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RED CLAY HISTORIC STATE PARK ______CULTURAL LANDSCAPE INVENTORY & ASSESSMENT ______

Prepared by the MTSU Center for Historic Preservation

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Submitted to the National Park Service, National Trails Intermountain Region, Santa Fe, NM February 2019

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TABLE OF CONTENTS This report was prepared by:

Introduction ...... 1 S. Danielle Shelton, PhD Student & Graduate Management Summary ...... 1 Research Assistant Historical Overview ...... 1 Scope and Methodology ...... 4 Study Boundaries ...... 4 Summary of Findings ...... 4 Landscape Historical Context ...... 7 1826-1838: The Red Clay Council Ground and the Railroad ...... 7 1839-1860: Post Removal Settlement ...... 10 1861-1865: Civil War at Red Clay ...... 12 1866-1927: Reconstruction and the Return to Rural Life ...... 13 1930-1949: Establishing Red Clay’s Location ...... 15 1959-1980: Park Development ...... 16 1982- Present: Red Clay Revisited ...... 19 Features & Existing Conditions ...... 22 James Franklin Corn Museum and Interpretive Center ...... 23 Council Spring (Blue Hole Spring) ...... 24 Reconstructed Council House ...... 26 Reconstructed Sleeping Cabins ...... 27 Reconstructed Cherokee Farm ...... 28 Amphitheater ...... 30 Picnic Shelter ...... 30 Eternal Flame ...... 31 Mini-theater ...... 31 Forest and Viewshed ...... 32 Trails ...... 34 Trail Tree ...... 34 Intermittent Spring ...... 34 Overlook Tower ...... 35 Pier ...... 35 Threatened and Endangered Species ...... 36 Railway Corridor ...... 37 Ranger Houses ...... 37 Maintenance Building ...... 39 Old Maintenance Barn ...... 39 FORC Shed ...... 39 Remnants of Previous Owners ...... 40 Analysis and Recommendations ...... 41 Appendix A: Red Clay Ownership ...... 44 Endnotes ...... 45

Table of Contents RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY

INTRODUCTION Clay and Rattlesnake Springs: A History of the Cherokee Indians of Bradley County,

Tennessee, written by James Franklin Corn MANAGEMENT SUMMARY in 1959.

In 2017, the Center for Historic Preservation (CHP) at Middle Tennessee State HISTORICAL OVERVIEW University (MTSU) and the National Trails Intermountain Region (NTIR) of the

National Park Service (NPS) entered into an agreement for the completion of a The present-day Red Clay State Historic cultural landscape inventory and assessment of Red Clay State Historic Park. This Park was part of the Cherokee Nation until study identifies characteristics, features, and associations that make Red Clay a their forced removal to Indian Territory in historically significant landscape of the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail 1838. Beginning in 1828, the state of (according to National Register criteria). The report also documents the landscape Georgia began passing laws intended to history, existing conditions, and integrity analysis within the study area. force the Cherokee out of their territory within

the state’s borders, including a law that made After a series of laws were enacted in Georgia between 1828 and 1830, which attending political meetings a jailable deprived the Cherokee Nation of their lands, their laws, their courts, and their seat offense. Red Clay’s location, just inside the of government, the tribal leaders endeavored to find a new place to hold their Tennessee border, made it a safe place for councils. The 1831 National Council was held at a meeting site in Alabama called the council to meet. Chattooga. However, Chattooga was not centrally located enough for most of the

Cherokee. Beginning in 1832, the National Council was held at another site, the Eleven National Councils were held at the Red Clay Council Ground, in southeast Tennessee. This remained the Cherokee Red Clay Council Ground between 1832 and capital until they were forcibly removed in 1838. The years of the Red Clay 1837. Although the majority of the Cherokee Councils were highly contentious, as the Cherokee debated removal, fought legal wished to stay on their ancestral land, a small battles, were monitored by the U.S. Army, and were finally rounded up into faction argued for removal. In December concentration camps prior to removal. 1835, this faction signed the Treaty of New

Echota, which gave the tribal lands in the More than a century later, the state of Tennessee purchased 263 acres of land east to the United States in exchange for that was the former Red Clay Council Ground in order to build a park in memory land in Indian Territory, $5,000,000, and of the momentous events that occurred there. This report focuses on the area that other concessions. Delegations were sent to is now Red Clay State Historic Park. Prior relevant documents concerning the Washington, D.C., to try to nullify the illegal planning and historical significance of this Trail of Tears landscape that inform this treaty; however, the United States ratified it. study include the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail Comprehensive The Cherokee people learned of their fate at Management and Use Plan created in 1992, Dr. William R. Snell’s “Annals of Red one of the Red Clay Councils. Clay Council Ground, Bradley County, Tennessee” written for and funded by the Tennessee Historical Commission in 1975, Dr. Brian M. Butler’s “The Red Clay Council Ground,” published in the Journal of Cherokee Studies in 1977, and Red

Introduction RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 1

Figure 1. Map of Red Clay State Historic Park. The map shows the Council Spring, reconstructed Cherokee buildings, the interpretive center, the railway, and park trails. Courtesy of the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation and Tennessee State Parks.

Introduction RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 2

As Georgia continued to make life intolerable for the Cherokee, hundreds of people property. Several maps depict a cemetery at sought refuge at Red Clay. After the U.S. Army began rounding up the Cherokee or near the park’s southwestern corner. to put them in internment camps in May 1838, the people who had gathered at According to local lore, the cemetery Red Clay were compelled to remain there until they were forced to remove later belonged to an African American church that that year. was burned in the 1950s.

After Removal, most of what is now Red Clay State Historic Park became farm The park property continued to be used for land. There were two initial land grants that were sold by the State of Tennessee farming and pasturage until the Cherokee that make up the park’s property. The two properties were eventually sold by the Red Clay Association was established in the respective families who purchased them. These properties were bought and sold, 1960s. In 1964, the organization’s most split, and sold again many times over the years, with most of the owners retaining prominent member, James Corn, purchased their piece of the property for less than five years. 150 acres of the property to preserve it from potential commercial development. Due to The only portion of Red Clay State Historic Park that was ever developed is the the advocacy of the Cherokee Red Clay railroad corridor that runs through the eastern portion of the park. Only a 1.11-acre Association, the State of Tennessee began section of railroad land in the southeast corner of the property belongs to the park. purchasing the parcels of land that now It was initially owned by the Hiwassee Railroad Company. This company had comprise Red Clay State Historic Park. In planned this railroad corridor, less than a half mile from the Red Clay Council 1974, the Red Clay Council Ground was Ground, prior to Cherokee Removal. Before the Hiwassee Railroad’s goal of added to the National Register of Historic connecting Knoxville, Tennessee, to Dalton, Georgia, was accomplished, the Places. The Red Clay State Historic Area company went bankrupt and was sold to the East Tennessee & Georgia Railroad was opened to the public in 1979 and was Company (ET&G). ET&G finished the line proposed by its predecessor and built a later given park designation. section house on the present park’s land with the depot within fifteen feet of the property. The rest of the railroad corridor has a right-of-way through the park. In 1984, Red Clay State Historic Park hosted the first Joint Council of the Cherokee Nation Despite Red Clay’s remote location, the park’s railroad property was the site of at and the Eastern Band of the Cherokee least three skirmishes during the Civil War. The depot and the adjoining rails were Indians. After 147 years, the Cherokee were destroyed during one such action. The site became a staging area for the Army of reunited at the place where they had first the Ohio as they readied themselves to join General William Tecumseh Sherman’s learned they had no choice but to leave their March to the Sea. The depot and rail lines were rebuilt in the post-war era, though ancestral home. On the 25th anniversary of it is uncertain how long the depot and section house were used. Trains continue this historic reunion, in 2009, the two tribes to run on the rail line. met for another Joint Council at Red Clay. On the 175th anniversary of their removal, Red Red Clay’s history also includes that of enslaved Africans and African Americans. Clay hosted the first Tri-Council of the Both Cherokee and post-Removal settlers owned enslaved people at Red Clay. In Cherokee comprised of the three federally more modern times, there may have been an African American church on the park recognized Cherokee tribes: the Cherokee

Introduction RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 3

Nation, the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Indians, and the United Keetoowah of the park, flows southward, and is a Band. tributary of the Conasauga and Coosa river system. The Council Ground was thought to SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY lie in the western part of the valley around the site’s only natural character-defining feature, This cultural landscape report grew out of previous partnerships between the the Council Spring (also known as the Blue National Trails Intermountain Region (NTIR) of the National Park Service (NPS) Hole Spring). The Council Spring has a clear, and the CHP at MTSU and Red Clay State Historic Park, namely the Phase I deep pool, blue in color, that feeds a small renovation of the museum in the James Franklin Corn Interpretive Center and stream that flows southeast and joins Mill Museum at Red Clay State Historic Park. Creek. The size of the pool has diminished; however, a 1933 study found that more than Archival research was pursued through various archives including the Museum of 400,000 gallons of water flowed from the the Cherokee Indian Archives (Cherokee, North Carolina), the Moravian Archives spring each day. Other character-defining (Winston-Salem, North Carolina), the History and Archives Branch of the Bradley features are the James Franklin Corn County (Tennessee) Library, the Tennessee State Library & Archives (Nashville), Interpretive Center and Museum, the and the Chattanooga (Tennessee) Public Library’s Local History Section. Digital reconstructed Cherokee Council House, a archives, such as the Tennessee Virtual Archive, the Knox County (Tennessee) reconstructed Cherokee farm, park trails, Public Library’s Digital Collection, and the Georgia Archives Virtual Vault, were and the Norfolk Southern Railroad line. also used. Although the Council Ground may have only covered about 50 acres, the study area Fieldwork was conducted in order to provide a thorough investigation of the includes the entire 263-acre park property.2 landscape. Although very little development has occurred on this property, its Removal-era viewshed may have changed due to the destruction of Cherokee SUMMARY OF FINDINGS buildings, construction of the railroad, modern roadways, and the park itself. As of this writing, photographic documentation of the site has not been found prior to the In 1836, there were 91 log buildings on the 1960s, so what the historic landscape looked like is uncertain, although historic Red Clay Council Ground and along Council descriptions of the property and historic maps have provided some insight. Ground Creek. After approximately 2,000 Cherokee took shelter at Red Clay in 1838 STUDY BOUNDARIES prior to removal, it seems likely that there were many other shelters built on the site. Red Clay State Historic Park is located in the southwest corner of Bradley County Although the park boasts seven and lies along Tennessee-Georgia border at an elevation of 800-1000 feet in reconstructed Cherokee buildings, the elevation. The park is in the Valley and Ridge physiographic province, which is current landscape is quite empty compared typified “by a washboard topography of parallel ridges which trend in a northeast- to its pre-removal state. The Council Spring, southwest direction.”1 The park lies in a narrow valley around a half-mile wide. The has lowered over the past 181 years; valley is drained by Mill Creek, which runs through a section of the eastern edge however, it is still the defining feature of the

Introduction RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 4

site. The John Franklin Corn Interpretive Center and Museum and reconstructed Cherokee buildings offer visitors the chance to learn about the site’s significant role in Cherokee and American history. Most importantly, Red Clay State Historic Park is often used by members of the three federally recognized bands of Cherokee for cultural celebrations, as a place of remembrance, a location for sacred rituals, and a site for their Joint Councils.

Introduction RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 5

Figure 2. Map illustrating Red Clay State Historic Park’s location on the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail.

Introduction RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 6

LANDSCAPE HISTORICAL CONTEXT supposed to be made in behalf of a State, and that no State would undertake to cut a canal through the 1826-1838: The Red Clay Council Ground and the Railroad nation without first securing the right of soil and jurisdiction over the In December 1819, New Town (New Echota) was establishment as the seat of ground where the canal would pass, government for the Cherokee Nation. However, in 1828, the state of Georgia and which right the Cherokee nation passed legislation that made all Cherokee laws within their borders null and void can never surrender, it is deemed as of June 1, 1830. This was exacerbated by the passage of the Indian Removal inexpedient to grant a privilege to Act of 1830. The Georgia legislature also made it illegal for Cherokees to meet for make a survey for the object of any purpose apart from ceding land. To avoid being imprisoned, the 1831 ascertaining the practicability of such Cherokee National Council met at Chatooga in Alabama. This site was not a work; therefore the General Council centrally located enough for the majority of the Cherokee Nation, so it was decided have refused to grant the to move the seat of government to Red Clay.3 application.5

The reasons that the State of Georgia and the United States government wanted Although the Cherokees and their Creek and all Native Americans to be removed west of the Mississippi River included the need Chickasaw neighbors had previously allowed for more land for settlers, the need for more farm land for rich planters who had roads to be built through their territories, they exhausted their soil further east, the fact that gold was discovered in East had seen how new roads led to more and Tennessee and North Georgia, and the desire to exploit other natural resources. more settlers illegally squatting on their lands In “Coveted Lands: Agriculture, Timber, Mining, and Transportation in Cherokee and running illicit ferries and taverns. This Country Before and After Removal” (2012), Vicki Rozema makes the argument ultimately resulted in land cessions being that the reasons for removal were more varied and complex than previously demanded and by 1826, the Cherokee had thought. The motivation most significant to Red Clay is that Americans wanted to precious little land left.6 build a railroad through the heart of the Cherokee Nation.4 The Cherokees’ refusal to allow In 1826, the U.S. government asked the Cherokee to allow a survey of their lands improvements by outsiders on their lands to determine the practicality of building a canal through the Cherokee Nation. In a may have been a factor in efforts by Euro- letter written by Assistant Principal Chief Charles Hicks to Colonel Hugh Americans to remove them. According to the Montgomery, Indian Agent of the Cherokee Purchase, in December 1826, Hicks autobiography of Wilson Lumpkin, the gave the following answer: governor of Georgia from 1831 to 1835, the “whole plan of this [Hiwassee] railroad was The General Council, after maturely deliberating on the subject, and with a well matured in my mind in the year 1826, full sense of the great importance of internal improvement, have decided while taking a general reconnaissance of the that no individual State shall be permitted to make internal improvements, State, with a view to entering on works of within the sovereign limits of the Cherokee nation; and as the application is internal improvement, in company with Mr.

Landscape Historical Context RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 7

Fulton, our first State Engineer, and before I commenced my systematic plan for removal of the Cherokee Indians from Georgia…”7

After the state of Georgia forced the Cherokee seat of government out of its boundaries, there were eleven National Council meetings held at Red Clay between 1832 and 1837. The Cherokees were eager to preserve their sovereign rights within their nation. To that end, they tried using the American legal system, as well as direct supplication to the Secretary of War and the President, to maintain their rights, although their efforts ultimately failed.

