Foster Parent Satisfaction: Differences by Gender

“Foster Parent Satisfaction: Differences by Gender”

Monika J. Ulrich1 Department of Sociology University of Arizona

Monika J. Ulrich, M.A. Department of Sociology 400 Social Science Bldg. PO Box 210027 University of Arizona Tucson, AZ 85721

1 Working Paper: Please do not cite this paper without written permission by the author [email protected]

2 Abstract

In this study, I examine the different mechanisms that lead to satisfaction with foster parenting for men and women. I use a dataset of foster parents in Ohio in 1993 and analyze the data using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). I find that men are more influenced by feelings of efficacy and possibly experience, whereas women are more influenced by the social worker and feelings of competence. These different mechanisms imply different role identification and different treatment by a social worker for men and women. Social workers should work to strengthen men’s feelings of efficacy by allowing them independence from the social worker. They should work to strengthen women’s feelings of competence by maintaining closer contact.

3 Foster Parent Satisfaction: Differences by Gender

Foster parenting is a very difficult task. Becoming a foster parent means opening your home to a host of potential problems. Yet, despite obstacles which should drive foster parents away, foster parents continue to provide care. Somehow, foster parents are able to find enough satisfaction for the job they perform that they continue to do so without external rewards. Foster parent satisfaction is vitally important to the continuance of the foster care system.

In this paper, I examine how men and women obtain satisfaction from foster parenting. Research on foster parents shows that male and female foster parents have similar levels of satisfaction (Fanshell 1966; Cautley 1980). However, the mechanisms that lead to satisfaction for men and women may differ because their perceptions of foster parenting may differ.

I use House’s (1981) model of mechanisms to identify the components, proximate variables, and psychological variables that impact satisfaction for men and women. I predict that gendered socialization and expectations suggest different mechanisms to satisfaction for each gender. I test this theory by analyzing a dataset collected in 1991 in Ohio. I use Structural Equation Modeling to allow multiple indicators and to model the mechanisms that lead to satisfaction. This research is significant in clarifying how gender socialization and expectations shape satisfaction with foster parenting. Social workers can use this information to know how to meet the different needs of male and female foster parents.

Gender and Satisfaction with Foster Parenting

4 Before I empirically examine foster parent satisfaction, I define satisfaction and assess how it has been studied in the foster care literature. I also examine the principles that outline how mechanisms impact an outcome.

Satisfaction is the level of positive affect in response to being a foster parent, including both interactions with the foster child and identification as a foster parent.

Satisfaction is composed of two parts: actual outcomes and expected outcomes. Ross and

Mirowsky (2003: 416) explain: “whereas distress often results from deprivation, dissatisfaction results from deprivation relative to one’s expectations.” Satisfaction results from a combination of positive outcomes and reasonable expectations. In other words, “satisfaction will be lower for individuals with high goals” (Mortimer and

Lorence 1995: 505).

Only a couple of studies have specifically examined gender differences in satisfaction with fostering parenting. The first study involved 101 foster mothers and 81 foster fathers who were interviewed and surveyed about their overall satisfaction

(Fanshell 1966). Although Fanshell does not provide a statistical significance test of the difference in satisfaction by gender, since the data were collected from the entire population of the city studied, a statistical analysis is possible. A reanalysis of data presented in the published study shows a non-significant relationship between gender and overall satisfaction, as measured by the question “All things considered, has your experience as a foster parent worked out as well as you anticipated?” (Fanshell 1966: 30).

A second study finds that women have greater satisfaction than men at the beginning of a placement of a specific child (Cautley 1980). Throughout the placement, men and women both increase in satisfaction levels. However, men increase at a faster

5 rate. Therefore, by the end of the placement men and women have roughly similar levels of satisfaction. While these studies indicate that overall satisfaction with foster parenting is similar for men and women, they do not indicate possible mechanisms that lead to satisfaction for men and women nor do they include former foster parents. Because previous studies have not included former foster parents, there is a bias in this literature toward those who are more satisfied. This is especially important since there is some evidence that around 40% of those who stop fostering do so in the first year (Jones 1975).

This paper addresses both of these deficits.

This paper identifies the processes by which men and women become satisfied with foster parenting. I use the principles set forth by House (1981) as a pattern for explaining the proximate and psychological mechanisms that lead from a social structural position, like gender, to an individual outcome, like satisfaction.

