Voices of Ms.: Evolution of Feminism Through Ms. Magazine

Ms. magazine was a force within the feminist movement that transformed feminist media and communication. This new direction taken by the editors of Ms. magazine was expressed in its inaugural issue- “Ms. is written for all women, everywhere, in every occupation and profession- women with deep, diverse ambitions, and those who have not yet had a chance to formulate ambition- women who are wives, mothers, and grandmothers, or none of these- women who want to be fully a female person and proud of it.”1 This statement of promise, hope, and pride graced the pages of the initial issue of Ms. Magazine in 1972. Although its content and purpose within society remained controversial until the final issue in 1989, its impact was undeniable. Ms. became the first commercial magazine to mainstream the concept of feminism, reaching a readership of 3 million people2.

This project will explore how the magazine both mirrored and helped shape key themes within modern feminist thought, and why its accommodation of a wide spectrum of opinion facilitated such success. Second-wave feminism encompassed many schools of thought. As the

1970s approached, ‘radical feminism’ was evolving into a more liberal concept, known today as cultural feminism. Ms. was an important source of this transformation, as it grappled with such topics as motherhood, beauty, health, sexuality, race, economics, and politics. However, its portrayal of these themes included a diverse, and at times, contradictory approach. Many

1 Amy Farrell, Yours in Sisterhood: Ms. Magazine and the Promise of Popular Feminism, (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 72.

2 Amy Farrell, Yours in Sisterhood: Ms. Magazine and the Promise of Popular Feminism, (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 1.

1 varieties of feminist thought were seen within the content of Ms. By not choosing a single feminist theory or viewpoint, the use of diversity became the key to the magazine’s success. The all-encompassing approach mirrored the state of feminism at a national level. Its willingness to engage various perspectives, resulted in contradictory messages that enabled the magazine to enlist the loyalty of diverse groups of activists. There was much discussion and inconsistency regarding how to define the feminist cause, and Ms. became the most influential feminist magazine of all time by refusing to do so.

This project will explore the following questions:

- How did Ms. contribute to the evolution of feminist thought within the national

movement?

- What were the inconsistencies within Ms. Magazine?

- Why were these contradictions so significant in gaining support for Ms. and the feminist

movement?

By the time Ms. magazine was first published, the feminist movement posted some impressive gains, but struggled with internal and external conflict. Ms. embraced these differences and produced literature that allowed for a mass audience to relate and support. By the early 1970s Second Wave Feminism had emerged as a vibrant movement in American culture. Within the areas of education, employment, family, reproduction and health, economics, and cultural stereotyping women challenged traditional patterns of male domination3.

The 1960s was a time of defining change for women. The cause for gender equality was validated by the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women. Created under President

3 Freedman, Estelle. No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and the Future of Women. New York: Ballantine Books , 2003.

2 Kennedy, the commission was run by both men and women, from a variety of occupations and fields. The Presidential Commission’s findings revealed widespread discrimination. This was crucial in igniting the Feminist Movement.

Legislation including the Equal Pay Act and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 established equal pay for equal work and outlawed employment discrimination4. This accomplishment was followed by Johnson’s decision to initiate an Executive Order on affirmative action. This resulted in major efforts made to ensure that women have access to the same education and job opportunities as men5. As the government showed support for the feminist cause, the courts also played a crucial role in the fight for equality; Griswold v. Connecticut (1965), repealed the last remaining legislation that banned the use of contraception for married couples, and Weeks v.

Southern Bell (1965) lifted many restrictions regarding what types of jobs women could hold, and also addressed the limits on hours and conditions6.

Despite these major accomplishments, systemic discrimination against women persisted.

In 1966 The National Organization of Women (NOW) released a statement of purpose noting that women only earned 60% of the income of men, a gap that was only increasing. In addition, only 1.4% of full time working women made more than $10,000, and they were the distinct minority within professional positions such as judges, doctors, and lawyers7. Betty Freidan’s The

Feminine Mystique highlighted this ongoing inequality; she argued that society had created an

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6 Ilbd 7 The National Organization for Women's 1966 Statement of Purpose. October 29, 1966. Document. Washington D.C.: National Organization for Women.

3 expectation that had become part of the American identity. In accord with conservative gender roles, women were expected to attain fulfillment only by assuming the traditional roles of wife and mother. According to Freidan this cultural mindset was just as important as the legal aspect of feminism8--“‘We can no longer ignore that voice within women that says: "I want something more than my husband and my children and my home.’”9

Many women felt a radical approach was necessary to initiate change in the face of such struggle. During the 1960s a dominant faction of feminist thought was radical feminism. Radical feminism maintains an aggressive approach to challenging the male dominated culture.

Rejecting all concepts connected to the oppression of women, would in turn liberate females. It argued that any assumptions regarding the proper role for women should be challenged10.

Radical feminists held that men were the ones who created these cultural realities and therefore were the ultimate enemy. By challenging the male-dominated institutions such as the government and economy, and also avoiding all the assumed female characteristics, women could become empowered11. Many feminists believed that it was necessary to highlight the inequality in a statistical manner, to reveal to men how much injustice surrounded women’s rights. In fact, a significant portion of the mission statement for the National Organization for Women, was dedicated to labor statistics about inequality of employment and pay 12. Women were gearing

8 Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1963).

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10 Alice Echols, Daring to Be BAD, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993), 260-265.

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12 The National Organization for Women's 1966 Statement of Purpose. October 29, 1966. Document. Washington D.C.: National Organization for Women.

4 their strategy toward men, straying from any personal exploration that might seem irrelevant or hurtful to their cause to be equal to men. Many radical feminists supported an anti-male approach as a way of asserting feminist principles.

Shulamith Firestone, a prominent radical feminist wrote a book titled The Dialectic of

Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution, which took a very aggressive approach toward society and the men that were responsible for gender inequality. The book argued women were biologically inferior. She encouraged women to reject femininity and any other female attributes.

Firestone believed pregnancy and motherhood were the cause of female disenfranchisement, and claimed that, “All men are selfish, brutal and inconsiderate”. 13 Women began to see how these approaches alienated many women and men who did not want to go on the offensive toward the entire world in order to achieve change14. This created much tension between feminists and men, but also among the female population at large. Those who embraced aspects of their femininity were alienated by these radical views. New feminist ideas began to surface, and a more moderate stance became the dominant approach.

