Writing: an Essential Component of Literacy

©Research Alignment for MM-H California Treasures Writing Component, June 17, 2008 Katylee Hoover, Senior Researcher

Writing: An Essential Component of Literacy

Writing Putting Down Words on Paper!

“All students are motivated by their own ability to express themselves powerfully. When they can see themselves becoming better writers, they want to keep writing.”1

A. What is writing? Writing is a vital component of the comprehensive synergy of literacy. It exists in context and in relationship with reading, listening, and speaking. Writing is to express in literary form—to depict by means of words. When students write, they put down words on paper in order to record, relate, or explain.

Writing is an Essential Life Skill “Writing is essential to success in school and the workplace. Yet writing is a skill that cannot be learned on the spot; it is complex and challenging.”2

Students make many choices when they put ideas on paper. The essential skills that student writers need to craft effective prose—getting ideas, drafting, revising, editing, and working with sentence-level issues—are all part of an effective final writing piece (Writing on Demand).

Nicki Nelson, in The Writing Approach, relates how hard it is for students to get their ideas on paper. Writing is hard because (1) students do a lot of searching for just the right word; (2) punctuation can be very cumbersome for some students; and (3) spelling affects what words they choose. For example, sometimes students would like to use a certain word, but if they do not know how to spell it, they use a simpler word that they do know how to spell. Finally, (4) writing is a physical task; it requires certain materials—paper, pencil, computer, keyboard—and if the tools are not available, students can’t write.3

“Effective . . . literacy programs must include an element that helps students improve their writing skills.”—Reading Next (Biancarosa & Snow, 2006, p. 18).

B. Why is writing instruction important? According to Writing Next, a sister report to Reading Next, Along with reading comprehension, writing skill is a predictor of academic success and a basic requirement for participation in civic life and in the global economy. Yet every year in the United States large numbers of adolescents graduate from high school unable to write at the basic levels required by colleges or employers. . . . Because the definition of literacy includes both reading and writing skills, poor writing proficiency should be recognized as an intrinsic part of this national literacy crisis (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 3).

1 ©Research Alignment for MM-H California Treasures Writing Component, June 17, 2008 Katylee Hoover, Senior Researcher

Both Reading Next and Writing Next cited sobering statistics about the writing capabilities of U.S. students. For example, according to Writing Next,  “Seventy percent of students in Grades 4–12 are low-achieving writers” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 7, citing Persky et al., 2003).4  “Nearly one-third of high school graduates are not ready for college-level English composition courses” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 7, citing ACT, 2005).  “College instructors estimate that 50 percent of high school graduates are not prepared for college-level writing” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 8, citing Achieve, Inc., 2005).  “Thirty-five percent of high school graduates in college and 38 percent of high school graduates in the workforce feel their writing does not meet expectations for quality” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 9, citing Achieve, Inc., 2005).  “‘Poorly written applications are likely to doom candidates’ chances for employment’ ” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 9, quoting National Commission on Writing, 2005, p. 4).  “About half of private employers and more than 60 percent of state government employers say writing skills impact promotion decisions” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 9, citing National Commission on Writing, 2004, 2005).  “Writing remediation costs American businesses as much as $3.1 billion annually” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 9, citing National Commission on Writing, 2004).

Effects on specific skill areas. Link between vocabulary and writing Link between reading comprehension and writing According to Reading Next, An important complicating factor in Research supports the idea that writing instruction also describing vocabulary learning is the improves reading comprehension. For example, students fact that students’ word learning is not who are given the opportunity to write in conjunction with simply an on/off switch, but rather a reading show more evidence of critical thinking about matter of degree and even type of reading. Likewise, many of the skills involved in writing— knowledge. For example, it may require such as grammar and spelling—reinforce reading skills. less knowledge to understand what a word (Biancarosa & Snow, 2006, p. 19) means within a specific written context than to use it appropriately in writing or Similarly, Allington (2006) claimed, “The reciprocal speaking (Baumann et al., 2003, p. 755). relationship between reading and writing opportunities and proficiencies has been well established . . . particularly the links Along similar lines, Blachowicz and between comprehension and composing” (p. 52). More broadly, Fisher (2000) stated, “For retention and Alvermann (2001) argued, “Effective teachers look for ways to usage, student manipulation of words in integrate reading and writing as often as possible because they many contexts seems to be critical. We know that each process reinforces the other and can lead to cite . . . Stahl and Vancil's study (1986), improved comprehension and retention of subject-area content” which highlights the importance of (p. 11, citing Tierney & Shanahan, 1991). discussion in learning and retention of new [content-area] vocabulary” (p. 513). Part of the challenge with regard to comprehension for Baumann et al. (2003) reviewed one study adolescents is that text comprehension becomes more difficult as in particular that showed the potential for students get older and are expected to process increasingly writing as part of rich vocabulary sophisticated texts. Alvermann (2001), after describing instruction: “Duin and Graves (1987) disappointing results from the National Assessment of explored the impact that instruction in a

2 ©Research Alignment for MM-H California Treasures Writing Component, June 17, 2008 Katylee Hoover, Senior Researcher

Educational Progress (NAEP), stated: “Simply put, basic level set of semantically related words has on literacy is insufficient in today’s world, where both reading and essay writing. Seventh-grade students writing tasks required of adolescents are continuing to increase were taught 13 target words over 6 days in complexity and difficulty” (p. 4). according to one of three methods: (a) intensive vocabulary and writing Link between reading and writing instruction (similar to the McKeown et al., 1985, extended rich instruction, but it According to Donald Bear, “In the reciprocal nature of included many writing activities), (b) development and instruction, reading informs writing.” intensive vocabulary alone (same as The importance of integrating reading and writing instruction for intensive vocabulary and writing, but no adolescents is attested to by numerous sources. One reason for writing activities were included), or (c) this importance is the close relationship between writing skills traditional vocabulary instruction and reading comprehension. For example, Alvermann (2001) (worksheet/definition activities). As argued, “Effective teachers look for ways to integrate reading measured by a multiple-choice vocabulary and writing as often as possible because they know that each knowledge test, an analysis of the process reinforces the other and can lead to improved students’ use of target words in essays, and comprehension and retention of subject area content” (p. 11, holistic analyses of the essays, the citing Tierney & Shanahan, 1991). Writing is a critical area of vocabulary and writing group consistently literacy that students need to master for its own sake, to succeed outperformed the other two groups, and both academically and in the professional world. the vocabulary alone group outperformed the traditional vocabulary group. The Link between oral and written composition authors concluded that teaching a set of related words to students before they write not only results in students’ learning the Based on their research review, Baumann et al. (2003) meanings of those words but also recommended, “Engage students in oral and written improves the quality of their essays” composition on a regular and sustained basis. Have students (Baumann et al., 2003, p. 769). express themselves in writing and speech daily. Generative processes must be used and exercised if receptive vocabulary is to become expressive” (p. 778). Similarly, the authors of the Writing Next report claimed, “Using writing tasks to learn content offers students opportunities Link between reading, writing, and oral language to expand their knowledge of vocabulary” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 23). Integrating reading, writing, and oral language Readence et al. (2004) recommended, “Use all language Link between writing and content processes to help students learn with text” (p. 10; material emphasis in original). A meta-analysis conducted by the authors According to the authors, “While reading will undoubtedly of the Writing Next report found a “small remain the major means of dealing with text, other language [but] consistent” effect from “using processes can play key roles in helping students learn content. . . writing as a tool for learning content . Research on writing (Tierney & Shanahan, 1991) has further material” (Graham & Perin, 2007, pp. 5, pointed out the interconnections between reading and writing 20), with an effect size of 0.23 based on 26 and has suggested that reading be viewed as a composing studies.5 This approach “was equally process. In effect, writing, listening, and speaking become effective for all content areas (social additional tools to teach more content” (p. 10). studies, math, and science) and grades (4– Alvermann (2001) also endorsed Tierney & Shanahan’s 6 versus 7–12) studied” (Graham & Perin, findings, stating, “Effective teachers look for ways to integrate 2007, p. 21). reading and writing as often as possible because they know that each process reinforces the other and can lead to improved comprehension and retention of subject area content” (p. 11).