In July 1834, a meeting of a group of potential Georgia investors was held to plan the building of a railroad through the Cherokee Nation8 along a stagecoach line.9 And, by August 1834, a relatively small faction of Cherokees, known as the Treaty Party, began advocating in Council for the tribe to remove west of the Mississippi. Their petition was rejected by the Council; however, on December 21, 1835, the Treaty Party signed a removal treaty at New Echota.

The General Assembly of Tennessee wasted no time in exploiting this new development. They incorporated the Hiwassee Railroad Company on January 30, 1836, making it the first East Tennessee railroad company to be 10 Figure 3. Range 1 West, Fractal Township 2 South of the Ocoee District. Note the vertical line granted a charter. Two days later, on representing the proposed route of the Hiwassee Railroad. The red highlighted parcel of land was February 2, 1836, a special council meeting purchased by John B. Marston in 1839 and the yellow highlighted parcel was purchased by Frank was held at Red Clay where the council Kincannon and John D. Traynor in 1841. Courtesy of tngenweb.org.

Landscape Historical Context RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 8

From March to June 1837, a survey of the Cherokee Nation within the borders of Tennessee (later known as the Ocoee District) was conducted and maps of the area were produced.14 The map of the section of the Ocoee District containing the Red Clay Council Ground depicts the projected railroad tracks through the area.15 The railway runs through part of the eastern section of the present-day park. And, the very southeastern section of the park once belonged to the Hiwassee Railroad Company.16

A few months after the survey was finished, in August 1837, the Cherokee held the last Council at Red Clay prior to their removal. Although several delegations had been sent to Washington, DC, to plead their case, to no

Figure 4. Detail of View of Posts & Distances in the Cherokee nation, to illustrate Maj. Genl. Scott's avail, it was determined that another operations, in 1838 by 1st Lieutenant Erasmus Darwin Keyes. Courtesy of National Archives and delegation should try. This last effort to Records Administration and Jeff Bishop. remain on their ancestral land ultimately failed.17 members rejected the Treaty of New Echota. In July 1836, a group of supporters of the Louisville, Cincinnati, & Charleston Railroad met in Knoxville to discuss a On May 28, 1838, the U.S. Army began proposition to connect the Hiwassee and Western & Atlantic Railroads. The forcibly rounding up Cherokees. The Army Georgia representatives agreed to connect these railroads near the Red Clay 11 moved their captives to concentration camps Council Ground. Tensions were running high throughout the spring and summer. in Tennessee and Alabama. Dr. Elizur Butler, In an effort to prevent a Cherokee uprising, Brigadier General John Wool ordered the director of the Red Clay mission (which troops to take up “a position at or near the Council ground at Red Clay in was located a few miles away from the Tennessee” and that twenty days’ rations for 300 men be taken to the Red Clay 12 Council Ground), discovered several Council Ground for the meeting scheduled for September 15, 1836. This military hundred Cherokees had fled Georgia and camp was positioned “within a quarter mile of the council-ground.” Wool reported were camped at the Red Clay Council that at least 3,000 Cherokee were in attendance, and noted, “I can only look on Ground on June 4. He also noted that there and guard against any disturbances which might grow out of so large an 13 was a military camp approximately one mile assemblage of Indians.” from the Council Ground.18 Maj. Genl Scott's

Landscape Historical Context RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 9

operations,19 otherwise known as the Keyes Map (see Figure 4), depicts a fort at Tennessee. The land that now makes up Red Clay. This “fort” was most likely the encampment of Cherokee refugees with Red Clay State Historic Park was sold in two their military guard. land grants (see Figure 3). One was purchased in 1842 by John B. Marston.24 On June 10, General Nathaniel Smith, the superintendent in charge of Cherokee Removal, wrote to Colonel Lindsay at Red Clay, “Of Cherokee immigrants, there John Byars Marston (1797-1878)25 was born are now assembled at this place over 2200, and 500 more are within the distance in Greenville, South Carolina, to Reuben of one or two miles. I very respectfully enquire of you whether it would not be best Franklin Mastin and Sarah Blackwell. John to suffer the 2,000 now at Red Clay Council Ground to [illegible] there a short time B. and his brother, Thomas White Marston, where they can be comfortably sheltered and provisioned.”20 had moved from South Carolina to McMinn County, Tennessee, by 1830;26 however, According to a medical report for the period from July 17 – August 17, 1838, the John B. continued to move further south. In Cherokee camp at Red Clay was “a detachment of Camp Ross” and was still 1833, he served in the first grand jury held in inhabited by Cherokee awaiting removal.21 The report lists several illnesses that Murray County, Georgia.27 He was listed as were contracted by the detainees at Red Clay and Camp Ross (modern-day the postmaster of the Red Hill post office Cleveland, TN), as well as how many people had been given care by the military located in Murray County (now part of medical staff and how many died. It is not known how many specifically died while Whitfield County), Georgia, in 1834.28 interned at Red Clay, but those that did were likely buried there. When land in the Ocoee District came open General Smith was not only the superintendent of the Removal, he was also a for purchase, John B. and his brother, commissioner for the Hiwassee Railroad, as well as a stockholder. There was at Thomas White Marston (1799-1856),29 least one other Hiwassee Railroad stockholder directly involved in the removal: purchased many tracts of land together and Major Albert S. Lenoir. Major Lenoir was an issuing agent at New Echota in 1836 separately. They were likely land and 1837, before being reassigned to Ross’s Landing along with the Cherokee speculators, since they jointly purchased who had been forced into the concentration camp there.22 These men had a blatant nearly 2,000 acres of land, much of it non- financial interest in depriving the Cherokee people of their homeland. contiguous, between 1839-1842, in the Ocoee District.30 Additionally, John B. Sometime after August 17, 1838, the refugees encamped at Red Clay were moved purchased more than 1,400 acres as the sole to one of the emigration depots,23 but they eventually joined their countrymen on owner.31 The 1860 census shows that John the Trail of Tears. B. was a farmer and his real estate was worth $7,500.32 He also owned eleven enslaved 33 1839-1860: Post-Removal Settlement people who were valued at $5,400.

After the Cherokees were removed from the Ocoee District, the land was divided into 160-acre lots that were then sold through a land-grant system by the State of

Landscape Historical Context RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 10

John D. Traynor (1803-1851)41 immigrated from Ireland at the age of fourteen, along with his family.42 His father was a lawyer who established a law practice in Knoxville, Tennessee. John was living in Rhea County, Tennessee in 1833,43 where he married Mary Ann Cozby the next year.44 Traynor began purchasing large tracts of land in the Ocoee District in 1839.45

Upon John Traynor’s death, his widow became the executrix of his will and guardian of his minor children. Mary Ann is cited in several legal documents buying and selling land in Bradley County.46 In a Memorandum of Agreement recorded in 1859, Mary Ann gave permission for the East Tennessee & Georgia Railroad to lay pipes from a large spring, on a portion of the Traynor lands, to Figure 5. 1854 East Tennessee & Georgia Rail Road Timetable. Courtesy of Charles Cobb’s the railroad track. It is uncertain whether this American Railway Guide, and Pocket Companion, for the United States and the Hathi Trust Digital refers to Mill Creek on the Traynor property, Library. Red Clay’s depot is called State Line on this train schedule. which now makes up a significant portion of Red Clay State Historic Park, as the rail line The second tract of Ocoee District land sold by the State of Tennessee after the runs beside this creek for more than four removal of the Cherokee that is now part of Red Clay State Historic Park was miles. John Traynor owned properties all purchased by Frank Kincannon and John D. Traynor on July 30, 1841.34 Francis 35 over Bradley County, and there is no legal “Frank” Kincannon (c.1803-1846) was born in Virginia to George and Ann Scott description of the property in the Kincannon. It appears that Frank lived in Bradley County, Tennessee, as early as Memorandum. However, this same 1836, when he was elected the first Register of Deeds for the county, a position 36 document may shed some light upon what he maintained until his death in 1846. He purchased several tracts of Ocoee agricultural pursuits took place on the District land between 1839-1840,37 including the tract that would eventually make 38 Traynor lands that make up portions of the up a significant portion of Red Clay State Historic Park. Kincannon did not enjoy park. The Memorandum of Agreement states his land very long, as he died on October 1, 1846, and was buried in Fort Hill 39 that there were “horses, mules, cattle, [and] Cemetery in Cleveland, Tennessee. Whether John Traynor purchased pigs.”47 It is possible that the same kind of Kincannon’s share of the property prior to his death is unknown; however, the land livestock was pastured at the Traynors’ Red the two men purchased together would eventually be known as the “Traynor Clay property. land.”40

Landscape Historical Context RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 11

Due to the Panic of 1837 and the inexperience of the Hiwassee Railroad The Hiwassee Railroad undoubtedly moved company’s leadership, the company had financial difficulties that led to the men and materiel through Red Clay for the railroad’s construction taking much longer than anticipated.48 After reorganizing Confederacy, and, after Cleveland was the company and its leadership in January 1847, the Hiwassee Rail Road captured by the Union on November 26, Company requested a revision of its charter on February 4, 1848. One of the 1863,57 in the culmination of the changes made was to its name. When the Tennessee General Assembly approved Chattanooga campaign, the rail line was too the new charter, the Hiwassee Rail Road Company became the East Tennessee valuable to leave alone. In an account of & Georgia Railroad Company (ET&G).49 The changes to the company were what took place at Red Clay on November successful and the railroad between Loudon, Tennessee, and Dalton, Georgia, 27, Brigadier General Adin B. Underwood of was completed by 1852. The line from Loudon to Knoxville was completed in the 33rd Massachusetts Infantry Regiment 1855.50 wrote, “At Red Clay Station a few hours were devoted to this pleasant diversion Although there are no remains visible today, Red Clay once had a section house [destroying a section of railroad], and soon along the East Tennessee & Georgia Railroad line.51 In some, but not all, of the three miles of sleepers were reduced to fire early railroad schedules the depot is called State Line (see Figure 5) rather than wood, and the rails to old junk. There being Red Clay.52 Since Red Clay was the only settlement on the Tennessee-Georgia no further use for cars and the depot, they state line along this rail line, Red Clay is the only depot that State Line can refer were burned. Neither Longstreet nor Bragg to. None of these early references to the depot say which side of the state line the could now get any comfort from that building was actually on. It is therefore uncertain whether the original depot was in railroad.”58 Red Clay, Tennessee or Red Clay, Georgia. In February 1864, rumors began circulating 1861-1865: Civil War at Red Clay that Confederate General Joseph Johnston had sent men from Dalton to intercept Union During the Civil War, the town of Cleveland, Tennessee, about twelve miles north General William Tecumseh Sherman’s men of Red Clay, was strategically important due to its position at the junction of the on their way to Jackson and Meridian, Georgia and East Tennessee railroads and for the protection of the Hiwassee Mississippi. General Ulysses S. Grant sent a River bridge.53 It was so important that Abraham Lincoln said, “To take and hold reconnaissance mission towards Dalton to the railroad at or east of Cleveland, Tennessee, I think is as fully as important as determine Johnston’s strength. Among the the taking and holding of Richmond.”54 The rail line through Red Clay was one of troops sent south, General Matthias of the rd the only two direct routes into North Georgia (see Figure 6). XV Corps was ordered on February 23 to send six of his regiments from Cleveland to 59 John B. Marston was too old to fight in the Civil War; however, on October 16, Red Clay to reinforce General Cruft’s men. 1863, he did sell five bushels of corn and 100 lbs. of hay to the Confederate Army,55 On February 23, General Johnston wrote to possibly to support the Chattanooga campaign.56 Corn and hay may have been Confederate President Jefferson Davis, grown on his Red Clay land. “General Wheeler reported during the night a Federal Army at Ringgold and a body of

Landscape Historical Context RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 12

10,000 at Red Clay, fourteen miles on the Cleveland road.”60 After several days of 3.61 The rest of the Union army arrived at skirmishing, it was ascertained that Johnston had a superior force and the Union Red Clay on May 4-5, 1864.62 The troops troops who had camped at Red Clay fell back to Blue Springs and Cleveland. set up a supply station along the railroad; however, it is uncertain if they used the station house. After the Army of the Ohio began moving south to Varnell’s Station and Tunnel Hill, Georgia on May 7, the supply station was moved from the railroad at Red Clay to that of Ringgold, Georgia.63

1866-1927: Reconstruction and the Return to Rural Life

The war caused John B. Marston’s fortunes to suffer since he lost his enslaved people and his real estate dwindled in value from $7,500 to $2,000.64 It is uncertain how long he kept his other properties; however, the land he owned that is now a significant portion of Red Clay State Historic Park remained in his possession until his death in 1878, at which point his widow, Nannie Whittle Marston, and his two sons, John J. and Thomas W. Marston, inherited it.65 The reason John B. kept the property may be that he and his family lived across the state border near Red Clay, Georgia, according to the 1860 and 1880 censuses, and it would have been easier to farm than the properties Figure 6. Railroad map detailing the Chattanooga – Dalton – Cleveland areas. Red Clay is depicted toward the right side of the map along the East Tennessee & Georgia Railroad. Courtesy he sold in more remote areas. of George B. Davis, et al., Atlas to Accompany the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, 1861-1865, and Steve Storey’s Georgia’s Railroad History & Heritage, railga.com. The Bradley County Courthouse was burned during the war, resulting in all the deeds and A few months later, General Sherman’s army began to gather around Red Clay, other records being destroyed. After the war, by rail and foot, before heading south on the Atlanta Campaign. A group of Union the Register of Deeds asked property scouts with the Army of the Ohio got into a skirmish at or near Red Clay on May owners to help rebuild the deed books. John

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Figure 7. Southern Railway Company Right-of-Way and Track Map, 1927. Courtesy of the Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury. Figure 8. Close-up of Southern Railway Company's Right-of-Way and Track Map, with the area of detail D. Traynor’s widow, Mary Ann Traynor, is listed on several deeds, but none appear turned to show north as being at the top of image. to be the Red Clay property. The earliest this property appears in the deed books Courtesy of the Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury. is in 1912, when J.F. Weatherly sold the 160-acre property to J.D. Riddle.66 on July 14, 1894.69 Though the rail line runs The Red Clay lands first granted to Marston, Kincannon, and Traynor were never through the entire eastern section of the commercially developed. The Marston lands remained in the family for nearly forty park, only this parcel of park land ever years. They were sold several times, however, the records of ownership are easy belonged to the railroad companies. to follow (see Appendix A). The Kincannon-Traynor land, known as the Traynor land, has a much more complicated history of ownership. The land was sold, According to a 1916 newspaper article, the resold, split, sold, rejoined, and sold again. Many of the owners only kept the land Red Clay Station “was the old eating station, a few years, though most seem to have used it for farming and pasturing livestock. and was noted for the excellent meals The deeds are difficult to follow; however, a diagram detailing the ownership served.”70 The question of whether the Red history has been developed (see Appendix A). Clay Station was on the Tennessee or Georgia side of the state line is made clear in After the war, the East Tennessee & Virginia Railroad merged with the East a Right-of-Way and Track Map published by Tennessee & Georgia Railroad to form the East Tennessee, Virginia, & Georgia the Southern Railway Company in 1927 (see 67 Railway on November 26, 1869. The Tennessee State Line Railroad Company Figure 7).71 A close inspection of the area of 68 was sold to the East Tennessee, Virginia, & Georgia Railway on March 5, 1886. detail along the state line shows that the However, the East Tennessee, Virginia, & Georgia Railway soon went bankrupt section house and depot were located on the and was purchased by the Southern Railway Company. The one-acre southeast Tennessee side of the line (see Figure 8). section of Red Clay State Historic Park was part of the acquisition

Landscape Historical Context RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 14

Therefore, the section house was on the southeastern corner of what is now Red visiting southeast Tennessee for this grand Clay State Historic Park. It is uncertain when the building was removed from the event, Robert Ross took the opportunity to property, although a 1934 newspaper article states that the depot was “recently visit the Red Clay Council Ground and was torn away.”72 It is likely that the section house was destroyed at the same time. photographed at the Council Spring (see Figure 10).74 1930-1949: Establishing Red Clay’s Location

Figure 10. Robert Bruce Ross, grandson of John Ross, at Council Spring, 1930. Courtesy of the Chattanooga Sunday Times.