As the movement continued to gain support, women began to question the literature targeting women. Literature surrounding women’s issues was limited to domestic subjects or topics related to their relationships with men15. Ladies Home Journal, McCall’s, Family Circle,

Cosmopolitan, and Vogue were the leading magazines for women at the time, and feminists found their voices did not have a place in the messages and content within these pieces of

13 Firestone, Shulamith. The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1970.

14Alice Echols, Daring to Be BAD, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993), 260-265.

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5 literature16. Feminism in the media was portrayed entirely as a radical movement, despite the many moderate and liberal views that were gaining support. All feminist efforts and demonstrations were dramatized in many ways. In 1968 over 400 women protested the Miss

America pageant in front of the Atlantic City Convention Center. They held signs such as “No

More Beauty Standards”, and “Welcome to the Cattle Auction”. The women also brought a

"Freedom Trash Can" where they threw in bras, beauty products, and women’s magazines17.

There was no violence involved, however this protest was reported to be a radical demonstration in which women ‘burned bras’ in protest, an act that never occurred18.

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17 Amy Farrell, Yours in Sisterhood: Ms. Magazine and the Promise of Popular Feminism, (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 26-29.

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19 Duffet, Judith. "As It Happened." Accessed April 2, 2012. http://www.vfa.us/ MissAmerica1968JUNE122008.htm.

20 Cambell, Joseph. "Media Myth Alert." Accessed April 2, 2012.

7 Activists such as Gloria Steinem began to envision a permanent form of feminist literature that would unite the voices of all women. Steinem, along with other feminists such as

Elizabeth Harris and Patricia Carbine, began to contact various magazines to discuss printing an insert to help jumpstart a feminist newsletter or magazine21. In 1971 New York Magazine agreed to print an insert of Ms. In the insert alone Ms. covered controversial issues such as abortion, body image, and politics. The insert drew in 85,000 subscribers for the initial issue along with

20,000 letters from readers in response to the project 22. The success of Ms. only grew as it emerged as one of the most influential aspects of the feminists movement.

The success of Ms. revealed the growing popularity and support for feminist efforts as well as the evolution of feminist thought from radical feminism to cultural feminism. It was able to achieve such success because of the diversity, and therefore inconsistency, within the content and structure. Ms. brought women’s issues to the forefront of mainstream society. Cultural feminism believed in exploring these female attributes with an open-mind. Health, beauty, politics, economics, education, childcare, and relationships were areas the magazine explored.23.

It reached out to all women, despite its varying stances on the feminist movement. Within these issues, however, the magazine produced opposing messages, advertisements, public images, and business decisions24. Inconsistent messages regarding women’s health, beauty, sexuality, race,

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22 Amy Farrell, Yours in Sisterhood: Ms. Magazine and the Promise of Popular Feminism, (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 45.

23 "Ms.." New York, December 20, 1971, 42-74.

24 "Ms.." New York, December 20, 1971, 42-74.

8 and cultural roles created a diverse and complex piece of literature. It was these contradictions that in turn resulted in such support.

Feminism was a constantly evolving concept with many conflicting views, therefore Ms. was able to relate to a wide variety of women. With an average of 200 letters each week, readers commended, supported, criticized, and questioned the content and also the structure of the Ms. organization and staff. The often passionate reaction of loyal readers became an influence in the direction of Ms. magazine.

Chapter 1: Emergence of Ms.

During the 1960s, media coverage regarding the status of women in American society was a disappointment for most activists25. The most popular women’s magazines at the time were Ladies Home Journal, Cosmopolitan, Vogue, and Family Circle. Magazines such as Ladies

Home Journal and Family Circle published material promoting motherhood and domesticity.

Cosmopolitan and Vogue targeted young single women, and dealt with beauty, style, and relationships with men26. The industry was dominated by messages promoting sexualization, objectification, and domestic life27. Feminist perspectives, however, were given very little attention within mainstream media. When the movement did receive attention it was often a misrepresentation of the events28.

25 Amy Farrell, Yours in Sisterhood: Ms. Magazine and the Promise of Popular Feminism, (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 21-27.

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9 In response to the poor coverage, on March 8, 1970, over 200 women held a sit in at an editorial office at Ladies Home Journal. The protestors demanded day care options for employees, higher pay for women, and an editorial staff comprised solely of females29.

Occupying the office for 11 hours, these women vocalized their discontent for female consumer magazines and the media industry as a whole. That same year, Ladies Home Journal published a supplement in their August issue, highlighting the major concerns of the feminist movement. The demand for feminist publications steadily increased, and many small periodicals began to circulate nationally. By 1970 there were over 500 such publications. However, none of these were able to obtain a substantial readership, and many feminists felt that the movement needed a consistent form of feminist literature in mainstream American culture30.

Activist Gloria Steinem began to reach out to other journalists and feminists about creating a feminist newsletter or magazine. Steinem teamed up with activists such as Elizabeth

Forsling Harris, Patricia Carbine and Letty Cottin Pogrebin31. The three women began to search for support for their vision. Pogrebin convinced Steinem that there was enough of a demand to strive for a full magazine instead of a newsletter. The women discussed many different possibilities for a title including Everywoman, Sisters, Lilith, Sojourner, and The First Sex. They eventually decided on Ms. Magazine32. Art director Rochelle Udell justified their decision by saying that, “It was an announcement. Using Ms. said ‘I’m a feminist’.33” The editor of New York

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31 Abigail, Pogrebin . "How Do You Spell Ms.." New York Magazine, October 30, 2011. http:// nymag.com/news/features/ms-magazine-2011-11/index8.html (accessed November, 2012).

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10 magazine, Carl Felker, had worked with Gloria Steinem in the past and in 1971 he agreed to run an insert; in the December issue they provided a preview of Ms. Magazine.

These women wanted to create a magazine that would represent the voice of American women, a voice that was much more diverse than what the current media was portraying. This voice came out strong in the preview issue. It covered topics such as sexuality, abortion, politics, marriage, and lesbianism34. An ad within the insert informed the readers that Ms. was for

“women who want to humanize politics, business, education, the arts and sciences...in the home, the community, and the nation.35” This was a statement that reflected the role of cultural feminism within this magazine as it promised a piece of literature that was open to all aspect of female life. It was a invitation to all types of women with diverse views and lifestyles to learn from and participate in this project whose purpose was to unite the American feminist voice.

