Academic Journal of Social Sciences ISSN 2521-0149 Vol. 4 Issue 3 (July- September 2020) PP 377-403 ISSN 2519-7983 A REVIEW OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL REPORTS AND LITERATURE ON THE SCULPTURE COLLECTION OF THE ROYAL ONTARIO MUSEUM

Irfan Ullah1 Muhammad Akram Soomro2 Mudassar Zulfiqar3 Abstract: This review paper focuses on a forty-three-piece collection of Gandhara sculpture in the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, Canada. Although individual pieces of Gandhara sculpture are widely known to scholars, but much of the collection of the Gandhara sculpture of the Royal Ontario Museum is unknown to scholars. In this paper these sculptures have been described and analysed as a collection. The paper is organised on Gandhara ancient history, physical geography, and the history of the Buddha image in ancient subcontinent in South Asia. Emphasis is placed on the era of the from the 1st to 4th century AD when the school of Gandhara sculpture achieved its highest levels of production and craftsmanship. The Gandhara School of sculpture produced work continuously for at least six centuries and reached its peak of achievement during the era of the Kushan Empire that dominated Central Asia and Northern sub-continent India-Pakistan from the 1st to 4th centuries AD. Keyword: Gandhara, Sculpture, Collection, Royal Ontario Museum.

1Author is PhD Scholar in Department of Archaeology at 1Universiti Sains Malaysia. Email:[email protected] 2Author is Assistant Professor in Department of Mass Communication at The University of Pnjab, Lahore, Pakistan. 3 Author is working as Visiting Lecturer in Department of Sociology at University of Punjab

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Introduction human form emerged. The creation and acceptance of a Buddha image represented a During the first centuries of the Christian era, huge conceptual leap from the earlier aniconic a prolific and a highly sophisticated school of artistic expression, and in many respects was sculpture emerged in an area south of the a revolutionary movement in the history of Hindu Kush in South Asia. The area, known religious art. Determining exact dates for the in ancient times as Gandhara, figures emergence of Buddha images in human form prominently in the history of art as the source is difficult, but art forms that included Buddha of some of the most important religious art in images had acquired a definite validity shortly the world. The Gandhara School of sculpture after the beginning of the Christian era. produced work continuously for at least six Subsequent development of the image and centuries and reached its peak of achievement iconography was coincident with an influx of during the era of the Kushan Empire that new design and image ideas, as well as dominated Central Asia and Northern sub- techniques and skills that became available continent India-Pakistan from the 1st to 4th due to Gandhara location at the crossroads of centuries AD. Most of the sculpture discussed major trade routes that served several diverse in this catalogue can be attributed to the cultural and political traditions (Rienjang and Kushan period, and it is entirely probable that Stewart 2018; Irfan.et al 2018). all forty-three pieces were originally created for Buddhist monasteries. Trade routes of the Kushan era linked China, Central Asia, Persia, the Mediterranean and In this article, I have taken two fundamental the subcontinent of Pakistan-India. departure points for this study of Gandhara Cosmopolitan cities in Gandhara, most with sculpture. First, Gandhara was the centre of a major Buddhist monastic complexes were subcontinent Indian art form created to serve primary centers for an international web of Buddhist intentions and reflect Buddhist trade and exchange. Artistic ideas and styles ideals. Strangely, this factor is often literally came into Gandhara from the overlooked or diminished by art historians directions. In addition, Gandhara arts and other researchers preoccupied with benefited enormously from readily available problems of chronology or stylistic attributes markets. Monasteries enjoyed generous of the art. Secondly, the flourishing of this patronage because of a thriving climate of school of art testifies to the importance of intellectual and cultural climate in the Kushan Gandhara geographical location. Gandhara era. Positive social and religious values were cities, towns and monasteries grew as part of attributed to patronage. Donations were an extensive and enormously prosperous offered in the spirit that such contributions international trade network that flourished were a means for the donor to acquire during the entire Kushan period. religious merit. For centuries, monasteries Gandhara played a particularly important role installed large numbers of sculpted panels in the history of the image of the Buddha in depicting scenes from the life of the Buddha. human form. Just as in the Christian tradition, The commissioning of freestanding when centuries passed before visual images of sculptures of Buddha’s and Bodhisattvas was a Christ figure appeared, sub-continent also popular. There is evidence to suggest that developed and spread for at least Brahmans as well as Buddhists, monks from four centuries before a Buddha image in wealthy families, lay devotees from merchant

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Academic Journal of Social Sciences ISSN 2521-0149 Vol. 4 Issue 3 (July- September 2020) PP 377-403 ISSN 2519-7983 classes, the Indian nobility and Kushan kings Sub-continent India-Pakistan Buddhism all patronized monastery construction and appears to have changed doctrinally in monastic arts (Aslam 2017; Irfan.et al 2018). Gandhara, shifting gradually from orthodox Theravada roots in South India to a form South of Gandhara in the Indian subcontinent, commonly referred to as Mahayana during the same time, another important Buddhism. Although the evidence is not school of sculpture also developed images of conclusive, Buddhist arts of Gandhara are the Buddha in human form. In Mathura, India, generally believed to reflect changes that a natural development from pre-Buddhist Jain occurred in Buddhism prior to and during the imagery led to images of the Buddha. Kushan era. It was this new or revised Mathura art shows kinship with central and Buddhism that spread from Northern India south Indian aniconic art of early Buddhism into Central Asia, then into China and the Far found in major monastery sites. Scholars East (Rienjang and Stewart 2018; Benjamin debate whether the school of Gandhara or 2018; Alvi, et al., 2020a). Mathura first introduced a Buddha image. The weight of evidence seems to suggest that Gandhara has recently decade attracted new Mathura influenced Gandhara more than the attention because of a collection of birch bark other way around, but it is highly probable scrolls written in the script that may that both schools developed Buddha images be the oldest Buddhist manuscripts and iconography simultaneously, and both discovered. The scrolls date to the first schools benefited from a culture of patronage century AD. Publication of the first that characterised the Kushan era (Raven translation of the manuscript fragments has 2017; Ray 2017). attracted interest from the Buddhist as well as the academic community, in part because the Gandhara sculpture clearly and convincingly contents pre-date the appearance of reveals its subcontinent origins, but the Mahayana precepts in Gandhara. Perhaps it is sculpture also displays Greek, Roman and not surprising that Gandhara, well known for Parthian influences. Gandhara artisans found the importance of its Buddhist visual arts, is no difficulty in borrowing ideas and images now also recognised for its early Buddhist from many religious traditions. Brahminic, literature (Richard 2018; Olivieri and Zoroastrian, Mithraic and Jain, as well as Filigenzi 2018; Alvi, et al., 2015). many local cult sources, were all incorporated to serve Buddhist intentions. The Gandharan Physical Geography sculpture is remarkable because it reveals an Geographically, the valley of Indian ecumenism manifesting in a Buddhist Pakistan (Figure 1) known to be a Puruṣapura art form. Art historians trained in western ( for City of Men), the western capital traditions have freely indulged their passion of Gandhara, is about one hundred twenty for finding Roman hair curls and Greek kilometres east to the west, less than one garment folds in Gandhara Buddha images, hundred north to south not a large area but the uniqueness of Gandhara art lies in its considering the scope of its history. From inclusive absorption of an astonishing ancient times, Peshawar valley has been diversity of influences present at time known for its lush greenery, orchard crops, (Femald and Sutherland 1953; Marshall fields of grains, farming villages and 1960a; Aslam and Bukhari 2017; Ray 2017). extensive irrigation canals. Xuan Zang

