground. In this case, physical implications such as the construction of highways and roads, more of urban sprawl and large parking areas can be expected. Institutions like regional and local planning offices and road authorities as well as car owners are likely to play important roles. Among changes in the ways of life are longer commuting distances and higher individual mobility. Just as in the factual case, environmental impacts will derive from the changes in the physical, institutional and social structures of the city, and in this case they are expected to be more severe than in the factual situation.

The Situation of Opportunity analysed in Dar es Saalam is the urban public transport system. In 1949 a private company (Dar es Saalam Motor Transport Company - DMT), subsidiary from a British company, started providing urban public transport in the city. In the 70’s, after Tanzania’s independency, DMT was nationalized and restructured, but it continued holding

ABTRACTS Page 18 IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP monopoly-rights for public transport in the city. In the 80’s and 90’s the urban transport system went through reforms including deregulation, trade liberalization and policy changes. These led to the current public transport system which is predominantly based on “one-man one-bus” (Daladala buses). Physical, institutional, social and environmental implications of the existing transport system in Dar es Saalam will be further discussed in the paper. The alternative scenario will also be explored.

Key words: urbanisation, management, situations of opportunity, Dar es Saalam, Stockholm

Malika Bourennane

PhD Student Royal Institute of Technology Dept. of Infrastructute DKV 30, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden [email protected]

Does an Enabling Strategy Fulfil its Promise? a case study for the evaluation of the new development control code

The purpose of the research project is to assess how the new Development Control Code, 1995 is applied and followed in low income residential areas with particular regards to its relaxed capacity. On the Code, the relaxed capacity means relaxing minimum requirements of setbacks on the merit of each case. One of the main focuses is on female-headed households and their opportunities to carry out small business that is called infromal economy on their plots.

The research method for the project is planned to be fourfold: firstly, entailing literature review on gender issues, theory of justice, good governnace as base for theortical framework;secondly, multiple case study - The fieldwork will comprise a comparison between two low-income housing areas where the implementation of the planning code is expected to be principally different. The methods will comprise analysis of official policy and planning documents; key person interviews with local and central government officials, local community leaders etc; so called expert assessments of spatial qualities such as accessibility, shaded spaces, cross ventilation and other climatic qualities; observations of use of space, and interviews-in-depth with households of different demographic, educational and class composition, and experience of building construction- thirdly, following a case; fourthly comparison with Northern African perspective is also proposed.

It is hoped that the findings of the research will be of direct use to supporting the basis for UN Habitat's enabling human settlement strategy which is aimed at favouring the disadvantaged majority. Furthermore, it is expected that the mode of evaluating planning regulations in this

ABTRACTS Page 20 IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP study could be used as a tool in other rapidly urbanising low-income countries. The research is expected to contribute to a deeper knowledge on the enabling approach to low-income housing and to the problems of implementing planning legislation in a situation of rapid urbanisation.

Tatu Mtwangi Limbumba

Residential Location Preferences and Urban Form in Dar es Salaam City Ph.D. Proposal

Introduction

This is a proposal for a PhD study. The study attempts to look into how residential choice behaviour expresses the preference of the residents of Dar es Salaam city and how the choices affect the urban form and quality of the city. In the study the theory/concepts of lifestyle will be used to understand their choices while typo-morphology will be used as a tool to analyse the quality of the different residential areas chosen and will be basis of the presentation. GIS will be used to analyse and display the spatial information. The research methodology will include both quantitative and qualitative methods. The expected results will be a better understanding of how lifestyle affects residential choices particularly in a Third World context.

Why did you choose to live in this area? Where did you live before coming here? What are the qualities that attracted you to live in this area? These are some of the questions whose answers ultimately influence the choices that people make on where to live. Rapoport (1985) says that people choose in order to increase congruence between needs, wants, and their environment, between lifestyle and their environment. Changing lifestyles for instance in developed countries was an influential factor in sub-urbanization. Similarly low-income people in developing countries attach great importance to kinship and social ties when choosing a place to live (Ozo, 1991, Lindert 1991).

Research Problem

The proliferation of informal settlements in Tanzania continues unabated resulting in high densities in core areas of the city and haphazard land development in the peripheral and hazardous areas. The key question is what factors influence people’s choice of residence and in particular those choosing to live in informal settlements and how these are expressed in space. The relationship between urban planning and design and; human spatial behaviour needs to be

ABTRACTS Page 22 IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP explored in order to understand how our choices affect the urban form and quality and vice versa.

Research Objectives

The main objective of the study therefore is to investigate the factors people find important in selecting where to live and how their decisions spatially influence the form/structure of the city.

Specific Objectives of the Research are:

1. To investigate the factors underlying choice of residential area of households in Dar es Salaam City.

2. To ‘map’ the spatial dimension and characteristics of the different residential locations and compare them to the preferences.

Theoretical Framework

This study intends to use the concept/theory of lifestyle as a determinant for residential choice. Rapoport (1985) argues that lifestyle and residential choice can be matched. This is because a person’s lifestyle is related to education, income, class, ethnicity, stage in lifecycle, which influences residential choice. Aero (2000) citing Murie (1974) points that through housing and residential choice, lifestyle preferences attempt to be realised. Informal residential areas in Dar es Salaam are not homogeneous and while they maybe lacking in basic services, they do not all manifest poor environmental and socio-economic characteristics like other squatter settlements in developing countries probably because of differing lifestyles of their inhabitants.

In order to relate the choices to urban form and spatial quality the preferred residential areas will be analysed using typo-morphological urban analysis which provides an appropriate framework to study the areas in detail. It is possible to evaluate the relative attractiveness of different urban types using typomorphological urban analysis (Radberg, 1998).

Methodology

Both qualitative and quantitative methods will be used in the study. A socio-economic survey using questioners and interviews will be done in two informal areas of Dar es Salaam city. One

ABTRACTS Page 23 IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP area will be that of low-income and the other a middle/high income area in order to get a comparison of preferences. Informal areas are chosen because almost 80% of residents in Dar es Salaam are accommodated in them, the areas lack basic services like water, roads and drainage but the houses built are of good quality. I may decide to choose areas close to the centre of the city and those on the periphery. Both owners and renters will be interviewed. Analysis will be done using a statistical package and GIS for the spatial information.

References

Lindert, P., Van, (1991) Moving Up or Staying Down? Migrant – Native Differential Mobility in La Paz, Urban Studies, Vol. 28, No.3 (pp. 443-463) Ozo, A. O., (1991), Residential Location and Intra urban Mobility in a Developing Country; Some empirical Observations from Benin City, Nigeria, Urban Studies Vol.23 Radberg J., (1998): Towards a Theory of Sustainability and Urban Quality: A New Method for Typological Urban Classification, A Paper presented at the 14th IAPS Conference. Rapoport A., (1985): On Diversity and Designing for Diversity: In B. Judd, J. dean and D. Brown (Eds), Housing Issues 1: Design for Diversification, Canberra, Australia Aero T., (2000): Residential Preferences, Choice of Housing and Lifestyle, PhD Thesis, Danish Building and Urban Research, Denmark

Key words: Residential Choices, Informal settlements, Urban Form, Spatial Quality, Lifestyle #594

Nsumbalimi Chagu Gilya

Ph.D. Candidate BBA Infrastructure- KTH Stockholm, Sweden

Supervisor: Dick Urban Vestbro

Spatial and cultural qualities in domestic architecture in the historic town of Bagamoyo, Tanzania

Research Problem

Declaration to conserve the designated area in the historic town of Bagamoyo has produced a stalemate where neither side (conservators on the one hand and the general public on the other) is able to make any progress. Controlling new development within this urban quarter on the other hand has proved difficulty without clear understanding of the spatial and cultural qualities of the domestic architecture. Where buildings have vanished, and where new plots need infill current concepts create imbalance to the history and social structure of the place. The speed with which this historic town is being transformed and rebuild is erasing all references to the old fabric even before it can be documented. Furthermore, there has been a concern on possible social, cultural and environmental impacts from the economic optimisation on this tourist town. Erosion of history and disruption of community cohesiveness are among the imminent dangers facing Bagamoyo historic town.

Despite numerous studies on the history and origins of the Swahili Architecture which are still inconclusive (Garlake, 1966; Lewcock, 1971), and several on the technical improvements of the same {Holmqvist et al, 1992), a gap still persists on the cultural and social qualities of these buildings. It is still controversial for example as to who founded the Swahili settlements; indeed from which ethnic group does Swahili architecture come from?

Fundamental to the understanding of any architectural development involving culture is the establishment of an appropriate relationship between culture and architecture, in this case the relationship between the Swahili built environment and the culture for which it is designed. To understand the interplay between societal patterns and housing environments it is necessary to divide the subjects to be studied into observable units of analysis as people, houses and activities

This research identifies the units of analysis as people in relation to their living spaces or houses. The Swahili house demonstrates the reflexive relationship between categories of people and spaces. These are further classified according to gender, age and relation to the head of the household.

To study how houses are given meaning by the users (people) it is necessary to conceptualise them as having meanings that transcend the physical boundaries of shelter. In this study house is conceptualised as not only a tangible physical structure but as a system of settings, linkages and separations where encounters and avoidances are established. It is where formal and informal activities take place. The Swahili traditional house is here looked in terms of spatial progression as frontage and back zone. Further more it can be divided according to male female domains, public, semi, and private realms.

The research will explore the daily activities taking place in different spaces and by different people. Occasional and special activities such as dancing within residential premises on a ceremony, is frequent in Bagamoyo, and will be documented so as to know how spaces behave to accommodate such events/uses. An activity such as eating from plates is alien to the Swahili, who use communal trays for serving food despite importing expensive plates for many centuries! Understanding the inter-play between Swahili people and their living environment is vital for understanding fully the Swahili architecture. The knowledge is also a means to understanding the pattern of the Swahili social order. Spatial and cultural qualities are therefore important aspects for modernization and preservation of the traditional living environments. The vacuum in knowledge on the aspects of spatial and cultural qualities and on the aspects of the relationship between people and their spaces in this historic town has created difficulties in effecting conservation programmes.

The importance of culture in the design of housing in particular has increasingly been acknowledged by different disciplines. Many scholars and specialists have collaboratively or individually pursued and explored the relationship between built environment and culture. (Morgan, 1965; Rapoport, 1969; Altman et al, 1980).

The objective this PhD research is to identify and analyse the inherent values and qualities, spatial and cultural, which are important aspects for modernization, improvement and preservation of any historic fabric.

Context Cultural, urban, as well as architectural

Theoretical Framework Man – Environment Studies

Questions What are the spatial and cultural qualities inherent to Swahili Domestic Architecture?

Methodology Participant Observer, where the researcher lives with the subjects in their area of study with the purpose of observing, talking to and interviewing them through structured and unstructured questions. Noting and recording daily activities, i.e. who does what, where and when including

ABTRACTS Page 26 IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP why. The researcher is to make photographic registration and measuring spaces, both indoor and outdoor.

State of development of thesis The research is at data collection level.

Ohno, R., Kubo, E. and Soeda, M.

Residents’ front/back definition of the spaces around suburban houses in Tokyo

Most suburban houses in Japan are built by prefabricated systems, and thus they have quite similar appearances. The outdoor spaces around each house, however, are arranged differently so that they mirror the resident’s personal values and feelings (Marcus, 1995). The distinction between the domains of “front” and “back” seems to play a fundamental role in determining the layouts of such outdoor spaces as carports, yards, and gardens. Rapoport (1977) points out that “There is much evidence that people very clearly differentiate between front and back areas since very different symbolic values are attached to them.” He also notes that the physical expressions that symbolize front/back areas are very different across cultures.

