Ch 30: Revolutions And National States In The Atlantic World
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Periodization 5 – 1750-1900 Modern Period Ch 17: Atlantic Revolutions and Their Echoes I. Popular sovereignty and political upheaval A. Enlightenment – Scientific Revolution put into practice for social issues; a belief in progress; a more secular outlook; faith in science 1. popular sovereignty: relocating power in the people a. Thomas Hobbes reaffirmed that a monarch should have absolute rule b. Enlightenment challenged this right, made the monarch responsible to the people c. John Locke's theory of contractual (social contract) government: authority comes from the consent of the governed 2. freedom and equality: important values of the Enlightenment a. Voltaire – individual freedom b. demands for freedom of worship and freedom of expression c. demands for political & legal equality; condemned legal/social privileges of aristocrats d. equality not extended to women, peasants, laborers, slaves, or people of color 3. government organization a. Montesquieu – checks and balances B. American Revolution – 1776-1783 1. 3 Key Principles for formation of the United States: a. – independence from Britain b. – federal government based on popular sovereignty (people vote) c. – 3 branches of government 2. tension between Britain and the North American colonies a. legacy of Seven Years' War/French & Indian War: British debt, N. Amer. tax burden b. British enact several tax acts (Stamp Act, Navigation Acts, Tea Act) c. mounting colonial protest over taxes, trade policies, Parliamentary rule 1. colonial boycott of British goods 2. attacks on British officials; Boston Tea Party, 1773 d. political protest over representation in Parliament: Continental Congress, 1774 e. British troops and colonial militia skirmished at the village of Lexington, 1775 f. Declaration of Independence, 4 July 1776 (written by Thomas Jefferson) g. British advantages: strong government, navy, army, plus loyalists in colonies h. American advantages: European allies, George Washington's leadership 3. British forces surrendered in 1781; Treaty of Paris ends war in 1783 4. Articles of Confederation – first constitution; federal government lacked power 5. Constitutional Convention, 1787 6. Bill of Rights guaranteed freedom of press, of speech, and of religion; influenced by: 7. U.S. was then a federalist state - a political system in which several states or regions defer some powers to a central government while retaining a limited measure of self-government (state and federal governments) C. French Revolution, 1789 (fundamental cause - political power/social privilege unfairly distributed) 1. financial crisis: half of government revenue went to national debt; King Louis XVI forced to summon Estates General to raise new taxes particularly on the Second Estate (nobles) 2. National Assembly formed by representatives of Third Estate, 17 June 1789 a. First and Second Estates (clergy, nobles = 2% of total population) tried to limit Third Estate (commoners) b. many liberals wanted sweeping political and social reform; demanded a written constitution and popular sovereignty c. angry mob seized the Bastille on 14 July, sparked insurrections in many cities d. National Assembly wrote the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen" e. "liberty, equality, and fraternity" was the slogan and values for the National Assembly f. the Assembly abolished the feudal system 3. The Convention replaced National Assembly and wrote a new constitution (1791) a. France became a constitutional monarchy b. Austrian and Prussian armies invaded France to help restore ancien régime c. Convention abolished the monarchy and proclaimed France a republic d. King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette executed, 1793
1 | P a g e e. radical Jacobins/Committee of Public Safety (led by Robespierre) dominated the Convention in 1793-94 in a "reign of terror" f. revolutionary changes: in religion, dress, calendar, women's rights 4. The Directory, 1795-1799 a. conservative reaction executed the Jacobin leader Robespierre, July 1794 b. appointed a 5 man committee to make decisions D. reign of Napoleon, 1799-1815 1. Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) a. organized laws into the Napoleonic Code/Civil Code of 1804 – political and legal equality for all French men b. restricted individual freedom, especially speech and press c. stabilized the economy d. created an equal opportunity public education system e. lost Haiti f. sold Louisiana 1. to raise money to control Europe = Empire 2. cut losses of expenses in America 3. increase American power over the British g. extended freedom of religion to Protestants and Jews 2. Napoleon's empire: 1804, proclaimed himself Emperor a. took over much of Europe; fought British on high seas b. disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812 destroyed Grand Army 3. fall of Napoleon a. forced by coalition of enemies to abdicate in 1814, exiled on Elba b. escaped, returned to France, raised army, but was defeated by British in 1815 4. Congress of Vienna, 1814-15 a. conservative leaders determined to restore old order after defeat of Napoleon b. succeeded in maintaining balance of power in Europe for a century II. The influence of revolution A. Haitian Revolution: the only successful slave revolt in history 1791-1804 1. Saint-Domingue, rich French colony on western Hispaniola produced 40% of the world’s sugar and 50% of its coffee a. widespread discontent: rich white settlers (grand blanc) sought self-governance b. slaves wanted freedom c. petit blancs (poor whites) and gens de couleur (free blacks)wanted equality d. 90 percent of population were slaves working under brutal conditions e. free blacks had fought in American war, brought back revolutionary ideas 2. Toussaint L’Ouverture (1744-1803) – led the Haitian Revolution a. son of slaves, literate, skilled organizer, built a strong and disciplined army b. controlled most of Saint-Domingue by 1797, created a constitution in 1801 c. arrested by French troops; died in jail, 1803 3. Republic of Haiti a. yellow fever ravaged French troops; defeated and driven out by slave armies b. declared independence in 1803; established the Republic of Haiti in 1804 c. redistributed land but shifted to subsistence farming (not commercial farms) 4. impact of the Haitian Revolution – inspired rebellions elsewhere in Latin America; caused French to abandon their main colony in the Americas (Louisiana) B. wars of independence in Latin America are generally led by Creoles; saw their chance to break free of Spain and Portugal because those 2 countries were under attack by Napoleon 1. Mexican independence – violent creation of a republic a. 1810: peasant revolt in Mexico led by Hidalgo, defeated by conservative creoles b. 1821: Mexico briefly a military dictatorship, then in 1822 a republic c. s. part of Mexico split into several indep. states (1830s) = Central American countries 2. Simon Bolivar led violent independence movement in South America (1824) a. Bolivar's effort of creating the Gran Colombia failed in 1830s 3. Brazilian independence – non-violent creation of a monarchy a. Portuguese royal court fled to Rio de Janeiro, 1807 b. king's son agreed to Brazilian independence, 1821 and became Emperor Pedro I