House proposes that there are three principles a researcher should identify in arguing how a social structural variable impacts an individual outcome: components, proximate, and psychological principles. A researcher should include variables that represent each of these principles. Components are the components of a structure or institution, such as gender socialization is a component of gender. The proximity principle refers to the forces that link components to psychological processes, such as social worker interaction links gender socialization to role identification. Psychological processes, such as role identification, consist of the cognitive or emotional micro- processes that take place within a person. Often, this pattern has been used to explain different outcomes among those in different social structural positions. In this case, I will use the same pattern to understand a situation where the values of the outcome (overall

6 satisfaction) do not necessarily vary between men and women, but the mechanisms that lead to that outcome do.

Literature on foster care presents five main mechanisms that impact foster parent satisfaction: experience, the social worker interaction, role identification, feelings of competence, and feelings of efficacy. I define “experience” as the length of time as a foster parent and frequency of experience, specifically the number of placements. I define “social worker interaction” as the feeling of connection with the social worker in terms of mutual respect and confidence in the social worker’s decisions. I define “role identification” as the extent to which the foster parent believes that foster parenting is

“real parenting.” I define “feelings of competence” as the degree to which the foster parent feels competent to handle the children in his or her care. I define “feelings of efficacy” as the degree to which the foster parent feels they are having a positive impact on the children in his or her care. I define satisfaction as the level of positive affect in response to being a foster parent, including both interactions with the foster child and identification as a foster parent.

These variables impact each other and ultimately impact satisfaction. In this paper I propose processes of attaining satisfaction for male and female foster parents using House’s principles as a general guide. Table 1 outlines, in a simplified form, the relationship between House’s principles and my conceptual model.

[Table 1 about here]

7 The relationships among the variables in my conceptual model can be seen in

Figure 1. As this figure demonstrates, Experience and the Social Worker impact Role

Identification, Feelings of Competence, and Feelings of Efficacy. In turn, these three psychological variables impact satisfaction. In other words, the psychological variables mediate the relationship between the proximate variables and the outcome. I specify gender as a variable that conditions this entire process, which means that the process may vary for men and women. Specifically, I hypothesize:

H1. The proposed model will be valid for both males and females.

While the importance of various variables in the model may differ for men and women, I hypothesize that the model will be the same. For both men and women, proximate-level variables will impact psychological-level variables which will impact the outcome. For this hypothesis to be valid, I must demonstrate that the measurement model, the structural model, and the overall model are valid for men and women.

H2. The psychological variables, role identification, feelings of competence, and

feelings of efficacy, intervene between the proximate variables, experience and

social worker interaction, and the outcome. The effects of the proximate variables

on satisfaction are indirect and operate through the psychological intervening

variables.

[Figure 1 about here]

Theoretical Development

The Impact of the Social Worker and Experience on Satisfaction

8 Interaction with the Social Worker affects satisfaction and differs by gender.

First, the social worker is related to satisfaction and differs by gender. The foster parenting literature directly examines the impact of the social worker, who is the foster parent’s supervisor, on satisfaction. One study found that improved relationships with the social worker are correlated with better outcomes (Denby et al. 1999). These effects appear to differ by gender. Previous literature finds that men both have less and desire less interaction with the social worker (Fanshell 1966; Davids 1973). Men are also less satisfied with the social worker relative to women (Cautley 1980). Women are also more likely to perceive themselves as coworkers with a social worker than men are (Tinney

1985).

Experience also influences satisfaction. Cautley (1980) found that foster parents’ satisfaction increased over the time of a placement. While both men and women experienced increases in satisfaction, men experienced more dramatic increases.

However, this study examined satisfaction with a particular placement, which differs from overall satisfaction with foster parenting.

The Impact of Proximate Variables on Psychological Variables

I hypothesize that the psychological variables, role identification, feelings of competence, and feelings of efficacy mediate the relationship between the proximate variables, experience and social worker interaction, and satisfaction and explain how the proximate variables impact satisfaction. I expect these relationships to differ by gender.

Gender socialization and expectations from others impact the relationship with the social worker and lead to intra-foster care role socialization that is reinforced with experience.

9 The differences in social worker interaction and experience lead to differences in the psychological variables, role identification, feelings of competence, and feelings of efficacy.

