WILDLIFE Prolific life Maungaharuru (or Introduction rumbling mountain) was The arrival of humans in started a wave of bird . Early losses were so named because of the sound of the prolific bird brought on by Maori demand for food supplies, and by kiore (Polynesian ) and kuri life during the time of (Maori ) preying on them. Maori settlement in the By around 1600, about 34 (a quarter of New Zealand’s endemic land-based ) area. had gone, along with half of the endemic sea birds. Other unknown plants and were also lost. New Zealand is now regarded as a world leader in with innovative programmes now operating in the management of threatened bird species. Prior to 1760, 11 species of were lost in addition to another 21 land and sea birds. Many No more moa more birds became extinct in the past 150 years following the introduction of pests and Eleven species of moa once predators, land clearance and lowland habitat destruction. These include the (last seen roamed New Zealand – the 1907); laughing (1907); SI or native (1900); NI piopio (1902); SI slender bush moa, coastal moa, eastern moa, stout- kokako (1950); NZ quail (1869); Dieffenbach’s rail (1840); bush wren (1972); Stephen’s legged moa, Island wren (1894). giant moa, crested moa, Herbert Guthrie-Smith recorded the presence of 44 different bird species on Tutira Station, little bush moa, upland which includes the Boundary Stream area. His observations included NI brown kiwi, NI moa, large bush moa, , , parakeets, and kaka. heavy footed moa, giant moa. Current bird life A wide variety of native bird species remain within Boundary Stream Scenic Reserve with at least 24 native bird species and 11 identified. Birds have flourished since the advent of the Mainland Island project, and at times the melodious songs can be deafening. The control of pests and predators and greater availability of food resources, due to decreased competition, has enabled the release of NI brown kiwi and kokako. Native bird species currently found in the reserve include NZ pipit (pihoihoi), fern bird (matata), blackback gull (karoro), bellbird (korimako), , NI brown kiwi, harrier hawk (kahu), NI robin (toutouwai), (riroriro), (miromiro), NZ pigeon (kereru), (titipounamu), (popokatea), kingfisher (kotare), long-tailed cuckoo (koekoea), shining cuckoo (pipiwharauroa), silver-eye (tauhou), welcome swallow, (ruru), fantail NZ pigeon, kereru (piwakawaka) and occasionally kaka and NZ falcon (karearea). These birds move through the reserve, following Introduced birds the seasonal availability of food sources. This is Introduced species found in closely related to altitudinal gradients. the area include chaffinch, greenfinch, blackbird, song thrush, house sparrow, red poll, goldfinch, magpie, dunnock (hedge sparrow), skylark and starling. Although some competition occurs with native species, this is probably minimal. Falcon Photo: R. Morris

15 Reintroductions Survival rate The management of Boundary Stream Mainland Island has allowed the development of an In the wild, 95 percent of all kiwi chicks will die environment suitable for the reintroduction of threatened species. before they reach a year Factors that enhance the prospect of reintroductions are: old unless predators like are controlled to • size and quality of habitat very low numbers by • potential to expand into adjoining areas trapping and poisoning. • management and control of pests and predators • greater availability of food resources, due to decreased competition. Reintroducing bird species once common to the area is an important aim of the Mainland Island project because it: • protects NZ’s biodiversity • restores forest process e.g. birds dispersing seeds.

John Adams and Michelle Howard band a NI robin before its release into Boundary Stream in April 1998. North Island robin Photo: Steve Cranwell. and other small predators are to blame for the local of North Island robins at Boundary Stream in the 1990s. But intensive control since 1996 enabled the robins to be successfully reintroduced in 1998 and within two years the original 28 birds increased to about 60 birds.

North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli) The was once common in the Maungaharuru Range with the Waitere block on the western side holding one of the most dense populations in Hawke's Bay. But the clearance and burning of this and the Woodstock blocks for farming in the 1970s, coupled with the of young birds by mustelids, and , resulted in the kiwi population collapsing.

Involving tangata whenua is Kiwi used an area of scrub and regrowth an important component in in the Waitere block as refuge but it was unable to sustain the artificially high population. the successful reintroduction of bird species. Here, Ari is The kiwi either moved out or died. A high level of predation on juveniles is recognised as the welcomed to Boundary Stream greatest threat to population survival. Mainland Island in March 2000. Photo: C. Tiffen.