Women responded with great interest as Ms. received 85,000 subscription cards, and

20,000 individual letters after New York magazine printed the insert. Ms. would become the most successful feminist magazine of its time reaching a readership of 3 million people36. This allowed for the magazine to reach out to the majority of women, which no other issue-focused magazine had been able to do.

34 "Ms.." New York, December 20, 1971, 42-74.

35 Clay, Felker. "What is Ms.." New York Magazine, December 1971, 42.

36 Freedman, Estelle. No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and the Future of Women. New York: Ballantine Books , 2003.

11 Chapter 2: Cultural Feminism

Inaugural Issue

It was evident from the initial issue that Ms. was a representation of the transformation into cultural feminism. The insert within New York magazine was a true statement of purpose for

Ms., and it revealed the influence that cultural feminism was going to have on this piece of literature. The cover itself showcased cultural feminism. It was a blue woman with many arms, and in each hand she held an object representing a responsibility weighing on women within society37. A frying pan, typewriter, and mirror were among the symbols for the struggle facing women. The objects were not, however, portrayed in a negative way, it was only the amount of responsibility that troubled the figure. The woman had an illuminated stomach in which she was carrying a child. The happy child, surrounded by a glowing light, showed no negativity toward motherhood.

The overall background is a peaceful and beautiful landscape with green hills, flowers, and even a content cat sitting next to her. This seems to communicate the message that the world of women did not necessarily require radical change. Nothing is wrong with her, she is just being consumed with responsibility, and not focusing on her personal growth and happiness.

There were no enemies in the picture, only her personal discontent38. This was a major shift from the aggressive approach from radical feminists. It also was singularly focused on this one woman, not her political or economics environment, which was the focus of many radical agendas. This was a powerful cover that reflected the evolution of feminism within the national movement, and the overall place Ms. would have in this culture.

37 "Ms.." New York, December 20, 1971, 42-74.

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The first article in the insert was titled Sisterhood by Gloria Steinem40. Here, she discussed her views on feminism and the evolution of ideas she has experienced as a leader within the movement. Steinem describes how women had seen their predicament as a struggle

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13 with men; women tried to emulate male perceptions of success and saw them as the enemy41.

Support for the movement involved statistics regarding injustice as if the point were to prove to the men that something was wrong. Steinem revealed that she had witnessed a change where women have identified the problem as their own self-doubt. She explains, “This lack of self esteem that makes us put each other down is still the major enemy of sisterhood.42” There was a move toward embracing the connection between women. The emphasis was on finding worth within their own attributes rather than trying to force a change within themselves in order change society.

Steinem revealed that the most meaningful feminist encounters were women getting together and embracing who they were, and discussing their common struggle43. This collection of female voices, speaking their truth was a critical part of cultural feminism, and it shaped the structure of Ms. magazine. Opposing opinions and messages were welcomed. The magazine ultimately reflected the transition to cultural feminism that was witnessed by the magazine’s popularity.

The Article, Why Women Fear Success was also a significant statement about how Ms. was reflecting a change in feminist thought. The article discussed how women seem to have a will to fail. Students were studied at the University of Michigan and it was found that the female students experienced high anxiety regarding success, and in turn had a strong urge to fail44. The study linked this desire to the cultural push for women to maintain traditional roles despite the

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14 growing opportunities for women to choose alternative lifestyles. Many women were able to attend college, yet there was still a strong emphasis on marriage and family, and therefore the women could never truly find the passion to obtain success45. This article made it clear that Ms. was able embrace all realities of womanhood, no matter how unfortunate. This reality may have appeared as a weak female attribute, which would have never been explored by the radical feminist approach.

However, later in the issue an article titled My Mother, The Dentist glorified a woman who fought a hostile society and joined the very slim minority of female dentists. Ms. was willing to discuss the insecurities and bravery of women by sharing personal experiences, rather than citing statistics or rattling off new and old legislation. This article was written by the woman’s son, who praised his mother’s determination and also her humility46. The fact that this was a man’s point of view and also the viewpoint of a son, sent the message that men are not the enemy, and motherhood is not shunned, but celebrated.

Marriage, family, and homemaking had been rejected by early feminists efforts. They were seen as impediments to gender equality47. Ms. saw these issues as part of the female identity, therefore crucial to growth. The Housewife’s Moment of Truth article reveals the suffering that many women felt regarding their position in the home. Women discussed how their efforts were expected and not appreciated, while the smallest effort put forth by the husband to

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47 Freedman, Estelle. No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and the Future of Women. New York: Ballantine Books , 2003.

15 help out at home was celebrated48. Women were expected to handle all household responsibilities simply because it was their husbands who were earning the income49. The article gave women suggestions on how to create this change toward equality. Women were encouraged to evaluate their responsibilities, make a plan to distribute equally, stay firm on your decisions, and not to feel guilty50.

The article titled, How to Write Your Own Marriage Contract followed the same theme of women taking control of their own equality. The Utopian Marriage Contract included issues such as the right a woman had to use her maiden name, take birth control, and equally distribute household work and finances51. This article encouraged women not to reject their current situation, but to empower themselves and initiate the change that they deserved. The diversity within the first issue was crucial in defining the place Ms. would have within the movement.

Continued Support

Ms. continued to support cultural feminism throughout the 1970s. A bold statement was made in 1974 when they printed an article titled Mother Right: A New Feminist Theory. The article was a letter written by Jane Alpert, a radical leftist who had gone underground to avoid arrest in 197052. Although associated with radical groups such as the Weather Underground, she revealed that her cause was not initially linked to the feminist movement. She had experienced

48 "Ms.." New York, December 20, 1971, 42-74.

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51 Ilbd 52 Alpert, Jane. “Mother Right: A New Feminist Theory”. Ms. , 1974.

16 an important observation regarding women and the movement. Alpert discussed her personal encounters with many of the men at the forefront of the leftist movement, and claimed that there was a significant amount of gender bias53.

When Alpert tried to discuss the gender equality with other women in the Weather

Underground, they were very reluctant to speak of any issues regarding male superiority. Alpert claimed that women looked toward men on how to act because males were assumed to be leaders54. Women turned away from their own attributes because they had been culturally deemed as weak. In order to be seen with respect or admiration, women felt that they had to behave like a man. Alpert claimed that it was this assumption that was the greatest impediment to equality 55. She claimed that it was the female biology that made women powerful. Women’s ability to give birth was an indication of greatness, not weakness. Alpert argued whether you are a mother or not, the potential is in every woman and therefore every woman is inherently powerful. This biological reality gives women their greatness and connects every single female.