The present study was intended to give empirical support to the above argument. A survey of 74 houses in the suburbs of Tokyo investigated how the residents differentiated between front and back areas. Descriptions of the physical features of the outdoor spaces as well as residents’ responses to a questionnaire concerning their perception and use of those spaces were the data obtained by the survey. We first drew a rough plot plan of each site visited and asked the resident to point out the places where such activities as putting out garbage, drying laundry and chatting with neighbors occurred. A list of eighteen possible activities was prepared in advance and the item number of each activity written down on the plan according to where it occurred. We also probed for the resident’s perception of the spaces by asking which parts they preferred to show neighbors and which parts they kept hidden, which parts were thought of as front and which as back, and so on.

In order to analyze the data obtained, the outdoor spaces around each house were divided into unit spaces according to such physical features as shape, height and type of ground covering materials. We extracted 541 unit spaces out of 71 houses; therefore the average number per house was 7.6 unit spaces. Each unit space was analyzed according to such physical and spatial features as size, location within the site, proximity to the street, accessibility to the interior of the house, and visibility from neighboring sites.

Although about 30% of the unit spaces were not recognized as either, the rest were distinguished as front (38%) or back (32%). Proximity to the main thoroughfare and accessibility to the

ABTRACTS Page 28 IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP entrance and living room were some characteristics of the unit spaces that tended to be seen as “front”. On the other hand, the unit spaces seen as “back” tended to face a blank wall or a door to the kitchen. As for the relationship between the front/back distinction and residents’ use of the unit spaces, it seemed that such activities as displaying plants and flowers or chatting with neighbors occurred in the front while household activities and storage took place in the back. Residents seemed to care better for the front region since it is the part that communicates a public image. The back region was not necessarily a deserted place, however, but could be a favorite place for spending leisure time or conducting other private family activities. It is interesting to note that drying laundry, which is believed as a typical back-space activity, could be found equally in the front area according to this survey. This could be simply due to the limited space in the back area, but may also reflect the strong Japanese preference for drying clothing and Futons (Japanese mattresses) in a sunny place, which tends to be regarded as a front space.

References Marcus, C.C.: House as a Mirror of Self, Conari Press, Berkeley, 1995 Rapoport, A.: Human Aspects of Urban Form, Pergamon Press, New York, 1977.

Keywords: Outdoor spaces, house, perception, front, back

Janet Loebach

Masters of Environmental Design Studies (In progress – TBC Summer 2004) Faculty of Architecture, Dalhousie Univeristy, Halifax, NS [email protected] OR [email protected]

Supervisor: Christine Macy

An Affordance-Based Approach to the Design of Effective Learning Environments for Children

Research from a wide range of disciplines over the last couple of decades has provided enormous insight into the natural behaviour of children, the unique ways in which they perceive their environments, as well as the environmental experiences and conditions that are necessary for their healthy development and well being. Studies have demonstrated that appropriate development, for example, requires the opportunity for the child to experience both privacy and appropriate social interaction throughout the various stages of childhood (Wohlwill & Heft, 1997; Cooper Marcus, 1995). A child’s ability to choose and manipulate their settings to suit their purposes is also known to be an important component in the critical process of developing a sense of identity and environmental competence (Proshansky & Fabian, 1987; Sanoff, Sanoff & Hensely, 1972). It has also been established that children learn by ‘doing’, and that exploration and discovery experiences are important methods for obtaining knowledge and understanding (Brown & Campione, 1996; Sanoff, 2000).

With respect to the physical nature of behaviour settings, both research and design practice have demonstrated that a successful environment is one whose form and philosophy are compatible with the desired behaviour and preferences of the inhabitant. In the case of learning environments for children, an effective setting must therefore embody an understanding of the natural learning behaviour of children and their unique perception of the opportunities afforded by a physical form or space. These facilities are particularly of interest since, as Gump suggests, children spend such a significant amount of time immersed in these environments that much of the time is devoted to living as well as learning (cf. Wohlwill & Heft, 1987). The quality of this living is therefore of vital importance. However, many formal learning environments for

ABTRACTS Page 30 IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP children do not exhibit an understanding of the natural behaviour and numerous needs of children, and fail to provide a built environment that effectively supports the variety of experiences critical to appropriate development during childhood.

Sanoff suggests that achieving more appropriate learning environments for children necessarily requires an approach that recognizes the vast differences in needs, abilities and preferences that these sensitive users exhibit (1994). The critical factor in developing responsive learning settings lies in the ability of an environment to effectively accommodate the various demands and intentions of its users. In the case of children, an effective setting must provide physical forms and attributes that are congruent with the goals and inclinations of a group of unique children. That is, the ability to respond to the myriad needs and objectives of these particular users must be made integral to the form itself.

This paper advocates for a new approach to the design of settings within learning environments that more effectively respond to the developmental needs and behaviour of children. After clarifying the criteria for an effective learning environment, this paper moves on to outline a design framework that is capable of meeting these requirements. While borrowing from various psychology frameworks, the approach relies heavily on affordance theory, which suggests that children’s perception of the possibilities inherent in their environment is functionally-oriented, and is directly related to both their capabilities and intentions (Greeno, 1994; Heft, 1988). However, this affordance-based approach is also firmly set within a developmental context in order to address the diverse needs of children at various stages of childhood. This investigation also explores the role of ‘loose’, unstructured features and settings in …Ultimately, the framework attempts to outline the role of the physical environment in supporting the natural learning behaviour and critical developments of children, and to pinpoint the environmental features and conditions that will be perceived by children as supportive of these goals.

The framework (under development) is expected to demonstrate that ‘loose’, affordance-rich settings can successfully reflect and encourage children’s innate learning behaviour, while providing the environmental conditions that promote engagement in developmentally significant activities. In turn, providing these informal experiences and settings within formal school facilities will assist in institution in meeting the criteria for an effective learning environment.

The developmental-affordance framework will be used to critically review 2 to 3 elementary school facilities, and discuss the success of each facility in providing loose, engaging settings capable of facilitating some of the critical developmental experiences of school aged children.

Note: Though this work is still in progress, it will be completed for presentation in July.

Sample References

Brown, A.L. & Campione, J.C. (1996). Psychological Theory and the Design of Innovative Learning Environments. In Innovations in Learning: New Environments for Education. (Schauble, L & Glaser, R., Eds.). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Clark, C. and Uzzell, D. (2002). The Affordances of the Home, Neighbourhood, School and Town Centre for Adolescents. Journal of Environmental Psychology, Vol 22, pp. 95- 108. Cooper Marcus, C. (1995). House as a Mirror of Self: Exploring the Deeper Meaning of Home. Berkeley, California: Conari Press. Greeno, J.G. (1994). Gibson’s Affordances. Psychological Review, Vol 101 (2), pp. 336-342. Heft, Harry. (1988). Affordances of Children’s Environments: A Functional Approach to Environmental Description. Children’s Environments Quarterly, Vol 5 (3), pp. 29 – 37. Hertzberger, Herman. (1991). Lessons for Students in Architecture. Nijmegen: GJ Thieme. Hertzberger, Herman, van Roiien-Wortmann, A, Strauven, F. (1982). Aldo van Eyck. Netherlands: Stichting Wonen. Kytta, Marketta. (2002). Affordances of Children’s Environments in the Context of Cities, Small Towns, Suburbs and Rural Villages in Finland and Belarus. Journal of Environmental Psychology, Vol 22, pp. 109-123. Lackney, J.A. (2000). Brain-Based Learning Research. Proceedings from Interactivity 2000: Creativity in Civil Society conference. Association of Youth Museums & Institute for Civil Society. Baltimore, Maryland. Malone, Sara. (2001). Innovative Alternatives in Learning Environments. Proceedings from Committee on Architecture for Education (CAE) Fall Conference, Amsterdam, 2000. Pettit, J. (1997). Flexing with the Times. Retrieved July 2003 from American School and University website. Moore, G.T., Lane, C.G., Hill, A.B., Cohen, U., McGinty, T. (1979). Recommendations for Child Care Centers. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Community Design Center, Inc with Center for Architecture and Urban Planning Research, University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee. Pollowy, A. (1977). The Urban Nest. Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc. Proshansky, H.M. & Fabian, A.K. (1987). Spaces for Children. (Weinstein, C. & David, T.G., Eds.). New York: Plenum Press. Sanoff, Henry. (2000). A Visioning Process for Designing Responsive Schools. Retrieved June 2003 from National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities website:

www.edfacilities.org. Sanoff, Henry. (1994). School Design. New York: Van Norstrand Reinhold. Sanoff, H., Sanoff, J., and Hensley, A. (1972). Learning Environments for Children. Raleigh, NC: Learning Environments. Strauven, Francis. (1996). Aldo van Eyck’s Orphanage: A Modern Monument. Netherlands: Nai Publishers. Wohlwill, J.F. & Heft, H. (1987). The Physical Environment and the Development of the Child. In Stokols, D. & Altman, I., Eds. Handbook of Environmental Psychology. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc. Wolff, Susan J. (2002). Design Features for Project-Based Learning. Retrieved July 2003 from Design Share website: www.designshare.com

Ian Senkatuka

Supervisors Ass. Prof. Orjan Svane, Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden Prof. Dick urban Vestbro, Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden Dr Barnabas Nawangwe, Makerere University

Effective Urban Infrastructure Management in Developing Countries – An Analysis of Kampala City.

A Synopsis for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Architecture Urbanization is occurring rapidly around the world, particularly in developing countries that are suffering from the brunt of its adverse effects. By 2030, urban areas in developing countries will need to accommodate a projected doubling of the urban population (World Bank 2002).

Urban areas are potential dynamic engines of growth. Local governments need to take steps to make their cities more hospitable venues for economic growth (World Bank 2002). They must provide a good living and working environment. For this to occur they must have good infrastructure that needs to be managed responsibly if development is to be sustainable (World Bank 2002)

In many developing countries, local authorities and public corporations normally provide the physical infrastructure, which is vital for economic growth and development, or they provide a conducive environment for others who provide some of it, particularly housing. However, urban infrastructure providers are failing to keep up with the rapid urbanization, adversely affecting the natural and the built environment and exacerbating poverty. This is because of various constraints that include: lack of finances, a lack of capacity, unnecessary political interference, haphazard and inefficient provision, etc.

Kampala, Uganda’s capital city has not been spared. The planning and management of physical infrastructure is poor and uncoordinated, leading to inadequate and poorly maintained infrastructure. The problems are further complicated by the country’s complicated land tenure system and non-compliance with the planning by-laws. The country’s scarce resources are also

ABTRACTS Page 34 IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP being wasted by some of the infrastructure providers. For example, roads are provided with no plans for drainage, newly constructed roads are dug up by other infrastructure providers trying to provide their own services, etc. This makes one question the seriousness of the providers. The city has many poor roads, poor storm water drainage, poor garbage collection, slums, poorly planned and maintained open spaces, inadequate provision of water and sewerage facilities, etc. While the responsible parties are trying to address the problems, they still have a very long way to go.

It is argued that some of the constraints faced by infrastructure providers can be handled, and that innovative methods and institutional arrangements can result in much better service provision even at low investment levels (World Bank 2000). Coping with infrastructure challenges, involves more than simple planning. It involves tackling inefficiency and waste, both in investment and in service delivery (World Bank 1994). This is a challenge for urban authorities in developing countries. Ways need to be found to ensure that infrastructure provision keeps pace with urban growth on a basis, which is financially and environmentally sustainable, and equitable.

It should be acknowledged that to address these problems a combined effort of all the infrastructure providers and other stakeholders like the central government and the private sector, may be needed. While the involvement of the private sector is at the heart of the Uganda government’s strategy on infrastructure, the private sectors involvement has been minimal in most areas (Price Water House Coopers 2000). This is an issue that needs to be looked into.