2 | P a g e 4. creole dominance in Latin America a. independence brought little social change in Latin America (certainly not any change for women) b. principal beneficiaries were Creole elites 5. runaway slaves created maroon societies that often led rebellions in Latin America; in Jamaica gained some independence 6. effects of the independence movements: more independence than freedom a. slavery still existed, peasants still worked on huge plantations; a middle class did not emerge and the Enlightenment ideas didn’t spread to populations other than the land- owning male class b. Catholic Church remained very powerful and protected the status quo (the Church was one of the largest landowners in Latin America) c. economies were still dependent on Europe (extraction-based economies); Latin American countries specialized in a few cash crops that were exported almost exclusively to Europe and then brought back finished goods—not much innovation; Chile diversified its economy and Brazil and Argentina instituted social reform and broadened their economies to include a growing middle class d. few traditions of self-government led to poor governance III. Isms A. conservatism - importance of continuity, tradition; resisted change B. liberalism - championed freedom, equality, democracy, written constitutions; felt that change was necessary for progress 1. nationalism – emphasized loyalty to a nation of people not to a king; quite often want their own country; based on: common history, culture, language and/or religion a. Enlightenment ideas of freedom and liberty b. migration lessened allegiance to a local community c. printing in a local language consolidated people into linguistic groups d. Examples 1. Cavour and Garibaldi united Italy by 1870 2. Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarck created a united Germany, 1871 3. Greek rebels overcame Ottoman rule in 1827 4. 1830 and 1848, rebellions in France, Spain, Portugal, and German states; conservatives usually regain power 5. zionism: Jewish nationalism to create a Jewish state in Palestine I. response to the anti-semitism in Europe created after Alfred Dreyfus is incorrectly accused of selling military secrets II. Jewish state of Israel finally created in 1948 2. feminism/women’s rights a. Enlightenment ideals and women 1. Enlightenment call for equality which was not generally extended to women 2. women used logic of Locke to argue for women's rights I. Mary Astell attacked male dominance in the family II. Mary Wollstonecraft “Vindication of the Rights of Women”, 1792 - women possessed same natural rights as men III. Elizabeth Cady Stanton at Seneca Falls Convention (New York) “Declaration of Sentiments”, 1848 b. women crucial to revolutionary activities 1. French revolution granted women rights of education and property, not the vote 2. Olympe de Gouges's “Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen”, 1791 declaration of full citizenship for women too radical 3. women made no significant gains in other revolutions: American, Haitian, or Latin c. women's rights movements gained ground in the 19th century in United States and Europe for: vote, education, anti-slavery, temperance (US and Britain votes for women – 1920s) 3. abolition movements: began in 1700s, gained momentum during revolutions a. movements to abolish slavery: more difficult because of property rights 3 | P a g e b. in Haiti and much of South America, end of slavery came with independence c. abolition in Britain in 1833, France in 1848, the United States in 1865, Brazil in 1888; abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861 d. abolition brought legal freedom for slaves but not political equality 4. capitalism (the ability of a private individual to own private property and try to make a profit) a. economic liberalism/free enterprise/laissez faire economics 1. Adam Smith and John Stuart Mill argued that the economy is governed by natural laws and if left to its own devices (no government interference) the economy will self-adjust 5. socialism (Marxism) a. Marx (1818-1883) and Engels (1820-1895), leading 19th century socialists were critical of industrial capitalism 1. unrestrained competition led to ruthless exploitation of working class 2. state, courts, police: were all tools of the capitalist ruling class b. Communist Manifesto, 1848 1. claimed excesses of capitalism would lead to communist revolution and a "Dictatorship of the proletariat" (workers) would destroy capitalism 2. socialism would follow = a fair, just, and egalitarian society 6. imperialism/colonialism – a policy of extending a nation’s powers and territory through diplomacy or military practice Ch. 18 – Industrial Revolution (Qualifies as a Marker Event because it crosses national or cultural borders and affects many civilizations; later changes in history must be at least partially traced to this event or series of events that began in Britain; Europe and North America become world powers I. Industrial Revolution A. causes: population growth leads to a demand for cloth and fuel B. Why Britain? 1. second agricultural revolution a. wealthy landowners began to enlarge their farms through enclosure or fencing or hedging large blocks of land (that had previously been public lands or the commons) = Enclosure Act i. effect – forced small farmers off the land and they moved to the cities b. improved crop rotation methods carefully controlled nutrients in the soil and abandoned the three-field system c. bred better livestock d. invented new machines: Jethro Tull’s seed drill—more effective than hand planting e. larger farms and better production meant that fewer farmers were needed i. became tenant farmers or moved to cities f. better nutrition boosted England’s population creating the first necessary component for the Industrial Revolution—labor 2. natural resources a. Britain had water power to fuel new machines, harbors for its merchant ships, and rivers for transportation b. deforestation caused wood shortages; used coal reserves in Britain c. Britain also had iron reserves 3. overseas colonies provided raw materials and markets a. created one-commodity or single natural resource countries (cotton, rubber, palm oil, sugar, wheat, meat, guano, metals and minerals, copper in Mexico, gold and diamonds in South Africa b. production leads to need to open up new markets like China and Japan 4. economic strength a. Britain had already built many of the economic practices and structures necessary for economic expansion, as well as a middle class (the bourgeoisie) that had experience with trading and manufacturing goods b. stock markets, gold standard, insurance, limited liability corporations 5. political stability and policies a. no major upheavals during this period; no wars took place on British soil (Napoleon did not invade) b. citizens did not seriously question the government’s authority