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Irfan Ullah, Muhammad Akram Soomro & Mudassar Zulfiqar reported in the seventh century of the valley’s the adjoining district of Hazara, is today no abundant harvests, fruits and flowers and less famous for its fruit gardens and crops flowing streams. John Marshall, writing in the than for its green, well-watered valleys, its early decades of the twentieth century agreed impressive landscapes and invigorating with Xuan Zang. “This comer of Punjab, with climate.”(Marshall 1960, 1960a).

Map 1: Peshawar valley, Pakistan (Source Google Earth 2020).

Today, the drive east from Peshawar through colourful area of narrow lanes originally the Peshawar valley to another famous designed for market stalls, shoppers and old city of Gandhara takes about three hours, horses, and now crowded with trucks, cars, including the rather slow progress through auto-rickshaws and foot traffic (Siddiqui Peshawar’s traffic and its suburban industrial 2018; Irfan.et al 2018). zones. The Grand Trunk highway is a The main population race of the Gandhara surviving branch of the old Silk Road that in region is Pathans or Pashtuns one of the Gandhara times would have been lined with largest tribal societies in the world, makeup complexes and monasteries. Few visible 90% of the population of contemporary signs of Gandhara remain along the highway, North-West Pakistan. Millions of Pathans live although impressive sites can be found in in cities, towns and villages. Large numbers Taxila and somewhat more remote districts of continue to live as semi-nomadic pastoralists. Pakistan. Countless Kushan-era sites have They augment their subsistence by farming been lost in the dust due to two millennia of but depend primarily on the raising of sheep, invasions, looting and modern development. goats and horses, like Aryan pastoral nomads A scenic secondary road through the who first arrived in an area four thousand Peshawar valley passes through farm country years ago (Khayyam et al 2018; Benjamin and towns, including the town of Charssada, 2018). situated near tributaries of the and known in Kushan times as . The Gandhara Monastery The Charssada old town is a dusty and

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Academic Journal of Social Sciences ISSN 2521-0149 Vol. 4 Issue 3 (July- September 2020) PP 377-403 ISSN 2519-7983 The centre of Buddhist activity and creativity flourish during the reigns of successive Indo- in Gandhara was the monastery. Early Greek, Parthian and Kushan kings. Xuan Buddhist scriptures and commentaries present Zang, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, found a life story of the Buddha, who after most Gandhara monasteries in rains when he enlightenment, travelled from town to town to visited the area in the seventh century AD. He preach the dharma, attracting followers in the estimated, however, that more than a process. Buddhist monastic life developed out thousand monasteries had flourished in of a custom observed by communities of Gandhara region of Pakistan during its peak wandering almsmen to take a rain retreat period of activity. (See figure 2) At least during the monsoon season. Brahmanical and another thousand monasteries had also been Jain wandering almsmen observed the same active in neighbouring Swat valley of custom but did not have regulations about Pakistan (Bapat 2016; Irfan et al 2018). living together in an established residence Monastic life in both urban and rural areas of during rain retreat. The unique character of Gandhara is well documented. Large, the Buddhist community was shaped by the complex monastic organisations were integral wishes of its worshipers to settle into a fixed to the cultural and religious life of Peshawar, location for the three months of the rainy Sahri Baliol, Taxila and many other centres. season (Ray 2017; Siddiqui 2018). The monasteries met the needs of monks and In support of the monks, wealthy patrons Buddhist lay people living in urbanised areas. attracted to the teachings granted parklands A far greater number of monasteries for the Buddha’s use. The parks were outfitted flourished outside cities, often on hilltops or with huts and provisions for monks and as mountainsides above cultivated river valleys, support expanded and the communities grew, near villages or towns on trade routes. A the parks gradually came into use for periods hillside location was practical as the longer than the rainy season. The Buddhist monastery did not interfere with village life or communities or sanghas gradually moved farming, but was conveniently accessible to from a wandering to a settled life and an the village as well as visiting merchants or evolution of the Buddhist monastery travellers (Cunningham and Young 2015; commenced. Passing through several stages Sarkar 2016). of development over a period of centuries, a Even with the move into settled communities, flourishing monastery industry in sub- the sangha never lost its urge to wander. continent culminated in multi-story Monks migrated from monastery to complexes with towers and circuit walls that monastery following networks of well- enclosed universities, libraries, elaborate travelled trails that crossed valleys and stupa courts, and many varieties of working mountains. New trails were established as and living areas. Buddhist monastery life new monasteries were built. Monks walked survived in some areas of sub-continent until the trails not only for purposes of pilgrimage, the twelfth century, when the sixteenth- but probably also to experience the deeply century long history of the sangha in sub- rooted practice of walking. After centuries of continent was closed by Muslim conquests growth in Gandhara and throughout northern (Raven 2017; Ray 2017) India, monks took the trails over mountains to Buddhism took root in Gandhara during the areas outside India where they established Ashokan period and continued to expand and new communities in Central Asia and China