Perhaps the dedication of the historical Figure 9. Red Clay Council Ground historical marker dedicated by the Georgia Society, Daughters marker in Chattanooga inspired Daughters in of the American Revolution, 1935. The marker still stands on the wrong side of the state line. Georgia to commemorate Cherokee history closer to home. While the historical evidence In March 1930, several chapters of the Daughters of the American Revolution held demonstrates the location of the Council a dedication ceremony for a historical marker at Ross’s Landing in Chattanooga, Ground had been on the Tennessee side of Tennessee. This was the site of one of the emigration depots where the Cherokee the state border, by 1935, nearly a century departed for Indian Territory on the Trail of Tears. The guest of honor at this after the Cherokee were removed, there was ceremony was Robert Bruce Ross, the grandson of Chief John Ross.73 While

Landscape Historical Context RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 15

confusion as to which side of the state line the Council Ground had actually been Corn soon found an ally in his efforts to bring located. This confusion likely resulted from the fact that shortly after Removal, a attention to Red Clay. In August 1963, Polly small town was established on the Georgia side of the border and was called Red Rice Martinez, a retired businesswoman who Clay after the Council Ground. The confusion was exacerbated, because a small lived in Chattanooga, Tennessee, brought a log cabin was moved from the Council Ground onto private property just across group of area socialites to her family’s old the state line in Georgia to be used as a smoke house. The cabin was known as home in Red Clay, Georgia, to discuss “the Council House,” though it fits none of the descriptions of the Council House. restoring Red Clay and establishing it as a It was likely used as shelter for John Ross, another council member(s), or even memorial to the Cherokee. Martinez’s initial the government agent, Reverend John F. Shermerhorn. idea was to build a site that straddled the state line with the cooperation of Bradley In 1935, the Georgia Society, Daughters of the American Revolution, began County, Tennessee, and Whitfield County, planning to erect a historical marker to memorialize the Red Clay Council Ground Georgia.78 On June 15, 1964, Colonel Corn in Georgia. A flurry of articles erupted in the media making arguments for the true purchased the 149.62-acre tract of land on location. Though the Daughters “invited the Tennessee Society D.A.R. to join them which the Council Spring sits from George in placing a marker on the state line at a point between the site of the Council Gray.79 Though Corn was the owner, he House and the Council Spring,”75 however, the Daughters erected their monument asked to remain anonymous when Martinez on the corner of the state line and the highway that runs south toward Dalton on announced the purchase two weeks later.80 the Georgia side of the state line, where it remains today (see Figure 9). Nonetheless, the location of the Council Ground was established by the historical To this end, the Cherokee-Red Clay research and writing by John Morgan Wooten in 1934-1935.76 Association (see Figure 11) was officially incorporated in the State of Tennessee in 81 1959-1980: Park Development December 1964. At their first meeting, two presidents were elected, one from

Tennessee and one from Georgia. At this The history of Red Clay’s development into a state park is at times as confusing meeting, Corn was elected as the group’s as its record of ownership. The Red Clay Council Ground had become forgotten secretary, and he publically announced that by most of the area’s inhabitants by the 1950s. At this time, the small town of Red he had purchased the Red Clay land.82 Soon Clay, Georgia, had fallen into obscurity itself. In 1959, however, James F. Corn thereafter, all mentions of the Georgia (known as Colonel Corn due to his rank when he served in the U.S. Army) president end. Presumably this was because published Red Clay and Rattlesnake Springs: A History of the Cherokee Indians the group was never incorporated in of Bradley County, Tennessee. Corn, a retired lawyer, local and state politician, Georgia. and Bradley County historian, became interested in the Cherokee when he happened upon a stack of old papers in a used bookstore. The papers were documents from the U.S. Senate pertaining to the Cherokee. This intrigued Corn and set him on a course that would define the latter part of his life.77

Landscape Historical Context RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 16

Members of the Cherokee-Red Clay Association began an advocacy and media campaign to gain political and financial support for Red Clay’s preservation.83 In January 1970, the Bradley County Quarterly Court agreed to purchase the Red Clay land from Corn for the purpose of developing the area into a recreation area and tourist destination.84

In 1971, the Tennessee Commissioner of Conservation, William Jenkins, received a visit from the president of the Cherokee-Red Clay Association, Tom Rowland, and the chairman of the Bradley County Conservation Board, John Tyler, and other local leaders. During this appointment, the local advocates of Red Clay convinced Jenkins of the site’s importance. According to Rowland in a 1976 article, “Jenkins was most helpful to us. Realizing the importance of the property, he worked closely with former Gov. Winfield Dunn in getting money appropriated to purchase additional land surrounding the Red Clay site.”85

As the development of the site progressed, community members began offering Native American artifacts to the group in hopes of them being included in a museum.86 By October 1972, Red Clay had been classified as an archeological area, and the preliminary planning study had been completed.87 Figure 11. Cherokee-Red Clay Association's first meeting. Photograph by W.C. King. Courtesy of The Chattanooga Times. Archaeological excavations began in the summer of 1973. Brian Butler, an

Landscape Historical Context RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 17

archeologist with the Tennessee Department of Conservation’s Division of Archaeology partnered with historian William R. Snell’s students from Lee College (located in Cleveland, Tennessee) to excavate the area around the Council Spring.88 They hoped to discover the location of the Council House; however, they did not find it. Excavations were repeated in 1974 and 1975, with no discernable evidence of the Council House or any other structures, though the areas excavated were limited to the south, east, and west areas around the Council Spring. The archaeologists did uncover a large cooking area, as had been described by an English visitor to the 1837 National Council, and many shards of 1830s-era porcelain dishware.89 In 1975, William Snell completed his report “Annals of Red Clay Council Ground, Bradley County, Tennessee” for the Tennessee Historical Commission.90

While the state agencies were working to study the area, Colonel Corn was still working to preserve the site. In September 1972, Corn nominated the Red Clay Council Ground to the National Register of Historic Places.91 On January 25, 1974, the Red Clay Council Ground was entered on the National Register of Historic Places.92

There were a few farm structures on the property: a partially built cinderblock building and an old wooden house that had more recently been used as a barn. None of these structures dated before the 1910s, and it is unknown who built them. Figure 12. Dan McCoy, chairman of the Eastern Band of the Cherokee tribal council, speaks at These structures were demolished during the landscape development of the groundbreaking ceremony for Red Clay State Historic park.93 Park. Those sitting on platform, from left, Conservation Department Commissioner B.R. Allison, Governor Ray In 1974, the State of Tennessee purchased much of the land surrounding the Red Blanton, and Perry Wheeler, president of the tribal 94 council of the Cherokee Nation. Photo by John Clay Council Ground owned by Bradley County. In an effort to celebrate the Pemberton. Courtesy of The Chattanooga Times. bicentennial of the United States, the Bradley-Cleveland Bicentennial Commission organized the dedication of Red Clay. On May 8, 1976, representatives of the Twenty years after Colonel Corn published Cherokee Nation, the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Indians, as well as local and his book on Red Clay, the park opened to the state dignitaries met at the Red Clay Council Ground to dedicate the site as a state public on September 28, 1979. On opening park.95 At this dedication, it was announced from Governor Ray Blanton’s office day, the park included the James Franklin “that an Indian museum to be located on the park grounds would be called the Corn Museum and Interpretive Center, the James F. Corn Sr. Museum of Indian History.”96 Though this dedication took place reconstructed Cherokee farm, the in 1976, the groundbreaking did not occur until April 26, 1978 (see Figure 12).97

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Snell.100 Cherokeefest eventually changed its name to the Cherokee Days of Recognition by 1986, although many of the activities remained the same.101 The annual festival continued for nineteen years.

On Friday, April 3, 1984, a Joint Council of the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Indians and the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma convened at the Red Clay Council Ground for the first time since that final council in 1837 (see Figure 13). Torches were lit from the Eternal Flame in Cherokee, North Carolina, and were hand-carried nearly 150 miles by ten runners on what was called “The Eternal Flame Run.”102 The torches were used to light the council fire at Red Clay at the first joint council of the Cherokee people in 147 years.

Figure 13. Council members from the Cherokee Nation and the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Indians at the first Joint Council, April 3, 1984. Photograph courtesy of Red Clay State Historic Park. reconstructed Council House, a picnic pavilion, over three miles of nature trails, and a 500-seat amphitheater.98

Despite the fact that the park had already opened, the last piece of land had yet to be purchased. The very southeastern 1.11 acres of property remained under the ownership of the Southern Railway Company until it was sold to the State of Tennessee to be added to Red Clay State Historic Park on July 2, 1980.99

1982-Present: Red Clay Revisited Figure 14. Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, Soon after the park opened, it began a tradition of annual Cherokee festivals. In Chad Smith, carries the eternal flame of the Cherokee 1982, the park held its first Cherokeefest. The event featured Cherokee arts and Nation to Red Clay, April 18, 2009. Photograph by Dan Henry. Courtesy of The Chattanooga Times Free crafts; bow and arrow, atl-atl, and blowgun demonstrations; dancing and Press. storytelling; and history lectures by local historians Dr. Roy Lillard and Dr. William

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In 2002, the state legislature delayed passing a state budget. This resulted in Red In the intervening years, there have been two Clay not being able to hold its annual Cherokee Days of Recognition festival.103 other councils held at Red Clay. The Two of Red Clay’s supporters from the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, Richard weekend of April 17-19, 2009, saw the 25th Crowe and Louise Many, died within the previous year, so instead of the Cherokee anniversary of the first Joint Council. The Days, a one-day Cherokee festival and memorial was held on August 3.104 The event was commemorated with a variety of annual festival resumed in 2003 and continues each year, although it is now called Cherokee cultural events: storytelling, the Cherokee Cultural Celebration (see Figure 15). dancing, stickball, and the second Joint Council to be held at the Council Ground in over a century and a half. Once again runners, including the Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, Chad Smith, carried the Sacred Fire to Red Clay (see Figure 14).108

In August 2015, the Principal Chiefs of the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Indians, and the United Keetoowah Band met at Red Clay and held a Tri-Council (see Figure 16). For the first time in 175 years, the three federally recognized bands of Cherokee were reunited at Red Clay.109

In addition, the Remember the Removal Bike Ride was first made by adolescent members of the Cherokee Nation in 1984. The ride became an annual event for the Cherokee

Figure 15. Members of the Warriors of AniKituhwa dance group performing the Hunting Dance at Nation in 2009, and in 2011, they were joined Red Clay State Historic Park’s Cherokee Cultural Celebration, August 4, 2018. by members of the Eastern Band of the Cherokee. On their journeys each year, the To ensure that the Cherokee Cultural Celebration is not canceled due to state riders stop at various Trail of Tears sites, and finances again, it is now financed primarily by the Cherokee Nation, the Eastern at the unmarked graves of their ancestors Band of the Cherokee Indians, and the United Keetoowah Band.105 In addition to who died along the way. Red Clay is always the Cherokee Cultural Celebration, the park hosts an annual 19th-Century a stop on the trail (see Figure 17).110 As of Cherokee Christmas event106 and a one-day lecture symposium each spring.107 this writing, 175 people have made the The Friends of Red Clay group, established in 2007, hosts an annual pow wow ride.111 each fall, as well.

Landscape Historical Context RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 20

Although Red Clay State Historic Park lies in a very rural section of southeast Tennessee, it draws tourists from far afield. In all, the various activities hosted by the park, as well as the normal flow tourists, attract more than 200,000 visitors each year.

Figure 17. Remember the Removal riders prepare to leave Red Clay State Historic Park, June 5, 2017. Figure 16. From left, United Keetoowah Band Principal Chief Georgia Wickliffe, Eastern Band of the Photograph courtesy of The Chattanooga Times Free Cherokee Indians Principal Chief Mitchell Hicks, and Cherokee Nation Principal Chief Bill John Baker Press. exchanging gifts at opening of the Tri-Council at Red Clay. Courtesy of Native News Online.net.

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FEATURES & EXISTING CONDITIONS

Figure 18. Map of resources at Red Clay State Historic Park.

Contributing Features & Existing Conditions RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 22

1) James Franklin Corn Museum and Interpretive Center

Figure 19. The James Franklin Corn Museum and Interpretive Center. Courtesy of Red Clay State Historic Park.

The James Franklin Corn Museum and Interpretive Center (34.99417, -84.94544), constructed in 1979, is located at the entrance to the park. It is a two-story, wood- frame building, with a T-plan core and a partially enclosed wrap-around porch. The porch extends to an octagonal gazebo to the west. The T-plan core of the interpretive center contains a small museum, a theater that seats 80 people, a gift shop, ranger offices, restrooms, and an upstairs reading room. The theater was renovated in 2017. Currently, a new interpretive film is in the final stages of editing. The museum has several new interpretive panels, installed in 2015 and developed by the Center for Historic Preservation at Middle Tennessee State University.