4 | P a g e c. by 1750, Parliament’s power far exceeded that of the king and its members passed laws that protected business and helped expansion d. religions toleration (1688) welcomed people with technical skills; whereas, the French persecuting Protestants causing many skilled workers to emigrate 6. Inventions – integration of science and technology a. demand for cheap cotton spurred mechanization of cotton industry i. John Kay invented the flying shuttle, 1733 ii. Samuel Crompton invented the spinning "mule," 1779 iii. Edmund Cartwright invented a water-driven power loom, 1785 b. James Watt's steam engine, 1765 – most important invention c. iron and steel also important industries, with continual refinement i. coke (purified coal) replaced charcoal as principal fuel ii. Bessemer converter (1856) made cheaper, stronger steel d. transportation improved with steam engines and improved steel i. George Stephenson invented the first steam-powered locomotive, 1815 (Impact – RR brought transportation to a new level) ii. steamships began to replace sailing ships in the mid-nineteenth century e. railroads, steamships, canals, lowered transportation costs f. telegraph sped up communication C. factory system 1. factory gradually replaced the putting-out system or cottage industry(raw materials were “put- out” to individual families; system could not keep up with demand a. factory system required division of labor; each worker performed a single task b. required a high degree of coordination, work discipline, and close supervision c. workers lost status; not skilled, just wage earners d. harsh work discipline, fast pace of work, frequent accidents 2. industrial protest a. Luddites struck against mills and destroyed machines, 1811 and 1816 b. 14 Luddites hung in 1813, and the movement died D. early spread of industrialization 1. industrialization in western Europe a. British industrial monopoly, 1750 to 1800, forbade immigration of skilled workers b. Napoleon abolished internal trade barriers in western Europe, dismantled guilds c. Belgium and France moved toward industrialization by mid-19th century d. after German unification, Bismarck sponsored heavy industry, arms, shipping 2. industrialization in North America slow to start, few laborers, little capital E. industrial capitalism 1. mass production provided cheaper goods a. Eli Whitney promoted mass production of interchangeable parts for firearms b. later (1913), Henry Ford introduced assembly line to automobile production 2. industrialization expensive; required large capital investment – formation of corporations 3. transnational corporations: United Fruit Co.; HSBC Hong Kong; Shanghai Banking Corp. 4. monopolies, trusts, and cartels: competitive associations a. vertical monopolies: Rockefeller's Standard Oil Co. b. horizontal monopolies (or cartel): IG Farben, world's largest chemical company 5. laissez-faire economics a. free-market economy b. government does not interfere c. economy is governed by natural laws and will self-adjust d. Adam Smith and John Stuart Mill – capitalism and classical liberalism II. industrial society A. effects of industrialization 1. population growth a. industrialization raised material standards of living: cheap goods/cash incomes b. populations of Europe and America rose sharply from 1700 to 1900 c. better diets and improved sanitation reduced death rate of adults and children 2. demographic transition: population change typical of industrialized countries a. declining birthrate; birth control through contraception
5 | P a g e B. urbanization and migration (migration from rural to urban and from LDCs to MDCs) 1. industrialization drew migrants from countryside to urban centers a. by 1900, 50 percent of population of industrialized countries lived in towns b. by 1900, more than 150 cities with over 100,000 people in Europe and North America c. urban problems: deforestation, shoddy houses, fouled air, inadequate water supply, population grew faster than housing supply d. by the late 19th century, governments passed building codes, built sewer systems 2. transcontinental migration: some workers sought opportunities abroad a. 1800-1920, 50 million Europeans migrated to North and South America b. Fled: famine in Ireland, anti-Semitism in Russia, problems elsewhere C. industry and society 1. aristocracy – retained social prestige; owned much of the land; quite often wealthy 2. new middle class created by industrialization benefitted more than any other section of society a. captains of industry: a new aristocracy of wealth b. middle class: managers, accountants, other professionals (some achieve top positions in society) 3. Working class - unskilled, poorly paid, vulnerable 4. dramatic changes for the industrial family a. sharp distinction between work and family life, worked long hours outside home b. family members led increasingly separate lives 5. men gained increased stature and responsibility in industrial age a. middle- and upper-class men were sole providers b. valued self-improvement, discipline, work ethic, and strict morals (“respectability”) c. imposed these values on working-class men i. workers often resisted work discipline ii. working-class culture: bars, sports, gambling, outlets away from work d. British Prime Minister, Disraeli, passes law (Reform Act of 1832) that gives all English men the vote; before, it was only owners of large pieces of property 6. opportunities for women narrowed by industrialization a. working women could not bring children to work in mines or factories b. middle-class women expected to care for home and children c. “cult of domesticity” defined the home and charitable activities as the proper sphere for women d. incr. opportunities for women to work in domestic service; middle class afford to pay 7. many children forced to work in industry to contribute to family support a. 1840s, Parliament began to regulate child labor b. 1881, primary education became mandatory in England 8. Living conditions a. overcrowded and smoky cities b. inadequate sanitation and water supplies c. few public services d. poorly built tenements D. Social Protests 1. “friendly societies” – formed to provide insurance, funerals, social activities; paid for by dues 2. trade unions – some violent, some seeking legal changes 3. utopian socialists: Charles Fourier, Robert Owen, and their followers a. established model communities based on principle of equality b. stressed cooperative control of industry, education for all children 4. Marxism/socialism – most radical of the 19th century “isms” 5. social reform came gradually, through legislative measures not a revolution of the workers a. Marx did not envision an intermediate social group that benefited from capitalism b. Labour Party, in England, worked toward a peaceful, democratic transition to socialism c. laws passed to regulated hours and restricted work for women and children d. standards of living rose e. under Bismarck, Germany provided medical insurance and social security f. women’s suffrage, 1920s g. trade unions were striking or lobbying
6 | P a g e III. Global effects of industrialization A. changes and continuities for Women 1. education, real wages, and professional opportunities continued to be mostly inaccessible 2. colonial countries had low literacy rates for both men and women; was not in the interest of the imperial powers to have a well-educated colonial populace B. continuing spread of industrialization 1. United States a. began with textile industry b. expanded with Civil War c. by 1900, a leading industrial power producing 36% of world’s manufactured goods (16% - Germany; 14% England; 6% France) d. 1/3 of capital investment in US came from Britain, France, and Germany e. government played an important role in expanding the IR in the US f. new ideas i. mass production ii. advertising led to “culture of consumption” iii. massive monopolies by industrialists (Ford, Carnegie, Rockefeller, etc.) g. no major socialist movement i. trade unions, like American Federation of Labor, focused on skilled laborers rather than radical unskilled laborers and did not align with a political party ii. religion, ethnic, and racial divisions kept people from uniting iii. standard