16 Reintroduction The reintroduction of kiwi to Boundary Stream Mainland Island began with the release of Ari in March 2000. A further two kiwi – Raina and Kohu – were released in May and June 2000 and more juveniles followed. The established technique, known as Operation Nest Egg (ONE), is being used for the reintroductions. The technique relies on removing eggs from nests, hatching them and releasing the young kiwi back to the wild when they are big enough (800-1000g) to defend themselves from their main predator, stoats. The aim is to source eggs from nesting radio- tagged males in the Kaweka Forest Park, complete incubation and rearing at facilities in Napier (Westshore Reserve) and Rotorua (Rainbow Springs) and release the juveniles into Boundary Stream. Boundary Stream DOC ranger Before being released into Boundary Stream, the young kiwi are fitted with a ‘juvenile’ Steve Cranwell with a young kiwi. transmitter. The transmitter allows the kiwi to be found again and, from the sound of the Photo: C. Tiffen. signal, indicates whether the kiwi has been out foraging the night before. Modern ways So far only two males have roamed outside the safety of the reserve, but after being returned The kiwi may be an have remained inside. All the other juveniles have not moved far from their release spots. ancient bird but it has some seemingly modern ways — the male of the Monitoring species has played the role Juveniles are monitored three times a week using radio tracking. Transmitter leg bands are of househusband for checked and/or replaced every 10-14 days for chicks and every six months for adults. centuries. During these checks, birds are weighed, measured and their general condition assessed. Once the female lays an The released kiwi have all shown signs of adapting well to life at Boundary Stream, putting egg, the male sits on it until the young bird or fledgling on weight and finding excellent roosting spots. hatches. This incubation Male kiwi may start looking for a mate can take anything from when they are around 18 months to two 77–106 days. The male years old, and females when they are also look out for the small young, which emerge for about two to two and a half years old. The the first time when four to oldest kiwi in the reserve are 18 months seven days old to forage old so it may be a while before these kiwi independently. But the have chicks of their own. adults do not feed them.

Challenges The long-term challenges facing kiwi establishment in Boundary Stream are: • the ability to control mustelids and cats at low or zero levels • the ability to keep adult birds within the area.

Boundary Stream DOC ranger Tamsin Ward-Smith shows how to use the radio tracking aerial to discover the Measuring and weighing kiwi. whereabouts of kiwi within the reserve. Photos: C. Tiffen. Photo: C. Tiffen.

17 North Island kokako In 2001, the Maungahaururu Range once again became home to the North Island kokako, the finest of New Zealand forests. Although the initial population was just five breeding pairs, the aim is for numbers to rapidly increase to about 30-50 pairs within the 300ha of prime kokako habitat at Boundary Stream Mainland Island. If successful, this will be the first wild population returned to the southern North Island (excluding offshore Kapiti Island) and the first east of the main ranges. More importantly, it will be a significant step in the restoration of the Boundary Stream forest ecosystem. Kokako and kereru are the only birds left in New Zealand to play a role in

North Island kokako seed dispersal of native plants with large fruits. Photo: R. Colbourne The kokako relocation was made possible because of recent successes in the ability to manage and increase kokako populations in the wild. Future reintroductions While kokako were once common in all the ranges of North Island forests, by 2001 there Future reintroductions were only about 400 pairs around the northern half of the North Island. The destruction of may include the North forest habitat and the ongoing effects of introduced predators and browsers has seen their Island saddleback, weka, dramatic decline. This, however, can be reversed by intensive control of possums and rats. , parakeet, blue The most spectacular success has been achieved at Otamatuna in Te Urewera National Park duck and kaka, Powelliphanta snails, where numbers have risen from only eight pairs in 1994 to at least 60 pairs in 2001 with northern rata, mistletoe kokako spilling over into the surrounding area. and lizard species. If a wild kokako population is successfully re-established at Boundary Stream, it will be a further important step in restoring the local, indigenous forest ecosystem and, at the national level, it will make a useful contribution to the recovery of these endangered birds. The presence of abundant kokako with their rich variety of song is expected to enhance the experience of Boundary Stream for future visitors.