Men, who have less interaction with the social worker and repeatedly play the less bureaucratically demanding “foster father” role, begin to identify foster parenting as parenting more than employment or volunteering. I refer to this as “role identification.”

The social worker’s impact on men’s satisfaction will primarily be through her/his ability to increase the foster father’s role identification.

Women, who have more interaction with the social worker and repeatedly play the more bureaucratically demanding “foster mother” role, may begin to identify foster parenting as employment more than parenting. The social worker plays an important role in reinforcing the foster mothers’ satisfaction by consciously increasing the mother’s feelings of competence and efficacy to compensate for the lack of financial compensation for services. In addition, any gains in role identification will come from the social worker, rather than experience.

The Impact of Psychological Variables on Satisfaction

The model suggests that role identification increases satisfaction. Again, I define role identification as the extent to which the foster parent believes that foster parenting is

“real parenting.” Men tend to view foster parenting as equivalent to legal parenting

(Davids 1973, Tinney 1985, Machrone 1997, Inch 1998). Women tend to view foster parenting as a professional job and themselves as coworkers with the social worker

(Tinney 1985). This discrepancy in expectations probably explains why foster fathers are

10 less satisfied with the social worker than the foster mother. Because foster fathers feel that they are doing real parenting, the social worker is an unnecessary and threatening force. Because foster mothers feel that they are coworkers with the social worker, the social worker is helpful to their work. Higher role identification indicates a stronger parental orientation to foster parenting, as opposed to a work or volunteer orientation.

I expect that feelings of competence will increase satisfaction. The foster care literature shows that men and women are more satisfied if they feel that they are competent foster parents (Cautley 1980; Ray and Horner 1990).

I predict that feelings of efficacy will increase satisfaction. Foster parents who feel that the child has shown improvements are also more satisfied (Cautley 1980). This may be especially true for men (Cautley 1980). Participation efficacy, or the feeling that their work makes a difference, is an important outcome.

For both men and women, role identification, feelings of competence, and participation efficacy should increase satisfaction. Because women develop less of a parental orientation, competence and efficacy should be more important predictors of satisfaction. Specifically, I hypothesize:

H3. The strongest indirect effect for women will be from the “Social Worker” to

“Competence” to “Satisfaction.”

Because men develop a parental orientation throughout the foster care process, role identification should be the primary predictor of satisfaction for them. Specifically, I hypothesize;

H4. The strongest indirect effect for men will be from experience to Role

Identification to Satisfaction.

11 Finally, because the above theory predicts that women will have more of a work orientation to foster parenting than men and that men will have more of a parenting orientation than women, I hypothesize:

H5. “Competence” will be a stronger predictor of satisfaction for women than for

men. “Role Identification” will be a stronger predictor of satisfaction for men

than for women.

Sample

To test these hypotheses, I use a dataset compiled from surveys of current and former foster parents in 1993 in Ohio.2 That study was done in response to a statewide shortage of foster parents. The researchers were attempting to predict retention of foster parents with the goal of improvement.

Foster parents were randomly selected from the human services agencies in the largest eight counties in Ohio. The human services agencies cooperated in providing information. Surveys were sent to 822 current foster homes and returned by 544 homes, leading to a high response rate of 68%. Two hundred and sixty surveys were completed by former foster homes, although the authors of the original survey did not report the response rate for this group.

I analyze these data using Structural Equation Modeling for multiple groups which requires roughly similar sample sizes for both groups (Bollen 1989). Because there are 567 surveys from women and only 44 from men, I take a random sample of the

2 This dataset was generously provided by Denby, Rindfleisch, and Bean. The data collection was supported by the Urban Affairs Project of the Ohio State University through a grant from the Ohio Board of Regents (Denby, Rindfleisch and Bean 1998: 287).

12 total number of foster mother respondents to use in the statistical model. This results in a total sample size of 104 including 44 men and a random sample of 60 women.3 For missing data, I took the mean of the sample for each gender on that variable item. Table

2 provides an overview of the descriptive data.

Comparison with previous work on gender and foster parent satisfaction indicates that this is the largest sample yet available that directly compares satisfaction of foster fathers and foster mothers. However, the small sample size calls for considerable caution in interpreting the results.

