HISTORY NOTES

TOPICS FORM ONE

Sources and Importance Of History Meaning and Importance of History Background of the topic

History is an academic subject taught as part of a primary and secondary education. This chapter tackles the significance of history as a discipline in both primary and secondary levels. It gives the basics of history and lays a solidfoundation of this subject. It traces the different definitions of history, the importance of studying history as a subject as well as the different ways by which information that constitutes history is obtained. The Meaning of History Explain the meaning of History Definitions of history Various definitions have been put forward to define history as a discipline some of them are:

 History is a record of events pertaining to human activities, his social, economic and political development from the past the present and the future.  History refers to the study of past events, present situation and prediction of the future or it is the study of changes in the process of material production.  History is defined as knowledge that entails chronologically presented narrations about human activities pertaining to social, economic, technological and political aspects from the past to the future.

In general history can also refer to an academic discipline which uses a narrative to examine and analyse the sequences of past events and objectively determine the patterns of cause and effect that determine them. It’s the record of human activities which enable man to survival and attain essential needs from the environment. The basic needs of humankind include food shelter and clothing. Due to social, political, cultural, economic and technological transformations humankind's activities have to change from time to time. Actions taken against nature aim to change natural objects into conditions that can satisfy human needs; these activities against nature are what we call material production. Material production includes can be observed in sharpening of sticks to make a spear, digging trenches to trap wild animals and many more. The Importance of Studying History Explain the importance of studying History Studying history is important because it allows us to: Understand how African societies were formed, how they developed and the factors that influenced this development. It also allows us to develop an understanding of the events, conditions and factors that shaped the past and those which have shaped the present conditions of the world in order to predict the future. Historical knowledge makes the present comprehensive which is why journalists and writers of sensational stories spend some time explaining the history of a particular incident; it is only when one knows the past of a person or an incident that the present can became meaningful. Develop an understanding and appreciation of the cultural, political, economic and technological advancements made by African societies before and after colonial rulership. Developthebasic skills of critical thinking, reasoning, judgment, empathy and effective participation in human developmental activities. Studying history also helps us to understand and appreciate the efforts made and strategies used by African people to regain their independence and resist neo-colonialism Develop, understand and appreciation the need for African unity, cooperation and interdependence, conflict resolution and effective participation in social, economic and political development of Africa. It also helps us to develop an understanding of the relationships between African’s development problems and foreign intrusion, colonial domination, cultural subjugation and economic exploitation at various stages in history. Acquire knowledge for its own sake as you enjoy a novel with fiction, a film with an interesting plot. It is not clear why people are interested in these ventures and in the same way people do enjoy to know the history of particular topics. Develop our patriotism, history students know their heroes and heroines and traitors. This make history a sensitive subject in places where political leaders are not sure of their legitimacy. Enlightens people about the advantages of certain economic practices for example, the way the development in the world today is measured by the industrial revolution that took place in Europe in 1750 Understand the level of development at different stages of human development. Without history it is very difficult to determine or to tell what humans were doing in the past. Therefore, it is through history that one can extensively understand the level of development that humans have reached at in a given period in time. Helps us learn about technological transformations, for example primitive livelihood to advanced livelihood (using of stones and wood tools to iron tools) Understand how humans adapted to their environment and how the struggled to earn a living from the environment. This therefore looks at the long struggle of man by exercises of his reason to understand the environment and to act up on it. Understand the relationship that existed between humans, and between humans and the environment. Acquire skills in historical issues and becoming professionals in history, some people such as archaeologists and historians study history for career purposes. Sources And Importance Of History Meaning and Importance of History Sources of History Sources of History Identify sources of History Sources of history refers to the avenues that can be used to get historical information. It requires an inter-disciplinary approach in order to get the actual historical information. Replying on a single source of history evidence will not satisfy your curiosity as one source links you to the other. It is therefore crystal clear that no single source of history can stand on its own. Therefore, the following are sources of history/historical knowledge: 1. Oral traditions 2. Historical sites 3. Written records 4. Archives 5. Museums 6. Archaeology 7. Linguistic studies 8. Anthropology 9. Ethnographic sources

The Functions, Advantages and Limitations of the following Sources of History; Oral Traditions, Historical Sites, Written Records, Archives Assess the functions, advantages and limitations of the following sources of history; oral traditions, historical sites, written records, archives Oral traditions This refers to the history handed down by word of mouth from one generation to another. It is usually done by talking and listening usually to elders who are believed to be more knowledgeable about past events. It is also the study of our past as revealed by what has been handed down by word of mouth from one generation to another. Its manner of transmission differs from written sources thus making it a historical source of a special nature. Oral traditions are widely used in areas where people did not practice the art of writing. Types of oral traditions

 Cultural practices e.g. art, music, religion riddles an jokes  Proverbs, superstitions, poems and stories  Narrations of past events (primary and secondary sources)

Advantages of oral traditions Can easily be understood by everyone, oral traditions does not segregate; it can be understood by everyone. It is therefore convenient for both the educated and the uneducated as it only requires one to listen as long as it is in a language that everyone can understand. It is accessible as in every area narrators are present,; here the historian is in better position to assess the value and his reliability source because he is working with the living people. At any time and place the historians or the person who is searching material can easily access the information as the information are available It is cheap or costs less.Generally, elderly people are are willing to provide information free of charge, this makes the source cheap. One does not need to pay his/her grandfather/mother in order for them to tell one a story. In many societies people used to sit beside a fire and the elders will tell them about whathappened in the past and this was passed over from one generation to the other. Helps in the reconstruction of history, it does require several sources in order to tell a story, oral traditions bridge the gap as it is provides evidence to written sources or primary source. Many historical sources including the most ancient ones were based on oral traditions. It is two way traffic form of communication. This means that when someone does not understand questioning is possible, this therefore makes it a live and interactive source and interesting source of historical information. Avails us with unwritten or un documented history. Through oral tradition it is easy to reveal information which is not documented or recorded. In African history the major source of information is passed through oral traditions simply because much of what was taking place was not written down. Bridges the gap left by other sources of history. As artifacts cannot talk it is oral tradition that does the talking there by filling in the gaps that might have been left by other sources. First handinformation.Many people who tell stories through different oral tradition are the primary source or the people who were present at the scene of the matter. This therefore means that the historian will be in a position of getting firsthand information from the respondent. Disadvantages of oral tradition Can easily be lost if someone who knows the data dies.In many societies it is the elderly who have the information which is passed over from generation to generation, in case the elder dies it means the information he/she had has disappeared with that person. Language barrier.As oral tradition involves the passing down of history by use of the word of mouth, the problem of a language barrier is a big hindrance. For example, a person who might have valuable information might be using a language the historian does not understand this therefore will limit the process of communication. Cannot stand on its own. Poems, stories, jokes etc. do not tell history directly they simply contain valuable information of how people produced and reproduced themselves leaving out the important aspects of the historical touch. It therefore gives the historian a hard time to supplement and analyse the given informationcritically. Their reliability is rather problematic. It is impossible to judge how much is true history and how much only folklore fiction, legends and myth. This can be evidenced in the stories that are told to young children for example stories of the hare, the lion and many others. Therefore, it is difficult to distinguish what is the fact and what is imaginary. Conscientiousness of that person. Is he/she transmitting them the way he heard them or he corrected them for some purpose or other. It is very difficult to understand if someone is telling you the event as he was told or is he adding in other information. Variation in language. In some instances different languages might have similar words but with differing meanings. This will therefore result confusion on the side of the historian or researcher as some of the information might be lost. Most of narrations are centered on people of status in society. Kings, chiefs, queens are often talked about in such stories, there is often little consideration about the masses. Its preservation in many societies mainly depends on the power of the memories of successive generations of human beings. All oral traditions are influenced by the culture of the society that produce them, this means that the traditions that exist in a given society chiefly depend on the political organisation of a given society. Other disadvantages include:

 Can also pass over immoral cultural acts.  Translation might be difficult because some languages have become extinct.  It requires too much patience, attention and the power of the memory.  Usually is limited to a given locality and to recent information.  Easily awakens hatred amongst different societies.  Full of biases.  It can be time consuming if the narrators are in accessible. Historical sites These do contain remains which show humanity's physical development, activities and the tools they made and used. The major function of historical sites is to make historical facts more practical. There are two types of historical sites namely;

 Areas with physical remains of man and his artifacts.  Ancient towns with both ruins of old buildings and old buildings which still exist.

Examples of historical sites with physical remains of man and his artifacts include the following:

 Olduvai Gorge, Isimila, Engaruka and Kondoa Irangi in Tanzania.  Nsongezi, Biggo, Ntusi and Magogi in Uganda.  Olorgesailie Gilgil and Lake Turkana in Kenya.  Koobi for a in Ethiopia.  Ingombe-Ilede in Zambia.  Ishango in the D.R.C.

On the other hand examples of ancient towns in Africa with ruins of old buildings and existing old buildings include:

 Timbuktu, Gao, Jenne and Audaghost in West Africa.  Bagamoyo, Zanzibar and Kilwa in Tanzania.  Lamu and Mombasa in Kenya.

THrough the study of historical sites we can reveal the works of art by previous generations for example rock paintings etc. As time elapses more historical sites are being discovered due to extensive research being carried out. The remains that are discovered in the historical sites are worked on by archaeologists. The major function of historical sites is to represent actual materials of man’s existence and preserving the material remains of man for the coming generation, plus acting as symbol of social heritage and referral point to the society that are concerned.

Advantages of historical sites As a symbol of social cultural heritage of different societies. Here the society concerned will be symbolized in the site. Historical sites do break the boredom that is evidenced in the theoretical nature of history as a discipline. In this sense history is given a practical touch as people can see or observe what they were studying practically for example past human tools, rock paintings and human remains. Helps in the building or the reconstruction of history, as they bridge the gaps that might have been left by other sources. The sites also act as a source of revenue for both the government and private individuals. This is achieved when they act as centre of tourism, and when the tourists visit. The sites act as avenues for research for archaeologists and other scientists. People who carry out research in regards to man’s past will use historical sites as their libraries and laboratories, for example Dr. Leakey and his wife. Generally, discoveries from historical sites can be used to reveal past settlement patterns, levels of technology, economic development and political organisation reached past societies in different times and environments.

Disadvantages of historical sites It brings confusion to interpret the remains found in the historical sites, for example, rock paintings can bring about different interpretations between historians. Historical sites cannot stand on their own to tell history. This means that historical sites do not fully cater for all historical information required even for societies without documented history. History found in the sites cannot be interpreted by everyone andrequires a qualified personnel to interpret the information. Historical sites are located in remote areas which are not accessible. This makes it time consuming and expensive working on them. Places where the historical sites are located are often also poorly developed. The historical sites maydisappear, as they are often destroyed by natural hazards and changes in the earth like weathering and denudation. Many of the sites are selected on the basis of probability, for example it is assumed that early man lived in caves where there was water nearby and plenty of animals to hunt, fish or catch. This therefore brings in the issue of try and fail that in turn becomes costly in terms of time and resources. Examples of historical sites in East Africa include:

 Nsongezi- western Uganda  Magosi- eastern Uganda  Biggobyamugenyi (Biggo)- central Uganda  Lolui, Mubende in Uganda  Rusinga Island- southern Uganda  Olorgesailie- Kenya  Lake Rudolf- Kenya  Njoro in Kenya  Bagamoyo- Tanzania coast  Kilwa- Tanzania coast  Isimila- central Tanzania  Kondoa- central Tanzania  Lake Eyasi southern Tanzania  Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania etc.

Written records This refers to the history which has been written down or documented. This is the most common and modern source of history as it cuts across different boundaries. It is the principle source of materials for historians in east Africa as they have been valuable for the past 200 years or less.The written records are grouped into two the primary sources and secondary sources as for the historians it is better to first deal with the secondary source and then handle the primary sources. Written records include: Books, letters, magazines, newspapers, minutes of meetings, official and private documents, official publications by the governments and parliaments of the colonial powers, peace treaties and other agreements concluded by the great powers between one another and African chiefs, legislative acts, edicts, dispatches of the colonial administration, documents from African companies and individual merchants, letters etc. It also include books written by contemporaries, produced by aliens, narrative of explores, reminiscences of soldiers, missionaries or colonial officials, the impressionistic sung of the journalists and the imaginative reconstruction of the novelists. The written records can easily be accessed in the libraries, schools, colleges, archives and in some offices.

Functions of written records Reconstruction of history, history can be reconstructed through a multidisciplinary approach. The written records play an important role of constructing history as they do bridge the gaps that might be left by other sources. To collect and preserve written historical information, as this is the modern and most common source of historical information it plays the function of preserving written records so that those who come in the future will also be able to use this source of historical information.

Advantages of written records Covers a wide section of ideas and different views.Different aspects concerning different views can easily be accessed in one written material for example a text book can contain historical information concerning different aspects and areas. Therefore, this simplifies the work of the historian as he will concentrate on that one source and discover a variety of given information. Therefore, it’s true to say that written records cover a wide coverage as different aspects can be commented up on. It is easily accessible, as almost all areas have books, written materials are like a stone thrown into a pull causing ripples that flow out right across its surface.This therefore means that in at least any place there is at least a written source of something. In addition to that written records are easy to keep and to retrieve, the accessibility therefore simplifies the work of the historian as she/he has the material at their disposal. Usually well explained and well elaborated. Many written records for such as textbooks are well researched, explained and elaborated by the authors. This therefore gives the person using the source actual and vivid material. Usually contains well-researched and concrete data which gives confidence to the researcher or historian Bridges the gap left by other sources .The written records as a source of historical information play an important role of bridging or filling in the gaps that have been left by other sources. As it is well known that no single source of history can stand on its own to tell history the written records do fill up the gap that other sources might have left. For example it gives evidences to oral traditions. Cannot easilydisappear.As in the case of oral traditions, if the narrator dies the historical information is most likely to follow him on the deathbed, for written records this is not the case as material that is written down is very difficult to fade away as it is documented and usually in many copies. It is very helpful when carrying outresearch. For researchpurposes the most helpful source can be found in written records as it has guidelines, which help theresearcher in his/her research. As the information in most cases is well researched and elaborative this gives the researcher ample time in his research. Easy to get valuable and rare information.It is mainly from written sources that valuable and rare information can be obtained. Many written records are very important as they provide evidence were needed. Easy to make references.If written material is well organised; many of the written sources act as reference material for the different needs and written records as a source of reference.

Disadvantages of written records It is expensive. Written records require a lot of time and resources to prepare, this makes them expensive to produce as compared to oral tradition. Also purchasing the written material is very costly. Can easily be distorted or misunderstood. As written records are in most cases written in English which recipients might easily misunderstand. Also there might be distortion in the sense that writers might be biased when writing or they might have different approaches on to the same issue. Applicable to educated people only.Written records are limited to a few people in a society. As the people who do not know how to read and write will not benefit from this source of history as he/she will not understand what has been written. This therefore makes it limited to a given section of people. Based mainly on the writer's opinion.Many writers are biased in the sense that they write in their favour of example Eurocentric and Afro centric ideas. Historians cannot be expected to come to the same conclusion, thistherefore means that written records are continuously rewritten and revised Unless the historian is able to sort out relevant information many written records contain some information that might be irrelevant to the historian there by wasting a lot of time in a given source. Generally, it is very difficult to understand history unless you understand the historian himself first. Archives This refers to collections of private and public documents. This means the place where such documents are kept or found. Archives are collections of public and private documents. They includes books, and the written records of early missionaries, explores, traders and colonialists kept in books or files. Examples of archives include: Arusha in Tanzania, Entebe national archives in Uganda. They also contained current records of government, parties and other organisations. The major function of archives is to collect and preserve historical information Advantages of archives It is the best method of collecting and preserving historical information. Most written documents which do contain historical information are preserved in the archives for future use. It archives a variety of information. It is very easy to get historical information of different people and issues at a given time without wasting time and resources. Getting firsthand information is possible, as the documents in archives are the extract materials that were written by the people concerned. For example political parties documents, memories etc. It is very easy to get and identify the exact date of historical events, such as the travels of Vasco Da Gama, African resistance, the scramble for and partition of Africa plus many other important occurrences. Understanding the ideas and the literacy level of the past is very easy. This can be done by analysing the documents in archives and relating them with what we have at the present time and also borrowing ideas from them. For example a current government can use a document of a former government to recognise itself. Disadvantages of archives Preserving documents is very expensive. This therefore makes the source more expensive as compared to other sources. Keeping the documents in archives requires much attention and care. This method is also discriminative, as it is only the literate (educated) that can utilise the information as it is usually written in a language that someone who is not educated might not understand. Societies whose information was not documented will not be represented. Societies with no recorded past will not be represented. Retrieving information from the archives is not easy, as it requires a lot of time and perseverance. This therefore makes it hectic on the side of the impatient historian. Archives are not evenly distributed when compared to other methods like oral tradition. For example, in Tanzania one has to travel to either Dar es Salaam or Arusha in order to find an archive. Generally, in the case of societies without history that is written down the archives is less meaningless as there is not any trace of their history in that place. This therefore means that such a community will have it history missing in action. Museums Museums are special places created for preserving historical information. These are places where information about people and past events are stored. Specialists in a museum who help explain objects to the people are called Museum Curators. They date and arrange the remains and artifacts which demonstrate in the easiest way possible the technological, cultural, economical and social development of the people. Museums are created to preserve historical information and also act as tourist centers. Museums contain a collection of all sorts of items which show cultural, social, political, technological and economical developments from the past to the present. There national, regional, district and local museums of East Africa. Examples of museum in Tanzania are Kalenga in Iringa, Bujora in Mwanza and Halwego and Handebezyo in Ukerwe. In Kenya the Hyrax Hill museum site in Nakuru district, Kawanda in Uganda and many others. Advantages of museums They preserve the historical information and material, Itis in the museum that many of historical remains are preserved for future use and referral. They contain a variety of historical items. It is only in the museum that one can be find a variety of historical remains ranging from artifacts to written records and oral tradition. Therefore a museum is relatively important to historical study. Museums provide objects that give history a practical touch, as they working as teaching aids. Students of history have the opportunity to put into practice what they study as they see the objects in museums. It is possible to learn about the development of technology of early man from museums.The curators play an important role in explaining artifacts to the people and how they were used. Museums arouse creativity and craftsmanship on the side of the learner. This comes about as the learner sees more and more remains and became more eager to discover more. Note other advantages may include:

 Attracts tourists.  Generating income for the people working in the museums and the government.  Source of foreign exchange.  Provision of employment for example the museum curators.  Easy to identify the social, political and economic developments of a given society from the museum.  Many of the museum act as the major source of information for those carrying out research for educational purposes.

Disadvantages of museums They are very expensive to maintain and build. Starting up and maintaining A museum requires a lot of funds. Obtaining and maintaining artifacts is also relatively expensive. Require skilled manpower to operate. Museum curators should have historical bearings and know about the artifacts in the museum. Distortion of historical information, in the museum is possible when the curator is biased. The curator will therefore distort the historical information, as he is subjective in the way he interprets the historical facts. Attitude of the people affects the museum so much that some museums have been forced to be closed. People are not visiting museums due to unknown reasons, a case in point the Hyrax site museum in Kenya says that it receives only 10-20 customers on a busy weekend which is very small number compared to the inputs in the museum. Poor preservation of artifacts, for example the pieces of cloth, chains if not well handled can distort the information and the relevance of the historical facts. Due to poor preservation many museums have lost their historical artifacts to the fires other unforeseen circumstances costing them dearly. Archaeology This refers to the science that deals with the study of past materials historical remain of man. Or it is a study of artifacts that have been dug from the earth. Artifacts are the remains of the material culture made by the people of the past. People who study archaeology are called archaeologists. Archaeologists like Dr. Leaky have concentrated on the period of early man; others like Dr. Posnansnky have worked on sites relating to the Chwezi Empire, Chittick and Kirk man have excavated coastal sites of the 12th -16th centuries. How they carry out their excavations is a long story. Excavation is a long and laborious process as each piece of the material found has to be examined carefully and recorded so that the archaeologists can give a complete reconstruction. A historian studies the artifacts with the hope of reconstructing patterns of settlement, level of technology and skills acquired by the inhabitants of the site after excavating them. Archaeologists removes layer after layer carefully recording all what they find and in try to explain the relationship between the different objects. The major function of archaeology is that it reveals important information about man through the different stages of his transformation. Not only that but also plays the function of arousing curiosity of searching past historical information on the side of historian. Advantages of archaeology It provides evidence or authenticity on to historical facts, as the remains are examined thoroughly by the concerned there by supplementing the other sources which might be lacking evidence. Knowledge of artifacts is exposed after excavation. For example pottery, building, rooting plus telling us a great deal about the life and culture of the people long ago through uncovering the buried objects. Archaeology simplifies the past as it helps us to know the past relationships between different people such as in trading activities immigration, emigration, birth and death plus political relations. It is probably the only source that can help us in knowing when and how people lived in a certain place and at what time. This is attained through the use of carbon dating which is a scientific method of finding out the age of dating objects and artifacts . Archaeology helps us to reveal the technology, pastoral agriculture and commercial activities of the past societies. This is achieved through cross examining the remains excavated by the archaeologists. Archaeology is relatively important in supplementing facts that are given by other sources of history. As no source can stand on its own to tell history, therefore it can be reconstructed by the use of archaeology. Disadvantages of archaeology Archaeology demands much patience.Many artifacts are fragile and delicate which calls a lot of care in the handling of for example fossils. It involves many processes to obtain data out of remains,. For example in excavations require radioactive elements and many other procedures which make the process very expensive. Archaeology consumes a lot of time.The archaeologists or researchers take a lot of time during the preparation for excavation, testing the artifacts and in the interpretation of the data. The remains that are excavated cannot tell the full details of a given historical phenomenon. It is therefore clear that one cannot fully depend on archaeology as the complete source of history. Generally, the first discovery of an archaeological find or of an archaeological site is commonly found by an ordinary person who does not have the techniques of excavating the remains. During the excavation process remains of less historical importance for example a richly furnished royal tomb, works of art of great beauty are not seen as important. Excavation is not a treasure hunt, what they are seeking for is knowledge, information and data which will enable them fill up the picture of the past more accurately. Linguistic studies This means the study of language. It refers to study and analysis of languages, their sounds, structure and formation. There is a relationship between the different and various language groups. It is believed that people who speak the same language have been in close contact in the past. Linguistics can suggest approximately when and how the language spoke in East Africa came into existence. Languages are never static but constantly changing and adapting some survive while others die. For proper classification and grouping the people of East Africa the work done by the linguistics is a principal way. Many linguists insists that the original language of mankind consisted of a few short words, possibly not over 200, since many now use only about 300. Advantages of linguistic study Linguistic studies are a lubricant of oral tradition, as it is through oral tradition that given information is acquired from the different sources. This therefore shows the interconnectedness between different sources of history. Through the linguistics it is possible to tell the possible origin of our languages and how the languages have been distorted. As languages that we do use need to be understood in order to understand who we are and where we are going. Bridging the gaps left by other sources. Linguistic studies assist in bridging the gaps that are left by other sources. Basing on the fact that the reconstruction of history requires an interdisciplinary approach therefore linguistic studies are relatively important like other sources. Assists in the development of language.It assists in the discovery of different links between the people of a given communities. Through the use of languages it’s possible to say that at one time the people in the world lived together due to the similarity of some words in the different languages. Language barrier is the major factor that is limiting linguistics. It is clear that not everyone understands all the different languages. It is therefore possible that useful historical information might not be understood due to the language problem. It might result to the omission of some important information, thereby creating a gap in historical information. In the process of translating given historical information from one language to another It is expensive in terms of time and money, because is not easy to learn a given language this therefore means that one has to take a given period of time and resources in terms of finance to learn a given language. It can easily be diluted by external influences. Different languages have been influenced by external forces which causes those languages to change drastically from their original forms and this therefore disturbs the historian in his effort to reconstruct history. For example many Swahili words have been mixed with other languages. Anthropology This is concerned with the study of existing social institutions and their relationships. The scientific study of the origin, behavior, physical, social and cultural development of humans. The study is concerned with present day societies but much of it can be used in interpreting the past especially where we have a good reason to believe on that societies in certain areas have not altered so much in recent times. It is no coincidence that anthropology has its roots in the Renaissance; it is a discipline that is firmly grounded in the modern era, no longer drawing on metaphysics but instead looking to the here and now of human existence. Combining philosophical ambitions with physiological and psychological questions, thus from its beginning, anthropology looked at issues which are today considered medical, psychological and philosophical as well as anthropological in the modern sense. An anthropologist is a person who studies the above aspects of society; he has to live among those people and learn their culture thereby enabling him to understand the aspects of life of a certain society and to determine the truth about that society. Advantages of anthropology Helps the historian to find traces of the past in the present social structures of the society.Therefore using the current reliable information helps us to understand how the past was. Helps the historian to reconstruct the past elements of all cultures.The historian studies the information and research techniques used by the anthropologist to arrive at a certain conclusion. Generally, anthropology enables a comparison of social institutions of various societies which helps the historian in tracing the original homeland of social features. Disadvantages of anthropology A comparison of the social institutions of various societies over a wide area might indicate the influence of one culture upon another and the time when these cultures developed and spread which may create misunderstanding and hatred between the different societies The works of anthropology are very limited to time and environment. Inthe present people may be living in a condition far different from what their ancestors lived; in the long run the anthropologist will not get the necessary information required in his study. The knowledge of the anthropologist in this case is very important as one can easily exaggerate or underestimate or interpret basing on his knowledge a thing that will affect the whole process of trying to reconstruct history. This therefore means that objectivity of history does not mean objectivity of facts but interpretation. This method is too tiresome. The anthropologist has to live among the people and learn their culture which enables him to understand all the different aspects of life of a given society and to determine whether it is authentic and worth studying. Ethnographic sources This is another source of history which is not commonly used and usually neglected by many scholars however, it is relatively important as other sources. Ethnographic evidence does involve two aspects the material and immaterial. The material things in nature are the artifacts while the immaterial include culture, custom and beliefs or cultural evidence which is written down. Under this the historian is mostly interested in cultural documents because of the unique characteristics as they are timeless NOTE:As already elaborated no single source of history can stand on its own to tell history but rather it requires interdisciplinary approach for successful history reconstruction. This means that no source is better than the other on the side of the historian carrying out his/her research in any field of study but rather each supplement the other. Dating in history Refers to the assigning of dates or time on given historical events or facts, to record history properly a good knowledge of dating or calendar is needed. Historians divide time into seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, years, decades, age, periods, centuries, millennia and generation. A decade is a period of ten years. A century is a period of hundred years. Millennium is a period of thousand years. A generation is the average of time between one groups of period in a family to another group of family. Period is determined by one continuous event, which is in year. Age refers to a period based on man’s activities and the types of tools that are being used. In history there are different ages namely:

 Stone age  Iron age  Industrial age  Nuclear age  Copper age  Bronze age

Ways of determining dates There are two sets of ways to determine dates.

 Local methods  Scientific methods

Local methods are simple methods whereby dates are fixed through;

 recalling facts relating events  tracing family chronologies  tracing the origin of languages

Scientific methods involve experiment in laboratories whereby material remains are studied through such processes as;

 Radio Active Dating (Radio metric)  Radio Carbon Dating (Radio Carbon 14)

Dividing time is in starting of 0, which is the year when Jesus Christ was born .A.D. (Anno Domino) is the years after the birth of Jesus Christ and they are known as years of the Lord. B.C. are years before the birth of Jesus Christ. (Before Chris) Muslims start their calendar at Hijra A.H (Al Hijra or after Hijra) this is when Prophet Muhammad S.A.W fled from Mecca to Medina in order to spread Islam in the year 622 A.D.He was born in the year 570 A.D. and died in the year 632 A.D. Historians use chronological order of events, periods and ages such as family tree, time lines, time charts and time graphs to tell time. TABLE SHOWING TIME PERIODS AND THEIR DURATION 1 day 24 hours 1 week 7 days 1 year 12 month 1 month 4 weeks 1 year 365 days 1 decade 10 years 1 century 100 years or 10 decades 1 1000 years or 10 centuries millennium A A group of people born in the same period, or it refers to the average differences in generation age between a child and his/her parents. Methods of dating in history Carbon 14 This is the scientific method of determining dates in history and it is the most common and modern method of determining dates in history. The archaeologists commonly use this method after discovering remains. Radiocarbon dating During the life time all living animals and vegetable matter absorbs a minute amount radioactive carbon (carbon 14) from the atmosphere. After death the level of carbon 14 in the object gradually declines at a steady, measurable rate. Thus by measuring the amount of carbon 14 in ancient fragments of the former living matter such as born or charcoal, scientists are able to calculate the approximate age of the object. The results are never very accurate but they are an invaluable aid to the archaeologists concerning more with the chronology than with the very precise dates. Language dating Historical events can be dated by the use of language. Here some word used in a given language can help to understand when a given event occurred. For example in Kiswahili there are some words that are used that they do tell when a given events took place for example the use of the word ‘Karafuu’ marks the beginning of the use of cloves in East Africa. Remembering changes and event dating Events can help in dating history for example famine, harvesting period, tsunami, hurricanes etc. By using these changes one is able to tell what event took place and also reflect the time at which that event took place. Order of eventdating This shows the arrangement of events in series for example family and clan chronology (family tree), chronological order of events (time line, time graph and time chart) TIME LINE 1 2 3 4 5 6 300 BC 200 BC 100BC 100 AD 1000 AD 1800 TIME CHART COLUMN I COLUMN II PERIOD (YEARS) EVENTS 1000AD The discovery of iron 1498 Vasco Da Gama arrived at the cape 1500 Emergence of Ntemi system of organization 1698 Fall of fort Jesus 1700 End of Portuguese rule in East Africa 1741 Mombasa establishes itself as an independence sheikhdom 1840 Sultan Said shifts his capital from Muscat to Zanzibar 1800 The industrial revolution in Europe 1900 Signing of the Buganda agreement 1961 Independence of Tanganyika 1964 The Zanzibar revolution 1992 Multiparty politics in Tanzania 1999 Death of Mwl. Julius Nyerere History Form 1 Topics

 Sources And Importance Of History  Evolution Of Man, Technology And Environment  Development Of Economic Activities And Their Impact  Development Of Social And Political Systems

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 Study Notes  Past Papers  Life Skills  Sports and Games  Entertainment  Find Friends  Discussions  Financial Education  Evolution Of Man, Technology And Environment  Evolution of Man  The Meaning of Evolution of Man  Explain the meaning of evolution of man  Human evolution is the lengthy process of change by which people originated from apelike ancestors. Scientific evidence shows that the physical and behavioral traits shared by all people originated from apelike ancestors and evolved over a period of approximately six million years.  One of the earliest defining human traits, bipedalism -- the ability to walk on two legs -- evolved over 4 million years ago. Other important human characteristics -- such as a large and complex brain, the ability to make and use tools, and the capacity for language - - developed more recently. Many advanced traits -- including complex symbolic expression, art, and elaborate cultural diversity -- emerged mainly during the past 100,000 years.  The Theory of Evolution of Man and the Religious Theory of Creation of Man  Explain the theory of evolution of man and the religious theory of creation of man  The Theory of Evolution of Man  The story of human evolution began in Africa about six million years ago and it describes the very long process that our ancestors went through to ultimately become modern humans. This process has been uncovered by studying fossils and understanding the underlying theory of evolution, and while new fossils are uncovered every decade revealing new chapters, scientists agree about the basic story.  Evolution means the changes that occur in a population over time. In this definition, a “population” means a group of the samespeciesthat share a specific location and habitat. Evolutionary changes always occur on the genetic level. In other words, evolution is a process that results in changes that are passed on or inherited from generation to generation. It does not, for example, describe how people can change their muscle mass by lifting weights.  When successful, these genetic changes or adaptations, which happen when genes mutate and/or combine in different ways during reproduction, help organisms survive, reproduce, and raise offspring. Some individuals inherit characteristics that make them more successful at surviving and having babies. These advantageous characteristics tend to appear more frequently in the population (because those individuals with less advantageous characteristics are more likely to die without reproducing), and over time these changes become common throughout that population, ultimately leading to new species.  Evolution of Man  Early Stone Age  The Types of Tools Used during the Old Stone Age  Describe the types of tools used during the old stone age  This lasted from 1.5 millions years up to 750,000 years ago. At this time man was involved in hunting and gathering that is their livelihood depended on collection of fruits, roots, vegetables and meat. The tools made at this time involved chopping tools, pebbles, and hand axes.  The tools made were not very sharp but important for defending themselves against wild animals and digging up plant roots  Some remains of these tools were found in East Africa in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, Ologa and Nsongezi Rock shelter in Uganda  The Physical Changes of Man during the Old Stone Age  Describe the physical changes of man during the old stone age  During the Old Stone Age, man had the ability to walk with two limbs though he could not stand upright. Additionally, he also had a hairy body, brain capacity of 650-775cc and a skull similar to that of the modern man but much larger. Generally, man was practical and skillful.  How Man Obtained Food during the Old Stone Age  Explain how man obtained food during the old stone age  At this time man was involved in hunting and gathering that is their livelihood depended on collection of fruits, roots, vegetables and meat  Middle Stone Age  This is recorded from around 750,000 years to 50,000 years ago  During that time tools made were sharper compared to the Early or Old Stone Age.  The Types of Tools used during the Middle Stone Age and their Functions  Describe the types of tools used during the middle stone age and their functions  During the middle stone age, man used smaller and sharper tools than those used during the Old Stone Age. Such tools included spears and knives used for different activities like defense and security as well as in food preparation. During this age, fire was discovered and as a result man started to eat roasted food.  The Physical Changes of Man during the Middle Stone Age  Describe the physical changes of man during the middle stone age  Man experienced physical changes during all the ages. During the middle stone age, man had an upright posture and brain capacity between 775cc and 1225cc. During this age, man was characterized by thick jaws, increased intelligence and skills, as compared to the Old Stone Age.  How Man Obtained Food during the Middle Stone Age  Explain how man obtained food during the middle stone age  In order to fulfill their basic needs humans used stone tools like stone hammers, stone cores, sharp stone flakes that offered useful cutting edges, etc.  The Advantages of the Invention and Uses of Fire  Explain the advantages of the invention and uses of fire  During the Mesolithic revolution, the most important discovery made was the discovery of fire. This discovery had a lot of advantages to man. Man used fire to roast food, clear vegetation, keep himself warm,Chasing wild animals (to defend himself).  New Stone Age  The Type of Tools Used during the Late Stone Age and their Uses  Describe the type of tools used during the late stone age and their uses  It started from around 50,000 BC up to the first Millennium, while at this stage man used much sharper tools than in Early or Middle Stone Ages.  At this time man started farming and animal keeping. Due to that it was the time when man started to have settlements.  Another development at this time was painting and drawings for example in Caves, evidence of this can be seen in Amboni caves (Tanga), Kondoa (Dodoma) and Irangi (Singida)  The Physical Changes of Man during the Late Stone Age  Describe the physical changes of man during the late stone age  During the late Stone Age, human beings were a direct ancestor of modern man. They had the ability to think as their brain capacity ranged between 1300cc and 1500cc. Also, they had an ability to make and use more advanced tools compared to those made and used by their ancestors. It was in this era that man was more intelligent than their ancestors had slightly thick jaws.  Major Changes in Man's Way of Life during the Late Stone Age  Appraise major changes in man's way of life during the late stone age  At this time surplus food was available, this facilitated the increase of the human population and the emergence of village settlements.  Iron Age  This was the time when man started to make and use iron tools. Iron age in Africa started more on the first millennium in a few societies e.g. in East Africa, while other societies like western Sudan States (Ghana, Mali, Soghai), Axum, Egypt, Nubi, and Meroe for North Africa  How Iron was Discovered  Explain how iron was discovered  Iron was discovered through particular stones which become hot and cool and finally change to a hard matter known as iron. In East Africa, the iron age is believed to have begun around 1000AD. Famous early iron sites were discovered in Engaruka within the rift valley in Northern Tanzania. Other sites include Uvinza, Karagwe, Ugweno, Iteso and western shores of lake Victoria.  The Advantages of using Iron Tools  Appraise the advantages of using iron tools  Iron age helped societies to progress and develop more (that is it had more positive effects than negative effects) some of these effects were:  It created the division of labor in African societies e.g. some started working in local industries. Others became traders and crop producers.  It also increased the production of food crops in Africa. (This was due to the making of more useful farm equipments).  It helped with the formation of permanent settlements to those societies that adopted iron technology (crop producers).  Africa started to develop Economically through activities such as industry, agriculture, mining and trading.  It also led to the expansion of states in Africa (stronger societies started to conquer other states) e.g. the Buganda and Ghana. Development Of Economic Activities And Their Impact This chapter will focus on the different economic levels of development achieved by man from the period of pre-history specifically enlightening on the three-litchis of the continent of Africa up to 19th century. Also to examine the factors that influenced the existed economic activities as well as the impact of such activities on the respective society The economic activities in pre-colonial Africa The environment as an entity does influence economic activities and there is a strong relationship between the environment and economic activities. Several economic activities developed amongst the different people of Africa ranging from:

 Agriculture which involved the growing of crops and rearing of animals.  Handcrafts industries which depended on skilss or hand to make and produce goods.  Mining concerning with the process of extracting underground minerals for man‟s use.  Trading involving the buying and exchanging of goods and services.  Fishing, lumbering, Hunting and gathering all these differed from area to area. Basing on the environment and the skills that the people living in a given community were gifted with.