This research will be look at housing and its associated complementary infrastructure like roads, water and sewerage facilities in Kampala City, provided and maintained by the local government, or influencing infrastructure provided by the local authorities. It will try to determine:

1. How urban physical infrastructure can be efficiently provided and maintained in developing countries with their limitations, in a manner that will lead to sustainable development. 2. How to integrate urban infrastructure planning and provision to avoid the inefficient use of scarce resources

It will mainly focus on roads and other associated services, like storm water drains, pedestrian pavements and street lights. In particular, it will try to address the following research questions:

 Can urban road infrastructure be provided appropriately in a manner that matches the increasing urbanization?  Can Kampala’s road infrastructure providers do more to improve service delivery, even within current constraints they face?  Can the involvement of the private sector, taking advantage of their finances and management expertise, help infrastructure providers to improve their service delivery?  Is there an enabling policy environment aimed at ensuring that the road infrastructure is efficiently provided?  Can innovation and intermediate technology help improve service delivery?

The methodology for the research will include the following:

 Literature reviews of national and local government policies e.g. on decentralization, infrastructure provision and management, the planning and management policies of the infrastructure providers, good practice, etc.  Case studies in developing countries and the developed world. Comparisons will be made to Dar-es-Salaam, Nairobi, Botswana and Peru. There are cases of some Community Based Organisations in some countries like the Karengata association in Nairobi that is trying to manage their own infrastructure. In Kampala, there are a few examples of residents of particular areas like Muyenga, running out of patience with the local authorities, and providing their own road infrastructure.  In the developed world, Cites in Sweden and the United Kingdom will be selected to see what can be learnt from how they provide and maintain their infrastructure.  Comparisons will be made between Kampala and other African cities, which have better functioning systems of management, like CapeTown.  A pilot study will be undertaken before the main fieldwork is undertaken  Key Person Interviews of technocrats in local government and in public infrastructure corporations, representatives of Non Governmental Organisations (NGO’s) and Community Based Organisations (CBO’s), and the private sector. These will include: . Government ministers like the Ministers of Works, Housing and Communication, and the Minister of Local Government in Uganda, - 0n policy issues.

. Representatives of donor organizations involved in infrastructure provision – on policy issues. . Town clerks of Kampala city and some other selected cities, and city managers . Chief planners - on what is currently being done, problems faced, challenges, . City engineers- on what is currently being done, problems faced, challenges, . The main founders of CBO’s involved in some form of infrastructure planning and management e.g. the chairman local council 1 around Muyenga in Kampala, Karen and Lanagata in Nairobi – on why they had to provide and manage their own infrastructure, their results and challenges . Representatives of the private sector e.g. key business organizations, and the general public - on their views, to determine if they may be interested in participating, and if so how.  Systematic Observations, taking photographs and an analysis of aerial photographs, to see what is currently being done and to determine if it is being done in the best way

References Price Water House Coopers (2000). Uganda Country Framework Report. http://europa.eu.int/comm/development/publicat/rep98/pdf/en/ug.pdf (Accessed on 13th February 2003) http://easd.org.2a/Soe/Uganda/CHAP6.html (Accessed on 13th February 2003) http://www.ubos.org?prov%20Results%20RPT52005.doc (Accessed on the 13th of February 2003) Lubuva, John 2001. African Challenges: Urban local government Management – Prospects and Constraints. http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/urban/docs/AFRICAN %2520CHALLENGESSJohnpaper.pdf (Accessed 13th February 2003) World Bank (2003). World Development Report 2003 Overview – Sustainable Development in a Dynamic World Transforming Institutions, Growth and Quality of Life, World Bank Washington DC, 2002. World Bank (2000). Entering the 21st Century, World Bank Development Report 1999/00, World Bank, Oxford University Press, New York World Bank (1994). World Bank Development Report 1994. Infrastructure for Development. Oxford University Press, New York Kampala Urban Study, March 1994 #644

PABLO DOMINGUEZ GREGORIO

École des hautes études en sciences sociales (EHESS), Laboratoire d’anthropologie sociale, Paris Diplome d’études approfondies (DEA/Master’s, before thesis)

Supervisor : Mrs. Anne-Marie Brisebarre

Occupation/uses of space and behavior in the presence of nature in Berber agro-pastors of the High Moroccan Atlas: The case of the agdal in the tribe of Aït Oucheg to the high plateau of Yagour

Research project

I intend to obtain an understanding of mental representations and a good identification of the different conducts associated to the main ecological spaces, more precisely those facing the present situation of reformulation of the ways of appropriation of land and « AGDAL », communal territories in the High Moroccan Atlas.

My methodology will be based on work in community manners, within the framework of a Franco-Moroccan and multidisciplinary investigation program, "AGDAL" (for the sustainable development of the mountainous areas of Morocco), on PhD directors advises, on broad bibliographic sources and on field work (occupation of space, observation of modes of behavior control, analysis of the influence of environment in collective conduct, description of experiences related to local manners, etc.)

Aims and specific objectives

1/ Identification of the principal ecological spaces exploited by the community, types of uses (irrigated cultures, rain cultivation of cereals, breeding, cut of wood, etc.), mental representations and identification of the different conducts associated to these spaces.

2/ Identification of appropriation modes of space and natural resources (private/collective appropriation, etc.), behavior in situations of conflict concerning propriety of Nature elements.

3/ Establishment of typology and situation in space of the different „agdals‰ (communal territories), according to the uses (forest, fodder, pastoral, crowned, etc.) and their levels of organization (Community, inter-fractions, inter-tribal).

Frame of the investigation/Background information

The governmental management of the access to sylvan-pastoral resources is currently questioned in the Maghreb countries, in particular in the mountainous and underprivileged zones, which undergo strong anthropologic pressures. Moreover, recent evolutions place the natural inheritance of these areas at the heart of a sustainable development context (eco-tourism, national parks, etc.).

Starting from the rise of environmental and sustainable development concerns (Conference of Rio), several disciplines were interested in the modes of common property of forest and pastoral spaces; such modes can be found in the Moroccan Atlas under the Berber name of AGDAL.

Such problems are developed by a Franco-Moroccan research program (The "agdal" of the High Moroccan Atlas: Biodiversity and communal management of the access to sylvan-pastoral resources), which is supporting continuously my PhD research project. This program is mainly carried out by the Laboratory "Population-Environment-Development‰ (IRD ˆ University of Provence) and several Moroccan partners (Faculty of Science of Marrakech, Agronomic and Veterinary Institute Hassan II, the National school of Meekness). Within this multi-disciplinary framework (associating life sciences and human sciences), my PhD project deals with the systems of behavioral interactions between „rurals‰ (villagers) and their natural environments, with regards to environmental safeguarding and socio-economic development aiming at a better reorientation of the forest and pastoral policies.

Place of investigation

My work will be concentrated on one of the sites identified by the team, the high plate of the Yagour, located in the High Atlas (zone of Ouazarst), between 2000 and 2600 meters of altitude. - Geological substrate: secondary sandstones - Altitude-vegetation gradient: forest and cultivated stage (up to 2000 meters); a stage of course and extensive cultivation of cereals between 2000 and 2400 meters; finally a stage of high mountain up to more than 3000 meters.

Methodologies and research strategy

1/ Bibliographic and documentary research: At the moment in France (LPED and the IREMAM of Aix-Marseilles, the SIEGA, the library of F Mitterrand and the CHEAM in Paris), and during my ground work in Morocco. I will arrive at Morocco 10th Juy and during some days (from 11th to 19th Juy) I will make a bibliographical investigation in situ; members of the equipment will be already in Morocco and I will have by that time advanced the information research. We will consult with the ENA of Meeknes, and the FACE of sciences and the FACE of letters of Marrakech. On the other hand, at the moment, I am attending research seminars and reading work-shops of the EHESS on the subjects related to my report.

2/ Since the program AGDAL has already got in contact with local agents in the Yagour (it even has a work established for the students on the project of building a protected area), precisely with a local ONG called the "friends of the Zate" (Ouarzarzt located in the river basin of the river of Zate), we are expecting to establish the way of setlement in Yagour and other factors like holding of interviews, etc, before our arrival. That is to say, it will be decided in advance what the means of housing and subsistance will be, as well as the hiring of translators and surveys carriers.

3/ It is estimated that some days for the setlement in Ouarzarzt will be necessary. We want to have, during this time, several discussions with important people from the village (heads of family, people of the village with economicial or political power, etc.) in order to make us known, us and our work, and at the same time to begin our approach to the main schemes and themes of the commune, the rites and collective manners. For these meetings, we hope to obtain the help of the AAZ and perhaps advice from professors and students who worked in the past term on the agricultural systems of neighboring valleys (Directed by professor A. El AICH, from the agronomous Institute and veterinary at Hassan II).

4/ Strolls and long walks of exploration and recognition of the whole of the plateau in some days (from 20th to 30th mars). General recognition will be made, at least at some moments, in company of a guide or of a local inhabitant (who speaks our language) so that we can understand better the perception than berebers have of their territories (implication of the guide is determined prior to our arrival through the AAZ). During this first investigation stage, a registry of conduct data and uses of the space would be made thanks to a video camera, photographies, random illustrations and our field notebook. The multi-field data acquisition will be made in collaboration with other members of the program AGDAL.

5/ Sourroundings to Ouarzarzt and analysis of the inhabitants (from 30th mars to 2nd or 3th april) in collaboration with a geography student in what concerns the organization studies of the territory bound to places of collective celebrations as well as in the detailed description of the Ouarzarzt landscape.

6/ From this moment (approximately from 1st of april to the end of my stay), working more independently from the other students, I will make examinations and surveys of ethological and anthropological character: qualitative interviews, analysis from participant observations and semi-directed interviews (previous search of the advisors and privileged informers) on elements of the study which deal with the mentioned subjects.

7/ From the beginning, and specially from april onwards (from 10th mars to the 30th april), I will try to write down all the observations possible and to collect the following data:

 different observed and lived activities in the village

 ways of control, social behavior, the division of the labour, etc

 observation of the habitats (houses), composition of the families/households and analysis of the influence of these structures on the ethologic phenomena.

 description of the experiences and the sensations lived as opposed to the local behavior

 application of the knowledge acquired during my PhD seminars.

Carina Tenngart

Ph.D. Student in Landscape Architecture

Department of Landscape Planning Alnarp Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences [email protected]

Supervisors: Associate Professor Patrik Grahn and Assistant Professor Caroline Hagerhall.

A Case Study On The Use and Experience of Healing Gardens

In Sweden today there is a growing interest for including gardens and nature in the treatment of people suffering from different kinds of stress disorders. Landscape architects are thus designing healing gardens that all are supposed to be restorative. This is a single-case study that by a series of studies aims at looking closer into how the design in one healing garden works.

During 2002 a healing garden was built at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences in Alnarp. People diagnosed as having had burnout diseases are offered rehabilitation through a horticultural therapeutic program run by occupational therapists, physiotherapist, psychotherapist and horticultural therapists. Patients stay approximately 20 weeks and there are two groups a day with 8 patients in each group. All year around the patients are to use the garden in different ways, i.e. sowing, resting, pruning etc. The design of the healing garden in Alnarp relies on several theories. Regarding the restorative effects of the garden two theories on restorative environments are fundamental. That is Ulrich’s theory concerning recovery from psycho physiological stress and Kaplan & Kaplan’s theory on recovery from mental fatigue (Hartig et al, 1996; Stigsdotter & Grahn, 2002). Regarding activities that are to be carried out in the garden other theories from for example occupational therapy and psychology have been considered. Earlier research at the Department of Landscape Planning in Alnarp has shown that eight main characters constitute the building blocks of parks and gardens. The design process where these theories all have been transformed into physical elements and design hypotheses has been well described and documented. (Stigsdotter & Grahn, in press), (Stigsdotter & Grahn, 2002).