of living was good compared to European workers iv. by 1910, white-collar workers outnumbered factory laborers v. valued individualism and feared “big government” h. protests against: banks, industrialists, monopolies, existing money system, both major political parties 2. Russia a. different from US i. absolutist rule with no political parties or parliament ii. society dominated by landowning, Westernized nobility iii. majority of population was serfs iv. change in US came from people through a democratic political system v. change in Russia came from the tsar only in an effort to catch up with Europe vi. even though factory workers only made up 5% of population, the working conditions and absence of any legal outlet radicalized b. industrialization in Russia promoted by tsarist (absolutist) government i. between 1860 and 1900, built 35,000 miles of railroads ii. by 1900, Russia produced half the world's oil, also significant iron and armaments 3. Latin America - independence came late and was destructive a. political instability i. conservatives & Catholics (owned ½ of productive land) wanted the status quo ii. liberals wanted Enlightenment reforms iii. caudillos arose as defenders of order and property b. export boom of agricultural products and raw materials c. business investment came from foreigners d. immigration from Europe (most to Brazil, Argentina and Spain) e. income gap: landowning upper class = 1% of pop.; middle class = 8% of pop. f. Industrial Revolution did not occur i. 90% of pop. Impoverished lower class = small market for manufactured goods ii. landowners had no incentive to industrialize iii. free trade g. Mexico: war and reform from 1821-1911 i. shifted from monarchy to republic to caudillo rule ii. la reforma: liberal movement in 1850s led by President Benito Juarez - granted universal male suffrage; limited power of priests and military iii. reforms strongly opposed by landowning elites
7 | P a g e 4. Japan a. industrialization in Japan also promoted by government b. hired thousands of foreign experts to establish modern industries c. created new industries; opened technical institutes and universities d. government-owned businesses then sold to private entrepreneurs (zaibatsu) e. Japan was the most industrialized land in Asia by 1900 C. industrialization increased demand for raw materials 1. non-industrialized societies became suppliers of raw materials: cotton from India, Egypt; rubber from Brazil, Malaya, and Congo River basin 2. foreign investors owned and controlled plantations and production 3. free-trade policy favored foreign products over domestic 4. world divided into producers and consumers; MDCs and LDCs Ch 32 from Bentley textbook: The Americas in the Age of Independence I. The building of American states A. United States: westward expansion and civil war 1. by 1820s all adult white men could vote and hold office 2. rapid westward expansion after the American Revolution a. Britain ceded all lands east of the Mississippi River to U.S. after the revolution b. 1803, U.S. purchased France's Louisiana Territory, west to the Rocky Mountains c. by 1840s, coast-to-coast expansion was claimed as the manifest destiny of the U.S. 3. conflict with indigenous peoples followed westward expansion 4. Mexican-American War, 1845-1848 a. Texas declared independence from Mexico in 1836; was annexed by U.S. in 1845 b. U.S.-Mexican conflict over the border ended with resounding U.S. victory c. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, U.S. purchased Texas, California, New Mexico 5. sectional conflict: north versus south over slavery a. 19th century cotton cultivation in the south was dependent on slave labor b. northern states did not want slavery expanded into new territories c. Abraham Lincoln elected president, 1860; publicly opposed to slavery 6. U.S. Civil War, 1861-1865 a. with Lincoln's election, 11 southern states seceded from the Union b. southerners believed their economy of cotton and slaves was self-sufficient c. northerners fought to preserve the Union as much as in opposition to slavery d. in 1863, Emancipation Proclamation – freed slaves in the states which had seceded e. by 1865, the industrial north defeated the agricultural south f. war ended slavery, enhanced authority of the federal government B. Canadian Dominion: independence without war 1. autonomy and division characterized Canadian history a. French Quebec taken by Britain after the Seven Years' War 2. War of 1812 unified Canada against U.S. invaders a. anti-U.S. sentiments created sense of unity among French and British Canadians b. 1830s, tensions between French citizens and growing English population c. 1840-1867, British authorities granted home rule to Canadians 3. Dominion of Canada created in 1867 a. a federal government with a governor-general acting as the British representative b. Britain retained jurisdiction over foreign affairs until 1931 4. transcontinental railroad completed, 1885 II. American economic development (Second Industrial Revolution focused on electricity, organic chemicals, petroleum, and automobile related industries) A. migration to the Americas 1. industrial migrants to United States and Canada a. in 1850s, 2.3 million Europeans migrated to the U.S., increased after that b. low cost of immigrant labor contributed to U.S. industrial expansion c. 1852-1875, 200,000 Chinese migrated to California to work in mines and railroads d. because of the potato famine in Ireland, most Irish immigrants went to the U.S. 2. Latin American immigrants mostly worked on agricultural plantations (Italians and Asians) B. economic expansion in the United States 1. British capital crucial for early development of U.S. industries (textiles, iron, steel, and RR)
8 | P a g e 2. railroads integrated national economy by late 19th century a. 200,000 miles of railroad in United States by 1900, coast to coast b. economic stimulus: 75 percent of steel went to railroads, supported other industries 3. railroads changed American landscape and timetables; set time zones by 1880s 4. dramatic economic growth between 1870 and 1900 a. new inventions and technologies: electric lights, telephones, and so on b. labor conflicts over wages and working conditions: big business usually won 5. U.S. became an imperialist a. Spanish America War, 1898: Cuba, Puerto Rico, Philippines, Guam C. Canadian prosperity 1. wanted to attract migrants and British capital but to protect Canadian industries 2. construction of Canadian Pacific Railroad opened the west to settlement 3. boom in agricultural and industrial production late 19th and early 20th centuries 4. heavy U.S. investment in Canada; owned 30% of Canadian industry by 1918 III. American culture and social diversity A. multicultural society in the United States 1. by late 19th century, U.S. was a multicultural society dominated by white elites 2. Native Americans had been pushed onto reservations a. Dawes Act, 1887: encouraged natives to take up farming, often on marginal land b. slaughter of buffalo threatened plains Indians' survival c. children sent to boarding schools, lost native language and traditions 3. freed slaves often denied civil rights a. northern armies forced the south to undergo Reconstruction (1867-68) = reforms b. after Reconstruction, a violent backlash overturned reforms = Black Codes/Jim Crow Laws (South rigidly segregated; blacks denied opportunities, political rights) 4. American women's movement had limited success in 19th