Agriculture It is believed that in Africa, agriculture started about 6000 years ago. The use of discovered tools and weapons led to the development of crop cultivation and domestication of animals. True plant domestication probably began when the weakest plant were rejected and only seeds from the strongest plants were set aside for re-sowing mainly yielding grasses (cereals) and the same applied to animal domestication. The Relationship between Agriculture, the Environment and Technological Development Show the relationship between agriculture, the environment and technological development Contributions of technological development to development of agriculture; After a through look into different agricultural practices that existed in Africa, it is equally paramount to know the contributions of technology to the development of agriculture in Africa. The increased use of iron tools amongst the different societies of Africa, led to the increase of land for cultivation, which resulted into increased agricultural productivity. The food storage skills insured an insurance against loss of future crops through natural disasters such as drought or flood thus food supply throughout the year. Some communities whose soils easily exhausted developed the use of manure which renewed the land and thus increased production. The development and use of irrigation opened up the once un-cultivatable to be productive for agriculture once again. Not only did the technological improvement contribute to the development of agriculture but also the environment had the great bearing on the development of agriculture in Africa. The reliable rainfall supplemented with the fertile soils in given areas resulted in the development of permanent crop agriculture or cultivation accompanied with increased agricultural production Pest free and disease free areas were suitable for both crop and animal husbandry, as they would attract settlement. Also in place is the availability of iron technology in given societies making it possible for the making of iron tools which advanced on the methods of production and thus increased productivity. It ensured man with reliable food supplies,The impacts of agricultural development are immeasurable as it ensured man with reliable food supplies, permanent settlement, labour specialization and surplus production and thus increase in population. Farming was not suitable in every environment, the disadvantage of settled farming may also have been apparent through farming could support a larger population; it left the people more exposed to the dangers of famine caused by natural disasters such as drought and floods. The Types of Agricultural Practices in Africa Explain the types of agricultural practices in Africa Different types of agriculture developed in the different African societies these included:

 Permanent crop cultivation  Mixed farming  Pastoralism  Shifting cultivation

Successful agriculture depended on the ecology or natural fertility of the soil, adequate rainfall, technical skills of the famers and the ability to find most suitable and successful crops. However, this was not a simple task as it required patience and the ability to learn more from experience. It was the trial and error system. Permanent crop cultivation This involved the growing of perennial crops as potatoes, bananas, yam, beans and maize on a permanent basis. This was majorly employed in areas where there was extra land. Not every society could practice this form of agriculture but the environment dictated the terms. Areas that received heavy and reliable rainfall were free from pests and diseases, having fertile soil did serve best for permanent crop cultivation. With the development of iron technology societies which practiced this moved from communalism to feudalism. In East Africa it was majorly practiced in the interlacustrine regions such as Buganda, Kagera Kenyan highlands, Ankole around Mount Kilimanjaro, parts of Kigoma and rungwe. In West Africa in the Fante, Yoruba, Ashanti, Ife and Akwam. With the development of permanent crop cultivation people begn to live in larger, more permanent settlement, the permanence of settlement quickened the development of instrument production, there were increase in population as a result of improved diet, food supply became more regular and abundant, brought important social as well as technical changes many developed into centralised states for example Fante, Benin, Oyo and Meroe. Lastly was the development of handcrafts industries such as iron smelting and social differentiation. Mixed farming This is an agricultural system which involves growing of crops and rearing of animals on the same piece of land. It evolved in areas which supported both pastoralism and crop cultivation. Crops grown in this agricultural practice included cereals such as millet, sorghum, cassava and maize animals kept included cattle, goats, sheep, cows and donkey. The mixed farmers existed because the areas they lived had unreliable rainfall and their soils could easily be exhausted so one thing had to supplement the other. Mixed farmers in East Africa included the Gogo, Sangu, Sukuma, Kurya and Fipa in Tanzania, Luyia in Southwest Kenya, the Basoga and Gisu of Eastern Uganda. The relation of production was mainly communal with low production, division of labour based on age and sex The mixed farmers in East Africa demonstrated achievement in their practices as they developed centralised political organisations for example the Busoga in Uganda under Omuloki, specialised in different activities. Specialisation in these societies resulted into development of trade, at first it was among the mixed farmers and later it resulted in the formation of long distance trade. Shifting cultivation This involves spending a given period of time working on land and moving from one area that is exhausted to a new fresh piece of land. It was mainly practiced by the people who lived in grassland plateaus for example Miombo wood land savanna in central Tanzania were the rainfall was little and unreliable and the soil could be easily exhausted These soils could support the growth of cassava, sorghum, maize, millet, cowpeas, pumpkins plus many more other crops.the rearing of livestock was made difficult due to the fact that these areas were infected with tsetse flies and other livestock diseases. The soils that easily became exhausted necessitated people to move from one place to another in search of the fertile piece of land. However people in some communities were living a settled life even if they were practicing this type of agriculture. Pastoralism This involves the keeping of livestock. The herding of domestic animals (cattle, sheep or goats), which were real and potential source of food particularly; milk, meat, animal skins and the herds were also exchanged with the different neighboring societies. Areas with semi arid and arid conditions like scanty rainfall, (rainfall that is just enough to support the growth of pasture), poor soils which could only support pastoralism as the major economic activity within the area. In East Africa the dry areas include the lift valley areas of Tanzania and Kenya comprising of societies like the Maasai, Nyaturu, Barbaig and the karamanjong in Uganda. Where the people were largely pastoralists their settlement tended to be less permanent as they moved in search of varying season pastures and water. These people had no centralised political system they used the age set system in their production and they also kept large herds because of their use value and prestige. How Agriculture Changed Man's Life Explain how agriculture changed man's life The development of agriculture changed man's life in various ways, for instance;

 with the development of permanent crop cultivation people began to live in permanent settlement,  there was increase of population,  development of instruments of productions,  development of centralized states,  development of trade, and  the division of labour. This chapter will focus on the different economic levels of development achieved by man from the period of pre-history specifically enlightening on the three-litchis of the continent of Africa up to 19th century. Also to examine the factors that influenced the existed economic activities as well as the impact of such activities on the respective society The economic activities in pre-colonial Africa The environment as an entity does influence economic activities and there is a strong relationship between the environment and economic activities. Several economic activities developed amongst the different people of Africa ranging from:

 Agriculture which involved the growing of crops and rearing of animals.  Handcrafts industries which depended on skilss or hand to make and produce goods.  Mining concerning with the process of extracting underground minerals for man‟s use.  Trading involving the buying and exchanging of goods and services.  Fishing, lumbering, Hunting and gathering all these differed from area to area. Basing on the environment and the skills that the people living in a given community were gifted with.

Handicrafts,Industries and Mining in Pre-Colonial Africa Handcrafts can be defined as the art of using your skills and hand to designs and fashion things, or it's an activity done with on's hands requiring artistic skills. Such goods may include tools, baskets, and cloth to mention but a few. In pre-colonial Africa different hand crafts industries emerged as man specialized on to other activities apart from agriculture. These included iron making industries, basketry, spinning and weaving cloth making, carving, canoe making and many more. The Meaning of Handcrafts, Industries, and Mining Explain the meaning of handcrafts, industries, and mining Mining industries: Are industries which involve the process of extracting underground minerals such as copper, gold, tin and salt mining industries. An industry is a place where transformation of raw materials into finished goods is carried out. The natural resources that existed in a given society determined the nature of industries to be found in a given area. The Types of Industries and Their Advantages in Pre-Africa Differentiate the types of industries and their advantages in pre-Africa Types of industries

 Iron industries  Salt making  Copper industry  Handcrafts industries

Iron industries. The discovery of iron resulted in drastic socio-political and economic changes. The people who were dealing in iron were called blacksmiths a person whose job is to make and repair things made with iron, learns how to identify rocks containing iron ore. In the way of trying to maintain monopoly over the knowledge of iron making it was kept as a secret and in many societies it was even ritualised (made a religious thing). Different society had different beliefs as many believed that the women were not allowed to furnace as it was presumed that the iron would be spoilt. Methods of obtaining and processing iron: Blacksmiths identified the rocks that were bore iron ore collecting them and smelting the iron found in the trenches or clay furnaces. They had to use charcoal fuel and maintained the high temperatures in the furnaces by fanning the live charcoal with bellows. The smelted iron was then shaped into different forms and tools like spear heads, knives, axes, panga and wire. The places where the iron industries were found included the Venda people of Northern Transvaal, the Mashona people of Zimbabwe, the Iteso of Eastern Uganda, along Kilambo falls, Futa Djalon, Meroe and many others. Salt making industries Salt is not only a food ingredient but was also used to preserve food. The increased use of salt resulted into the development of trade and agriculture as salt led to more food production, the use of salt was found in almost all communities as it was important in different communities. Methods of obtaining and processing salt: There are four methods of obtaining and processing salt in different communities, these included: Traditional method Under the tradition method salt was obtained from the reeds growing in marshy areas, gathered, dried and burnt to ashes. The ashes were then collected, filtered and the liquid was boiled to evaporate, the residue was used as salt. The Manganja people settled along Lake Nyasa commonly used this method. Mining of salt bearing rocks Rocks contained salt was dug out and the crystals were used. In here the rocks that contain salt are identified and are dug out, it is probably the most commonly used method of obtaining and processing salt. Place were it is used include Kasese, Bilma, Taghaza, Katwe and many others. Boiling and evaporation Under this method as the spring waters boil underneath the earth's surface, they do evaporate and spill over the land surface where they cool to form salt crystals which crystals are used as salt. This was commonly practiced in Uvinza, Shinyanga and also among the Venda people. Developed among the coastal regions Along the coastal regions salty waters were trapped into pans and left to evaporate the heat of the sun. The crystals that did remain behind after the evaporation of salty waters were then used as salt. Gold industries Gold is one of the most precious minerals and it was not found in every area as other minerals which makes it precious and valuable. The communities that mined gold showed drastic social, political and economic developments. Methods of obtaining and processing gold Panning method This method was commonly carried out along the river beds where alluvial gold was extracted. It was somehow tiresome as people had to try several times in order to obtain the mineral. This method was common among the Sabi people living along river Zambezi Shaft method This method was commonly used in the areas with gold veins. Here the gold was dug out by using wooden, stone and iron hammers, then collected in wooden baskets and taken to furnaces were it was turned into different ornaments such as bangles, earrings plus many more. Copper industries The copper industry is believed to be the oldest industry that existed in almost all pre colonial African societies. Different societies did participate to the industries due to the fact that the copper existed in their communities. Methods used in obtaining and processing copper Identification of a copper belt The copper was dug out and then taken to the furnaces where it was smelted. The smelted copper was turned into different tools which were relatively important to the society for example wire traps, knives axes etc. the areas that carried out this included places where the copper belt were found for example the Katanga copper belt and Kasese. Handcrafts industries Cloth making industries (weaving and spinning): These industries were concerned with making clothes and developed in areas where cloth making materials were available. Spinning and wearing, making of bark –cloth developed in areas with cotton and appropriate tree barks. Famous spinning and weaving societies in Africa include Yoruba people of West Africa, Sumbawanga in Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique as well as the people found in Lake Rukwa valley in Tanzania as for bark cloth areas North of Lake Victoria, interlacustrine societies for example in Buganda they used the Mvule tree to make (Olubugo) bark cloth which was very expensive and it was only the rich and the nobles who could afford it Basketry and carpentry Closely associated with agrarian societies whose style of life was more complex and sophisticated and in places that were privileged with palm and special reeds holding vessels specialised in the making of baskets and mats plus special leather work was needed for making leather clothes, sandals, bags, and beddings from animal skins and hides. It‟s associated with pastoralists such as Tuareg, Beja, Ajar, and Somali who made tents. Canoe making The art of making canoes developed in areas bordering lakes, rivers and oceans. Different societies who carried this had their major economic activity as fishing which in many cases supplemented agriculture. This therefore means that nature of resources available in a given society determined the nature of handcrafts industry present in that society. Trade in pre colonial Africa Trade refers to the exchange of goods or services with money or other goods or is the buying and selling of goods The development of agriculture brought important economic changes as people were now able to produce surplus food which is more than needed to feed their own immediate family thus the surplus could be traded between neighboring settlement in exchange for raw materials luxuries and other items not produced within the community It is clear that societies are not fully self sufficient. Therefore, interactions say between pastoralists with cultivators and agriculturalists with craftsmen in order to exchange goods are required. The major means of distributions from one hand to another were through gifts, tributes and taxation. The exchanges carried out were not aimed at getting profit but it was after the use value of commodities and also strengthening relations. For example a person who exchanged his cattle with millet was not in search of profit. Before the emergence of groups of people who specialised in trade the exchange system was barter this involved the exchange of goods for goods. As societies developed trade development was also inevitable basing on the fact that some societies were not having specific resources which could only be obtained through the exchange. Increase in surplus production supplemented with the development of industries, the presence of safe routes and the regional specialisation not forgetting the love for adventure cemented the development and expansion of trading activities in pre colonial Africa. The expansion of trading activities resulted into two major types of trade emerging in pre colonial Africa.

1. The local trade (internal exchange relations). This developed within given community. 2. Regional trade (long distance trade). Where there emerged groups of people who specialized and could buy goods from producers in order to sell them later at a profit.

The Uses of Different Types of Minerals in Pre-Colonial Africa Explain the uses of different types of minerals in pre-colonial Africa All in all the handcrafts and mining industries had far reaching effects to the communities and societies of pre colonial Africa. Increased food production was evident as tool of production was improved up on through the technological development, trade was also increased as the volume of food traded and the demand increased this in turn acted as a source of income to many societies which later rose socially, politically and economically more settled populations and communities new political system and organizations, the blacksmith became recognized, influential and famous people in the society, the iron tools could dig and cut faster and deeper than the stone tools and many others. Trade in Pre-Colonial Africa The Basis of Trade in Pre-Colonial Africa Explain the basis of trade in pre-colonial Africa Local trade This was conducted from the village among the homogenous community, it did not require specific places to act as a markets, there was no need of middle men as goods passed freely from the hands of producers to consumers. Many pre colonial African societies at first developed this trade as it availed them with the commodities they needed with much ease. People living within a given community exchanged commodities amongst themselves in order to fill the missing link; for example, cultivators could exchange their food with the livestock from the pastoralists, other commodities exchanged included iron tools, ornaments, animal skins and agricultural produce. Generally speaking, the exchange which started with the intention to cement the existing social bonds amongst the different societies resulted in the growth of several industries, simulation of production for goods required in the exchange. It also led to the increase in incomes of the people who actively participated in the trade, the emergence and development of relationships among people of different localities for example the Sukuma trading with the Maasai and also the availability of all goods in the community brought about by increased production and the expansion in the exchanges. The Types of Trade, Types of Commodities and the Societies Involved Identify the types of trade, types of commodities and the societies involved Regional trade Trade between East and Central Africa started from the 1st millennium AD as they traded in raffia cloth, ivory and hides, copper from Katanga exchanged with salt from Uvinza. This was concerned with the exchange of goods with people from different regions. This called for specialisation and dealt with the commodities which were relatively scarce and geographical un evenly distributed among the people of different ethnic groups. Regional trade involved different regions in the trading process. In East and Central Africa it came to be known as long distance trade while in West Africa it was called trans Saharan trade. Long Distance Trade It is called long distance trade simply because it was carried out long distance as people/traders had to move for long distance going on exchanging goods with other societies and the major aim was to get profit for example a salt traders was exchanged salt foe hoes not because he wanted to use hoes but he wanted re sell them at a profit later. Professional traders (trade being their major occupation) came from Yao, Chewa and Bissa of Central Africa. Imbangala and vimbundu from Angola, Dyula merchants and the Marabouts of West Africa. In East Africa the Nyamwezi, Yao and Kamba were famous long distance traders, through trading and supplying ivory, slaves and copper to the exterior of East Africa Indian ocean coast. This organisation required fixed places to act as markets and the use of middlemen as the entrepreneurs. In East Africa it was mainly carried out during the dry season and during the rainy season they settled down for agricultural activities. By the10th century AD the Yao and Chewa were exporting ivory and iron to the coast. The Shona of Zimbabwe exported ivory and gold to the coast which were then exported to the Far East and then return they imported glass wear, cowrie's shells, beads, cotton cloth and porcelain from the far and Middle East. They used organised caravans for security reasons and distance standard currency such as bars of iron or copper and slabs of salt. The long distance trade was a blessing for many societies in East and Central Africa as it gave rise to the notorious and professional long distance traders like Tip Tippu, Mzilikazi, and Mlosi etc In addition to that prominent rulers such as Muteesa of Bugnanda, Mirambo of Unyamwezi, Kimweri of Usambara and Mkwawa of the Uhehe were able to conquer and rule weaker and neighboring societies. All this was facilitated by the acquisition of fire arms and ammunition which were important commodities from the East coast. Expansion and consolidation of various kingdoms for example Buganda, Bunyoro, Yao and Nyamwezi led many of the participants to became very rich and famous from the huge profits that were enjoyed from the trade. The trade acted as a stepping stone for the spread of Islam in the interior of East Africa. Many of the traders preaching Islam at the same time carrying their trading activities. Slave trade paved its way to the interior as the interior was exposed to traders. The Trans Saharan Trade Trans Saharan trade is also sometimes referred to as caravan trade. It was carried out across the Sahara desert. The trade involved different zones ranging from forest i.e. involving the forest states such as Benin, Oyo, Kanem Bornu and many more, the savannah belt which involved the Western Sudanic states such as Ghana, Mali and Songhai, the Sahara desert and the North Africa, the Mediterranean world and Europe. Factors for the rise of the Trans Saharan Trade (causes) The introduction and use of the camels, which were introduced in Africa during 100A.D. CamelS replaced horses and donkeys as they were more resistant to desert conditions and could also move faster to the desert. This therefore facilitated the development of the trade as a more efficient means of transport had been introduced Political development that during the 7th and 16th century.This includesthe Western Sudanic states whose rulers promoted the expansion of the trade. They ensured this by giving a leading hand, security, freedom of movement and also encouraging people to prepare the goods that were necessary in the trade a thing that did not existed before. The conquest of North Africa by the Arabs, between 641 and 708 the Arabs conquered North Africa, astraders naturally they introduced their trading system and on top of that they increased the use of camels in North Africa and in the Sahara desert. Development of production, in various regions of the Sudanic zone the production increased it meant that the supplies of commodity to be used in the trade were available. As no single community is self-sufficient this meant that the different communities had to depend on each other for various raw materials and goods. Organization of the trade: commodities used; different regions had different commodities that they concentrated on, from Europe and Muslim North Africa included manufactured goods, textile, copper, silver, woolen garments, brass, tin and horses From the Sahara were salt mined at Bilma, Taghaza, Taoden, Idjil and Awlil, copper mined at Takkeda, tobacco and dates inclusive. The savannah region had millet, sorghum, wheat, gum and ostrich feathers and livestock as well as gold that were mined from Wangara. The forest zone was well known for gold mines at Akan and Lobi, kola nuts, ivory and the slaves. The first medium of exchange was the barter system where goods were exchanged for goods but as the people became professional traders the medium of exchange also changed the traders started using cowries and at a later stage they started using the French franc and then the Spanish and Australian dollars. As caravans were organised they had to follow specific trade routes that gave them a sense of direction on their way through the trade. The major trade route that was used included;

 From Ghat and Tripoli to Ehyot.  From Ghana to Morocco via Audaghast.  From Timbuktu to Tunis via Taghaza.  From Borno to Tripoli.  From Kano to Tunis and Tripoli via Agades.  From Timbuktu to Tunis via Wangala, Ghademes and Ghat.

The Impact of the Following Types of Trade: Local Trade, Regional Trade Appraise the impact of the following types of trade: local trade, regional trade Impacts of the Trans Saharan Trade Contributed to the formation of West African states and kingdoms, the profits that were raised from trade helped in the development of different states, these were got through the taking over charge or control over the trade routes and every one using that route had to pay tax or tributes. For example Ghana Empire conquered Audaghast in 990 A.D. in view of controlling the salt mines in that area, Mali and Songhai extended their control as far as Taghaza and Takedda for economic reasons. It is therefore true to say that trade facilitated the rise and consolidation of the different states. The spread of Islam was greatly accelerated by the Trans Saharan Trade in West and North Africa. The traders were serving two masters at a go as they were traders and also acted as teachers of Islam (evangelists) a thing that improved on the literacy rates in the region. Growth of towns and cities, due to the trade many areas which were once villages turned into towns in what is known as urbanisation. Small villages turned into large towns and cities such as Kumbi Saleh, Gao, Kano, Jenne, Timbuktu plus many others. Improvement of political administrations, the caravan trade also improved political administration of the different kingdoms through the use and employment of well educated Muslim traders who had been attracted by the trade. Many of the states were also applying the Islamic ways of administration in their different areas or jurisdiction Exploitation of natural resources, as the influx of the Whites increased, this marked the beginning of the exploitation of natural resources that were endowed in Africa. It is also believed that this was the time of unequal exchange between Africa and Europe began. Provision of constant and regular source of income,The attractive profits from trade provided constant and regular source of income for the different states. This was mainly raised from the custom duties that imposed on the imports and over goods of great political importance such as horse and the different metals that were imported into the state. Trade also provided the sources for undertaking wars of conquest and expansion through the supply of effective means of war fare, such as horses and metals that could be used in the making and designing arms as spears, arrows head and axes. The Trans Saharan Trade This was the trading relation between the people of Western Sudan (Sudanic/Savannah region) and the people of North Africa passing across the Sahara desert. Camels were used as the means of transport during this trade. Societies that participated in the Trans Saharan Trade included;

 The Berbers of North Africa and brought them to West Africa via the Sahara desert.  The Arabs and the European stationed in the Mediterranean costs of North Africa. These supplied goods to the Berbers and Tuaregs who in turn sold them to the people of West Africa. The said Arabs and purchased the items brought from West Africa.  The West African tribes of both the Sudanic region and the forest regions to include the Mandika, Fulani, Hausa, Edo etc. these supplied items to the Berbers and Tuaregs who crossed the Sahara and purchased the items brought from North Africa.

Commodities involved From North Africa the commodities were:

 Cotton and silk clothes  Swords  Guns and gunpowder  Horses, etc. from West Africa the commodities were:

 slaves  ivory  ostrich feathers  kola nuts  Gold  Salt  Food stuff

Trans Saharan trade was firstly carried out through barter system and there after some media of exchange like cowries shells, silver, coins, etc. replaced the barter system. Trade routes The Trans Saharan Trade was carried out via the routes namely:

 The western routes  The Central route  The Eastern route

The Western route emerged from Fez in Morocco via Siljilmasa, Taghaza, Taoden, Walata, and Audaghost up to Timbuktu. This route was famous because of salt mines at Taghaza and gold mines Wangara. The central route emerged at Tunis in Tunisia via Tuat, Taotek, Tadmekket, Timbuktu, Gao, and Kano up to Katsina. The Eastern route to the other hand emerged from Triplin in Libya, Alexandria and Cairo in Egypt to Bilma via Murzuk, Ghat and Agades. This route was significant because of salt mines in Bilma. Factors for growth of Trans Saharan Trade Several factors contributed to the growth and development of Trans Saharan trade. These include:-

 Political stability in both North Africa and West Africa, hence a conducive ground forthe trade activities to flourish.  The desire by European traders of such items as ivory, gold and slaves which were tobe obtained only from Western Sudan.  The desire of European commodities by the people of Western Sudan.  Production of surplus commodities such as kola nuts, salt, fish and other food stuffsin Western Sudan. These had to be exported to other regions including NorthAmerica.  The introduction and use of camels as animals of transportation, these were able tocarry huge quantities than horses and human porters. They were also tolerable indesert conditions.

Factors for the fall of Trans Saharan Trade By the second half of the 19th century, the trans Saharan trade was almost collapse of this trade was a result of the following factors:

 Introduction of trans Atlantic trade which altered the trade route of Trans Saharan Trade.  The emergence of other sources of salt and gold needed by European traders due toopening up of mines in the Americas.  Scarcity of water in the desert discouraged the voyages via the desert.  Eruption of wars (jihad) in the Maghreb region particularly Morocco. This disrupted the trade.  Colonisation of West African states by European powers in the last quarter of 19thcentury deteriorated the trading relations with North Africa

Effects of the Trans Saharan Trade The Trans Saharan Trade had to a lot of effects as follows:-

 It led to development and growth of towns and cities in both North Africa and theWestern Sudan, example being Walata, Kano, and Timbuktu etc.  It led to emergence of rich merchants classes in Western Sudan as these merchants accumulated a lot of wealth from the trade.  It led to the spread of Islam, Arabic culture and language in Western Sudan.  It led to intermarriages between the people of Western Sudan, the Arabs and AfroArabs from North Africa.  It led to the growth and consolidation of Sudanic states namely Ghana, Mali, Songhaiand Kanem Bornu.vi. It stimulated the state of warfare between Western Sudanic states and forest states dueto the desire for slaves.

Mining and hand craft industries Mining This is the extraction of minerals from the underground parent rocks. By the period before and around the 19th century, minerals that were being mined in Africa include the following:-

 Copper  Gold  Iron  Bronze  Silver  Salt.

Most of the minerals were to be taken to handcraft industries where they were then processed into different items. Some other minerals such as salt were to be consumed directly while some other minerals were to be used as media of exchange in trading activities. Prominent areas in Africa where mining activities were being practiced include the following:-

 Katanga in Zaire where there were copper mines.  Tshikapa in Zaire, Machili, Lusu, Klambo falls and Ingombe ilede.  Gokomere, Mabven, Malapiti and Chivi in the Limpompo valley of Zimbabwe iron wasmined.  Mashona and Matebele lands in Zimbabwe as well as Ashanti in Ghana where gold wasbeing mined.  Uvinza in Western Tanzania and Taghaza in Mauritania where there were extraction ofsalts.

Hand crafts industries These were factories that manufactured different items through the use of machines operated manually (by hand). Such industries include those that dealt with metal works namely:

 Iron processing industries  Copper processing industries  Salt making industries

The said metal working industries were mainly located near their respective mining areas. Prominent societies that were experts in metal works include:

 The people of Chipembe, and Kalomo in Zambia, the people of Mwavarambo,Phopo and Nkope Bay in Malawi as well as the Yoruba and the Edo of Nigeriawho were experts in iron smelting industries.  The Shona and Ndebele of Zimbabwe, the Akan and the Asante of Ghana whowere famous in gold coast smithing industries.  The Manganja of Malawi and the people of Taghaza were experts in salt making industries.

Other industries apart from metal work industries dealt with cotton and raffia cloth making among the Fulbe, the Felleme and Trakrur of Senegal and among the societies Guinea and Zimbabwe. Other industries were those dealing with Basketry, Pottery and wood carving. Wood carving industries were common among the Makonde of Tanzania and the Yoruba of Nigeria. Items made from the said handcraft industries were to be sold in exchange with other products like agricultural products, animal products etc. THE MAP OF TRANS SAHARAN TRADE ROUTES BASIC ASSIGNMENT/ACTIVITIES TO DO

1. Define the following terms Technology Agriculture Trade Environment Development 2. List the four agricultural processes that were carried out among the different societies in East Africa. 3. Mention any four advantages and effects of agriculture to the different African societies. 4. Mention the different handcrafts that existed in pre colonial African societies. 5. Outline the different types of trade that where present in the pre colonial African societies. 6. What factors contributed to the development of trans Saharan trade? 7. Mention the different regions that participated in the Trans Saharan trade. 8. Mention four notorious and professional long distance traders. 9. List the different methods in the obtaining and processing of salt in the pre colonial African societies. 10. What factors gave rise to the Trans Saharan trade? 11. List four principles of trade routes that were used in trans Saharan slave trade. 12. What were the impacts or effects of trans Saharan trade?

Development Of Social And Political Systems Kinship Of Clan Organization The Meaning of the Kinship or Clans explain the meaning of the kinship or clan Prior to European colonisation in the late 19th century, Africa had a very long history of state building as well as a rich variety of social formations that were decentralised or stateless. The Social, Political and Economic Organization of Kinship or Clans explain the social, political and economic organization of kinship or clan Clan Organisation Leaders in the clan organisation were chosen by a heritage system that was either matrilineal or patrilineal. Matrilineal systems are based on the mother’s side and patrilineal systems are based on father’s side e.g. of matrilineal societies are Makonde and Zanaki, while the Sukuma and Pare are good examples of patrilineal societies. The clan leader had a lot of functions such as: Note: The clan leaders in Africa had local names e.g. Sukuma – Mtemi, Nyakyusa- Malafyale. Chiefdom or Chieftain Organization Therefore, the chiefdom organisation system was adopted by many societies that were under clan organisation. This included the Sukuma, Chagga, Nyakyusa, etc. The functions of a chief in these societies were similar to that of the clan leader the difference is the chief had a larger area. Age set system was a type of organisation which involved age and sex in distribution of activities. Looking at the Maasai; they were organised as follows:

1. Soldiers 2. Increasing the herds of cattle by raiding from other societies 3. Moving with their cattle in need of water and gras

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1. Religious leaders 2. Distributed resources e.g. Cattle

State organisation were systems of administration adopted by few African societies while having administrative organs, army and judiciary. Each organ was responsible for different activities. State Africa can be grouped as follows: Interlacustrine Region

 Buganda  Bunyoro Kital Others include

 Hehe  Nyamwezi

Western Sudanic State

 Ghana  Sangai  Dahomey  Fulani  Oyo

Central Africa

 Nubiii  Ethiopia

Age-set System The Meaning of Age-Set System Explain the meaning of age-set system Age set is a social system or organization which involves age and sex in the distribution of activities and duties. Therefore age, sex and gender are highly considered in division of labor and specialization. Examples of tribes that practiced age set are the Maasai in Tanzania, Karamajong in Uganda and Nandi in Kenya. The Social, Political and Economic Organisation of Societies which Practiced the Age-Set System Explain the social, political and economic organization of societies which practiced the age-set system The social, political and economical organization of societies that practiced age set organization was based on age and sex in the division and specialization of labor. The main economic activity in age set system societies was livestock keeping which resulted in a semi-nomadic life. The tribes which practiced the age set system were Maasai in Tanzania, Karamajong in Uganda and Nandi in Kenya. Age set covered a specific group of years for example.

a. Children group aged 0-8 years were regarded as non producers group.They were not directly involve in production. b. Youth group 8-18 years their main responsibility was to graze animal, trading young animals and milking cattle they were assisted by women. c. Moran group (people between youth and adults aged between 35 years) and above these were solders of the society and the society and the main responsibilities of the Moran were as follows; i. To protect the whole society as trained solders. ii. To protect live stock against dangerous animals and raiders. iii. To increase the number of animals through raiding their neighbours; iv. To travel with their herds in search for water and pastures; d. Laibons this is the group of elders aged 40 years and above it consisted of elders who were divided in groups namely;Junior elders; Elders and senior elders.Responsibilities of elders included:

 To control live stock and the properties on behalf of their communities.  To enable norms and ethics to govern the society.  They were top overseeds of all the spiritual and political matters of the community.  They were responsible for counseling other members of the society.  To settle disputes among the society members.  They were regarded as retired producers of the society but their ideas and skills were highly appreciated.