The interpretive center’s wrap-around porch is furnished with rocking chairs and vending machines, while the gazebo contains a map of the park. An interpretive trail begins by walking south out of the gazebo. Four flagpoles are located to the northwest of the interpretive center. The center pole flies the American and Tennessee flags. It is flanked by poles flying the flags of the Cherokee Nation, the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Indians, and the United Keetoowah Band.

Contributing Features & Existing Conditions RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 23

2) Council Spring (Blue Hole Spring)

Figure 20. The Council Spring at Red Clay State Historic Park.

The English geologist, George W. Featherstonhaugh offered this description of the Council Spring at Red Clay upon his visit to the National Council in 1837:

The situation was exceedingly well chosen in every respect, for there was a copious limestone spring on the bank of the stream, which gave out a delicious cool water in sufficient quantities for this great multitude.112

The Council Spring (34.99299, -84.94602) is located in a tree-lined depression and flows from under a limestone shelf. Its unique mineral content lends it an unusual blue hue. At the time of the archaeological excavations in the 1970s, there was a Figure 21. Council Spring Creek. sinkhole immediately north of the spring that had developed in the 1940s due to geologic activity.

Contributing Features & Existing Conditions RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 24

bacterial contamination. The test results, however, did not specify what type of bacteria were contaminating the spring, just that the water should be boiled or chlorinated before being ingested.116 Despite this, water from the Council Spring has been used as drinking water at the Joint Councils and the Tri-Council with no adverse effects reported.

The Council Spring is also used by the Eastern Band of the Cherokee for their Going to Water ceremony. When this occurs, the park’s personnel rope off the area to give the practitioners privacy for this sacred rite. The Cherokee also use the spring in a more relaxing ritual. Each August at the Cherokee Cultural Celebration, young men play a traditional game of stickball. After their game, and with permission of the park manager, the young men cool off with Figure 22. Young Cherokee men cooling off in the Council Spring after a game of stickball. Courtesy a swim in the spring. of Red Clay State Historic Park.

The sinkhole caused a deepening of the spring’s conical-shaped basin, which is currently about 14 feet deep. Irrigation wells used on farms in the surrounding area are fed by the same aquifer as the Council Spring, resulting in the footprint of the pool to have diminished to its current diameter of approximately 20 feet.113 The spring feeds a small creek, known historically as the Council Spring Creek.114 This, in turn, flows into Mill Creek, a tributary of the Conasauga and Coosa river system. The trees lining the spring’s basin are not thick enough to obscure the view of the spring. However, due how deep the spring is situated, it is not visible unless the viewer is looking down into the basin.

A U.S. Geological Service Survey in 1933 determined that the spring has a daily flow of 414,720 gallons of water.115 In June 1975, the Council Spring’s water, which maintains an average temperature of 56 degrees, was tested and found to contain

Contributing Features & Existing Conditions RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 25

3) Reconstructed Council House

Figure 24. Missing rail on Council House.

Figure 23. Reconstructed Council House.

According to the 1836 Cherokee Nation Property Evaluations, the Red Clay Council House was made of round logs and measured 18’ x 30’.117 This verifies the account of the Featherstonhaugh, who described the Council House as being:

…a simple parallelogram formed of logs with open sides, and benches Figure 25. Mud dauber nests inside Council House. inside for the councilors.118

The reconstructed Council House (34.99304, -84.94563) measures 20’ x 40’ and corresponds with Featherstonhaugh’s description in that it is a rectangular structure with open sides and is furnished with wooden benches, although not with the dimensions recorded in the 1836 property evaluation.

The Council House at the park today was built with a wooden rail along the outside of its support posts except at the entrance, facing the Council Spring. One six-foot section of rail on the rear of the structure is currently missing. There are several mud dauber nests on the inside of the roof. Apart from these issues, the Council House is in good condition.

Contributing Features & Existing Conditions RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 26

4) Reconstructed Sleeping Cabins The 1836 Cherokee Nation Property Evaluations describe 49 cabins of varying degrees of size and quality built on the Council Ground, in addition to two sheds, six stables, two store houses, a smoke house, a corn crib, a kitchen, the Council House, and a Committee House. Many of the cabins belonged to Cherokee who lived in other areas.120 These buildings may have been used by them during council meetings or rented to others, like the one

Figure 26. Reconstructed cabins built according to Featherstonhaugh’s description. Featherstonhaugh stayed in.

Despite the dozens of cabins in the 1836 property evaluations, only three of the sort described by Featherstonhaugh, have been reconstructed on the grounds of the park. The three reconstructed sleeping cabins (34.99331, -84.94514) each measure 10’ x 15’. They are constructed on stone pier foundations and built with modern, round, peeled logs with saddle notches. Like

Figure 27. Various wasp nests inside cabins. Featherstonhaugh’s hut, these cabins lack chinking, doors, and windows. They all have According to Featherstonhaugh, the “hut” he was assigned to stay in during the dirt floors and gable roofs with hand-split 1837 council had pine needles carpeting the floor and only a bed with pine needles wood shake shingles. for a mattress. He wrote: Like the Council House, the cabins show Our log hut had been so hastily run up that it had neither a door, nor bore evidence of insect infestation. Abandoned evidence of an intention to add one to it, and its walls were formed of logs with paper wasp and dirt dauber nests cling to interstices of at least six inches between them, so that we not only had the the inside of the roofs. advantage of seeing every thing that was going on out of doors, but of gratifying every body outside who was desirous of seeing what was done 119 within our hut, especially the Indians, who appeared extremely curious.

Contributing Features & Existing Conditions RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 27

5) Reconstructed Cherokee Farm Reconstructed Farm House The farm house (34.99282, -84.94477) is a two-story, single-pen structure that measures 24’ x 24’. It stands upon a stone pier foundation and is constructed of modern timbers hewn on the vertical faces and peeled on the horizontal faces with half- dovetail notches. It has a gable roof with hand-split wood shake shingles and a central gable-end chimney made of stone on the east elevation. Unlike the reconstructed sleeping cabins, the farm house was chinked with wood chips and clay-lime mortar. It has a porch running along the length of the north side of the house.

There are two windows located on the structure’s north elevation on the first floor. On the building’s south elevation there are two windows located on the first floor and two on the second floor. A single window is

Figure 28. Reconstructed Cherokee farm house with the remains of a three-sisters garden beyond located on the structure’s west elevation on the porch. the second floor. There are central openings on the house’s north and south elevations, In addition to the hastily built sleeping cabins used by council attendees, there were allowing access to the interior. several people who lived and farmed on the Council Ground. The park planners have reconstructed three buildings to represent a typical Cherokee homestead: a The farm house is furnished with items farm house, a barn, and a corn crib. These three structures were built in 1979 and typically found in early-nineteenth-century are relatively accurate reconstructions of early-nineteenth-century log buildings frontier homes, such as a wooden table and using modern materials. All three stand upon stone piers. Pier foundations, as chairs, a bed, a spinning wheel, and cooking opposed to continuous foundations, were typically found on log buildings located in implements. In recent years, park personnel areas with warmer, humid climates, such as Tennessee. Airflow underneath the have planted a three-sisters garden next to building helped to cool the structure in summer and also, helped to keep sills and the farm house. The house is in good joists from rotting. In the center of these buildings is a fire pit with benches built around them.

Contributing Features & Existing Conditions RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 28

condition, although the back steps need to be repaired as one has evidence of Reconstructed Corn Crib wood rot. The corn crib (34.99250, -84-94485) measures 9’ x 15’. It stands upon a stone Reconstructed Barn pier foundation and is constructed of The barn (34.99260, -84.94467) is a double-crib, two-story structure constructed modern, squared timbers with half-dovetail from squared timbers using half-dovetail notches. A lack of chinking between the notches. Well-designed early-nineteenth- logs allows for airflow. The barn has a gable roof with wood shingles. Each crib century corn cribs were elevated at least measures 10’ x 16’ with a 10’ drive-through passage in between the cribs. The barn eighteen inches off the ground, not only to stands upon a stone pier foundation; however it is still low enough to the ground to reduce the infiltration of rodents, but also to allow animals easy access to the cribs. The entire floor on the ground level is dirt. encourage airflow. The cribs are joined on the second floor with a large central opening on the barn’s east side for hay storage. The roof extends past the barn’s west wall, creating an The corn crib has a gable roof with wood overhang. shingles. The roof extends past the crib’s north wall, creating an overhang. There is timber-framed shed addition on the south side of the building measuring Overhangs were common features of corn 8’ x 10’. It has a central opening allowing access to the shed’s interior. Park crib construction and helped deter the entry personnel intend to turn the shed into a Cherokee blacksmith’s shop. The building of rainwater into the building. There is a is in good condition. central opening on the crib’s north elevation allowing access to the interior. A lack of chinking allowed airflow throughout the building in order to dry the corn.

Figure 30. Reconstructed corn crib. Figure 29. Reconstructed barn.

Contributing Features & Existing Conditions RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 29

6) Amphitheater 7) Picnic Shelter

The amphitheater (34.99254, -84.94808), constructed in 1979, The picnic shelter (34.99328, -84.94825), constructed in 1979, is a series of stepped wooden benches built into the hillside. It is a wood-framed structure with open sides. The shelter has a was the venue for the outdoor drama “Cry of the Owl,” which water fountain, a grill, and restrooms located on the east end of was performed in the 1980s. The park is currently working with the structure, as well as bear-proof trash receptacles. The east faculty at Lee University to update the script in order to stage end of the picnic shelter also features a fireplace vented by a the play in the near future. The amphitheater can be reserved chimney through its metal hip roof. The structure contains and is often used for music and theater productions. It was twelve picnic tables, which accommodate up to 100 people and renovated in 2017, with new benches made of milled lumber, can be reserved a year in advance. The picnic shelter has a electrical outlets, and lighting. It seats up to 500 people. parking lot to its north. There are eighteen individual picnic tables scattered under nearby trees to the north and east of the picnic shelter, each with a grill. The individual picnic tables are available on a first-come, first-served basis.

Figure 31. Amphitheater where outdoor drama “Cry of the Owl” was staged Figure 32. Picnic shelter. in the 1980s.

Contributing Features & Existing Conditions RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 30

8) Eternal Flame The Eternal Flame (34.99346, -84.94650), the fire lit from the torches carried by the Cherokee runners from Cherokee, North Carolina to Red Clay at the Joint Council in 1984, is housed in a small stone structure that resembles a chimney. The chimney measures 5’ x 3’ and stands upon a concrete pad. The fire is fed by natural gas from a propane tank approximately 100 feet away. The plaque reads:

Eternal Flame of the Cherokee Nation. This fire is a memorial to those people who suffered and died on the infamous “Trail of Tears.” It also commemorates the reuniting of the Eastern and Western Cherokee Nations here at Red Clay. Aug. 7, 1837 – Apr. 6, 1984.

Figure 33. The Eternal Flame at Red Clay State Historic Park.

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9) Mini-Theater 10) Forest and Viewshed

In George Featherstonhaugh’s description of the Council Ground, he stated:

What contributed to make the situation extremely picturesque, was the great number of beautiful trees growing in every direction, the underwood having been most judiciously cut away to enable the Indians to move freely through the forest, and to tie their horses to the trees.121

The viewshed described by Featherstonhaugh is no longer intact. The section of the park where the Council House and the other reconstructed buildings are located has been cleared of most trees and Figure 34. Mini-theater after rain. is kept mowed throughout the year. The area

There is a smaller amphitheater (34.99323, -84.94612) located northwest of the to the south and west has a lovely forest with reconstructed council house. Constructed in 1979, it is used for storytelling during various kinds of oak, maple, and hickory trees, as well as dogwood, Virginia pine, the Cherokee Cultural Celebration and for educational programs. It consists of black gum, hazelnut, black walnut, red elm, three semi-circular rows of wooden benches built into the hillside and seats 30 people. sycamore, wild plumb, pear, mulberry, mayapple, elder, red elm, black cherry, red

ash, beech, red cedar, and black willow.

Though the undergrowth is not thick, it

includes a good deal of sawbrier (Smilax

glauca) and blackberry vines, which catch at

one’s clothing, and brush such as flame

azaleas, sassafras, and several varietals of fern,122 which may result in the woodland

being less navigable than it was in 1837. When plants are in full leaf, one can make

Contributing Features & Existing Conditions RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 32

According to the 1836 Cherokee Nation Property Evaluations, there were 72 log structures at the Red Clay Council Ground124 and another 19 along Council Ground Creek.125 These buildings included dozens of round and hewn log cabins, stables, kitchens, storehouses, corn cribs, smoke houses, a blacksmith’s shop, the Council House, and a Committee House. Many of the cabins may have been built to accommodate their owners for the Council meetings, although they may also have been rented to others in attendance, like the one George Featherstonhaugh slept in.

As previously stated, approximately 2,000 Cherokee took shelter at Red Clay prior to removal in 1838.126 These refugees were at Red Clay for at least three months before being relocated to one of the emigration depots.127 In those three months, it is likely that they built many other shelters on the site.

Of course, the original log structures are long

Figure 35. Aerial view of Red Clay State Historic Park. Most of the parkland is wooded. The only gone. They would have given Red Clay a areas that are relatively free of trees are toward the east central section, where the interpretive trail much busier landscape and viewshed when and most of the buildings, and meadow are located, and the southeast corner. the National Councils were in session than is experienced there now. their way through the undergrowth, however it is not cleared away enough to allow the freedom of movement described by Featherstonhaugh.

In describing the other buildings at Red Clay, Featherstonhaugh wrote:

… we soon found ourselves in an irregular sort of street consisting of huts, booths and stores hastily constructed from the trees of the forest, for the accommodation of Cherokee families, and for the cooking establishments necessary to the subsistence of several thousand Indians.123

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11) Trails

Red Clay State Historic Park has an interpretive trail that leads visitors from the Interpretive Center to the Eternal Flame, the Council Spring, and the reconstructed buildings. The interpretive trail is paved with asphalt, apart from the wooden stairs down to the Council Spring.

There are two circular nature trails: the Council of the Trees Trail and the Blue Hole Trail. The Council of the Trees Trail is 1.7 miles long, while the Blue Hole Trail is just 0.3 mile. There is a short connector trail between the two nature trails that is Figure 36. Large red oak trail tree at Red Clay State 0.15 mile long. These three trails wind through the forest, which is primarily Historic Park. deciduous, containing a variety of oaks, maples, and elms. In summer these trees offer respite from the heat for the park’s many hikers. Though woodland makes up 13) Intermittent Spring approximately 85% of the park (see Figure 49), the undergrowth is relatively light which gives the forest an open, inviting feeling even in summer. The trails have dirt surfaces, except a part of the Blue Hole Trail that passes through swampy soil. This section of the trial has a wooden boardwalk. The trails are well maintained and frequented by visitors.