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(Ray 2017; Benjamin 2018; Alvi, et al., hundred years after , during the reign 2020a). of an Indo-Greek king, Menander I (c. 155- 130 BC), who is regarded as sympathetic to The stupa and the monastic complex of Buddhism. The Great Stupa of Dharmarajika (Figure 2) near the is circular with a raised terrace around its base present day in Punjab, and flights of steps at each of the cardinal Pakistan. A fine example of the stone points. An open passage around the base of architecture of the time. Its ground plan is the stupa was used as a ceremonial path for characteristic of early Gandhara monasteries monks. A variety of stupa groups, chapels and that were constructed in an urban context. courts surround several plaza areas (Sehrai Numismatic evidence suggests that the 1986; Farooq and Gull 2015; Ray 2017) construction Dharmarajika began about a

Figure 1: The stupa and the monastic complex of Dharmarajika stupa (Source: Siddiqui 2018)

Today, Dharmarajika is situated within sight second century AD (Farooq et al 2015; Ray of a huge Pakistani military-industrial 2017). complex. Grassy mounds are all that remain Within two centuries of the construction of of many detached buildings that were part of Dharmarajika, hundreds of other monastery an extensive monastery area. Remains of complexes were constructed in Swat and monastic cells, an assembly hall, and a few Peshawar cities of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa relatively well-preserved sculptures of the Province of Pakistan. The most documented Buddha are on site in wall niches. Although sites, however, are located on hilltops and Dharmarajika pre-dates the Kushan period, crests of mountains away from the cities. the sculpture was probably installed during High in the hills, monks lived in a cooler and Kushan times, beginning in the first or early cleaner environment than offered by cities. To

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Academic Journal of Social Sciences ISSN 2521-0149 Vol. 4 Issue 3 (July- September 2020) PP 377-403 ISSN 2519-7983 reach sources of water, monks cut steps on the In Theravada tradition, monks who chose to rocky hill slopes. They maintained networks enter the monastic community or sangha were of trails between neighbouring monasteries not allowed to retain personal property, and villages. Monks walked where they including their houses, fields, cattle, gold and wished, taking sanctuary at the end of the day silver. The Siddhartha in hilltop monasteries that provided a retreat rejected the money and material possessions for study, meditation and sleep. An early when he departed from his life as a prince, and Buddhist account describes a favourite so established a precedent for monks and nuns Gandhara retreat. A spot not too far from the to follow. In a sermon of the Pali canon, for town and not too near; suitable for going and example, the Buddha states that a loss of coming; easily accessible to all people; by day money is a trifling matter, whereas loss of not too crowded; at night not exposed to noise wisdom brings utter misery (Šamánková et al and alarm; clean of the smell of the people; 2018). excluded from men; well fitted for a retired According to the Pali canon, in Buddha’s first life. (Ray 2017; Siddiqui 2018) sermon he instructed his monks to follow a Beginning at least two centuries before the Middle Way. They were to avoid strict Kushan period, systems of monastic asceticism or self-torture on the one hand and organisation and discipline developed as the indulgence in the passions on the other. The number of monasteries increased and doctrine of the Middle Way probably monastic life became common. Several followed the spread of Buddhism to generations of monks articulated contracts of Gandhara, but interpretation and enforcement rules and regulations that eventually of the vinayas changed over time and was determined a system of corporate life for likely different in some respects in each monastic communities. Collections of monastery. Nevertheless, the sangha and the monastic rules, vinayas, are found in many Vinaya developed together; the nature of the early Buddhist texts, the Vinaya Pitaka of the monastic community and the rules co-evolved Theravada Pali Canon, and also in the to meet specific conditions. Monks were Mulasarvastivada Vinaya that probably were admonished to be attentive to communal as known in Gandhara monasteries. Beginning well as personal objectives, and especially to in the Ashokan era, by their possession of the remember the benefits and obligations that Visayas, monasteries became self-governing accompanied the patronage upon which they institutions that were protected and respected depended. Nevertheless, in addition to by kings. As a result, the monastery moral and monastery commitments, monks were free to social values influenced Indo-pak society, return to their families and enjoy the although these values changed over time. The privileges of home (Huntington 1985; Buddhist sangha, called upon to learn the Rienjang and Stewart 2018). cardinal doctrines of dharma the Four Themes While the Buddha may have said that money for Mindfulness, the seven constituents of was to be regarded as a trifling matter, Wisdom, the Noble Eightfold Path was no especially for monks and their teachers, doubt also called upon to remember its money was an important reality for monastic considerable influence outside the sangha life, especially in Gandhara. Archaeological (Narain 1985; Aslam and Bukhari 2017). excavation in Gandharan monasteries has unearthed quantities of hoards from

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Irfan Ullah, Muhammad Akram Soomro & Mudassar Zulfiqar stupa relic caskets and many other locations. widely accepted formalized agreements. The principle of gift-giving, or Dana, was Monks and monasteries were maintained by strongly emphasised in Buddhist teachings endowments and grants, sometimes from for both monks and laity. Gift giving was kings, but more often from a continuous perceived to “ripen” the giver, increasing stream of donors’ gifts from members of material and spiritual levels. Monasteries, by wealthy merchant classes or family lineage necessity, where, in fact, borrowing and (Sehrai 1986; Siddiqui 2018). lending institutions. Even the vinayas The efforts of Gandhara monastic mention efforts by monasteries to improve communities to gain favour with patrons is their reputations to appeal to lay followers. reflected by the apparent efforts of Kushan Choice hilltop locations or awe-inspiring art kings to petition favours from the gods. In the and architecture attracted wealthy travellers Kushan period, Pharro was a god of monetary and their donations (Sehrai 1986; Farooq et al wealth favoured by kings as well as the 2015; Ray 2017). Buddhist merchant class. Ardoxsho, an Because of large membership and its Iranian goddess of wealth and good fortune, influence in the society, the Buddhist Sangha was another favourite. Both Pharro and of Gandhara became thoroughly Ardoxsho have frequently portrayed deities institutionalised. The culture of patronage that on Kushan . Pharro is either shown seems to have reached a fever pitch in the offering a pan of fire or holding a victory Kushan period provides an economic wreath, symbols of royal glory and legitimacy explanation for the process of as king of kings. Ardoxsho is portrayed institutionalisation that occurred. carrying a cornucopia, a symbol of abundance Transactions between the monastic and lay and good fortune. Although neither deity is communities were frequent and complex, Buddhist, both deities were frequently used involving major construction projects, on the coins of Kanishka (c. 127-153 AD) commissioning of quantities of artwork, who is famous for his patronage of Buddhism. expansion plans and maintenance programs. Kanishka’s successor, Huvishka (c. 154-192 The sangha and laity entered into a system of AD) also favoured Pharro and Ardoxsho as reciprocity. In exchange for donations of land, royal benefactors. The kings coins suggest a money, jewels, silk and other valuables, similar reciprocity as found in the monasteries donors received in return accumulated merit, relationship with patrons. The kings honoured honorary ceremonies, structures with the gods in the form of temples and coin inscribed dedications, inscribed statuary or representations, expecting abundance and other forms of art (David 2002; Cunningham good fortune in return (Ray 2017; Steinhardt and Young 2015; Ray 2017). 2018; Siddiqui 2018; Rienjang and Stewart 2018). Isolation from society was not an objective for Buddhist monastic life. From the beginning, Huge numbers of Gandhara stone and the aims and activities of Buddhist monks and images have survived and are held in public lay Buddhists were related. They jointly and private collections. All Gandhara images organised festivals. Stupa worship, initially a come from monastery ruins. Relatively few form of lay ritual, was later adopted as a have been found in their original settings, and canonical institution. Monasteries and the most are damaged. Nevertheless, statuary and surrounding society served each other in narrative reliefs provide clues to a monastic