Ntemiship The Meaning of the Ntemiship System Explain the meaning of the ntemiship system Ntemiship is a socio-political organization or system characterized by being made up of separated groups. The word Ntemiship is derived from the word Kutema which means split apart. The ruler in a Ntemiship system was called Mtemi. The Nyamwezi tribe practiced the Ntemiship system. The Social, Political and Economic Organisation of Ntemiship Explain the social, political and economic organization of ntemiship Ntemi comes from the word ”kutema” which means opening up of new land. It also means finding a locality Ntemi was the name given to a leader who organized the action of opening up new land and controlled the people.Ntemiship was being practiced in Unyamwezi by 1300 AD.It then spread in the neighbouring such as the sukuma,sangu,hehe,kimbu,gogo and bena of Tanzania.There were about 300 Ntemiship in Tanzania in the 18th C. Among the sukuma, the ruler in Ntemiship organization was called Ntemi. He became Ntemi because he founder he was founder of the locality.He was chosen by a counsel of elders choosing a person to become Ntemi depended on his wisdom courage and experience. Responsibilities of the Ntemi:

1. He was the top authority in the political and matters provided over all guidance in the community. 2. He enforced proper uses of resources such as land,water,forest resources etc. 3. He was the overseer of the community food reserve. 4. He settled disputes in the community. 5. He had the religious power.He led the people in his community in performing religious and offering sacrificies to the sprits. 6. To collect tributes from his subjects. 7. He provided over all guidance in the society.

State Organisation The Meaning of State Organisation Explain the meaning of state organization State formation in Africa Environmental factor Location of a place e.g. in trading while some of the African States were near to the trading towns as they obtained tax and commodities. Iron technology in Africa also helped in the development and rise of Africa states e.g. By Iron they made weapons like spears, Arrows, guns etc. weapons were useful on conquering small states eg. Buganda conquered Bunyaro-Kutoro, Nyankole. Some states had good leadership and they were able to organise their states e.g. Shaka Zulu, Mirambo of Nyamwezi, Mkwawa of Hehe. Tunkumanin of Ghana, Sunsiata of Mali etc. Men belonging to African societies were involved in long and short distance trade which led to:

 Outbreak of wars and migration  Formal governments

Prime minister, council of elders, Provision chief, general commander and others like Abakungu, Abalangira. Some states rose up due to the influence of the Islamic religion e.g. through the use of Jihad while states were turned into Islamic states. For instance in West Africa we see the Sokoto caliphate (under Uthman Dan fodio) who managed to conquer several states in the forest zone. Some of African tribes had strong armies and had improved weapons for conquering other states. It is said that before the White man’s intrusion, Ghana had about 20,000 experienced soldiers and Mali had 10,000 soldiers. Fall of some states in Africa

 Increase in size of states led to poor organisation and state management e.g. Ghana and other states.  Wars and conquest while some of the states were conquered by strong states e.g. In Mfecane war about 100 states were conquered by Zulu.  Slave trade in Africa also affected a lot of weak states while strong states managed to conquer small states e.g. Fulani in West Africa declined due to this.  The system of obtaining leaders through heritage did not lead to the development of states but the fall of states that were following this system.  The conflicts between Muslims and non-Muslims in some societies while non- Muslimsocieties being conjured by the Muslim societies.  Weak leaders in some societies failed to organise their states leding to their decline.

STATES ORGANISATION TYPES OF STATES IN AFRICA

1. Decentralised states (Non centralised) 2. Centralised states.

These emerged as a result of one powerful family to control other classes in domination of wealth and political power. CHARACTERISTICS OF DECENTRALISED STATES

1. Most decentralised societies were small in terms of population and area. 2. Decentralised states had no political connection with a large kingdom. 3. Each village was politically separated and was not politically connected to neighbouring villages. 4. Most decentralised societies did not have a system of chiefs. 5. Council of elders were religious leaders . Organisational structure of kinship ties lineage groups.

CENTRALISED KINGDOMS AND EMPIRES Some African societies were large empires governed by kings, who had near absolute power. For Example:

1. North Africa – Egypt, Nubia, Axum in North East 2. Ghana, Mali, Soghai and Kaneroi Burnu in Western 3. Buganda, Karagwe, Ankole and Tero in East Africa

CHARACTERISTICS OF CENTRALISED POLITICAL SYSTEMS

1. Presence of a king or queen. 2. The clan had to pay tribute to the monarchy 3. Availability of enough food to feed the settled population 4. The centralised authority was responsible for solving social disputes.

Example: Ancient Egypt Origins:According to archaeological evidence, the Egyptian state arose between 1500 and 500 BC. The evidence also show that by this time there were already villages of self sufficient producers who grew wheat, barley and kept animals. These producers formed permanent settlements as they increased in population. The Factors that gave Rise to Centralised States and Non-Centralised States Appraise the factors that gave rise to centralized states and non-centralized states REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE EGYPTIAN STATE

1. The development of agriculture and pastoralism 2. Specialization of labour 3. The rise of Nemes who united the upper and the lower Egypt 4. Development of local industries 5. Taxation 6. Strong Army 7. Development of productive forces

Therefore any one with the following rose to power:

1. Anyone who could control disasters by rituals and charms 2. Anyone who had experience and stored knowledge of floods 3. Anyone who had knowledge of predicting floods

CLASSES IN THE EGYPTIAN STATE 1. The ruling class- Consisted of the Pharaoh who was at the top followed by the nobility, priests, court officials and other officials- Followed by administrators of the people called the Vizier. 2. The working class 3. The peasants and slaves

ETHIOPIA Ethiopia started as a small kingdom known as Axum, was founded near the red sea coast by a dynasty of Sabean from the other side of the Red Sea. The Ethiopia arose around 1000 BC FACTORS FOR THE GROWTH OF THE ETHIOPIAN STATE

1. Strong leadership 2. Agriculture 3. Unity among the people 4. Growth of local industries 5. Strong army 6. Taxation 7. Christianity

CLASSES IN ETHIOPIA

1. Feudal Lords 2. Peasants (tenants and serfs) 3. Slaves.

Feudalism was consolidated by the introduction of Christianity during the 4th AD and King Ezana was the first to be converted. King Zangwe built 30 churches. A descendant of King Solomon and Queen Sheba. Expansion done by 3 emperors (leaders):

1. Zangwe Dynasty – 12th C – 13th C 2. King Theodire – 19th C – 1855 – 1868 3. Menelik II – 19th C – 1889 – 1913 Menelik II made Addis Ababa his Capital

THE KINGDOM OF NUBIA Nubia lay in the area that cut across the borders of modern Sudan, Egypt, and Ethiopia. The Nubian State arose around 200 BC. It was called Kush and its capital was Napata. In 3rd C the capital shifted to Meroe. FACTORS FOR THE RISE/GROWTH OF THE NUBIAN STATE

1. Agricultural activities 2. Trade 3. Availability of valuable goods e.g. Gold and Ivory 4. Development of local industries

DECLINE OF NUBIA 1. Feudal lords were against the peasants 2. Attacks by Muslims 3. Disunity

WESTERN SUDANIC STATES The early State in western Sudan was established in the region between the Sahara desert and the forest region of the South. The most important states are Ghana, Mali, Songhai and Kanem Bornu GENERAL FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF WESTERN SUDANIC STATES

1. Geographical location 2. Iron technology 3. The growth of population 4. Development of local industries 5. Taxation 6. Trans - Saharan trade 7. Availability of valuable goods e.g. gold 8. Good centralised government 9. Capable leaders 10. Strong army

GHANA EMPIRE During its rise Ghana had two main towns, one occupied by Muslims and the other by Pagans. The rulers and the people were Soninke speaking group. The word Ghana as the King title emerged in 5th AD. The capital center of administration was Koumbi Saleh. FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE GHANIAN EMPIRE

1. Agricultural activities 2. Availability of valuable goods e. g gold 3. Trans – Saharan trade in gold and salt 4. Good leadership and efficient system of government. 5. Common language.

FACTORS FOR THE DECLINE OF GHANA EMPIRE

1. Almoravids constant attacks 2. Disunity among people 3. Jihad wars 4. Lack of stable system of royal successions 5. The rise of rural kingdoms e.g. Mali

MALI EMPIRE Early in the 3rd C Ghana fell apart as a result of the war between Samangwa the king of Ghana and Prince Sundiata Keita the king of Kagaba. Ghana was defeated and Ghana fell under Sundiata’s rulership. Sundiata formed a large kingdom known as Mali the capital was Niani and the title of the ruler was Mansa. FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE MALI

1. The fall of Ghanaian empire 2. Control of gold fields of Bure 3. Strong army 4. Agricultural activities 5. Trans – Saharan trade 6. Strong leadership of Sundiata Keita and later Mauna Kan Kan Musa 7. Islamic faith which promoted libraries and Islamic universities.

DECLINE OF THE MALI EMPIRE

1. Weak leadership after the death of Mansa Mahmud IV 2. Empire became too large to control 3. Lack of unity and the empire was divided into three spheres of influence and they foughtagainst each other. 4. Attacks by Tuaregs 5. Civil wars 6. The rise of Songhai empire

SONGHAI EMPIRE In the late 15th Century the Songhai empire originally the Gao, conquered neighbouring states under the leadership of Sunni Ali and formed the large empire of Songhai. Gao became its capital at around the 11th C and remained the capital under the empire. Its famous leaders were Sunni Alli, Askia Mohamed and Askia Daud. FACTORS FOR THE GROWTH OF SONGHAI EMPIRE

1. Agriculture activities 2. Strong army 3. Trans – Sahara trade 4. Good administration 5. Taxation 6. Islamic faith

DECLINE OF THE SONGHAI EMPIRE

1. Weak leadership after the death of Askia Daud 2. The Moroccan invasion 3. The empire was too large to control 4. Religious hostility between Islamic and traditional beliefs 5. The shift in orientation of trade towards the Atlantic

FOREST STATES THE BENIN EMPIRE Benin empire was a very small state made up of the Edo speaking people. The highest authority at the time were chiefs known as Ogiso which meant the ‘Kings of the Sky’ and the administrative centre was Ubinu. Between 1388 – 1431 there was a series of civil wars which divided the Edo. After the death of the last Ogiso, his son Prince Ekaladerhan left for exile and established himself in Ile-Ife, so when the Edo people requested his return, he sent his son, Prince Oranmiyan who took up the throne. EXPANSION INTO CITY-STATE EMPIRE By 15th C the empire expanded into a city-state under the leadership of Oba Ewuare the Great REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE BENIN EMPIRE

1. Some of capable rulers the greatest of whom was Ewuare 2. Good centralized system of Government 3. Trade 4. Unity 5. Development of Handicraft Industry

DECLINE OF THE BENIN EMPIRE

 Introduction of slave trade  Trans- Atlantic trade  Firearms introduced through European trade caused tribal wars that led to the finaldecline of the Benin Empire.

THE EMPIRE OF OYO Oyo empire began in the late 14th C or early 15th C likely 1388 – 1431. The people of Oyo were Oranmiyan, their capital was Oyo-Ile and the King of Oyo was called Alaafin. The Bashoran was the leader of the army. REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE OYO EMPIRE

1. It had organised political system headed by a number of great Alafins 2. Strong organised army 3. Agricultural activities 4. Development of local industries 5. Slave trade 6. Dahomey tributary

DECLINE OF THE OYO EMPIRE

1. Conflict between Alafin and Basharon 2. Conquest from the Fulani and Dahomey 3. Civil wars and disunity

DAHOMEY EMPIRE Dahomey rose after the decline of Oyo in the 19thC. it was founded by the Fon people. It had good leaders such as King Agaja and Houegbadja who built the Royal Palaces of Abomey. THE RISE OF THE DAHOMEY EMPIRE IN THE 18th C

1. Growth of centralised and powerful monarchy 2. Boyul succession system was effective 3. Strong army 4. Good leadership of King Gezo and later Aguja 5. Control of slave trade

DECLINE OF DAHOMEY Dahomey declined after the arrival of the French. ASANTE EMPIRE Asante or Ashanti empire was found as a result of emergence of several cities in the region of Kumasi. The people of Asante were Akan ruled by the Oyuko clan. The King was Obiri Yeboa who was Osei Tutu. The capital city of Asante or Ashanti was Kumasi. The symbol of Asante union was a Golden stool. The ruler of Asante was known as Asantehene. FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF ASANTE

1. Agricultural activities 2. Development of local industries 3. Some of its capable rulers e.g. Osei Tutu 4. Well organised political system 5. Trade

DECLINE - The state declined after the arrival of Europeans. The Organisation of Centralised and Non-Centralised States Explain the organization of centralized and non-centralized states CENTRALISED STATES OF CENTRAL AFRICA Example: Onya empire, it was founded in the 14th C. The head of the kingdom took the title of Munikongo or Mwekongo means lord of Kongo. The capital was Mbaza which the Portuguese later baptised Sutrador. FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF KONGO EMPIRE

1. Technological development e.g. Iron technology 2. Trade 3. Taxation 4. Development of local industries 5. Emergence of traditional leaders with a strong belief in spiritual and magic power

DECLINE OF THE CONGO EMPIRE

 The arrival of the Portuguese  Slave trade  Weak leadership after Manikongo Mingo Mkuwa who acquired up an Embassy inPortugal. His son Mzingo Mbemba was baptized as Dan Alfonce. He was a puppet of thePortuguese and caused civil war in Kongo.

MWENEMUTAPA KINGDOM This Kingdom was created under the leadership of Mutola. Mutola conquered Tongu and Torura of the Zambezi valley. He acquired the title of Mwenemutapa which means ‘Master of conquered lands’. He was a political, military and religious leader. Mutola died in 1450 and his son Matope inherited, after Matope’s death in 1480 Changamire took over in 1490. REASONS FOR THE RISE OF MWENEMUTAPA

1. Agriculture activities 2. Good leadership of Mutola 3. Availability of valuable goods e.g. copper, iron and gold 4. They controlled trade routes 5. Trading centres

REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF MWENEMUTAPA

1. The arrival of Portuguese who monopolized the gold trade 2. The kingdom became divided into two parts Mutapa and Ruzwi 3. Rebellion from local people

After the death of Matope, his son Nyahuma took over. He was younger than the other chief who wanted power so that chief rebelled and caused civil war. THE LUBA STATE This state is found between the tributaries of river Kongo. The Songiye people migrated from Katanga led by a leader from the Kangolo clan. The united Kaniok and from Luba kingdom, Ilungambila married into the Kangolo clan. This intermarriage gave rise to the Luba lineage of Kalala Ilunga, the founder of Munza as capital of Luba. REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE LUBA STATE

1. Centralised system of administration where the kingdom had final say in wars and external trade 2. The development of trade 3. Agricultural activities 4. The presence of iron technology

THE LUNDA STATE The center of the empire lay in the Valley of Nkala River. The Luba kings took the title of Mwanta. It began as a simple village and their first ruler was called Mwantagaand. Ilunga Tshibinda who came from Luba married a princess from the area and their son became the first paramount ruler of the Lunda State. FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF LUNDA STATE

1. Iron technology 2. Development of local industries 3. Agriculture activities 4. Good leadership 5. Trade.

The empire declined after the arrival of Europeans

History Form 1 Topics  Sources And Importance Of History  Evolution Of Man, Technology And Environment  Development Of Economic Activities And Their Impact  Development Of Social And Political Systems

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Interactions Among the People Of Africa Social and Economic Factors for Interactions Interaction can be defined as the way in which people from a given community came into contact with another community. As humans cannot fully live alone due to the progressing day to day needs; interaction is inevitable among people because through interaction we was able to access different requirements. However, aspects of socio-economic development further strengthened the need for interaction. The Social Factors which gave Rise to Interactions among the People of Africa Explain the social factors which gave rise to interactions among the people of Africa Political and social factors

 War: Some interactions were brutal and hostile as some strong communities attacked the weaker ones in order to control them. Some societies succeeded in their struggle while others failed. For example, from 1820s Egypt was in constant attacks to control the North-east and East Africa.  Migration: As communities grew in number this lead to a scarcity of resources, which forced others to migrate in search of resources that were and meeting other people with whom they created new social relations for example the Bantu migration and the Ngoni migration.  Intermarriage: This occurs when two people of different groups married and can be seen in the broader context of mixing of different groups in marriage, cohabitation or sexual relations. Therefore, this made African people interact and begin new communities.  Religion:Africans had their traditional African religions which acted as a symbol of unity and togetherness. Their religions brought them together.  Music and games:African societies had a rich history of music and games, as people from different communities interacted on different occasions sharing their experiences; this was mainly for entertainment and recreational purposes.

The Economic Factors that gave Rise to the Interactions among the People of Africa Explain the economic factors that gave Rise to the interactions among the people of Africa Economic factors

 Trade: Different societies had to move in search of commodities which led to interaction. For example, people of Zambia, Mozambique and Rwanda had trade links with people of East Africa and in North Africa people interacted with West Africans through Trans- Saharan trade.  Search for new land: Areas that were not conducive for human settlement and production activities were left behind and those that with conducive conditions like fertile soil and good climate did attract many people. For example agricultural community did shift from areas that were infertile to those areas with reliable rainfall and fertile soil.

The Impact of the Economic Interactions Explain the impact of the economic interactions The economic impacts of the interaction can be grouped into two as positive and negative impacts as elaborated below: Positive economic impacts

 Development of technical skills and new ideas: Interaction led people of Africa from different communities to share their skills and ideas for economic growth.  Growth of new towns and cities:Interaction among African people led to the development of new towns as most of the populated areas grew economically due to the population increase and production activities such as trade and agricultural activities.  Foundation for future economic development:The foundation was made through improvement of infrastructures and social services which aimed to meet the socio- economic demands of the growing population.  Intensification of agricultural production to meet the demand on the market: Following the market demands for agricultural products as they were highly demanded then intensification of agricultural production was inevitable.

Negative economic impacts

 Overexploitation of African resources: Interaction among African people resulted in overexploitation of African resources through trade which was unequal in nature.  Emergence of classes among the Africans: Classes emerged dividing poor Africans from rich Africans who accumulated wealth from different economic, social and political activities.  Exposure of Africa to the outside world:African country and its resources came to be exposed to the outside world due to interaction.Decrease of productive manpower due to slave trade; through interaction the outsiders started to take slaves from Africa to their mother countries as labor power.

Impacts of social interaction

 Population increase: Areas that attracted large numbers of people became highly populated, especially productive areas. The increased population resulted into socio- economic development in the given areas which facilitated immigration.  Emergence of new languages: Asdifferent people interacted new languages emerged. For example, the Swahili language emerged due to interaction between Arabs, Africans and Europeans.

The Coming of the Ngoni Who were the Ngoni? The Ngoni were Bantu-Nguni speaking people of Northern Zululand in South East Africa. They were originally Ndwandwe people under Zwide’s leadership. But when Shaka defeated Zwide, one part of his group in 1840s moved to East Africa into two groups of the Maseko and Tuta under Zwangendaba. They moved to Tanzania from Natal and Swaziland between 1840s due to “Mfecane” (time of trouble). They are currently settled in south west Tanzania around Songea town. The Ngoni invasions illustrate the influence of external forces on the lives of the indigenous people. However, the Ngoni brought innovation and changes such as military techniques, skill and weapons. A study of the Ngoni will enable students to appreciate the current settlement patterns and way of the life of the southern Tanzania. The Causes of the Ngoni Migration Explain the causes of the Ngoni migration Reasons for the Ngoni migration

 The Ngoni migrated due to the tyrannical and dictatorial rule of Shaka: The Zulu ruler was cruel in nature as he severely tortured people and those who failed to respond to his order were killed. Due to this some people decided to seek refuge by migrating to other areas.  External pressure from the British and Boers: They moved because of external pressure from the British and Boers in the South who were moving Northwards occupying their land.  It was due to overpopulation: Thiswas caused by the fertility of soils and the reliability of rainfall between Drakensberg Mountains and the Indian Ocean.  Pastoralism reason: Some Ngoni people owned large herds of cattle and northwards looking for pasture and water for their animals. So they wanted to look for more fertile land for their cattle. They also experienced famine and drought that led to lack of food and water.  The influence of their leaders: Men like Zwangendaba, Maputo and Zulugama provided good leadership. This encouraged them to move onwards.  Overstocking: It could also have been due to overstocking of their animals as they were having spirit of cattle rustling, i.e. they had great desire to steal other people’s cattle. For example they went on driving away and confiscating other people’s cattle during their conquest and expansionist wars.  Increased knowledge of military tactics by the age regiments:These were powerful military forces and dedicated to professional war, which was their livelihood. They believed that they could have other territories through migration.

Movement and settlement of the Ngoni to East Africa They began their movement from South-East Africa in Northern Zulu land under the leadership of Zwangendaba in 1820. The Ngoni migration took place in the 19th century, and was the last major movement of Bantu people into East Africa There were three groups of the Ngoni in East Africa as:-

 The Ngoni Tuta  The Ngoni Ngwangara  The Ngoni Maseko

They then crossed river Zambezi and river Limpompo and moved northwards in search of new land. Later in 1835 they divided into two groups. The one group under the leadership of Zwangendaba passed west of Lake Malawi and settled at Ufipa in 1840. They were attracted to this area here because of the many herds of cattle around. Zwangendaba led the biggest Ngoni group that entered in East Africa. They crossed the Zambezi River, moved through Malawi and Zambia until they reached the fipa plateau in around 1840’s. Zwangendaba died here in around 1845, and his followers splint up into five sections. Three sections returned south to Zambia and Malawi while the other two such as Tuta and Gwangara sections remained at ufipa. Another group under the leadership of Induna Maputo (Maseko Ngoni) passed East of Lake Malawi and settled at Songea. When Zwangendaba died around 1845, the Ufipa Ngoni disagreed and split into five groups. Whereby the two groups remained in East Africa such as Tuta and Gwangara Ngoni, three groups moved out of East Africa that is to say, one group moved to Malawi and the two moved back to Zambia. The Tuta Ngoni, the smallest group left in Ufipa, moved northwards fighting and crashing with the Holoholo near Lake Tanganyika, they disrupted the trade route between Tabora and Ujiji. In the1850s they invaded the Nyamwezi capturing many and incorporating them in their ranks. They finally settled at Kahama South of Lke Victoria. The Gwangara Ngoni under the leadership of Zulugama moved eastwards to Songea where they met the Maseko Ngoni. The two groups fought and the Maseko Ngoni were defeated and pushed out of Songea in 1860’s. Some Maseko moved back to Mozambique while others moved to Kilombero valley where they became known as the Mbunga. Another splinter group moved to Newala, Masasi and Tunduru. From Songea the Ngoni raided widely, finally settling southern Tanzania among the Bena, Hehe and Sangu. The Ngoni migration which started around 1820s had ended by the year 1860s.

Why were the Ngoni successful in defeating/conquering the people of East Africa The Ngoni came in big numbers and were strong:On their way they absorbed or fought off the people they encountered, capturing the young for worries and young women for wives.They had good military organization with age-regiments calledimpis” (strong army). The Ngoni had a large, well trained and disciplined army; they were grouped in age-regiments which were maintained for long periods.The Ngoni did not cultivate but rather lived by plundering from others this enabled them to have a standing army always ready for battle. They had superior weapons such as the short stabbing spear (Assegai) and big cowhide shields, which only left soldiers face exposed to the enemy, protected the worriers. Instead of the long throwing spears which had to be thrown one by one, the Ngoni adopted short stabbing spears and clubs known as Assegai, copied from Shaka the Zulu. On the other hand their enemy used the long throwing spear. They used this for close hand to hand combat, and the warriors could be protected by the large cow-hides shields which left only the warrior’s face exposed to the enemies. They had superior military tactics such as cow horn method (semi-circle), which was unfamiliar in East Africa. They fought in organised age regiments and could attack their enemies using the cow horn formation. They also chose clear open spaces for fighting and liked attacking their enemies during nights. They met small and fragmented societies, which were unable to challenge their military organisation. Slave trade had undermined most of the communities of southern Tanzania.The Ngoni were successful due to their determination. They were determined to conquer and obtained places for settlement. This was due to the fact that they were already chased away from their homeland, and their only alternative was to get determined and fight any people they came across. The East African people were caught unaware and therefore did not offer much resistance. The Ngoni were successful because the local people whom they were fighting with were so weak ad lived in small groups, which could not resist/challenge the sudden and unexpected Ngoni invasion. Disunity among the East African peoplewholived in isolated societies, made it easy for Ngoni to defeat them. The Ngoni were fully united under their commanders. They were successful because of their unity and solidarity. They mixed freely with the non-Ngoni speaking people.They had strong military leaders for example, Zwangendaba, Induna and Maputo who were able to unite and command the Ngoni. They used assimilation policy, i.e. they absorbed the people they defeated. They would force the captured men from other tribes to join them and became Ngoni warriors.They also made themselves fearful to their enemies by wearing the skeletons of their victims.

The Ngoni military organisation The Ngoni were small group of people but were able to make their presence and authority fell by the local people because of their leadership, outstanding military efficiency and their capacity to absorb conquered people into their armies. Militarily the Ngoni were organised in large standing armies and age regiments; people of the same age trained together, which brought unity and efficiency.They used the short stabbing spears called assegai rather than the long throwing spears which meant that the warriors could attack more effectively at a close range They used large cow hide shields, which could not be easily penetrated by spears. They used the cow horn method of surrounding an enemy and attacking from all sides giving the enemy little chance to escape. They often fought on their feet and in open areas for easy movement. They moved in a large numbers which helped them to outnumber their enemies who were often caught unaware, they used to absorb and assimilate all conquered people. The Social, Political and Economic Effects of the Ngoni Migration Explain the social, political and economic effects of the Ngoni migration

Effects of Ngoni invasion or migration in East Africa Positive effects

 The Ngoni invasion led to the rise on outstanding leaders to prominence. These included Mirambo, Nyungu ya Mawe and Mkwawa, who used the Ngoni military tactics to build their states.  Many small Ntemi chiefdoms came together (united) and formed large political units under strong leaders to fight the Ngoni for example Sangu and Hehe (re-organisation).  There was formation of new societies/tribe like the Mbunga.  The Hehe under Mkwawa were able to resist the Germans.  There was spread of Ngoni customs and culture for example initiation ceremonies where girls were taught sex educations and circumcision.  It led to formation of a large Ngoni society in East Africa as they absorbed many people.  It led to the ormation of some societies by those who used Ngoni tactics for example Nyamwezi under Mirambo.  It led to the introduction of new weapons eg. assegai, cowhides and shields.  From the Ngoni invasion people learned how to become organised from smaller disorganised society, to well organised bigger political systems. These were to be under the control and leadership of organised, strong and efficient rulers such as the Sangu chief, Hehe etc.  There were intermarriages between Ngoni and Nyamwezi which subsequently led to improved relationships between the invaders and indigenous people and an increased population.

Negative effects

 They caused the loss of lives leading to depopulation in some areas where they got warriors this was especially in southern Tanzania. This was due to the killing of people in the expansionist wars e.g. the Mariti remnants of Rugarugas killed so many people.  They introduced military organisation and tactics to such an extent that the Ngoni lost their superiority. e.g Holoholo were able to defeat the Tuta Ngoni when they re attacked them.  Their movement led to wider spread of devastation, depopulation and displacement of people.  They destroyed the economy of the people of southern Tanzania when they grabbed their cattle (the Ngoni were cattle plunderers). The Ngoni invasion led to poverty, i.e. it led to the creation of the class of poor people as their property continued to be destroyed and persistently looted during the wars.  The Ngoni led to formation of refugees who lived by plundering and killing i.e. the Mariti and Rugaruga who were later used by ambitious men like Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe to form their empires.  The Tuta Ngoni on their movement northwards, disrupted the trade particularly between Tabora and Ujiji.  There was loss of peoples’ language, culture and customs (detribalisation of people), i.e. the raids caused many people to become homeless and tribe less. This led to people losing their identity. In addition, such groups became terrorists who lived by war, plunder and hunting for ivory. They included the “Rugaruga” who began hiring their services as mercenaries to any chief willing to pay them.  Ngoni disturbances disrupted normal cultivation leading to famine. There was widespread famine due to the scotched-earth policy of fighting circumstances, crop could neither be planted nor harvested, and people were forced to abandon farming.  They led to insecurity since the new weapons and military tactics increased warfare and aggression in East Africa.  The Ngoni intensified slave trade in East Africa, this was because they displaced people from their homes and so making it easy for slave raiders to catch and sell them.  It led to increased warfare among the African societies, including those areas that had been peaceful before.  Social-Economic Development And Production In Pre-Colonial Africa  Social Organisation and Production  Economic production in the pre colonial Africa can only be analysed when we look into modes of production in the pre colonial African society. This consists of the productive forces and relations of production. Examples of modes of production existed in the pre colonial African societies were communal mode of production, feudal modal of production and slave mode of production.  The Meaning of Social Organisation and Production  Explain the meaning of social organization and production  Social organisation  Can be defined as the mode of production existing in a given place at a given period of time. Modes of production involve productive forces that are human labour, instrument of labour, economic activities and objects of labour and production. Types of Social Organisations and Production; Communalism Mode of production Refers to the varied ways that human being collectively produce the means of subsistence in order to survive and enhance social being. Therefore in this topic we shall fully analyze characteristics of various mode of production in the pre colonial African societies. The followings are the modes of production existed in the pre colonial African societies. The Meaning and Origins of Communalism in Africa Explain the meaning and origins of communalism in Africa Communal mode of production This was the first mode of production to exist in pre colonial African societies and is divided into two namely:

1. Primitive communalismThe first mode of production through which all societies passed was primitive communalism. It is called "primitive‟ because of the low level of productive forces and "communalism‟ because there was no exploitation of man by man. This mode of production existed for much longer period than any other mode as it ranged from theemergence of man more than one million years ago. 2. Advanced communalismDuring that era man advanced in his tools through various discoveries like iron tools. It is because of this technological advancement that is why it came to be known as advancement communalism.