Variables

There are five intervening variables in this model (see Figure 2): two proximate, latent variables—Overall Experience with Foster Parenting (“Experience”) and

Interaction with the Social Worker (“Social Worker”), and three psychological, observed variables—“Role Identification,” “Competence,” and “Efficacy” (see Table 3 for descriptive statistics of each variable).

[Figure 2 about here]

3 I derived the sample of women using SPSS 9.0. SPSS selects randomly by allowing the researcher to choose an approximate percentage of the sample that is desired. I selected a percentage of 12.89% (567/44). In this case, using this function randomly produced a sample size of 60 rather than the desired 44.

13 I operationalize “Experience” as the number of months since licensing and the longest stay by any single child. These two measures tap different elements of experience: quantity of months and the number of children. Both of these elements measure different kinds of experience: length of experience (months) and depth of experience (number of children). I chose to use the number of months since licensing rather than the number of months since the first placement. This is reasonable because, unlike biological parenting, foster parents are legally foster parents from the moment that they are licensed, regardless of when a child is placed in their home. I include the variable for longest stay to tap the length of experience with a single child.

“Social Worker” is composed of three measures of satisfaction with the social worker. Two of these questions are about the agency social workers, which includes a social worker assigned to the foster parents and a social worker assigned to the foster child; one question is about the foster child’s social worker only.

I employ observed (single indicator) variables to measure the 3 psychological variables. “Role identification” is measured by the strength of the agreement with the statement “foster parenting is no different from biological parenting.” This measure appears to tap the degree to which the parent feels that foster parenting is “real” parenting. “Competence” is directly measured by agreement with the statement, “I feel competent to handle the children in my care.” This measure taps both the difficulty level of the child in the home and the foster parents’ feelings of competence. “Efficacy” is measured by agreement with the statement, “I saw positive change in the children who were placed in my home.” This variable appears to tap participation efficacy, whether

14 the parent feels they saw change in the child in their care and therefore feels that they are making a difference.

“Satisfaction,” the outcome variable of interest, is measured by three questions about satisfaction. Two of these measures relate to the satisfaction with specific placements: “I have no regrets about the time and energy I invested in the children placed with me” and “I was satisfied with the type of child the agency placed with me.” The overall measure relates to total feelings about being a foster parent: “All in all, how satisfied are (were) you with foster parenting.” I recoded the direction of the scale of all variables so that a higher number indicates greater satisfaction.

Analysis

I analyze these data using Structural Equation Modeling in Amos 4.0. SEM is an optimal technique for analyzing complex mechanisms. It allows us to see the impact of proximal variables on psychological variables, and the subsequent impact of these variables on satisfaction. In addition, SEM allows us to use multiple indicators for latent variables, such as experience, social worker interaction, and satisfaction. These multiple indicators provide greater information than a single indicator alone.4

This general model represents a combination of path analysis and confirmatory factor analysis. The model is recursive; it is not cyclical. It is empirically identified which means that there are enough data points provided to obtain the necessary estimates.

I analyze the data using Full Information Maximum Likelihood Estimation Function.

This technique is relevant for small sample sizes (Bollen 1989:108). The null hypothesis

4 I have scaled the path from the strongest indicator to the latent variable to 1 (Bollen 1989:183-184).

15 in SEM is that the model is perfectly fitting. Therefore, a chi-square p-value of over .05 indicates a valid model.

Results and Discussion

H1) The proposed model is valid for both genders

To demonstrate that this model is valid for both genders, I must demonstrate that the measurement model, the structural model, and the overall model are valid for men and women. First, I examined the measurement model. The measurement model works well for both men and women. I tested each indicator to be sure that it was an accurate measure for both men and women. To do this, I constrained the path or coefficient of interest to be the same for men and women and then compared the resulting chi square to the chi square of the unconstrained model.

Second, I examined the structural model. To do this, I do two steps: first, I verify that the paths are statistically significant and second, I confirm that each part of the model is necessary (see H2 for a discussion). Because I will be investigating the relative strength of paths, it is important to first verify that these paths are statistically significant.

The overall findings indicate that few of the regression coefficients are significant (see

Table 5). This is an important limitation.