century a. "Declaration of Sentiments" issued by American feminists in 1848 at Seneca Falls Conference (Elizabeth Cady Stanton) - sought education, employment, political rights 5. immigration leads to problems: 25 million Europeans to America from 1840-1914 a. hostile reaction to foreigners from "native-born" Americans b. newcomers concentrated in districts like Little Italy and Chinatown c. antagonism to Asians led to legal exclusion of Chinese and Japanese migrants (Chinese Exclusion Act) d. Protestants hostile to Catholic immigrants B. Canadian cultural contrasts 1. ethnic diversity beyond dominant British and French populations a. significant minority of indigenous people displaced by whites b. Blacks free after 1833 but not equal c. Chinese migrants came to goldfields of British Columbia, worked on railroad d. late 19th and early 20thcentury, waves of European migrants e. expansion into Northwest Territories increased British and French conflicts 2. Northwest Rebellion by the métis, descendents of French traders and native women, a conflict between natives, métis, and white settlers in west, 1870s and 1880s 3. French Canadians suspicious of British elites after Northwest Rebellion Ch 19: Internal Troubles, External Threats I. Ottoman empire, Russia, China, and Japan A. common problems 1. military weakness, vulnerability to foreign threats (European or American imperialism) 2. internal weakness due to economic problems and corruption B. reform efforts - attempts at political/educational reform and industrialization--turned to western models C. different results of reforms 1. Ottoman empire, Russia, and China unsuccessful; societies on the verge of collapse 2. reform in Japan was more thorough; Japan emerged as an industrial power II. External Threats from Europe A. demand for raw materials for factories in Europe/US B. need for markets – people to buy Europe/US manufactured goods C. capital to invest - more profitable abroad
9 | P a g e D. nationalism - competition between European countries led to struggle for colonies and ways to make money E. new technology made it easier for Europe to conquer territories (steam power, telegraph, quinine, breech-loading rifles and machine guns) F. Europeans as superior to all other ethnicities (superior vs. inferior) 1. social Darwinism - “survival of the fittest” III. Chinese empire under siege (the Qing and Ottoman Empires resisted change and attempted to maintain pre- industrial forms of production) A. Internal threats 1. population increase by 50% was not accompanied by an industrial revolution; and food production did not keep up 2. bureaucracy did not expand to maintain control; central state lost power 3. rebellions, banditry, corruption in government 4. opposition to Qing because they were foreigners (Manchurian) 5. overtaxation – gentry avoided paying taxes; peasants ended up paying high rents B. Taiping rebellion - four major rebellions in 1850s and 1860s; the most dangerous was the Taiping 1. local militias formed and gained power to fight bandits and settle disputes 2. secret societies formed to assist and protect peasants 3. Taiping ("Great Peace") program proposed by Hong Xiuquan (a semi-Christian prophet) (religion/millenarianism - claim that the current society and its rulers are corrupt, unjust, or wrong and that they will be destroyed by a powerful force, such as, disaster or battle) a. called for end of Qing dynasty; resented Manchu rule b. radical social change: no private property, footbinding, concubinage 4. Taiping defeated in 1864 by combined Qing and foreign troops, as well as, landowners that feared radical change (20-30 million dead) C. Opium War and the unequal treaties 1. Opium trade a serious threat to Qing/Manchurian dynasty by 19th century a. Chinese cohong system restricted foreign merchants to one port city, Guangzhou b. China had much to offer, but little demand for European products (British trade deficit = imbalance of trade) c. East India Company cultivated opium to exchange for Chinese goods; @40,000 chests of opium shipped to China yearly by 1838 (smuggled into China) 2. Opium War (1839-1842) a. Commissioner Lin Zexu directed to stop opium trade; destroyed 20,000 chests of opium b. British retaliated, easily crushed Chinese forces, blocked Grand Canal 3. Effect of the Opium War - unequal treaties forced trade concessions from Qing dynasty a. Treaty of Nanjing, 1842: Britain gained right to opium trade, most-favored-nation status, Hong Kong, open trade ports, exemptions from Chinese laws b. similar unequal treaties made with other western countries and Japan c. by 1900, China lost control of economy, 90 ports to foreign powers = “spheres of influence” d. Chinese businessmen mostly served foreign firms, rather than creating an IR D. responses to rebellions (state-sponsored ideas about industrialization) 1. “self-strengthening” movement (1860-1895) a. in response to rebellions, the state sponsored ideas about industrialization b. sought to blend Chinese cultural traditions with European industrial technology c. built shipyards, railroads, weapon industries, steel foundries, academies d. not enough industry to make a significant change 2. Hundred-days Reforms (1898) failed a. 2 Confucian scholars advised radical changes in imperial system b. young emperor Guangxu inspired to launch wide-range reforms c. movement crushed by Cixi and supporters; emperor imprisoned; reformers killed 3. Boxer rebellion (the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists), 1899-1900 a. local militia attacked foreigners, Chinese Christians b. crushed by European and Japanese troops c. collapse of Qing dynasty in 1912 d. Western ideas motivated younger Chinese men, intent on reform, to seize control
10 | P a g e IV. Ottoman empire in decline “Sick Man of Europe” A. nature of decline 1. military decline since the late 17th century a. Ottoman forces behind European armies in strategy, tactics, weaponry, training b. janissary corps politically corrupt, undisciplined c. provincial governors gained power, private armies 2. extensive territorial losses in 19th century a. lost Caucasus and central Asia to Russia; western frontiers to Austria; Balkan provinces to Greece and Serbia b. Egypt gained autonomy after Napoleon's failed campaign in 1798 3. economic difficulties began in 17th century (resist industrialization) a. less trade through empire as Europeans shifted to the Atlantic Ocean basin b. exported raw materials, imported European manufactured goods c. heavily depended on foreign loans, half of the revenues paid to loan interest d. foreigners began to administer the debts of the Ottoman state by 1882 4. "capitulations": European domination of Ottoman economy a. extraterritoriality: Europeans exempt from Ottoman law within the empire b. could operate tax-free, levy their own duties in Ottoman ports c. deprived empire of desperately needed income B. reform and reorganization 1. Tanzimat reform ("reorganization") era (1839-1876) a. ruling class sought sweeping restructuring to strengthen state and avoid rebellions b. factories built c. broad legal reforms, modeled after Napoleon's civic code d. state reform of education (1846), free and compulsory primary education (1869) e. undermined authority of the ulama, enhanced the state authority 2. opposition to Tanzimat reforms a. religious conservatives critical of attack on Islamic law and tradition b. legal equality for minorities resented by some, even a few minority leaders