How kokako were reintroduced Five kokako pairs were taken from Otamatuna in Te Urewera National Park and flown by helicopter to Boundary Stream in travelling boxes. They were put into large (14x7x5 metre) aviaries built within the forest on the edge of the prime kokako habitat, one pair to each aviary. The birds are fed a mixed natural and artificial diet. Human contact with the birds is minimised to encourage natural behaviour in the adults and any offspring. Visitors have only supervised access to one aviary. All going well, a number of kokako juveniles could be fledged by the summer of 2002. These will be released and fed extra food outside the aviaries for some weeks. The aim, by releasing offspring while the parents remain in aviaries, is for the young kokako to regard the area as their natal territory (territory of birth). It is hoped this will encourage them to settle within 1-2km of their parents as most kokako do in the wild. While it could take several years to get sufficient breeding output from the captive pairs, it is desirable that at least four pairs breed and have their offspring establish pairs in the Mainland Island to give an adequate breadth to the gene pool in the new population. Released birds will be monitored to determine dispersal and territory establishment, pairing and breeding. When five pairs are established in the Mainland Island outside the aviaries, the Boundary Stream DOC ranger Sarah King releases a pair of original parent birds will also be released. kokako from its temporary See page 37. enclosure. Photo: J. Adams

18 INVERTEBRATES The invertebrate world can be split into nematodes (roundworms, Most of the animals in the world are invertebrates — tiny animals without backbones. threadworms); New Zealand’s invertebrate population has about 21,000 described species but 50,000 platyhelminths species may exist with almost half of these insects. New Zealand has a diverse population by (flatworms); annelids world standards with many unique species. Many are threatened, including the giant weta (segmented worms, such as and giraffe weevil. leeches and ); (insects, Invertebrate populations help with pollination, help break down decomposing leaf litter millipedes, centipedes, and woody material and are an important food source for many native birds. arachnids, crustaceans, Invertebrate populations have been affected by the introduction of pests and predators. slaters, spiders and mites); Mice, rats, hedgehogs and cats prey on them, competing with native birds for their food and molluscs (snails, many of which are found in the supply. sea). The number and population structure of invertebrates present act as an indicator of the health of a forest. At Boundary Stream Mainland Island, invertebrate populations are monitored to assess changes to population and effects of pest and predator control. Interesting invertebrates A range of interesting invertebrates can be found at Boundary Stream. Some are difficult to observe because of their secretive lifestyles.

Ghost ( moth) Male puriri moth This large, bright green moth only lives for a few days, just long enough to mate and lay its Photo: R. Morris eggs. But before that the moth is a larva for three years, measuring 60mm as a mature Ancient invertebrates caterpillar, and a pupa for several months. New Zealand inherited Larvae bore into native trees, notably puriri, putaputaweta, wineberry and lacebark, and animals from feed on the bark and underlying tissue. The tunnel they create serves as a home and food Gondwana times store, and is extended as required. including The puriri moth is the largest found in New Zealand. Females reach 150mm wingspan, earthworms over a metre long, males 100mm. It is readily identified by its size and green colour, which provides carnivorous snails camouflage. with shells over 9 cm wide and a weevil Peripatus with an extremely long neck or A half worm, half that bears live young, the peripatus is one of New Zealand’s probiscus. The weta, strangest animals. It lives in rotting logs on the forest floor and grows up to 80mm the giant of the insect long. It is a metallic grey-blue colour and has the appearance of a worm in its body but world, has evolved to with 15–16 pairs of clawed feet and the air-conducting windpipe of an insect. The take the place of mice peripatus feeds on insects and other smaller invertebrates which it traps by spitting a in our forests, and a species of wingless fly sticky fluid from glands near its mouth exists which is found resembling peripatus have been found in rocks up to 500 million years old. It is only on our native said to be the missing link between worms and insects. bat. These are but a few of our unique invertebrates whose Carabid beetles origins extend back Carabids are wingless beetles that feed on small invertebrates at night. They catch their some 200 million prey with powerful, pincer-like jaws and vary from 20–25mm in body length and are years. usually black. They usually live in the bush and have many species at Boundary Stream. Carabid beetles are predatory as larvae and can produce a painful nip if picked up the Watch this wrong way. Video entitled Spineless Wonders.