Characteristics of primitive communalism Low level of production:With crude tools like stone and little knowledge, man hardly mastered his surroundings. He managed to get basic needs such as food, clothes and shelter. Due to low level of development in science and technology people produced food for their day to day use; hence there was no surplus of production. Collective ownership: Members of the community jointly owned the major means of production including land, tools and animals. The clan leader headed the members of the clan. However, communal societies were not stratified as a result all commodities produced were shared equally for there was no exploitation. Absence of specialisation:People were obliged to do all the jobs including making tools, hunting, looking for foods, preparing shelters and clothes. The division of labour was based on gender and age, men hunted and collected food while women were responsible for cooking, taking care of the young, sick and old people. Full democracy: All decision making was arrived at by all adult members of the group regardless of their gender. Generally, people lived together according to blood relations in small groups by tracing their origin from the same ancestor. Each group was separated from the other by large tracts of land. Transition from primitive communalism to advanced communalism During primitive communalism all the time man largely depended on nature so as to increase his labour productivity. Domestication of animal and plants or emergence of Neolithic revolution in the late age of the Stone Age; this was the greatest revolution made so far for the first time by man. Development of permanent settlement: Even with nomadic pastoralist or shifting cultivation the area of operation became limited as the number of people increased due to the Neolithic revolution. Hence the production increased with the population following this permanent settlement was inevitable. Advanced production of tools like hand hoes, panga, axe and other iron tools resulted from the Neolithic revolution Land continued to belong to the community but agriculture became the major economic activity. Transition from advanced communalism to feudalism mode of production African societies were not static, but they underwent transformations, which were influenced by the environment, climate and soil fertility, the growth of population and the increase of productive forces all which paved the way for a new mode of production. Such factors caused societies' transitions from communalism to feudalism, by the 19th century some societies were practicing feudalism. However, groups such as the Tindiga of Tanzania, Khoisan of Kalahari maintained their communal mode of production. Some societies lived in areas with good climate and fertile soils. Such societies included the Mandika and the Yoruba in the forest of savannah regions, Bunyoro, Buganda, Ankore, Toro, Tutsi, Haya, Hutu and Waha of East Africa as well as the Zulu and the Nguni in South Africa. Reliable rainfall and fertile soils allowed the expansion of agriculture and the cultivation of permanent crops e.g. bananas in Buganda. The cultivation of permanent crops led to the growth of permanent settlements which ensured surplus production. The advancement of science and technology led to the discovery of iron. From iron people made strong and sharper tools than stone tools which increased the rate of production. The growth in population led to an increase in food production and the standard of living. Population increase resulted in shortage of land and caused overcrowding this also led to the rise of highly centralised states that developed standing armies which later carried out constant raids. Shortage of land and its increase in value contribution to the development of productive forces since they were conditioned to produce everything in small areas. Such factors threatened the communal mode of production and led to feudalism, since land was privately owned by people. This created classes of land owners and those who were landless within the community. Organisation of labour was then dictated by land controllers at the expense of the landless who worked for the land owners in order to be paid. Also, the distribution of products was not equal; as land controllers took the highest shares for themselves. Furthermore societies underwent a transformation from communalism to feudalism systems due to the fact that some societies become strong and conquered weaker societies. The Meaning and Origins of Slavery in Africa Explain the meaning and origins of slavery in Africa Slavery mode of production Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work and to demand compensation Historically, slavery was institutionally recognised by many societies but in more recent times slavery has been outlawed in most societies continues through the practices of debt bondage, indentured servitude, serfdom, domestic servant kept in captivity, adopted children are sometimes forced to work as slaves as well as child soldiers and forced marriage. Slavery is a condition in which one human being is owned by another. A slave was considered by law as property, or chattel, and was deprived of most rights ordinarily enjoyed by free persons. There is no consensus on what the slave was or on how the institution of slavery should be defined. Nevertheless, there is general agreement among historians, anthropologist, economists, sociologist and others who study slavery that most of the following characteristics should be present in order to term a person a slave. The slave was a species of property; thus he belonged to someone else. The Characteristicsof Slavery as well as the Use of Slaves Explain the features of slavery as well as the use of slaves Characteristics of slavery mode of production

 Existence of two classes example; slave masters and slaves  Low productive forces  Existence of political institution  Surplus production  Exploitation  Private ownership of major means of production

Feudalism The Meaning and Origins of Feudalism in Africa Explain the meaning and origins of feudalism in Africa Feudalism Was the third mode of production but the second in exploitation of land. Feudalism is derived from the Latin word feudum which means a piece of land; it's so because this mode of production was largely based on land as a major means of production. According to Marxist feudalism came from the womb of the slavery mode of production because it bases on exploitation of the lower class. Features of feudalism Feudal rent:The feudal lords exploited the peasants through the payment of rent. This was paid in kind and in labour. Private ownership of productive forces: Thisincluded land, tools, cattle and women who were privately owned by feudal lords Agriculture became the major economic activity: Following the discovery of iron technology productive forces were improved drastically. A Prognostic social class:This was based on exploitation of one class i.e. feudal lords of tenants or peasants. Direct subordination of the lower social class to the upper class of feudal lords. Division of labour and specialisation: Basedon gender and age Inheritance:Created as a means to determine one's position in society according to birth, it determined who became a leader and who a subject. Improved productive forces:Especially tools applied in agriculture and military warfare, this was brought about by iron technology. Generally, African kingdoms such as Buganda and some forest states of West Africa, used means of production centered around either land or livestock-especially cattle-peasants could use the land freely but they were required to pay rent. How Production was Organised under Feudalism Explain how production was organized under feudalism Under the feudal economic system, production was organised within the kingdom; people organised their activities on the basis of extended families. Each household head was responsible for the organisation of labour in his family based on social and material requirements. Labour was organised on the basis of age, gender and specialization. The Merits and Demerits of the System of Power Sharing under Feudalism Assess the merits and demerits of the system of power sharing under feudalism Merits of feudalism

 The rich supported the poor with food during drought and famine.  There was peace in the state as the rich classes maintained law and order  The societies were highly stratified, with each class of people knowing their positionknowing their position and role  Everyone had a means of earning the living because the landowners gave all poor peoplein the society a piece f land to cultivate.  The weak people in the society were protected by the king or the rich landowners forexample among the Rwandese, the Tutsi had an obligation to protect their tenants theHutu.

Demerits of feudalism

 The rich exploited labour force of the poor  Only a few people in society owned land  There was inequality in society between the rich and the poor  The peasants were forced to undertake military duties and endanger their lives for their land lords  It encouraged inter-community warfare as landlords fought in order to increase their land and vassals

Basic assignment

1. Explain the term social organisation and production 2. Identify the types of social organizations and production that existed in Africa up to the19th century 3. What is communalism mode of production? 4. Identify the characteristics of communalism 5. Show examples of the societies that had communalism up to the 19th century 6. What is slavery and slave mode of production? 7. Explain the features of slavery in Africa 8. Show areas where slavery was practiced in Africa 9. What is feudalism as mode of production? 10. Explain the characteristics of feudalism 11. Show societies in east Africa that had feudalism up to the 19th century 12. Explain the feudal relation (forms of feudalism) that existed in the following areas.i) Interlacustrine region of Lake Victoriaii) Indian Ocean coast of East Africa.

African And The External World Early Contacts with the Middle East and Far East Contacts with the Middle East and Far East began as early as 200BC. Early foreigners to visit the African coast were people from Asia including countries like Syria, Arabia, India, Burma, Thailand, China, Spice Islands and Egypt from North Africa. Availability of goods such as ivory, gold, animal skins and slaves was one of the motives which attracted the traders to visit the East African Coast. Historically, contacts between East Africa and Middle and Far East go as far back as 200 BC. Evidence is shown through archeological excavations. These have revealed remains of pottery, porcelain, cons, beads and tombs along the East Africa Coast which are believed to originate from Middle and Far East. Another piece of evidence from the book “Periplus of the Ertythrean Sea” or a Guide Book to the Indian Ocean, written in the 1st CAD by early Greek Trades, contain details about life at the East African Coast. Regular trading contacts began around 8th CAD. Most of the traders came from China, Indonesia, (East Indies) and India. Later in the 10th C, traders also came from Arabia, Persia (Iran), Syria and Egypt. Their commercial activities covered the whole of the Eastern Coast of Africa between Mogadishu and Sofala.

The Social and Economic Motives of Contact between Africa, Middle East and Far East Explain the social and economic motives of the contacts between Africa, middle east and far east Motive of the contact

 Availability of goods such as ivory, gold, animal skins and slaves which had attracted the traders.  The discovery of the power of wind and its patterns i.e. the Monsoon which helped to drive their vessels across the Indian Ocean to East Africa (South West Monsoon, November, to April) and back to their home lands (North East Monsoon, May to October).  Development of marine vessels technology.They could contract large dhows which enabled them to carry huge quality of goods.  Acceptance by the local people along the coast.They expected to benefit in the trading relationship.  Constant warfare in the Middle East especially Persia made Arabs flee to East Africa their survival depended on trade.

The Major Commodities which were Exchanged during the Contact between Africa, Middle East and Far East Identify the major commodities which were exchanged during the contacts between Africa, middle east and far east Commodities (export) from Eastern Africa

GOLD form Mwanamutapa Empire was brought to the coast at Sofala. The gold traders (foreigners) had to pay tax to the rulers of Kilwa.

 Ivory - Was brought to the coast at may points  Slaves - Were brought to the coast at many points  opper - Was brought to the coast from Katanga  Cum Copal - Was found on the coastal area opposite  Other Goods - Rhinoceros horns, tortoise shells, beeswax

Imports to East Africa

 From India-Cotton clothes, beads and iron implements  From Maldives Islands-Cowries shells which were used as money and also as ornaments  From China -Silk clothes, porcelain  From Arab and Persia -Swords, daggers (weapons), glassware and Persian rugs.  From East Indies (Malaysia or Spice Islands) - Spices  From Burma and Thailand - Stone ware i.e. pots and jars

Means of transport The foreigners travelled in dhows which were driven with the help of Monsoon winds. The North East Monsoons (Winter Monsoons) blew between the months of November and April and brought the traders to Eastern Africa, South East Monsoons (Sumer Monsoons) which blew between the month of May and October took them back to their homes. The Social and Economic Effects of the Contacts between the People of Africa, The Middle and Far East Explain the social and economic effects of the contacts between the people of Africa the middle and far east The rise of Coastal City states By the 13th C, trade along the Coast of East Africa was strengthened and gave rise to city states. Many Arabs settled in the area for commercial purposes. The settlements grew into towns/cities: Kilwa, Mombasa, Zanzibar, Pemba, Malindi, Mogadishu, Lamu, Sofala, Pate and Kismayu. Intermarriage The Arabs, mainly intermarried with Africans within their Coastal settlements.The outcome of this racial mingling was the emergence of the Swahili people The Growth/Emergence of the Kiswahili Language This resulted from the mixture of Bantu and Arabic words Introduction of New Arts and Crafts Buildings along the Coast eg. Houses, palaces, mosques were built in Arabic and Persian styles (using stones) Introduction of Islam The Arab traders brought their religion with them.Therefore several coastal Africans were converted to the Islam faith.The Africans copied Arabic styles of dressing – men dressed in kanzu and women in baibui. The Coastal Towns (Cosatal City States) 1000 AD-1500 AD The coming of the Asian traders to East Africa especially Arabs led to the development of Coastal towns such as Mogadishu, Merka, Brava, Kismayu, Lamu, Pate, Malindi, Mombasa, Zanzibar, Pemba, Mafia, Kilwa and Sofala. Political control There was never a single united empire on the coast, no ‘Zenji Empire’ as sometimes believed.Each town retained its own rulers though many were dominated at different times by the most powerful settlements. Many had ruling families descending from Persia or Arabian rulers. The Leading Coastal Towns Mogadishu

 It was the first to gain wealth and importance due to its position in the North, This enabled it to control the sea route to the South and to dominate the trade from the rest of East Africa.  It is said to have been founded in the 11th Century by a group of people from Persian Gulf.  It became an important Islamic centre.  It gradually declined as towns such as Kilwa and Mombasa gained importance.

Kilwa

 For many centuries it became important because it controlled most of the trade along the coast.  Its greatness reached the highest peak in the 13th Century when it gained control over gold trade from Sofala. it built huge beautiful stone buildings eg. The Husuni Kubwa Palace and Friday Mosque.  It also became an important Islamic Centre. Kilwa was the first coastal state to mint its own coins. It declined at about 1490 A.D.

Zanzibar

 It is believed to be the first coastal stop in East African coast to be settled by foreigners.  It was free from Kilwa and had Arab rulers who were able to establish strong control over the people.  Having powerful rulers, it became an important trading centre and in the 15th Century it began to mint its own coins.

Mombasa

 Mombasa was an export centre for Ivory and slaves before 15th Century.  Its importance and wealth was a result of its trade with India  The rulers were Swahili and the African element in its culture was strong.

Malindi

 It was an important market centre for exporting iron which came from mainland Kenya.  It accepted Islam religion and the rule of Sultans. The people copied new ways of Government administration from Arabs.

THE DECLINE OF THE COASTAL CITY STATES Trade between East Africa, Middle and Far East was disturbed by Portuguese invasion along the coast in the 16th Century and 17th Century. The Portuguese attempted of capture and control the Indian Ocean trade and this led to wars.The Portuguese invasion on the East African coast caused four major changes in the pattern of trade:

 There was diversion of the major trade routes especially in connection to with copper and gold. These items were now shipped overseas from Sofala southwards and through the Atlantic Ocean.  Conflict developed between African gold miners and Portuguese traders. The Portuguese sought control of gold production and this was resisted by African miners and there was a decline in the output of gold.  Portuguese imposed trading licenses and permits on African and Arab traders. This led to further decline of trade between East Africa and Asia.  Coastal City states such as Kilwa began to decline because their prosperity depended on gold trade. This meant the African and Arab traders who acted as middlemen also lost business.

Contacts with Europe (The Portuguese, Dutch Settlement at the Cape) The Social and Economic Motives of Contact between Africa and Portugal Explain the social and economic motives of the contacts between Africa and the Portuguese The Portuguese The contact between Africans and Portuguese dates back as far as 15th Century:  The Portuguese led by Vasco da Gama reached the East coast in 1498.They were the first Western Europeans to enter the Coast from the South.  The Portuguese managed to reach this region in their attempt to explore a sea route to India around the continent of Africa.  Their search for a sea route was supported by Prince Henry the navigator, the son of King John of Portugal.

The Commodities which were Exchanged during the Contact Identify the commodities which were exchanged during the contacts Commodities which were exchanged during the contact

 The important commodities involved during the contact included, copper, gold, silver, spices and ivory from Africa and invaluable goods from Europe such as wines alcohol, mirrors, glassware etc.

The Social and Economic Impact of the Portuguese in Africa Explain the social and economic impact of the Portuguese to Africa Economic Motives

 Need to exploit valuable resources believed to exist in Africa such as gold, silver and ivory.  To create a Portuguese empire in the African coasts.  To secure the sources of gold that existed in Africa. Several regions of Africa such as Akan in West were the main sources of gold.  To find a sea route to India and Far East (famous for Spices) and this was in response the closure of the land routes to Asia by the Ottoman Turks in 1453.  Need to monopolise Indian Ocean trade which for a long period was dominated by Arabs, Chinese, Indonesians and Indians merchants. The trade was profitable.  Need to control strategic points: East Africa provided bases for military troops in the mission of the Portuguese of controlling the East.

Social Motives

 Religious: Portuguese wanted to spread Christianity in Africa and prevent further spread of Islam in Africa.  Personal initiative of the King of Portugal Prince Henry the Navigator who sponsored and encouraged the Pioneer Voyages.  Exploration: At the end of 13th Century Western Europe had experienced the period of learning new knowledge and discoveries.This made people start to explore unknown land and sailing unmapped areas.

The Reasons for the Fall of the Portuguese Rule in East Africa and its Impact Explain the reasons for the fall of the Portuguese rule in East Africa and its impact The reasons for the fall of the Portuguese rule in East Africa  Resistances: The mounting resistance from the coast by feudal lords and traders who wanted to protect their political and economic interests.  Attacks from the interior tribes such as the Zimba and the Segeju from the Zambezi Regions.  The rivalries from the Dutch and the English merchants who had interests in Eastern trade.This brought about competition.These rivalries reduced Portugal's power in the East African Coast.  Portuguese weakness: Portugal was a small country without enough qualified and competent personnel to administer overseas business.  Tropical disease: The Portuguese suffered from tropical diseases and harsh climatic conditions.This made the area become unfavorable for the Portuguese settlements.  The Portuguese rule over East Africa ended in 1698 when Portuguese witnessed the fall of Fort Jesus in Mombasa which was their headquarters and one of the strongest Portuguese garrisons.

Impact of the Portuguese in Africa Social Impact

 The introduction of new crops in Africa such as maize and cassava which became staple food for many people in Africa.  Introduction of Portuguese words in Kiswahili language, such as meza, leso, gereza, mvinyo etc.  Decline of Coastal City states example Mombasa, Kilwa, Gedi which were once very rich and prominent.  Insecurity and loss of properties, due to the frequent conquest resistances and wars.  Spread of Christianity into parts of Africa.

Economic Impact

 The decline of Indian Ocean trade because of diversion of major trade routes through the Atlantic Ocean.  The exposure of Africa to international trade. Africa became known to Europe and America due to explorations made by the Portuguese.  The decline of gold production in Mwenemutapa (Zimbabwe) after development of the conflict between Africa miners and the Portuguese.  Building of forts such as Fort Jesus in Mombasa attracts tourists in Kenya and generates income for the country.

Dutch Settlement at the Cape The Motives of the Dutch Settlement at the Cape Explain the motives of the Dutch settlement at the Cape Southern Africa became the site of the earliest European settlement in the modern African history in 1652, when employees of the Dutch East Indian Company established a supply base on the shore of Table Bay, the site of the modern city of Cape Town. Over the next 150 years, Dutch settlers on the land surrounding Table Bay and to the east along the coast, creating Cape colony. As the Dutch settlements expanded, they encountered both indigenous Stone Age Khoisan and Iron Age Bantu African peoples. The earliest encounters were with Khoisan who were decimated, enslaved or forced to flee. As subsequent generations of Europeans expanded further to the east, they encountered Bantu (mostly Xhosa) to became trading partners as well as armed opponents. The Dutch settlers, called Boers (from the Dutch word for farmer)created very large farms and found it necessary to import labour, so Cape colony imported slaves while much of the rest of Africa exported them. In their determination to reach the center of trade in India and the Far East, European merchants succeeded to around the southern tip of Africa in the 5th century. A Portuguese merchant explorer known as Vasco Da Gama was the first to around the southern Africa cape in 1498. The southern cape was called the Cape of Good Hope because it was important in European trade with Asia. Sailors from Europe to the Far East and from the Far East to Europe used the following as a convenient stopping place for:

 Refueling their ships  Getting fresh water

The climate at the cape was good and conducive for European settlement so the Whites started to establish their settlement there, the first White to make permanent settlement in the cape came from Holland in 1652. The coming of Whites in South Africa is related to the economic development in Europe in the 16th and 17th century. This was a period of merchant capital i.e. mercantilism in Europe, trading transaction within and outside Europe were important in the development of European economies. By 1652 the Dutch East Indian Company established the fort at Table Bay with the aim of supplying fresh produce to ship sailing to and from the East Indies. Gradually the settlers in the Cape Province started to spread further into the interior as they increased production of fresh fruits and other food stuff. Having settled in the Cape land the White settlers became involved in barter trade with the indigenous inhabitants who by then were Khoi and San. Settlers used metal, beads, tobacco spirit to obtain cattle from the Khoi. Besides the barter trade the White settlers also raided the Khoi herds, robbing bands of white stock farmer entered Khoi and Xhosa areas and shot people and returned to their settlements. They grabbed Khoi and Xhosaby force foragricultural land becausethey needed land to feed their animals after raiding them from Africans. Motives of the Dutch settlement at the Cape

 The need to control Indian Ocean trade which was dominated by the Portuguese  The need to establish farms  Favourable climatic conditions  Availability of raw materials for trade

The Impact of Dutch Settlements at the Cape Discuss the impact of Dutch settlement at the Cape The impact of the Dutch settlement at the Cape  Enslavement of Africans: The Dutch East India Company provided slaves from West Africa and West India to provide labour for their plantations and livestock. Boers had established large plantations where they kept animals and grew crops like potatoes, watermelon, pumpkins, pineapple and cucumbers.  Displacement of African people: Africans were forced to move from their normal productive areas to unproductive areas. Hence the Dutch displaced the native Africans from the fertile areas and took their livestock by force.  Social segregation: The Dutch thought themselves superior to Africans, they exploited and mistreated Africans as they were regarded as stupid,uncivilised and faithless thus, laying the foundation of racial segregation.  Expansion of Europeans settlement: Dutch activities led other Europeans like British and French to come to South Africa. However, the Dutch population grew dramatically, for example in 1652 Van Riebeeck arrived at the Cape with a few people, by 1662 the Dutch community had grown to 120 people and in 1685 the population increased to 150 Dutch families.  The increase of warfare: There were frequent wars between the Africans and the Dutch because the Dutch wanted to rule the Africans and take their land while the Africans demanded freedom. 1779 to 1781, 1789 to 1793 and 1799 to1803 there were Kaffir wars between the Dutch and the Xhosa.  Introduction of a new culture: The Dutch introduced a new culture to the Africans and ignored the indigenous culture. For example the new language known as Afrikaans based on the Dutch language and some words from other languages like Portuguese and Khoikhoi languages was born.

Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean Sea-Board and Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Slave trade in east Africa Slave trade refers to the selling and buying of human beings as commodities. Africa experienced two types of slave trade.

1. The Indian Ocean slave trade which was conducted by Asians. 2. The Trans Atlantic Ocean slave trade conducted by European merchants.

Main peoples involved:

 Arab traders  European merchants  African chiefs e.g. Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe  The Nyamwezi  The Kamba  The Yao  Baganda  Banyoro  Khartoumers

A SKETCH MAP OF EAST AFRICA SHOWING THE AFRICAN PARTICIPANTS IN SLAVE TRADE The Reasons for the Expansion of Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean Sea-Board from the 18th Century Explain the reasons for the expansion of slave trade in the Indian ocean sea-board from the 18th century Expansion of the Indian Ocean slave trade Slavery was practiced since ancient times in Africa. In East Africa slavery was introduced during trade contacts with the Middle East and Far East as early as 2 AD. However slavery was only practiced on a small scale. Slaves were used as farm laborers, domestic servants, guards or soldiers but they were also entitled to some rights. Furthermore slave trade expanded in East Africa during the 18th century. Reasons for the expansion of slave trade in East Africa during the 18th century

 Great demands for slaves as soldiers and domestic servants in the Muslim nations of Arabia. Thus the slaves had to come from non Muslim regions like the interior of East Africa. There were major slave markets in Zanzibar, Bagamoyo, Pemba, Kilwa,Mikindani and Mombasa.  Slaves were needed as porters, they ferried goods such as ivory and gold from theinterior of Africa to the coast, especially to the American, Indian and British traders whotook part in it.  Portuguese slave traders supplied slaves to the Portuguese coffee and sugar plantations in Brazil. In the first half of 18th century Portuguese expanded their plantations. So their source of slaves in West Africa and Mozambique became inadequate hence they came in East Africa.  High demand for slave labour in French sugar plantations in Mauritius and Reunion Island. Initially the French depended slaves fro Mozambique but by the 1770s the demand exceeded supply as a result the French came further North to East Africa in search of slaves.

The Techniques Used to obtain Slaves Explain the techniques used to get slaves Ways/techniques of obtaining slaves

 Caravans organised by local chiefs: The local chief sold domestic slaves in exchange for goods like beads, guns and glass. E.g. Mirambo and Isike of Nyamwezi, Nyungu yaMawe of the Kimbu, Machemba of the Yao, Kabaka Mutesa of Buganda and Mkwawa ofthe Hehe.  Selling of criminals, debtors, tax offenders and social misfits in society by the local chiefsto the Arab slave traders.  Prisoners of war could be sold off especially after inter-community wars.  Porters were sometimes kidnapped, transported and sold off to the Arab traders  Raiding villages or weak communities: This would begin at night with gun shots and people would scatter consequently leading to their capture.  Through inter tribe wars many African became destitute and these would be captured by the slave traders  Ambush, they were captured through ambushes during hunting, travelling and gardening.  Slaves were acquired from the main slave trade market in Zanzibar  Other Africans are also said to have gone voluntarily in anticipation of great wonders and benefits from the Arab Swahili traders

MAP OF EAST AFRICA SHOWING TRADE ROUTES The Social and Economic Effects of Slave Trade on the African Societies Assess the social and economic effects of slave trade on the African societies Social and economic effects/impact of slave trade on the people of East Africa Positive effects Introduction of new foods, the food introduced through trade routes such foods were maize, pawpaw, rice and groundnuts both at the coast and in the interior. The increase of farming plantations, in some areas especially the clove plantations were slaves worked. The interior was opened to the outside world this later encouraged the coming of the European missionaries. Many European Christian missionaries came to east Africa to preach against slave trade and to campaign for its abolition. The trade routes became permanent routes and inland roads which led to growth of communication network. Introduction of Swahili language, this was introduced in land and is now being widely spoken in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and eastern Congo. Introduction of Islamic religion, Islam as a religion was introduced by the Arabs and it spread, especially in Yao land and in Buganda land. Formation of the new race called Swahili; this race was formed through intermarriages between Arabs and some Africans. Growth of towns, there was growth of towns such as Tabora and Ujiji. Slave trade encouraged large scale trade whereby contact was established between the trade masters and indigenous/local population. Africans were dispersed to other parts of the world e.g. Arabia, America and West Indies. In Africa Sierra Leone and Liberia were founded to accommodate former slaves from Europe and America. Negative effects Depopulation of Africans: The people who would have great leaders and empire builders were killed. It is estimated that over 15 to 30 millions of people were sold into slavery while millions died in the process being transported. Misery, suffering and a lower quality of life for the people in East Africa. This is because they were reduced to commodities and could be bought and sold. Destruction of villages and families and broken up by slave raiders and never to be reunited, this later resulted in to loss of identity. Diseases broke out among the slaves, for example the Spaniards introduced syphilis which spread to other traders. Displacement of people: Many people became homeless and destitute and stayed in Europe with no identity. Disruption of economic activities: This is because the young and able craftsmen, traders and farmers were carried off, causing economic stagnation as the economic workforce depleted. Progress slowed down which resulted in famine, poverty and destitution and helplessness. There was a decline in production of traditional goods such as coffee, beans, bark cloth and iron which greatly hindered the cash economy. Decline of African industries, which also faced a lot of competition from imported manufactured goods for example the bark cloth and iron working industries. Introduced of guns to the interior, which caused a lot of insecurity and increased incidences of wars for territorial expansion Clans and tribe units, languages were broken and inter tribal peace was disturbed for example Swahili language replaced the traditional languages in the interior. The Psychological Effects of Slavery on its Victims Assess the psychological effects of slavery on its victims Slavery reduced Africans to more objects. The Arab slave traders and Caucasian slave owners looked down upon dark-skinned people. They considered them to be inferior and closer to animals than other races. Slaves were greatly mistreated. They worked for long hours under harsh conditions for no pay. They were punished severely for small mistakes and were even killed at their masters will. All of these resulted in psychological effects some of them being:

 Damage of slave's self worth  Inferiority complex before their masters  Sufferings due to difficult work  Separation of families and homes  Loneliness  Stress due to unsure about their future, survival and food.Traumatize due to severe punishment  Insecurity  Fear and doubts

Triangular slave trade The Atlantic slave trade is customarily divided into two eras, known as first and second Atlantic system. The first Atlantic system The first Atlantic system was the trade of enslaved Africans primarily to South American colonies of the Portuguese and Spanish empires; it accounted for only slightly more than 3% for all Atlantic slave trade. It started (on a significant scale) in about 1502 and lasted until 1580, when Portugal was temporarily united with Spain. While the Portuguese traders enslaved people themselves, the Spanish empire relied on the Asiento system, awarding merchants (mostly from other countries) the license to trade enslaved people to their colonies. During the first Atlantic system most of these traders were Portuguese, giving them a nearmonopoly during the era, although some Dutch, English Spanish and French traders also participated in the slave trade after the union, Portugal was weakened with its colonial empire being attacked by the Dutch and British. The second Atlantic system The second Atlantic system was the trade of enslave Africans by mostly British, Portuguese, Brazilian, French and Dutch traders. The main destinations of this phase were the Caribbean colonies, Brazil and Americas a number of European countries built up economically slave dependent colonies in the New World. Amongst the proponents of this system were Francis Drake and John Hawkins Origin of Trans Atlantic slave trade Te Portuguese were the first foreigners to capture slaves off the coast of West Africa. They built a fort on Arguin Island (Mauritania) where they bought gold and slaves from Gambia and Senegal. Most of these slaves were taken to plantations in Portugal and Southern Spain. By 1471 the Portuguese expanded their gold and slave trading activities to Ghana. In 1482, they built Elmina castle to serve as their base there. Factors for the rise of triangular slave trade The rise of capitalism: This mode of production depended on exploitation of one man by another. Capitalism emerged in Europe after the decline of feudalism in Europe especially the first stage of capitalism mercantilism where slaves became part of the commodities to be traded to accumulate wealth. Discovery of marine technology: The invention of gun powder, ship building, compass direction, and motor engine acted as a pushing force for the rise of slave trade, it facilitated the transportation of the commodities and slave dealers. The discovery of the new world by Christopher Columbus on 24 October 1492 opened a new chapter as far as slave trade was concerned it brought high sky demand of cheap labour to work in the new plantations in the Caribbean islands. The inability of indigenous people to provide cheap labour: Diseases such as smallpox eliminated the natives completely. In other cases such as south in south Carolina, Virginia and new England the need for alliances with native tribe coupled with the availability of enslaved Africans at affordable prices (beginning in the early 18th century for these colonies) resulted in a shift away from native American slavery. Native Americans were very reluctant to provide labour and most of them had been affected with plagues and war and they were very few in numbers. So Africans were the best alternative, therefore the rise of triangular slave trade. Climatic conditions of the New World meant that Africans could easily live there since they were used to tropical climates and had immunity of tropical diseases more than people from Europe and Asia. They were able to withstand diseases and conditions of the New World. Prior knowledge about African continent brought by explores: Before the establishment of slave trade many explorers like Vasco Da Gama and Vasco Diaz-all from Portugal-had already navigated Africa and had discovered many sea routes between Africa and the outsiders such prior knowledge helped them to use Africans as slaves. The expensiveness of White slaves: Before the mid of 17th century the European mercantilists depended on indentured labourers, criminal convicts, contract labourers and refugees from Europe who proved to be expensive and undependable compared to Africans who were not paid anything apart from their basic needs for survival and were slaves for life. The basic reasons for the constant shortage of labour was that, with large amounts of cheap land available and lots of landowners searching for workers, free European immigrants were able to become landowners after a relatively short time, thus increasing the need for workers as slaves. Accessibility between the New World and the West African coast, the distance from West Africa to the New World is very narrow bridged with Atlantic Ocean. Thus easy transportation of slaves from Africa The establishment of more plantations in the New World which called for more demands of slaves initially it was only Portugal and the Dutch that had established plantations but towards the mid of 17th century France and Britain joined. This increased the demand for cheap labour. The profitability factor: This acted as an attracting force for many mercantilists to join a trade based on unequal exchange imagine exchanging human being with spices, umbrella, gold, ivory with guns, mirrors and cloth. Accumulation of wealth: Mercantilists accumulated a lot from this trade which enabled them to sustain super profits obtained and in addition to that, many crops could not be sold for profit, or even grown in Europe. Exporting crops and goods from the New World to Europe often proved to be more cost effective than producing them on the European mainland. A vast amount of labour was needed for the plantations in the intensive growing, harvesting and processing of these prized tropical crops. Western Africa (part of which became known as "the slave coast‟ and later central Africa, became a source for enslaved people to meet the demands of labour. The existence of seasonal winds and currents like the north east trade wind, north equatorial current, the south west and the Gulf streams encouraged the growth of this trade by enabling the vessels of the merchants to sail to Africa, New World and Europe. Impact of the Triangular slave trade Social effects

 Depopulation: Many people died during slave raids or were sent abroad as slaves. E.g.400 millions of people were lost in Africa whereby 150 to 200 million were from Eastand Central Africa.  Separation of families: Some abandoned their homes due to insecurity, some died while trying to escape and some were taken away as slaves.  Fear and suspicion due to frequent wars, raids and ambushes.  Intermarriage between the foreigners and indigenous people.

Political effects

 Decline of states, some states declined because they were weakened when their subjects were captured and sold as slaves. For example Wanyasa were greatly weakened by frequent slave raids from their Yao neighbours.  The rise of states: Some strong states arose due to accumulation of wealth from slave trade. E.g. the Yao state under Machemba, Nyamwezi under Mirambo and Bugandakingdom under Kabaka Mutesa.

Economic effects

 Destruction of African subsistence economy: This was because many people engaged in the slave trade as slave dealers or they were taken as slaves so the activities like handcrafts,iron working, salt mining and pottery destructed.  Land alienation: Africans were robbed of their best arable land and were turned into serfs and tenants who had to sell off their labour to Arab land owners for their survival. Watumbatu and Waamidu provided their labour in coconut and cloves plantations.  Decline of production due to loss of manpower: Slave masters picked strong and healthy people leaving behind the old, sick and weak who could not work.

The Origins and Impact of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Africa Explain the origins and impact of the trans-Atlantic slave trade in Africa ACTIVITY TO DO

1. Mention five commodities that were brought by early traders from the Far East and theMiddle East. 2. Outline positive and negative effects of the contacts between people of Africa and thosefrom the Far East and Middle East. 3. What were the reasons for the Dutch to settle at the Cape? 4. Explain the causes and effects of triangular slave trade5. Mention five ways used to obtain and abolish slave trade in Africa.