12) Trail Tree

Native Americans are believed to have bent saplings to point as a way of making signs to guide others toward various places. Although there has been little academic scholarship on trail trees, the manipulation of trees by Native Americans Figure 37. Small intermittent spring. to communicate messages is well documented. Trail trees typically have been bent 128 a few feet from the ground at a sharp angle. There is a small, unnamed intermittent spring (34.993304, -84.946884) that only flows There is one trail tree (34.9918268, -84.9460973) that may date to the 1830s. It is when there has been a lot of rain. It is not a red oak located just off of the Blue Hole Trail. The base of the trunk is located on a trail and is not marked. approximately 2 feet in diameter and stands approximately 60 feet high. . The trail tree points north toward the Council Spring. The age of the tree is uncertain. In order to determine the accurate age of a tree, a forester must take a core sample to conduct dendrochronological testing.

Contributing Features & Existing Conditions RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 34

14) Overlook Tower 15) Pier

The overlook tower (34.98904, -84.95098), constructed in 1979, Due to beaver activity on the southeast section of the park, there sits upon a rise along the Council of the Trees Trail at an is a swampy area near the confluence of the Council Spring elevation of 980 feet above sea level. It is constructed from Creek and Mill Creek. This area of the park has a good deal of limestone in the shape of a crenelated castle tower with steel mosquitos in warm weather. There is a wooden pier (34.99089, safety railing and stands 15 feet tall. The overlook tower affords -84.94555) built for visitors to look out into the swamp. It is hikers a beautiful view of the surrounding woodlands in winter, uncertain when the pier was constructed. It measures 10’ x 3’ although the viewshed is obscured by the surrounding and is in good condition. deciduous trees in summer.

Figure 38. The Overlook Tower along the Council of Trees trail. Photograph courtesy of Red Clay State Historic Park.

Figure 39. Pier that looks out into swamp at Red Clay.

Contributing Features & Existing Conditions RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 35

130 16) Threatened and Endangered Species saturated, soil. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the swamp lousewort is a threatened species in Tennessee, though it could become endangered, as it is in other states.131

The Conasauga blue burrower is only found in wet meadows along Mill Creek in Bradley County, Tennessee (part of the Conasauga River system), and Murray and Whitfield counties, Georgia, within a 15-mile area.132 Red Clay is currently the home of twenty-five colonies of Conasauga blue burrowers and is the only protected habitat area. These crayfish build complex burrows down to the water table rather than living in or along surface water like some other species of crayfish. For this reason, the Blue Burrowers’ burrows are found on open meadows with a high water table, such as those on the south part of the park.133 In order to protect this habitat, the grass is allowed to grow relatively tall between each mowing with a brush hog that is raised to a high setting.

Figure 40. Swamp lousewort. Photograph by Dennis D. Horn. Courtesy of the University of Tennessee Knoxville Herbarium.

Red Clay State Historic Park is the home to two species of threatened and endangered flora and fauna: the swamp lousewort (Pedicularis lanceolate Michx.)129 and the Conasauga blue burrower crayfish (Cambarus cymatilis). Figure 41. Conasauga blue burrower crayfish. Photograph by David Withers, 2016. Courtesy of Red Clay State Historic Park.

The swamp lousewort is a hemiparasite, a plant that gets some of its resources from other plants through its root system, while also using photosynthesis. It favors habitats with wet, but not

Contributing Features & Existing Conditions RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 36

17) Railway Corridor 18) Ranger Houses

What began as the Hiwassee Rail Road is now the Norfolk There are two houses on the park property for park personnel Southern Railway. While the original materials used to construct to live in and both are currently occupied. the railway were replaced numerous times over the years, most notably after the Civil War when it was heavily damaged and Ranger House #1 rendered impassable, its orientation remained unchanged. Ranger House #1 (34.995099, -84.944149) is a 1,700-square- foot, single-story, ranch house with an asphalt-shingle gable roof. It was constructed in 1979. The house has three bedrooms, two bathrooms, and stands on cinder block piers. Central openings on the house’s east and west elevations, as well as an opening just east of center on the south elevation, allow access to the interior. The east and south openings exit onto wood decks with wood stairs leading to the ground. There is a metal fireplace and chimney just south of the east center opening that is finished with a stone hearth.

A chain link fence encompasses an area on the exterior of the structure’s west elevation. Wood siding finishes the exterior of the house, as well as the chimney. Stains are present on the wood siding on the east and north elevations, as well as faded patches, most notably on the chimney. These areas require cleaning and painting/wood staining.

Figure 42. Railway corridor that passes through eastern section of the park.

Figure 43. Ranger House #1.

Contributing Features & Existing Conditions RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 37

Ranger House #2 Cottage This house (34.988314, -84.947104) and the land it sits on were Approximately 15 feet north of Ranger House #2 is a small, purchased by the Tennessee Department of Conservation from single-story, timber-framed cottage (34.988452, -84.947092). Theodore Roosevelt Thomas in 1974. Thomas bought the The cottage measures 30’ x 20’ and rests upon a continuous property in 1964 from Fred and Oma Springfield, who owned foundation and has a stone root cellar. It has a gable roof with the property for four years. They had purchased it from J.W. and asphalt shingles. The roof extends past the cottage’s north wall, Cassie Eslinger, who owned it from 1943 to 1960. The Eslingers creating an overhang. It is unknown when this structure was were most likely the people who built this house, though the constructed; however, it was likely built when the property was exact date of its construction is unknown. The house is currently owned by the Riddle family (1910-1940). It is currently occupied by the park’s fulltime maintenance worker and is in unoccupied and is used for storage. good condition. The roof overhang shelters a small porch on the north elevation Ranger House #2 is a 1600-square-foot, single-story, brick with a central opening to allow access to the interior. The porch ranch house with an asphalt-shingle hip roof. It has three has lattice covering its east elevation, possibly to allow vining bedrooms, one bathroom, and a single-car garage and stands plants, such as roses, a vertical purchase. The stone root cellar on a continuous foundation. There are central openings on the is built into a slight rise in ground elevation to take advantage of house’s east and west elevations allowing access to the interior. the cool ground temperature for food storage. The root cellar The roof extends past the house’s east wall, creating an has an opening on the southern edge of the east elevation, overhang. A modern gutter system draws water away from the allowing access to the interior. foundation, which will help prevent damage. The cottage is surrounded by overgrown brush along with a tree growing against the foundation on its south elevation. The tree has branches growing against the roof. These plants should be removed to prevent damage to the foundation and roof.

Figure 44. Ranger House #2.

Figure 45. Cottage’s eastern elevation.

Contributing Features & Existing Conditions RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 38

19) Maintenance Building 20) Old Maintenance Barn

The maintenance building (34.995489, -84.944567), The old maintenance barn (34.988731, -84.945675), constructed in 1979, measures 80’ x 30’. It was built with cinder constructed in 1979, measures 100’ x 50’. It is an open-sided blocks with an asphalt-shingle gable roof. The maintenance structure with a metal gable roof. Wood siding covers the gables building stands on a continuous, poured concrete floor with two on the north and south elevations. This building is used to store floor drains. The majority of the structure’s interior is an open large items, although it sees little use in recent years. There is bay, with storage areas on the east and west ends, as well as a damage to the roof and wood siding on the south elevation that bathroom and shower facility on the west end. A 12-foot central needs to be repaired. opening on the building’s north elevation allows vehicles access to the interior, while a smaller opening slightly west of this allows 21) FORC Shed human access to the interior. A wood-burning stove is vented by a small chimney on the north elevation, though the stove is On the west side of the old maintenance barn is the Friends of now inoperative. There is an open-sided, wooden lean-to with a Red Clay (FORC) shed (34.988681, -84.945801). The FORC metal roof built along the east elevation to park vehicles under. group uses the shed for the storage of items it uses at its activities held at the park, such as the annual powwow. The FORC shed is a pre-fabricated, wood building that measures 10’ x 20’ with a metal gambrel roof. It stands on cinder block piers. A central opening on the shed’s east elevation allows access to the interior.

Figure 46. Maintenance building.

Figure 47. Left to right, FORC shed and the old maintenance barn.

Contributing Features & Existing Conditions RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 39

22) Remnants of Previous Owners

On the southeast section of the park property, there are remnants of two homes that belonged to previous owners. On the corner of the property are three large maple trees that once marked the corners of a yard belonging to the Eslinger family. Behind the maples are the remnants of a well. The well has been partially filled in; however, the soil ends approximately 12- inches from the top of the well. It is suggested that the well be completely filled in to prevent potential injury.

Approximately 200 yards west of the well, are the remains of a stone wall with steps leading up to where a house once stood. Figure 49. Two of the three large maple trees marking the corners of a yard This is on land that had been owned by the Thomas family. They that once belonged to a member of the Eslinger family. only owned the property for a decade, so this wall and steps likely belonged to one of the previous owners, possibly the Weatherly family (unknown-1910) or the Riddle family (1910- 1940). The wall is heavily overgrown, making it difficult to measure the length, although it is two feet tall.

Figure 50. Overgrown stone wall and steps leading to where a home once stood.

Figure 48. Partially filled well that once belonged to Eslinger family.

Contributing Features & Existing Conditions RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 40

ANALYSIS & RECOMMENDATIONS depict a cemetery, which local lore attributes to an African-American

church that was burned in the 1950s. Red Clay State Historic Park is a distinctive and important cultural resource This report recommends further associated with the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail. It meets the National Park Service (NPS) definition of a cultural landscape as “a geographic area (including archaeological analysis of the relevant areas of the park, including ground- both cultural and natural resources and the wildlife or domestic animals therein), penetrating radar, and, if possible, to associated with a historic event, activity, or person or exhibiting other cultural or identify the community to whom the aesthetic values.”134 There are four general types of cultural landscapes cemetery belonged. recognized by NPS, which are not mutually exclusive. Red Clay State Historic Park is a mix of a historic site landscape, an ethnographic landscape, and a historic 2. New park interpretation. When the designed landscape in that it is the site of nationally significant historic events park interpretation was developed in associated with a particular people who continue to use it as a heritage resource, the late 1970s, it focused exclusively as well as two central features of the landscape being the engineer-designed on the national councils that took railroad corridor and the designed park itself. place between 1832 and 1838, the

years that Red Clay was the seat of This report has considered vegetation and topography, noting such key features government of the Cherokee Nation. as water sources, open park land, and forested areas. The cultural landscape Recent research has uncovered component that is integral to the significance of the resource is the land adjacent several other themes that could be to the Council Spring, the spring itself, the linear corridor defined by the tracks of interpreted at the park. It is the historic Hiwassee Rail Road (presently the Norfolk Southern Railroad), and the recommended that the park begin reconstructed Cherokee buildings. interpreting the following themes: the

Cherokee councils that happened at Although the site has been in continuous use for more than 180 years, the lack of Red Clay prior to 1832, the railroad significant development has left the Red Clay Council Ground cultural landscape history of the site, Red Clay’s Civil War relatively intact. Having identified several character-defining features of the history, the history of enslaved landscape, this report recommends that future archaeological analysis, public Africans and African Americans, interpretation, and historic preservation efforts be focused on the following: agricultural history, and the history of

the park itself. In addition, it is 1. Archaeological analysis of historic buildings and sites. As early as suggested that a new interpretive trail 1863, a railway section house was in use on the property that is now Red be developed toward the southeast Clay State Historic Park. The depot appears to have been just off of the perimeter of the park that includes property, however that is uncertain. Although the depot was burned in interpretation of the site’s railroad, November of that year, it was rebuilt and in use, along with a section house, Civil War, and agricultural history. until at least 1927. These two buildings no longer exist, although they are

represented on a 1927 Right-of-Way and Track Map published by the Southern Railroad Company (see Figure 6). In addition, maps of the area

Analysis & Recommendations RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 41

3. The intact railroad corridor. In 1834, potential investors and railroad 6. Reconstructed Cherokee buildings. officials began planning a railway through the Cherokee Nation. In 1836, the It is the desire of the park personnel to Hiwassee Railroad Company received its charter, although the company build a blacksmith’s forge onto the end was reorganized under the name of the East Tennessee & Georgia Railroad of the barn at the park’s reconstructed Company in 1847. In 1852, this company completed construction of the rail Cherokee farm. This project would be line that passes along Red Clay State Historic Park. The railroad corridor acceptable since there was at one only passes through a small section of the park’s property; however, it is time a prosperous Cherokee who historically significant as a reason for the Cherokee Removal, as well as to owned a blacksmith’s shop on the the Civil War history and transportation history of the region. Although the Council Ground.135 rails are now steel, rather than the iron that was originally laid, it is still a single-track corridor with the original alignment intact. 7. New structures. Although there are no current plans for new construction 4. Extant vegetation and features. As stated previously, the lack of at Red Clay, it is recommended that development has resulted in Red Clay’s landscape remaining relatively construction of more modern intact over the past 181 years; however, the viewshed and built environment buildings/structures should be are much changed. There have been modifications in the tree lines due to avoided, especially where they may agriculture and the park’s development, although the types of extant flora intrude on the contributing features of are likely similar to the flora at the time of removal. To allow an unobstructed the park. If new structures are built in view from the observation tower, the viewshed would have to be cleared of the future, it is suggested that they trees. This is an unlikely goal due to the damage it would do to the forest have the outward appearance of one and the difficulty of getting the necessary equipment to that part of the park. of the dozens of log structures that In order to determine the age of the trail tree it is recommended that a had been at Red Clay during the forester conduct dendrochronological testing. And although the site’s most 1830s. notable natural feature, the Council Spring, has dropped over the years, it continues to produce a significant amount of water flow. The continued 8. Soundscape. As stated previously, preservation of these natural features is part of the park’s conservation Red Clay State Historic Park’s rural mission. location has protected the site from industrial development apart from the 5. Threatened and endangered flora and fauna. Red Clay State Historic railway corridor along and through the Park is the only governmentally protected land to be home to the eastern side of the property. The endangered Conasauga blue burrower crayfish. As this species only resides atmosphere and soundscape at Red in a fifteen-mile area, the park should continue to monitor and protect its Clay is typically quiet apart from extant colonies of blue burrowers. The swamp lousewort is a threatened birdsong along the trails and the species of plant in Tennessee and should likewise be monitored. occasional passing train.

Analysis & Recommendations RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 42

If the Cherokee Blacksmith’s Shop becomes a reality, it is thought that the ringing of the park interpreter’s hammer will attract visitors to see how iron tools and implements were made in the past at Red Clay. For those hiking the trails, the sound of the blacksmith’s hammer will be dissipated by the trees.