Alpert believed that embracing the natural and maternal potential that connects all women was crucial to finding success within the movement; when women found the courage to stand up for their greatness without trying to change, change itself would come56.

Printing this article was a bold statement of the magazine’s support for this type of change within the movement. Embracing every aspect of femininity as something that makes us stronger, was an aspect of cultural feminism that was reflected within the magazine. However,

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17 women are inherently contradictory and diverse, therefore embracing womanhood meant embracing all opinions. While some feminist literature tried to define feminism or associate it with a particular strand, Ms. took an open approach to all concepts and all voices.

The theme continued throughout its time in circulation. It was so successful in popularizing cultural feminism that radical feminists accused Gloria Steinem of using the magazine to further CIA agenda. In 1967 it was revealed that the CIA had recruited many domestic organizations to work for them57. In 1975 the Redstockings released a statement accusing Steinem of taking CIA funds to gather information on feminists and to push the national agenda from radical feminism toward liberal feminism. Steinem was very hurt by the accusations, yet refused to publicly acknowledge them58.

Chapter 3: Diversity and Inconsistency

Ms. was able to represent a crucial turning point in feminist thought, however there were many different forms of feminist literature that were also trying to reach out to women. Ms. was able to achieve such success because of its openness to all women’s voices, despite the confrontations. The variety of opinions from writers and readers created an environment that all women could relate to and participate in. The appearance of certain contradictions within all subject areas was the reason why Ms. was able to become the most successful feminist magazine of all time.

57 Alice Echols, Daring to Be BAD, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993), 260-265.

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18 Body & Health

As Ms. dedicated itself to exploring, and re-evaluating what it meant to be a woman and a feminist, they discussed a variety of topics that were before seen as irrelevant, or an impediment to the feminist cause59. They were open to the shift of new ideas, yet its messages did not conform to any particular feminist theory. It was this difference of opinion within all of these un- chartered concepts that allowed for Ms. to achieve such success. Body Image and Health were areas which Ms. explored in great depth.

During this time, the culture portrayed a woman’s body as a representation of allure and sexuality. It was objectified within the media and seen as a sex symbol, or as a piece of property belonging to a man60. Ms. took concepts surrounding women's’ bodies and health and exposed many issues and perspectives that were lacking within American society. The magazines revealed the sexualization that plagued women in the media, politics, workplace, and in the home. Letters and articles united women that felt a universal upset and insecurity regarding their body image. It also showcased health issues that many women did not feel comfortable speaking about in public. Women who were passionate about breaking the stereotype praised and contributed to its efforts61. The goal was to address the issue of body image, so Ms. addressed all viewpoints regarding this topic. In fact, many of the ads within Ms. reflected the exact stereotype they were trying to unravel. A focus on slim, sexualized figures was very much present in many Ms. ads and articles. Those who maintained support of traditional female roles and perceptions also found interest in Ms., and these conflicting views were seen not only within the magazine’s

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60 Ms., September 1977

61 "Letters." Ms. , January 1978, 4.

19 content but also the letters from readers. The contradiction and inconsistency surrounding body image attributed to the wide and diverse readership, and ultimately the success of Ms.

In 1973, Ms. printed a letter from a reader describing her negative experience with her professor and his disrespect regarding women’s bodies. Her professor was explaining how to set up an experiment and used the example, “The intelligence of a female freshman student is inversely proportional to her bust size”62. She found it unfair that if the content had focused on men or someone’s race, it would automatically be considered unacceptable63. Ms. was breaking new ground by allowing women to share their personal struggle with body image. The magazine however, had its own part in this problem.

In January of 1977, Ms. printed an ad for meditation that read “Slim your body and relax your mind with Meditation”64. The ad pictured slim caucasian women in a bikini with a smiling man in the background. Showcasing a slim women with little clothing and promising weight loss is the exact obsession with body image that Ms. had made efforts to scrutinize. In October, 1978

Ms. ran a photography spread done by Joyce Tenneson Cohen. The spread was meant to showcase self-portraits of women in real situations to depict their true emotions and beauty. The photographs include an exhausted mother and her child, a pregnant women, and a full-figured woman in her bra and underwear65. These photos were so far from the typical sexualized

62 Keppler, Shirley. "Letters." Ms. , April 1973, 6.

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64 "Psychology Programs ." Ms. , January 1977, 35.

65 Tenneson Cohen, Joyce. “Photographer as Subject”. Ms. , October 1978, 51.

20 photographs seen in magazines during this time. Presenting images of women is realistic images was a significant step in re-defining body image, and gaining support for this magazine 66.

In 1977, the cover of the September issue read “Why Women Don’t Like Their Bodies.”

Articles titled “Never Too Thin To Feel Fat” and “Fat Can Set You Free”, exploited the crisis in body image and stereotyping that plagued the American image of women67. Judith Thurman’s

“Never Too Thin To Feel Fat” article reveled her life long battle with weight; not just the physical appearance of fat, but the emotional role that weight gain and loss had played in her life.

She revealed, “Fat covers up a lot of things. Do you suppose that’s why I’m fat? To cover up what’s deep inside me?”68Actress Barbara Cook spoke about how her interactions and perceptions within society have changed depending on her weight69. She noted that society sees fat as a disease, and that people who are overweight are automatically considered less intelligent and less trustworthy than those who society has deemed thin70.

These candid and sincere stories touched many women who were experiencing similar struggles, yet felt as though there was no safe place in society to share their feelings. Letters poured in, praising these articles and many women shared their own thoughts about feminism and body image71. Women’s insecurities were a subject that had not previously been addresses within the movement. Women were afraid that this would be seen as weakness, yet Ms. saw this

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67 Ms., September 1977

68 Thurman, Judith. "Never Too Think To Feel Fat." Ms. , September 1977, 51-52.

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71 "Letters." Ms. , January 1978, 4.

21 as a reality, therefore it was worth exploring. This was an indication of the new concept of addressing all aspects of womanhood, as a way to embrace natural female power and capability72.

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72 Alice Echols, Daring to Be BAD, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993), 260-265.

73 Ms., September 1977

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74 Ms. , October 1978, 51.