3 ©Research Alignment for MM-H California Treasures Writing Component, June 17, 2008 Katylee Hoover, Senior Researcher

“It is a terrible mistake for schools to stop teaching reading and writing after the third grade…” Alliance for Excellent Education, IssueBrief, June 2006.

C. Who benefits from writing instruction?

Students in the Primary Grades In Grades K–3, students develop the basic literacy skills upon which they will build future success in high school and beyond. Federal and state investments in early literacy are starting to pay off6, as indicated by the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), which pointed out significant gains in literacy for fourth-graders, especially among minority children and those from low-income families.

“ . . . early attention to the development of writing is essential for emergent and early readers” ~Shanahan, 19807

Students in the Upper Elementary Grades According to the Alliance for Excellent Education, “It is a terrible mistake for schools to stop teaching reading and writing after the third grade; unfortunately, most schools do just that.”8 These students may have gotten the basics, but unless they receive ongoing instruction in literacy, they will not master the advanced skills that they need in order to be successful in middle school, high school, and in the future workforce.

Students Who Are English Learners From a report on adolescent English language learners’ acquisition of language and academic literacy: “[English language learners] benefit from the integration of explicit instruction in reading, writing, listening, and speaking across the curriculum, regardless of student proficiency level” (Short & Fitzsimmons, 2007, p. 34, citing Genesee et al., 2006). Several linguistic studies suggest that English learners will transfer skills from their primary language to English (Odlin, 1989). Research also suggests that integrating reading, writing, speaking, and listening is crucial for English learners to develop the ability to write effectively (Mangeldorf, 1989). For English learners to gain literacy in English, the curriculum must include instruction in developing writing skills.

Students in Middle and High School Today, less than one-third of our high school students read or write at grade level. Among low-income students, the figure is fewer than one in six (Perie et al., 2005). In a typical high-poverty urban school, roughly half of incoming ninth-grade students read at a sixth- or seventh-grade level (Balfanz et al., 2002). The importance of integrating reading and writing instruction for adolescents is attested to by numerous sources. For example, the Reading Next report identified “Intensive Writing” as one of 15 elements of effective adolescent literacy programs that “had a substantial base in research and/or professional opinion” (Biancarosa & Snow, 2006, p. 18). The Alliance for Excellent Education noted, “Clearly, vast numbers of middle and high school students need help with their reading and writing skills” (IssueBrief, June 2006).

4 ©Research Alignment for MM-H California Treasures Writing Component, June 17, 2008 Katylee Hoover, Senior Researcher

D. Research Recommendations on Writing

“The intervention should reflect a comprehensive approach to reading and writing.” Creating Literacy-Rich Schools for Adolescents, Fisher and Ivey (2006)

Range and Scope of Writing Academic Literacy Instruction

According to Sandra Mercuri, University of Texas at Brownsville, the K– K-5 English Learners 5 EL curriculum should provide “challenging, theme-based instruction that will support academic subject matter.” She added that “differentiated instruction, cultural understanding and celebration, and collaboration among students are also essential supports for [EL] students.”9 Several sources reference reading and writing as part of a broader category of adolescent literacy that is most effectively taught as a connected and comprehensive whole. For example:

 Fisher and Ivey’s (2006) recommendations for evaluating Adolescent Learners interventions for struggling adolescent readers included the guideline, “The intervention should reflect a comprehensive approach to reading and writing” (p. 182)—meaning, ideally, that “intervention is comprehensive and integrated such that students experience reading and writing as a cohesive whole” (p. 188, quoting a rubric from Ivey & Fisher, 2006).

 A report on language and academic literacy for adolescent English language learners defined academic literacy as incorporating “reading, writing, and oral discourse for school” (Short & Fitzsimmons, 2007, p. 2) and stated, “Developing academic literacy Adolescent English Learners is a complex endeavor that involves reading, writing, listening, and speaking for multiple school-related purposes using a variety of texts and demanding a variety of products” (p. 8).

 Ivy and Fisher in Creating Literacy-Rich Schools for Adolescents, emphasize the importance of selecting literacy materials and instructional routines that engage adolescent learners. The reading selections also must be matched to the adolescents’ reading levels. Choosing one novel for the whole class simply does not work.

5 ©Research Alignment for MM-H California Treasures Writing Component, June 17, 2008 Katylee Hoover, Senior Researcher

Instructional Instructional Recommendations for Writing Component

Dedicated Instruction  Dedicated writing instruction. As noted above, writing is an important component of literacy instruction and a companion to reading instruction for adolescents. As Writing Next emphasized, however, writing cannot be taught effectively as only an adjunct to reading instruction: “Writing differs from reading. . . . Therefore, although writing and reading are both vital aspects of literacy, they each require their own dedicated instruction. What improves reading does not always improve writing” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 8). This suggests the importance of a substantial instructional component that is dedicated to adolescent writing as an end in itself, not just a means for improving students’ reading.

Teaching Writing  Instruction in writing strategies. According to Reading Next, “Instruction Strategies in . . . writing strategies significantly improve[s] students’ writing” (Biancarosa & Snow, 2006, p. 19). This finding is confirmed by a meta- analysis conducted by the authors of Writing Next, which identified “Writing Strategies, which involves teaching students strategies for planning, revising, and editing their compositions,” as one of “11 elements of current writing instruction” that are “supported by rigorous research” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 4; emphasis in original), with an effect size of 0.82 based on 20 studies.11

Elaborating on these results, the Writing Next authors stated, “Teaching adolescents strategies for planning, revising, and editing their compositions has shown a dramatic effect on the quality of students’ writing. Strategy instruction involves explicitly and systematically teaching steps necessary for planning, revising, and/or editing text. . . . The ultimate goal is to teach students to use these strategies independently” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 15).

Among specific writing strategies that could be taught to students, Writing Next identified “more generic processes, such as brainstorming (e.g., Troia & Graham, 2002) or collaboration for peer revising (MacArthur, Schwartz & Graham, 1991)” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 15).

According to Writing Next, strategy instruction may also involve “teaching strategies for accomplishing specific types of writing tasks, such as writing a story (Fitzgerald & Markham, 1987) or a persuasive essay (Yeh, 1998)” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 15).

Results of writing strategy instruction appear to be “more dramatic for lower- achieving writers than for those across the full range of ability” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 16), with an average weighted effect size of 1.02 for “studies with low- achieving writers,” compared to an average weighted effect size of 0.70 for “students across the full range of ability in regular classrooms” (p. 15).

6 ©Research Alignment for MM-H California Treasures Writing Component, June 17, 2008 Katylee Hoover, Senior Researcher

Another research-supported element of effective writing instruction, Summarization according to the Writing Next meta-analysis, is summarization, which “involves explicitly and systematically teaching students how to summarize text” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 4), with an effect size of 0.82 based on four studies.12

“The summarization approaches studied ranged from explicitly teaching summarization strategies to enhancing summarization by progressively ‘fading’ models of a good summary. In fact, students can learn to write better summaries from either a rule-governed or a more intuitive approach” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 16).

Outcomes of studies for summarization were measured based on “completeness Collaborative Writing and accuracy of summaries” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 14).

With its roots in ‘sharing the pen’ as a practice of writing with children13 (MacKenzie, 1985), interactive writing also strengthens students’ oral language development through its extensive conversations about the intended purpose and audience of the written message. Daily use of interactive writing has been effective in introducing and reinforcing many of the skills necessary for literacy development14 (Brotherton & Williams, 2002).

Writing Next also identified collaborative writing, which “uses instructional arrangements in which adolescents work together to plan, draft, revise, and edit their compositions” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 4), as a research- supported element of effective writing instruction, with an effect size of 0.75 based on seven studies.15

According to the writers, “It was not possible to draw separate conclusions for low-achieving writers, as only two studies (Dailey, 1991; MacArthur et al., 1991) Specific Product Goals involved these students specifically. However, in both studies the effect size exceeded 1.00” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 16).