It is unlikely that the area around Red Clay will be developed in the foreseeable future; however, if it there were development on the borders of the park, increased traffic and industrial noise could potentially damage the serene soundscape.

Analysis & Recommendations RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 43

APPENDIX A: Red Clay Ownership

Kincannon & Traynor F. Kincannon &

Land Grant John D. Traynor John B. Maston 1841- unknown Grant #658 The years listed are the Maston Land years owned by each Purchased 9/7/1839 Ownership Tree person. Most of the deeds list husbands and wives, John Frank Weatherly The years listed unknown - 1910 and 1914 however for the sake of are the years brevity only the first person John J. Marstin owned by each on the deed has been listed person. J.C. Knittle Thomas W. Mastin for most of the them. 1914 - 1924 Nannie M. Taylor John J. Taylor 1878-1888 1910 - 1921 John David Riddle 1910 - 1921 1914 - 1924 1910 - 1912

Zora C. Ford Thomas Jefferson Godfrey R.H. Underwood J.A. Guinn 1921 - 1923 1924 - 1924 1888-unknown 1917 - unknown

John Shugart Oscar Godfrey Lola Godfrey 1923 - 1925 First National Bank of unknown - 1947 unknown - 1947 Dalton Unknown-1944 Charley Riddle Lola Godfrey Louis Godfrey 1928 – 1940 1924 – 1940 1924 - 1940 1947 - 1974 1947 - 1949 J. Frank Hall Grover Manis 1944-1945 Joe Holmes 1940 - 1943 1949 - 1961 George Gray (See Marston Land J.W. & Cassie Eslinger Grant) GeorgeZorah C. S. Ford Gray 1943 – 1958/1960 1945 - 1964 Marie1888 Gray-? Oscar & Lola 1945-1963 & 1964 Godfrey 1961 - 1974 Andy Lee Eslinger Frank Godfrey 1958 - 1960 1957 - 1962 Fred Springfield James F. Corn Oma Dean Springfield Irene Corn 1963-1964 1964-1970 Cassie & Barbara Eslinger Fred & Oma Springfield 1960 - 1974 1960 - 1964

Theodore Roosevelt Thomas Bradley County Theodore Roosevelt & Mallie Ward Thomas 1964-1974 1970-1977 1964 - 1974

State of Tennessee State of Tennessee 1974-present 1977-present 1974 - Present

Appendix A RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 44

ENDNOTES

1 Tennessee Department of Conservation, Division of Planning and Development, Red Clay State Archaeological Area General Development Guidelines (Nashville, TN: Tennessee Department of Conservation, Division of Planning and Development, 1976), 4. 2 Ibid, 3-5. 3 William R. Snell, The Councils at Red Clay Council Ground, Bradley County, Tennessee, 1832-1837 (Cleveland, TN: Modern-Way Printing Co., 1983), 3. 4 Vicki Bell Rozema, “Coveted Lands: Agriculture, Timber, Mining, and Transportation in Cherokee Country Before and After Removal,” Doctoral Dissertation (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee, 2012), 228-232. 5 U.S. House of Representatives, Cherokee Council to Col. H. Montgomery, 20th Congress, 2d Session, 1828, H. Doc. 6, 2, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3983168;view=1up;seq=429 (accessed February 2, 2019). 6 Angela Pulley-Hudson, Creek Paths and Federal Roads: Indians, Settlers, and Slaves and the Making of the American South (Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 61-63, 78-79, 129. 7 Wilson Lumpkin, The Removal of the Cherokee Indians from Georgia, vol. 2 (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1907), 273. 8 “Internal Improvements,” Southern Banner, 19 July 1834, article reprinted from the Georgia Journal; Rozema, “Coveted Lands,” 229-230; Vicki Bell Rozema, “Rivers, Roads, and Rails: The Influence of Transportation Needs and Internal Improvements on Cherokee Treaties and Removal from 1779 to 1838,” Master’s Thesis (Knoxville: University of Tennessee, 2007), 60-61. 9 W.M. Sapp, “’Elawadi’ is Now No More,” Chattanooga Times, March 19, 1916. 10 James W. Holland, “The East Tennessee and Georgia Railroad, 1836-1860,” The East Tennessee Historical Society’s Publications, January 1931, v. 3, 89-90; Southern Railway, Souvenir Southern Railway 1903 (Knoxville, TN: A.S. Bell, 1903), 4-6, http://cmdc.knoxlib.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15136coll4/id/6740/rec/1 (accessed September 13, 2018). 11 Vicki Rozema, “Coveted Lands,” 231; Holland, “East Tennessee and Georgia Railroad,” 93-95; James Houston Johnston, Western and Atlantic Railroad of the State of Georgia (Atlanta: State of Georgia, 1931), 9-10, 23; Ulrich Phillips, History of Transportation in the Eastern Cotton Belt to 1860 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1908), 182-84. 12 General Order of Brigadier General John E. Wool, New Echota, September 1, 1836, Chiliab Smith Howe Papers, Microfilm No. 192-95 in Georgia Archives, Atlanta. Original in Southern Historic Collection, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Snell, 9. 13 U.S. House of Representatives, The Proceedings of the Court of Inquiry in the case of Brevet Brigadier General Wool, 25th Congress, 1st Session, 1837, H. Doc. 46, 55-56, https://books.google.com/books?id=BzoLAAAAYAAJ (accessed February 2, 2019). 14 History of Tennessee: from the earliest time to the present, together with an historical and a biographical sketch of from twenty-five to thirty counties of east Tennessee, besides a valuable fund of notes, original observations, reminiscences, etc., etc., containing historical and biographical sketches of thirty east Tennessee counties : Anderson, Blount, Bradley, Campbell, Carter, Claiborne, Cocke, Grainger, Greene, Hamblen, Hamilton, Hancock, Hawkins, James, Jefferson, Johnson, Knox, Loudon, McMinn, Meigs, Monroe, Morgan, Polk, Rhea, Roane, Sevier, Sullivan, Unicoi, Union, Washington (Greenville, SC: Southern Historical Press, 2006), 983, http://books.google.com/books?id=tCEH94v1HToC (accessed October 18, 2018). 15 Ocoee District Plat Book, R.1.W.F.T.2.S. [Range 1 West, Fractal Township 2 South] http://www.tngenweb.org/marion/archive/deeds/Ocoee/Ocoee_plats/pgs/0008.jpg (accessed October 18, 2018). 16 Decree Confirming Sale and Ordering Conveyance and Possession from East Tennessee, Virginia & Georgia Railway Company to Southern Railway Company, July 14, 1894, Bradley County Deed Book O, 61-66; Deed of Sale from Southern Railway Company to State of Tennessee, Department of Conservation, July 2, 1980, Bradley County Deed Book 109, 419-422. 17 Snell, 10-11. 18 Brian Butler, “The Red Clay Council Ground,” Journal of Cherokee Studies (Winter 1977), 145. 19 Erasmus Darwin Keyes, “View of Posts & Distances in the Cherokee nation, to illustrate Maj. Genl Scott’s operations, in 1838,” in W. Jeff Bishop, “The Keys Map: 1838,” Trail of the Trail: The Trail of Tears… from Georgia to Oklahoma http://trailofthetrail.blogspot.com/2011/04/keyes-map-1838.html (accessed October 18, 2018). 20 Nathaniel Smith to Colonel Lindsay, June 10, 1838, The King Research Collection: Trail of Tears, # 2009.003.0935, Museum of the Cherokee Indian Archives, Cherokee, NC.

Endnotes RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 45

21 100 – Red Clay extensions of Camp Ross, n.d., The King Research Collection: Trail of Tears, # 2009.003.3067, Museum of the Cherokee Indian Archives, Cherokee, NC. 22 Lenoir Family Papers II, #2262, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Wilson Library; Holland, 89-91; Rozema, “Coveted Lands,” 230-232; Rozema, “Rivers, Roads, and Rails,” 62-63. 23 100 – Red Clay extensions of Camp Ross, n.d., The King Research Collection: Trail of Tears, # 2009.003.3067, Museum of the Cherokee Indian Archives, Cherokee, NC. 24 David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John B. Mastin, Grant Book B, 177, Grant No. 680, April 5, 1839, http://www.tngenweb.org/marion/archive/deeds/Ocoee/Ocoee_B.html (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John B. Mastin, Grant Book E, 345, Grant No. 2644, April 7, 1841, http://www.tngenweb.org/marion/archive/deeds/Ocoee/Ocoee_E.html (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John B. Mastin as assignee of an Occupant Enterer, Grant Book E, 363 Grant No. 2757, April 29, 1841, http://www.tngenweb.org/marion/archive/deeds/Ocoee/Ocoee_E.html (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John B. Mastin, Grant Book F, 218, Grant No. 3277, June 19, 1841, http://www.tngenweb.org/marion/archive/deeds/Ocoee/Ocoee_F.html (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John B. Mastin as assignee of an Occupant Enterer, Grant Book F, 83 Grant No. 3148, June 19, 1841, http://www.tngenweb.org/marion/archive/deeds/Ocoee/Ocoee_F.html (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John B. Maston, Grant Book F, 489 Grant No. 3577, August 26, 1841, http://www.tngenweb.org/marion/archive/deeds/Ocoee/Ocoee_F.html (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John B. Maston, Grant Book F, 490 Grant No. 3578, August 26, 1841, http://www.tngenweb.org/marion/archive/deeds/Ocoee/Ocoee_F.html (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John B. Maston, Grant Book F, 519 Grant No. 3448, August 5, 1841, http://www.tngenweb.org/marion/archive/deeds/Ocoee/Ocoee_F.html (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John B. Maston, Grant Book E, 344, Grant No. 2753, April 29, 1841, http://www.tngenweb.org/marion/archive/deeds/Ocoee/Ocoee_E.html (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John B. Maston, Grant Book G, 288, Grant No. 3902, October 6, 1841, http://www.tngenweb.org/marion/archive/deeds/Ocoee/Ocoee_G.html (accessed July 22, 2018). 25 Ancestry.com, 1850 United States Federal Census: John B Marston [database on-line] (Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2009); Ancestry.com, 1860 United States Federal Census: Jno B Mastin [database on-line] (Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2009); Ancestry.com, 1870 United States Federal Census: John B Maston [database on-line] (Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2009); Sandor Teszler Library, “Archives Obituary Index: Judge John B. Marston,” Southern Christian Advocate, volume 41, no. 22, page 88, and column 4 (Whitfield, GA, June 4, 1878), http://www.wofford.edu/library/archives/archiveobituary.aspx (accessed July 19, 2018). 26 Ancestry.com, 1830 United States Federal Census: John B. Marston and Thomas W. Marston [database on-line], (Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2010). 27 “Murray County History 1911,” Murray County Museum, Murray County, Georgia, https://www.murraycountymuseum.com/mh1911_0.html (accessed July 18, 2018). 28 Ancestry.com. U.S., Appointments of U. S. Postmasters, 1832-1971 [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2010; “Murray County Post Offices,” Murray County Museum, Murray County, Georgia, https://www.murraycountymuseum.com/po.html (accessed July 17, 2018). 29 Findagrave.com, “Thomas W Maston,” record added April 10, 2018, https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/188696848/thomas-w-maston (accessed July 28, 2018). 30 Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: J.B. & T.W. Mastin, grant no. 4407 (December 9, 1841) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: J.B. & Thomas W. Mastin, grant no. 6128 (April 5, 1842) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: Jno. B. & T.W. Maston, grant no. 5051 (April 4, 1842) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. & Thomas W. Maston, grant no. 3882 (October 5, 1841) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. & Thomas W. Maston, grant no. 3883 (October 5, 1841) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. & Thomas W. Maston, grant no. 3884 (October 5, 1841) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. & Thomas W. Maston, grant no. 4145 (December 6, 1841) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The

Endnotes RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 46

Ocoee District Land Grants: J.B. & T.W. Maston, Grant Book H, 4044, November 12, 1841, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: J.B. & T.W. Maston, Grant Book H, 4045, November 12, 1841 [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John B. & Thomas W. Maston, Grant Book G, 3882, October 5, 1841, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John B. & Thomas W. Maston, Grant Book G, 3883, October 5, 1841, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John B. & Thomas W. Maston, Grant Book G, 3884, October 5, 1841, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018). 31 Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: J.B. Mastin, grant no. 5501 (August 5, 1839) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: J. B. Maston, grant number unknown (April 5, 1841) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: Jn. B. Mastin, grant no. 7497 (April 28, 1842) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: Jno B. Masten, grant no. 5626 (April 4, 1842) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778- 1927: Jno B. Mastin, grant no. 5234 (April 4, 1842) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: Jno B. Mastin, grant no. 4144 (December 6, 1841) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: Jno B. Mastin, grant no. 4146 (December 6, 1841) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: Jno B. Maston, grant no. 682 (August 5, 1839) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: Jno B. Maston, grant no. 2584 (April 5, 1841) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: Jno B. Maston, grant no. 3833 (October 5, 1841) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. Masten, grant no. 3448 (August 5, 1841) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. Mastin, grant no. 680 (August 5, 1839) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. Mastin, grant no. 4145 (December 6, 1841) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. Mastin, grant no. 5225 (April 2, 1842) [database on- line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. Maston, grant no. 2584 (April 5, 1842) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. Maston, grant no. 2753 (April 29, 1841) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778- 1927: John B. Maston, grant no. 3577 (August 26, 1841) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. Maston assignee of an occupant, grant no. 3148 (June 4, 1841) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. Maston, grant no. 3144 (June 19, 1841) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. Maston, grant no. 3443 (August 5, 1841) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. Marston, grant no. 4146 (December 6, 1842) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. Marston, grant no. 5492 (April 5, 1842) [database on-line] (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. Marston, grant no. 6105 (April 5, 1842) [database on-line] (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. Marston, grant no. 6107 (April 5, 1842) [database on-line] (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. Marston, grant no. 6111 (April 5, 1842) [database on-line] (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. Marston, grant no. 6113 (April 5, 1842) [database on-line] (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. Marston, grant no. 6115 (April 5, 1842) [database on-line] (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778- 1927: John B. Marston, grant no. 6278 (April 5, 1842) [database on-line] (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. Marston, grant no. 6279 (April 5, 1842) [database on-line] (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John B. Marston, grant no. 6280 (April 5, 1842) [database on-line] (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016). 32 Ancestry.com, 1860 United States Federal Census: Jno B Mastin [database on-line] (Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2009). 33 Ancestry.com, Georgia, Property Tax Digests, 1793-1892: J B Maston, 1857 [database on-line], (Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2011).