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Academic Journal of Social Sciences ISSN 2521-0149 Vol. 4 Issue 3 (July- September 2020) PP 377-403 ISSN 2519-7983 architecture of the period. Gandhara complexes, and two courtyards, including a monastery sites were in ruins by about the lower level court skirted by rows of monks’ sixth century AD, and archaeological cells. A British sergeant first excavated the evidence suggests that the sites were site in 1871. Dr Spooner, who continued work gradually abandoned rather than deliberately at Takht-I-Bahi and nearby sites for several destroyed. Only a few Gandhara area sites years, began the first systematic excavation in have been competently excavated, and most 1907. Conservation work commenced about have endured centuries of pillage and amateur the same time and continued from 1907 to digging, with finds dispersed into the 1929. Large numbers of sculptures were antiquity markets. The practice continues recovered annually, with many now preserved today throughout Central and South Asia, and in the Peshawar Museum (Sehrai 1986; government efforts to protect sites and Abhijeet 2015; Bapat 2016; Ray 2017). The preserve artefacts is for the most part wholly rest is widely dispersed. As Spooner wrote, inadequate (Mogali and Abrahams 2017; Aslam and Bukhari 2017; Irfan et al 2018). “The extraordinary extent and relatively The characteristic architectural environment good preservation of the ruins themselves for the art consisted of a stupa complex and are sufficient to explain the interest that has monastery. There was usually the main stupa, long been taken in them by archaeologists, often located at the centre of a quadrangle. an interest which has been widened by the Because of merit gained by sponsoring fact that many of the best pieces of construction, a complex of many small Gandhara sculpture now to be found in the was often built at the same monastery site, museums of Europe were originally usually adjacent to the main stupa quadrangle. recovered at this site.”(Sehrai 1986). Stupas were often lavishly adorned with tiers of stone or stucco reliefs that covered the base No sculptures remain in the site at Takht-I- and parts of the hemispherical dome. The Bahi, but the existing ruins and reconstructed main stupa quadrangle was characteristically buildings, quadrangles and courts provide lined with rows of chapels, platforms and ample evidence for the former presence of niches constructed to support or shelter artwork. Another Gandhara monastery active statuary, especially the iconic full-figure throughout the Kushan period is at Julian in images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas Taxila, Pakistan (Figure 4) also has partially (Foucher et al 1986; Raven 2017; Ray 2017). reconstructed buildings and a stupa complex One of the largest and best preserved with the remains of stucco panel reliefs Gandhara monasteries in Pakistan is skirting the bases of the stupas (Figure 4). UNESCO world heritage of Takht-I-Bahi Monasteries served multiple functions as (Figure 3). Its dramatic hilltop setting centres of learning and spiritual practice. overlooks villages and fields of the Mardan Outside of the royal houses, monasteries were valley of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, the primary cultural institutions of the time. Pakistan and the stark rock of surrounding They were complex self-governing ridges. The site includes a monastery communities, the following practices of both quadrangle lined with two stories of monks’ a secular and spiritual nature that were a cells, the main stupa quadrangle lined with image chapels, two additional stupa

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Irfan Ullah, Muhammad Akram Soomro & Mudassar Zulfiqar major influence in the society (Ray 2017; Siddiqui 2018).

Figure 2: The map shows the core region of Gandhara extending from Jalalabad to the West towards Taxila in the East, with Peshawar at its centre and Swat in the North. (Source: https://www.ancient.eu/image/3943 2018).

Figure 3: One of the largest and best preserved UNESCO world heritage site of Gandhara monasteries in Pakistan is Takht-I-Bahi (Source: The Author 2016).

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Figure 4: A stupa complex with remains of the stucco panel reliefs skirting the bases of the stupas Julian in Taxila, Pakistan (Source: The Author 2016). About the Collection rule in India, and the partition that created the new country of Pakistan. Because Ram Dass The first piece of Gandhara sculpture to enter and his family were Hindu, they were forced Royal Ontario Museum collections arrived in at the time of partition to leave behind their 1924. Of the forty-three objects described in family home and business (Quagliotti and this catalogue, seven pieces were donated. Maria 2000). The ROM purchased five pieces from Spink of London in the 1920’s and 1930’s and The sculpture acquired from the Rawalpindi another three came from an auction at dealer includes many outstanding pieces, full- Waddington’s in Toronto in 1985. Twenty- figure images of seated and standing eight sculptures were acquired from the Ram Buddha’s and Bodhisattvas, panel reliefs and Dass & Company thanks to a fortuitous several schists, stucco and fired clay heads. combination of circumstances that occurred The objects were acquired during the in the late 1930’s (Vollmer et al 1953). beginning of World War II and shipped through war zones from Calcutta to Halifax. The ingredients necessary for building Several large boxes sent by the dealer and ROM’s Gandhara collection included a destined for the Royal Ontario Museum were determined Director, a temporarily reliable shipped as “loan exhibition material” and source of funding, and, for the twenty-eight labelled for purposes of Indian Customs pieces, a knowledgeable but unpredictable declarations, as “plastic toys,” “stones cut and Indian dealer from the city of Rawalpindi, engraved,” “stone sculptures” and “clay Present Pakistan. ROM’s relationship with toys.”(Vollmer et al 1953). Ram Dass & Company occurred during the early years of World War II, the end of British