Third, I examined the overall fit of the multi-group SEM. This test includes the fit for both men and women and does not offer separate fit statistics by gender. The

16 proposed structural model is probably valid for men and women.5 The chi-square is

82.208 with 76 degrees of freedom. This yields a probability level of .293, which implies no rejection of the null hypothesis that the model fits well. The IFI is .979 and the TLI is .965. The RMSEA is .028. These overall measures indicate a good fit. However, because of the small sample size, it is especially important to examine the fit measures that take into account sample size. The CMIN divided by degrees of freedom score takes into account sample size. This score is 1.082. A number less than 2.0 is generally considered valid (Garson 2004).

This overall model has high R-square values for women and for men. For women alone the total explained variation in satisfaction is .53 (see Table 4). For men, the total explained variation is .92. These are very high R-square values.

H2: The Psychological Variables Intervene between the Proximate Variables and the

Outcome.

I hypothesized that the psychological variables, “Role Identification,” “Feelings of Competence,” and “Feelings of Efficacy,” would significantly improve the model. To test this hypothesis, I do two tests. First, I test to make sure that the proximate variables improve the model. Second, I test to make sure that the psychological variables improve the model.

5 I do not include measures for the Cronbach Alpha, because I am not creating an index but rather incorporating the entire measurement model (with errors and all) into my general SEM model.

17 First, I compare the fit of the model with the proximate variables included to a model where their paths are constrained to zero. Because these are nested models, I can also test the statistical significance of the difference in chi-square values. The model changes from a chi square value of 28.845 with 19 degrees of freedom to a chi square value of 82.208 with 76 degrees of freedom. This change is significant at the .05 level.

This indicates that the proximate variables do improve the model. The fit statistics of the model with direct paths (psychological variables excluded) are also reasonably high, with a significance level of .861. In this direct path test, the GFI is .943, the AGFI is .886, and the RMSEA is .000. These findings indicate that a model with only proximate variables and the outcome is a good fit.

Second, I test to see if this relationship is improved when indirect effects are added. To do this, I compare the fit of the model with the psychological variables included to a model where their paths are constrained to zero. Because these are nested models, I can also test the statistical significance of the difference in chi-square values.

The model changes from a chi square value of 26.997 with 36 degrees of freedom to a chi square value of 82.208 with 76 degrees of freedom. This change is significant at the .05 level. This indicates that including the psychological variables results in a significantly better fitting model.

These two tests indicate that both parts of this model are necessary. The proximate variables improve the model at a significance level of .05. Similarly, the psychological variables improve the model at a significance level of .05.

18 H3: The Strongest Indirect Effect for Women will be from the “Social Worker” to

“Competence” to “Satisfaction”

I hypothesized that the strongest path for women would be from “Social Worker” through “Competence.” This hypothesis is consistent with previous research that indicates that women have a professional orientation to foster parenting. I have discussed the importance of competence above. The importance of the social worker is from the foster parenting literature directly which states that the relationship with the social worker is very important for women (Cautley 1980).

To test this hypothesis, I examine women in a separate model. Table 6 presents indirect effects along with a ranking of the standardized relative strength of those effects.

These indirect effects indicate that “Social Worker” through “Competence” is the strongest path by a large margin. However, because I am unable to obtain statistical significance of the difference of this effect relative to other effects, it is impossible to say that it is statistically stronger than other indirect effects. It appears likely that “Social

Worker” through “Competence” is the strongest path. This relationship appears to be largely caused by the strong and statistically significant path between “Competence” and

“Satisfaction.”

For women, the indirect path from “Social Worker” through “Competence” to

“Satisfaction” appears to be the strongest indirect path. This result is highly consistent with and clarifies the mechanisms of previous research.

19 H4: The Strongest Indirect Effect for Men will be from “Experience” to “Role

Identification” to “Satisfaction”

I hypothesized that the strongest path for men would be from “Experience” through “Role Identification.” To test this hypothesis, I examine men in a separate model. I obtain the indirect effects for the paths to satisfaction. These indirect effects indicate that “Experience” through “Role Identification” is probably not the strongest path, given that it is only the 3rd strongest path in this model (see Table 7).

Further, these results indicate a very strong indirect path from “Experience” through “Efficacy.” There is also a strong path from “Social Worker” through

“Efficacy.” These strong effects are undoubtedly created by the strong coefficient between “Efficacy” and “Satisfaction.” It appears that, in this sample, the strongest path to satisfaction is through either “Experience” or the “Social Worker” along with

“Efficacy.” The importance of the “Social Worker” and “Efficacy” on men may have been underestimated by previous researchers. The strong influence of “Efficacy” may also suggest that men have a volunteer orientation to foster parenting.