In one collaborative writing method highlighted by Writing Next, “a higher achieving student is assigned to be the Helper (tutor) and a lower achieving student is assigned to be the Writer (tutee). The students are instructed to work as partners on a writing task. The Helper student assists the Writer student with meaning, organization, spelling, punctuation, generating ideas, creating a draft, rereading essays, editing essays, choosing the best copy, and evaluating the final product. Throughout the intervention, the teacher’s role is to monitor, prompt, and praise the students, and address their concerns” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 16, citing Yarrow & Topping, 2001).16

Appropriate Challenge Specific product goals—i.e., specific goals for students’ assigned writing— for Students represented another element of effective writing instruction identified as

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research-supported by Writing Next, with an effect size of 0.70 based on five studies.17

This element involved “assign[ing] students specific, reachable goals for the writing they are to complete” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 4), including “identifying the purpose of the assignment (e.g., to persuade) as well as characteristics of the final product” (p. 17). Performance was compared with that of students who “were simply given a general overall goal” (p. 17).

“Specific goals in the studies reviewed included (a) adding more ideas to a paper when revising, or establishing a goal to write a specific kind of paper and (b) assigning goals for specific structural elements in a composition” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 17).

Effect sizes for low-performing writers in three of the studies provided “some tentative evidence that, interpreted cautiously (because of the small sample), indicates that setting product goals is effective with adolescents who are weaker writers” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 17).

Describing the desirability of “intensive writing” as a component of reading instruction, Reading Next stated, “The defining characteristic of quality intensive writing instruction is not that there is simply more of it. Rather, such instruction has clear objectives and expectations and consistently Word Processing challenges students, regardless of ability, to engage with academic content at high levels of reasoning” (Biancarosa & Snow, 2006, p. 19). This argues for a value to making writing assignments that require a high level of engagement with academic content, even for students who may be at a low level of literacy.

Writing Next identified use of word processors as a research-supported practice for effective writing instruction, with an effect size of 0.55 based on 18 studies.18

Computers and Writing According to Writing Next, “The use of word-processing equipment can be particularly helpful for low-achieving writers,” with an effect size of 0.70 for “Technology low-achieving writers compared to 0.51 for students in general (Graham & Perin, has everything to do 2007, p. 17). with literacy. And being able to use the latest electronic Identifying advantages of word processing, the Writing Next authors stated, technologies has “Typing text on the computer with word-processing software produces a neat and everything to do legible script. It allows the writer to add, delete, and move text easily” (Graham with being literate” & Perin, 2007, p. 17). ~ Jeff Wilhelm10 More broadly, a review of research on technology and adolescent literacy found, “Although the effectiveness of computerized compared to traditional writing instruction is unclear, prior studies have found that computers can be one effective way to provide adolescents with writing assistance” (Kim &

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Kamil, 2004, p. 363, citing Palumbo & Prater, 1992). Additionally, Kim and Kamil found that “[t]he application of computer technology to writing tasks, such as the use of word processors, has been linked to increased motivation and task engagement” (p. 356, citing Daiute, 1983; Kamil, Intrator, & Kim, 2000). The researchers cautioned, however, “results have generally been mixed with respect to the increased effectiveness of computerized instruction compared to more traditional methods” (p. 357). They concluded, “Variables such as the proficiency of the students’ writing skills . . . , the quality of instructional support, and the students’ grade level were found to influence the learning outcomes. . . . [A]n emerging finding in the area of computerized writing instruction suggests that structured guidance, strategic instruction, and multiple interactions with the technology are likely to influence how successfully adolescents utilize multimedia environments for learning” (p. 358).

In connection to structured guidance for computerized writing instruction, Kim and Kamil recommended, “In addition to the potential motivational benefits of applying computers to writing, computerized instruction can assist adolescents by providing detailed writing prompts, structured guidance with prewriting and drafts, [and] strategies and activities for writing essays” (p. 363).

Elaborating on the need for multiple interactions with technology, they wrote, “One research finding . . . suggested that students with lower writing ability might need longer interactions with computerized writing instruction to achieve notable benefits. The provision of multiple and consistent opportunities to write Prewriting helps students with computers is likely to help students with a range of writing abilities gain to organize ideas. valuable experience and proficiency with the conventions of composing on the computer” (p. 363, citing Rosenbluth & Reed, 1992).

Another of Writing Next’s research-supported elements of effective writing instruction was “Pre-writing, which engages students in activities designed to help them generate or organize ideas for their composition” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 4; emphasis in original), with an effect size of 0.32 based on five studies.19

Describing examples of prewriting activities, the Writing Next authors stated, “Pre-writing activities include gathering possible information for a paper through reading or developing a visual representation of their ideas before sitting down to write. For example, some common pre-writing activities include encouraging group and individual planning before writing, organizing pre-writing ideas, prompting students to plan after providing a brief demonstration of how to do so, or assigning reading material pertinent to a topic and then encouraging students to plan their work in advance” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 18). They concluded, Instruction in the Writing “Collectively, these investigations show that pre-writing activities have a positive Process and small-to-moderate impact on the quality of students’ writing” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 18).

According to Reading Next, “Instruction in the writing process is . . . helpful,

9 ©Research Alignment for MM-H California Treasures Writing Component, June 17, 2008 Katylee Hoover, Senior Researcher

provided that it is connected to the kinds of writing tasks students will be expected to perform well in high school and beyond” (Biancarosa & Snow, 2006, p. 19).

Study of Models Writing Next identified “providing students with opportunities to read, analyze, and emulate models of good writing” as a research-support element of effective writing instruction (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 5), with an effect size of 0.25 based on six studies.20

“The study of models provides adolescents with good models for each type of writing that is the focus of instruction. Students are encouraged to analyze these Writing to Learn Content examples and to emulate the critical elements, patterns, and forms embodied in the models in their own writing” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 20).

Another research-supported element of effective writing instruction, according to Writing Next, was “Writing for Content Learning, which uses writing as a tool for learning content material” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 5; emphasis in original), with an effect size of 0.23 based on 26 studies.21

According to the Writing Next authors, “Although the impact of writing activity on content learning is small, it is consistent enough to predict some enhancement in learning as a result of writing-to-learn activities” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 20). Writing About Reading “Writing-to-learn was equally effective for all content areas (social studies, math, and science) and grades (4–6 versus 7–12) studied” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 21).

As noted above, according to Reading Next, “Research supports the idea that writing instruction . . . improves reading comprehension. For example, students who are given the opportunity to write in conjunction with reading Variety of Forms, show more evidence of critical thinking about reading” (Biancarosa & Snow, Genres, Styles, and Tones 2006, p. 19). This suggests a value to incorporating activities that engage students in writing about what they are reading.

In discussing how to implement the elements of effective writing instruction in schools, the Writing Next authors argued, “Excellent instruction in writing not only emphasizes correctness of forms and conventions, but also instills in Access to Appropriate writers the command of a wide variety of forms, genres, styles, and tones, Vocabulary. and the ability to adapt to different contexts and purposes” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 22). This suggests a value in providing students with instruction and practice related to writing in a variety of forms, genres, styles, and tones.

As part of the same discussion, Writing Next identified a variety of “lower- level skills” students must possess in order to “plan, generate, and revise text” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 23). Included among these was “access to appropriate vocabulary” (p. 23). This suggests a value in ensuring that

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students, particularly students with weaker literacy skills, have access to the vocabulary they need in order to fulfill specific writing tasks.

In a project known as “The Gift of Words,” seven teacher/researchers investigated methods to develop vocabulary and word consciousness. They developed several models for literacy learning communities that encourage students to choose powerful words as tools for communication.22 To improve their own writing, students examined examples of authors’ use of effective words. When students discovered a good example of the powerful use of Ongoing Assessment words, they called it the author’s “gift.” Students can use examples of colorful language, such as the “gifts,” to enrich their own writing. Research indicates that these types of activities not only improve students’ vocabularies, they build valuable prior knowledge for struggling readers and writers.