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Charles Currelly was the Royal Ontario 1000 AD, a dancing Shiva. The price asked Museum’s first Director when it opened its was more than I felt I could get, but the man doors to the public in 1912. He continued as kept writing me and I finally made him an Director of the Museum and Professor of offer that I thought would shut him up Archaeology at the University until he retired completely. To my amazement I received a in 1946. Bom and raised in Toronto, Currelly word, ‘Statue shipped.”(Ray 2017). attended Victoria College at the University of Some years later, a photo and fall page Toronto. As a student, he found opportunities description of the dancing Shiva was to pursue his love of collecting, beginning published in the Illustrated London News. As with moths, butterflies and plants. He a result, Currelly received a notice he could received BA in Archaeology in 1898 and a not refuse. He was offered: MA in 1901. In England, not long after graduation, Charles Currelly met the famous “A collection of fine pieces, mainly of Egyptologist, William Petrie, with whom he Gandhara sculpture, at prices I was able to went to work for several seasons. Currelly meet. These were things I had never dreamed subsequently worked as an archaeologist in that Canada might possess, as anything of this several Mediterranean sites. The work type I had seen in London was held at inspired Currelly to start a museum in fantastic prices. This work had always Toronto. With a museum building and interested me very much, as it was Indian, but financial backing from the University of deriving from the Greek tradition which Toronto, Currelly’s dream was realized and followed Alexander’s conquest.”(Quagliotti the Royal Ontario Museum of Archaeology and Anna Maria 2000). was created in 1912. As first Director and When the first shipment from India arrived, Curator, Currelly travelled around the world Currelly wrote, “In this transaction, plus in search of material for ROM collections. He others that followed, we obtained a very good possessed a great instinct for collecting and little collection of Indian sculpture, and I among his many finds are outstanding ancient sincerely hope that in some way more may be Chinese ceramics, paintings and bronzes for obtained.” which the ROM is justly famous (Vollmer et al 1953; Quagliotti and Maria 2000; Olivieri The source of funding for Correlly’s and Filigenzi 2018). purchases of many Gandharan pieces was Reuben Wells Leonard Bequest to the Royal In his lively and highly readable memoirs, “I Ontario Museum. Although Reuben Wells Brought the Ages Home,” Currelly recounts Leonard was one of Canada’s great the ROM’s history and his early years of philanthropists, he avoided publicity all his building ROM collections. Although his life. He died in St. Catharines Ontario in 1930. memoirs emphasize the Chinese collections, Leonard did make front-page headlines on there are a few details about Currelly’s every newspaper in England, however, in interest in building an Indian collection. He 1923, after he bought a former home of prime notes that opportunities for acquiring objects ministers in London, Chatham House at #10 sometimes arrived at the museum out of the St. James Square. Leonard subsequently blue (Vollmer et al 1953; Ray 2017). donated Catham House to the Royal Institute “On one occasion I received a photograph of of International Affairs, an organization an excellent piece of Indian sculpture of about founded during conferences at Versailles as

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Academic Journal of Social Sciences ISSN 2521-0149 Vol. 4 Issue 3 (July- September 2020) PP 377-403 ISSN 2519-7983 the world’s new “Instrument of Peace” museum records that include correspondence (Quagliotti and Anna Maria 2000). between ROM and the Indian dealer, Ram In Toronto, Leonard orchestrated a similar Dass. Questions regarding authenticity, gift. His donation did not make news, pricing, shipping and handling of antiquities however, until an article appeared in the are enormously complex in today’s museum Toronto Star fifty-five years after Leonard’s culture, but there were also highly sensitive death. What the article revealed was that issues in the 1920’s and 1930’s. The museum Leanard had donated an elegant white stone is legally bound by Canada’s 1978 signing of two-story building to Wycliffe College. the UNESCO conventions that prohibit illicit Leonard Hall is adjacent to Hart House on the import or export of cultural property. The University of Toronto campus. Its medieval convention is intended to protect artefacts and castle-like hall is a grand setting for the prevent looting of antiquities from the tombs Wycliffe College library (Hameed 2014; Ray and archaeological sites, as well as from 2017). national and private collections. Determining the precise provenance of most antiquities is In his teens, Leonard was a cadet at the Royal very difficult. Gandhara is an exception Military College in Kingston and took courses because it is a small area geographically. in metallurgy and engineering at Queen's Technical analysis of the stone used in University. After graduation, he quickly sculpture readily leads to confirmation of gained a reputation as an engineer and was put local sources, although not exact quarry sites in charge of a major hydroelectric project at (Brancaccio 2017; Steinhardt 2018). Niagara Falls. Later, he chaired the Canadian government’s national transportation To establish ROM collections, Currelly commission. Throughout his engineering trusted his instincts and extensive knowledge career, Leonard never lost his interest in developed during a long career in mining. He staked his first claims in mines of archaeology, museum, collecting and northern Ontario and made his fortune after conservation, and museum management. gaining control of one of Ontario’s most Neither his memoirs nor museum records lucrative silver mines. According to Donald indicate that Currelly ever had doubts about Jones, a history reporter for the Toronto Star, the authenticity of the Subcontinent objects Leonard belonged to a rare breed of tum-of- that he personally selected. He did not hesitate the-century millionaires, like Andrew to work with dealers in London and Carnegie, who considered their fortunes Rawalpindi whose companies were ‘public money held in trust’ that must recognized and sanctioned by their respective eventually be returned. Leonard’s governments. philanthropy was extraordinary, yet only a In 1924, twelve years after the museum few close friends knew about his countless opened its doors to the public, Currelly began gifts to museums, colleges, schools, hospitals to purchase Gandhara sculpture. Five of the and art galleries (Khandalavala 1985; Xinru first six Gandhara pieces to enter the 2000; Ray 2017). collection were acquired from Spink & Sons More of the story of the ROM’s Gandhara and include the frequently exhibited and collection came to light when examined published a pair of stair-riser reliefs. In business since 1666, by the turn of the twentieth, century Spink & Sons had