75 Ms. , October 1978, 51.

23 The body issue was subject to much criticism regarding the objectification of women’s bodies. The cover of the issue was a slim, white woman’s bare back. Feminist and author Robin

Morgan wrote the introduction for the September issue, and she was outraged that the cover represented the sexualization and objectification that the issue was supposed to condemn76. The issue also featured an ad for Vitabath shower gel, in which the product was pouring down a very attractive and slender woman’s back while she was taking a shower. Her entire backside was shown including part of her breast77.

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76 Mary Thom, Inside Ms.: 25 Years of the Magazine and the Feminist Movement, (Chapel Hill: Henry Holt & Co , 1998), 106.

77 "Vitabath." Ms. , September 1977, 13.

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24 These contradicting messages only increased woman’s interest in Ms. and it ignited further discussion and interaction between the magazine and its readers. Reader, Robin C.

McKiel wrote a letter of disapproval regarding the decision to choose a “skinny white woman” for the cover of an issue discussing body image stereotypes and perceptions. She claimed that this is exactly why women hate their bodies79. Even in its inconsistencies Ms. attracted many readers and inspired women to speak out.

Ms. not only printed its criticism but responded with open dialogue between the magazine and the readership. Ms. defended its cover image claiming that they did not want to use a larger woman in fear that it would only validate the idea that only heavier women are insecure about their body. They also did not want to use a person of color in fear of portraying a racist message80. Each Ms. issue contained a “No Comment” section, where readers sent in sexist ads or articles to showcase. Sexualized images of women, and outright sexist statements were seen every month in this section. In 1975 a pizza ad was showcased claiming that if you had just had a baby, they would send two free pizzas to the hospital if it was a boy, and one if it was a girl81. In

1979 a reader sent in an ad for Jay Briggs jackets for men that read “Whenever I’m out with someone other than my wife, I want to look my best.82”

The inconsistencies within Ms. became very clear when they found themselves showcased in their own “No Comment” section. In 1978 a Ms. ad for Lady Bic Shaver, featured

79 McKiel, Robin C. "Letters." Ms. , January 1978, 4.

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81 "Torrington Pizza Plaza ." Ms. , July 1975, 116.

82 "Jay Briggs." Ms. , April 1979, 73.

25 a slim white woman’s backside with a title that read “Bikini Legs”83. The ad revealed the importance of clean shaven legs at the beach. Readers were outraged that Ms. would commit themselves to breaking negative stereotyping for women's body image, then print that ad. One reader commented “You contradict yourself Ms. I’ve spent my high- school years reading you and learning from you. So, please, DON’T CHEAPEN YOURSELF, Ms. after teaching me not to”84. Ms. took its criticism with pride, and openly printed its ad in the “No Comment” section.

Ms. was not afraid to reveal conflicting or unpopular messages or images because it resulted in a dedication to diversity and openness. This became the core of Ms. and its ultimate role in the feminist movement. Uniting women on all issues was its way of empowering the population as they reflected the change within feminist thought.

Ms. printed many articles relating to women’s health. Articles educating women on health issues such as STDs, abortion, breast health, menopause, and vaginitis allowed for women to learn about their health in areas where they may be uncomfortable85. This was not seen in other feminist magazines, for women tended to avoid their bodies as a way to try and relate to men.

Women believed being like men would give them the power they desired86. However in Ms. these issues were discussed in depth, in a way that was thorough and easily understood. Instead of commenting on the importance of a breast exam, the magazine would print instructions along

83 Amy Farrell, Yours in Sisterhood: Ms. Magazine and the Promise of Popular Feminism, (Chapel Hill: Chapel Hill Press, 1998), 171.

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85 Ms., June 1974

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26 with detailed images to guide women in the process87. In 1974 Ms. printed a 4 page guide to venereal disease in which they discussed the definition, symptoms, treatment, and prevention of many of these diseases88. Ms. became a resource for all women, and readers praised these health tools. Many even shared their own stories regarding health issues89.

In the end, women made it clear that this was a tool that they very much appreciated. As much as Ms. focused on health issues, they also made questionable choices of their own. The majority of the magazine’s ads promoted alcohol and cigarettes90. Even after the research was released that is was very harmful to not only those who smoke but those who were exposed to it,

Ms. made the decision to continue running ads for cigarettes91. The magazine made a statement that since there was a clear warning about the use of cigarettes, women had the right to make a choice92. In 1978 they printed an ad with a women smoking a cigarette and the bolded title read,

“I made the decision about smoking93”.

Readers expressed a diverse response to this issue. Over 20% of the readers identified themselves as smokers, yet many women sent in letters criticizing Ms. for its dependency on

87 "American Cancer Society." Ms. , January 1973, 121.

88 Gordon, Sol. Ms., June 1974, 86.

89 Powers, Judith. "Letters." Ms., October 1975, 4.

90 Amy Farrell, Yours in Sisterhood: Ms. Magazine and the Promise of Popular Feminism, (Chapel Hill: Chapel Hill Press, 1998), 171.

91 Mary Thom, Inside Ms.: 25 Years of the Magazine and the Feminist Movement, (Chapel Hill: Henry Holt & Co , 1998), 136.

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93 "Vantage." Ms. , October 1978, 1.

27 cigarette advertisements94. Ms. stood behind its decision to print cigarette ads, but were not afraid to explore the health aspect of this issue. In 1987, Ms. dedicated an issue to women and addiction, in which they looked at the struggle of nicotine addiction95. This controversy within the content of these magazines is what made it marketable to such a variety of women.

Ms. explored the issue of beauty and how physical appearance has attributed to stereotyping and inequality for women. In 1973 Ms. printed an article titled “How the ‘Wings of

Women’ Get Clipped”96. The article revealed the reference sheet used by airlines to critique a woman’s appearance when applying for a stewardess position. Facial features, teeth, and body proportions were major categories in deciding a woman’s ability to fulfill this position97. If an applicant was considered to have ‘plan facial features’ she was immediately taken out of the applicant pool98. Women embraced Ms.’s efforts to evaluate beauty, and many flight attendants shared their personal struggles. One woman revealed that she had been forced into retirement at the age of 33 years old because of her aging appearance99. She chose to file a complaint with the

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and they ruled in her favor100. This focus on the challenges of beauty and body image was matched by a positive viewpoint on the empowerment that beauty can provide.

94 Mary Thom, Inside Ms.: 25 Years of the Magazine and the Feminist Movement, (Chapel Hill: Henry Holt & Co , 1998), 137.

