ARCHAEOLOGICAL ACTIVITY AT TAXILA FROM THE BEGINNING TO 1947 A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL STUDY A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy By IFQUT SHAHEEN TAXILA INSTITUTE OF ASIAN CIVILIZATIONS QUAID-I-AZAM UNIVERSITY ISLAMABD 2016 CERTIFICATE This thesis by Ifqut Shaheen is accepted in its present form by the Taxila Institute of Asian Civilizations, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, as satisfying the thesis requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Asian Studies. Prof. Dr. M. Ashraf Khan _________________ Supervisor External Examiner __________________ Prof. Dr. Taj Ali External Examiner __________________ Dr. Ghazala Misbah Director __________________ TIAC Dated: __________________ DECLARATION I hereby declare that this thesis in its present form is the result of my individual research and it has not been submitted concurrently to any other university for any other degree. IFQUT SHAHEEN TAXILA INSTITUTE OF ASIAN CIVILIZATIONS QUAID-I-AZAM UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD I hereby recommend that the Dissertation prepared under my supervision by MS. IFQUT SHAHEEN, entitled ARCHAEOLOGICAL ACTIVITY AT TAXILA FROM THE BEGINNING TO 1947: A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL STUDY be accepted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Asian Studies. ___________________ Prof. Dr. M. Ashraf Khan Supervisor To My Parents And Dr. Rafiullah Khan CONTENTS Acknowledgements 1-3 Introduction 5-14 1. Taxila valley: Geography and history 16-35 2. Theoretical framework 37-56 3. Archaeologists in the field: Pioneers in the study of the archaeology of Taxila And their methods and approaches 58-108 4. Archaeological landscape of Taxila valley: Reconstruction of its history till 1947 110-167 5. Archaeology of Taxila: A contextual and historiographical analysis 169-205 Conclusion 207-210 Maps 212-216 Bibliography 218-234 Appendix 236-241 Pictures 243-283 1 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The realities of existence make one owe much to co-human beings right from the very beginning of one’s life. Some debts of gratitude count more perennially which one neither can forget nor flout throughout the life. Initiations of a novice into the field of knowledge and learning by the savants entail such a lofty clout especially in matters of research and writing. The sense of obligation gets augmented when it comes to working on a PhD dissertation. It is in this context that I shall express strong feelings of indebtedness to a number of people ranging from patrons to teachers, helpers, will-wishers and friends. First of all, I shall extend my sincere thanks to my supervisor, Professor Dr. M. Ashraf Khan, Director, Taxila Institute of Asian Civilizations, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad. He had been kind enough to during my research to provide great sources about Taxila and its archaeology. His cooperation remained so significant and passionate that even a number of sources were obtained from friends from abroad. It was Professor Ashraf Khan’s consistent supervision and timely response which made the completion of this thesis possible in a speedy manner. Beside such kind of help, the Professor’s deep acquaintance with the archaeology of Taxila proved of great help and significance. He knows about the valley ad nauseam in terms of its archaeological landscape and the related literature. Hence, his great help which is appreciable here. Similarly, I feel indebtedness to my teachers from whom I have learnt throughout my academic career. Dr. Ghani-ur-Rahman, Associate Professor, Taxila Institute of Asian Civilizations, Quaid-i-Azam University, comes first in this respect. His important cooperation in terms of research guidance and assistance is to be appreciated. Dr. Sadeed 2 Arif, Assistant Professor, Taxila Institute of Asian Civilizations, Quaid-i-Azam University also may be remembered for providing some material during this research. Dr. Rafiullah Khan, Assistant Professor, Taxila Institute of Asian Civilizations, Quaid-i-Azam University, constantly remained source in guidance, encouragement and help. It was him to whom goes the credit of introducing to some theoretical debates and discourses which add great strength to this research as a historiographical study. He also provided some basic sources and theoretical works. A number of other well-known scholars have in one way or in another way supported me during this research. Discussions with Dr. Saifur Rahman Dar, during one of his visit to Taxila Institute of Asian Civilizations, Quaid-i-Azam University, proved significant for getting clarity about some problems in relation to archaeology and history of Taxila. Professor Dr. Mokammal Bhuiyan, Department of Archaeology, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka, kindly sent me hard photocopy of the unpublished thesis of Dr. Nazimuddin Ahmad. Similarly, Professor J. Mark Kenoyer, Wisconsin-Madison University, also shared some his recent publications which added new dimensions to my understanding of archaeology of