As part of a discussion of instructional interventions to improve student writing, the Writing Next authors affirmed, “Once an intervention begins, assessment and diagnostic teaching should be used in an ongoing way to examine its effects” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 24). Results of such assessments can then be used to adjust the intervention as needed.

11 ©Research Alignment for MM-H California Treasures Writing Component, June 17, 2008 Katylee Hoover, Senior Researcher

Demonstration of Writing Alignment in Treasures

Summary of Research Recommendations for Demonstration of Alignment Writing

The Treasures curriculum views writing as an essential component of literacy. Writing instruction is interwoven at all grade levels. In each unit, beginning in Grade 3, there is a “Research Proven Writing Approach” that is aligned with The Writers’ Express, wex.org.

Research suggests that The cornerstone of the California Treasures writing curriculum is a systematic instruction for reading approach that builds on students’ prior knowledge. The sequenced instructional should include a approach sets students up for success in writing by making sure skills are firmly substantial component in place before taking students to the next skill level. dedicated to writing In Grades K–2, the curriculum provides an Instructional Routine Handbook that instruction. details the techniques and teaching methods that research suggests will achieve the best results. California Treasures Kindergarten Example: California Treasures “Start Smart” provides lessons in understanding what writing is. Kindergarteners California Content begin with Interactive and Shared Writing. Kindergartners connect sounds with Standards letters to make words and to express simple ideas. The teacher provides English-Language Arts Sentence Starters/Frames. Students brainstorm; list ideas on chart paper; and LC 1.1.1 with the teacher’s help, they write words into complete sentences. Write and speak in In kindergarten Unit 4, for example, the theme is “Food, Glorious Food.” complete, coherent Writing is integrated with reading about food in selections such as Growing sentences. Vegetable Soup; Pancakes, Pancakes!; and The Gingerbread Man. Building W 5.1.6 Background for Oral Language is a study of Where Food Comes From. Edit and revise Children brainstorm things that Apple Farmer Annie does with the apples on manuscripts to improve her farm. They write a list in chronological order using words such as first and meaning. next. The list is numbered and used in other writing activities during the week. On Day 2, children make two lists: 1) foods that farmers grow, and 2) what can be made from the food. They write sentences about one of the items on the list.

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On Day 3, children brainstorm, prewrite, and draft sentences that describe what Annie does in Apple Farmer Annie. They illustrate their sentences. The next day, children independently review, revise, and edit using a checklist. EL students write and illustrate a sign about food to sell at a farmers’ market. On Day 5, students gather all of their sentences about Apple Farmer Annie and publish a class book. In Week 2, children list ingredients and write recipes after reading Our Special Sweet Potato Pie. As the kindergarten lessons progress, writing becomes more challenging and more complex. It is always based on selected literature. California Treasures Primary Grades Example: First Grade “Start Smart,” p. S11. Shared Writing: Sentences. Children brainstorm and then write complete sentences with the teacher’s help. The focus is on brief narrative and expository pieces. California Treasures Primary Grades Example: Each unit emphasizes a different type of writing. It lists objectives and materials that feature the particular convention. For example, Unit 1 Writing in first grade (p. 131A) features the Personal Narrative. The Objectives for the unit are: identify features of a personal narrative; plan and organize ideas; draft and revise; proofread, publish, and present a personal narrative. Materials include the Unit Writing Transparencies 12–17. Students build upon the learnings of K–1 by connecting sounds to spellings; forming complete sentences; and finally, using sentences to form simple paragraphs in personal narratives. They are progressing in the writing process. Beginning in Grade 3, Macmillan/McGraw-Hill and Glencoe/McGraw-Hill join with The Writers’ Express to present a research-based writing curriculum in California Treasures. In the upper elementary grades, students use the writing process foundation that they constructed in the primary grades to write strong paragraphs and multi-paragraph compositions. California Treasures Upper Grades Example: As a part of unit writing lessons, students are asked to revise and edit as they think about writing elements such as organization and focus, ideas and content/genre, and conventions. Students use a dictionary and thesaurus to check spelling and word choices. They focus on narratives, expository pieces, research papers, and responses to literature selections. California Treasures Middle School Example: By the time students reach Grades 6–8, they have constructed a firm foundation of prior knowledge about writing. Now they focus on writing biographies, autobiographies, summaries, reactions to literature, technical documents, and topics of debate and persuasion. They demonstrate mastery of writing skills by responding to prompts. Glencoe Literature, Course 3, p. 436 (Unit 3). Apply Good Writing Traits: Word Choice. Precise, vivid words can make writing clearer and help it live for years in readers’ memories. A word’s denotation is its dictionary definition. However, a word’s connotation implies a special attitude or emotion. For example, flowers have a fragrance but garbage has a stench. Both words mean “smell,” but the connotations are different. Reading-Writing Connection: Think about the writing techniques you have just learned and try them out in an essay

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of your own.

Research suggests that Students receive instruction on writing strategies related to planning, revising, students should be taught and editing compositions. The writing process takes the form of a careful explicit strategies for communication between student and teacher. The conversation is called the planning, revising, and dynamic feedback system. Students record their thoughts about their writing editing their compositions. progress in their journals, and teachers answer with comments about how they received the students’ ideas. By using this method, teachers can give each student the specific feedback that is needed while targeting skills that can enhance the composition. California Content Standards Glencoe Literature Seventh-Grade Example: After reading “Seventh Grade,” English-Language Arts by Gary Soto, students are asked to “Respond through Writing” to an autobiographical narrative. They use description and imagery to describe the characters, setting, and events. On page 123 of the text, students follow the LAS 5.1.1 following steps: (1) prewrite; (2) draft; (3) revise; and (4) edit and proofread. Ask questions that seek information not already California Treasures Fifth-Grade Example: Unit 1, p. 131A, Personal discussed. Narrative. Discuss the Features of “Snakebite”: Who tells the story? How do you know? What words does the writer use to describe her feelings? What sequence of reactions to the bite does the writer describe? Writing strategy California Treasures: The Teacher’s ResourceBook section on Improving instruction should include Writing guides teachers on incorporating brainstorming, collaboration for peer generic processes such as revision, and peer editing. Both brainstorming and peer collaboration for brainstorming and revision and editing are included in the lesson plans, along with suggestions for collaboration for peer students to use as a starting point for gathering their own ideas. revision. California Treasures Primary Grades Example: First Grade “Start Smart,” p. California Content S23. Interactive Writing: Sentences. Children share the pen while writing words Standards and letters they know to complete a class list. Each child completes a sentence English-Language Arts with one of the items from the list. LC 1.1.1 Write and speak in Middle School Example: Visualize. With a partner, pick a single sporting complete sentences. event. Working individually, list everything that comes to your mind as you picture the scene. After a few minutes of writing, stop and compare and contrast your list with your partner’s. Which elements are similar, and which are different? (p. 203, Glencoe Literature.)

Writing strategy Types of writing in California Treasures include descriptive writing, letters, instruction should include newspaper and magazine articles, summaries, personal responses, journal strategies for carrying out entries, stories, plays, speeches, advertisements, poetry, essays, narrative specific types of writing writing, expository writing, and persuasive writing. tasks, such as writing a story or a persuasive California Treasures First-Grade Example: SE, p. 127D Personal Narrative, essay. Weekly Writing Prompt. Write about playing together with a friend. Focus and Plan; Prewrite; Draft.

14 ©Research Alignment for MM-H California Treasures Writing Component, June 17, 2008 Katylee Hoover, Senior Researcher

California Treasures Fourth-Grade Example: SE, p. 6K Writing Objectives. Write a letter to a newspaper asking for advice; write a persuasive radio advertisement; write a clearly stated central idea or question.

Middle Grades Example: Write a brief review of a movie you saw recently. Identify actors in the movie and describe how believable they were in portraying their characters. Middle Grades Example: Evaluate Argument—Choose a column from your California Content local newspaper about a controversial subject. Identify the columnist’s Standards argument. What support does the columnist provide for the argument? Is the English-Language Arts support strong enough to persuade you to share the writer’s opinion?