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Irfan Ullah, Muhammad Akram Soomro & Mudassar Zulfiqar established a reputation for dealing Indian and stipulations was that the name of the museum Islamic material. To this day, Gandhara would not appear on box labels or shipping sculpture is sold at Spinks in London (Zwalf forms. The name “Roma” could be used, but 1996; Jongeward 2002; Irfan et al 2018). only if necessary. No payment would be forwarded to Ram Dass until the objects Currelly wanted to add full-size seated and arrived in the museum and were examined. standing Buddhas and Bodhisattvas to the Currelly used the services of (F.St.G) Spend- collection, but such figures were far too costly love as a purchasing agent from the beginning in London. In August 1938, several years after of dealing with Ram Dass. At the time, his first purchases of Indian sculpture, Spend-love was a curator from the museum’s Currelly received letters and photographs Far Eastern Department. He handled all from India that offered Gandhara sculpture at correspondence with Ram Dass & Company affordable prices. The dealer’s letterhead in his own name (Vollmer et al 1983). declared: Ram Dass SC Company. Art Experts, Bankers & Old Coins Exporters. In early 1939, Spend-love sent the first ROM Established in 1880. Rawalpindi Pakistan purchase order to Indo-Pak Sub-continent. He (Marshall 1960; Jongeward 2002; Ray 2017). included detailed instructions on how the objects should be packed for shipping. Ram According to a grandson, Ram Dass was the Dass replied by saying he was totally only boy in his village who graduated from confident in these matters and that Spend-love high school and spoke English. Beginning in need not have bothered with the advice. As it childhood, Ram Dass was fascinated by turned out, Ram Dass was right. In preparing history and came to realize that he lived in one sculptures for shipping, Ram Dass rolled each of the most historically rich crossroads of the object in wheat straw and packed them ancient world. As he investigated north individually in burlap sacks. Wood crates India’s heritage, Ram Dass found abundant were custom made, fastened with screws evidence in his own backyard of nine major rather than nails, and designed with sufficient civilizations. space around each burlap sack. This space Ram Dass’s interest in history was soon was filled with sawdust. The closed boxes accompanied by a passion for collecting. were secured and strengthened by iron While still a young man, Ram Dass met a strapping (Quagliotti and Anna Maria 2000) British army officer stationed in Rawalpindi Eight wood boxes shipped from Calcutta who promised to buy whatever coins or cleared Customs in Halifax and arrived at the antiquities Ram Dass found. Ram Dass ROM in August of 1939. Included in the agreed but always kept the best pieces in his shipment were two standing Bodhisattvas, a own collection As a result of this friendship, seated Bodhisattva, a series of ‘terracotta Ram Dass’s dealings with the British officer heads,’ and several other South Asian objects led to the formation of Ram Dass & Company that Currelly had ordered. Currelly was in 1880. especially impressed with the great stucco Selecting from photographs sent by Ram head of a Bodhisattva that also arrived with Dass, Currelly initiated a process of acquiring this first shipment. He decided to pay for the pieces for the museum. The ROM forwarded stucco head personally and give it to the an acquisition policy that Ram Dass agreed to museum in honour of his mother (Vollmer et and confirmed in writing. One of the al 1983).

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Academic Journal of Social Sciences ISSN 2521-0149 Vol. 4 Issue 3 (July- September 2020) PP 377-403 ISSN 2519-7983 Immediately upon receipt of the boxes, standing Bodhisattva and will not accept the Spend-love sent a cable to Ram Dass & other pieces unless this one is sent.”(Vollmer Company. The August 28 cable states: “Toys et al 1983). arrived today perfect condition money cabled Another box from India arrived at the ROM letter follows.” In his letter, Spend-love in February 1940. In an internal memo sounds exuberant. “Your shipment came circulated by Spend-love, he announced perfectly packed, not one single bit of receipt. “We are immensely relieved to know damage. I congratulate you. We have never that our shipment from Ram Dass has arrived. had more wonderful packing.” And later in One case, containing the Buddha figure, and the same letter, “Please ship the big Buddha a stone head” (Zwalf 1996). The stone head, as soon as you can, provided there is no war. however, was another extra. Ram Dass If there should be, we must see what chances explained the shipment with all the there would be of its arriving.” (Vollmer et al enthusiasm and guile of a practised dealer. 1983). “We received your orders to the effect that no ROM dealings with Ram Dass did have extras should be sent. But this head is most problems, however. Included in the eight fine and in perfect condition. We believe your boxes were several small sculptures that had good self will feel “the necessity of having not been ordered. A letter that arrived before many heads of different types and sizes of the shipment alerted ROM to Ram Dass’s Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, etc. when you will inclusion of additional pieces. ROM’s display other articles in this Indian gallery as response was immediate. “We were very other curators of other museums of the much surprised and grieved to hear that you different countries have felt. We again say it had sent a selection of objects to us on with authority that such a beautiful head with approval, as it was only the photographs we fine art and in perfect condition can be had asked for. Send nothing more without definite only by chance as these beautiful pieces are instructions from us.” (Vollmer et al 1983). not always available for sale. Therefore, the When the shipment of eight boxes arrived, the Museum should not miss this chance, but museum returned many objects listed under should have it on our strong request and the heading “Extras in Box No.” Despite the experience of opinion.”(Zwalf 1996). “stop shipment” notice, more boxes arrived that included extras. In October of the same The ROM agreed to purchase the head” An year, however, the correspondence reveals associate Director was obliged to explain the that despite the problem, Currelly was circumstances of the purchase. determined to receive further shipments. “Despite express instructions to send no “We asked you to cable us whether our orders “extras,” Ram Dass included with the stone have been shipped. If not, please send them as figure of the Buddha ordered many months soon as suitable opportunity offers, ago a stone Buddhist head. Because of the preferably by a neutral ship, with fall very great difficulties of returning objects insurance covering war risks and all other under present customs, conditions, and risks. We are keeping three small terracottas because the head is very fine and very cheap, for the time being. The other extras that were Dr Currelly wishes to keep it for the sent at various times are being returned to museum.”(Sehrai 1986). you fully insured and prepaid. We require