Endnotes RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 47

34 Letter from Brian Butler to James F. Corn, April 8, 1976, Tennessee Department of Conservation Division of Archaeology, Red Clay File (40BY20) Correspondence. 35 Findagrave.com, “Francis Kincannon,” record added July 20, 2009, https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/39662695/francis-kincannon (accessed August 17, 2018). 36 Roy G. Lillard, ed., The History of Bradley County (Cleveland, TN: Bradley County Chapter, East Tennessee Historical Society, 1976), 33 and 431; John M. Wooten, A History of Bradley County (Cleveland: Bradley County Post 81, American Legion, 1949), 28. 37 Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: F Kincannon College Land, grant no. 587 (August 3, 1839) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: F Kincannon, grant no. 822 (August 3, 1839) [database on- line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: F Kincannon, grant no. 2089 (February 5, 1840) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: F Kincannon, grant no. 2107 (February 5, 1840) [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016). 38 Johnson, David. Ocoee District Land Grant Map of Southeast Tennessee – R.1.W.F.T.2.S. http://www.tngenweb.org/marion/archive/deeds/Ocoee/Ocoee_plats/pgs/0008.jpg (accessed July 22, 2018). 39 Findagrave.com, “Francis Kincannon.” 40 Deed of Sale from J.F. Weatherly to J.D. Riddle, January 27, 1912, Bradley County, Tennessee, Deed Book 31, 376; Deed of Sale from J.F. Weatherly and wife to C.R. Riddle, January 12, 1931, Bradley County, Tennessee, Deed Book 53, 9-10. 41 Ancestry.com, New York, Passenger and Immigration Lists, 1820-1850: John Traynor, November 1, 1833 [database on-line], (Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations Inc, 2003); Findagrave.com, “John D. Traynor,” record added July 20, 2009, https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/39690112 (accessed September 22, 2018). 42 Genealogy.com, Family Tree: Information about John D Traynor, https://www.genealogy.com/ftm/p/i/t/Laine-Pitt/WEBSITE-0001/UHP-0037.html (accessed February 1, 2019; Tennessee: The Volunteer State, 1769-1923, vol. III (Chicago and Nashville: The S.J. Clarke Publishing Company, 1923), 192, https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=-y0XAAAAIAAJ&hl=en&pg=GBS.PP1 (accessed February 1, 2019). 43 Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Tax List Records, 1783-1895: John D Traynor, 1833 [database on-line], (Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2013). 44 Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Marriage Records, 1780-2002: John D Traynor and Mary Ann Cozby, April 10, 1834 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations Inc, 2008). 45 Ancestry.com, North Carolina and Tennessee, Early Land Records, 1753-1931: John D. Traynor, warrant no. 2167 [database on-line], (Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2013); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D. Traynor, grant no. 4378 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D. Traynor, grant no. 3870 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D. Traynor, grant no. 3875 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D Traynor, grant no. 1358 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D Traynor, grant no. 4232 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com. Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D. Traynor, grant no. 2273 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D. Traynor, grant no. 1450 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778- 1927: John D Traynor, grant no. 2276 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D Traynor, grant no. 2869 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D Traynor, grant no. 4413 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D Traynor, grant no. 4943 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com. Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D Traynor, grant no. 1450 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D. Traynor, grant no. 3763 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D Traynor, grant no. 3762 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D Traynor, grant no. 2430 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D Traynor, grant no. 1181 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D. Traynor, grant no. 1050 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT,

Endnotes RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 48

USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D Traynor, grant no. 2491 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D. Traynor, grant no. 4379 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D Traynor, grant no. 5242 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D Traynor, grant no. 3728 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D Traynor, grant no. 3998 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); Ancestry.com, Tennessee, Early Land Registers, 1778-1927: John D. Traynor, grant no. 3974 [database on-line], (Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2016); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John D. Traynor, Grant Book D, 2272, March 31, 1840, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John D. Traynor, Grant Book D, 2273, March 31, 1840, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John D. Traynor, Grant Book D, 2276, April 1, 1840, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John Igow and John D. Traynor, Grant Book D, 1462, December 28, 1839, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John D. Traynor, Grant Book E, 2545, April 5, 1841, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John D. Traynor, Grant Book E, 2869, May 26, 1841, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John D. Traynor, Grant Book E, 2430, April 5, 1841, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John D. Traynor, Grant Book E, 2491, April 5, 1841, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John D. Traynor, Grant Book G, 3778-3779, October 4, 1841, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John D. Traynor, Grant Book G, 3762-3763, October 2, 1841, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John D. Traynor, Grant Book G, 3811, October 4, 1841, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John D. Traynor, Grant Book G, 3728, October 2, 1841, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John D. Traynor, Grant Book G, 3870, October 5, 1841, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John D. Traynor, Grant Book G, 3875, October 5, 1841, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John D. Traynor, Grant Book G, 3874, October 5, 1841, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: James Donohoo & John D. Traynor, Grant Book G, 3998, October 30, 1841, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018); David Johnson and Joyce Reece, The Ocoee District Land Grants: John D. Traynor, Grant Book G, 3811, October 4, 1841, [database online] (accessed July 22, 2018). 46 Chancery Court Decree to John N. Cowan, August 28, 1852, Bradley County, Tennessee, Deed Book B, 193-194; Memorandum of Agreement from Mary Ann Traynor to East Tennesse & Georgia Rail Road, January 15, 1859, Bradley County, Tennessee, Deed Book B, 343-344; Deed of Sale from Mary A. Traynor & Others to John D. Traynor [Jr.], March 28, 1866, Bradley County, Tennessee, Deed Book A, 359-360; Deed from P.W. Norwood, Sheriff, to Mary A. Traynor, Executrix, September 18, 1866, Bradley County, Tennessee, Deed Book A, 551-552; Decree, Chancery Court to Russell Lawson, M.W. Legg, Administrator of J.B. Lawson, deceased, and Russell Lawson vs. Alfred H. Lawson and J. Caleb Morgan, Admr of P.Y.R. Edwards, deceased, Anderson Campbell, the president and directors of the Bank of Tennessee, Mary A. Traynor, Executrix of John D. Traynor, deceased and Eli Richie Admnr of John Goodner, deceased and J. Caleb Morgan, Admr of P.Y.R. Edwards, deceased vs. Alfred H. Lawson, Thayer Dewing and Co., F.D. Fanning, James Gettys Stabler and Co. and the President and Directors of the Bank of Tennessee, August 29, 1867, Bradley County, Tennessee, Deed Book A, 600-602; Chancery Court Decree to G.B. Thompson for the use of himself & Others vs. Samuel Grigsby, Administrator of Jesse Rines, deceased, S.D. Bridgman, Eliza Riens, Martha Riens, Rizzie Riens, Sussie Riens, George Rines, William C. Walker, Mary A. Traynor, Executrix of John D. Traynor, deceased, Allice Rines, Thomas M. Osment, Guardian ad litem, and William M. Parks, February 24, 1868, Bradley County, Tennessee, Deed Book A, 711-713. 47 Memorandum of Agreement from Mary Ann Traynor to East Tennessee & Georgia Rail Road. 48 Holland, 94-95; Souvenir Southern Railway, 8. 49 Holland, 99-100; Souvenir Southern Railway, 8. 50 Holland, 101; Souvenir Southern Railway, 8. 51 S. Augustus Mitchell, Mitchell’s New Traveller’s Guide Through the United States and the Canadas, Containing the Principal Cities and Towns, Alphabetically Arranged, Together with Rail Road, Steamboat, Stage, and Canal Routes, with Tables of Places, and Distances from Place to Place. Illustrated by an Accurate Map of the United States, Showing the Lines of Finished Rail Roads, and Their More Important Connections (Philadelphia: Charles DeSilver, 1855), 87, published online by the Internet Archive, https://archive.org/stream/mitchellsnewtrav00mitc#page/n5/search/Red+Clay (accessed September 13, 2018).

Endnotes RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 49

52 Ibid; Charles Cobb, American Railway Guide, and Pocket Companion, for the United States (New York: Curran Dinsmore, 1854), 168, published online by the Hathi Trust Digital Library, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112047649006;view=1up;seq=170 (accessed September 13, 2018); J.C. Swayze, Hill & Swayze's Confederate States Rail-Road & Steam-Boat Guide (Griffin, GA: Hill & Swayze, 1862), 37, published online by the Internet Archive, https://archive.org/details/hillswayzesconfe1862sway (acessed September 13, 2018); American Association of Passenger Traffic Officers, The Official Railway Guide: North American Freight Service Edition (Philadelphia: National Railway Publication Company, 1874), 323, 326, and 460. 53 “213 Newly Interpreted Markers Installed as of 6/9/11,” Tennessee Civil War Trails Program, Tennessee State Library & Archives https://tnmap.tn.gov/civilwar/Civil%20War%20Trails%20Installation%20Sites%20with%20descriptions.pdf (accessed November 15, 2017). 54 Abraham Lincoln, “’Cypher" to Major Genl. Halleck, June 30, 1862,” in Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, Vol. 5, edited by Roy P. Basler (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Digital Library Production Services, 2001), 295 (accessed November 15, 2017). https://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/lincoln5/1:653.1?rgn=div2;view=fulltext. 55 Fold3.com, Confederate Papers Relating to Citizens or Business Firms, 1861-65: John B. Marston, www.fold3.com/image/44558251?terms=John%20sndx:Marston%20Geo rgia&xid=1945 (accessed July 30, 2018). 56 James L. McDonough, “Battles of Chickamauga and Chattanooga,” Tennessee Encyclopedia (2017), https://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entries/battles-of- chickamauga-and-chattanooga/ (accessed July 30, 2018). 57 Dennis W. Belcher, The Cavalry of the Army of the Cumberland (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2016), 289. 58 Adin B. Underwood, A.M., The Three Years’ Service of the Thirty-Third Mass. Infantry Regiment 1862-1865 (Boston: A. Williams & Co., Publishers, 1881), 192, http://burrage-letters.cath.vt.edu/JBDocs.php?select=Underwood4 (accessed October 22, 2018). 59 Melba Lee Murray, Bradley Divided: Bradley County, Tennessee During the Civil War (Collegedale, TN: The College Press, 1992), 196. 60 Ibid, 197. 61 United States War Department, George B. Davis, et al, The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), 3; “Report of Lieut. Col. Horace P. Lamson, Fourth Indiana Cavalry, commanding Second Brigade,” in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), 780. 62 Jacob Dolson Cox, Military Reminiscences of the Civil War: November 1863-June 1865, vol. II (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1900), 167; “Report of Maj. Gen. John M. Schofield, U.S. Army, commanding Army of the Ohio,” in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), 510; “Report of Surg. Henry S. Hewit, U.S. Army, Medical Doctor,” in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), 522; “Report of Brig. Gen. Alvin P. Hovey, U.S. Army, commanding First Division, of operations May 3-June 9,” in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), 540-541; “Reports of Brig. Gen. Nathaniel C. McLean, U.S. Army, commanding First Brigade, of operations May 5-June 4,” in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), 581; “Reports of Capt. Samuel L. Demarest, Twenty-fifth Michigan Infantry, of operations May 6-August 12,” in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), 592; “Reports of Col. William Cross, Third Tennessee Infantry, of operations May 6-August 1,” in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), 598; “Report of Col. Joseph A. Cooper, Sixth Tennessee Infantry, of operations May 7-June 6,” in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), 606; “Report of Brig. Gen. Milo S. Hascall, U.S. Army, commanding Second Brigade, of operations May 3-16,” in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), 609; “Reports of Maj. Uriah M. Laurance, One hundred and seventh Illinois Infantry, of operations April 26-May 28,” in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), 619; “Reports of Capt. Edgar Sowers, One hundred and eighteenth Ohio Infantry,” in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), 642; “Report of Capt. Byron D. Paddock, Battery F, First Michigan Light Artillery, of operations May 7-20,” in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), 669-670; “Reports of Brig. Gen. Jacob D. Cox, U.S. Army, commanding Third Division,” in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), 674; “Reports of Brig. Gen. James W. Reilly, U.S. Army, commanding First Brigade,” in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), 697; “Report of Brig. Gen. Mahlon D. Manson, U.S. Army, commanding Second Brigade, of operations May 7-14,” in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), 714; “Report of Lieut. Col. Horace P. Lamson, Fourth Indiana Cavalry, commanding Second Brigade,” in The War of the