In a first pictorial study the questions whether a garden is restorative and whether different gardens can be more or less restorative will be answered. The tool is an existing scale, the Perceived Restorativeness Scale, based on the theory of Kaplan & Kaplan and developed partly to assess the restorative potential in settings. (Hartig et al, 1997). Two healing gardens that differ much in size and design but have the same target group will be compared.

To answer the question whether the patients in Alnarp find that there are garden rooms that are more important than others an observational study will take place in the garden. It will consider how patients use the garden, where they go, what they do and how much time they spend.. To deepen the understanding semi-structured interviews will be conducted with some patients. The results can be interpreted with the help of the result in the PRS-study, the design hypotheses in the healing garden at Alnarp and design theories from for example urban planning.

It would also be interesting to know whether a garden could be more or less restorative for different groups of people. If important garden rooms or characters can be extracted in the observational study these characters will be used in a second pictorial study. By using photos of these extracted characters patients will fill in the PRS both in the beginning and in the end of their rehabilitation. A group of healthy people will also be asked to do this version of the PRS. This will provide an opportunity to see if opinions differ between patients and healthy people and if patients’ opinions change during time.

In July there will be preliminary data of the first PRS pictorial study. The observations and interviews have also been going on since March.

Case study methodology is used in this revelatory single-case study and different methods are used for triangulating this unique case and thereby enhancing its validity.

It would be of interest to in future studies do the same studies/experiment with another group of people (healthy or other patient group) to see if the results are coinciding.

The results can be applied not just in designing healing gardens but also in a wider context, e.g. in designing parks etc.

References:

Hartig, T., Böök, A., Garvill, J., Olsson, T. & Gärling, T. (1996). Environmental influences on psychological restoration. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 37, 378-393. Hartig, T., Korpela, K., Evans, G.W. & Gärling, T. (1997). A Measure of Restorative Quality in Environments, SHPR 14: 175-194. Stigsdotter, U.A. & Grahn, P. (2002). What Makes a Garden a Healing Garden? Journal of Therapeutic Horticulture, 13, 60-69. Stigsdotter, U.A. & Grahn, P. (In press). Experiencing a Garden – A Healing Garden for People Suffering from Burnout Diseases. Journal of Therapeutic Horticulture.

Zeinab Nour-Eddine Tag-Eldeen

Built Environment Analysis, Div. of Urban Studies, Dept. of Infrastructure. The Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) Stockholm, Sweden [email protected]

Supervisors: Prof. Dick Urban Vestbro Assoc Prof. Rolf Johansson

PARTICIPATORY COMMUNITY DRIVEN DEVELOPMENT

Poverty alleviation is the study’s overall theme. The focus will be on the most vulnerable groups affected by poverty in a selected quarter of an informal settlement in Cairo. The project’s target groups are women and children. The working process of the project will be based on a participatory bottom up approach and a community driven policy.

The study aims to identify a “Model for Participatory Community Driven Development”. This Model is based on a locally adaptable approach that is composed of four fundamental and interrelated forces:

1. Locally Adaptable Participatory Approach. 2. Good Local Governance. 3. Gender Equality, Children’s Rights and Democracy. 4. Specific Development Component(s) selected by the community.

The study will be carried out simultaneously at both the theoretical analysis and fieldwork levels. The study will cover a deep theoretical analysis on the existing participatory planning approaches, such as “Community Action Planning” developed by Hamdi and Goethert; “ZOPP” developed and applied by GTZ; “Urban Community Assistance Team” developed by the American Institute of Architecture and “Planning for Real” developed by Tony Gibson and the Neighbourhood Initiatives Foundation. An attention will be paid to the community types in order to ensure effective participation and inclusion of the most marginalized of the poor - mainly women - in the community. The gender equity experiences, children rights and democracy will

ABTRACTS Page 45 IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP be examined. At the fieldwork level, the study attempts to implement a locally adaptable participatory approach and will be basically carried out jointly with the community.

The research is designed to use a case study methodology. Qualitative and quantitative methodologies will be applied to achieve the followings:

 Selection of a study area within the informal settlement.  Selection of the target group.  Selection of community representatives.  Understanding of the status, opinions and views of the people.  Analysis of a gender sensitive approach.  The identification of socio-economic and cultural aspects that have significant effects on the efficiency of women’s participation that will contribute in improving an adaptable participatory approach.

Various technical methods will be used in collecting the data including:

 In-depth interviews.  Structured interviews.  Women’s focus group discussions.  Direct observations.  The researcher will also participate in actions during the study process

The Development Component(s) will be selected by the community through the participation process and will be integrated with the ongoing development projects in the informal settlement, which are currently carried out by the local Egyptian authority and the German Agency GTZ.

The study process is composed of seven stages and each has its own objectives, activities, results and discussion that altogether will contribute to the study expected output. Those stages have been developed based on my previous Master Thesis titled “Participatory Urban Upgrading – Case Study of Ezbet Bekhit – Cairo” and field work carried out between 2002-2003 in the same informal settlement in Cairo. The stages present the outlines for the project that identify its process. They will each be tested according to the local community socio-economic and cultural conditions.

At the first stage, the community profile as well as the target groups will be identified based on socio-economic survey. At the second stage, a locally adaptable participatory approach will be identified that promotes gender equality and children’s rights through a democratic process. The development component(s) will be selected jointly with the community. At the third level, decision-making process, stakeholders and issues of local governance will be identified. At the fourth stage, a plan of action will be drawn up for the development component(s). Tasks and responsibilities will be identified in response to the questions what? Who? How? When? At the fifth stage, set up mechanism for implementation of the plan of action and recommendations for the overcoming of obstacles. At the sixth stage - based on the previous actions, their results and outputs - a community level “Model” will be extracted. At the seventh stage, set up mechanism for possible replication of Participatory Community Driven Development Model at the local, city and national levels.

The study is expected to establish a “Model of Participatory Community Driven Development” that involves women in the improvement of their communities, taking into consideration the rights of children in conjunction with good, overall governance at the local level to support the Model. This Model will represent the core of “Model Networks” at the community, city and national levels. Keywords: Poverty Alleviation, Community Participation, Good Governance, Gender Equity, Children Rights, Democracy.

Anna Bengtsson

Department of landscape planning Swedish university of Agricultural Sciences [email protected] Landscape Architecture

Supervisors: Patrik Grahn, Caroline Hagerhall

Outdoor Environments for Older People in Healthcare Facilities A Case Study on the Experience of Accessibility

The circumstances of healthcare facilities in Sweden have changed a lot during the last ten or twenty years. The need for care has increased at the same time as conditions to give care has diminished. This has resulted in overworked caregivers and a lot of older people not being able to get the help they need. The loss of places at healthcare centres for older people results in very sick and disabled persons getting the places. Therefore the burden upon the caregivers is constantly growing. In a general perspective the need for healthcare arise at the age of 80 years. The age between 85 and 90 is the most comprehensive. In Sweden the share of people in this group is expected to double in 30 years.

In Sweden one aim at healthcare facilities is to make it possible for the patients to live like others. This includes being outdoors regularly. Being outdoors regularly is also motivated by theories that imply that being outdoors benefits health. According to one theoretical aim health benefits are due to environmental impacts by for example daylight (Küller & Wetterberg, 1996) or air (Söderström & Blennow, 1996). Other theories suggest that a natural environment promotes 1) restoration of mental capacity (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989) and 2) physical restoration after stress (Ulrich, 1999).

Since the share of older people at Swedish healthcare facilities is growing at the same time as their condition is getting worse the outdoor environment needs to support in new ways in the future. To motivate caregivers and caregivers to be outdoors we need to make outdoor environments attractive and easy accessible.

Research problem

The experience of accessibility to outdoor environments comprises both a physical and a psychological dimension. Physiological accessibility in an environment concerns distances, inclinations, benches, ground covers, thresholds, doorsteps, kerbstones etc.(Cohen-Mansfield, Jiska & Werner, Perla, 1999). Psychological accessibility in an environment is a more unexplored phenomena. For example, when using an outdoor environment, the first step of psychological accessibility is to know that there is an outdoor environment possible to use and that this environment has qualities that attracts the users. To be able to see this environment from inside the building might further enhance the psychological accessibility (Cooper Marcus, Clare, 2001). Also its important to believe that one is able to and will have the strength to linger in this environment. The next step of psychological accessibility concerns using the environment. Matters of importance in this step is for example feeling safe and secure or being able to find ones way. The possibility to be in a stimulating environment unconcerned of ones disabilities and constraints is important for wellbeing. Negative features such as noise, smell or feeling exposed might decrease the psychological accessibility (Ulrich, Roger, 1999).

Whereas the knowledge in physiological accessibility is greater we find it interesting to investigate the psychological dimensions of accessibility. By exploring the experience of accessibility to outdoor environments for older people in healthcare facilities we will describe the relation between the physical and psychological dimensions of accessibility in outdoor environments.

Methods

The psychological versus physiological aspects of accessibility that will be analyzed origins in a literature review that was conducted and published during 2003 (Bengtsson, 2003). The empirical part of this project will be conducted at three different healthcare facilities for older people in Sweden during summer 2004. Data will be collected through observations and interviews. The three cases chosen will have different environmental preconditions in the outdoor surrounding. Conditions concerning social matters, health status of respondents, care availabilities or preconditions in the indoor environment will be held similar in the three cases. Thus the difference of the experience of accessibility in the outdoor environments can be described without the result being affected by other impacts.

References

Bengtsson, A. 2003. Utemiljöns betydelse för äldre och funktionshindrade. Statens Folkhälsoinstitut 2003:60, Stockholm.

Cohen-Mansfield, J. & Werner, P. 1999, Outdoor Wandering Parks for Persons with Dementia: A Survey of Characteristics and Use, Alzheimer Disease and associated disorders, 13(2) sid. 109-117. Cooper Marcus, C. 2001, Gardens and health, in: Design and Health. The Therapeutic Benefits of Design, sid. 61-71. Kaplan, R. & Kaplan, S. 1989. The Experience of Nature. A Psychological Perspective. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Küller, R. & Wetterberg, L. 1996 The subterranean work environment: Impact on well-being and health. Environment International 22: 33-52. Söderström, M. & Blennow, M. 1996. Utomhusvistelse minskar sjukfrånvaron. Poster presenterad på Svenska Läkaresällskapets Riksstämma 27-29 november 1996. Stockholm. Ulrich, R. 1999, Effects of gardens in health outcomes: Theory and research, in: Healing Gardens, s. 27-86, New York.

Mr Géza Fischl

Ph.D. program in Engineering Psychology Lulea University of Technology, Department of Human Work Sciences, Division of Engineering Psychology [email protected]

Supervisor: Anita Gärling, Ph.D.

Stage in the study: Licentiate exam in March 2004.

Enhancing well-being in health care facilities

Introduction

Focusing the investigation on health supporting built environmental components, researches showed (Shepley & McCormick 2003), that therapeutic environments are powerful agents of healing (Canter & Canter, 1979) for patients. Ulrich's theory (1991) depicted that, therapeutic environments unproved medical outcomes of patients by reducing stress. Research findings show that therapeutic environments for patients allow recovery from stress through access to nature, exercise and physical movement, and enhanced social activities (Calkins, 1988; Cohen & Weisman, 1991; Devlin, 1995; Kaplan, et al., 1999; Shepley, et al., 1995; Parsons, et al., 1998; Ulrich, 1984, 1991). Outcome-based research findings are beginning to reveal that beyond recovery from stress, therapeutic environments are related positively to improved health and behavioral outcomes of patients (Lawton, et al., 1996; Rubin, et al., 1997; Zeisel, 2001b; Zeisel, et al., 2001).