W 1.1.1 California Treasures Middle School Example: Grade 7. Unit 3, p. 418. Select a focus Respond through Writing. In an expository essay, analyze Sound Devices in “Annabel Lee.” Explain their effect on the meaning of the poem. Prewrite. LC 1.1.1 Draft. Revise. Edit and proofread. Write and speak in complete coherent The Teacher’s Resource Book section on Improving Writing includes specific sentences. suggestions to teachers to help students learn how to write narrative, expository, persuasive, and “writing-to-learn” prose; summaries; personal responses; journal entries; articles; letters; stories; plays; speeches; advertisements and flyers; cartoons; and poetry. These include both instructional recommendations for teachers and tips they can share with students.

Writing Seventh-Grade Example: “Respond and Think Critically,” page 149, Glencoe Literature. How have the southwestern forests changed in the last 100 years? 2.2 And on page 153: “Write to Compare.” In one or two paragraphs, explain how Write responses to the speakers in “The Rider” and “I’ll Walk the Tightrope” face life’s literature. challenges.

Eighth Grade Example: Write with Style, p. 265, Glencoe Literature. Apply Diction—Think of an idea for an eerie or suspenseful short story. Write the opening paragraph for the story. Use figurative language that creates an eerie or suspenseful mood.

Glencoe Literature, Course 3, Unit 3, p. 442. Write a Review—Write a book review. Be sure to explain what you found interesting, unusual, exciting, or even annoying in the book. Include specific examples and descriptive details to support your ideas.

15 ©Research Alignment for MM-H California Treasures Writing Component, June 17, 2008 Katylee Hoover, Senior Researcher

Instruction in summarization helps students improve the quality of their writing Students should be taught by identifying the main idea and knowing which details to leave in and which to how to write summaries. take out. They learn to identify ideas related to the main idea, generalize, and remove redundancy. Summarizing is a good method for integrating ideas and generalizing from the text information. California Content Standards English-Language Arts California Treasures Fifth-Grade Example: Unit 1, p. 125T. On Level: Apply Skills to Independent Reading. After reading, students use evidence and W 5.2.2.b conclusions to write a summary of Sleds on Boston Common. Students share Write responses to their summaries and comment on their reactions to the book. literature. California Treasures Middle School Example: Grade 7, Unit 5, p. 654. 1.3 Support theses or After You Read: Respond and Think Critically. Writing: Write a summary that conclusions with retells the main events in Annie’s story in the order in which they occurred. analogies, paraphrases, (New Directions, by Maya Angelou.) quotations, opinions from authorities, comparisons, and similar devices. Eighth-Grade Example: Paraphrase the paragraph below. (A paragraph is provided that supports a point of view or a thesis. The student is asked to paraphrase the thesis.) Students are also asked to restate in their own words a Writing Strategies thesis such as the first sentence of Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address (Unit 4, 1.3 Use strategies of note Course 3, p. 506). taking, outlining, and summarizing to impose Students use a graphic organizer to keep track of their use of parallelism when structure on composition they write a speech about why they think it is important to honor a person drafts. (Course 3, p, 509). Students should be Students use collaborative approaches to writing assignments. Typical provided with collaborative arrangements include students working in small groups or with opportunities to practice partners for partner revision, partner editing, and activating background writing collaboratively, knowledge. using methods such as the helper-writer model. Within the Teacher’s ResourceBook section on Improving Writing, recommendations for conferencing encourage the teacher to develop helper- writer partnerships. California Content Standards Flexible Grouping: Strategies for Success includes specific suggestions related English-Language Arts to grouping students as they interact in response to each other’s writing. LAS 5.1.3 California Treasures Fifth-Grade Example: Unit 1, p. 131D. Peer Review. Make inferences or draw “Think, Pair, Share.” After thinking about the kinds of feelings writers include conclusions based on an in a strong narrative, students are paired to read their narratives to each other. oral report. The teacher should consider pairing stronger writers who write longer stories with those who are less proficient and write a minimal amount. Research suggests that Writing assignments in California Treasures spell out a purpose for writing and students should be provide several reachable goals. These are set out in the writing prompt and provided with specific, described more specifically in a writing rubric. For example, Purpose: To write reachable goals for their a news article telling readers about a volcano that has erupted. writing tasks, including Writing prompt: Write a news story. Tell about a volcano you just saw erupt. both the purpose of the

16 ©Research Alignment for MM-H California Treasures Writing Component, June 17, 2008 Katylee Hoover, Senior Researcher writing assignment and characteristics of the final Rubric: product. Use descriptive words to tell how the volcano erupted. Describe what happened after it erupted. California Content Use sequence words such as first, next, and last. Standards Use periods at the end of sentences. English-Language Arts W 5.2.1 Third-Grade Example: In Unit 2, students respond to a Daily Writing Prompt Write narratives: A. each day. In Week 1, students prewrite, considering their purpose and audience; Establish a plot, point of draft using a checklist; organize, revise, proofread; and finally publish and view, setting, and conflict. present a persuasive paragraph. In Week 2, after reading nonfiction articles B. Show, rather than tell, about saving wildlife, such as “The Truth About Wolves,” by Paul Netcher, the events of the story. students write a wildlife protection poster to persuade others to think or act a LAS 5.1.2 certain way. Students state an opinion or judgment or take a position on a Interpret a speaker’s wildlife issue. They support their positions with facts, reasons, and examples verbal and nonverbal using specific words to capture the readers’ attention. Finally, students strongly messages, purposes, and recommend an action readers should take. They use a Writer’s Checklist to perspectives. evaluate their poster by concentrating on the six Good Writing Traits: ideas and content, organization, voice, word choice, sentence fluency, and conventions. During Week 3, when the theme is “Past, Present, and Future,” students write a personal narrative, a letter, an interview, an article synthesis, and a journal entry about that theme and the corresponding reading selections

California Treasures Fifth-Grade Example: TE, p. 131B. Writing Prompt: Think about a challenge you have faced. Then write a personal narrative about the challenge and how you faced it. Be sure to establish the plot, setting, and point of view, and show, rather than tell, the event. Use correct grammar, spelling, and punctuation.

California Treasures Fifth-Grade Example: TE, p. 131B. Follow the author’s progress as she develops a personal narrative. Use a cluster map to show how she writes about her own experience of overcoming a fear of heights.

Middle School Example: “Write with Style,” Seventh Grade. California Treasures Glencoe Literature, page 383. After reading Annie Dillard’s From An American Childhood, a memoir about growing up in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, students think of a memorable experience they had when they were younger. They write with a tone that reflects how they felt. They use a graphic organizer to map out their approach.

Goals that are provided for As shown in the examples above, goals that are provided for writing in the student writing should California Treasures program include both content-oriented goals and include both content- structural goals. oriented goals, such as adding more ideas during Writing prompts explain the purpose of writing assignments, including top- revision or writing a level content focus.

17 ©Research Alignment for MM-H California Treasures Writing Component, June 17, 2008 Katylee Hoover, Senior Researcher specific kind of paper, and goals related to the Draft and revision steps encourage students to add new ideas and details as they structure of the revise. composition. Writing Prompts describe the type of paper (genre) to write. Writer’s Checklists provide at least one item related to a specific structural California Content element of composition. For example, the rubric shown for writing a news story Standards includes the goal, “Use sequence words such as first, next, and last.” English-Language Arts Seventh-Grade Example: In Glencoe Literature on page 143, students are asked to write a blurb to answer the question, “What does ‘We Are All One’ W 1.2.1 say about life?” Write brief narratives describing an experience. During the drafting stage of the writing assignment, the program offers genre- LC 1.1.1 specific structural issues: e.g., a narrative story with a beginning, a middle, and an end; a persuasive essay with a well-defined idea in each paragraph. Write in complete sentences. Eighth-Grade Example: Glencoe Literature,p..152. Write a Short Essay—of two to three paragraphs analyzing “Zoya’s Story.” When you analyze, look at Writing Strategies: separate parts in order to understand the entire piece. The essay should show Students write clear, your own insight into and interpretation of the way in which the narrative coherent, and focused reflects heritage, traditions, attitudes, and beliefs—as well as the political essays. The writing situation she describes. Support the analysis and interpretations with references exhibits students’ to the text, to other authors, or to your personal knowledge. (A topic sentence is awareness of the audience provided.) and purpose. Essays contain formal California Treasures First-Grade Example: PE, p. 31B and 32/33. Writing: introductions, supporting Personal Narrative. Review the Model of the personal narrative. Revise Your evidence, and conclusions. Writing: Apply Grammar; Use the Checklist; Conference and Revise with a Partner.