c. young Ottomans wanted more reform: freedom, autonomy, decentralization d. high-level bureaucrats wanted more power, checks on the sultan's power C. Young Turk era 1. cycles of reform and repression a. 1876, coup staged by bureaucrats who demanded a constitutional government b. new sultan Abd al-Hamid II (1876-1909) proved an autocrat: suspended constitution, dissolved parliament, and punished liberals c. reformed army and administration: became source of the new opposition 2. Young Turks, after 1889, an active body of opposition a. called for universal suffrage, equality, freedom, secularization, women's rights (western ideals) b. forced Abd al-Hamid to restore constitution, dethroned him (1909) c. nationalistic: favored Turkish dominance within empire, led to Arab resistance d. empire survived only because of distrust among European powers V. Transformation of Japan A. Tokugawa Japan 1. shogun ruled the country from Edo with Emperor as a figurehead in Kyoto 2. alternate attendance for daimyos 3. samurai become the bureaucracy 4. agricultural advancements = increased food production 5. rural manufacturing 6. most urbanized country in the world; Edo world’s largest city 7. social classes: daimyo, samurai, peasant, artisan, merchant B. from Tokugawa to Meiji 1. crisis and reform in early nineteenth century a. crisis: crop failure, high taxes, rising rice prices all led to protests and rebellions b. Tokugawa bakufu tried conservative reforms, met with resistance 2. foreign pressure for Japan to reverse long-standing closed door policy a. 1844 requests by British, French, and United States for the right of entry rebuffed
11 | P a g e b. 1853, U.S. Commodore Perry sailed U.S. fleet to Tokyo Bay, demanded entry c. Japan, knowing what had happened to China, accepted unequal treaties with US and other western countries 3. Meiji restoration, 1868 a. widespread opposition to shogun rule, especially in provinces = civil war b. dissidents rallied around emperor in Kyoto c. after brief civil war, Tokugawa armies defeated by dissident militia d. boy emperor Mutsuhito, or Meiji, regained authority e. end of almost seven centuries of military rule in Japan C. Meiji reforms – political power was centralized and emperor’s authority restored 1. Meiji government welcomed foreign expertise a. Fukuzawa Yukichi studied western constitutions and education b. Ito Hirobumi helped build Japanese constitutional government 2. abolition of the feudal order by feudal lords a. daimyo and samurai lost status and privileges b. districts reorganized to break up old feudal domains c. new conscript army ended power of samurai; rebelled in 1877 but lost d. many elites found a place in the new regime in the new army, bureaucracy, or in business 3. revamping tax system a. converted grain taxes to a fixed money tax: more reliable income for state b. assessed taxes on potential productivity of arable land 4. constitutional government with a legislature, the emperor's "gift" to the people in 1889 a. emperor remained supreme, but in reality an oligarchy ran the country b. limited the rights of the people; less than 5% of adult males could vote 5. remodeling the economy and infrastructure (state-sponsored ideas) a. transportation: railroads, telegraph, steamships b. education: universal primary and secondary; competitive universities c. industry: privately owned, government controlled arms industry d. zaibatsu: powerful financial cliques e. Japanese government very involved in the economy (even today) )British = laissez faire) 6. costs of economic development borne by Japanese people not by borrowing money a. peasant uprisings crushed; little done to alleviate suffering b. labor movement also crushed; Meiji law treated unions and strikes as criminal 7. Japan became an industrial power in a single generation 8. Japan became in imperialist because of need for raw materials VI. Russian empire under pressure A. Background 1. Peter the Great (17th C.) tried to westernize Russia 2. Catherine the Great (18th c.) continued the trend of westernizing; really remained an absolute monarch 3. Russia retained its reputation as a world power, especially after defeating Napoleon in 1812 4. absolute tsarist system, feudalism, and agriculturally based; doesn’t change until 20th century B. military defeat and social reform 1. Crimean War (1853-1856) a. 19th century Russia extended from Manchuria to the Baltic Sea b. sought access to Mediterranean Sea by attacking Ottomans who controlled the Crimean Peninsula c. European coalition supported Ottomans against Russia in Crimea d. crushing defeat forced tsars to take radical steps to modernize army, industry 2. emancipation of serfs in 1861 by Alexander II a. serfs gained right to land, but no political rights; had to pay a redemption tax b. emancipation did not increase agricultural production 3. political and legal reforms followed a. 1864, creation of zemstvos, local assemblies with representatives from all classes b. A weak system: nobles dominated, tsar held veto power c. legal reform more successful: juries, independent judges, professional attorneys
12 | P a g e C. industrialization (state/political ideas) 1. Witte system: developed by Sergei Witte, minister of finance, 1892-1903 a. railway construction stimulated other industries; trans-Siberian railway b. remodeled the state bank, protected infant industries, secured foreign loans c. top-down industrialization effective; steel, coal, and oil industries grew 2. industrial discontent intensified a. rapid industrialization fell hardest on working classes b. government outlawed unions, strikes; workers increasingly radical c. business class supported autocracy, not reform D. repression and revolution 1. cycles of protest and repression a. peasants landless, no political power, frustrated by lack of meaningful reform b. anti-government protest and revolutionary activity increased in 1870s c. intelligentsia advocated socialism and anarchism, recruited in countryside d. repression by tsarist authorities: secret police, censorship e. Russification: sparked ethnic nationalism, attacks on Jews tolerated 2. terrorism emerges as a tool of opposition a. Alexander II, the reforming tsar, assassinated by a bomb in 1881 b. Nicholas II (1894-1917), more oppressive, conservative ruler Ch 20: Colonial Encounters I. Second Phase of European Colonization/Imperialism A. focus on Asia and Africa B. new imperialists: Germany, Italy, Belgium, US, Japan C. fewer demographic implications (except Australia and New Zealand) II. motives of imperialism A. modern imperialism 1. refers to domination of industrialized countries over subject lands through trade, investment, business activities, and superior technology B. two types of modern colonialism 1. colonies ruled and populated by migrants (settler colonies = Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa) 2. colonies controlled by imperial powers without significant settlement C. economic motives of imperialism (competition - British and French in China with Opium Wars; British and US in Latin America) 1. European merchants and entrepreneurs made personal fortunes 2. overseas expansion for raw materials: rubber, tin, copper, petroleum 3. colonies were potential markets for industrial products D. political motives 1. strategic purpose: harbors and supply stations for industrial nations 2. overseas expansion used to defuse internal tensions E. cultural justifications of imperialism 1. Christian missionaries sought converts in Africa and Asia 2. "civilizing mission" or "white man's burden" was a justification for expansion F. late 1800s, imperialism shifts to Africa G. tools of empire – technology made colonization cost-effective 1. transportation technologies – made transportation of raw materials cost-effective a. steam-powered gunboats reached inland waters of Africa and Asia b. railroads organized local economies to serve imperial power 2. Western military technologies increasingly powerful a. firearms: from muskets to rifles to machines guns b. in Battle of Omdurman 1898, British troops killed 11,000 Sudanese in five hours 3. communication technologies linked imperial lands with colonies a. oceangoing steamships cut travel time from Britain to India from years to weeks b. telegraph invented in 1830s, global reach by 1900 III. European imperialism A. Great Britain had the world’s largest empire (“sun never sets”) B. British empire in India – “jewel in the crown” – most valuable of the British colonies 1. company rule under the English East India Company