Problem identification

There is a clear need for research to identify environmental characteristics that tend to be stressor and what end-use consumers really need and want in health care environments

(Davidson & Teicher, 1997; Devlin, 1995; Gray et al. 2003; Potthoff, 1995; Shepley et al., 1995; Stern et al., 2003; Ulrich, 1991; Ulrich et al., 2003). A qualitative research technique known as focus-group methodology serves as the primary method of obtaining health care staffs, patients' and visitors' (consumers') feedback (Stern et al., 2003). Data generated from these discussions are neither representative nor generalizable. Therefore a more comprehensive qualitative measurement technique would be preferable which can, at least, establish a shared view on the environment and even more, enable/empower the participants /consumers to act toward the proposed plan together with the design professionals.

Aim and research question

The aim of the research is to develop a method which gathers both quantitative and qualitative measures on the well-being supportiveness of the environmental attributes and also useful tool for design or re-design purposes. What are the psychosocially supportive components of the built environment, and is the suggested multi-methodological approach an appropriate tool for evaluating those components?

The objectives specific to research questions are the following:

1. To investigate the relevance of psychosocial components in the suggested multi- methodological tool 2. To analyze the data gathered by the suggested tool in terms of well-being supportiveness in a real environment setting 3. To provide guidelines for designers about psychosocial supportive environmental components integrated in the design process 4. To evaluate the proposed design by comparing it to the existing environment 5. To compare design professionals and laypersons perspective with regards to perceived psychosocial supportiveness

Study design / methodology

The study will be conducted among health care personnel, patients and visitors (the end users of design). A multi-methodological approach, the Triple-E (Fischl & Gärling, 2003) will he used at different health care environments. Triple-E tool consists of three stages, namely the Empowerment session, Environment assessment session and the Evaluation of architectural details session.

Empowerment session. The empowering session is based on the Future Workshop (FW) method (Jungk & Müllert, 1987), which is a participatory based brainstorming technique. It is adapted to draw out opinions, feelings, and emotions of users toward a built environment regarding psychosocial supportiveness Environment description. Küller's model (1991) describes the mechanism of human emotion processes from a human-environmental interaction point of view. The semantic environment description was built on this model and has been administered in this study. Evaluation of architectural details. The evaluation of architectural details consists of a questionnaire focusing on perceived well-being and preferences, specific to the quality of the environmental elements. The questionnaire was designed based on individual interviews of health care personnel and patients, and was pilot tested within the same subject groups. The questionnaire measures temporal mood, feeling of safety and perception of noise level as part of the evaluation.

Preliminary Results

The preliminary results show that, with the Triple-E tool, psychosocial components of the environment can be measured by a combination of a structured brainstorming session, a semantic environmental description session, and an architectural details session. The structured brainstorming session yielded data mainly on the physical environmental complaints and functions (79%); the semantic description was more associated with the aesthetic quality of the environment (83%); while the architectural details contributed almost equally to both. User group differences were found and further considered in the design process. The analysis- synthesis model of design helped to make the designer understand how psychosocial approach could be integrated in the design cycle.

The ranking of the influential architectural details on perceived supportiveness for architect and patient groups is in the following order: 1) window; 2) floor and wall; 3) ceiling and furniture; 4) handicraft, photograph, chair and curtain; 5) noise level, safety, and space for moving. Preliminary results show that the significant architectural details may influence individual psychological skills, which in turn can affect the individual social skills and self-management.

References

Bell, P., Greene, T. C., Fisher, J. D., & Baum, A. (2001). Environmental psychology: Harcourt College Publishers, USA. Bradley, C., & Cox, T. (1978). Stress and health. In T. Cox (Ed.), Stress. Hong Kong: The Macmillan Press Ltd. Canter, D., & Canter, S. (1979). Designing therapeutic environments. New York: John Wiley. Calkins, M., P. (1988). Design for dementia: Planning environments for the elderly and the confused. Owing Mills, MD: National Health. Cohen, U., & Weisman, G., D. (1991). Holding on to home. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins. Davidson, A. W., Teicher, M. H., & Bar-Yam, Y. (1997). Role of environmental complexity in the well-being of elderly. Complexity & Chaos in Nursing, Summer, 5-12. Devlin, A., S. (1995). Staff, patients and visitors: Responses to hospital unit enhancements. In J. Nasar, R. & K. Hanyu (Eds.), Twenty-Sixth Annual Conference of the Environmental Design Research Association. Oklahoma City, OK: EDRA. Gray, D. B., Gould, M., & Bickenbach, J. E. (2003). Environmental barriers and disability. Journal of Architectural Planning and Research, 20(1), 29-37. Fischl, G. & Garling, A. (2003). The Triple-E: A Tool to Improve Design in the Health Care Facilities. (Submitted for publication) Jungk, R., & Mullert, N. (1987). Future workshops: How to create desirable futures. London: Institute for Social Inventions. Kaplan, R., Kaplan, S., & Ryan, R., L. (1999). With people in mind: Design and management of everyday nature. Washington, DC: Island. Küller, R. (1991). Environmental assessment from a neuropsychological perspective. In T. Garling & E. G. W. (Eds.), Environment, cognition and action: An integrated approach (pp. 111-147). New York: Oxford University Press. Laschinger, H., Finegan, J., & Shaman, J. (2001). The impact of workplace empowennent, organizational trust on staff nurses' work satisfaction and organisational commitment. Health Care Manage Rev, 26(3), 7-23. Lawton, M., P., Van Haitsma, K., & Klapper, J. (1996). Observed affect in nursinghome residents with Alzheimer disease. Journal of Gerontology, 51B(1), 3-14. Preiser, W. F. E. (1988). Post-occupancy evaluation. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Parsons, R., Tassinary, L., Ulrich, R., Hebl, M., & Grossman-Alexander, M. (1998). View- of the road: Implications for stress recovery and immunization. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 16, 277-284. Philip, D. (1996). Practical faliure of architectural psychology. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 16, 277-284.

Potthoff, J. (1995). Adolescentsatisfaction with drug/alcohol treatment facilities: Design implications. journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 41(1), 62-73. Rubin, H., G., Owens, A., J., & Golden, G. (1997). Status report: An investigation to determine whether the built environment affects patients' medical outcomes. Martinez, CA: Center for Health Design. Schwarz, B. (1997). Nursing home design: A misguided architectural model. Journal of Architectural Planning and Research, 14(4), 343-359. Shepley, M., Bryant, C., & Frohman, B. (1995). validating a building prototype: A post- occupancy evaluation of a women's medical center. journal of Interior Design, 21(2), 1529. Shepley, M., & McCormick, M. (2003). Preface: How this issue came about. Journal of Architectural Planning and Research, 20(1), 1-15. Sommer, R. (1996). Benchmarks in Environmental psychology. Journal of Environrnental Psychology, 17, 1-10. Stern, A. L., MacRae, S., Harrison, T., Fowler, E., Edgman-Levitan, S., Gerteis, M., Walker, J. D., & Ruga, W. (2003). Understanding the consumer perspective to improve design quality. Journal of Architectural Planning and Research, 20(1), 16-28. Tetlow, K. (1996). Future in the environmental design professional: It's the context which matters. In J. Nasar, R. & B. Brown, B. (Eds.), Public and Private Places: Proceedings of the 27th Annual Conference of the Environmental design research Association. Edmond, OK: EDRA. Ulrich, R., Simons, R., F., & Miles, M., A. (2003). Effects of environmental stimulations and television on blood donor stress. Journal of Architectural Planning and Research, 20(1), 38-47. Ulrich, R. (1984). View from a window may influence recovery from surgery. Science, 224, 420-421. Ulrich, R. (1991). Effects of healthy facility interior design on wellness: theory and scientific research. Journal of Health Care Design, 3, 97-109. Ulrich, R. S. (1995). Effects of healthcare interior design and on wellness. In S. O. Marberry (Ed.), Innovations in health care design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Zeisel, J. (1981). Inquiry by design. Cambridge: Cambridge University. Zeisel, J. (2001b). health outcomes improvements from Alzheimer's care design. In Dilani (Ed.), Design and health: The therapeutic benefits of design. Stockholm: Swedish Building Research Center Publishing.

Zeisel, J., Silverstein, N., Hyde, J., Levkofl; S., Lawton, M., P., & Holmes, W. (2001). Environmental contributors ro behavioral outcomes in Alzheimer's special care units. (submitted for publication).

Eveline Maris

Ph.D. program Social and Organizational Psychology, University of Leiden [email protected]

Supervisor: Prof.Dr. P.J.M. Stallen, University of Leiden

Highly Annoyed: One mark, multiple meanings

Research problem

Are (social) nonacoustical factors a contributory cause of noise annoyance?

The problem of noise annoyance is omnipresent. Abatement programs and policies to reduce annoyance focus mainly on acoustical measures: sound insulation, changing flight paths, and the like, implicitly assuming that the proportion of residents indicating to be Highly Annoyed only reflects their response to acoustical aspects situation. Still, there is more to noise annoyance than acoustics alone. Several nonacoustical factors (sensitivity, attitudes, fear) have been identified in mostly correlational studies. Could it be useful if abatement programs would also address the nonacoustical side of noise annoyance? This could only be effective when nonacoustical factors have a causal relationship with noise, and only where nonacoustical factors influence people on a group level.

Theoretical framework/relevant literature

In this project, annoyance is regarded as a stress response to an environmental stressor: noise. A cognitive stress model is used, in which on the stimulus side both the sound and the social context are included. On the response side the evaluation between perceived disturbance and perceived control results in a stress reaction (annoyance) (relevant literature: Stallen, 1999). Social context is operationalized according to findings from the field of Social Justice Theory (Tyler & Lind, 1992).

Stallen, P.J.M. (1999). A theoretical framework for noise annoyance, Noise and Health, 3, (2), 69-79.

Tyler, T. & Lind, A. (1992). A relational model of authority in groups. In: M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Psychology, Vol. 25, 115-191, New York: Academic Press.

Research questions, objectives and/or hypotheses 1) Which is the role of social nonacoustical factors in the causal mechanism of noise evaluation?

2) Is the influence of social nonacoustical factors moderated by sound level?

Research methodology

Hypotheses are tested in a laboratory experiment. Several sound conditions (high and low sound level) are crossed with conditions in which the fairness of procedures is manipulated (Fair, Unfair). Subjects are exposed to sound (50 or 70 dB(A)eq.) while completing a task. Before starting their task, they either are, or are not, let to believe they are involved in the decision making process regarding their own sound exposure. Dependent measures are: noise annoyance, perceived disturbance and perceived control regarding the sound exposure, perceptions / evaluations of the procedure.

State of development of thesis The project is in the state of data collection.

Findings The meaning of being annoyed by sound differs for the two social conditions tested in the experiment. For subjects who believe they do not have a say in the decision making process, we find a strong correlation between sound level (acoustics) and reported annoyance. Subjects who do believe to have had a say in their exposure situation also report annoyance with the sound, but

ABTRACTS Page 57 IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP for this group the correlation between sound level and annoyance is not significant. Ancova analyses show a causal effect of social setting on annoyance for the higher sound level.

Conclusion As the findings have not yet been replicated, no hard conclusions can be drawn.