California Treasures enables students to build upon academic information Writing assignments presented in the text selection. This engagement may occur at a variety of should challenge students levels, as appropriate for the focus of the specific writing assignment. Examples to engage with academic of specific writing prompts include the following: content at their current Write a news story. Tell about a fire you witnessed. literacy level. Write a letter. Describe what it is like to train for and run in a marathon. Write a magazine article. Tell why healthy eating is important. Write a flyer. Tell what can be done about a pollution problem in your community.

Texts that students read and use as starting points for writing assignments are matched to their current reading level. The program supports students during the writing assignment by providing a list of ideas, a list of vocabulary words they might use, and access to the related text selection students have already read. Writing instruction should California Treasures Upper Grades Example: Students are asked to write or include use of word type a final copy of their personal narratives on a computer. They are reminded

18 ©Research Alignment for MM-H California Treasures Writing Component, June 17, 2008 Katylee Hoover, Senior Researcher processors. to use appropriate spacing between words, sentences, and paragraphs, and to use standard margins. They are prompted to use electronic features such as spell English-Language Arts checks. California Content Standards California Treasures Learners with Special Needs: Instruction is modified so W 5.1.4 students have access to materials. Examples of modification include student use Create simple documents of computers to complete pencil-and-paper tasks, use of on-screen scanning by using electronic media keyboards, enlarged key boards, word prediction, and spellcheckers. (TE, Grade and employing 5, p. 131J.) organizational features. Middle School Example: Glencoe Literature, p. 129 (Grade 8). Writing and Research and Technology Research—For prewriting, drafting, and revising tools, go to glencoe.com and 1.6 Create documents by enter OuickPass code GL39770u1. using word-processing skills and publishing programs.

According to research, writing instruction on the Frequent opportunities to interact with the technology are provided through the computer should writing assignments. incorporate structured guidance, strategic California Treasures Fifth-Grade Example: Unit 1, p. 29. Digital Learning: instruction, and multiple Internet Research and Inquiry. Students can continue their unit research using interactions with the Research Toolkit on www.macmillanmh.com. technology.

California Treasures Upper Grades Example: Students create videotaped presentations of their narratives to show to the class. (TE, Unit 1, Grade 5, p. California Content 131E). Standards Also, p. 131I: Using Citations. Students must be able to cite URLs in their English-Language Arts writing to avoid plagiarism. Examples of correct URL citations are available to W 5.1.4 students. Create simple documents by using electronic media Computer literacy in California Treasures includes searching the Internet. and employing Students are instructed to open the Web browser and type in the URL of a organizational features. search engine. They write down possible key-word searches for pertinent topics and for help in creating documents (example on Grade 5 TE p. 131I). Computer literacy lessons for students are also available at www.macmillanmh.com.

Digital Learning for Students Approaching Grade Level: Use the Practice Reader Audio CD for fluency-building in small-group time. (Unit 1, p. 33P, Grade 5.)

California Treasures consistently prompts students to engage in prewriting activities for each writing assignment. Examples of specific activities include previewing the topic, identifying the audience, previewing the writing prompt,

19 ©Research Alignment for MM-H California Treasures Writing Component, June 17, 2008 Katylee Hoover, Senior Researcher

brainstorming, generating and organizing ideas, reviewing vocabulary words, previewing the rubric, reviewing the reading selection, and reviewing the Research suggests that selection. students should engage in prewriting During the planning step, students are prompted to brainstorm and jot down activities to help them ideas, based on information about the assignment (topic, purpose, audience, generate and organize suggested ideas, vocabulary words, and rubric). ideas for writing, such as: Suggestions for group planning are provided for the writing activity in individual Teacher’s Resource Book lesson plans. Example:  Group and “Before students write, have them brainstorm vivid adjectives that describe individual robots and strong verbs that show robots’ actions.” planning before writing In some cases, the lesson plans provide more specific suggestions for  Organizing organizing ideas prior to writing. Examples: prewriting ideas “Have students plan their letters by jotting down the beginning, the middle, and  Planning after a the end in a three-column chart.” demonstration “Before writing, have students fill in a two-column chart with problems and  Planning writing solutions related to their trip.” after reading related California Treasures Fifth-Grade Example: TE p. 131B. Prewrite: Set a materials Purpose; Know the Audience; Choose a Topic; Focus and Plan. (A transparency is provided for using a graphic organizer—concept map.)

Writing assignments are typically based on the text selection students have already read. In some cases, suggestions in the Teacher’s Resource Book lesson plans include an additional reading component prior to writing. Example: “Before writing, have students research, online or in books, animals they intend to write about.”

Middle Grades Example: Prewrite—Farman uses subheads to organize the article. These subheads can help you get started on your summary. Draw a six- column chart. Label each column with a subhead from the article. Then use your own words to list the most important ideas and details that appear under each subhead.

Draft—before you begin drafting, make an organizational plan. Remember that your paragraphs should include only the most important ideas and details. Then use a word-processing program to create your draft. Include transition words and phrases such as first of all, for example, and finally to show connections among ideas (p. 219).23

Brainstorm—as you brainstorm ideas, don’t judge them, just write them down. You can evaluate them later. (Glencoe Literature, Unit 1, p. 128, Course 3.)

Research suggests that California Treasures provides students and teachers with a link to The Writers’ students should be taught Express. The WEX Method TM provides a research-based sequence of skills the writing process, in a that guides students of all ability levels. For teachers, the method provides context of writing tasks specific lessons that lead to effective writing, as well as a system to collect and that are relevant for high diagnose student data. The method uses “writing as the entryway to reading.”24 school and beyond. In California Treasures, students use a four-part writing process: plan, draft, California Content revise, and publish. Students experience this process as they write in a variety Standards of genres they will be expected to use in high school and beyond, including English-Language Arts letters, newspaper articles, summaries, personal responses, journal entries, articles, stories, essays, and examples of narrative, expository, persuasive, and W 5.2.1.b; W 5.1.6; W descriptive prose. 5.1.0; W 5.3.4 Understand that theme refers to the meaning or California Treasures Fifth-Grade Examples: Unit 1, p. 131C. Write the Draft. moral of a selection and Students write an entertaining story about a personal experience. They include recognize themes in words that describe feelings. They use time-order words. Unit 1, p. S23. sample works. Establish Writing Habits: Students use proofreading marks that they will use in W 5.1.6 every grade. Edit and revise manuscripts in improve On-Demand Writing: Unit 1, p. S24. Read and analyze the prompt; plan your the meaning and focus of writing; write for the allotted time, staying focused; evaluate your writing. writing Unit 1, Week 5: Strong Paragraphs: Recognizing Relevant Textual Evidence to Develop Theme. Teach/Model theme and evidence.

(Additional support—Research-Proven Writing Approach: The Writers’ Express)

Using Rubrics, students read and score writing samples, pointing out shortfalls. California Treasures writing units include a 4-Point Narrative Writing Rubric as well as a Write-on-Demand Rubric for assessing short and extended responses.

Research indicates that California Treasures reading selections model the type of writing students are students should study expected to produce. models of good writing for the various types of California Treasures Fifth-Grade Example: Unit 1, p. 131C. Writer’s writing they are expected Resources: Use Primary Sources. Students use primary sources that document to produce. an event like the one they are writing about.

Middle School Example: Glencoe Literature, Unit 1, Course 3, page 128. Writing Plan  Choose an appropriate narrator and point of view.  Develop a plot that has exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and a resolution.