95 Ms., February 1987

96 Retical, Hedy. "How the ‘Wings of Women’ Get Clipped." Ms. , January 1973, 88.

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28 101

In 1979 Ms. printed an article titled “How To Get Dressed And Still Be Yourself”.

Women shared their own personal fashion tastes, and revealed how dressing to their personal interests has allowed for beauty to be empowering102. One woman revealed that she had worn many layers in fear of only being approached for sexual reasons. She explained how putting her fears aside and embracing her fashion tastes has added excitement to her life103. One reader

101 Ms. , January 1973, 88.

102 Thurman, Judith. "How To Get Dressed And Still Be Yourself." Ms. , April 1979, 50-51.

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29 discussed her personal and political choice to not shave her legs104. Ms. wrote a response to her letter supporting her decision, yet this did not stop them from printing ads for hair removers and other beauty products. By discussing both the challenges and the benefits of beauty, Ms. created an environment that many women could relate to.

Motherhood and Women's Roles

Ms. dedicated much of its attention to the subject of woman’s roles. They addressed the issue of motherhood, marriage, as well as working and independent lifestyles. Women praised

Ms. for bringing attention to educated, successful females, while providing resources for all women who wished to accomplish similar goals105. Many articles were dedicated to educating women on issues that were not considered traditional for females at this time. Certain careers, handiwork, and sports were topics that Ms. geared toward women. However, the magazine received criticism for glorifying the independent, working woman, and many felt as though they were rejecting the idea that a feminist could be a wife and mother106. Ms. acknowledged this and also printed many articles discussing the relationship between marriage, motherhood, and feminism. The magazine also addressed the role that children played in the feminist cause, and were not afraid to explore non traditional family situations. Many looked to Ms. for what a feminist should be or how they should act. By discussing both domestic and nontraditional lifestyles, Ms. represented the change in the national feminist thought.

104 Grishman, Mary. "Letters." Ms. , May 1974, 4.

105 Mary Thom, Inside Ms.: 25 Years of the Magazine and the Feminist Movement, (Chapel Hill: Henry Holt & Co , 1998), 163.

106 Vine, Mary I. "Letters." Ms. , March 1977, 12.

30 Many of the women Ms. chose to write about, were those who had accomplished successful careers. In 1979 Ms. printed an article titled “Women At Their Work”, where many women were interviewed regarding their accomplishments107. These women had occupations that were unorthodox for females at this time such as airline pilot, firefighter, dentist, judge, and orchestra director108. Gloria Steinem wrote an article on Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis and her decision to return to work as a editor, despite the fact that Onassis was a mother, and that she was financially stable109. Onassis revealed that it was her passion for knowledge and growth that brought her back to work. The article glorified her decision. Women wrote in praising this article, expressing their support for Onassis’s decision and one women claimed the story humanized the former first lady in a way that most woman could relate110. Allowing readers to connect and support each other was a crucial aspect of the success of Ms.

In 1977 Ms. ran an article titled “The Rise of the Pink Collar Ghetto”, in which they revealed the restriction and limitations that women face within the workforce111. The majority of working women were limited to occupations such as secretarial work, education, nursing, and maid services112. Juanita Kreps, the secretary of commerce at the time, commented that “women have failed to make significant inroads into the most valuable marketplace occupations.113”

107 English, Betty Lou. "Woman At Their Work." Ms. , May 1979, 46.

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109 Steinem, Gloria. "Why Women Work – Gloria Steinem on Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis." Ms. , March 1979, 51.

110 Rodrigues, Suzanne. "Letters." Ms. , July 1979, 7.

111 Steinem, Gloria. "The Rise of the Pink Collar Ghetto." Ms., March 1977, 51.

112 Kreps, Juanita. "The Future For Working Women." Ms., March 1977, 56.

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31 Readers praised the article for revealing the unfortunate truth regarding women in the workforce.

One woman even shared her own experience with being caught in these occupation limitations saying that she was unhappy as a hair dresser, yet due to the restrictions within the workforce she has stayed in her position for stability 114.

Ms. focused on Black Feminism in 1979, and many of the women they chose to showcase were quite accomplished. Ms. wrote an article on Alma Thomas, a retired teacher who made history with her artwork. She became one of the first African Americans to have a one-woman showcase at the Whitney Museum in New York City and the Corcoran Gallery in Washington,

D.C115. Ms. also made it a point to print ads with women in non traditional roles; ads for the national guard pictured a smiling woman in uniform working on machinery 116. Dunlop tires had an ad that pictured a woman on a motorcycle who was the first woman to become AMA-licensed to road race117.

At times there was a clear focus on glorifying the independent, non-traditional woman.

Ms. not only discussed these issues, but provided resources for women to venture into new roles and activities that they may have thought were unobtainable. The magazine frequently printed guides to help women be more independent. Concepts included, how to be an exterminator, tune up your car, conserve energy, patent an invention, start your own business, play rugby, and weight lift. Ms. readers wrote in, thanking the magazine for allowing them to grow as a woman

114 Slenker, Nina. "Letter." Ms., July 1977, 8.

115 Wilson, Judith. "Alma Thomas." Ms. , February 1979, 59.

116 "National Guard." Ms., February 1979, 75.

117 "Dunlop Tires." Ms. , August 1978, 81.

32 by connecting them to the feminist community in a way that they were never able to before118.

However, the fact that Ms. prided itself on promoting an open and accepting view of feminism, caused many to see these articles as an offensive contradiction.

One woman said she was ‘shocked and outraged’ by “The Rise of the Pink Collar Ghetto” article for it seemed as though they were portraying certain professions as less worthy than others119. She was very happy as a beautician and felt the article portrayed those in her profession as “an uneducated, nonthinking woman”120. Other women wrote in commenting on this focus on career-driven, independent feminists. One reader claimed that she was a housewife and more liberated than most women in the workforce121. She resented the fact that Ms. was so quick to praise the women outside of the home, as if it were superior to marriage and motherhood122.

Ms. also represented this contradiction within their own work environment. The magazine had printed many articles revealing disappointing work environments where women felt disrespected, yet Ms. was too responsible for this123. Many women at Ms. became so consumed with changing the female stereotypes that they made many of the workers feel as though there was something wrong with their occupation. They would not call the office workers secretaries,

118 Amy Farrell, Yours in Sisterhood: Ms. Magazine and the Promise of Popular Feminism, (Chapel Hill: Chapel Hill Press, 1998), 163.