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A third standing Bodhisattva figure that that had arrived by the truck were eventually Currelly considered of special importance placed in the National Museum in Delhi. also arrived in 1940. Butthe shipment Several hundred objects that Ram Dass left signalled significant change. Not long after, behind in his Rawalpindi home now form the correspondence between the ROM and Ram basis of the Taxila Museum collection in Dass stopped. Conditions in India had Pakistan (Marshall; 1960a; Rienjang and deteriorated rapidly. Museum records suggest Stewart 2018). There are other objects in that Spend-Love did not try to contact Ram ROM acquired from Ram Dass & Company Dass again until 1946. Ram Dass did not that are not Gandharan and do not appear in respond until October 1949. this catalogue. They include objects attributed to the Indus Valley civilization, Mathura and “Due to the partition of the country and the Gupta period of Indian history. existence of Pakistan, we have with great difficulty reached Delhi. I very much regret Conclusion that I could not write to you earlier, but this is The format I have adopted follows in part due to my being in distress. I could only bring precedents established by three other moveable property. I now have for sale Indo- catalogues: Zwalf s two volume set on the Greek, Parthian, Scythian coins, which are British Museum collection of Gandhara all rare and very fine and you will want them sculpture, Stan Czuma’s catalogue that for your Indian collections.”(Ray 2017) accompanied a 1985 Cleveland Museum The Ram Dass family postponed leaving exhibition of Kushan era sculpture, and Cribb Rawalpindi for as long as possible. By 1948, and Errington’s catalogue that accompanied a Ram Dass had assembled a large collection of 1992 Fitzwilliam Museum exhibition. stone and stucco sculpture, a full figure The forty-three objects in this catalogue Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, heads and relief are arranged as follows. panels, as well as a sizeable coin collection. An unusual feature of their Rawalpindi home #1-7: Images of the Buddha, four of schist was its hidden basement, accessible only by stone, one of fired clay, one stucco. removing floor tiles on the ground floor. To #8-16: Bodhisattva images, eight schists and store or move artefacts into or out of the one stucco. basement, Ram Dass engineered a moveable crane system for lifting and lowering heavy #17-28: Schist panel reliefs, fragments and stone objects. When the family was forced to statuary that relate to the life story of the leave their home, Ram Dass received help Buddha. from his best friend and neighbour, a Muslim man, who arranged for a truck and driver. The #29-35: Deities and images not specifically driver was hired with all expenses paid and Buddhist in origin, but adopted in told to do whatever necessary to get the truck Gandhara for Buddhist purposes. with its load of family belongings and a few sculptures to New Delhi within two weeks. #36-42: Fired clay heads. Ram Dass left his house and most of his #43: Bronze figure. collection behind and the family flew to New Delhi. The driver and truck arrived a few days Each description is comprised of eight later, safe and sound. A few Gandhara pieces parts.

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Academic Journal of Social Sciences ISSN 2521-0149 Vol. 4 Issue 3 (July- September 2020) PP 377-403 ISSN 2519-7983 1. Title. descriptions. The three include the two stair- riser reliefs (#33 and 34) and the Kushan 2. five-point heading. soldiers (#35). A) Medium from which the sculpture was 4. Condition. Descriptions of the sculptures’ created. Although Grey schist is the generic condition sum up the more obvious breaks, name for the stone, I include the geological cuts, scrapes and missing parts. I did not classification of the stone in one sculpture, as attempt descriptions of patina except in found by technical analysis conducted at unusual examples. ROM. 5. Publications, if any. In addition to the three B) Date. The dates are approximate to the reliefs catalogued for the Cleveland Museum nearest century. exhibition, standing Bodhisattva (#9) has C) Provenance. For a few pieces, museum attracted the most attention in scholarly records and comparative study provide publications. I include texts and articles that possible find spots within Gandhara. highlight ROM objects, and any reference, however brief, found in academic and non- D) Dimensions. academic sources. E) The Royal Ontario Museum accession References where only photographs appear number. are also included. Many sculptures in the 3. Description. The descriptions derive from collection have never been published. several examinations of all the sculptures. 6. A Source of object and nature of funding or Observations were supplemented by donation. comparing and contrasting sculptures found in published collections. Of the forty-three 7. Photography. Photos follow the pieces in the ROM collection, only three have descriptions, with detail photography added previously received comprehensive catalogue for six pieces.

Figures

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Figure 1: Standing bodhisattva, Gandhara, Pakistan, Kushan Period, the 3rd century (Source: Royal Ontario Museum).

Figure 2: Hariti or Ardoxsho, Gandhara, Pakistan, Kushan Period, 2nd century (Source: Royal Ontario Museum).

Figure 3: Standing bodhisattva, possibly Siddhartha, Gandhara, Pakistan, Kushan Period, the 3rd century (Source: Royal Ontario Museum).

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Academic Journal of Social Sciences ISSN 2521-0149 Vol. 4 Issue 3 (July- September 2020) PP 377-403 ISSN 2519-7983 Figure 4: Maitreya, schist, the 3rd century, Gandhara, Pakistan (Source: Royal Ontario Museum Canada).

Figure 5: The Head of the Buddha, Gandhara probably Attock or Taxila, Pakistan (Source: Royal Ontario Museum Canada).

Figure 6: Hariti, Gandhara, Pakistan, Kushan Period, 2nd century (Source: Royal Ontario Museum). References Alvi, A. K., Jabeen, Z., Jawaid, A., & Kaur, Abhijeet, K. (2015). Looking at Gandhāra. P. (2020). Relationship of Career Success and Historia i Świat, (4), 439-447. Organizational Performance Through the Alexander, F. T. (2017). The So-Called Path of Business Strategy. International Hellinzation of Gandhara: an Analysis on Journal of Economics, Management and Indo-Greek Period Numismatics and Accounting, 28(1), 1-33. Acculturation (Doctoral dissertation). Alvi, A. K, Lashari, R. H., UR Rehman, S., Alvi, A. K., Hussain, Z., Tahir, M., & Gondal, Kaur, P., & Jawaid, A. (2019). The Impact of M. A. S. (2015). DOES THE Organizational Justice on Organizational RELATIONSHIP OF WORK LIFE Performance in View Point of Employee BALANCE AND MANAGEMENT Voice. European Online Journal of Natural LEADERSHIP WITH EMPLOYEE JOB and Social Sciences, 8(4), pp-624. ENGAGEMENT EXIST IN BANKS OF LAHORE?. Science International, 27(4).