Taxila. I am grateful to Richard L. Lyman as he sent me two important articles. I am also mindful of the help of Mehmood ul Hassan of Department of Archaeology and Museum for help and cooperation as he kindly provided me list of protected sites of Taxila valley. He also commented on first draft of my thesis. Beside the above mentioned scholars I would like to mention clerical staff of Taxila Institute of Asian Civilizations for their help throughout my studies at Quaid-i-Azam University. Sardar Lala, Qaim Ali Shah, Fateh Haidar Ja’afari, Tayyiba Mussarat, Javed Masih, Muhammad Nasim and Basharat deserve my sincere gratitude their help and 3 assistance. The credit for most of photographs goes to Mehr M. Akmal, MSc student at Taxila Institute of Asian Civilizations. I ought to remember syrupy memories and company of my friends Amara Yunas and Mehwish Tariq who have been my supporters from MSc times. I shall also appreciate from the core of my heart the constant help provided by friend and roommate Dr. Abida Bano. She always guided me and advised me during my research. I can’t forget her cooperation. Ms. Latifa and Nadia also deserve a special mention here due to thier benevolent friendship. Ms. Nahida, Banafsha. Last but not the least, my family members deserve my sincere gratitude as it have been them who always remained passionate about my studies and research. My parents and my grandfather Muhammad Ali come first as it was their vision which enabled me to pursue my education and research. I can’t express my feelings for my mother. It was her wish for my higher Education. My aunt Ftima also supported me like a mother. My uncle Nazir Dahar may also be appreciated for his father-like love and support. Similarly, my brother Sajid needs my appreciation for his help and cooperation in relation to my studies. My sisters, Nusrat, Ishrat and Asma always supported me and remained cordial and friendly in matters of my education and research. My brother-in-law Shoaib also needs appreciation as he always encouraged me in my studies. My nephew, Imran and niece Hoorain Fatima and my niece, Dua-i-Zainab, are to be mentioned here as they always kept me animated during the tiresome period of research and writing. Ifqut Shaheen 4 5 Introduction The history of the Indo-Pakistani subcontinent is largely deficient in documentary sources. And this fact gives a great role to archaeology in the reconstruction of the ancient history of India and Pakistan. This enterprise got started with the British period of India when the western scholars and administrators took interest in the ancient history of the area. For this purpose the field of archaeology was given due importance. Different areas of the country saw archaeological surveys and excavations and the reports were frequently published. Taxila is one of such areas which got the attention of the British scholars and archaeologists. They made surveys, explorations and excavations and published their reports about Taxila and its cultural heritage. They tried to solve many historical problems in the light of the researches. Their explanations and interpretations need a fresh evaluation and investigation in the light of the subsequent researches and discoveries. Similarly, these pioneering scholars adopted methods during their fieldwork which also make the subject of inquiry especially in a postcolonial milieu. All such related questions and problems have been probed into in this study. Before we proceed further, a short historical sketch of Taxila may be presented here. Taxila, a modern town of Pakistan, is one of the most historic places of the country. It is situated on the bank of two local rivers known as Tamra-nala and Lundi-nala. Taxila lies on the western side of the Margala Hills. It is located about 40 km northwest of Rawalpindi and Islamabad and comes within the administrative boundaries of district Rawalpindi, Punjab. The total area of Taxila is 375 square kilometers. Its elevation is 549 meters above 6 the sea level. This valley is watered by Haro River and surrounded by a girdle of hills of Margalla, Hazara and Murree. The history of Taxila goes back to the prehistoric and protohistoric period of which remains are found at Sarai-khola, Hathial and Bhir-mound. The Indo-Aryans are said to have come here during their so-called historical movements. But the most vivid history of the valley, traditionally speaking, starts with the Achaemenids followed by Alexander of Macedonia, the Mauryans, Indo-Greeks, Scythians, Parthians, Kushanas, Sassanians and finally to the time of the Huns and of the Shahis. Taxila has played an important role throughout the history of the Indo-Pakistani subcontinent. Taxila has served as a crossroads and melting-pot of peoples and cultures. It has had significant routes and paths network. One of the various routes, passing through Taxila, proceeded from Pataliputra (modern Patna) and connected the north-west of the Mauryan Empire. Another ancient route was coming from Western Asian through Kapisa, Bactria and Charsada (Pushkalavati) and reached Taxila across the Indus at Hund (Ohind or Udhabhandapura).