 Make the conflict part of every event in the plot and the basis of the theme.  Include sensory details to describe the setting and action.  Use dialogue and description to highlight similarities and differences among main and minor characters. “Research is clear on the importance of connecting reading and writing across Students should practice the curriculum.”—Reading at Risk: The State Response to the Crisis in writing to learn content Adolescent Literacy (NASBE, 2006, p. 18). material. California Treasures provides a “Workstation Flip Chart” for writing across the curriculum. The chart contains prompts and writing activities for small-group instruction in the core content areas. Each unit contains “Cross-Curricular Activities” that connect information in the core content areas with reading and writing. For example, in Third Grade, Unit 2, the reading selections are about wolves. Students connect the science of wolves with reading, research, and writing. Social studies is connected by responding to a magazine article about jobs that sled dogs do.

Research suggests that students should think of questions as they read, look for Students should write in the answers to their questions as they continue reading, and record the answers conjunction with reading. to their questions. They should make connections between the reading and their own lives.

California Content California Treasures Fifth-Grade Example: TE, Unit 1, p. 125C. Use Focus to Standards Write about Text. (Reading and Writing Connection) English-Language Arts TE, Unit 1, p. 125T. Self-Selected Reading. Students select a book from the “Theme Bibliography” on pages T8–T9. As they read, they record conclusions on a chart. After reading, they use their evidence to write a summary of the LAS 5.1.5 book. (On-grade-level students). Clarify and support spoken ideas with evidence and examples; Also, TE, Unit 1, p. 125X. Self-Selected Reading. Beyond-grade-level students apply skills to independent reading. Students share their summaries and W 5.2.2b comment on their reactions to a book. Write responses to literature. Support judgments through Eighth Grade Example: Glencoe Literature, Course 3, Unit 3, page 443. Write references to the text and a Book Review: be sure to explain what you found interesting, unusual, to prior knowledge. exciting, or even annoying in the book. Include specific examples and descriptive details to support your ideas. Written and Oral English Language Conventions: Middle School Students are given a “Writing Situation” and “Directions for Writing.” Glencoe Literature teaches students to keep specific guidelines in Students write and speak mind when they write to a prompt: with a command of Standard English  Focus on what the prompt tells you to write. conventions appropriate to  Organize the way you will present your ideas. the grade level.  Provide good, clear support for your ideas.  Use different kinds of sentence structures.

 Use precise words that express your ideas clearly.  Check your essay for mistakes in spelling, grammar, and punctuation.

Research suggests that students should have California Treasures provides students with experience writing in a variety of opportunities to develop forms and genres, including descriptive writing, letters, newspaper articles, proficiency in writing in a summaries, personal responses, journal entries, articles, stories, plays, speeches, variety of forms, genres, advertisements, cartoons, poetry, essays, narrative writing, expository writing, styles, and tones. and persuasive writing. The program helps guide students to develop proficiency in each of these types of writing. California Standards Writing Applications Understanding style, mood, and tone is taught as a reading skill. Students are Using the writing exposed to a variety of styles—such as formal, casual, academic, simple, and strategies of grade eight technical—and tones, such as serious, determined, angry, humorous, outlined in Writing adventurous, and romantic. Standard 1.0, students: 2.1 Write biographies, Eighth-Grade Example: Students focus on biography and autobiography in autobiographies, short Course 3 of Glencoe Literature. They use organizers to gather their thoughts. stories, or narratives. They plan the plot, setting, and the stated and implied themes and consider first- person and third-person point of view. Students also study the author’s perspective before attempting to write a biography or an autobiography.

California Treasures Elementary Examples: Students write journal entries expressing ironic situations. They organize the entries chronologically with a plot and precise details to make the writing fresh and interesting. They include dialogue.

Students are prompted to include tone as a literary device in their writing. Examples: Write a description. Use words that convey tone and mood to describe a place that you know. Write a letter. Tell a friend about someone in a sad situation who still shows humor and a positive attitude. As a prewriting activity, students write down ways humor can change the tone of a sad situation.

Research indicates that students should develop California Treasures provides K–8 students with many opportunities to practice the ability to adapt their adapting their writing for a broad range of contexts and purposes. Each writing for different assignment specifies a particular topic, audience, and purpose, and encourages contexts and purposes. students to write with those in mind.

The Dynamic Feedback System provides a continuous loop of formative Writing Assessment assessment on an individual basis. Problems are addressed as they arise in the Dynamic Feedback System normal course of a week in the classroom. Teachers do not have to wait for the Formative Loop results of a unit test before adjusting their instruction to meet the needs of

individual students. Using the curriculum’s practice-instruction-revision cycle Practice-instruction- enables teachers to work with all students—Approaching Grade Level, special revision cycle Education, EL, Beyond Grade Level—to pinpoint skills on levels of individual need. For example, a Beyond student may be working on developing clear character traits in a narrative while an Approaching student may continue to Focused on individual work on focused writing. needs California Treasures Fifth-Grade Example: Unit 1, p. S25. Conferences: Research suggests that Students meet each week with the teacher during Small Group time to review student writing should be their Writer’s Notebook pieces. The purpose of these conferences is to assessed on an ongoing determine the specific writing skills they need to work on to become better basis. Results of the writers. assessments should be used to evaluate student In each unit, students are given Revision Assignments to help them work with progress over time and one skill at a time until it is mastered. adjust instruction as appropriate. Each student text in Glencoe Literature has a Proofreading Checklist and Proofreading Symbols in an easily accessible form on the back cover. The Revisions Reference Section of each student text contains a Literary Terms Handbook and a Writing Handbook. The Writing Handbook contains a section on Proofreading Symbols Research Report Writing in a systematic format. It also has a sample exercise containing source cards and note cards, an outline, and other useful features Reference Section such as a thesis statement. There are instructions for documenting information, for using footnotes, and for avoiding plagiarism as well as an example of parenthetical documentation and a sample bibliography. Writing Handbook Another section of the Writing Handbook contains information on and examples of Using a Computer for Writing. It includes word-processing software, menus, toolbars, and rulers. There is useful information about multimedia presentations, slides, and video presentations. Databases with an applicable exercise make up the final section.

The Language Handbook is a valuable part of each student text. It contains a Grammar Glossary with a “Troubleshooter” that is helpful in recognizing and correcting common writing errors. The section on “Troublesome Words” helps students choose between words and expressions that are often confusing or Language Handbook misused. The final portion of the handbook is a handy reference on Mechanics including capitalization, punctuation, and abbreviations.

California Treasures writing units include a 4-Point Narrative Writing Rubric. Units also include a Write-on-Demand Rubric for assessing short and extended Rubrics responses.

Reproducible Anchor Papers in the Teacher’s Resource Book can be used to Anchor Papers evaluate student writing.

Concluding Remarks

According to Catherine Snow,25 almost everything children learn beyond fourth grade, they learn by reading and writing. Students who struggle with these skills are not able to demonstrate understanding to their teachers. Skills that children need to progress to fourth grade should begin to be cultivated when, as babies, they first begin to talk. Educators can begin to shrink the achievement gap by using a curriculum that teaches vocabulary in preschool and kindergarten. Based on her 15-year longitudinal study of language and literacy skills among low-income children, Dr. Snow stated the following:

[There is] purely token acknowledgement of the importance of vocabulary instruction in the elementary curricula, and that gets reflected in what the publishers provide. Until you get discussion and vocabulary into curriculum and assessment, they’re not going to happen in early childhood classrooms.26

This Writing Research Alignment with California Content Standards for English- Language Arts provides robust and convincing evidence of the importance of vocabulary instruction for reading, writing, listening, and speaking in the Macmillan/McGraw-Hill California Treasures reading curriculum for Grades K–5, and in the Glencoe Literature curriculum for middle grades.

Kindergarten is where the synergy begins. The components of reading, writing, and communicating are integrated into the overarching theme of every California Treasures unit. Instruction is based upon the development of a firm foundation of prior knowledge that enables students to build strong integrative language modalities. In Treasures and Glencoe Literature, carefully chosen reading selections are the basis for all literary components, and the integrated whole, with its increasingly complex spiral, presents strategies and skills that stand in the gap and make literacy for life attainable for all students.