Industrial Capitalism At the end of this topic student should be able to:

1. Explain the meaning of industrial capitalism 2. Explain the demands of industrial capitalism 3. Explain the roles of the agents of industrial capitalism in preparing Africa for colonisation

Demands of Industrial Capitalism The Meaning of Industrial Capitalism Explain the meaning of industrial capitalism Capitalism is the social, political and economic system based on private ownership of the major means of production. It first developed in Europe during the fifteenth century when feudalism collapsed. Under the capitalism system companies and individuals own and direct most of the resources used in production of goods and services. Capitalism underwent different stages before reaching its maturity. These stages included:

 Commercial or mercantile capitalism  Industrial capitalism  Monopoly capitalism

The commercial or mercantile capitalism took place between the year 1500 and 1750 this was capitalism based on trade. The merchants obtained wealth through trade activities. A lot of wealth was accumulated during this period and therefore increased new demands that resulted into development of another stage of capitalism known as industrial capitalism. The next stage was industrial capitalism; this was the period when machines begun to be used for production in industries. The transition to industrial capitalism was the period when mercantile capitalism was giving way to industrial capitalism. The transition was manifested by five major events namely:  Political revolution  Agrarian revolution  Demographic revolution  Commercial revolution  Transport revolution

Therefore, the above mentioned revolution created a conducive condition for capitalism to enter in the second stag; industrial capitalism. This new stage was characterised by intensive competition among the industrial capitalists. They were competing in terms of production of goods and profit maximisation. This stage of industrial capitalism took place between the 1750s and 1870s. The Demands of Industrial Capitalism Explain the demands of industrial capitalism There were several demands of industrial capitalism, but most of them were mainly economic. These included:

 The need for raw materials  Markets  Areas for investment  Cheap labour

At the period of industrial capitalism there were also changes in the methods of production of commodities that the world was demanding in increasing quantities. The new methods of production involved the invention of machinery and the investment of huge capital. Industrial capitalism began in England by the end of eighteenth century; other countries such as French, Italy, German and Belgium were growing into industrial nations. This necessitated the high demand of industrial capitalism to advance several demands as explained below: The need for raw materials This was caused by increasing production due to expansion of industries which needed large quantities of raw materials supply. These materials included cotton, coffee, tea, iron ore, palm oil, sisal, sugar cane, tobacco and rubber. The available raw materials could not meet the demand. At the same time they could not be produced in Europe at large quantities. This resulted into the search and control of the sources of raw materials. The need for markets Due to the investment of capital in production, industrial goods flooded the European markets. Overproduction and under consumption became a critical problem among the industrial capitalists hence they were forced to look for markets outside Europe Areas for investment Due to unreliable markets and high concentration of capital in Europe, profit marginalization occurred. As a solution new areas for investment were needed among other areas, Africa provided the best areas for investment of such capital In Africa the tropical crops could do better compared to other countries it was also a good source for non agricultural raw materials such as minerals and forest products. Need for cheap labour Due to labour consciousness caused by working class in Europe and Britain in particular, the need to search for cheap labour become important. This was a measure taken to compete in production for profit maximisation. Reasons for the increasing demand of industrial development in 19th century Competition in industrial production:European capitalist nations increased the demand for industrial development as a result of competition in industrial production. During the period before the nineteenth century Britain dominated the industrial production and was the leading major industrial nation in the world. However, in the nineteenth century other European nations such as German, France, Italy and Belgium became industrial nations. The emergence of other nations in industrial development brought about competition for markets of industrial goods, raw materials and areas for investment. Therefore, the industrial nations were compelled to look for an alternative for that competition outside Europe, where they could sell their goods and collect raw materials. Demands for raw materials: The highly demanded raw materials were cotton, oil, sugar cane, ivory, rubber and iron ore. Most of these raw materials could not be found in Europe in large quantities. In fact, those tropical crops could not grow in Europe. Following this Europe decided to produce such raw materials in Africa, India, New Zealand, Australia and China. In those areas raw materials were produced in large quantity than in Britain and other nations in Europe. In Africa sugar cane plantation were established by the French in the Reunion and Mauritius Islands. The French depended on slave labour in those plantation the main sources of slaves was east Africa and some parts of southern Africa such as Mozambique. The rise of other industrial nations: In the 1870s other European countries were industrialised this resulted in increased demand of raw materials. Therefore, it was difficult for one European country to obtain raw materials from other European countries. It was also more difficult for one European country to export her manufactured goods to another European country. Each country was struggling to protect its domestic market industries and controlling its sources of raw materials. American independence: Resulted in the development of the industrial sector. By the beginning of the 1870s, Europe could not easily enter U.S.A since it had introduced protective tariffs to keep out foreign manufactured goods and protect its industries. By the 1860s, markets for manufactured goods and sources of raw materials in Europe had greatly declined. Accumulation of wealth: In order to ensure this they decided to invest the wealth that was being obtained in industries into other areas outside Europe. Overpopulation and unemployment:The problem of overpopulation and unemploymentwas also rising in European countries. Therefore, the solution to those problems was sought outside Europe The need for assurance of genuine and reliable markets and control of sources of raw materials: Europeemployed and sent agents to various important regions of Africa. These industrial capitalism agents prepared Africans for colonisation in future years. Therefore, in the early nineteenth century European activities in Africa were led by agents of industrial capitalism known as agents of colonisation. Agents of Industrial Capitalism There were about four groups of agents of industrial capitalism in Africa namely:

 Explorers  Missionaries  Traders  Companies  Association

Explorers During the nineteenth century the major aim of European powers was the exploration of Africa. In east Africa, exploration was done by the prominent explores such as Speke, Burton, Grant, Samuel Baker, Henry M. Stanley and Dr. Livingstone, while in central Africa and parts of Congo the prominent explorers were Dr. Livingstone and later Henry M. Stanley. And in West Africa the prominent explorers included Richard Lander, Dr. Barth Mungo Park, Clapperton, Dr. Baikie, Gaspard Mollien and Cailie. The journey of exploration was financed and supported by European capitalists. The main aim was to gather information about Africa because they needed a wider knowledge of the continent. They also wanted to know about the raw materials which African had to sell and the location of the main centers of population. Moreover, they were interested in the knowledge of transport potentialities of African great river systems. For example the British explorer, Mungo Park in 1780s, followed by Clapperton and Richard Lander explored the Niger and gathered important information about the economy and politics of West Africa. Roles of explorers They reported back about the potentialities of the African resources: Clapperton reported about the river Niger to the British government while Speke reported about the potentiality of Lake Victoria and named it Victoria to honor Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. They provided important information about the nature of African societies: They reported about thehostility, calmness and hospitality of the African people. This information played a central role for the European colonialists during the decision making process regarding the colonisation of Africa. They explored important mountains and researched the geology, climatic conditions, topography, lakes and animal species in Africa:This knowledge later attracted European powers to colonise Africa. They provided messages to their government about the existing evils of slave trade and the areas where slave trade was still conducted:Dr. Livingstone's third journey through Tanganyika and Lake Regions of central Africa was targeted for that as a result he informed the English that the Yao's land was still characterised by slave raids and the effects of slave trade such as sufferings, insecurity. The information provided by explorers to their government was later used by humanitarians in the struggle against the colonisation of Africa. Missionaries By the 19th century missionary activities had started in Africa. The pioneers were the protestant churches of Europe and America. It was only later that Roman arrived especially from France. The domination of missionaries were the London missionary society, the church missionary society, Roman Catholic missionary society and the universities mission to central Africa (UMCA). Few Christian missionaries were directly active agents of imperialism. They were essential ingredients of the increasingly assertive European access to Africa. However In most cases European Christian played an important role in promoting and shaping the advent of European capitalism. The Roles of the Agents of Industrial Capitalism in Preparing Africa for Colonisation Explain the roles of the agents of industrial capitalism in preparing Africa for colonization The role played by missionaries in the colonisation of Africa They acted as interpreters and propagandists at the time of treaty making:Mofat stayed among the Ndebele for about 30 years serving the British South African company (BSAC) for treaty making between the companies (BSAC) and King Lobengula. They acted as advisors to African chiefs:The British missionaries of the church missionary society convinced Kabaka to accept protectorate. They introduced Western civilisation to the interior through education and schools: Thisaimed to prepare people of low ranks to serving colonial masters at the time of colonisation. Missionaries softened the minds and the hearts of Africans: Their activities were influenced by European imperialists' interests by preaching and emphasising the spiritual beliefs such as “give to God what which belongs to God," and "give to Ceaser what belongs to Ceaser”. In the long run this preaching weakened African opposition and shaped the regions for future colonial administration. They converted Africans to the new faith: They were easily employed as puppets to extend colonial rule. Typical examples are the converts of Sierra Leone, Nigeria and Ghana who were able to protect the British economic interests and paved the way for future colonisation by the British. Missionaries reduced resistance among African societies: This was done by converting some societies and preaching obedience to administrators. Introduction of new crops: Horner grew coffee at Bagamoyo around 1870 the church missionaries society grew cotton in Uganda. This prepared people to acquire the skills which were important for future cash crop production during the colonial era. They helped in the abolition of slave trade: Theyplanned for successful Christianisation of the freed slaves as they preached the word of God. They wanted to create the conducive and peaceful environment for the development of legitimate trade which was exploitative in nature and was after capitalists interests. Missionaries had closer links with rulers and interfered even in political matters:They allied European imperialism while they were working in the interior of Africa. This situation provoked the hostility from African rulers. In this case missionaries appealed strongly for the protection from their home governments, which later led to effective colonisation. Traders Traders were among the first Europeans to visit the interior and coastal areas of Africa. They came under the influence of capitalists who also supported missionaries and explorers. Their main aim was to exploit the new sources of raw materials, markets and new areas in which industrial capitalists had to invest their capital. Examples of traders are William Macknnon, James Stevenson, Harry Johnston and Carl Peters. The role played by traders in the colonisation of Africa They opened a new a exploitative system: Therefore, Africa became the target for European interests. This resulted in stiff rivalries and competition among European industrial nations. Introduction of circuit through legitimate trade: Thisinvolved the importation of European manufactured goods. Thus, the chain of dependence was created and the African local industries and the arts were destroyed. Traders exposed Africa to the world capitalist system of economy: The use of currency, banking and credit facilities began to be witnessed by Africans. This resulted into exploitation of African resources. The fair and quick turns obtained by traders attracted European colonialists to come into Africa. They opened communication systems such as roads:This laid the foundation for future colonial infrastructure. For example, the road from Lake Nyasa to Tanganyika known as Livingstone road was opened by traders and was used during the colonial administration. Companies and associations Companies and association were among the most important agents of colonisation of Africa. Agents organised themselves into companies and associations. They received finance from their home government so as to operate effectively and differently in those areas, where the governing powers had their economic interests. They aimed at financing the exploration that showed the interest of coming to Africa. Examples of the association included the Royal British Geographical society, financed by John Speke to explore the river Nile. Another was the African Association of British, which in 1788 financed Mungo Park. Its major aim was to explore and identify the areas suitable for agriculture, which could produce enough materials for export. Another concern of that association was to identify the navigable rivers, mineral deposits and assessing the market available for industrial goods. In the abolition of slave trade, merchant companies became increasingly involved in the interior of Africa. The major aim of these companies was to establish the so called “legitimate trade”. This was trade in commodities and other resources that industrial capitalist required as raw materials or as food for the urban working classes. The legitimate trade did not involve the selling and buying human Several companies in Africa were established at strategic points for the purpose of collecting important commodities for export and supplying manufactured goods from Europe. In East Africa examples of these companies were the Imperial British East African Company (I.B.E.A.C) founded in 1886 by William Macknnon. It was also known as the British East Africa Association. Another company was the Germany East African Company (G.E.A.C) founded in 1884 by Carl Peters. In West Africa examples of companies formed included the Royal Niger Company (R.N.C) which was formed by George Turban Goldie in 1884. The association was concerned with commercial activities. King Leopold expected that the company could improve the lives of native as well as civilising them, exploiting natural resources and abolishing slave trade and slavery in the region. In central Africa the company prevailed was the Livingstone central Africa Company (L.C.A.C). it was formed by Scottish capita lists James Steven in 1878. In south Africa there was the British south Africa company (B.S.A.C) formed by Cecil Rhodes as a private company and operated in south and central Africa by the year 1889, the company was given a royal charter that included the full powers to administer the company. The role played by companies in the colonisation of Africa. Monopolisation and exploitation of African resources: These resources were highly needed by the European capitalists in their industries. In all parts of Africa Company played a crucial role of collecting raw materials and carried out trade activities. Elimination of local middlemen and creation of custom duties and tariffs: These was carried out by the companies which attracted the imperialists powers to control Africa. The companies encouraged their home government to colonise Africa: For example; the Royal Niger Company encouraged the British to colonise Nigeria after gaining the control of the different trading areas in the region. Signing treaties: The company played an important role of signing different treaties with African local chiefs. These treaties helped imperial powers to claim and justify the colonisation of particular territories, especially during the Berlin Conference One example was a treaty signed between Harry Johnston and chief Mandara of Uchaga in 1884 to control thirteen square kilometers of land in Kilimanjaro. Also Dr. Carl Peters of the society for German colonisation signed treaties with a number of chief between Pangani and Rufiji. These treaties were later used by the German government to control Tanganyika. Creation of infrastructure: These included commercial centers, administrative headquarters, roads, railways and waterways. They were allocated in those areas where they operated where by later on were used by the imperial powers to transport administrators to colonise and impose laws on the land. The companies laid foundations for their home government to colonise African:They suppressed African resistance through a police force used to maintain peace, order and stability within the region. For example in East Africa, the German East African Company recruited Swahili, Sudanese and Buganda soldier to counter the coastal Arab resistance of 1888-1889. They provided important information about economic potentiality of African areas:Africa was exposed to the imperial powers which aimed to colonise the continent. The companies provided rudimentary administration in areas of their operation: Some company leaders such as Sir. George Turban Goldie of the Royal Niger Company, Harry Johnston, the representative of Cecil Rhodes of the British South Africa Company, attended the Berlin Conference of 1884-188 5. They also notified the conference about areas where they operate on behalf of their mother countries. The company played an important role of marking of the administrative boundaries: Which were later identified as boundaries of the European spheres of influence. They prevented any other rival European imperial power from taking their territories. This was evidenced in East Africa where the German East Africa Company marked the area of the German in the Anglo- German rivalry and achieved the 1886 agreement. While in South Africa the British South Africa Company managed to map the claims of Britain, thus preventing the Portuguese from interfering in the British sphere of influence. Furthermore, the companies used their security organs to abolish slave trade in the areas of their influence. They introduced legitimate trade in Africa. PICTURES SHOWING TRANSITION TO CAPITALISM Abolition of Slave Trade The British government began the abolition of slave trade during the years, 1822-1826. This was because of pressure by various groups based on different factors. The Reasons for the Abolition of Slave Trade Explain the reasons for the abolition of slave trade Rise of humanitarians in Europe such as Christians and scholars condemned it on moral grounds. The missionaries wanted it to be stopped because they wanted good conditions for the spread of Christianity. The formation of humanitarian movement in England aimed at stopping all kinds of cruelty including slave trade, flogging of soldiers and child labour. Industrialisation in Britain, e.g. Britain industrialists urged its abolition because they wanted Africans to be left in Africa so that Africa can be source of raw materials for their industries, market for European manufactured goods and place for new investment of surplus capital Formation of the anti slavery movement and the abolitionist movement in 1787, its chairman was Granville Sharp and others like Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce who gathered facts and stories about the brutality of slave trade and slavery to arouse public opinion in Britain. Religious revival in Europe, Anglican preached and condemned slave trade as opposed to laws of God and humanity. Catholic pope also protested against the trade and prohibited it. In 1774, many religious leaders served as examples when they liberated their slaves in England. The French revolution of 1789 and the American revolution of 1776, emphasised liberty, equality and fraternity (brotherhood) of all human beings, as a result people began to question whether anyone had a right to deprive a fellow man of his liberty when he had done wrong. The British desire to protect their national interests: British planters wanted slave trade stopped to avoid competition with other European planters. This is because other planters were producing cheaper sugar hence the need to stop over production The rise of men with new ideas:Prof. Adam Smith (challenged the economic arguments which were the basis of slave trade when he argued convincingly that hired labour is cheaper and more productive than slave labour, Rousseau spread the idea of personal liberty and equality of all men. Slaves had become less profitable: Yethad led to overpopulation in Europe. Influential abolitionists like William Wilberforce (a British member of parliaments) urged the British government to legislate against the slave trade in her colonies. The ship owners stopped transporting slaves from Africa and began raw materials directly from Africa and America to Europe, which led to a decline in slave trade. The Tactics Used During the Abolition of Slave Trade Assess the tactics used during the abolition of slave trade The movement to abolish slave trade started in Britain with the formation of anti-slavery movements. The British government abolished slave trade through anti slave laws (legislation), treaties and use of force. The anti slavery movement was led by Granville Sharp, other members were Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce and others.

 The first step was taken in 1772 when slavery was declared illegal and abolished in Britain. The humanitarians secured judgment against slavery from the British court.  In 1807, British parliament outlawed slave trade for British subjects.  In 1817 British negotiated the “the reciprocal search treaties” with Spain and Portugal.  Equipment treaties signed with Spain 1835, Portugal 1842 and America 1862. In east Africa in 1822 Mores by treaty was signed between captain Moresby and sultan Seyyid Said it forbade the shipping of slaves outside the sultan's territories. British sips were authorised to stop and search suspected Arabs slave carrying dhows.  In 1845, Hamerton treaty was signed between Colonel Hamerton and sultan Seyyid Said. It forbade the shipping of slaves outside the sultan's East Africa territories i.e. beyond to the North.  In 1871, the British set up the parliamentary commission of inquiry to investigate and report on slave trade in East Africa.  In 1872, sir. Bartle Frere persuaded sultan Barghash to stop slave trade but not much was achieved.  On 5th march 1873, the sultan passed a decree prohibiting the export of slaves from mainland and closed of slave market at Zanzibar. Zanzibar slave market was to be closed within 24 hours  In 1876, sultan decreed that no slaves were to be transported overland.  In 1897, decree left slaves to claim their freedom themselves  In 1907, slavery was abolished entirely in Zanzibar and Pemba.  In 1927, slavery ended in Tanganyika w hen British took over from Germany after the Second World War.

The Social and Economic Effects of the Abolition of Slave Trade Assess the social and economic effects of the abolition of slave trade Effects of the abolition of slave trade Loss of independence, the suppression of slave trade led to loss of independence that is to say, legitimate trade which provided equally profitable business to both European and African traders. Many ship owners diverted their ships from transporting slaves to transporting raw cotton and raw sugar from Brazil and America. It accelerated the coming of European missionaries to East Africa who emphasised peace and obedience thus the future European colonisation of East Africa. Disintegration of the Sultan Empire: This is because it loosened the economic and political control which the sultan had over the east African nations. His empire in East Africa therefore began to crumble. This gave opportunity to other ambitious leaders like Tippu-Tip to create independent state in Manyema, where he began selling his ivory and slaves to the Belgians in Zaire. Closing of slave trade markets, for example Zanzibar in 1873 following the Frere treaty signed between sultan Barghash and Bantle Frere. Islam became unpopular as many converted to Christianity African societies regained their respect and strength as they were no longer sold off as commodities. Generally, abolition of slave trade was a catalyst to the partition of East Africa whereby Britain took over Kenya, Zanzibar and Uganda while Germany took over Tanganyika. British Occupation of South Africa via the Cape British at the Cape Britain took control of the cape during the era of mercantilism in Europe. At the end of 18th century the British became interested in seizing the cape colony from the Dutch. During 1793 France invaded the Netherlands. King William V. sought refuge in Britain and also asked for protection for Dutch colonies and trading interests. During this time, the British already controlled India and the trade between India and Europe. In 1795 the British occupied the cape twice for a short period of time. From 1806 onwards especially when the Napoleonic wars ended in 1815 the Britain made a formal purchase of the Cape from the Netherlands for six million pounds sterling. Therefore British started to settle at the Cape in 1806. The Motives for the British Interests at the Cape Explain the motives for the British interests at the Cape Motives for British interests at the Cape

 To increase colonies: The British wanted to increase and expand her spheres of influence following this she decided to occupy the Cape.  Industrial revolution in Europe, following this British wanted to increase sources of raw materials, labour, and markets for her industries since the Cape were very productive.  Trade interests, Britain did not want another European power to control the Cape because that would interfere the smooth flow of trade between Britain and India.  The South African Cape was strategically located. It was an appropriate place for British ships to stop during their voyages to or from India. They could get fresh supplies adwater for the reminder of their journey.

The Tactics Used by the British to Occupy the Cape Assess the tactics used by the British to occupy the Cape Tactics used by British to occupy the Cape

 Introduction of land legislation system: They aimed at discouraging pastoralism among Boers and to encourage sedentary farming since the policy limited the size of an individual's land. The Dutch thought that the British introduced the land law to take land from the Boers and redistribute it to the landless Khoikhoi so they opposed the land law.  Abolition of slave trade and slavery in 1807: The British government abolished slave trade in all their colonies and offered compensation for slaves but the money was only paid inLondon as a result the majority did not get their compensation. However, freeing slavesendangered the economic survival of the Boers as they depended much on slave labour.  Imposition of the English language as the as the language of administering the law and justice and the medium of instruction in schools in 1822. Hence English language replaced the Dutch as he official language.  Abolition of internal trade restriction imposed by the Dutch company officials on the farmers and other settlers at the cape. This created more trade opportunities as they could now trade freely without strictly control from the administration.  Introduction of the pass in 1809 to reduce the exploitation of African labour as the system required African workers to carry passbooks which indicated their residence and employment, and those who did not carry them were regarded as criminals. The pass prevented the Africans from moving from district to district or moving into areas occupied by Europeans.  Introduction of contract system, through this the Boers were to sign contracts with their workers. In those contracts they were to mention the wages and other fringe benefits that they gave to their workers. Therefore the Boers regarded the contract system as British interference in the traditional Boer-Africans relationship of master-servant.  Introduction of the Black circuit court system in 1811 in order to reduce acts of violence committed by European employers against African employees. The law angered the Boers who considered themselves a superior race and thus natural masters of the Africans.  Introduction of English law as the basis of the legal system in South Africa.  Provision of financial aid to the British settlers by the British government, this encouraged more of its citizens to immigrate to the Cape as a result in 1820 some 300 British settlers arrived in South Africa increasing the total white population by almost 12% within weeks. The Boer trek/movement The great trek( Afrikaans: Die Groot Trek) was an east ward and north ward migration away from British control in the cape colony during the 1830's and 1840's by Boers (Dutch/Afrikaans “farmer”). The migrant were descended from settlers from western mainland Europe, most notably from the Netherlands, northwest Germany and French Huguenots. The great trek itself led to the founding of numerous Boer republics, the Natalia republic, the Orange Free State republic and the Transvaal being the most notable. From the beginning of the 18th century the cape settlers expanded their territory towards the north and the east. These settling movements were led by the Trek Boers, white farmers who penetrated the hinterland looking for grazing land for their cattle. The Trek Boers preferred the free and unrestricted life on their ox wagons and in tents to the more protected existence within the realms of town administration. The price they had to pay for their lifestyle was constant armed conflicts with native people. First the Khoikhoi successfully resisted the conquest of their residential and grazing land. And from the turn of the century it was the people of the Xhosa living to the east, who stood up against the Trek Boers. Frequent skirmishes occurred, particularly in the Zuurveld in the east of the colony, to the boundary of the great fish river. In 1779, the first of the ferocious Xhosa wars broke out. In the town communities the danger of a confrontation was also growing. Here the opposing parties were on one hand the citizens, aspiring to political autonomy, and on the other hand a weak, corrupt and almost bankrupt colonial administration. The town's people demanded their independence from the colonial administration. In Swellendam and Graaff-Reinet, the first republics were proclaimed, although they only existed for a short time. The power struggle between citizens and administration ended with the landing of British ships at the cape and the annexing of the colony to the United Kingdom in 1795. The Reasons for the Boer Trek Explain the reasons for the Boer trek British occupation of the cape allowed Boers to penetrate further into the interior. Boers dislike laws imposed by British in the Cape Province which gave greater equality to non- Whites races. Abolition of slavery, the British administration at the cape forced Boers to free their African slaves. Boers dislike the system of land holding which was introduced by British i.e. Boers were to pay higher rent. Misunderstanding between Boers stock farmers and British administration Boers dislike the British government decision of using the English language as the language of the government and in courts. Boers wanted to be outside of the British government authority. The Effects of the Boer Trek Assess the effects of the Boer trek Creating of two Boer republics, that is the Orange Free State and South African republic. Boers defeated black tribes on the way and took over their land and properties. Establishment of apartheid policy. Development of hostility between the Boers and British colonisers. Africans were made property less labourers and squatters on Boers stock farms. African land was alienated i.e. taken by foreigners Intermarriage thus creation of Afrikaners. BASIC ASSIGNMENT/ ACTIVITIES TO DO

1. Explain the meaning of industrial capitalism 2. Explain the demands of industrial capitalism 3. Explain the roles f the agents of industrial capitalism in preparing Africa for colonialism 4. Outline the major causes of the Boer Trek in South Africa. 5. Write shot notes on the effects of the Boer Trek on people of South Africa. 6. What are motives of the British at the Cape? 7. Explain why the Boers managed to defeat the Africans in the interior of South Africa. 8. Mention five tactics used by British to occupy the Cape.

Establishment Of Colonialism Scramble for and Partition of Africa The Meaning of Scramble for and Partition of Africa explain the meaning of scramble for and partition of Africa The scramble for Africa:A competition among European powers to obtaining colonies. Partition: This was a process of dividing colonies to their respective colonial masters. This acts as a solution for the scramble of Africa. Periodisation:Scramble for Africa started more in 1870s while involving different European countries. The Causes of the Scramble for Africa leading to the Partition Assess the causes of the scramble for Africa leading to the partition “Scramble” for and partition of Africa was a result of several factors, some of which included:

1. National balance of power while other European countries demanded colonies to be equal or similar to Great Britain. 2. Prestige (pride) of the nations: The number of colonies controlled by the colonial master/nation was the measure of wealth of a nation. 3. Industrial Revolution led to the demand of raw materials from Africa hence competition among the European nations to obtain many colonies as possible in Africa. 4. Industrial revolution led to overproduction in Europe hence creating a need to find external markets (outside Europe) thus resulting in competition. 5. Change of monopoly system: In Europe few capitalists started to own land while others failed (those who failed to obtain land in Europe they started to find in Africa hence competition). 6. Conflicts between capitalists and labourers in Europe while labourers demanded bigger salaries capitalists started to look for cheaper labour thus started economic activities in Africa.

Why Areas in Africa Experienced more Intensive Scramble than Others Explain why areas in Africa experienced more intensive scramble than others During the scramble for and partition of Africa some African areas like Egypt, Congo basin, Niger delta, East Africa, Central Africa and South Africa experienced more intensive scramble than others due to their potential. These included natural resources that existed in the colonies i.e. minerals in South Africa, fertile soil in central Africa, water bodies in East Africa, Egypt and Congo. The Impact of the Scramble for and Partition of Africa Assess the impact of the scramble for and partition of Africa The scramble for and partition of Africa affected both European powers and the African continent as well. Some of the impacts included

 the Berlin conference,  cultural interference,  disputes and rivalries,  occurrence of war among European powers,  establishment of colonial rule,  colonial economy and monopoly companies in Africa.

The Berlin Conference (1884-85) The Berlin conference was a meeting held in Berlin that was called by Chancellor Otto von Bismark of Germany. The meeting took place between November 1884 and February 1885. 14 European countries were represented at this conference. USA and Denmark attended the conference as observers. Members in this meeting drew out a map of Africa ready for partition (drawing out colonial master’s borders marking their respective colonies (African States) that they would colonise). The Events Leading to the Berlin Conference (1884/85 Explain the events leading to the Berlin conference (1884/85) The events leading to the Berlin conference in 1884-1885 included the intervention of the late comers in the process of scramble for and partition of Africa. Military confrontation, conflicts over territorial boundaries, European nationalism, German unification, hostility relations, European industrialization, disputes and rivalries among the European powers. The Resolutions of the Berlin Conference Evaluate the resolutions of the Berlin conference Representatives at the Berlin conference agreed on the following principles: (these principles were to be followed by all colonial masters).

1. To abolish slave trade on their colonies: All and any elements of slave trade in their respective colonies. 2. They agreed to send a lot of missionaries, traders and explorers on their respective colonies. 3. They were required to stop or to make an end of resistances that occurred between Africans and colonial government. 4. They were required to have effective control of their colonies e.g. by building/constructing social services. 5. Colonial masters were required to notify other on the possession of colonies. 6. They agreed to have free navigation on the navigable rivers like Congo, Nigeria etc. (In order to solve the conflict between the European Countries). 7. They were required to open up economic activities on their respective colonies (establishment of colonial economy e.g. agriculture, trading industry etc.) The Berlin conference involved division of colonies to the imperial trading companies e.g.

 BEACO - Kenya  BSACO - South Africa, S. Rhodesia, N. Rhodesia  GEACO - Tanganyika, Rwanda and Burundi

Others involved:

 Germany - Cameroon, Togo  France - Congo, Kinshasa, Tunisia, Morocco, Senegal etc.  Belgium - Congo Brazzaville  Portugal - Angola and Mozambique

The Significance of the Berlin Conference to Africa Assess the significance of the Berlin conference to Africa The Berlin Conference had significance to Africa, addressing the colonization of Africa, abolition of slave trade, suffering of African people under colonial administration, division of African continent, introduction of European language as well as land alienation. Establishment of Colonial Control/Rule The Concept of Colonialism Explain the concept of colonialism Colonialism refers to a situation whereby strong nations dominate weak ones economically, politically, militarily or culturally. Africa was subjected to colonialism in the 2nd half of 19th century as European powers acquired full control over African countries by 1900 and extended their colonial rule to the entire continent with the exclusion of Ethiopia and Liberia. The Tactics Used to Impose Colonial Control /Rule in Africa Explain the tactics used to impose colonial control /rule in Africa The process of colonial occupation in Africa by the Europeans that started from the 19th Century involved different techniques, these techniques were depending on the nature of colonial Government and Africans. These techniques included:

a. Treaty making b. Force c. Collaboration d. Dual tactics (Treaties and force)

Treaty making These were bogus agreements that were signed by European agents and African rulers (African rulers signed without understanding what they were signing or what the agreement meant) on signing these treaties African rulers were promised to be given luxurious things by the Europeans (1880s) Examples of these treaties:

a. Carl Peters signed a treaty with the chief of Usagara, Kilosa, Pangani etc. b. French Lochner (BSACO) signed a treaty with Lewanika (N. Rhodesia 1860) c. Maffat signed with Lobengula on taking Matobele land while Lobengula was promised to be given: £ 100 £ 500 (instead of gunboat) 100 Rifles d. Savognan De Brazza signed with Makoko Chief (Congo Brazzaville) 1881 –1882

Why the use of treaties. African rulers signed the treaties due to:

a. Some African rulers were weak economically and politically thus they were in need of assistance. b. African rulers were ignorant as they signed without understanding what they signing.

Forces/ violence This was a method, which involved the use of weapons to occupy colonies. The method was highly used in the strongest African societies. Example

a. Germany Vs. Hehe b. Germany Vs. Abushiri and the Coastal people c. Germany Vs. Bwana Heri and Coastal people d. Germany Vs. Mahemba and Yao.

Why the use of force African rulers use force/violence due to:

 Some states African rulers were strong economically and politically  The nature of colonial Government believed they had to use force e.g. Germany

Collaboration (Alliance) In this method Europeans tended to form an alliance with some African societies to oppose other Africans. The method was used on those areas with conflict. Example:

 Mangi Marealle and Germany against other Africans. E.g. Mangi Sina, Mangi Meli  Sangu, Bena and Germany Vs. Hehe  Shona and the British against Ndebele (Matebele)  Herero and Germany against Nama

Why the use of collaboration The African rulers use collaboration because

 Some Africans were weak politically and economically. Hence they were in need of assistance.  Some Africans were ignorant  Assimilation policy  Association policy

Indirect rule Was a system of administration that involved the use of African personnel to fill the the lowest posts of administration. Who used this System? It was used by British an administration their colonies starting from 1920s e.g. in Nigeria, Tanganyika. Origin Indirect rule has its origins in the northern part of Nigeria when Sir Laggard (from England) decided to use African Emirs to control the Northern part involving Fulani, Ibo etc. In 1919 Sir Laggards started to use African Emirs in the northern part while in 1922 the system was well known to all parts of West Africa. Indirect rule was introduced in Tanganyika in 1926. Conditions/Factors that led to the introduction of indirect rule in Africa (advantages of indirect rule) Indirect rule in Africa was introduced due to the following factors:

1. It was introduced to reduce the cost of administration (while African personnel were cheap). 2. The shortage of European administrators, in Africa led to the introduction of indirect rule in Africa (as African personnel were used to help the colonial Government). 3. Indirect rule helped European administrators with collecting tax and obtaining cheap labour (African leaders were used to collect tax and source cheap labourers). 4. Due to the remoteness (poor infrastructure) of some areas, European colonial masters failed to reach all areas and decided to use Africans leaders (puppets). 5. Climate conditions e.g. tropical climate affected a lot of Europeans they became susceptible to tropical diseases thus they decided to use Africans in those areas. 6. Language problems: While Europeans failed to communicate with local people educated Africans were used instead. 7. It was introduced in order to solve enmity between African and colonial Government Africans started to believe that they are ruled by their fellow Africans. Due to this it reduced resistances from the Africans.

Effects of indirect rule (on Africans) Indirect rule had several effects to the Africans as follows:

1. It led to the formation of classes, that is families of African leaders where considered of a higher class than others. 2. It increased exploitation of African human and natural resources. 3. After independence of some Africans nations they continued to use local rulers like chiefs to administer their societies.

Assimilation Policy Was a system of administration used by the French in their colonies (the system involves more on cultural change. This system of administration comes from French Language “Assimila” that means caused “to resemble”. Origin:The origins of assimilation can be deduced from the French revolution of 1789 while after the decline of Monarch Government, Napoleon. Bonaparte was intending to build a strong nation. In order to build a strong nation they also needed to spread their culture (French Culture) in 1920s. This was a time when the French started to use this system in their colonies. The system was used in Senegal and other parts like Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria etc. Implementation of assimilation policy (how assimilation policy was introduced in Africa). Implementation of Association policy was highly involving in cultural change as follows:

1. They built schools on their colonies that used the French language as the medium for instruction and French culture in general (educated Africans were made to behave like the French that they resemble French people). 2. Africans were given certificates that were used as an identity to obtain French passport. Evolved (those who attained certificate) were allowed to enter in France. 3. In order to blind Africans: French colonies were known as “Provinces” and not colonies. (Province meant outside France). 4. Europeans introduced provinces in Africa having the same name like that of France e.g. four province were introduced i.e. Goree, Rafisque, Dakar and St. Louis. 5. The four provinces were used as headquarters while in Dakar it was to act as headquarter of others under governor in charge. 6. They allowed Africans and Europeans representatives in legilco (in France). This was a guise to blind Africans.