Mirele B. Goldsmith

PhD Program Environmental Psychology City University of New York Graduate Center [email protected]

Supervisor: Dr. Cindi Katz

The Technical Fix or the Systemic Solution for Urban Water Quality? The Political Ecology of New York City's Drinking Water

Research Problem

New York City, known for the excellent quality of its unfiltered water, recently negotiated an agreement with the federal government that will allow it to be exempted from requirements to filter water obtained from the Catskill and Delaware watersheds. This agreement is touted by the City as an example of enlightened fiscal and environmental policy because the City will avoid the expense of filtration while it implements an aggressive program to preserve the natural capacity of the watershed to insure water quality. Yet at the same time the City is pursuing a very expensive and controversial plan to implement filtration for water obtained from the Croton watershed. Opposition to this plan has come almost exclusively from grassroots activists, led by the Croton Watershed Clean Water Coalition. Why is the City pursuing this contradictory policy, and what is the significance of the Coalition’s opposition? My study is intended to reveal the obstacles to the implementation of environmentally-preferable policies for managing urban water supplies, explore how grassroots activism contributes to the policy process, and to shed light on New York City’s hydro-social cycle.

Context

New York City has one of the oldest and largest water systems in the United States and exemplifies the complexity of urban water management. The City draws its water from three watersheds and is responsible to multiple regulatory authorities. Due to it’s size, the management of New York City’s water system affects numerous communities. Although the City is under a

ABTRACTS Page 59 IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP court order to build a filtration (water treatment) plant for the Croton watershed, the City has been unable to site and begin construction of the plant due to sustained opposition.

The Croton Watershed Clean Water Coalition (“the Coalition”) includes both New York City organizations and watershed community organizations among its members. The Coalition’s position is that the City should protect the watershed and forego construction of a filtration plant. The Coalition argues that once filtration is in place, there will be little incentive to continue to protect the watershed. The policy advocated by the Coalition, the systemic solution of watershed protection, is a form of pollution prevention. Implicit in this position is acceptance of the precautionary principle, a principle that has not been accepted as a basis for environmental policy in the United States.

Theoretical Framework and Relevant Literature

I have selected political ecology as the framework for this research because the complexity and inter-disciplinary nature of the issues involved in water supply call for an integrative framework for analyzing human-environment interactions. Major questions motivating research in political ecology include how relationships between people and nature result in both environmental degradation and social injustice, and how the dynamics of capitalism and urbanization reconstruct the inter-connected landscapes of city and country. Recent works in political ecology have emphasized the need for sensitivity to questions of agency, or the power of people to change their circumstances in the face of structural forces, reinforcing my decision to focus on the role of the Coalition in the filtration controversy. My study is also informed by prior research on urban water systems and citizen participation in environmental policy-making.

Research Questions and Strategy

Starting from the “bottom up,” my case study will closely examine the Coalition’s participants and their motivations, the access that the Coalition has to the policy process, the Coalition’s understanding of the history of water quality in the Croton watershed, how the economics of water in New York City have influenced the Coalition’s strategies and the potential effects of the policy advocated by the Coalition.

My sources of data are documents, interviews with the board members of the Coalition and participant observation in Coalition activities. Once I have completed my interviews of all of the Coalition’s board members, I plan to identify critical issues and turning points in the filtration

ABTRACTS Page 60 IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP controversy for further investigation. I will then turn to an archive of approximately 600 videotapes of Coalition meetings and public hearings. These videotapes were made by one of the Coalition’s leaders. I will also interview leaders of some of the 50 organizations that are members of the Coalition and key observers of Coalition activities

In my analysis I will tell the story of the Coalition’s attempts to influence the policy of NYC regarding filtration of the Croton watershed, reveal the forces at different scales that influence the Coalition and structure the conflict over filtration, and reach some conclusions about the extent of the influence of the Coalition on the policy process. I will address the significance of the case study of the Coalition by examining what the experience of the Coalition can teach us about the political ecology of urban water systems and the potential for grassroots influence in urban environmental policy struggles.

Pia Carrasco

Ph.D. program in Urban Studies Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique-Urbanisation, Culture et Société (INRS-UCS), Montreal, Quebec, Canada [email protected]

Supervisors: Damaris Rose (INRS-UCS) & Bernadette Blanc (University of Montreal)

From micro-space to social housing policies in Latin America. For the better integration of women in formal Urban Planning

Research problem

In the last few years the link between gender and development has become a major element of the public debate at the national and international level (UNDP, UN-Habitat, WB, CIDA, SIDA). Gender urban planning considers the differential roles of women and men in a neighborhood, a City and/or a given territory. This planning approach has the explicit goal to ensure that every citizen, irrespective of its gender, has the same set of opportunities and the same level of control over the resources and services provided by the urban development. Hence, formal urban planning must be engendering, (i.e., going beyond the traditional neutral and gender blinded schemes and frameworks for policy and decision making). In fact, modern urban planning must consider not only the social and economic dimensions of the city dwellings, but also their cultural and gender differences as the appropriate way to ensure efficiency and equity of policies and interventions. Yet, in most developing countries social housing policies do not consider gender as a focal variable. This situation calls for more research in order to better understand the difficulties, as well as the enabling mechanisms to integrate the gender perspective in the formal urban planning process. By doing so, full urban citizenship for the most vulnerable women could be guaranteed.

Cultural setting

We took Chile as the case study because of its potential of transferability for the Latin-American context. First, the social transformation that took place in the last three decades and, second, the innovativeness of the social housing policy applied during the 1990s and based on the so called enabling approach are seen as a model for the region (Rojas, 2001).

This research is aligned with and inspired by Moser’s framework for gender mainstreaming (Moser, 1993). This framework is based on three main concepts 1) women’s reproductive, productive and community gender roles 2) practical and strategic gender needs and 3) WID/GAD categories for policy approaches (Chant et Gutmann, 2000; Moser, 1993; 2002; Moser et al., 1999). Moser framework intends to provide a solid base for policy intervention in order to balance the women’s triple role and to empower them to change their subordinate position. Latin-American policies in general and Chilean social housing policy in particular, do not consider the asymmetries between women and men (Mac Donald, 1992; Saborido, 1996). This lack of intervention from the State not only affects the most vulnerable of society, but also avoids enabling social policies to be as performant and efficient in fighting inequalities, poverty reduction and housing deficit as they could be.

Research aim and objectives

The aim of our research is to focus on the importance of women specific issues related to the household survival strategies and difficulties imposed by a gender-blind urban planning and policy making process. The goal of our general question is to understand how and to what extent government intervention influences, builds, modifies and legitimizes gender relations in urban settings. Our specific interest is to study the most recent Chilean social housing policy while documenting and nuancing how and to which degree a social housing policy based on a particular gender ideology impacts on living conditions of poor women.

Research strategy

Our research strategy is a case study (Chile). Data was collected between 1999-2000. Three methods were used: semi-structured face-to-face interviews with key informants (n=20), semi- structured face-to-face interviews with women from a marginal neighbourhood (La Pintana) having applied to a social housing program (n=13) and a focus group addressed to men in the

ABTRACTS Page 63 IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP same situation (n=10). Data was recorded, transcribed and managed with NUD*IST software package.

State of development of thesis

The theoretical framework, literature review, research questions (hypothesis), and data collection are all completed. Analysis is in progress.

Findings Not yet available (will be ready for the workshop).

Avenues for research findings applications To point out the added-value of gender mainstreaming into formal planning and decision-making for social housing policy in the context of developing countries.

References

Chant, S. et Gutmann, M., (2000). Mainstreaming Men into Gender and Development, Oxfam, London. Mac Donald, J., (1992). "Mujer, vivienda y desarrollo local (la experiencia chilena)", Cuaderno de Desarrollo Local, (9), 37-45. Moser, C., (1993). Gender Planning and Development Theory, Practice and Training, Routledge, London et New York. Moser, C., (2002). "Mainstreaming Gender in International Organizations", Draft, Public Hearing Globalization and Gender, Berlin. Moser, C., Tornqvist, A. et van Bronkhort, B., (1999). Mainstreaming Gender and Development in the World Bank: Progress and Recommendations, World Bank, Washington. Rojas, E., (2001). "The Long Road to Housing Sector Reform: Lessons from the Chilean Housing Experience", Housing studies, 16(4), 461-483. Saborido, M., (1996). "Introducción: Género y Asentamientos Humanos", M. Pineda et A. Sugranyes, eds., Asentamientos Humanos, Pobreza y Género GTZ/MINVU/PGU, Santiago.

Matthew Ebden

PhD. Program School of Health and Social Development, Deakin University Email: [email protected]

Supervisor: Dr Mardie Townsend

Ecological sustainability and its occupational science underpinnings: What influences people to make ‘earth-friendly’ choices?

Research problem

Humans engage in a complex array of occupations throughout their daily lives. Occupations are all the ways we occupy time and space; they involve everything we do including all activities and actions. Occupations take place within an environmental context. That is, the environment influences the occupations people engage in and the occupations, in turn, influence people and environments or the ecological context. It is becoming increasingly more important to address the impact human occupations have ecological sustainability. To address the impact of human occupations, we need to understand the influences or reasons why humans engage in certain occupations.

The occupations we engage in can be divided into categories according to the effects the occupations have: those occupations motivated by outcomes that are favourable to the individual and those occupations that are motivated by outcomes that are ‘earth friendly’ or favourable to the ecological context. Although situations exist where occupational outcomes favour both individual and ecological contexts, ecosystems are experiencing increasing pressures resulting from people engaging in occupations that favour individual needs at the expense of ecological balance, harmony and health. Many factors such as values, attitudes, characteristics and past experiences influence human occupations. This research aims to investigate the occupational influences on two groups of people: those people who are known for engaging in occupations that are favourable to the ecological context and those people who are known for engaging in occupations that primarily favour the individual.

Context

This research will aim to capture a range of diverse views by exploring the experiences of influential people across a range of cultural and geographical locations.

Occupational science: the study of the ways people occupy time and space Perspectives of health: individual, public/population, ecological, prevention, promotion Ecological sustainability Economic rationalism Environmental psychology/eco-psychology Environmental sociology

Hypotheses

1. That common values, attitudes, past experiences and characteristics influence the occupations of people who engage in occupations that favour the ecological context. 2. That common values, attitudes, past experiences and characteristics influence the occupations of people who engage in occupations that favour individual needs at the expense of the ecological context. 3. That the values, attitudes, past experiences and characteristics of these two groups of people are different. 4. That structures within societies can provide opportunities for the development of values, attitudes, characteristics and experiences that are favourable to people engaging in occupations that promote ecological balance, harmony and sustainability.

Questions

1. What particular values, attitudes, past experiences and characteristics influence people to engage in occupations that favour  the ecological context?  the individual at the expense of the ecological context? 2. What do these people believe influence their occupational lives? 3. What occupations do they engage in that

 demonstrate promotion of the ecological context?  favour individual needs at the expense of the ecological context? 4. How do people who favour engagement in occupations that support the ecological context view people who engage in occupations that support individual needs at the expense of the ecological context and visa versa? 5. What changes would need to occur within their society to encourage a greater focus on sustainability?

Methodology

Sample/population Pending ethics approval, approximately 7-10 people will be chosen from each of the two perspectives. A sample of people from a range of cultural and geographical locations who are internationally, nationally and locally well known will be chosen to identify a range of factors, micro to macro, which might me influencing them. Participant selection will cease once saturation of the data occurs.

Data Gathering/Analysis: A grounded theory approach will be used to guide the research methodology whereby the data collection and analysis processes are intertwined and evolve. A series of approximately 3 in- depth interviews with semi-structured questions (1-2 hours duration) per person will be transcribed and analysed. The initial interview with each person will preferably be person-to- person with follow up interviews using telephone or person-to-person means.