19 Knock, knock Huhu beetles Who’s there? Ever tasted huhu grubs? These are the larvae of New Zealand’s largest beetle the nocturnal Hu. huhu, which is dark brown and reaches 50mm in length. The huhu does not feed but lives Hu who? for about two weeks, in which time it mates. It lays eggs under bark or in crevices and these That’s right, Huhu! hatch after three to four weeks. Mating call Huhu beetles live in native and exotic forests and take up to three years to complete their life The cicada produces its cycle. Their larvae, huhu bugs, tunnel through rotten wood, leaving behind a trail of distinctive sound with a digested wood fibre called a frass. After pupating, they emerge as fearsome-looking adults. pair of voice chambers at the base of the abdomen on Cicadas the underside Summer wouldn’t be the same without the raucous chattering song of the cicada. The Deafening cicada uses its song as a mating call and lives in a variety of habitats including forest, scrub Cicada nymphs can last in and open grass country. It sucks the nutrient sap of plants and lays eggs into the tissue of nymphal stages for up to trees. These winter over to hatch in the summer. Its nymphs drop from the plant on about seven years, when a hatching and enter the ground, where they suck on root sap. They pass through four stages mass hatching occurs. The 1988–99 summer was one of growth before leaving the ground to climb trees, split open such season at Boundary along their backs and emerge as adults. Nymphal husks are left Stream. The noise in the attached to the tree. forest was deafening! Weta The weta is a real survivor. It was around at the time of the Cicada dinosaur, and is still here. But birds prey on it and rats have Photo: C. R. Veitch virtually wiped out the giant species. Seventeen of the 70 weta species in New Zealand are threatened. Some species of weta are among the world’s heaviest insects (weighing up to 71g) that Weta have evolved to take the place of mice on the forest floor. Large-bodied, harmless insects, Photo: C. R. Veitch they’re related to crickets. Five species are found at Boundary Stream including tree and cave weta. Tree weta are found in galleries originally excavated by moth and beetle larvae. They enlarge the galleries to accommodate a male and his group of females and the male aggressively defends his harem. Females lay their eggs on the ground and nymphs hatch as pale miniatures of the adult. Immature Powelliphanta, 42mm Cave weta are mainly forest species (contrary to their name), which occupy dark, damp, Photo: V. Vercoe cool spaces, emerging at night to forage and lay eggs. They may gather in large numbers Separate species during the day and are known for their exceptionally long hind legs (20mm) in comparison Powelliphanta traversii to the rest of their body. Females have extremely long organs for depositing eggs. ‘Maungaharuru’, which grows up to 52mm in diameter, may be a Powelliphanta land snails separate species or Unlike common garden snails, which eat lots of vegetables, ancient Powelliphanta snails are subspecies of voracious meat-eaters, eating earthworms, slugs and smaller snails. They date back over Powelliphanta traversii. A 100 million years, live in damp forest areas so as not to dry out and measure up to 100mm stable population has been recorded in a few sites on in diameter. the Maungaharuru Range Powelliphanta are threatened because they are a favourite food of possums, rats and pigs, but not within Boundary are accidentally crushed underfoot by goats, deer and farm stock and their natural home Stream Mainland Island. has been changed by land clearance and farming practices.

Powelliphanta Is a Powelliphanta an elephant?

20 PESTS

New Zealand’s unique flora and fauna have been threatened since the arrival of humans. The (kiore) and native dog (kuri) were the first wave of predators to be introduced with the arrival of Maori. Further pests, introduced with the arrival of Europeans, heightened the destruction. Some particularly troublesome pests at Boundary Stream are:

Australian brushtail possum Possums are a prime example of the dangers of introducing a seemingly harmless species to a new ecosystem with no natural defences to keep numbers in balance. They have destroyed a large proportion of New Zealand’s native flora and fauna. Possums: • were liberated into New Zealand in 1837 and Hawke’s Bay between 1870 and 1890 to establish a fur industry. Imports and liberations continued The possum is a major threat to the Boundary Stream ecosystem through to 1940 Photo: R. Morris. • were protected until 1946–47 when restrictions on trapping/poisoning were lifted • grew to an estimated population of 70 million by 1994, occupying over 90 percent of New Zealand’s land area Mustelids • can cause forest modification and collapse where populations are dense Have been associated with the disappearance of a • eat more than 70 native tree species, 20 ferns and a variety of grasses and crops number of bird species, including the bush wren, • prey on native birds and their eggs, and on a large selection of invertebrates – wetas, stick NZ thrush, , insects, cicadas, beetles and Powelliphanta (giant land snail) populations saddleback, South Island kokako, , takahe • are implicated in the deaths of adult kiwi and kiwi, and probably many invertebrates. • directly contribute to the decline of the unique parasitic plant Dactylanthus Guthrie-Smith noted that • carry bovine tuberculosis and leptospirosis – a major threat to New Zealand’s export the destruction of bird life on Tutira followed not long meat industry. after the release of mustelids. Weasels Mustelids appeared at Tutira in 1902. Stoats (Mustela erminea), weasels (Mustela nivalis) and ferrets (Mustela furo) are collectively called mustelids. All three are found at Boundary Stream. They were released in the 1870–1880s, at the insistence of farmers, to control rabbits. They spread rapidly thoughout the country and became serious pests. Restrictions halting further importations were not put in place until 1936. Stoats are bold, fearless hunters, tackling prey larger than themselves. They are accomplished swimmers and tree-climbers and can be distinguished by the black tip on their tail. Weasels and ferrets are adept hunters. Weasels are the smallest of the three mustelids, a large adult measuring 25cm in body length. Ferrets are the largest, reaching up to 45cm in length and featuring a range of fur colours. They live mainly in pasture, grasslands,