End Notes —Writing: A Component of Literacy

26 1 Cynthia Brock, Writing Express.

2 National Writing Project. http://www.nwp.org

3 Nicki Nelson. The Writing Approach.

4 Original emphasis (boldface) from Writing Next was not retained for the text of bullets in this list.

5 Ayers, 1993; Baisch, 1990; Bauman, 1992; Bell & Bell, 1985; Boscolo & Mason, 2001; Davis, 1990; Dipillo, 1994; Hand, Hohenshell, & Prain, 2004; Johnson, 1991; Kasparek, 1993; Konopak, Martin, & Martin, 1990; Langer & Applebee, 1987 (listed twice, for two different studies, with two effect sizes and two distinct instructional approaches); Licata, 1993; Lodholz, 1980; Madden, 1992; Millican, 1994; Moynihan, 1994; Nieswandt, 1997; Reaves, 1991; Rivard, 1996; Shepard, 1992; Stewart, 1992; Willey, 1988 (listed twice, with the same instructional approach used with different grade levels and subject areas, and with different effect sizes); Wong et al., 2002. Nineteen studies included students at grade 6 or older. All studies included students representing a full range of writers found in typical classrooms. Effect sizes for individual studies ranged from -0.77 to 1.68. Seven studies had a negative effect size.

6 Alliance for Excellent Education, IssueBrief, June 2006.

7 The impact of writing instruction on learning to read. Reading World, 19, 357-368. 8 Ibid.

9 Closing the Achievement Gap with Older English Language Learners. ASCD Annual Conference (2008).

10 Wilhelm, J., 2008. Literacy by design: Why is all this technology so important? http://www.teachnet- lab.org/fklane/wilhelm.htm.

11 Anderson, 1997; Bryson & Scardamalia, 1996; Curry, 1997; De La Paz, 2005; De La Paz & Graham, 1997; De La Paz & Graham, 2002; Fitzgerald & Markham, 1987; Gamelin, 1996; Glaser, 2005; MacArthur, Schwartz, & Graham, 1991; Reynolds et al., 1988; Sawyer, Graham, & Harris, 1992; Scardamalia, Bereiter, & Steinbach, 1984; Simmons et al., 1994; Troia & Graham, 2002; Walser, 2000; Welch, 1992; Welch & Jensen, 1990; Wong et al., 1996; Yeh, 1998. Fifteen of the studies included students at grade 6 or older. Studies included students with a learning disability, low- achieving writers, and students representing a full range of writers found in typical classrooms. Effect sizes for individual studies ranged from 0.14 to 3.50.

12 Bean & Steenwyk, 1984; Chang, Sung, & Chen, 2002; Knight, 2003; Placke, 1987. Three of the studies included students at grade 6 or older. Studies included students with a learning disability, above-average writers, and students representing a full range of writers found in typical classrooms. Effect sizes for individual studies ranged from 0.18 to 1.12.

13 McKenzie, M. G. (1985). Shared writing: Apprenticeship in writing in language matters. London: Centre for Language in Primary Education. 14 Brothernton, S., & Williams, C. (2002). Interactive writing instruction in a first grade Title I literacy program, Journal of Reading Education, 27(3), 8-19. 15 Boscolo & Ascorti, 2004; Dailey, 1991; Hill, 1990; MacArthur, Schwartz, & Graham, 1991; Olson, 1990; Prater & Bermúdez, 1993; Yarrow, & Topping, 2001. Six of the studies included students at grade 6 or older. Studies included students with a learning disability, students with English as a second language, low-achieving writers, above-average writers, and students representing a full range of writers found in typical classrooms. Effect sizes for individual studies ranged from 0.19 to 1.18.

16 According to Writing Next, Yarrow & Topping (2001) had an effect size of 0.58 and focused on students in grades 5– 6 representing a full range of writers found in typical classrooms. In this study, “Peers helped each other draft, revise, and edit text after receiving training in a process for composing text versus individual composition after training in a process for composing text” (Graham & Perin, 2007, p. 48).

17 Ferretti, MacArthur, & Dowdy, 2000; Graham, MacArthur, & Schwartz, 1995; Page-Voth & Graham, 1999; Schunk & Swartz, 1993a; Schunk & Swartz, 1993b. Three of the studies included students at grade 6 or older. Studies included students with a learning disability and students representing a full range of writers found in typical classrooms. Effect sizes for individual studies ranged from 0.38 to 1.69. 18 Cheever, 1987; Cirello, 1986; Dalton & Hannafin, 1987; Dybdahl, Shaw, & Blahous, 1997; Espinoza, 1992; Hagler, 1993; Head, 2000; Jackiewicz, 1995; Lam & Pennington, 1995; Lerew, 1997; Lichtenstein, 1996; Lowther, Ross, & Morrison, 2003; Lytle, 1987; Miller, 1984; Moore, 1987; Philhower, 1985; Shinn, 1986; Silver & Repa, 1993. Fourteen of the studies included students at grade 6 or older. Studies included students with a learning disability, students with mild handicapping conditions, students with English as a second language, low-achieving writers, above-average writers, and students representing a full range of writers found in typical classrooms. Effect sizes for individual studies ranged from -0.18 to 1.74. Three of the studies had negative effect sizes.

19 Brodney, Reeves, & Kazelskis, 1999 (listed twice, with two effect sizes and two distinct instructional approaches); Loader, 1989; Reece & Cumming, 1996; Vinson, 1980. Two of the studies included students at grade 6 or older: one (Reece & Cumming, 1996) with students at grades 5–6, the other (Vinson, 1980) with students at grade 9. All studies included students representing a full range of writers found in typical classrooms. Effect sizes for individual studies ranged from 0.06 to 0.95, with an ES of 0.06 for Vinson (1980) and an ES of 0.61 for Reece & Cumming (1996).

20 Caplan & Keech, 1980; Knudson, 1989; Knudson, 1991; Reedy, 1964; Thibodeau, 1964; Vinson, 1980. All six studies included students at grade 6 or older. Studies included above-average writers and students representing a full range of writers found in typical classrooms. Effect sizes for individual studies ranged from -0.29 to 0.44. One study had a negative effect size.

21 Ayers, 1993; Baisch, 1990; Bauman, 1992; Bell & Bell, 1985; Boscolo & Mason, 2001; Davis, 1990; Dipillo, 1994; Hand, Hohenshell, & Prain, 2004; Johnson, 1991; Kasparek, 1993; Konopak, Martin, & Martin, 1990; Langer & Applebee, 1987 (listed twice, for two different studies, with two effect sizes and two distinct instructional approaches); Licata, 1993; Lodholz, 1980; Madden, 1992; Millican, 1994; Moynihan, 1994; Nieswandt, 1997; Reaves, 1991; Rivard, 1996; Shepard, 1992; Stewart, 1992; Willey, 1988 (listed twice, with the same instructional approach used with different grade levels and subject areas, and with different effect sizes); Wong et al., 2002. Nineteen studies included students at grade 6 or older. All studies included students representing a full range of writers found in typical classrooms. Effect sizes for individual studies ranged from -0.77 to 1.68. Seven studies had a negative effect size. 22 Scott, J. A. (2004). Scaffolding vocabulary learning: Ideas for equity in urban settings. In D. Lapp, C. C. Block, E. J. Cooper, J. Flood, N. Roser, & J. V. Tinajero (Eds.), Teaching all the children: Strategies for developing literacy in an urban setting (pp. 284-286). New York: The Guilford Press. 23 Glencoe Literature. Seventh Grade Student Text. 24 The WEX MethodTM http://www.wex.org/wexinnovation/wexmethod/ 25 Catherine Snow is the Henry Lee Shattuck Professor of Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. She is an expert on language and literacy development in children. Her research focuses on how students acquire oral language and how those skills determine educational outcomes. Her current research includes a 15-year longitudinal study of language and literacy skills among low-income children. 26 Interview with Catherine Snow in the Harvard Education Letter, From literacy to learning, July/August 2005.