State of development of thesis: This research project is in its infancy, with the development of the research proposal and literature review currently underway. I would greatly appreciate the opportunity to share my research ideas with my peers and gain feedback. I anticipate a substantive literature review will have taken place by July 2004.

Avenues for research findings applications: The possible findings of this research may highlight more explicit ecologically-centred models and philosophies that may influence occupational and social change through applications in areas such as health, public policy and education.

Chandra Victoria Lesmeister

Department of Landscape Architecture Agricultural Sciences, University of British Columbia [email protected]

Supervisor: Susan Herrington

Developing Design Interventions for Children’s Outdoor Play Environments

Research Problem

At the University of British Columbia Child Care Services complex, I will compare two outdoor play yards. “Yard A” was built and designed several years ago by a landscape architecture student whose children attended the day care. “Yard B” was recently built after renovations to the day care room. “Yard A” represents a traditional type of playground space with its open patch of grass and scattered play equipment. “Yard B” is densely planted, has defined circulation paths, and is spatially complex.

A single group of children will be observed playing within both spaces. The comparison of the play experiences will help to reveal what attributes of the two yards best support the child’s development. Parents and early childhood educators will contribute their perceptions and observations. During the interviews, I will aim to discover what elements we perceive as being beneficial to the child.

I will use the beneficial attributes of the yards to generate a series of design interventions. The interventions will be implemented in “Yard B”. Through the implementation process, I aim to discover how and if the attributes from one yard can be designed into another while maintaining the same developmental benefits.

Context

The day care complex is located on the campus of the University of British Columbia on the West Coast of British Columbia. The children who attend the facility ranged in ages from 6 months to five years. The study yards are intended for toddlers (children aged 12 to 24 months). The families are either students or professors at the university.

Theoretical Framework/Relevant Literature

I will be using literature and theories that discuss the design attributes of quality outdoor play spaces for young children. Susan Herrington’s work in creating interventions for children’s outdoor play spaces provides an example of successful applications of this type of work.

Recommendations for Child Play Areas Gary T. Moore

"The received view of play and the subculture of infants." Landscape Journal: Design, Planning, and Management of the Land. 16 (2). 149-161 1997.

Spaces for Children: The Built Environment and Child Development Weinstein, C.S. and Thomas G.D (eds.), New York: Plenum 1987.

Kindergarten Architecture Mark Dudek

Research Questions

 How does the same group of children play in a contrasting outdoor environment?  What do families and early childhood educators perceive as being a quality outdoor space for young children?  What does a toddler’s rich outdoor play experience look like?  What developmental opportunities are there in the toddler’s outdoor yard?  How do the children’s play experiences differ before and after the interventions?  How can a designer translate the attributes of one environment into an adjacent location?  Can we translate attributes from these yards to other neighbourhoods and contexts in Vancouver?

Research Methodology

In order to understand the children’s relationship to the environment, I will use video, interviews, and a written play narrative. Through video, qualitative examples of children’s play experiences will be documented. The videotaping will occur a total of eight times in thirty-minute sessions. The children who are enrolled in the traditional play yard will be documented. The children will be taped four times in their yard, “Yard B”, and four times in the other yard, “Yard A”. They will be taped twice on sunny warm days and twice on cold rainy days in each yard. While the children are being taped, a second observer will scribe play narratives. There will also be a series of interviews with staff and families. The interviews with staff will help gain further insight into how the spaces are used by children, and what attributes of the play spaces are developmentally valuable.

State of Development

“Yard A” has been observed and documented through the use of a field observation form that Susan Herrington and I have developed for another research project, The CHILD Project. The form is meant as a tool to record and understand the physical conditions of the space, functional and relational spaces, and community context.

Avenues for Research Findings Applications

My thesis project will be a part of a five-year, interdisciplinary university-community partnership endeavour called CHILD (Consortium for Health, Intervention, Learning and Development) in Vancouver, Canada. The aim of CHILD is to improve evidence-based policy development, encourage more effective advocacy work, and ultimately, better conditions for healthy child development in the Province of British Columbia. My work will contribute to the CHILD Project’s body of research. It will also be used to apply design interventions to a series of day care centres in different neighbourhoods of Vancouver.

Valerie Carr and Maggie Butchart

PhD programme School of Design/School of Nursing and Midwifery, University of Dundee [email protected] and [email protected]

Supervisors: Jeanette Paul Professor Toms Inns Dr. Andrew Symon

An evaluation of maternity unit design in the UK.

The research aims to determine which distinct aspects of the interior environment have particular impact on maternity patient satisfaction and which aspects are particularly related to staff wellbeing.

Pleasant wards may significantly improve patient outcomes (Ulrich 1984) Unlike most other departments of the hospital the maternity department is normally concerned with a natural rather than a pathological event. It is also dealing with a continuous process from pregnancy through delivery to aftercare of both mother and child. It is not principally concerned with curing a condition but with fulfilling it. Thus not only are its accommodation requirements different from those of other wards but it is important that it should not be associated psychologically with illness.

The patient perception of the maternity unit is filtered through their relationship with the caregiver. Therefore the facilities provided for staff, in rest and changing areas, and the functionality of their working environment, are as important as the patient areas. Staff wellbeing is linked to their sense of being valued by their employer, which is often measured by the quality of facilities provided for them by the employer. (Nursing Staff Review 2002)

The Department of Health in the UK has reaffirmed that the patient viewpoint is central to the design process (DoH 2000), suggesting that the NHS must be prepared to change and focus on what matters to patients. The quality of the buildings is vital to the quality of the care patients

ABTRACTS Page 72 IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP receive in them. One million patients a week use NHS hospitals. One third of those hospitals were built before the NHS was created. One tenth date back to Victorian times. The consequences are shoddy buildings, unreliable equipment and out of date hospitals. In too many places, the environment in which patients receive care is simply unacceptable (www.doh.gov.uk/nhsestates/research)

We have received funding for a three-year research project from NHS Estates. As a result we have two concurrent doctoral research programmes linked to this research, one assessing and analysing the patient perspective and the other focusing on the staff experience. The intention is to gain an overall understanding of how the interior environment of a maternity unit impacts on all users.

The study will be conducted in five very different types of maternity unit. The units have been chosen to give a cross section of rural and urban, high and low caseload facilities, newly built PFI hospitals and older community units. It will focus on recent developments in healthcare design. In particular, it will focus on patient-centred design and the patient-as-client philosophy now driving most new healthcare projects.

The theoretical basis for our research lies within Environmental Psychology and Post Occupancy Evaluation. Studies evaluating hospital design (Janssen, Klein et al. 2000; Lawson and Phiri 2000) have reported improved clinical outcomes for patients on purpose designed wards. Hospital surveys within the US have linked patient satisfaction with their healthcare experience with staff satisfaction in their work environment (Press Ganey 2003).

An evaluation of the literature revealed the need for a twofold approach, the first concerning the patient perspective:  What particular elements of the interior environment contribute towards patient satisfaction? The second focusing on the staff :  Is our concentration on the patient experience alienating staff in healthcare facilities?

As a consequence, a satisfaction questionnaire was developed from validated sources (Janssen, Klein et al. 2000; Lawson and Phiri 2000). It was distributed to a purposive sample of birthing mothers, birth partners (n=200), medical staff, midwives, hospital management and housekeeping/ancillary staff (n=150) at Forth Park Maternity Unit, Kirkcaldy. The patient self- report forms were correlated with their medical records to see whether there was any link

ABTRACTS Page 73 IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP between satisfaction with the interior environment and clinical outcomes. Focus groups and interviews will then take place to further discuss the issues raised in the questionnaires. In addition a Post Occupancy Evaluation will be carried out using, the NHS Estates ‘Achieving Excellence Design Evaluation Toolkit’. This toolkit will be refined and adapted for assessing the interior environment.

We are currently analysing data from our pilot study at Forth Park Maternity Unit. We have received multi centre ethical approval to conduct the study at other sites throughout the UK, and are in the process of submitting R+D applications to the other sites. We have conducted preliminary visits to three sites in the south of England and are in the process of customising the presentation of our questionnaires to suit the layout and type of maternity facilities involved.

References

DoH (Department of Health) (2000) The NHS Plan: A plan for investment, a plan for reform. London: HMSO Janssen, P. A., M. C. Klein, et al. (2000). "Single room maternity care and client satisfaction." Birth 27: 235-243.

Lawson, B. and M. Phiri (2000). Room for improvement, 2000 Emap Healthcare Ltd. 2003. Ulrich, R. S. (1984). "View through a window may influence recovery from surgery." Science 224: 420-421. Review Body for Nursing Staff, Midwives, Health Visitors and Professions Allied to Medicine (2002). “Nineteenth Report on Nursing Staff, Midwives and Health Visitors 2002.” Her Majesty’s Stationery Office Lee, B. (2003) “K.E.E.P. Your Nurses for Life” The Satisfaction Monitor Press Ganey Publications

Stella Wisdom

3rd Year PhD student Landscape Architecture, Edinburgh College of Art [email protected]

Supervisors: Professor Peter Aspinall and Professor Catherine Ward Thompson

Awareness, Understanding and Communication of Tactile Pavement Usage within the United Kingdom.

Introduction

The purpose of this PhD research is to examine street environments and more specifically the pavement, which pedestrians walk upon. The investigation focuses on accessibility requirements relating to the needs and experiences of visually impaired pedestrians. The central aim is to understand how visually impaired people use tactile pavement and to define tactile pavement's relationship with other mobility and navigation systems. The research objective is to investigate, analyse and compare, manufacturers', implementers' and users' awareness and understanding of tactile pavement, within the UK.

Background

In 1986 the first tactile pavement was implemented in UK, to signify controlled road crossings and initially it had the legal status of a road sign. However, due to widespread trends for dropped kerbs (to increase wheelchair users opportunity for crossing roads), tactile pavement use was extended. In an effort to distinguish between tactile pavement at uncontrolled and controlled crossings, it was produced in contrasting red and buff colours. This caused much confusion for town planners and in 1991 tactile pavement lost its legal status. Officials thought, that it could not be practically upheld, due to the increased variety in tactile pavement surfaces. Expansion of usage has continued and there are now seven different types of tactile surface used in the UK:

1. Blister surface for pedestrian crossing points 2. Corduroy hazard warning surface 3. Platform (off street) warning edge surface 4. Platform (on street) warning edge surface 5. Guidance path surface 6. Information surface 7. Segregated shared cycle track/footway surface with central delineator strip.

Despite the loss of legal status, the UK government appears keen to support standardized usage of tactile pavement. In 1998 the Department for Transport produced guidelines: "Guidance on the Use of Tactile Paving Surfaces", to assist streetscape designers and town planners in their work.

Research Hypotheses

Hypothesis 1: Many visually impaired people are not fully aware of the different meanings of the tactile surfaces.

Hypothesis 2: Many visually impaired people have not received detailed mobility training about how to use tactile pavement systems.

Hypothesis 3: Visually impaired people, who are aware of tactile pavement and use or have previously used it as a mobility cue; cease to rely on it, if they experience too many examples of inconsistent, incorrect and misleading tactile pavement installations.

Hypothesis 4: Designers, town planners and other professionals, who are responsible for installing and maintaining pavement, are not fully aware of and do not consistently follow government guidelines relating to tactile pavement use.

Research Methodology

For this study a qualitative data collection method; individual interviews, was selected. Interviewing was chosen, because more quantitative survey methods, such as printed postal questionnaires, could have caused problems for many visually impaired respondents, who may not use print as their preferred reading method.

To gather visually impaired interview respondents, volunteers were requested from local visually impaired peoples' organisations. This was an ethical method of contacting potential interviewees and did not break the UK Data Protection Act. However, it had the possible disadvantage of not reaching and including the least independent and mobile visually impaired people.