Ferrets are the largest of the three scrubland and fringes of nearby forests and can co-exist in the same area with stoats. They mustelids which collectively prey prey on feral house mice, rats, possums, invertebrates (including wetas), rabbits, lizards, on many species frogs, eels, freshwater crayfish, birds and bird eggs.

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Norway rat — norwegius: • first European rat to enter New Zealand • reported in large plagues throughout the country by 1840-50s • can climb, but prefers the forest floor and appears to live close to water • eats seeds, leaves, fern rhizomes, molluscs, crustaceans, annelids, insects - weta, beetles and other invertebrates • major threat to New Zealand’s fauna as they are opportunistic feeders, preying on bird eggs, birds and reptiles. Rattus norwegius, also known as water rat, because of its ability Ship rat — Rattus rattus: to swim • became established after 1860s • adapted well to life in New Zealand and is an excellent climber • eats both plants and animals including , fruits, seeds, native snails, invertebrates, slugs, lizards, birds, bird eggs and bats • spread often precedes the decline of bellbird, robin, stitchbird, saddleback and NZ thrush. It preys on nesting kokako.

House mouse – Mus musculus: • probably introduced in 1827 after shipwreck on Ruapuke Island, Foveaux Strait • present in Bay of Islands by 1830s, found throughout NZ by turn of Ship rat the century • makes its greatest impact by eating seeds and can kill invertebrates and lizards • preyed on by native birds including weka, morepork, kingfisher and falcon • may have significant influence on invertebrates.

Cat – Felis catis: • introduced to New Zealand by early European explorers, whalers and settlers • established as feral populations by the 1830s • introduced to and responsible for loss of many birds on many offshore islands • recognised as responsible for destruction of many indigenous species by 1883 • prey on a variety of animals including rodents, rabbits, birds, reptiles, skinks, fish, freshwater crayfish, invertebrates, and bats in accessible roosts.

22 Pig – Sus scrofa:

• introduced to NZ in 1769 by French explorer De Surville and presented by Captain Cook in 1773 to Maori in Queen Charlotte Sound and south of Cape Kidnappers • feral populations well established by 1840 around European and Maori settlements • are omnivorous and responsible for the reduction in numbers of kakapo, other ground nesting birds particularly kiwi and some plant species • occasionally found in Boundary Stream.

Deer

• released into New Zealand from 1851 to 1919, with the intention of establishing game Red deer herds. Seven species released, with red deer being most widely distributed. All deer species were originally protected. • Hawke’s Bay has three species – fallow, red and sika deer. All are present in the Maungaharuru area with red deer the only species occurring in any great number. • highly adaptable feeders, being both grazers and browsers. Red deer feed selectively on highly palatable species such as mahoe and pseudopanax species. • have caused spectacular damage to saplings and seedlings in native forests, eliminating some species from areas

Wild goats • found in low numbers at Boundary Stream.

Goat – Capra hircus:

• liberated by Cook between 1773–77. Whalers, sealers and settlers made further releases and also released on offshore islands to provide food for castaways • introduced to Tutira block after the land was developed to control woody weeds. The Hawke’s Bay goat population originates from this period, probably 1870-80s. • are a major pest, having quickly established themselves in forests and scrub land where they browse heavily on vegetation • inflict severe damage on native forests throughout New Zealand. • were seen by Guthrie-Smith in the 1890s to be a threat to native vegetation • have severely affected Boundary Stream’s flora and fauna by browsing on vegetation, trampling seedlings and invertebrates and worsening eroding areas. The open forest in the Kamahi Track area is a visual example of the effects of goats having entirely removed the forest understorey. • significantly change the forest structure and processes through sustained browsing. This leads to forest canopy collapse, domination by a few unpalatable species and changed structure Kamahi regrowth showing the affecting habitat and food resources for other dependent species. lack of goat browsing. Photo C. Tiffen

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