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Aslam, N., & Bukhari, M. F. (2017). Buddhist A.K. Narrain, ed. Studies in the Buddhist Art art in ancient Gandhara, an appraisal of its of South Asia, Kanak Publications, Delhi, pp. distinctive features. 23-58. Aslam, N. (2017). Ancient corridor of Hameed, M. (2014). Representation of Pakistan linkages with rest of other world and ParinirvaNa in Gandharan Diptychs. Journal its impact on trade culture and pilgrimages. of Asian Civilizations, 37(2), 61. The International Conference on Land Irfan et al. (2018). The Pakistani Collection of Transportation, Locomotive Heritage and Terracotta Figurines in the British Road Culture-2017. Museum. PAKISTAN HERITAGE (Vol 9 Benjamin, C. (2018). Empires of Ancient pp.37-56). Eurasia: The First Silk Roads Era, 100 BCE– Jongeward, David, (2002). “Coin and 250 CE. Cambridge University Press. Sculpture Arts of the Kushan Empire,” Brancaccio, P. (2017). The collection of Continuity and Change in Central Asia, Gandharan art in the residence of the Journal of the Central and Inner Asia Malakand Political Agent, Khyber Seminar, V. 5, University of Toronto. Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan. In Khandalavala, Karl, (1985). “The Five Dated Buddhism and Gandhara (pp. 154-172). Gandhara School Sculptures and Their Routledge India. Stylistic Implications,” in Asher, F.ed. Indian Bhandare, S. (2017). Numismatics of ‘the Epigraphy, Oxford & IBH Publishing, pp. 61- other’: investigating coinage and ‘Greekness’ 70. at Taxila. In Buddhism and Gandhara (pp. 88- Khayyam, U., Ullah, E. I., & Shah, S. (2018). 121). Routledge India. Socio-cultural dynamics and their relation Bapat, P. V. (2016). 2500 years of Buddhism. with the participatory development in the Publications Division Ministry of Information Pashtun tribal society of Pakistan. Trames. A & Broadcasting. Journal of the Humanities & Social Sciences, Cunningham, R., & Young, R. (2015). The 22(2). archaeology of South Asia: from the Indus to Liu, Xinru, (2000). “Trade and Pilgrimage Asoka, c. 6500 BCE–200 CE. Cambridge Routes from to Taxila, Mathura University Press. and the Ganges Plains,” unpublished Foucher, et al. (1986). “Numismatic and manuscript, presented in Symposium hosted epigraphic evidence for the chronology of by Nelson Atkins Museum Conference, On early Gandhara art,” in Yadiz, and Lobo, eds. the Cusp of an Era: Art in the Pre Kushan Investigating Indian Art, Berlin, pp. 67-88. World, November. Femald, H. and Sutherland, (1953). Majumdar, N.G. (1987). A Guide of the “Buddhism and Graeco-Buddhist Art,” Sculptures in the Indian Museum, vol. II the ROMA East/West Bulletin #21, 1953. PP.21- Graeco-Buddhist School of Gandhara, Delhi 27. 1937, reprint Patna. Farooq, M., Hassan, M., & Gull, F. (2015). Marshall, John, (1960). The Buddhist Art of Mycobial deterioration of stone monuments Gandhara, Cambridge. of Dharmarajika, Taxila. Journal of Marshall, John, (1960a). A Guide to Taxila, Microbiology and Experimentation, 2, 36. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Huntington, John, (1985). “Origin of the 1951, 3 vol. reprinted as a guide book in, cf. Buddha Image: Early Image Traditions and 1-46, 95-123. the Concept of Buddhadarsanapunya,” in

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Academic Journal of Social Sciences ISSN 2521-0149 Vol. 4 Issue 3 (July- September 2020) PP 377-403 ISSN 2519-7983 Narain, A. K. ed. (1985). Studies in the Ray, H. P. (2017). Decoding Gandharan art: Buddhist Art of South Asia, Kanak the making of museum collections in India. In Publications, Delhi. Buddhism and Gandhara (pp. 250-278). Olivieri, L. M., & Filigenzi, A. (2018). On Routledge India. Gandhāran sculptural production from Swat: Siddiqui, R. A. (2018). Community recent archaeological and chronological data. archaeology in Pakistan: three sites in In Problems of Chronology in Gandhāran Art: Gandhara as a case study (Doctoral Proceedings of the First International dissertation, Bilkent University). Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Sarkar, S. (2016). Taxila–An Alternative Project, University of Oxford, 23rd-24th Urbanisation between the Silk Road and the March, 2017 (P.71). Archaeopress Uttarāpatha (the Northern Road). Indian Quagliotti, Anna Maria, (2000). “Puer Journal of History of Science, 51, 644-652. Mingens: A Gandhara Relief in the Royal Šamánková, D., Preiss, M., & Příhodová, T. Ontario Museum, Toronto,” in ACSAA (2018). Personality and Ethics in Theravada Symposium papers Buddhism. In The Contextual Character of Rienjang, W., & Stewart, P. (2018). Problems Moral Integrity (pp. 199-216). Palgrave of Chronology in Gandhāran Art: Macmillan, Cham. Proceedings of the First International Steinhardt, N. S. (2018). Archaeological and Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Visual Sources of Meditation in the Ancient Project, University of Oxford, 23rd-24th Monasteries of Kuča. By Angela F. Howard March, 2017. Archaeopress. and Giuseppe Vignato. pp. 214. Leiden, Brill, Richard, S. (2018). Buddhist Literature of 2012. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1- Ancient Gandhara: An Introduction with 3. Selected Translations. Simon and Schuster. Sehrai, Fidullah, (1986). A Guide to Takht-i- Raven, E. M. (2017). In the Shadow of the Bahi, Lahore, Newfine Printing Press, pp. 31- Golden Age. Art and Identity in Asia from 36. Gandhara to the Modern Age. Vollmer, John, Keall, E. J, and E. Nagai- Ray, H. P. (Ed.). (2017). Buddhism and Berthrong, (1983). Silk Roads and China Gandhara: An Archaeology of Museum Ships, Royal Ontartio Museum. Collections. Taylor & Francis. Zwalf, W. (1996). A Catalogue of the Ray, H. P. (2017). Buddhism and Gandhara. Gandhara Sculpture in the British Museum, 2 Taylor & Francis. vol. British Museum Press.

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