Failure of assimilation policy Assimilation policy started to fail in the 1930s and was replaced with the association policy. Factors for the failure of assimilation policy

1. Muslims rejected to send their sons and daughters in Mission Schools (thus it was not possible to introduce this system in these areas). 2. Some Africans resisted the colonial government due to cultural interference. 3. Assimilation policy was expensive to carry out and the French decided to introduce another system of administration which that was cheaper, association policy. 4. Since assimilation involved cultural change it was not beneficial to the colonial government (economic gain was less). 5. Influence of educated African elites who started to fight against the colonial government (they started to mobilise their fellow Africans against the colonial government. 6. Africans were highly exploited that is, in terms of natural and human resources hence they started to resist colonial government).

Association Policy Was a system of administration used by the French after the failure of assimilation policy. This system started to be used more in 1930s. In this they started to associate Africans in the production of material wealth e.g. raw materials. It was at this time when African leaders started being used by the colonial governments. Association policy involved the use of African chiefs who were divided into three types that is:

 Chef de village - (chief of the village)  Chef de conton - (chief of the district)  Chef de communes - (chief of the province) Those leaders were used in forcing Africans to pay tax and on obtaining African labourers (to be used on colonial economies). Activity 1 Explain the reasons for the failure of the assimilation policy and the introduction of the association policy.

1. Define association policy and assimilation policy. 2. In one paragraph, explain briefly what assimilation policy is. 3. Factors for the introduction of association policy. 4. How did the French introduce Association policy (in brief)?

African Reactions to Colonial Rule The Meaning of African Reactions to Colonial Rule Explain the meaning of African reactions to colonial rule Reaction means response to something (whether in a negative or positive manner). Africans' reaction to colonialists highly depended on the nature of Africans in the area and the colonial governments’ style (it depended on the ways/methods used by the colonial rulers on imposition of colonial rules). The Various Form of African Reactions Explain the various form of African reactions This response of Africans to colonial rulers can be divided into two types being active and passive. Active Africans responded negatively against Europeans Passive Africans obeyed colonial rules. Nature of African response to colonial imposition The nature of Africans’ response to colonial rule imposition can be divided into four forms:

 Violence  Non Violence  Mercenary  Adoption

The Causes of and Reasons for the Different African Reactions Account for the causes of and reasons for the different African reactions Violence This involves Africans who tended to use weapons against colonial rules. This method was highly used by the strangest African societies such as:

 Abushiri and Coastal people against Germans  Hehe against Germans  Ndebele against British  Jaja of Opobo against British

Why the use of violence The reasons are:

 Some Africans were politically and economically strong and ere able to resist the Europeans.  Harsh treatment from colonial rulers forced Africans to use violence.  Africans were exploited for natural and human resources and started to fight back.

Non violence Some Africans decided to flee their homes our of fear of European colonialists and some of them decided to boil seeds before planting them, striking against the colonial rule. Example, non- violence was used by the Maasai and Haya (in East Africa). Why the use of non violence The reasons are:

 Africans who used this system were politically and economically week.  Nature of economic activities, It was not easy for nomadic pastoralist to use violence.  Some Africans were affected by diseases e.g. Jiggers for the Haya.

Mercenary This was a response where some African societies started to hire soldiers from other societies e.g. Nyamwezi tribe used to hire soldiers from the Ngoni tribe (soldiers known as Rugaruga) to fight against the colonial rulers. Why the use of mercenaries Some of the societies were weak hence they needed assistance from other soldiers. Adaptation Some African societies tended to copy the methods of fighting from the European colonial masters during their friendship.These African societies started to use the methods to fight against colonial rule e.g. Menelek of Ethiopia who fought against Italians using this method. Why the use of adaptations It was due to the weakness of some African societies who tended to copy the methods of fighting. The Factors which Determined the Nature of African Reactions Assess the factors which determined the nature of African reactions Factors which determine the nature of African reactions included military strength, ideological beliefs, diseases, economic strength, existence of missionaries, geographical position, nature of the state, the role of leaders, level of colonial exploitation and political awareness among the Africans. Colonial Administrative System Direct Rule, Indirect Rule, Assimilation and Association The Concept of Direct Rule, Indirect Rule, Assimilation and Association Explain the concept of direct rule, indirect rule, assimilation and association Indirect rule This is a colonial system of administration, whereby, African traditional rules were involved in administering their fellow Africans at the local level while the colonial officials and administrators administered at the higher level.Indirect rule was pioneered by Sir Fredrick John Lugard who was the British High Commissioner to Nigeria in 1990. Reasons for the British to use indirect rule in their colonies The British colonial government used indirect rule in most of her colonies in Africa because of the following reasons.

1. Britain drew more attention to her colony in India, thus it was difficult for her to introduce direct rule in Africa. 2. Britain did not have enough manpower to administer her colonies in Africa. For instance, in 1900 it was reported that the British had only 42 British officials in her Nigerian colony. This number was not sufficient to administer the whole colony. The shortage of personnel was caused by lack of experienced workers. Moreover, British citizens were not willing to work in Tropical Africa for fear of Tropical diseases and other physical problems such as transportation. 3. Less funds were set by the British government for the maintenance of the colonies. It was convenient for the colonial administrators to use the indirect rule system in the colonies so as to reduce administrative costs. 4. The indirect rule proved to be effective and efficient in their Indian colony; therefore, the British government was inspired to apply it in Africa. 5. The British thought of using the indirect rule in order to overcome resistances from Africans. Consequently, Africans rulers were made to feel that their status was honored by British, as this system of administration gave them an opportunity of keeping some of the money corrected in form of taxes for their native treasuries. That money was spent for paying messengers and policemen salaries. However, the local African chiefs retained the money for their personal use. 6. Physical barriers such as poor infrastructure, presence of mountains, thick forests and dangerous animals in the colonial African forces the British to use indirect rule. 7. A language barrier between the British and the Africans forced the British to use indirect rule. Neither Africans nor Europeans understood the language of the other. Hence, they used interpreters.

Direct rule This was a colonial system of administration whereby the colonies were governed by Europeans officials at the top position, Arabs Akidas and Liwalis were at the bottom. The Germans preferred this system of administration in their metropolitan country. Assimilation policy The termassimilationmeans ‘similar to’. The French used this term to refer to a system of administration that aimed at creating French Black Africans among the West Africans who would be French citizens. The French wanted the French Black Africans to enjoy the same status and privileges or suffer penalties like any French citizen in France. The assimilation policy was first used in Indo-China and Algeria and later introduced in the four communes of Senegal-Goree, St. Louis, Rufisque and Dakar-in 1854 and spread to other French colonies in Africa. the assimilation policy proved to be successful when it was applied in Morocco. In Senegal the assimilation policy was introduced by Lewis, a trench governor, between 1854 and 1865. Characteristics of assimilation policy 1. The French regarded their colonies as their overseas provinces thus the colonies were closely attached to France. 2. African citizens within the French colonies enjoyed the privileges and the rights that were given to any French citizen in the metropolis. 3. The African colonies under the French rule were represented in lower House of parliament. This showed that there was political integration of the Africans with France. 4. There was a close economic relationship between France and her colonies in Africa. The French currency was used in the colonies, an indication that the colonies were integrated to the metropolis country. 5. They had intention of making the Africans in their colonies to be good French citizens through dictatorship that forced the Africans to learn French language, follow the French laws, apply French civil and political system, be Christians and adopt French manners. 6. They encountered a lot of difficulties in West Africa, since their attitude towards Africans culture and African chiefs were negative.

The Association Policy This was the system of French colonial administration that prevailed in the colonies after the failure of the assimilation policy. Unlike assimilation, association policy respected the culture of Africans and allowed them to develop independently, and did not force them to adapt French culture. The association policy was practiced in Africa after the failure of the assimilation policy. It insisted on the relationship between the Africans and the French being that of association and not otherwise. The association had to use the indigenous elites who were trained in France as administrators to mediate between fellow Africans and French colonial administrators. The major purpose of association was to create mutual economic development for both the Africans and the French. However, the implementation of the association policy was impractical, since the Africans had their traditional institutions such as custom and traditions. African rulers were used by the colonial administration to fulfill their demands such as collection of tax, labor recruitments and maintaining peace and order in their areas. African chiefs who failed to perform such duties were replaced. Africans traditional rulers were not given any authority to execute anything through their own initiatives without the consent of the French colonial administrators. Unlike the British colonies, the French association policy limited the Africans in their colonies of the right of free speech, trade union activities and freedom of press. This policy of administration wanted the French colonial government to respect the culture of the people in the colonies, and allow them to develop independently instead of forcing them to adapt French culture. Moreover the association policy of the French treated the other Africans as second class-citizens; they were not obligated to follow the French civil and criminal laws but the assimilees remained as French citizen with all rights. However the non-citizen subjects could suffer arbitrary arrest or serve a longer term in French army than the citizen, a thing that motivated them to be French citizens. The new French policy of association encouraged the colonial administrators to respect the African cultures and give them freedom of developing separately. However this policy made Africans in the colonies to be regarded as second-class citizens and French criminal and civil laws could not be applied to them. The Africans were governed by a system of law known justice indigiene. This law made Africans to serve the army for a long time by force or face arbitrary arrest; as a result Africans opted in becoming French citizens. Africans had the right of maintaining their culture. Examples, of such cultural practices were polygamy and Islamic religion in West Africa. The Motive for the Application of Various Colonial Administrative Systems Appraise the motive for the application of various colonial administrative systems The motive for the application of indirect rule The major reasons that made Europeans to initiate and apply the indirect rule system of administration in Africa were:

1. The Europeans did not want to interfere with the African traditional systems of administration. 2. The Europeans administrators wanted their instructions or orders to appear as if they were emanating directly from the African traditional rulers. This was aimed at reducing African resistances against the European policies. 3. The Europeans wanted the African chiefs to appear as the ones giving orders to their subordinates (fellow Africans). 4. The Europeans introduced the indirect rule system with an assumption of civilizing the Africans. 5. In other areas, indirect rule was used when the system of direct rule had proved failure. For example, the British colonial government decided to use indirect rule in Tanganyika to avoid what happened to the Germans.

The reasons or motives for the application of assimilation policy The assimilation policy made by European countries that employed the policy in their colonies to consider their culture and civilization as superior to those of the colonized people (Africans). The French believed that their culture was the best in the world, and that they had enlightened their colonies with their rich heritage of civilization. Some of the reasons for introducing the assimilation policy in Senegal were:

1. The four communes of Senegal consisted of 90% of mulattoes who emerged after the establishment of St. Louis in 1659, a trading post where many French traders (male) intermingled with African women; this led to the creation of light-skinned population (mulatto). Moreover, the mulattoes could be identified more with the French culture than that of the Africans, thus it was easy for the French to assimilate them. 2. The Africans in the four communes-Goree, Dakar, St. Louis and Rufisque were quite familiar with the white traders in their communes, thus it was easy for them to adapt with the assimilation system. 3. The four communes of Senegal had a higher percentage of the converted Christian; it was easy to accept the assimilation policy applied by the government in their country.

The Similarities and Differences of Colonial Administrative Systems Analyse the similarities and differences of the colonial administrative systems The similarities of direct and indirect rule Both were colonial systems of administration with one major interest of exploiting Africans and their resources. The two colonial administrative systems used their state organs to suppress the Africans. Their organs were police, courts and prisons. In addition, the two system of colonial administration used African traditional chiefs to supervise colonial works in their areas. However, African rulers who supported colonial administration did not get full support from their people; they were regarded as puppets or traitors. Lastly, both policies maintained racial discrimination. The Europeans were favored and considered superior to Africans. All high ranking jobs in the government were reserved for Europeans while Africans held the lower position of jobs in their local areas. The differences between direct and indirect rule

1. The direct rule did not use the traditional Africans chiefs as their intermediaries while the indirect rule used the African chiefs. For instance, in Kenya the British used some Kikuyu chiefs as paramount chiefs, like chiefs Koinange wa Mbiyu and many others. Germans used direct rule in her colonies in African including Tanganyika. 2. The indirect rule practiced by the British did not great enmity from the Africans because African traditional chiefs were involved in the colonial administration, and their subjects were loyal to them. This was not the case with the direct rule employed by the Germans, since they experienced frequent resistances due to their harsh and brutal treatment of Africans. 3. Furthermore, it was easy for the indirect rule administration convince African traditional chiefs to mobilize their subjects to participate in various colonial tasks while the direct rule administration rule encountered difficulties in mobilizing Africans to perform their colonial duties and as a result opted to use force to make Africans participate in their various colonial duties. For example, the Germans in Tanganyika forced southern people to work in their colonial plantations. 4. The indirect rule system of administration had less costs of administration unlike the direct rule that required many Europeans to perform all tasks of administrations hence high costs of administration. 5. Direct rule was characterized by the use of force and racial superiority. For instance, the Germans considered themselves to be superior to other races. Brutality was also characteristic of direct rule, whereby Africans were handled brutally by colonial administrators. On other hand the indirect rule system of administration used African local chiefs in handling their people and at the same time performing colonial duties.

Despite all the differences stated above between direct and indirect rule, both administrative system was created in order to safeguard the interest of the colonialists and not to benefit the Africans. The similarities between the direct rule and the assimilation policy

1. Both the colonial administration system used European officials at the higher administrative position in their colonies. 2. Both colonial system of administration ensured that Africans were subjected to colonial laws that exploited Africans through tax payment, and forced labor, and deprived Africans of the right to vote. 3. Both colonial system of administration created positions of chiefs in areas that had no central authorities. For instance, the British did this in some parts of Nigeria and Kenya while the France formulated chieftainship in Senegal. 4. Both colonial administrative systems exploited the African natural resources, such as minerals, forests and rivers. 5. Both colonial administrative system underrated and ignored the traditional African chiefs.

The differences between the direct rule and the assimilation policy

1. The British colonies were separately administered by an appointed governor from Britain, while the French colonies where considered similar to other provinces of France. 2. The direct rule involved separate administration of African colonies, as opposed to the assimilation policy which involved the administration of all African colonies as a federation. 3. The British colonies formulated the legislative councils in the colonies and discussed policy that governed the colonies. Thus the British colonies had no representative in house of commons. On the other hand, the French colonies elected representative to the chamber of deputies of France. 4. The laws that were used by the British in the colonies were those passed by the legislative council in the colonies, while those enacted in the French colonies in Africa were the laws created in France. 5. The assimilation policy made the Africans who were in French colonies to be French citizens and enjoy all republican rights. This was opposed by the British colonies, whereby no matter what position someone may hold in a colonial state, still he remained the subject of British colony.

The similarities between the assimilation policy and indirect rule

1. Both systems used crude exploitation measure like taxation, land alienation and forced labor. 2. Both policies were based on misbelieve about Africans. Europeans considered their religion, races, education, policies and other kind of civilization as superior and thus they had a mission to civilize the Africans. 3. In both systems, the African chiefs were used as a means to achieve what colonial masters wanted. This caused the chiefs not to work for the interest of their people, nor be loyal to them, but to the Europeans. 4. Both policies maintained racial discrimination. The Europeans were favored and considered more superior than Africans. All high-ranking jobs in the government were reserved for Europeans while Africans held the lower positions of jobs in their local areas. 5. In both systems policy-making and legislation were made by their home National Assembly and were sent to the colonies to be implemented by the governor and local authorities through the secretary of state. 6. The laws which were enforced in both systems originated from their home government judicial systems. This means that the systems ignored the traditional institutions and laws made by them.

The difference between the assimilation and indirect rule 1. The French used the centralized rule in her colonies. All French colonies had their headquarters in Dakar, Senegal, and the Governor-General was the one who administered all the colonies. The entire system of administration was appointed by leaders from their home country, while the British administration used governors to administer colonies. The governor received the order from the secretary of the colony. 2. The attitude they had toward their colonies was different. The British regarded their colonies as distinct entities from their mother colonies while the French regarded their colonies as their overseas provinces. The provinces could even provide representative to French parliament. In 1914, Blaise Diagne became the first African representative in the French parliament. 3. The French assimilation policy designed Africans who were French citizens. These were granted all civil rights and favor given to the French citizens. On the other hand, the British policy never gave any privilege of that nature to Africans in their colonies. 4. The British policy preserved traditional method of selecting chiefs and local leaders. The French on other hand destroyed and never respected local governments, hence they directly chose and appointed their own African officials who were mostly not popular to the people they were ruling. 5. In the indirect system, the British allowed African chiefs to collect taxes and supervise the expenditure of some funds they collected while the French collected taxes and spent at their own discretion. 6. The revenue management of the two systems was quite different; while the French West Africa collected all the tax and spent it to its headquarter in Dakar, Senegal, and was managed by Governor-general for equal distribution and development of all its colonies, for the British each colony was given the freedom to spend the revenue collected for the benefit of that colony. 7. The indirect rule that was imposed by the British in their colonies did not disrupt the traditional African culture. On the other hand, the French assimilation policy ignored and destroyed the African culture in the colonies.

Similarities between the assimilation and the association policies

1. Both were metropolitan administration systems introduced in French colonies. 2. Both systems of administration aimed at plundering the natural resources of Africans.

The differences between the assimilation and association policies

1. The association policy was a colonial administrative system in which France had to respect the culture of her colonial people. Assimilation policy on other hand was the system of administration used by French in which the Africans were taught how to think and act as French citizens, aiming at colonizing Africans by transforming them into French citizens. 2. The assimilation policy was economically expensive compared to association system which did not demand more French funds. 3. In the association policy, colonies were regarded as other colonies in Africa and thus they were not close to the colonial master, while the assimilation policy the colonies were regarded as their overseas provinces. Thus, the colonies were closely attached to the colonial master. 4. The association policy made the Africans to be regarded as second-class citizens, while the assimilation policy Africans enjoyed the privilege and rights that governed any French citizen in the metropolis.

The similarities between the association policy and direct rule

1. Both were metropolitan administrative systems with one major interest of exploiting African resources and labor force. 2. The two systems were characterized by the use of force and racial superiority. For instance, Germans who practiced direct rule felt superior to other races. 3. In both systems the authoritarian approach was used. For instance, African press, trade union and economic activities were suppressed by colonial governments. 4. In both systems, colonial imperialists took control of their colonies for a long time, for example, the white settlers in Zimbabwe under direct rule and the French colonies in West Africa. 5. Both colonial administrative systems aimed at plundering the natural resources of Africa.

The differences between the association policy and direct rule

1. The association policy did not experience great enmity as it respected African culture, while direct rule experienced great enmity from Africans due to their harsh and brutal rule. 2. The association system has less cost of administration unlike direct rule which required many Europeans to perform administrative tasks which led to higher costs of administration. 3. The association system of administration was used by French government after the failure of assimilation while direct rule was used by German colonial power and British in area where they thought indirect system could not work. 4. In direct rule the European settlers’ population was big in colonies, while in association policy Africans were also allowed to live in their colonial master’s country.

The similarities between association policy and indirect rule

1. Both colonial administrative systems used in African colonies. 2. Both systems used African intermediaries in their administration and preserved traditional methods of choosing leaders. 3. In both policies whites occupied higher administrative posts, while the Africans occupied the lower positions in the administration. All offices from district officers, commissioners and governors were occupied by the British and the French. 4. Both systems used crude ways of ruling: exploiting, taxation and forced labor. 5. Both systems were introduced after observing the shortcomings of other systems used previously. For example, association was used after the weaknesses of assimilation policy while indirect rule was introduced after observing the shortcomings of direct rule. The differences between the association and indirect rule

1. The association policy encouraged the French colonial administrators to respect the African culture, while the indirect rule system of administration disregarded the African traditional culture but only used traditional chiefs for their interests. 2. The French emphasized on the use of French language on her colonies, while the British on the other hand considered and allow the use of local and native languages together with English. 3. The French association policy still maintained aim of transforming Africans into French by making the laws whereby non-citizens faced arbitrary arrest, serving the army for a long time, while the British made no attempt to transform the Africans.

The Strengths, Weaknesses and Impact of the Colonial Administrative Systems on Africa Evaluate the strengths, weaknesses and impact of the colonial administrative systems on Africa Strength and weaknesses of indirect rule

1. It avoided African resistance by appointing traditional rulers to rule on their behalf. Hence, all complaints were directed to traditional African rulers. 2. It was cheap, as local chiefs were used to mobilize their people to pay taxes and work as forced laborers. 3. Indirect rule created imbalance of development among African states. Areas which had local chiefs assisting the colonial government had development on social services like schools, hospitals and roads while those which had no chiefs in their areas had no or inadequate social services. Such situations had led to many conflicts among Africans after independence. 4. It had created social differences among Africans. The chiefs’ families and loyal families got privilege of getting social services such as education, hospitals and many more while the rest of the community were not getting such facilities. 5. Tribalism developed as an impact of indirect rule. African chiefs who were entrusted to rule on behalf of colonialists considered themselves superior to other in their land. For example, Kabaka Mwanga of Buganda created disunity among Ugandan when he declared the Buganda kingdom independent in 1960. 6. African chiefs became puppets of the administrators and did not serve their people. 7. The indirect rule cemented centralized bureaucracy through the use of the district commissioners.

The strengths and weaknesses of direct rule

1. The system solved the shortage of employment among the European population. For example, Germany offered employment to her people in the colonies she occupied. Hence, she managed to reduce the rate of unemployment of her people. 2. The system managed to suppress resistance, since it ensured that the colonies had enough white military officials to safeguard their interests. For instance, the Abushiri war of resistance of 1888 was suppressed by the German colonial administration. Some weaknesses of direct rule were: 3. The use of harsh and brutal means to make Africans meet colonial demands such as production of raw materials and paying taxes. Their approach led to many sufferings of the Africans that included death or imprisonment. 4. It undermined the pre-existing African traditional rulers. For instance, the German administration in Tanganyika removed the African traditional rulers, replacing them with Arab Akidas and Liwalis from the coastal areas.

Weaknesses and impact of assimilation policy Due to constraints they encountered, the French were forced to loosen their ties by initiating another system of ruling known asassociation.

 The major reason that made the French to drop the assimilation policy of administration was that, the policy proved quite impractical because it could not make an African a French citizen. It managed to change the person mentally and morally but the person remained inferior because he remained a black man who could not even be accepted by fellow Africans who were not assimilated and would neither be accepted in the European world. On other hand, association gave freedoms to Africans in the colonies to develop in their chiefdoms using their own culture.  The assimilation system proved to be too expensive. As the French kept on expanding their territory in Africa, it was a burden to assimilate more of the Africans inhabitants since the French government could incur more costs for building more social facilities such as schools, hospitals, churches and many more. Thus the assimilation system found itself in a dilemma.  It arose fears among Frenchmen in France that the assimilated Africans could bring economic challenge to them, since they would get equal rights as other Frenchmen, particularly in trade activities. Thus, they thought of discrediting the assimilation policy in order to safeguard their own interests. Many African traditional authorities were replaced with eroded assimilated rulers who had been brainwashed with the French culture.  There was a great gap among Africans as an effect of assimilation policy, as the assimilees were favored by the colonial government while the other people from other community were exploited a great deal. The assimilees were exempted from taxpaying and forced labor because they were considered French citizens, while the unassimilated were forced to pay tax and were subjected to forced labor.  The African colonies were regarded as part and parcel of France, since the assimilation system of administration considered their colonies as their overseas provinces.  French became an official language in most of African countries that were colonized by French (Francophone countries). The reason behind such decision was the impact of assimilation whereby many Africans were influenced by the French language.

Factors that led to assimilation policy to fail in West Africa

1. Some African communities with strong cultural ties refused to accept the French assimilation policy and abandon their traditional way of living. 2. African traditional chiefs discredited the assimilation system because it threatened their authority and assimilees did not accept being under the African chiefs, as they regarded themselves to be superior to them. 3. Muslim disapproved the assimilation policy for it wanted them to become Christian, while they wished to maintain their Islamic faith. 4. The spread of Islamic religion in West African communes became an obstacle for the spread of assimilation system, since the system encouraged people to be converted to Christianity. 5. Africans were not motivated to participate in political affairs of France.

Strengths of association policy

1. It did not interfere with African cultural practices such as religion, custom and traditions. 2. The association policy considered the assimilated Africans as French citizens. 3. It did not apply French civil and criminal law to Africans in the colonies.

Weaknesses of the association policy

1. The association policy was more authoritarian and withheld Africans rights to freedom of expression, trade union activities and the press freedom. 2. It forced Africans who were not assimilated to serve French colonial army for longer period than the assimilated ones. 3. It regarded the non-assimilated Africans as second class citizens.

Direct Rule, Indirect Rule, Assimilation and Association Colonial Military and Colonial Legal Institutions The Meaning Of Colonial Military And Colonial Legal Institutions Explain the meaning of colonial military and colonial legal institutions Colonial military legal institution some time refers to colonial state apparatus that were responsible to protect colonial interests, colonial military force included:

 The army force  Police force  Prison/judiciary

These institutions were concerned with the maintenance of law, order and the security of the colonial state to ensure that colonialists achieve their ultimate goals. The British established their military institutions in East Africa and central Africa. In East Africa it was referred to as a East Africa Rifles it has the duty of protecting Uganda and Kenya. In central Africa it was known as central Africa Rifles of Nyasaland (Malawi). The two military institution were joined in 1902 and formed the king‟s African Rifles (KAR) the KAR had battalions in every British territory. KAR was established in Tabora Tanganyika in 1919. The KAR recruited soldiers from Somalia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika and Malawi. Another part of the colonial military institution was the police force. This recruited cadets in the colonies or externally. The police recruited from outside the colonies were from India, Europe and some were Nubians from Sudan. The colonialist always recruited their force to foreign land which would make it easy for these workers to be fierce ruthless and harsh to the people of the foreign land. On the other hand the French had thier army which was very popular among the French West African colonies such as Senegal, Guinea and Mali. Germany never had a stable recognised army; they preferred hired mercenaries from other parts of the world and Africa. The major reason for establishing the colonial military force was to defend the White colonial administrators in the colonies and safeguard colonial interests against internal and external threats. In addition, the colonial army had a duty of suppressing and exploiting Africans with the help of other established colonial organs such as the police, the prison and the judiciary without forgetting the colonial administration, since colonialism was very much resented and resisted by the Africans. The top and middle positions of the army were dominated by the European officials and the lowest levels consisted of Africans. The Africans were included in the colonial army in the period of world wars I and II. For instance the KAR had all white soldiers in its army during the word wars. Africans were later recruited in this army in order to suppress the Germans in East Africa. Many of the East Africa KAR soldiers offered their services in Burma, Egypt, Ethiopia, Sri Lanka and Somalia. The police force The colonial police force was created in order to ensure that peace and order weremaintained in their colonies. In addition it made sure that Africans paid taxes, produced raw materials such as cash crops production in the colonial plantations and performed public works such as building railways, and roads when required by the colonial government. The other role of the police was to suppress the unacceptable African practices in the eyes of Europeans such as human sacrifice, slavery and the buying of the dead bodies. Police caught African people who committed crimes and brought them before the court of the law for European justice to take its course. In Tanganyika the first police force initiated in 1919, under the command of Dutch officers from South Africa The prison Prisons were created in the African colonies in order to discipline and guard African prisoners who were convicted and sentenced by the colonial judicial system. Many African prisoners during colonial rule were those who failed to pay taxes or refused to work in the colonial plantations and for public services. The Functions of each Colonial Military and Colonial Legal Institutions Analyse critically the functions of each colonial military and colonial legal institutions Major functions of the colonial military institutions To defend of colonial boundaries:The colonial administration ordered their army to fight against their enemies. For instance in 1919, 6 th KAR battalion of the British in Tanganyika fought in World War I in Kalito (Ethiopia) and another part of it fought in Burma and Sudan. Implemented land alienation for colonial settlers: To establish colonial plantation they enforced the land alienation policy throughout the colonies. Suppression of African resistance: SomeAfricans reacted very strongly to colonial rulership so it was the duty of colonial military to suppress the opposition. This was used as the only way for colonialists to maintain their administration. They had a task of maintaining peace and order through maintaining colonial laws and orders: They also prevented crimes in the colonies. Not only that but they also protected the colonial properties such as buildings, infrastructure etc. Tax collection and information: They were responsible for collecting information and supervising the tax collected in the colony. The information collected was to be communicated to the colonial masters. Supervision of public works was among the functions of the colonial military institutions:Public works included the construction of infrastructures such as railway, ports, prisons, hospitals, schools, churches etc. all these had to be supervised by the colonial military. Implement colonial conquest: To effect colonial invasion and domination in Africa during the colonial penetration and occupation the colonial military had to penetrate to the interior for the purpose of establishing the colonisation process. Characteristics of the colonial military Provided low wages: Exploited African soldiers through low payment of salaries although they performed the tough work in the army, while the Whites were paidhighly. Poor working condition:African soldiers were subjected to poor social services. They lived in low standards and small houses with shared bathrooms and toilets while white soldiers and their officers lived in big well-ventilated, well furnished houses; other social services such as health and education were also offered on discriminatory bases. Practiced racism:Africans was restricted from interacting with white soldiers apart from official meetings. For instance African entertained themselves in their social halls that were of low standards and had minimum facilities and White had their clubs where they interacted among themselves Poor education: Most colonial forces were more or less illiterate because it was believed that an uneducated force was better for the colonialists. Applied force not brains: Most colonial forces used strict command with less reasoning. Colonial legal institutions The colonial legal institutions were the colonial organisations that dealt with legal issues. It had the duty of advising colonial government, receiving people's claims, educating the society and guiding on the procedures to be followed, and providing legal aid. It included the legislative councils of elders, the prisons and the courts. They adapted the colonial administrative system such as the councils of elders which were common in British colonies. The legal systems during the colonial period in many African colonies were led by European judges and magistrates. It sued and sentenced those who were not affecting the oppressive colonial laws. The nature of punishment administered in the colonial judicial system ranged from fines, caning, imprisonment and execution. The colonial judiciary system was governed by the help of

 The Criminal Investigation Department: This department performed the task of investigating all criminal reports.  The motorised companies: Those performed the task of suppressing strikes formed by trade unionists. The motorised companies were established in 1947.  The militia: This took charge of collecting taxes and arrested Africans who failed to pay tax or evaded paying taxes. Duties of the legal institutions The major duties of the legal institutions were vast. Some of them were to amend laws, acts and ordinances as they were amended time after time in order to suit the colonial situation. Legal institutions had to do so to ensure that Africans performed various colonial activities. Among the laws and ordinances made was the crown land ordinance of 1915 in Kenya. This offered white settlers the right to own Kenyan highlands for a 99 years lease. Another instance was that of masters and servants ordinance of 1924 which was established in Tanganyika. The handling of various claims of the people was done through councils of elders and the legislative council (LEGCO) the councils of elders dealt with African cases while the LEGCO handled both European and African claims. PICTURES SHOWING COLONIAL ARMY BASIC ASSIGNMENT/ACTIVITY TO DO

1. Explain the meaning of colonial military and colonial legal institutions. 2. What were the functions of colonial military and colonial legal institutions? 3. Explain the features of colonial military. 4. Describe the duties of the colonial legal institutions.

Colonial Economy Establishment of Colonial Economy The Meaning and Objectives of Colonial Economy Explain the meaning and objectives of colonial economy Colonial economy was introduced in order to increase production distribution and consumption of material wealth. Why colonial economy was introduced to Africa Colonial economy in Africa was introduced due to the industrial revolution in Europe which led to a need for raw materials, markets, areas of investment and labourers. In order to solve those problems, Europeans established five economic activities such as agriculture, mining, industry, trade and infrastructure. Features of colonial economy Colonial economy had several features which differ from the pre-colonial economy in the following ways:

1. Colonial economy was export oriented (e.g. production of cash crops, mineral. 2. It was exploitative in nature,that is Africans were highly exploited. 3. It went hand in hand with alienation of Africans (Africans were alienated from their land which was used by the Europeans). 4. Colonial economy used forced labour (in areas where colonial rulers opened projects). 5. Colonial economy was a cash economy that is, exchange was done on monetary terms. 6. It went together with the use of high capital in opening of economic activities like agriculture, mining etc. 7. Colonial economy involved small scale and large-scale production. 8. It went together with introduction of tax. This tax went to the colonial government.

The Tactics used to Establish Colonial Economy Analyse critically the tactics used to establish colonial economy Establishment of colonial economy in Africa In establishing colonial economy Europeans used different methods: Creative, destructive and preservation. a. Creative Colonial rulers introduced new modes of production in Africa such as:

1. The introduction of a cash economy, exchange took place through cash. 2. Introduction of land alienation where European took fertile belonging to Africans. 3. Colonialists introduced large-scale farms e.g. tea plantations and settler farms in Africa. 4. Africans were forced to pay tax in cash to the colonial government. 5. It went together with the construction of infrastructure for the benefit of colonial powers. 6. Africans were forced to work in colonial projects. b. Destructive Colonial power tended to be destructive to Africa:

1. Colonialism destroyed African local industries in order to gain market and labourers. 2. Colonial governments tended to destroy African culture e.g. initiation ceremony. This was done to obtain cheap labour. c. Preservative

1. Colonial governments preserved peasant economy in some areas e.g. in Uganda, West Africa etc. 2. African mode of production was allowed to continue e.g. Feudalism in Uganda and primitive communal mode of production in other areas.