119 Willard, Victoria. "Letters." Ms. , July 1977, 8.

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121 Acosta, Nancy. "Letters." Ms. , January 1977, 7.

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123 Mary Thom, Inside Ms.: 25 Years of the Magazine and the Feminist Movement, (Chapel Hill: Henry Holt & Co , 1998), 62-69.

33 and many of the women felt offended by this choice124. One woman who worked for Gloria

Steinem wrote, “‘There seems to be much embarrassment and confusion about what work I do in this office....I do secretarial work. Secretary is not a dirty word.125’” Mary Peacock was one of the main women behind this magazine and she too saw the contradiction within the structure of

Ms. She believed that the content was focusing on the outspoken, and politically active woman126. This went against the mission that Ms. set out to accomplish, which was to represent all women.

However, Ms. also celebrated the role of wife and mother, and these concepts once again warranted diverse reaction. In 1977 Ms. interviewed a woman named Jane Broderick, a housewife and mother of eight children127. Broderick was an educated woman who simply loved motherhood and family life. She expressed her ability to be both a feminist and a homemaker.

She supported the movement, and even voted for the Equal Rights Amendment. She described motherhood as a life experience, and it was no barrier to her support of gender equality 128. She did express that she felt as though the movement often made her feel alienated, due to her choice to live a traditional, family-oriented life129.

In 1972 Ms. printed an article titled “The Value of Housework”. This article discussed the lack of respect and recognition for the amount of effort and responsibility it takes to run a

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127Lazarre, Jane. "Jane Broderick." Ms. , May 1977, 51-55.

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34 household130. Housewives were not considered workers, and their daily tasks were underestimated and given little value. Ms. revealed the overwhelming responsibilities that women have as housewives and even calculated a monetary value for their work, based on what it would take to hire someone to fulfill all of their duties131. They valued an average housewife position with earnings of $13,391 a year which was more than most Americans at that time132. So just as Ms. promoted the working, politically active feminist, they also noted the importance of those who worked at home. This contradiction surrounding woman’s roles was seen frequently in many of the magazines, yet it ultimately allowed for the majority of women to find some connection with the magazine and its variety of messages.

Men

Despite the feminist movement centering on female growth, the relationship with the male race was a crucial subject for Ms. Much of the content surrounding men was considered anti male, yet there were also articles dedicated to the importance of men within the feminist cause. Ms. explored men in a variety of areas such as marriage, fatherhood, and the workplace.

The contradictions worked again to ignite diverse discussion and engage a wide variety of readers. Although there was criticism, exploring the issue of men in such a variety of areas was a representation of the evolution of feminism. During the 1970s the issue of men, not only as the power holders, but as the partners of women, began to be more of an acceptable subject. Men

130 Scott, Anne Crittenden. "The Value of Housework." Ms. , July 1972, 57-59.

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35 were not only seen as the perpetrators, but as a necessary part of the solution. The fact that Ms. dedicated so much content to men reflected this transition.

From the beginning, the subject of men was a controversial issue for the women behind

Ms. Clay Felker the editor of New York Magazine, who gave the women the chance to preview their project in 1972, wanted the cover of the first issue to be a man and a women tied together to represent a struggle133. Gloria Steinem refused to have a man on the cover because she wanted the focus on women134. Ms. did eventually address the subject in a significant way, and much of the content surrounding men was perceived to be aggressive or anti-male.

In 1978 Gloria Steinem wrote a satirical article titled “If Men Could Menstruate”, in which she uses male stereotypes to envision their reaction to menstruation135. She playfully claimed that how long and how much one menstruated would suddenly be a competition, as men were often competitive about physical attributes136. They would make sanitary items publicly funded, and spend government funds to find cures for the physical discomforts related to menstruation. She claimed they would use their menstrual abilities to state that women could not join the military or hold office positions simply because they could not menstruate137. Although this was done in humor it conveyed male behavior as absurd.

133 Abigail, Pogrebin . "How Do You Spell Ms.." New York Magazine, October 30, 2011. http:// nymag.com/news/features/ms-magazine-2011-11/index8.html (accessed November, 2012).

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135 Steinem, Gloria. "If Men Could Menstruate." Ms. , October 1978, 110.

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36 In 1979 Ms. focused on Black Feminists, and printed an article titled “Black Macho and the Myth of the Superwoman.”138 Michelle Williams, and African American woman and feminist, wrote an in-depth analysis of the state of African American woman in society. She described her difficult childhood dealing with a community full of racism, sexual harassment, poverty, and power struggle. Williams claimed that the male-dominated movements that took place within the black community were hurtful to women139. It gave the impression that all progress had to be initiated and controlled by men, leaving women to feel powerless. She also spoke of other major revolutions and the men who had led them. Williams found this male dominated history as a reason for the lack of support that had plagued the feminist cause; women simply did not believe that change could happen without men140.

In 1977 an ad for Boeing airlines read “A Woman’s Work Is Never Done” and it pictured a woman doing paperwork on an airplane. Beside her was a man in a suit fast asleep. This type of ad did not simply highlight the capabilities of a woman but implied a subtle message of superiority, which is the exact concept that the feminist movement was trying to overcome. Ms. also printed personal stories from women who felt hostile toward men. One reader expressed her fear of the entire male race because of a previous relationship141. A female pilot wrote in discussing her disappointment with men in her field. She said her instructor had expected her to fail simply because she was a woman, and her colleagues constantly made discriminating

138 Wallace, Michele. "Black Macho and the Myth of the Superwoman." Ms. , January 1979, 46.

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141 Solganick, Myrna. "Letters." February, 1976, 6.

37 remarks142. She claimed that they assumed “The skies belonged to them143”. Women were able to bond over this resentment, yet the message about men was not consistent within Ms.

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142 York, Pamela. "Letters." January, 1974, 4.

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144 Ms., 1977

38 Reflecting the shift away from the anti- male outlook frequently associated with radical feminism, many articles praised men, and discussed their importance in the feminist movement.

In 1979 an article titled “Daughters and Fathers” discussed the significance the paternal role plays in raising a daughter145. As the article explains, self esteem and awareness, outlook on the world, and relations with men are all greatly effected by the relationship a daughter has with her father. The article shared personal stories from successful women who were greatly influenced by their father’s love146. In 1972 Ms. interviewed a couple who had what they called an

‘egalitarian marriage’147. The couple explained that their marriage was completely free of gender stereotyping and all responsibilities were split equally. They discussed how each responsibility, whether it was financial or domestic, was handled with open communication and fairness. This refuted the cultural assumption that many men would never be able to live in full equality with women148.