13 | P a g e a. EIC took advantage of Mughal decline in India, began conquest of India in 1750s b. built trading cities and forts at Calcutta, Madras, Bombay c. ruled domains with small British force and Indian troops called sepoys d. effect of Indian Rebellion/Sepoy mutiny of 1857-58 was direct British rule over India 2. British imperial rule replaced the EIC, 1858 a. British viceroy and high-level British civil service ruled India b. British officials appointed a viceroy and formulated all domestic and foreign policy c. Indians held low-level bureaucratic positions 3. economic restructuring of India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) a. industrialization led to greater British control – need for cotton b. introduction of commercial crops: tea in Ceylon, also coffee and opium c. built railroads and telegraph lines, new canals, harbors, and irrigation methods 4. British rule did not interfere with Indian culture or Hindu religion a. established English-style schools for Indian elites b. outlawed Indian customs considered offensive, such as the sati 5. Spanish and Portuguese empires declined C. imperialism in central Asia and southeast Asia 1. "The Great Game" refers to competition between Britain and Russia in central Asia a. by 1860s, Russian expansion reached northern frontiers of British India b. Russian and British explorers mapped, scouted, but never colonized Afghanistan 2. Dutch East India Company held tight control of Indonesia (Dutch East India) 3. British colonies in southeast Asia a. established colonial authority in Burma, 1880s b. port of Singapore founded 1824; was base for conquest of Malaysia, 1870s 4. French Indochina created, 1859-1893 a. consisted of Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos--former tribute states of Qing dynasty b. French encouraged conversion to Christianity, established western-style schools 5. Kingdom of Siam (Thailand) left in place as buffer between Burma and Indochina D. “The Scramble for Africa” 1. between 1875 and 1900, European powers seized almost the entire continent a. early explorers charted the waters, gathered information on resources b. missionaries like David Livingstone set up mission posts c. Henry Stanley sent by Leopold II of Belgium to create colony in Congo, 1870s d. to protect their investments and Suez Canal, Britain occupied Egypt, 1882 i. linked Indian Ocean and Red Sea to the Mediterranean = cheap shipping ii. increased demand for more steamships 2. South Africa settled first by Dutch farmers (Afrikaners) in 17th century a. by 1800, was a European settler colony with enslaved black African population b. British-Dutch tensions led to Great Trek of Afrikaners inland to claim new lands c. discovery of gold and diamonds in Afrikaner lands; influx of British settlers d. Boer War, 1899-1902: British defeated Afrikaners, Union of South Africa 3. Berlin Conference, 1884-1885 a. European powers set rules for carving Africa into colonies to avoid war b. by 1900 all of Africa, except Ethiopia and Liberia, was controlled by European powers 4. colonial rule challenging and expensive a. "concessionary companies": granted considerable authority to private companies i. empowered to build plantations, mines, railroads ii. made use of forced labor and taxation, as in Belgian Congo iii. unprofitable, often replaced by more direct rule b. direct rule: replacing local rulers with Europeans--French model i. hard to find enough European personnel c. indirect rule: control over subjects through local institutions--British model i. worked best in African societies that were highly organized ii. assumed firm tribal boundaries where often none existed 5. issues in gaining control a. Britain in Nigeria – in areas where there was no existing formal states structure, it required village-by-village conquest b. British in Buganda - locals saw benefit to British rule
14 | P a g e c. Belgian Congo – King Leopold authorized the collection of ivory and then rubber; many abuses and terrorizing of the Congolese E. European imperialism in the Pacific 1. settler colonies in the Pacific a. 1770, Captain James Cook reached Australia, reported it suitable for settlement b. Australia, established as a penal colony; Britain’s prisons overcrowded c. 1851, gold discovered; surge of European migration to Australia d. fertile soil and timber of New Zealand attracted European settlers e. Europeans diseases dramatically reduced aboriginal populations f. large settler societies forced indigenous peoples onto marginal lands 2. imperialists in paradise (“noble savage”): delayed colonization of Pacific Islands until late 19th a. early visitors to the Pacific were mostly whalers, merchants, some missionaries b. late nineteenth century, European states sought coaling stations and naval ports c. by 1900, all islands but Tonga claimed by France, Britain, Germany and US d. island plantations produced sugarcane, copra, guano IV. emergence of new imperial powers A. U.S. imperialism in Latin America and the Pacific 1. Monroe Doctrine, 1823: proclamation by U.S. president James Monroe a. opposed European imperialism in the Americas; justified U.S. intervention b. United States purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867 c. Hawaii became a protectorate in 1875, formally annexed in 1898 2. Spanish-American War (1898-99) a. United States defeated Spain and took over Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, Philippines b. 1902-1904, bitter civil war killed 200,000 Filipinos, ended in U.S. victory 3. Panama Canal, 1903-1914 a. Colombian government refused U.S. request to build canal at Panama isthmus b. US helped rebels establish the state of Panama for the right to build a canal c. completed in 1914; gave United States access to Atlantic and Pacific B. imperial Japan a. early Japanese expansion in nearby islands: Hokkaido, Kurile, Okinawa and Ryukyu 2. Meiji government bought British warships, built up navy, established military academies a. 1876, imposed unequal treaties on Korea at gunpoint b. made plans to invade China 3. Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) a. rebellion in Korea: Chinese army sent to restore order, reassert authority b. Meiji leaders declared war against China, demolished Chinese fleet c. China forced to cede Korea, Taiwan, Pescadores Islands, Liaodong peninsula 4. Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) a. Russia also had territorial ambitions in Liaodong peninsula, Korea, Manchuria b. Japanese navy destroyed local Russian forces; Baltic fleet sent as reinforcements c. Japan became a major imperial power V. legacies of imperialism A. empire and economy: two patterns of changes 1. colonial rule transformed traditional production of crops and commodities a. Indian cotton grown to serve British textile industry b. inexpensive imported textiles undermined Indian production 2. new crops transformed landscape and society a. Rain forests of Ceylon converted to tea plantations b. Rubber plantations transformed Malaya and Sumatra B. labor migrations 1. European migration a. 50 million Europeans migrated 1800-1914, over half to the United States b. other settler colonies in Canada, Argentina, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa c. most European migrants became cultivators, herders, or skilled laborers 2. indentured labor migration more typical from Asia, Africa, and Pacific islands a. about 2.5 million indentured laborers globally during 1820-1914 b. indentured migrants tended to work on tropical and subtropical plantations c. example: Indian laborers to Pacific island and Caribbean plantations
15 | P a g e d. Japanese laborers to Hawaiian sugar plantations 3. large-scale migrations reflected global influence of imperialism C. empire and society 1. colonial conflict not uncommon in 19th century a. in India, numerous insurrections, such as the Indian Revolt/Sepoy Rebellion of 1857 b. 1905, Maji Maji rebellion e. Africa thought traditional magic would defeat the Germans c. resistance included boycotts, political parties, anti-colonial publications d. disparate groups united under colonial rule 2. "scientific racism" popular in nineteenth century a. race became the measure of human potential; Europeans considered superior b. Gobineau divided humanity into four main racial groups, each with peculiar traits c. social Darwinism: "survival of fittest" used to justify European domination 3. colonial experience only reinforced popular racism a. assumed moral superiority of Europeans b. racist views in U.S. treatment of Filipinos, Japanese treatment of Koreans D. nationalism and anti-colonial movement (many of the leaders were European educated elites) 1. Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833), "father of modern India" a. sought an Indian society based on European science and traditional Hinduism b. used press to mobilize educated Hindus and advance reform 2. Indian National Congress, founded 1885 a. educated Indians met, with British approval, to discuss public affairs b. Congress aired grievances about colonial rule, sought Indian self-rule c. 1906, All-India Muslim League formed to advance interests of Indian Muslims 3. limited reform, 1909; wealthy Indians could elect representatives to local councils a. Indian nationalism a powerful movement, achieved independence in 1947 b. India served as a model for anti-colonial campaigns in other lands c. Ghandi was a major leader for independence for India; utilized non-violent/passive resistance Period 5 Generic Review How can you describe the political philosophy during the Enlightenment? What caused the American Revolution? What caused the French Revolution? In what ways did the peace conference at Vienna affect France? Define: liberals Define: radicals Define: conservatives Define: socialists Why was Great Britain a perfect place to start the Industrial Revolution? How did the Industrial Revolution bring about economic change in the “industrialized nations”? What did Western governments encourage during the Industrial Revolution? In what ways did peasants benefit from the Industrial Revolution? What was the political philosophy of Karl Marx? In the later 19th century, how were science and the arts linked? How and why did Europe expand during the pre-Industrial era? How did Europe carve up land in Asia? How did the Dutch East India Company interact with the natives on the island of Java? Why was India the most valuable asset in the British Empire? Before 1850, how did indigenous peoples and Europeans interact? In what ways did military technology help Europeans in Asia and Africa? Define: tropical dependencies What did colonizers do to boost productivity in the late 19th century? What separated the countries of Canada and Australia from the Boer colony of South Africa? What did the West and Latin America have in common in the 19th century? How was Latin America affected when Haiti became independent? How did Europe affect the independence movement in Latin America? What caused Brazil to achieve independence? How was the Roman Catholic Church affected by the Industrial Revolution? What was the political atmosphere in Latin America around 1850? Why was 1820-1850 such a ‘backwards’ time for Latin America economically? Define: United Provinces of the Rio De La Plata Define: Juan Manuel De Rosas What rights did women have in post-independence Latin America? 16 | P a g e How were slave status and skin color related after the 1880’s? What are some modernization and westernization beliefs? Define: dependency theory From 1880-1920, what was the economic conditions in Latin America? From 1880-1920, what role did Argentina play in Latin America? What were some economic policies during the Diaz government in Mexico? What were some strengths of the Ottoman Empire in the 18th century? How can the Ottoman Empire be described during the 1870’s? How did Sultan Selim III change the Ottoman Empire? How did Sultan Abdul Harrid Westernize the Ottoman Empire? What changes were made in the Ottoman Empire after 1908? Why did Muhammad Ali unable to take control of the Ottoman Empire? How did Muhammad Ali take over the Sudanic group battling Egypt? How did the Manchu government view civil service exams? How did the Manchu government view modernization? How did the Manchu government view the scholar gentry? What type of strong reforms did the Manchu implement? How was China affected by the Opium trade sponsored by the British? What were the results of the Opium War? What were some major political differences between Japan and Russia? How did industrialization affect Japan and Russia before 1914? Why was Russia not involved during the revolutions of 1830 and 1848? How would you describe Russia’s territorial expansion? How advanced was the Russian economy at the beginning of the 19th century? Why did the West win the Crimean War? In what ways was serfdom reformed? How can the emancipation of the Russian serfs best be described? 1860’s and 1870’s Russia saw which type of reforms? What did Russia do first to industrialize? How would you describe the capitalization of the Russia’s industry? How was Russia progressing economically through industrialization at the turn of the 20th century? What components did Russia have as they were industrializing? What factors were leading to social unrest in Russia from 1850-1900? Define: intelligentsia Define: Russian Marxism Which group was the imperial government of Russia trying to ally themselves with in 1905? How were the countries of eastern Europe affected by Russian developments? How did Tokugawa Shogunate change the intellectual and cultural life in Japan? How did the Japanese and Russian governments contrast by 1914? In what ways can you compare Russian and Japanese industrialization? How did industrialization affect Japan before WWI? What cultural items did Japan reject from the West?
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