Endnotes RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 50

Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), 780; John William Draper, History of the American Civil War, vol. 3 (New York: Harper, 1868-70), 270. 63 Draper, 270-273; Melba Lee Murray, 360; “Report of Brig. Gen. Milo S. Hascall, U.S. Army, commanding Second Brigade, of operations May 3-16,”in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), 609-610. 64 Ancestry.com, 1860 United States Federal Census: Jno B Mastin; Ancestry.com, Georgia, Property Tax Digests, 1793-1892: John B Marston, 1869 [database on-line] (Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2011); Ancestry.com, 1870 United States Federal Census: John B Maston [database on-line] (Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2009). 65 Deed of Sale from Jno J. Marstin & others to Zorah C. Ford, April 27, 1888, Bradley County, Tennessee, Bradley County Deed Book K, 74-76. 66 Deed of Sale from J.F. Weatherly to J.D. Riddle, January 27, 1912, Bradley County, Tennessee, Bradley County Deed Book B, 376. 67 Souvenir Southern Railway, 34. 68 Fairfax Harrison, A History of the Legal Development of the Railroad System of the Southern Railway Company, (Washington, DC: 1901), 858. 69 Decree Confirming Sale and Ordering Conveyance and Possession from East Tennessee, Virginia & Georgia Railway Company to Southern Railway Company, July 14, 1894, Bradley County, Tennessee, Bradley County Deed Book O, 61-66. 70 W.M. Sapp, “’Elawadi’ is Now No More.” 71 Southern Railway Company, “Right-of-Way and Track Map,” Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury, http://www.comptroller.tn.gov/RRmaps/006-003.pdf (accessed September 16, 2018). 72 John Morgan Wooten, “Red Clay, Council Ground of Cherokees,” The Cleveland Herald, December 14, 1934. 73 “Chief Ross’ Scion Unveils Memorial,” The ChattanoogaTimes, March 21, 1930. 74 “Tennessee Claims Red Clay,” Chattanooga Sunday Times, July 28, 1935. 75 P.O. Parker, “’Red Clay Council Ground’ -- In Tennessee or Georgia?” The Cleveland Herald, June 14, 1935. 76 Wooten, “Red Clay, Council Ground of Cherokees;” John Morgan Wooten, Red Clay in History. Cleveland, TN: Privately published, 1935. 77 Libby Golden, “Indian History, Red Clay ‘His Life,’” Cleveland Daily Banner, June 24, 1971. 78 Clarence Bruce, “Mrs. Martinez’s Goal: To Restore Red Clay as Cherokee Memorial,” The Chattanooga Times, August 25, 1963; Clarence Bruce, “Red Clay Restoration Proposal Is Studied at Atlanta Luncheon,” The Chattanooga Times, January 9, 1964; Clarence Bruce, “Restoration of Red Clay Has Wide Support in Area,” The Chattanooga Times, January 19, 1964. 79 Deed of Sale from George S. Gray et ux to James F. Corn, June 15, 1964, Bradley County, Tennessee, Bradley County Deed Book 124, 143-144. 80 Clarence Bruce, “Land Acquired for Proposed Red Clay Historical Restoration,” The Chattanooga Times, July 12, 1964. 81 State of Tennessee – Charter of Incorporation, Cherokee-Red Clay Association, December 14, 1964, Nashville Corporation Record Book 0-25, 2072. 82 Clarence Bruce, “Red Clay Group Has 1st Meeting,” The Chattanooga Times, December 20, 1964. 83 Clarence Bruce, “Officials Check Red Clay Possibilities,” The Chattanooga Times, October 15, 1965; “Archaeological Society Hears Plea for Preserving Red Clay,” The Chattanooga Times, October 15, 1965; “Officials Check Red Clay Area,” The Chattanooga Times, October 15, 1965; Clarence Bruce, “Meeting to Study Historical Sites,” The Chattanooga Times, September 7, 1969. 84 Sandra Rowland, “County Court Here Votes to Buy Red Clay Lands,” Cleveland Daily Banner, January 19, 1970. 85 Randall Higgins and Sandra Rowland, “Red Clay Dedication Saturday,” Cleveland Daily Banner, May 5, 1976. 86 Letter from James F. Corn to Mrs. Winston R. (Ellen Ann) Campbell, July 13, 1967, Red Clay State Historic Park File “James Corn Correspondence”; “Red Clay Gifts Are Made,” Cleveland Daily Banner, May 31, 1972; Sandra M. Rowland, “Indian Dolls on Pilgrimage Donated to Red Clay Museum,” Cleveland Daily Banner, September 25, 1974; Randall Higgins and Sandra Rowland, “Red Clay Dedication Saturday,” Cleveland Daily Banner, May 5, 1976; Letter from LeBaron W. Pahmeyer to Gary Lawson, November 7, 1979, Red Clay State Historic Park Miscellaneous File; Letter from James F. Corn to LeBaron W. Pahmeyer, November 14, 1979, Tennessee Department of Conservation Division of Archaeology, Red Clay (40BY20) Correspondence File. 87 Beecher Hunter, “Red Clay, Hiwassee Plans Cited By State,” Cleveland Daily Banner, October 13, 1972. 88 “Excavation Plans for Red Clay,” July 2, 1973; Randall Higgins and Sandra Rowland, “Red Clay Dedication Saturday,” Cleveland Daily Banner, May 5, 1976. 89 Butler, “The Red Clay Council Ground,” 149-150; Brian Butler, “The Council Ground at Red Clay (40 BY 20) Archaeological and Historical Investigations, 1973- 1975,” unpublished report filed at the Tennessee Department of Conservation Division of Archaeology. 90 William R. Snell, “Annals of Red Clay Council Ground, Bradley County, Tennessee,” unpublished report located in files of the Tennessee Department of Conservation Division of Archaelogy (Cleveland, TN: Tennessee Historical Commission, 1975).

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91 James F. Corn, “Red Clay Council Ground,” National Register of Historic Places Inventory – Nomination Form, September 14, 1972. 92 The Tennessee Historical Commission, “Certificate that Red Clay Council Ground has been entered on The National Register of Historic Places,” January 25, 1974, in National Register file at Red Clay State Historic Park; National Park Service, “Red Clay Council Ground,” National Register of Historic Places, https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/AssetDetail?assetID=ddac78a1-0c24-4105-9df5-dfbd88817503 (accessed February 1, 2019). 93 Butler, “The Council Ground at Red Clay (40 BY 20) Archaeological and Historical Investigations, 1973-1975,” 5. 94 Deed of Sale from Bradley County, Tennessee to State of Tennessee, Department of Conservation, March 11, 1977, Bradley County, Tennessee, Bradley County Deed Book 288, 843-845; Deed of Sale from Mary Cassie Eslinger & Barbara Jean Eslinger Weaver to State of Tennessee, September 27, 1974, Bradley County, Tennessee, Bradley County Deed Book 206, 793-794; Deed of Sale from Lola Godfrey to State of Tennessee, September 27, 1974, Bradley County, Tennessee, Bradley County Deed Book 206, 791-792; Deed of Sale from Oscar & Lola Godfrey to State of Tennessee, September 27, 1974, Bradley County, Tennessee, Bradley County Deed Book 206, 789-790; Deed of Sale from Theodore Roosevelt Thomas to State of Tennessee, September 27, 1974, Bradley County, Tennessee, Bradley County Deed Book 206, 787-788. 95 Randall Higgins and Sandra Rowland, “Red Clay Dedication Saturday,” Cleveland Daily Banner, May 5, 1976; “Rev. Brock to Deliver Dedicatory Prayer,” Cleveland Daily Banner, May 7, 1976; “Future Red Clay museum honors Col. James Corn,” The Morning Sun (Cleveland, TN), May 10, 1976. 96 “Future Red Clay museum honors Col. James Corn,” The Morning Sun (Cleveland, TN), May 10, 1976. 97 Letter from B.R. Allison, Tennessee Commissioner of Conservation, to John Tyler, Bradley County Conservation Board, April 3, 1978, in vertical file at Red Clay State Historic Park; “Red Clay Park Groundbreaking Set,” The Chattanooga Times, March 30, 1978; Sandra M. Rowland, “Work Begins Wednesday On Red Clay State Park,” Cleveland Daily Banner, April 23, 1978; Roy Carbine, “Dedication of Memorial at Red Clay State Park Set Today,” The Chattanooga Times, April 26, 1978; Sandra M. Rowland, “Ground Broken For Red Clay Park,” Cleveland Daily Banner, April 27, 1978. 98 “Cherokees Watch As Park Opened To Their Heritage,” The Tennessean (Nashville, TN), September 30, 1979; “Cherokee Capital Restored,” The Tennessee Conservationist, vol. XLVI, no. 1 (January/February 1980). 99 Deed of Sale from Southern Railway Company to State of Tennessee, Department of Conservation, July 2, 1980, Bradley County, Tennessee, Bradley County Deed Book 109, 419-422. 100 “First Annual Cherokeefest” schedule, Red Clay State Historic Park files. 101 “Cherokee Day of Recognition” flyer, August 2, 1986, Red Clay State Historic Park files; “Cherokee Day of Recognition” flyer, August 1-2, 1987, Red Clay State Historic Park files; “Cherokee Days of Recognition” flyer, August 6-7, 1988, Red Clay State Historic Park files; “Cherokee Days of Recognition” flyer, August 5-6, 1989, Red Clay State Historic Park files; “Cherokee Days of Recognition” flyer, August 4-5, 1990, Red Clay State Historic Park files. 102 Eastern & Western Cherokee Council Reunion Program (Cherokee, NC: The Eastern Band of the Cherokee Indians, 1984). 103 Elizabeth De Medici, “Red Clay making changes in this season’s activities,” Cleveland Daily Banner, July 19, 2002; Elizabeth De Medici, “Red Clay celebration to pay tribute to former volunteers,” Cleveland Daily Banner, July 31, 2002; Elizabeth De Medici, “Red Clay to charge access fee,” Cleveland Daily Banner, October 1, 2002. 104 “Cherokee festival,” Cleveland Daily Banner, July 21, 2002. 105 Colby Denton, “Cherokee Cultural Celebration Two days of endless experiences,” Cleveland Daily Banner, August 3, 2018. 106 Randall Higgins, “Red Clay seeks more visibility,” Chattanooga Times Free Press, July 22, 2003; Chet Guthrie, “Red Clay event depicts Christmas by the Cherokee,” Cleveland Daily Banner, December 14, 2015. 107 Erin Medley and S. Danielle Shelton, “Red Clay State Historic Park Interpretive Action Plan,” October 3, 2018, in “IAP” file at Red Clay State Historic Park. 108 “Red Clay Hosts Council for the Eastern Band and Cherokee Nation,” Times and Trails: People, Projects and Priorities at Environment and Conservation, Vol. 6, no. 1, Earth Day 2009 (Nashville, TN: Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation, 2009), 7. 109 Jane Switzer, “Red Clay geared up for TriCouncil Meeting and Festival,” Cleveland Daily Banner, August 15, 2015; Larry C. Bowers, “Cherokee returning to Red Clay for Tri-Council,” Cleveland Daily Banner, August 22, 2015, http://clevelandbanner.com/stories/cherokee-returning-to-red-clay-for-tri-council,16227 (accessed November 19, 2018); Bill John Baker, “Historic Council Meeting Held At Red Clay, Tenn.; First Meeting Since 1838,” Native News Online.net, August 31, 2015, https://nativenewsonline.net/currents/historic-council-meeting-held-at-red-clay-tenn-first-meeting-since-1838/ (accessed November 3, 2018); Ben Benton, “Historic Meeting: Tri-Council of the Cherokee discuss cultural preservation, unity at Red Clay,” The Chattanooga Times Free Press, August 30, 2015. 110 Kelly Jackson, “Cyclists will travel 1,000 miles to honor Cherokee heritage,” Chattanooga Times Free Press, June 27, 2009;

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Greg Kaylor, “Cherokee riders Remember the Removal,” Cleveland Daily Banner, June 9, 2013; Greg Kaylor, “Remembering the Trail of Tears,” Cleveland Daily Banner, June 1, 2014; Greg Kaylor, “Remember the Removal riders explore historic sites,” Cleveland Daily Banner, June 3, 2014; Joyanna Love, “Cherokee bike riders retrace their heritage,” Cleveland Daily Banner, June 8, 2015; “Young Cherokees retrace footsteps of ancestors on 1000 mile bike trip,” Cleveland Daily Banner, July 4, 2015; “Remember the Removal Bike Ride,” Cleveland Daily Banner, June 6, 2016; Tyler Jett, “Cyclists following the Trail of Tears in 18 days,” Chattanooga Times Free Press, June 3, 2017; Allen Mincey, “Remember the Removal,” Cleveland Daily Banner, June 6, 2017; “Remember the Removal,” Cleveland Daily Banner, June 5, 2018. 111 Cherokee Nation, “Remember the Removal,” https://remembertheremoval.cherokee.org/about.html (accessed November 15, 2018). 112 G.W. Featherstonhaugh, A Canoe Voyage Up the Minnay Sotor, with an account of the lead and copper deposits in Wisconsin; of the gold region in the Cherokee country; and sketches of popular manners; &c. &c. &c., Volume 2 (London: Richard Bentley, 1846), 232, https://cdn.loc.gov/service/gdc/lhbum/6643b/6643b.pdf (accessed November 9, 2018). 113 Butler, “The Council Ground at Red Clay (40 BY 20) Archaeological and Historical Investigations, 1973-1975,” 4-5. 114 Moore, 131-134. 115 Tennessee Department of Conservation, Division of Planning and Development, Red Clay State Archaeological Area General Development Guidelines, 8. 116 Tennessee Department of Public Health Division of Laboratory Services Bacteriological Water Examination, “Red Clay Springs,” June 4, 1975, in vertical file at Red Clay State Historic Park; Letter from Hiwassee District Health Department, June 4, 1975, in vertical file at Red Clay State Historic Park. 117 Debbie Stephenson Moore, 1836 Cherokee Nation Property Evaluations, Vol. I, “No. 169” (Cleveland, TN: Old Town Productions, 2017), 159. 118 G.W. Featherstonhaugh, A Canoe Voyage Up the Minnay Sotor, with an account of the lead and copper deposits in Wisconsin; of the gold region in the Cherokee country; and sketches of popular manners; &c. &c. &c., Volume 2 (London: Richard Bentley, 1846), 232, https://cdn.loc.gov/service/gdc/lhbum/6643b/6643b.pdf (accessed November 9, 2018). 119 Ibid, 230-231. 120 Moore, 90, 92, 133-135, 138-141, 150, 159, 161, 163-167, and 312. 121 Featherstonhaugh, 232. 122 “Cherokee Plants at Red Clay,” date unknown, Red Clay State Historic Park files. 123 Featherstonhaugh, 232. 124 Moore, 90, 92, 133-136, 138-141, 150, 158-168, 312. 125 Ibid, 131-134. 126 Nathaniel Smith to Colonel Lindsay, June 10, 1838. 127 100 – Red Clay extensions of Camp Ross. 128 Katrina Marland, “Trail Trees,” American Forests, April 10, 2012, https://www.americanforests.org/blog/trail_trees/ (accessed November 18, 2018); Nicholas C. Kawa, Bradley Painter, and Cailín E. Murray, “Trail Trees Living Artifacts (Vivifacts) of Eastern North America,” Ethnobiology Letters, Vol. 6, no. 1 (2015), 183-185, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26423616 (accessed December 10, 2018). 129 “Rare and Endangered Species in Bradley County State Status,” April 12, 1992, Red Clay State Historic Park files. 130 New England Wild Flower Society, “Pedicularis lanceolate Michx.,” Go Botany, https://gobotany.newenglandwild.org/species/pedicularis/lanceolata/ (accessed November 18, 2018). 131 United States Department of Agriculture, “Pedicularis laneolata Michx. swamp lousewort,” National Resources Conservation Service, https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=PELA2 (accessed November 18, 2018). 132 J. Cordeiro, J.F. Fitzpatrick, and C. Taylor, "Cambarus cymatilis - Hobbs, 1970 Conasauga Blue Burrower," Comprehensive Report Species - Cambarus cymatilis (February 2, 2009), http://explorer.natureserve.org/servlet/NatureServe?searchName=Cambarus cymatilis (accessed April 13, 2017). 133 Joyanna Love, “Search for rare crawdad aims to save habitats,” Cleveland Daily Banner (September 26, 2016), http://clevelandbanner.com/stories/search-for- rarecrawdad-aimsto-save-habitats,43294 (accessed November 2, 2018). 134 National Park Service, “Guidelines for the Treatment of Cultural Landscapes: Defining Landscape Terminology,” https://www.nps.gov/tps/standards/four- treatments/landscape-guidelines/terminology.htm (accessed October 18, 2018). 135 Moore, 139; “Officials Check Red Clay Area,” The Chattanooga Times, October 15, 1965.

Endnotes RED CLAY STATE PARK CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY 53