Ms. even printed entire issues focusing on men. In 1974, they featured an issue dedicated to fathers, and in 1975 Ms. printed the ‘men’s issue’, which featured Robert Redford’s back on the cover. Articles showcased men taking part in childbirth, parenting, and general family life in a positive and unique light149. Both men and women praised the magazine for addressing men in such way. Just as some where drawn to Ms. to bond over their hostility toward men, others

145 "Daughters and Fathers." Ms. , June 1979, 46.

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147 Schreiber, Claude Servan. "Marriage of Equals." Ms. , July 1972, 91.

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149 Leonard , John. Ms. , May 1974, 52.

39 rejoiced in the positive attention that Ms. attributed to men.150 One woman wrote in praising an article that focused on paternal instinct, and she revealed that her husband also enjoyed the article.151 Although the views on men were diverse, they elicited passionate reactions from readers152.

Sexuality

Sexuality was an issue that Ms. was not afraid to explore. A controversial topic, yet the magazine frequently covered stories on gays and lesbians, and once again, the messages were diverse and occasionally inconsistent. The many opinions ignited much interest and praise that contributed to the success of the magazine. Many women felt the issue of sexuality detracted from the ultimate focus of the movement, but it was an important part of cultural feminism, simply because it was a relevant issue for women. Therefore, Ms. was open to explore the issue personally and politically.

Personal reflections from gays and lesbians were often printed within Ms. In 1976 a woman named Joan Larkin wrote an article titled “Coming Out”, where she described her struggle with being gay. She relates the pain stemming from childhood, and the difficulties and rewards of coming out and being true to herself.153 In 1975 Ms. printed a story on Elaine Noble, an openly gay state legislator. The article praised her natural political talents and her ability to

150 Harris, Madelon. "Letters." Ms. , September 1974, 6. 151 Ilbd

152 Ilbd 153 Larkin, Jone. "Coming Out." Ms., March 1976, 73.

40 break down lesbian stereotypes154. Ms. was also one of the first magazines to discuss same sex marriage. In 1975 they ran an article exploring the issue, and discussing the story of two women who chose to pursue a marriage under Colorado law155.

In 1978 Ms. ran an in-depth article about a woman’s experience with her sexuality 156. She described honestly and frankly her attraction to both men and women, and how the femisnt movement had allowed her to finally be comfortable with her natural feelings. She said that expressing her natural sexuality kept her honest157. Women responded with great support and wrote in to share their compassion and praise for this woman’s candid expression. One woman even confessed that she was a married woman with children and had recently entered into a sexual relationship with another female. She claimed the article on bisexuality had given her the courage to write about her conflicts, which has helped her tremendously158.

Ms. wanted to spread awareness and acceptance toward the gay community, however, the magazine was accused of stereotyping and narrow-mindedness. All of these article seemed to portray lesbianism as a dark struggle that then turns into a liberated and powerful self159. One reader wrote a letter to Ms. expressing her disappointment toward this contradiction; she felt as though that Ms. preached openness yet was unable to reach out to the “ordinary garden variety

154 Kies, Judith. "Elaine Noble." Ms. , August 1975, 61.

155 Ms., August 1975, 20.

156 Orlando, . "Bisexuality: A Choice Not An Echo?." Ms., October 1978, 60.

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158 "Letters." Ms. , February 1979, 4.

159 Amy Farrell, Yours in Sisterhood: Ms. Magazine and the Promise of Popular Feminism, (Chapel Hill: Chapel Hill Press, 1998), 167-168.

41 Lesbian’”160.She claimed that many lesbians were aware and accepting of their sexuality as children and did not have any internal turmoil or dramatic ‘coming out’, yet all the articles tended to dramatize the entire population161. Ms. also printed letters from women who disagreed with lesbianism. One woman wrote that sexuality was not a feminist issue, and that it was making the movement less attractive to the public162.Although this was inconsistent to other messages regarding homosexuality, it was their willingness to print all opinions that made Ms. so marketable.

Ms. also contradicted itself when it made a political decision that many saw as discriminatory. Ms. interviewed a female astronaut on her professional accomplishments, and in the interview the woman revealed that she was gay. This was an anticipated article and many advertisers were drawn to this issue, and Ms. chose not to include her statement about her sexuality. This action went against the core values of Ms., and they later printed an article explaining the regrettable situation.

Chapter 4: Conclusion

Second-wave feminism was constantly evolving as a movement. Ms. changed the state of feminist literature and the movement at large by becoming a representation of this ever-changing concept. The magazine embraced the new ideas of cultural feminism as they explored all aspects of womanhood, and created an environment where all opinions were welcomed. Motherhood, beauty, health, men, sexuality, race, economics, and politics were all discussed in a way that

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42 society had rarely experienced them before. Ms. was not afraid of contradiction or diversity, and it was its all-encompassing approach that allowed them to achieve such success. Although there was much discussion and inconsistency regarding how to define the feminist cause. Ms. became the most influential feminist magazine of all time by refusing to promote a limiting definition or standard.

Ms. understood the importance of variety within its content. The ads for the magazine itself highlighted its diversified, and in time, contradictory material. In 1976 its own ad noted that the magazine says such diverse things because women's lives are inherently, “sad, funky, outrageous, exhilarating, creative, angry, funny, wasted, vulnerable, and strong”163. Ms. was not afraid to print inconsistent messages for they knew its readership was just as diverse as the issues that surrounded them. Ms. prided itself on discussing and promoting concepts that no one else would, even if it meant sending inconsistent messages164. Issues such as body image, women’s roles, men, sexuality, and race were all controversial areas where the inconsistencies received much criticism. However, it was those exact contradictions that made the magazine one of the most popular pieces of feminist literature. Its target audience was all women, and to do so the content had to encompass all viewpoints. Reaching a readership of 3 million people Ms. truly made history.

163 Ms. , February 1976, 86.

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43 Bibliograpahy

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Echols, Alice. Daring to Be BAD. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993.

Farrell, Amy. Yours in Sisterhood: Ms. Magazine and the Promise of Popular Feminism. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1998.

Firestone, Shulamith. The Dialectic of Sex ; The Case for Feminist Revolution. New York: Morrow, 1970.

Friedan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1963.

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"Ms.." New York, December 20, 1971.

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