Due to time and financial constraints, it was not feasible to extend the interviewee sample to cover the whole of the UK. Therefore the research is a comparison study of the cities Glasgow and Birmingham.

Progress to Date

This PhD project started in 2002 and is currently in the data collection stage. Initial findings indicate that visually impaired pedestrians do not know how to interpret all of the tactile surfaces used within the UK. This seems to be less of an issue with surfaces that have been installed over a longer time period, such as the red "blister" pavement used to indicate road crossing points. Yet for newer types of tactile surface, such as the "lozenge" surface for on-street platform edges, there appears to be a lack of awareness of their existence and confusion regarding their correct interpretation. One can anticipate that this lack of recognition may be less of a problem in future, when these surfaces are more established and when more people have received training about how to use them.

Conclusion

The central issues of this study are understanding and communication. The research aims to provide useful information about how visually impaired pedestrians use and learn how to use tactile surfaces. Furthermore it attempts to assess user awareness amongst those involved in the planning and implementation of tactile pavement systems. It is anticipated that the PhD thesis will be submitted in 2005.

Tsai-Shiou Hsieh

Ph.D Program in Environmental Psychology Graduate Center, City University of New York, USA Email: [email protected]

Dissertation advisor: Roger Hart

Recycle me, Recycle me not—A cross-level analysis of New York City’s recycling policy change: individual, organizational, governmental, and political economical

New York City stopped recycling certain materials in 2002 due to financial concerns, but re- started recycling some of them after one year. The confusing story of the “suspension” invoked wide responses and public discussion. The policy swirl changed not only the way New Yorkers did recycling, but very likely also the way they valued recycling. My dissertation aims at unraveling a whole picture of the policy changes, and how these changes affected people’s recycling attitude and behavior. The projected research method is a combination of multiple methods, including archival studies, short surveys, and interviews. It also includes the analysis of dynamics of different agents in government, local and national environmental groups, and city residents. This study also aims at providing some policy implication for New York City recycling program from an environmental psychological viewpoint. Theoretical Background As a response to emerging environmental awareness, there has been increased psychological studies on pro-environmental behavior over the past few decades. Aiming at understanding and predicting people’s environmental attitudes and behavior, these studies mainly took four different approaches: rational-economic, social dilemmas, attitude-behavior models, and applied behavioral analysis (Kurz, 2002). Among all the pro-environmental behavior studies, recycling seems to be the most frequently used perspective.

In contrast to the most common approaches, I will adopt the ecological psychology perspective, especially Gibson’s notions of “affordances”(Gibson, 1979). I intend to use this idea of affordances as a lens for viewing recycling, This means that instead of focusing on the individual level (whether a person recycles or not or how much environmental concern s/he has.) I will investigate “person-in-environment” as my fundamental unit of analyses. I intend to develop the argument that people’s conceptualization and determination of recycling are shaped by interconnected aspects of recycling affordances: physical affordances, social affordances, and informational affordances.

For a more macro view, recycling itself can hardly be conceptualized as an individual behavior. It is directly connected to environmental policy (both state and federal,) and related to industry and the global market. There has been scarce discussion on how the “backstage” of recycling (industry-, economy- and policy-wise) is connected with post-consumer recycling practice. Event

An on-going recycling policy change in New York City provides a good opportunity to fulfill my interests across different levels. Since July 1st, 2002, NYC suspended recycling glass and plastic materials because it cost too much money, and around 40% of the collected recyclables ended in landfills. NYC re-started recycling plastic items in July, 2003, and is expecting to recycle glass again in a year. Research Question

How is the recycling policy change understood, translated and practiced at different levels from the ideology of the municipal government to the NGO’s responses and the residents’ reactions?

In order to answer this big and blurred question, below is a smaller set of questions: 1. Historical: What is NYC’s recycling history? What efforts have been put there? What difficulties were encountered in the past, and what are their corresponding solutions? 2. Municipality’s perspective: What is the decision-making process behind the current recycling policy change? Is the change reaching its goals (eg: saving money)? How does the city evaluate the impact of the policy change? Is this event changing the bigger picture of waste management policies? 3. NGO’s position: how do different environmental NGOs (international, national, local…etc.) respond to this policy change? What actions did they take? What kind of alternatives did they provide? 4. Residents’ responses: how did/do people understand the recycling policy change? How did the change affect their daily practice of recycling, to their attitudes towards recycling and to teir larger orientation to environmental issues? Objectives This research aims at: 1. An integrated view of urban recycling, connecting the micro with the macro. 2. A critique and a complete record of NYC’s recycling—past, current, and future. 3. Policy implementation suggestions to the city government. Methodology This dissertation research is a case study which is composed of multiple research methods: 1. Content Analysis: analysis of social representation which includes newspaper clips, official government reports, NGOs’ reports. 2. Interviews: government officials (department of sanitation), city councilors, NGO activists, and maybe scholars in other disciplines (environmental engineering, environmental economy, political science…etc.) employees of related industry. 3. (possible) Short survey: questions include “What do you know about current City recycling policy?” “How do you practice recycling, at home? At your working place?” “why or why not do you recycle?” “Are you aware of the recycling policy change during the last couple of years? (if so, ask participants to describe, and ask them why the policy has been changed; if not, I will explain shortly.)” “How do you feel about these changes? Can you talk about how these changes affect your attitudes about recycling? About other environmental issues?”

Ludigija Boniface Bulamile [email protected]

Crime Prevention and the Built Environment in Tanzania

Kewwords : Crime Prevention; Spatial Patterns; Urban Morphology; House Design; Town Planning; Tanzania

Background Fear of crime is as much a problem as crime itself and is an important policy issue in its own right. Fear of crime is often associated with fear for one’s personal safety, especially when alone and after dark. Fear of crime may keep people off the streets, and other public areas. It may thus constitute a barrier to participation in the public life of cities (Wekerle and Whitz-man, 1995:2- 3). This observation is based on research in planned cities of industrialised countries, but can be assumed to be applicable also in unplanned areas in poor countries.

In Dar es Salaam – the biggest city of Tanzania with an estimated 3 million inhabitants – the crime rate is growing, thereby increasing fear of using public space. In order to address this problem the Safer Cities project has been initiated. In March 2000 two studies were initiated in Dar es Salaam within the framework of this project. The studies usher some light on the experience of violence and crime, and the feeling of insecurity. 43% of the respondents stated that they had been victims of burglary between 1995 and 2000, while 32% stated that they had been mugged. 61% of the interviewed stated that they felt unsafe in their homes after dark (Robertshaw et al, 2000:13).

The study further noted that burglary affects more people living in newly established suburbs compared to those living elsewhere in Dar es Salaam. Generally people with higher incomes and those owning houses are more at risk. In 78% of incidences victims reported that some-one was at home when the burglary was committed (Robertshaw et al, 2000:14).

Crime prevention through environmental design Combating crime is often associated with increased policing, more severe punishment of cri- minals, social and educational programs, and programs for poverty eradication. In the last

ABTRACTS Page 80 IAPS 18 PRE-CONFERENCE STUDENT WORKSHOP decades there has been an increasing interest in the potential of the built environment to contribute to crime prevention. In research and practical policies it is nowadays often recog-nised that the design of buildings, streets, parks and other public places can deter criminal activity and enhance urban safety. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) has become a well-known concept for the design and management of urban space to reduce the incidence and fear of crime (Wekerle and Whitzman, 1995:12). CPTED invol-ves detailed situational analysis to identify local patterns and the micro-environmental con-ditions that might be creating opportunities for crime. Major factors for CPTED include clear divisions into private, semi- private, communal, semi-public and public space; a mixture of urban functions so that around- the-clock uses occur; design of neighbourhoods for clear overview and avoidance of dark corners, and grid-like communication patterns instead of tree-like urban structures with many dead end streets, which are used only by a few (New-man, 1974; du Plessis, 1999).

There are two diametrically opposed approaches to CPTED. The one called “target harde-ning” implies fences, barbed wire, gated communities and privatisation of public spaces. The other one is based on the idea of planning a city so that people are present in communal and public places around the clock. The determining factor for design is to avoid dark, unseen spaces and adapt a grid structure rather than a tree-like structure. The two approa-ches are to a high degree excluding each other. High fences and gated communities contri-bute for instance to more fear outside the private realm, which in turn make people use com-munal and public spaces less, thereby reducing the chance for intervention when crimes occur (Newman, 1974; Coleman 1979; du Plessis, 1999).

Oscar Newman’s defensible space theory and Coleman’s views on crime reduction strate-gies have gradually gained momentum among decision-makers and planners in USA and Western Europe. These theories can be assumed to be relevant to urban areas in poor count-ries as well, but in order to be fruitfully applied the local context has to be taken into conside-ration. The contextual factors can be assumed to comprise climatic and cultural aspects (influencing the use of outdoor space), ownership of land and real estate property, the role of local crafts-men and professionals, and the influence of planning legislation on urban development. No study with this focus has been done in Tanzania so far.

Aim of study The aim of this research is to document the present tendency towards “target hardening” in Dar es Salaam and to investigate to what extent this tendency goes against the other approach to reduce crime by environmental design. The study intends to explore to what extent current

CPTED theories are applicable in the Tanzanian context. On the basis of such an analysis attempts will be made to work out recommendations for house and neighbourhood types that prevent crime, and to introduce elements of CPTED thinking in physical planning.

Research methods It is proposed that the research methods will comprise the following: a) Analysis of aerial photographs for tracing urban patterns where public spaces have high integration values (assumed to produce good crime prevention) versus tree-like struc-tures (where less overview is achieved). GIS may be used as a tools of analysing the spatial characteristics influencing the level of crime. b) Analysis of statistics on crime, including an assessment of its reliability and coverage. The frequency of burglary and other types of crime taking place in urban areas should be matched with the spatial patterns assumed to be related to crime prevention. c) Comparative studies may be made between high crime districts and low crime districts to establish factors influencing the crime. d) Collection and documentation of examples at the micro-level of designs determined by the two contradictory types of crime prevention. e) Interviews with key persons such as police officers, planners and mtaa leaders about frequency of crime, suitable actions to prevent crime, and about spaces that people tend to avoid for fear of crime. f) Interviews with a selection of residents who have carried out constructions because of fear of crime. g) Interviews with urban dwellers about their inclination to intervene in case of observing crime, and about the type of spaces they avoid in the city.

References Coleman, Alice (1985): Utopia on Trial. Vision and Reality in Planned Housing, London: Hilary Shipman. Newman, Oscar (1973): Defensible Space. Crime Prevention Through Urban Design, New York: Collier Books. du Plessis, Chrisna (1999): “The Links Between Crime Prevention and Sustainable Deve- lopment; in Open House International Vol.24 No. 1. Robertshaw, R., A Louw and A. Mtani (2001): Crime in Dar es Salaam, United Nations Centre for Human Settlements and Institute for Security Studies, 2001

Salden, O. A. J. C. (2001): Violence Against Women in Tanzania: Opportunities and Con- straints for the government to eliminate or reduce the problem, Faculty of Sciences, Leiden University, The Netherlands. Spooner J. (2000): Violence Against Women in Urban Areas: An Analysis of the Problem from Gender Perspective, UMP Working Paper Series 17. Taylor, Ralph (2002): “Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED): Yes, No, Maybe, Unknowable, and All of the Above”, in Bechtel, Robert and Arza Churchman (eds): Handbook of Environmental Psychology, John Wiley & Sons. Wekerle and Whitzman (1995): Safer Cities: Guidelines for Planning, Design, and Manage- ment; Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data.

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