Activity 1

1. Colonial economy was destructive, creative and preservative, discus. 2. Discuss the methods that were used by Europeans to establish colonial economy in Africa.

Sectors of Colonial Economy The Various Sectors of Colonial Economy Identify the various sectors of colonial economy In order to fulfill their needs colonial masters introduced several projects/sectors such as:

a. Agriculture b. Trading c. Mining d. Industrial e. Infrastructure

The Features of each Sector of the Colonial Economy Explain the features of each sector of the colonial economy Agriculture Agriculture at this time was basically one crop production. In this it was of small scale and large- scale production.Crop production was divided into three forms as follows:

1. Peasant economy 2. Plantation economy 3. Settler economy

Peasant economy Africans were left to continue with production of cash crops on a small scale in some areas.Peasant economy was introduced in Uganda, cottonand coffee in Tanganyika’s Sukuma Land, and Cocoa and palm oil production in West Africa Activity 2

1. In some of the areas colonial rulers introduced peasant economy and plantation economy. Discuss why. 2. Explain why colonial governments used peasant economy in West Africa and Uganda.

Why peasant economy was reliable in some areas Colonial governments continued production using the peasant economy on a small scale. This was due to the following factors:

1. Africans had experience growing cash crops such as palm oil, cotton while Europeans did not. Hence they allowed Africans to continue producing. 2. The system was cheap and the cost of production was covered by the peasants. 3. It was due to negative response from the Africans while some societies resisted the introduction of plantation farming e.g. in West Africa. 4. It was simple to force Africans on production e.g. basing on quality of productions for instance in Sukuma Land each family was required to produce two acres of cotton. 5. Europeans were unable to live in some areas with tropical climates as they feared tropical diseases. Therefore, Africans were left to continue with production in these areas. 6. The system helped colonial governments at large with selling cash crops. Africans were required to contribute on the construction of roads and others social services. 7. Some areas had high populations e.g. in West Africa, hence it was not possible to alienate all of them from their land.

Plantation economy These were large-scale farms under the colonial government; they were mainly based on cash crops production e.g. Sisal in Tanganyika (Morogoro and Tanga). Settlers economy This system involved the production of cash crops at a larger scale.European and some Asiansettlers owned these large-scale farms. Examples of these areas where settlers introduced this type of economy are Kenya, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Algeria. How Colonial Government favoured settlers in Africa: At large it is said that settlers were highly favoured by their respective colonial Governments e.g. in Kenya and Zimbabwe settlers were favoured to a large extent. Activity 3

1. Show how settlers were favoured in Kenya and Southern Rhodesia. OR 2. Show how settlers were helped by the colonial Government in Kenya

Settlers in Africa were favoured through on of the following methods:

1. Settlers were given capital by the colonial government through loans. 2. Colonial governments built social services in areas with settlers such as hospital, roads, schools to attract more settlers to Africa. 3. Settlers were favoured in the pricing of cash crops compared to peasants (crops from the settlers were bought at a higher price). 4. Colonial governments tended to force Africans to work on settlers’ farms, it helped increase production due to availability of labour. 5. Colonial governments favoured settlers through the use of the Land Act. In 1919 the Crown Lands Act helped settlers obtain land in Kenya. 6. Africans were restricted from growing the same type of cash crops produced by settlers e.g. in Kenya. Africans were restricted from growing coffee, this benefited settlers in marketing their product.

INDUSTRY The colonial government introduced processing industries in some of the areas. These processing industries were established in areas with cash crop production. Colonial governments tended to destroy local industries in Africa in order to introduce these processing industries. Roles of industries at the time Industries were meant to reduce the bulkiness of raw materials e.g. Sisal, raw materials were processed to simplify carriage of raw materials from Africa to their mother countries. Mining White settlers formulated large numbers of mining centers in Africa to fulfill their demands e.g, in South Africa diamond and gold mines were opened.Colonial governments tended to use migrant labour due to the location of mining centers. Role of mining: Toobtain raw materials e.g. minerals like gold, diamonds for their industries. Trade and Commerce European colonialists introduced trading activities while importing several items such as clothes and simple machines from Europe. On the other hand, colonial governments also exported raw materials from Africa to their home countries. Role of trade and commerce It helped European colonial governments to gain raw materials from Africa like crops and minerals. Europeans obtained market for their manufactured goods from Europe. Infrastructure In order to develop economic activities in Africa, colonial governments built infrastructure like roads, railway houses. Roads and railways were built from the interior all the way to the coast to make exportation and importation of goods easy. Role of infrastructure

a. Roads and railways were used to carry raw materials from the interior ready for export. b. They carried immigrant labours to areas of production e.g. Kigoma – Dar es Salaam railway was built for that purpose. c. To carry administrators and military troops from one area to another. d. To transfer manufactured goods from the harbour to the another e. To transfer manufactured goods from the harbour to the interior.

Activity 4 Discuss the role of colonial economies introduced by the Europeans in Africa and how pre- colonial economy differed to the colonial economy. The Impact of the Establishment of Various Sectors of Colonial Economy on Africa Assess the impact of the establishment of various sectors of colonial economy on Africa Colonial economy in Africa had both positive and negative effects for Africans.

1. Africans inherited infrastructure from the colonial governments e.g. roads, railways, that were used for carrying goods and labourers. 2. After the independence of African countries nationalisation of plantations, buildings under the colonial governments started. Buildings, plantations and harbours were now under the African states. 3. It led to the introduction of new varieties of crops from outside e.g. varieties of cotton from America, and coffee. 4. Africans inherited European economic plans which continued to be used after independence e.g, the treatment of labourers. 5. Africans were impoverished due to exploitation by the colonial governments. 6. African technology declined due to the destruction of local industries. 7. Some areas that were known for producing labour were under developed due to rationalisation, e.g Kigoma in Tanganyika. 8. Africans inherited capitalist elements from their colonial masters in some areas like Kenya and Zimbabwe. 9. It led to Europeans taking natural resources from Africa e.g. minerals, raw materials through an unequal exchange.

Colonial Labour The Concept of Colonial Labour Explain the concept of colonial labour Starting from the early 20th century, colonial governments in Africa established colonial economies such as agriculture, industry, trade, mining etc. Due to those economic activities they needed more labour. Why labour questions came up? The following factors led to colonial labour questions in Africa:

1. Size of economic activities e.g. plantations demanded large supply of labour. 2. Locations of some economic activities e.g. mining centers were located in interior and remote parts hence had shortage of labour. 3. Some of the African societies had negative response to the colonial powers thus it was not easier to obtain labour. 4. Population size in some areas was less hence labour problem came up. The Tactics Used to Create Colonial Labour Analyse the tactics used to create colonial labour In order to solve the problem of labour shortage in Africa colonial governments took the following measures:

1. Introduction of forced labour: Colonial governments used coercive force like army and police to force Africans to work in colonial economies. In Tanganyika 1944 about 12,00 labourers were forced to work on sisal plantations. 2. Europeans imported manufactured goods in Africa such as clothes, bicycles that were sold for cash, Africans were required to work to buy such products. 3. Colonial governments introduced tax in the form of cash thus Africans were required to work in colonial economies to earn money to pay tax. 4. Colonial governments registered Trade Unions with the aim of finding labourers e.g. SILABU (Sisal Labour Bureau) in Tanganyika and W.N.L.A. (Witwatersrand Native labour Association) in South Africa. 5. They introduced laws and ordinance e.g. the “Kipande” system in Kenya where Africans were required to have an identity card showing their place of occupation. In Tanganyika there was a Masters and Native Servants Act of 1906 6. Introduction of land alienation. In Kenya and Zimbabwe Africans were removed from fertile areas and had to work to earn money. 7. Colonial governments introduced rationalisation so some areas were special for labour production e.g. Kigoma, Rukwa and other areas were special for crop production. 8. They introduced colonial education to gain administrators for lower posts in Africa e.g. clerks and messengers which were used on colonial economies and other colonial offices.

The Types of Colonial Labour analyse the types of colonial labour Colonial labour force was divided into different types, namely migrant labour, forced labour, communal labour, family labour, contract labour, resident labour, indentured labour and feudal relation labour The Impact of the Establishment of Colonial Labour to African Societies Assess the impact of the establishment of colonial labour to African societies Introduction of indigenous/ natural economy

 Pre- colonial economy - this economy was established in Africa before the coming of the colonialist (this economy involved Agriculture or crop production). During the 19th century Europeans came to establish economic activities in Africa, activities such as mining, trade, agriculture, infrastructure to mentioned a few.  In order to introduce these activities the colonialists used different mechanisms to break up natural economic activities in East Africa.  Colonialists started with the destruction of African local industries, Africans were not allowed to work in their industries. Therefore, the local textile, iron-smelting industries in East Africa were destroyed. Examples of destroyed industries are the textile industries of Sukuma land, Buganda and Congo.  In addition, the colonialists introduced cash crop production which disrupted food crop production. Colonialists aimed to gain raw materials from the indigenous people. Colonialism introduced land alienation, which led to the decline of indigenous natural economies like crop production.  Colonialists also introduced forced labour to provide manpower for their economic activities, this resulted in the destruction of African economies like agriculture and industry.

They introduced the following:

1. Introduction of cash tax. 2. Introduction of cash (money) economy. 3. Introduction of laws and ordinance e.g. “Kipande” system in (Kenya) and Masters and Native Act 1906 (Tanganyika). Construction of infrastructure in East Africa (helped colonialists to obtain markets, labourers and raw materials while affecting Africans.

Effects of colonial economy to the Africans: Colonial economy in Africa had both positive and negative effects on the African people.

1. Africans inherited infrastructure from the colonial governments e.g. roads, railways, that were used for carrying goods and labourers. 2. After the independence of African countries nationalisation of plantations, buildings under the colonial governments started. Buildings, plantations and harbours were now under the African states. 3. It led to the introduction of new varieties of crops from outside e.g. varieties of cotton from America, and coffee. 4. Africans inherited European economic plans which continued to be used after independence e.g, the treatment of labourers. 5. Africans were impoverished due to exploitation by the colonial governments. 6. African technology declined due to the destruction of local industries. 7. Some areas that were known for producing labour were under developed due to rationalisation, e.g Kigoma in Tanganyika. 8. Africans inherited capitalist elements from their colonial masters in some areas like Kenya and Zimbabwe. 9. It led to Europeans taking natural resources from Africa e.g. minerals, raw materials through an unequal exchange.

Activity 5 NECTA 1998;

1. Discuss the mechanism, used by colonialists to break up the natural indigenous (wenyeji/ wazawa) economy of East African people. 2. Using concrete examples of any East African society show the pattern of the physical and social infrastructures were determined by the system of the colonial economy. 3. How did the colonial Government ensure c

Colonial Social Services Colonial Education The Objectives of Colonial Education Analyse the objectives of colonial education The aim of establishing these social services was to consolidate and facilitate colonisation of Africa. That means they were built to favour the colonial government in power. Starting from the 20th century,colonial governments established a number of social services in Africa. Colonial economy. Examples of these colonial social services were:

1. Colonial education 2. Transport and communication 3. Recreational services 4. Water and electricity 5. Health services

The Features of Colonial Education Analyse the features of colonial education This was a type of formal education that was introduced by Europeans in Africa. This education was introduced to benefit the colonial government and not Africans. It went together with the establishment of schools high economic gain areas such as crop production areas. Features of colonial education

1. Colonial education has a pyramid shape quality. The number of students who started at lower levels reduced as they went to higher levels. 2. Schools were built in areas with economic importance, such as the Kenyan highlands which were a prime are for coffee production. 3. Colonial education was discriminative in nature e.g. there were Asian schools, European schools and others for Africans. 4. Colonial education was provided to the sons of African chiefs e.g. sons of Jumbes and few daughters obtained this type of education. 5. Schools were built in urban areas and not rural one because that is where most settlers were. 6. Education was basically about European culture e.g. training involved the use of foreign languages such as English and French.

Role of colonial education The role of colonial education are as follows:

1. To train Africans so they may be used as administrators for lowest posts e.g. messengers and clerks. 2. Colonial education was introduced to train the sons and daughters of European colonial masters together with Asians. 3. To produce African puppets who were brainwashed to favour the colonial government.

The Impact of Colonial Education on African Societies Assess the impact of colonial education on African societies Effects of colonial education

1. It produced educated elites who organised their fellow Africans to fight for independence e.g. J.K Nyerere, Kwame Nkrumah. 2. Colonial education killed Africans' skills at large, these skills remained in theory. 3. It produced classes between the educated and those who were not educated 4. Colonial education led to the destruction of the African culture e.g. on dressing and eating. 5. Africans began to desire 'White' jobs, education was aimed to make one employable. 6. Colonial Health Services 7. The Objectives of Colonial Health Services 8. Analyse the objectives of colonial health services 9. The aim of establishing these social services was to consolidate and facilitate colonization of Africa. That means they were built to favour the colonial government in power). 10. Colonial health services were established in the colonial state, to serve colonial administrators, missionaries and traders as their primary aim. Also some Africans were served by the colonial healthy service as to maintain the minimum healthy standard of Africa, to continue providing the highly needed labor force to the colonial productions.

Colonial Education Colonial Health Services Provision of Water and Housing Services during the Colonial Era The Motive for the Provision of Colonial Water and Housing Services

Qn. Explain the motive for the provision of colonial water and housing services

Colonial government started to introduce these services to those areas with settlers or colonial officials. The major role of introducing these services was to attract the coming Europeans in Africa. During the colonialism, the Europeans gave priority to their comfort in terms of provision of water and housing services. The provision of water and housing during that era was guided by the various rationale, for instance, it was meant to encourage the European settlement in the colonies, it was distributed depending on the economic importance of an area, also it provided based on racial bases. The Distribution Pattern of Water and Housing Services Analyse the distribution pattern of water and housing services Characteristics of water and housing services

 Offered on the basis of race,  unevenly distributed (depended on the economic value of an area),  areas for labourers had no housing of water services which were established by colonialists,  based on religious grounds (missionary areas had better water)

The Impact of the Provision of Colonial Water and Housing Services on African Societies Assess the impact of the provision of colonial water and housing services on African societies Impact of water and housing services included:

 Reinforced racial classes in colonies,  areas without raw materials or colonialists were marginalized and denied services,  created regional imbalances

FORM IV

CRISIS IN THE CAPITALIST SYSTEM

1. FIRST WORLD WAR: CAUSES AND IMPACT ON AFRICA

The First World War was a purely imperialistic war due to its nature and the motives behind it. The war began on July 28, 1914, with the declaration of war by Austria-Hungary on Serbia and hostilities between the allied and central powers continued until the signing of the armistice on November 11, 1918. The war lasted four years, 3 months and 14 days.

The Short and Long Term Causes of the First World War

The long and short term causes of the conflict were rooted deeply in European history as well as in the economic and political polices that prevailed on the continent after 1871, the year which marked Germany as a great power. Germany organized the European balance of power and defeated France in the war of 1871 which caused France to view Germany as her arch rival. Such enmity facilitated World War One.

LONG TERM CAUSES

 Formation of military alliance system/military camps: Imperialists European nations Formed a military union to defend themselves and safeguard their interests against common enemies. They agreed to increase military camp members if any were attacked; they also agreed to fight together. These military camps were formed after the unification of German in 1871 and were originated by Otto Von Bismarck. Germany was interested in forming the alliance because it wanted to isolate France in order to prevent it from seeking revenge after its defeat in the Franco-Prussian war of 1871.

 Arms race / military preparedness / development of militarism: This was the competition of manufacturing military deadly weapons within the imperialist’s industrialized European nations. A well-known example of an arms race is the Anglo-German naval rivalry between 1900 and 1914.Expansion of the German naval involving the construction of powerfully armed and heavily armored battleships was met with the launch of the British Dreadnought class of naval vessels after 1906. After the unification, Germany began to manufacture new weapons that were beyond her domestic needs. This made other countries to join the competition of manufacturing weapons which necessitated or motivated them to go to war hence the outbreak of world war in 1914.

 Oversea conflicts/ fighting for colonies/ imperialist motives: The industrial revolution in Germany, France and Britain led to economic domination leading to the scramble for colonies in Asia, Africa and Balkans and caused an immense increase in the manufactures of each country and a consequent need for foreign markets. The principal field for European policies of economic expansion was Africa which is where clashes occurred due to colonial interests. Economic rivalry in Africa between France and Great Britain and between Germany on one side and France and Great Britain on the other precipitated war in 1914.

 European balance of power: Every European country wanted to maintain military economic and political superiority over another which led to the outbreak of war. Germany wanted to remain the lion of the land through its military, while Britain wanted to remain the shark of the sea because it had very powerful marine technology. Such ideology caused other nations to struggle for recognition even if it meant risking world peace. Therefore, World War One broke out in 1914 because each nation wanted to maintain their status quo and claim recognition.

 European nationalism: Many European nations joined the war to defend their national interests, e.g. the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand by a Serbian student was an act of nationalism against Serbia, while the conflict with France was meant to regain Alsace and Lorain from France.

IMMEDIATE CAUSES.

 Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand on 28th June 1914: Austria's Prince Ferdinand and heir to throne and his wife Sophia were shot dead by a Serbian student while at their honeymoon at the bridge of Sarajevo, this was the immediate cause of World War One. Austria responded by giving an ultimatum to Serbia with the support of Germany. The conditions given included:  Serbia was to explain the assassination and bring the assassins to book.  Serbia was to dismiss all official which Austria suspected was involved in the murder.  Austrian officials and police were to be permitted to take part in the investigation. Serbia rejected some of the conditions with the support of Russia and her allies. On 25th July1914 German declared war on France on 3rd August 1914, Britain declared war on Germany, Russia also joined the war hence World War One.

 Germany's attack on Belgium: Germany mobilized and stationed her troops in Belgium and prevented French troops from advancing. Germany's attack on Belgium on 2 august 1914, caused Britain to quickly join the war on 14 august 1914, Britain accused Germany of breaking Belgium's neutrality which was confirmed since 1839 by the London conference. All these events also triggered the First World War in 1914.

How Africa was involved in the war In 1914 German colonies in Africa consisted of: Togo Land, the Cameroon, Namibia (South West Africa), and Tanganyika (East Africa). An Anglo-French force took possession of Togo land in august 1914. On September 1914 a British force from Nigeria invaded Cameroon and a French force from French Equatorial Africa invaded east and south of Cameroon. After many campaigns in which the Germans defeated the allied forces several times, German resistance was finally overcome in February 1916. In South West Africa, Germany was conquered by troops from the Union of South Africa between September 1914 and July 1915. The British force was bigger in East Africa and comprised of about 4250 soldiers. This was the force used to crush and defeat Germany's force of 750 soldiers and a similar number of policemen. The most important of Germany's possessions; East Africa (Tanganyika) displayed the strongest resistance to the attacks of the allies. Early assaults by British and Indian troops (November 1914) were deflected by the Germans under General Paul Von Lettow-Vorbeck. In November 1915, British naval units gained control of Lake Tanganyika and in the following year, the allied forces (British, South Africa and Portuguese) intended to invade German East Africa which was under the command of general Jan Christian Smuts. In 1916, the allies captured the principal towns of German East Africa including Tanga, Bagamoyo, Dar es Salaam and Tabora, the Lettow –Vorbeck‟s troops then retreated into the south east section of the colony. Late in 1917, however the German forces took the offensive, invading Portuguese East Africa. In November1918, the allies began an invasion of Rhodesia. When the armistice was signed in Europe in 1918, the troops in German East Africa were still fighting even though most of the colonies were in the hands of the allies. Lettow –Vorbeck surrendered three days later.

THE FACTORS THAT LED THE WAR TO SPREAD WORLDWIDE

First World War was fought in Europe, but eventually it spread worldwide for various reasons. The reasons included;  The need to protect colonial interests,  Military obligation,  Lack of troops among imperialist powers  Rise of sea wars,  Spread of socialist or capitalist ideologies.

THE IMPACT OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR ON AFRICA

Destruction of Africa: World War One led to the destruction of Africa especially African agriculture and caused the deaths of Africans who participated in the war in Libya, Somalia and Kenya, it’s said that more than 100,000 East African troops were killed.

African nationalism: The world war led to the rise of African nationalism, it pushed Africans to demand their liberation and independence especially after the rise of awareness and the rise of African elites who organized peasants to demand their independence; Kenyatta, Nkurumah, were some African elites.

Extreme exploitation. The aftermath of World War One was the intensive exploitation of African resources because European nations wanted to compensate what they had lost during the war. New taxes like hit tax, gun tax, matiti tax, poly tax, head tax and dog tax were introduced. Land alienation increased forced labour become common, mineral extraction became dominant.

Rise of socialism in Africa: World War One led to the rise of socialism in Africa after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 whereby Africans adopted socialism e.g. Ujamaa villages in Tanganyika; Common Mans Charter in Uganda, Humanism in Zambia and Islamic socialism in Libya . Political re-division of Africa: It led to re-division of the African continent among the imperialist nations e.g. all German colonies were redistributed among the victor powers. German East Africa was renamed Tanganyika shared between Britain and Belgium whereby Britain took Tanganyika while Belgium took Rwanda and Burundi. South East Africa (Namibia) was given to South Africa. Cameroon was shared between Britain and France the portion neighboring Nigeria was given to Britain and the rest was given to France. Togo was shared between France and Britain the portion neighboring Ghana was given to Britain and the rest was given to France.

The great depression of 1929-1933: The First World War led to the great depression which victimized African economies leading to the fall of crop prices. In Europe, prices of African agricultural production collapsed, and wages of social services were also reduced.

Africa's involvement in the war: Some Africans were recruited by the colonial powers to fight on their side. Many Africans were taken to work as cooks, porters, security guards and fighters; this led to depopulation in Africa and gender imbalances. Ranks and medals were awarded to those who had successfully fought in the war, thus creating a new class of the ex-servicemen.

Fall of prices of agricultural production in African colonies: The war led to the fall of producer prices because of the severe financial crisis that faced the metropole and the colonies. During the period of war as agriculture greatly declined, European plantations were destroyed or abandoned in order to concentrate on the war. African cultivation was equally affected resulted famine.

Cut down of colonial government expenses: Social services expenditure was tremendously reduced because of the severe financial constraints of the war period due to this, colonial activities almost came to a standstill.

Social miseries: The war led to misery in various parts of Africa where the people suffered from homelessness, displacement famine, diseases, fears and uncertainties. There was an outbreak and spread of diseases like small pox, meningitis, plagues and venereal diseases like syphilis. There was a serious outbreak of influenza between 1918 and 1919 which killed many people.

Warfare associations: World War One led to the rise of warfare associations in the colonies as a method to intensively exploit African resources, such warfare association included Kilimanjaro native planters, Bukoba coffee growers and Bataka association in Uganda.

Colonial schemes: Introduction and development of colonial schemes in order to generate big qualities and quantities as to increase exports to the metropole, this led to an influx of European settlers into East Africa, these were mostly ex-soldiers which meant more loss of land for the Africans. With increased European settlement in Kenya, settlers became agitated for political power and representation in government.

THE GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION

The great depression generally refers to the economic crisis which occurred between 1929 and the 1930s during the period of inter war between the world's super powers. It can also be described as an economic disaster which spread throughout Europe following the collapse of the New York stock exchange in Wall Street on 19 October 1929. In Britain it was called "the slump‟ and in German "Die Krise‟ (the crisis) and Americans used the term "great depression‟. The great depression began when the stock exchange crashed in 19 October 1929 and depositors feared bankruptcy and rushed to withdraw their deposited cash.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION

 Mass unemployment: The official figures are impressive, peaking at around 6 million unemployed in Germany, 14 million in the United States and 2.7 million jobless in Britain due to poor economic activities.  Social tensions increased considerably: With a rising intolerance towards groups or Individuals who were perceived to be "economic rivals‟ or "outsiders,‟ many people began to blame their neighbors due to the economic collapse.  Low purchasing power: People were unable to buy food and other necessities due to poor economic activities.  Protectionism: Protectionism is the economic policy of restraining trade between nations Through methods such as tariffs and government regulations. Preventing commodities from other nations was applied as a way to prevent depression.  Starvation famine and malnutrition related diseases: The depression took a heavy toll on the physical and mental health of European society. In Hamburg, for example over 50% of the young men were unemployed for more than two years and they were especially hard-hit psychologically.  Low production of industrial goods and steady fall of prices. The depression affected the Economic status of imperialist nations and this led to low production as capital was insufficient and again prices fall simply because whites could not afford goods of higher prices this forced the price to fluctuate.  Closure of financial institutions like banks due to poor economic activity. Simply because most of the merchants entered into loss because of the depression, most of them failed to return the loans that they were given thus most of financial institutions faced severe catastrophes and they were forced to closed as they run out of capital.  The wide spread of economic depression.heightened gender divisions: In some cases married women workers were forced from the work place by state legislation in a campaign against so called "double earners‟ because their husbands also brought home a wage. .  Widespread Malnourishment: Its effects on national health were long lasting. In the mid 1930s a routine medical inspection identified over 21% of school children in Pontypridd, Wales as malnourished.

THE CAUSES OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION

 First world war of 1914, this war created an economic vacuum, whereby during the war many European countries were incurring high war expenditure while no production thus after the war the European nations wanted to compensate the gap of production that occurred during the period, which led to over production hence low prices in agricultural and industrial products. Hence low investment which led to mass unemployment that brought low purchasing power that leads to poor welfare like famine starvation and death thus great depression.

 Multi distribution of capitalist’s economy or uneven distribution of national economy in the capitalist’s nations. Whereby in pure capitalist‟s nations it‟s only few individuals that happen to own and control production for instance in U.S.A by the time of great depression it was only 5% of the population that owned the economy. Thus any withdraw of such people from the investments, it affect the entire economy thus the fall of New York stock exchange in 1929 led to the investors to withdraw their money from the stock market which led to the economic depression of 1930‟s.

 Heavy loans during the fighting, heavy debts from USA to France and Britain were acquired to facilitate the war even after the war more debts were got from USA like financial loan to construct the war damaged European nations, the results was when the pressure to repay loans and interests became greater particular in Europe, it created an economic situation whereby huge sum of money begun flowing from Europe to USA. This destroyed international trade, thus Europeans nations couldn‟t develop but all of them depending on USA thus any problem on USA economy had to affect the entire world.

 War indemnity of Germany and senseless circle payments, Germany was asked to pay huge indemnity or repatriation of 6.5 billion dollars to the victor power first of all this amount of money was too huge for Germany which had just come from war that led to inflation and created senseless circle payments. Germany acquired loan from USA as to pay Britain and France who wanted to repay the loans from USA, who borrowed Germany thus a senseless circle payments that anything that would affect USA economy would affect the entire world economy hence the collapse of New York stock exchange led to great economic depression.

 The collapse of new York stock exchange on 19th October 1929, this was the immediate cause of the great depression, many investors in USA and outside USA had invested a lot in USA stock exchange the fall of the prices of shares, made the investors to withdraw their shares which led to low investment that led to closure financial institutions like banks, and credit facilities, hence great depression.

 Absence of international institutions like IMF and World Bank which would have acted as advisors and regulators of economic and financial issues in the world, like controlling inflation production, scarcity and financial regulation. Thus its absence in 1930‟s led to great economic depression

 Over production of agriculture and industrial products, after the first world war that period was characterized with over production of agriculture and industrial output both in the periphery and in the metro pole, this led to the fall of prices of output of industrial and agriculture, which discouraged production in the long run, thus great economic depression.

 Political instabilities during inter war period, this period did not enable many European nations to engage into commodity production and international trade, it left a little time for European and USA to engage in economic activities which led to poor planning that culminated into economic slump.

 Bolshevik revolution of 1917, after undergoing the revolution Russia begun to under go command and central controlled economy, which narrowed the world market that led to the piles of goods without market from America and in western European nations, hence economic great depression.

 Poor economic policies like protectionism, were also responsible for great economic depression e.g. USA during the inter war period practiced and pursued discriminative economic policy against world economies she passed the „Mc Cumber tariff‟ in 1922 to shelter her economies against imports of nation wishing to export more goods

 The collapse of the Austria, as she was providing loans to the European nations but collapsed in may 1931 due to the withdraw on the French funds the financial crisis was intensified in Europe.

 The recovery program after world war one, the European nations begun to discriminate the USA goods, and begun the recovery of agriculture sector which led to the discriminating of agriculture products in USA that resulted the pile of goods because of fewer buyers this affected the production and that marked the beginning of the great depression.

THE IMPACT OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION ON AFRICA

 Fall of price commodity, it led to the fall of African cash crops tremendously like cotton, coffee, sisal and cocoa because the demand at the metro pole was also very low the peasants and European settlers who were the chief producers of such commodities almost abandoned the production.

 Decline in provision of social services, whereby the colonial government was no longer interested in the investment of social services because of severe social crises in Europe.

 Establishment of processing industries, like coffee, cotton ginneries an oil refinery as to increase the qualitative and quantitative output in the metro pole.  Intensive exploitation of african resources e.g. land alienation was doubled, new taxes were introduced, forced cropping was introduced and forced labour became a common place, this aimed at compensating the financial crisis that had affected their economy.

 Regional imbalance, especially of transport network whereby railways lines and roads were constructed in areas where production was high and in places that there was no transport network

 Provision of low wages, especially on colonial civil servants as to minimize colonial expenditures in the peripheries

 Lay-offs / retrenchment that led to mass unemployment in many colonies because the colonial government reduced the number of workers so as to reduce colonial expenditure like teachers, nurses, clerks and others.

 Development of migrant labourers, since colonial government increased plantation and labour reserves e.g. Rukwa, Kigoma and Dodoma in Tanganyika and northern Uganda as well.

 Growth of food stuff, the crises contributed in putting more efforts in the production of food crops like cassava, banana, soy bean, potatoes and millet because cash crops had fallen in prices.

 Increase in the import industrial commodities in the peripheries as to decrease the stock piles in the metro pole that had lacked the market during the period of severe economic crisis.

THE SECOND WORLD WAR: The war begun from September 1939 to August 1945; it was fought between the antagonistic imperialistic nations in two camps i.e. the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo axis Vs the allied forces being led by Britain, France, USA and Russia, the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo axis was defeated and surrendered. The war was a global military conflict that in terms of live lost and material destruction was the most devastating war in human history. It began in 1939 as a European conflict between Germany and an Anglo-French polish coalition but eventually widened to include most of the nations of the world. It ended in 1945, leaving a new world order of a super powers dominated by the United States and the Union on Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) the second world war reached in every part of the world in the five continents and in 7 seas. More than 50 million of people lost their lives in this disastrous war, more than 22 million were soldiers and more than 28 million were civilians. The real cause of this war is not known but most historians concur that it was the combination of factors that led to the outbreak of the world war II. It was also unique in modern times for the savagery of the military attacks unleashed against civilians, and for the adoption by Nazi Germany of genocide (of Jews, Roma [Gypsies], homosexual and other groups) as a specific war aim. The most important determinant of its outcome was industrial capacity and personnel. In the last stage of the war, two radically new weapons were introduced, the long range rocket and the atomic bomb.

THE CAUSES OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR  The Versailles peace treaty of 1919, many world historians do agree that the seed that led to the second world war was sown during the Versailles peace treaty settlement, the Versailles men who had reduced Germany to a military cipher and had reorganized Europe and the world as they saw fit, this created more enemies than friends for example, Hitler promised to overturn the Versailles treaty, for having humiliated Germany to that extent, he secured additional support from Germany peasants, Turkey, Italy too were ill-treated by the treaty and opted to revenge. Thus the outbreak of World War II in 1939

 Formation of hostile camps, after the failure of league of nation Germany was very successful to create an alliance with Italy, Tokyo and Japan, thus the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo axis which forced French to form the Anglo-French hegemony which was later on joined by other countries and formed the allied forces versus central power, it was these camps that the second world war was organized it provide confidence and increase enmity between the military camps that made the war inevitable.

 Hitler and Mussolini foreign policy, this were characterized by expansionism aggression hatred revenge and domination, Adolf Hitler the leader of the Germany national socialist (Nazi) party, preached a brand of fascism predicated on anti-Semitism and racism. Hitler promised to overturn the Versailles treaty and secure additional Lebensraum (living space). German people who he contended deserved more as members of the superior race he wanted to make the capital of the world to be at Berlin, this created the outbreak of World War II when they attempted to fulfill their desires e.g. 1935 Mussolini attacked Ethiopia, in 1938 Hitler attacked Austria, 1939 Hitler attacked Poland as that resulted the outbreak of world war II.

 Military preparedness and re armament, when Hitler came to power in 1933 having denounced the disarmament clauses of the Versailles treaty, created a new air force, and re introduced conscription, in march 1936 Hitler dispatched German troops into the Rhine land he withdraw Germany from the league of nations and begun manufacturing more weapons preparing for revenge, this act attracted other countries to do the same thing e.g. Britain and France increased their military budget to prepare weapons. Such military readiness brought tension which brought the war in 1939.

 Imperialism, German begin the war because she wanted to regain her lost imperial interesting Africa like in Tanganyika as well as to get more colonies in Africa, for Italy she fought to get more colonies and territories, France wanted to maintain and defend her imperialistic gains from Germany, while Russia was interested in the Balkans and Britain wanted to maintain her status quo as the shark of the sea with the colonial empire.

FACTORS THAT LED THE WAR TO SPREAD WORLDWIDE

The Second World War was centered in Europe but after a period of time spread worldwide this was due to some factors; among of them are  colonialism,  expansion of military alliances,  imperialist interests,  the rise and spread of socialist and capitalist ideologies in the world.