H5: Women will have a Stronger Correlation between “Competence” and

“Satisfaction” than Men and Men will have a Stronger Correlation between “Role

Identification” and “Satisfaction” than Women

I hypothesized that women would have a stronger correlation between

“Competence” and “Satisfaction” than men and that men would have a stronger

20 correlation between “Role Identification” and “Satisfaction” than women. I test these hypotheses by constraining the path from the variable of interest to “Satisfaction” to be equal for men and women. I then compare the chi-square from this value to the chi- square from the original model in which this path is free to vary by gender.

One of these hypotheses is correct. First, the impact of “Competence” on

“Satisfaction” is greater for women than for men with a chi-square change of 6.554, which is significant at the .05 level. These findings are consistent with previous research which indicates that women have a professional orientation to foster parenting, as discussed above.

However, the impact of “Role Identification” on “Satisfaction” does not differ between men and women as predicted, with a non-significant chi-square change of 1.738.

These results suggest that “Role Identification” for men can be more impacted by

“Experience” than for women, but “Role Identification” does not differ in terms of impact on satisfaction.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the presented model appears to be accurate for men and for women in terms of model fit, measurement models, and R-square values. The addition of the psychological measures leads to a statistically improved model. This strengthens the argument that this model is a good fit for men and for women. However, few of the path coefficients are statistically significant. This may be related to a small sample size but should nevertheless be considered in evaluation.

21 The findings regarding women in this study were very consistent with each other and previous research. This study found that women derive the most satisfaction from feelings of competence. The best way for women to attain feelings of competence is from positive interaction and feelings about the social worker. These trends suggest that women have more of a professional orientation to foster are than men. “Role

Identification” would suggest a more parenting orientation and “Efficacy” would suggest a more volunteer orientation. How do women attain satisfaction as foster parents? The social worker increases their feelings of competence, which increases their satisfaction.

The findings regarding men in this study were not internally consistent. These mixed results lead to two meaningful findings. First, there is a relationship between

“Efficacy” and “Satisfaction.” Men who feel that they are seeing a change in the children under their care are more satisfied than men who don’t. High feelings of efficacy suggest a volunteer orientation toward foster parenting. Second, “Competence” is not very important to men’s satisfaction. “Competence” is more suggestive of a work orientation.

How do men attain satisfaction as foster parents? They derive satisfaction from feeling that they are making an impact on the children in their care. Feeling competent is not as important as high efficacy.

It is important to note three important limitations of this study. First, the dataset used in this study was collected in 1991. Since several years have passed since this time and changes have been made in the foster care system, it is difficult to generalize to the present day. Second, the dataset was collected only in Ohio. It is certainly dangerous to generalize outside of Ohio. Third, this study is a small sample: 104 individuals. While

22 those individuals were randomly selected, a larger sample size would increase confidence that this model is valid.

This study has some important implications for social work practice. Women’s strongest indirect path to satisfaction was from the social worker to competence. A social worker seeking to improve a female foster parents’ satisfaction could work on reinforcing the caregivers feelings of competence. This could be done by expressing confidence in the foster mother’s abilities, by respecting the foster mother’s authority and experience, and by treating the foster mother as a professional colleague.

The results regarding men indicate that the social worker is not vitally important and that efficacy is more important than other psychological variables. It is unclear if the social worker is not statistically important because foster fathers don’t desire contact with the social worker or because their relationship with the social worker is negative. Thus, a social worker seeking to improve a male foster parents’ satisfaction could focus on creating a positive relationship with the foster father, while at the same time respecting his autonomy. The social worker could focus his or her time with the foster father on reinforcing his feelings that he is making a positive impact on the child. This could be done by expressing appreciation for the foster father’s efforts, providing training that will lead to positive changes in the child, and pointing out the changes that a child has made since being in a foster fathers’ care.

Further research is needed to identify the psychological variables that impact satisfaction in men. In addition, further research is needed to create and test alternative models and to examine additional proximate and psychological variables.

23 Works Cited

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Tinney, M.A. 1985. “Role perceptions in foster parent associations in British Columbia”. Child Welfare. Vol 61(1), 73-79.