THE IMPACT OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR ON AFRICA

 Involvement of Africa into the war, some Africans were recruited to fight on the behalf of their colonial power for instance the British colonies recruited the King African Riffles (KAR) to fight on the side of allied forces.  The rise of African nationalism, especially after the return of ex-soldiers who begun to mobilize their fellow Africans to fight against colonialism after getting awareness, it was attributed both on internal and external forces.  Formation of United Nations (UN), especially after the collapse of League of Nations whereby African countries became members of UN especially those that became independent.  Destruction of African agriculture and economic activities, since the war reached in African soil like in Somali, Kenya, Libya and other parts, African property were destroyed.  Intensive exploitation of African resources by the colonialists in order to compensate the losses incurred during the war although this led to large scale nationalism in Africa.  The rise of USA as a leading capitalist nations, which introduced open door policy neo colonialism as compensate what for having not colonized like European nations.  Spread of socialist ideologies in Africa e.g. Ujamaa village in Tanganyika, commons mans charter in Uganda and consciousness in Zambia.  Death and suffering, since many Africans fought on the side of their colonial master, around 100,000 were mobilized in east and southern Africa whereby, many of them died; there was outbreak of diseases and hunger that killed many Africans.  Formation of none allied movement (NAM), this was formed in 1955 in Bandung Indonesia whereby neutral nations who did not belong in side i.e. capitalism or communism.  Collapse of Italian colonialism in Africa, the war marked the end of Italian imperialism in Africa following the defeat of central axis Italy lost her colonies of Libya and Eritrea.  Transfer of mandatory territories to the UN trust ship and the trust territories were put under the supervision of the UN which included Tanganyika, Namibia, Rwanda, Burundi and many others.  Intensification of exploitation in the colonies, measures were taken in the colonies to increase raw materials in the metro pole, a lot of exports were needed from the colonies to rebuilt the war ruined Europe, for example new taxes were introduced, land alienation, forced cropping and processing industries.  Development of rural urban protest, which was attributed to extreme exploitation in the colonies, mass discontent was developed both in the rural and workers in the urban centers who manifested in the form of strikes and riots.

 Introduction of new economic, social reforms and social policies in the colonies for example import substation industries were encouraged in relation to education the curriculum was changed and the emphasis was put on hand work and agriculture as to envisage qualitative and quantitative production.  Environment degradation in the colonies, this was due to the over use of the environment during that period as to create enough commodity for export in the metro pole for example land became exhausted.  State intervention in the colonial economy, the colonial state became increasingly involved in organizing, coordinating and controlling commodity production in the colonies whereby it involved in marketing of export commodities by creating export marketing boards for example coffee marketing board in Kagera and Lint marketing board in Uganda. Activity Do the following Assignment

1. The First World War did not come as thunderstorm but from clear environment. Discuss. 2. How did the great depression affect Africa and what were the solutions to the problem? 3. What was the impact of great depression of 1929-1933 on the colonial economies of Africa? 4. Explain the reasons that led the east African nations to particapate in the second world war 5. What were the impacts of the second world war in Africa

NATIONALISM AND DECOLONISATION Nationalism in Africa The Concept of Nationalism Explain the concept of nationalism Nationalism literally refers to the desire ,love , or sprite for ones nation .In Africa the term nationalism has been used to signify the struggle of independence or self determination against foreign domination in case of Europe the term nationalism has been used to signify for national unification in Germany and Italy and to acquire oversea colonies. Nationalism in Africa is divided into two phase according to the period.  Nationalism before 1945  Nationalism after 1945 (mass nationalism)

The Origin of Nationalism in Africa Explain the origin of nationalism in Africa The origin of nationalism in Africa is traced back to the era of colonialism and primary African resistance against colonial rule. The increase of exploitation resulted to nationalistic struggle. Its origin and basis were of two perspectives: These are based on reflection of the ancient and modern based on recent phenomena characterized by structural conditions of modern society. The Importance of Nationalism in Africa Explain the importance of nationalism in Africa The following are the Importance of African Nationalism

 African nationalism aimed at gaining political sovereignty i.e. self determination byopposing imperial occupation of the European colonialist.  To spread political awareness to African against white economic exploitation theimperialist extended excessive oppression and exploitation to the Africans, heavytaxation, land alienation and forced labour.  To bring various African ethnic groups to form unity and solidarity to fight theirgrievances and this was to be achieved through formation of political parties.  To remove the element of European capitalism and its related evil and adopt new afrocentric views of Marxism.  To spread the African culture and fight out foreign culture that had been promotedby the colonialism, like language, dressing, table manners among others.  To remove inferior complex among the Africans and to appreciate the effort ofliberating themselves from European domination

Nationalism before 1945 In the first decade of colonial rule most East African communities experienced only spasmodic contacts with the white men. But by the mid of 1920s,the activities of the government officials, missionaries and settlers were beginning impinge or to affect much more direct on the lives of many Africans. Acts like land alienation, forced labour, injustice and taxation now were affecting the Africans more. The struggle for self determination and resistance against the intruders began in Africa immediately after the inception of colonialism around 1890s. The African started to resist colonial domination in the early time e.g. Abushiri and Bwana Heri in Tanganyika, Shona and Ndebele in Zimbabwe, as well as Nama and Herero in Namibia. The African resistance was of three kinds;

 Passive resistance  Collaborative resistance  Active resistance

However, the period and intensity in which the early African resistance occurred in various societies depended on the intensity of colonial activities and its impact. For example as early as the 1890s the people of Ghana had already formed the Gold Coast Aborigine‟s Right protection society which was to fight against laws which had been enacted to exploit African land. Also in 1920 the biggest welfare association in the region was the National Congress of British West Africa in Accra. It was largely formed by the emerging African elites who wanted increased and effective representation in various organs of the state especially in the legislature. Causes of Nationalism in Africa before 1945 Political grievances They lost t their independence to the foreigners thus nationalism to regain their lost independence. African rulers were thrown away and replaced them by foreign rulers who were imposed on the African that they detected and wanted to restate their traditional rulers. Economic grievances

1. Forced labour to work on the colonial plantations to provide cheep labor anyAfrican who resisted was punished heavily 2. Imposition of heavy taxes as to initiate money economy taxes like hut taxpoll tax matiti tax were introduced as to force the indigenous to work in theplantation cattle confiscation as to deny African from engaging in othereconomic activities and resort on supplying cheep labor 3. Land alienation to keep African away from practicing their substance agricultureand begn to supply cheep labor in plantation. 4. Loss of control of their trade, like long distance trade and Trans Saharan trade aswell as the introduction of the so called legitimate trade. 5. Destruction of African agriculture which was self sustaining that based on theneeds of Africa and in place cash crop plantation was introduced.

Social grievances

1. Colonial injustice and oppression like long working hours, social abuses and separationof men from their families 2. Heavy punishment like chopping off ribs of the Africans in case of the Congo colonyunder Belgium, corporal punishment in Tanganyika under Curl Peter. 3. Racism and segregation of Africans, by insulting them by their color and making themthe third grade citizens or their own land. 4. Destruction of African values and traditions and implanting foreign culture like religion,language, education and culture.

The Rise of Social and Welfare Associations The Meaning of Social and Welfare Associations Explain the meaning of social and welfare associations Social and welfare associations are social groups associations formed by Africans to meet the immediate needs of members by protesting colonial exploitation, oppression and humiliations. They played an important role of providing political education to African communities by showing the evil of colonialism and the need to liberate themselves. The major groups of social and welfare associations 1. The skilled and unskilled workersThese comprised of elites both skilled and unskilled workers who lived in poor houses and had nosufficient health and education services compared to Asians and Europeans. They demanded better terms of services, equal provision of wages and salaries to workers of the same qualifications regardlessof their race differences. 2. African tradersThese were petty traders in urban areas who were addressing their grievances including discriminationsas African traders were discriminated while Asian and European traders were favored much by the colonial governments through provision of loans and other facilities. 3. Peasants and cooperative societies. These were peasants cooperative unions aiming at defending the needs of the farmers since the colonial government confiscated their land and offered it to the white settlers while Africans possess little lander landless and forced them to live in infertile land. Examples of these associations were Kilimanjaro Native Planters Association of Tanganyika and Ukamba Members Associations of Kenya.

The Reason for the Rise of Social and Welfare Associations Analyse the reason for the rise of social and welfare associations The influence of ex soldiers from the first and second world wars, these were the Africans who were recruited by colonial governments to fight on their sides abroad these countries like Burma, Sri Lanka and other parts of the world. They created awareness to the Africans about the importance of welfare associations in the process of nationalism struggle. The role of African elites especially those trained by colonialists for the aim of assisting colonial administration in various fields like clerks, teachers, nurses among others. They mobilized their fellow workers to form social organizations within their working areas demanding good living and working conditions for workers as well as better salaries and wages as well as same benefits regardless their race differences. The increase of exploitation of human resources and natural resources, the world wars left European countries with economic difficulties as a result they decided to come to Africa to compensate their economic loss by exploiting African resource through land alienation, forced labour, taxation and payment of low wages this situation led the Africans to rise social and welfare associations to protest colonial exploitations. Awareness of civilized urban dwellers on colonial evils most Africans who settled in urban centers so the need to establish welfare associations especially among the people who originated from the same regions or clans, they later on provided such awareness to the African village dwellers who joined hands by supporting the establishment of social and welfare associations. The Strengths, Weaknesses and Contribution of Social and Welfare Associations during the Struggle for Independence Assess the strengths, weaknesses and contribution of social and welfare associations during the struggle for independence Weaknesses/problems of social and welfare associations It was based on small group’s organization like tribal or class as a result it was very difficult to for their grievances to be fulfilled by the colonial governments for they could not mobilize most of their countrymen. Frustration and fear among members due to colonial government harassments to members and leaders of social and welfare associations following this situation the members and leaders of the associations failed to stand firm for the interest of their associations. For example the Harry Thuku of the Kikuyu Central Association in Kenya was softened his stand against the colonial government after being exiled. Financial problems, most of social and welfare association faced the problem of inadequate funds this was due to the fact that they were depending income from their members’ subscriptions to meet their needs. Yet, their members earned low income and at the same time they had other obligations like tax payments and daily life needs as a result they contributed a small amounts in the association something that resulted to financial problems. Inadequate knowledge and skills of leaders in managements, many leaders of social and welfare associations had little knowledge and skills of managing offices and leading people this created difficulties in organization and mobilization of members within a given association. Banning of social and welfare associations by colonial government this was due to the fact that these associations were against colonial governments and administrations that is why colonial governments decided to ban them in order to abolish them. This situation made Africans to experience difficulties in organizing the associations. Strengths and contributions of social and welfare associations during the struggle for African independence

 Establishment of infrastructures such as offices came to be used by the nationalist leadersduring the struggle for independence.  Preparation of nationalist leaders these associations prepared African nationalist leaders who were members of the associations through providing political awareness that made them to stand firm in struggling for African liberation. For example Jomo Kenyatta was a member of the Kikuyu Central Association who later on organized Kenyans to fight for their liberation.  They provided awareness among the Africans on the evils of colonial governments, through these associations many Africans especially the members of the associations awakened on the injustice of colonialism. For example in Kenya the Ukambani experiencing demonstrations due to the increase of awareness.  Journal publications, some social and welfare associations published their journals which carried out various political agenda and communicated with their members on different issues of their concern.  Generally they organized meetings which came to be a forum for airing their own grievances to the colonial rule. Furthermore, they created a base on which the true nationalism activities stood

The Rise of Protest and Religious Movements Protest can be referred as a reaction against those who mistreat or humiliate others, indicating that their treatment cannot be taken any more. Protest can be divided into two;

1. Active protest this involves physical reaction such as fighting or striking 2. Passive protest this involves silent reactions such as boycotts.

The African religious movements prevailed in the early 20th century among African communities. They took form of either indigenous protest movements like Msambwa Religious Movements in Kenya or the form of independent churches that had broken away from white missionaries churches. African independent churches’ paved the way for African emancipation to occupy high ranks in the church hierarchy; previously Africans were at the bottom in the church as they only ended up being bible school teachers and catechists all high ranks and decision were made by white missionaries, the formation of independent churches made the Africans to accept Christianity as a religion not an aspect of colonial system as they thought to be when it was conducted by white missionaries. Generally, the breaking away of African from various western missionary churches to independent churches was an expression of a protest against colonial domination in Africa. The Meaning of Protest and Religious Movements Explain the meaning of protest and religious movements Protest refers to a strong reaction against mistreatment and humiliation. Protests can be divided into two categories: Active protest e.g. physical reaction like fighting, and passive protest e.g. boycotts. While African religious movements were movements created by Africans to protest colonial powers. The Causes of the Rise of Protest and Religious Movements Analyse the causes of the rise of protest and religious movements Church segregation, the European churches preached the salvation and equality of human being before God while Africans were segregated, oppressed and not allowed even to lead prayers they were taken as third citizens. The assistance of missionary to colonizers, the European churches also involved in helping colonizers in land alienation, forced labour, taxation and administration which had no any relation with the teaching of the bible. Africans realized that the European churches and colonialism were two sides of the same coin that the Christian missionaries were only to pave way for colonization process of Africa as many of them acquired labour farms and exploited African just like the white settlers. Missionaries advised Africans concerning political and economic problems by breaking their resistance e.g. through preaching biblical doctrines like the humble people are the blessed for them will enter the kingdom of God forgive those who wrong you. Missionaries intervened in African culture like girl circumcision among the kikuyu people in Kenya who vehemently detested the missionary activities. That prompted them to start independent schools and begun to spread. The Africans showed disapproval of missionaries’ education system, they considered it inadequate as it only taught African reading, writing and arithmetic (3Rs) this enabled African to occupy low position in colonial administration like clerks and wound dressers in the colonial government’s hospital. The Africans wanted to counter attack the colonial exploitation and domination independent church campaigned against payment of taxes by African, racial discrimination, unequal provision of social services and forced labour. The Strengths, Weaknesses and Contribution of Protest and Religious Movements during the Struggle for Independence Assess the strengths, weaknesses and contribution of protest and religious movements during the struggle for independence Weaknesses/problems faced by religious movements during the struggle for independence

 Financial problems the independent churches experienced in adequate funds because ofdepending on the little money rose from the few members of the churches that could notsustain most of their needs. For example the churches needed funds to support a large numberof pupils expelled from mission schools in Kenya during the female circumcision controversy ofthe 1920s and 1930s.  Conflicts among church leaders within independent churches there were several churchleadership conflicts emerged among the church founders, since everyone demanded leadershiprecognition in the church.  Competition between independent churches and the white missionary churches for followersfollowing this the white missionaries influenced many Africans to be converted into theirchurches by all means including provision of gifts like clothes and shoes for the aim ofpreventing African independent churches from getting followers.  Lack of enough trained personnel as most of teachers in independent churches were untrainedsince most of them were ex-missionary school students with little western education andmanagement skills.

Strengths and contributions of protest and religious movements during the struggle for independence

 Establishment of African independent schools these schools enrolled African children only andthey were taught their culture and evils of colonialism as a result later on they became politicalactivists.  Provision of reformism education, by teaching the Africans that the missionaries were mereagents of colonialism and practicing discrimination in the church and its hierarchy followingthese missionaries was not fully evangelical as they preached thus reforms were inevitable.  The increase of awareness among the Africans due to various protest including activedemonstrations, boycotts and strikes especially when colonial governments used force to avoidprotest. For example the religious protest in the Nyasaland under Chilembwe when suppressedmade the movements to be popular.  The religious movements and churches instructed Africans not to pay tax and not to beinvolved in the imperialist wars because Africans were not beneficiaries of these.

Rise of Mass Nationalism and Political Parties in Africa The Meaning of Mass Nationalism Explain the meaning of mass nationalism This refers to nationalistic activities that occurred after 1945, after the Second World War it was in this period that African was successful in their struggle at times referred as modern nationalism. Immediately after World War II Africans gained the momentum to demand for self determination this came as a result for intensive exploitation of African resources after World war two. Generally mass nationalism is characterized by mass feeling and attitude of demanding independence by using a nationalist struggle in form of unified parties beyond the class, tribe or ethnic background. Characteristics of mass nationalism  Well organized and planned by elites, African leaders those that were educated fromcolonial schools.  It was a national wide that it covered the whole nation through opening up manybranches in the whole state both in the rural and urban areas.  It was led by the elites i.e. educated leaders who were focused e.g. Nyerere, Kenyatta,Obote and Nkurumah.  It was political in origin, i.e. they struggled for political independence of Africa.  It was dominated by both dialogue and armed struggle, where dialogue proved a failure.  It was motivated by both internal and external factors, unlike those before 1945 whichwere motivated by internal forces.  It led to the independence of some nations i.e. it was successful in getting independencefor African nations.

The Reason for the Rise of Mass Nationalism in Africa Analyse the reason for the rise of mass nationalism in Africa Factors that gave birth to African nationalism are of two kinds.

 Internal factors  External factors

Internal factors There were forces that were internally motivated, that generated within African societies that brought about nationalism in Africa. These included the following factors. Formation of peasant cooperative union, especially in rural areas to defend the interests and welfare of the farmers, where some associations were formed by the colonialists as to speed up the production and the marketing of cash crop as well as sensitizing peasants about cultivation through their associations. But later alone developed nationalistic feelings and turned against the colonialists using their association‟s structures in rural areas. Intensive exploitation after the Second World War in the colonies the colonizers wanted to revamp their ruined economies, which were heavily damaged by the war; large scale colonization was carried out. Formation of independent churches, these were churches that were lead by the Africans breaking away from main stream white churches to challenge their misdeeds over the Africans. They addressed not only religious but also social, political and economic grievances of Africans such churches included Joseph Ejayi in west Africa, the Kikuyu native church, the watch tower church movement in Malawi 1906, the African national church in Tanganyika, the people God and religion of Jesus in Kenya and united native church in Cameroon. Such churches openly criticized the colonialists and encouraged their followers to fight them thus the rise of African nationalism Formation of segregated African schools, after realizing that the missionary and colonial school taught nothing but European based syllabus some African societies begun their own schools, like among the Kikuyu in Kenya Africans were taught African syllabus. This helped in educating Africans and developing the spirit of nationalism. Rise of elites, who had attained colonial education like Nyerere in Tanganyika, Nkurumah in Ghana, Kamuzu Banda in Malawi and Abafemi Awolowo of Nigeria. This education helped them to get used to the white language, to get exposed to various struggle and liberation of the world. But on top of that some elite came from outside Africa the combination of both helped to the rise of nationalism provision of leadership for nationalistic struggle. Ghana independence in 1957, it was example to estimate other African nations to begin fight for their freedom so it as possible for them also to attain independence from their colonial power. The Italy vs. Ethiopia war of 1935-1941, under Mussolini and Haile Selasie and Ras Imra increased the momentum of African nationalism Italy an industrialized nation was heavily and bravery resisted by an African nation Ethiopia this boosted African confidence towards their struggle for independence was defeated. Formation of social welfare association, this aimed to improve the working conditions of African workers discriminations and colonial abuses to the Africans such associations largely based in urban centers and comprised colonial civil servants like the Kikuyu central association in Kenya that was formed by Harry Thuku the railway territory civil association in Tanganyika, Tanganyika territory civil service association (T.T.C.S.A.)which was formed Martin Kayamba the peoples union in 1908 in Nigeria. Such association exerted more pressure on the colonialists to consider giving African independence which led to African nationalism. Mass media especially newspapers played a big role in spreading awareness among the population in both rural and urban areas such newspaper included Sauti ya TANU in Tanganyika, the pilot and the comet in Nigeria Colonial social infrastructures also played a big role in facilitating the spread and the rise of African nationalism that‟s why some historians do say that colonialism sown a seed of its own destruction, infrastructures like railway and roads facilitated the nationalistic activities in rural and urban centers by spreading the message of liberation in all parts of Africa. Formation of Pan Africanize in 1900by William Sylvester from the new world which later led to the formation of O.A.U. an organization that united all African independent nations to help in fighting for African independence. External factors These were factors that motivated nationalism but being generated from outside Africa such forces included: The returning ex-soldiers, who participated in the war on the side of their colonial masters assisting them as porters and security guards of many camps, this participation brought awareness since these soldiers were exposed to western democracy, freedom and liberation message some veterans like Dedan Kimathi who were later a leader of Mau Mau in Kenya. Formation of UN which replaced the League of Nation where independent African states were allowed to participate as members it becomes an organization of all nations. African and Asian nations through the UN opposed the colonialists and demanded self determination, unlike during the League of Nations where African colonies became mandatory colonies of European nations. The India and Pakistan independences, these acted as external pressure for the Africans to emulate both were British colonies that attained their independence in 1948 as one nation which later separated in two nations, following that African quoted such incidences as a negotiate tool to argue for the independence. The Bandung conference of 17th April 1955, where Asians and Africans nations such as south Africa, Ghana, Nigeria, Libya and Egypt met in Indonesia to discuss their problems which include colonialism and economic development, they emphasized solidarity, it was during this conference that non aligned movements NAM was formed in this conference. Rise of communism in USSR the second world war witnessed the expansion and consolidation of the communist bloc whereby Russian begun to provide material and moral support for anti colonial struggle for Africa e.g. it supported rebel groups in Angola and Namibia to fight colonialists. Marshal plan, this was initiated by George Marshal the prime minister of USA whereby he began giving loans to the war ruined European nations on condition that they should decolonize in Africa and Asian nations, by granting independence to those nations. Open door policy of USA, this policy was introduced by USA for the aim of conducting business with independent African states thus it begun requesting colonialists to give independence to the African countries so as to do business with USA The British labour party, which assumed power in 1945 its policies were against colonialism which they viewed as oppression of humanity and wastage of British tax payers money such anti colonial sentiments in Britain made many nationalistic movement to agitate for their immediate independence. The rise of USA as a leading capitalist nation, after the world war two US became the chief superior of war materials and the war did not affect her economy negatively made her to became a leading capitalist nation and begun to advocate for decolonization of African nations as a trick to compensate for not colonizing through establishment of neo colonialism to get market for her finished goods area of investment for her international cooperation. The aftermath of the Second World War to the colonialists who incurred a lot of losses and could not continue with spending to the colonies so they were forced to grant some independence to some African states. But on top of the above some European powers adopted intensive exploitation to revamp their economies which awakened many Africans to resist thus the rise of nationalism in Africa. The Strengths, Weaknesses and Contribution of Political Parties towards the Road to Independence Compare the strengths, weaknesses and contribution of political parties towards the road to independence Weaknesses of political parties in Africa

 Financial problems this was because members were unable to contribute the money requiredfor various political activities due to poverty.  Lack of reliable communication networks that could easy the transmission of information fromone place to another in order to facilitate political activities of spreading political awarenessamong the Africans.  Colonial restrictions to political parties, colonial governments acted as obstacles to Africanpolitical parties since they limited political activities and slow down the decolonization processby banning political parties. For example the British colonial government restricted governmentworkers from being members of TANU in Tanganyika. In Ghana Nkwame Nkurumah (CCP) wasimprisoned all of this aimed at suppressing African political parties.  Opposition between African political parties as each party basing on their ethnic, regionalism orelitism competing against the other to the extent of conducting campaign against the otherinstead of joining hands in fighting their common enemy. For example in Nigeria and Uganda thecases were commonly practiced.  Some political parties were created to meet the interest of a few such as elite for example theUganda National Congress (UNC) was created to meet the interest of other non Baganda againstthe Kabaka Yekka of Buganda in Uganda.  Lack of support from other organizations like women, youth and farmers associations during thetime of spreading liberation messages for decolonization process in Africa.

Strengths and contribution of political parties in Africa

 The use of peaceful means to fight for independence unlike armed struggle which led to loss ofmany African lives and property destructions  The rise of awareness among Africans as many Africans through their different groups andassociations became conscious of their grievances by demanding their independence fromcolonial governments through political rallies, propaganda newspapers and organized boycotts.For example CCP of Ghana encouraged Ghanaians to boycott the colonialists.  Unifying the Africans to fight against colonial government as their common enemy, they usedyouth and women to unify the masses at the grassroots to fight colonialism. For example CCP ofGhana and TANU in Tanganyika had youths and women groups to support them in fighting theirgoals of bringing independence.

The Problems Experienced during Mass Nationalism Analyse the problems experienced during mass nationalism When Africans struggled for the independence, especially during mass nationalism, they encountered many problems such as: Disunity among the Africans, tribalism, financial problems, lack of awareness among Africans as well as strong opposition from colonial rulers. Decolonisation through Constitutional Means The Meaning of Decolonization through Constitutional Means Explain the meaning of decolonization on through constitutional means Decolonization through constitutional means is the type of liberation which involve intensive negotiation between the colonialists and African nationalists e.g. the political independence of Tanganyika, Ghana, Uganda and Zambia. All applied negotiation or peaceful means to get their independence. Reasons for the decolonization through constitutional means Absence of white settlers, in areas with no settlers like in Tanganyika and other parts of Africa they attained their independence through peaceful means; For example Tanganyika contained influential minorities of Europeans and Asians as the number involved was not large enough to bring obstacle in the path of national independence only 23,000 European among whom only few hundred could properly be regarded as settlers and the number of Asians was 87,000.Hence decolonization through constitutional means. Minimal problems like tribalism and religious differences; that would have brought internal disputes struggle or disunity. This was a sovereignty advantage to some African countries. For it was simple for them to unite the masses for self determination. The trust ship colony a trust territory colony was subjected to measure of supervision by the United Nations a situation that made it impossible for the colonizers government to entirely pressure exerted by international opinion. For example Tanganyika was not mandatory like Uganda or Kenya it was under the trust ship of UN given to Britain as a result her independence was easily influenced by the United Nations. The role of political parties, where the political party which took over the power lacked serious opposition from other political parties which would have delayed the independence then the decolonization was through peaceful means. For example Tanganyika TANU was a major political party that had never been banned by the colonial government so it was able to operate freely without any hindrance unlike KANU in Kenya. This was very significant in achieving her goals of independence. The role of the leader, where there were strong, approachable and democratic leaders with high sprite of patriotism for nation the independence was achieved through constitutional means. For example in Tanganyika the strong leadership of J.K. Nyerere and Oscar Kambona played a big role in achieving independence in Tanganyika by peaceful means. Absence of heavy investment, in places where colonialists did not invest heavily in infrastructure or agriculture which they might have feared to lose the independence was through peaceful means. The Conditions which Facilitated Constitutional Struggle for Independence Assess the conditions which facilitated constitutional struggle for independence There are some conditions or factors that facilitated the constitutional means of the struggle for independence. These involved mandatory colony, the role of mass media, the role of elites, the nature of colonial Governor, existence of peasant cash crops, the nature of reaction, the role of political parties and political leaders. The Problems Experienced during the Struggle for Independence through Constitutional Means Analyse the problems experienced during the struggle for independence through constitutional means The colonial bureaucracy was a stumbling block, when it came at registrations of political party branches national wide, the registration governing the operation of political parties was amended aimed at debarring political party‟s the activities the government technically put a delayed tactic in registering the branches of political parties, with the same agenda of checking their spread and its influences. The colonial government first applied simple repression, banning of political party‟s activities disaffected areas and the second tactics which was applied mostly in French colonies was the creation of colonial government sponsored political parties the like United Tanganyika Party (U.T.P) designed to up hold the cause of multi-racialism. Colonial government sabotage by closing political party‟s branches and banning its activities, this tactic was used by the colonial government to check the influence of political parties The colonial policy of divide and rule, this wanted to divide the people of Africa on ethnicity lines e.g. the meeting of 1957 governor Twining attempted to drive division between traditional rulers and members of nationalist movement. This was a very big obstacle for political parties to forge unity between the masses. The opposition from church missionary society, who barred their followers from involving into active politics that would be regarded as disobedient to the church; this affected very many members of political parties who were Christians. Lack of education for most nationalists, the colonial government prohibited the civil servants from joining active politics and were the only small elite who were educated that would helped the party. Most of the party members were comprised by a big numbers of peasants Poor transport and communication structures, to assist nationalist leaders in mobilizing the masses from different parts to join the movement of struggle for independence for example some roads were impassable during rainy season. Lack of political awareness among the masses, as most of the Africans were peasants who were in rural areas and did not know the objectives of the political party and their financial assistance to the party was very minimal. Decolonisation through Armed Struggle The Meaning of Armed Struggle Explain the meaning of armed struggle The form of liberation that involves the use of guns in the struggle for independence, this was conducted in the situation where peaceful means failed and the imperialist were reluctant to negotiate or to give independence to the Africans. In such situation the Africans picked up arms to fight the imperialists by force as a method to achieve their independence it involves bloodshed use of guerrilla warfare. For example it was applied in Zimbabwe, Kenya, Angola, South Africa, Namibia and Mozambique. The Causes of Armed Struggle for Independence Analyse the causes of armed struggle for independence Armed struggle became dominant after 1945 especially in Zimbabwe, Kenya, Angola and South Africa as compared to other forms of liberation this was due to the following factors that accelerated to the application of armed struggle. Military assistance from USSR, after 1945 USSR consolidated her strength to the zenith it was anti colonialism and sympathizers to African anti colonial struggles. It was ready to provide military support and moral support to liberate the Africans from colonialism thus military struggle. Manchester conference, in this conference the major agenda was to liberate Africans from colonialism by all means peaceful or force. This situation gave Africans courage to use force through armed struggle especially in those colonies where the colonialists were reluctant to grant independence. The role played by ex soldiers, the war veterans of the Second World War came back with awareness and military skills which they had acquired during the war, their skills encouraged many nationalist to apply force to overthrow the colonialists who were not ready to grant independence to Africans. The support from UN under USA and USSR, these nations ere anti colonialism as a result they provided support to African nationalist struggle to use all means to get rid from colonialism. Failures of other methods of liberation, other methods like peaceful means and constitution means failed hence the armed struggle became the last method for getting independence from colonialists. The aftermath of India and Pakistan independence, the independence of Asian countries especially India and Pakistan was a big challenge for the Africans to emulate as a result they used all means of liberation to attain their independence. The role of pan Africans, this played a big role especially after shifting her headquarters from the new world to Africa. It ensured liberation of African nations by all means. The unwillingness of the colonial power to grant independence, some colonial powers were unwilling to grant independence for example the Portugal and British were not willing to grant independence to their colonies hence the Africans decided to use armed struggle to liberate themselves. Intensive exploitation; after the Second World War the colonialists increased exploitation to the Africans resources to revamp their ruined economies. This situation awakened the Africans against the colonialists as a result they used all means to liberate themselves The influence of front line states, these provided military and manpower support to the anti colonial struggle in Africa e.g. Tanganyika during the struggle in south Africa and Namibia or Mozambique. Emergence of cold war after 1945, this was the struggle between USA and USSR, where by every bloc wanted to win more countries in Africa so as to spread their political ideologies of socialism or capitalism, this witnessed the giving up weapons to fight the colonialists. The Strengths, Weaknesses and Contribution of Armed Struggle towards the Road to Independence in Africa Analyse the strengths, weaknesses and contribution of armed struggle towards the road to independence in Africa Strengths and contribution of armed struggle to the African independence

 It helped in attainment of African independence  It removed colonial regime in African countries  It removed colonial settlers from the African land  It restored African alienated land  It restored African dignity  It ended colonial exploitation of African resources  It led to the strong military in Africa  It provided strong leaders

Weakness of armed struggle to the African independence

 Death of people many people were killed during the struggle as they were using arms  Separation of families  Destruction of properties  Lack of strong military  Lack of military equipments  Lack of funds  Fear and insecurity among the nationalists  Disunity among the Africans

Decolonisation through Revolution The Meaning of Revolution Explain the meaning of revolution This was type of revolution which involved complete overthrow of the existing political system this existed in colonies where independence was given to the minority at the expense of the majority the case in point is Zanzibar where minority Arabs were granted independence by the British which prompted the majority blacks to make a revolution in 1964 and replaced with another new political system that is supported by the masses. It took place even in Egypt and Libya. Liberation by revolution is always sudden and involves bloodshed. The Causes of Decolonization through Revolution Analyse the causes of decolonization through revolution Economic marginalization for African majority, Africans were mainly squatters who made a living by selling their labour to the landlords and subjected to extreme exploitation, Africans had no access to the major means of production. Economic inequalities, in case of the Arabs owned land, the Indians controlled finance, the Europeans controlled trade and the Africans owned nothing. Therefore such situation made a revolution necessary to occur. Deprivation of black Africans to education, despite the government‟s role to provide suitable elementary education for all people, the Africans continued to suffer from inequality of education system. They were not catered like the other races which made them unsatisfied with the regime thus the revolution Segregation in the other social services, Africans was also segregated in health services, housing and water supply. Even in civil services Africans hold lower ranks unlike the Arabs and the Indians. Act of intimidation, after unexpectedly loosing the 1957 election on Z.N.P it decided to employ various act of intimidation to force Africans to join them i.e. the 1958 strikes at the docks led to mass uprising it initiated a strong campaign against them. Segregation in the social association, as the wind struggle for political independence which was in full in the continental Africans swept the island Zanzibar in the mid 1950. The social association underwent complex transformation into political parties. Africans were opposed politically by the ruling class. The emergence of John Okello from northern Uganda who settled in Zanzibar in 1952 and worked periodically as painter he was an official of ASP of Pemba island he joined a revolutionary army in 1961 he played a big role in overthrowing the Arab regime. Poor working conditions and low wages of Africans that could not make them to meet their basic needs of life and despite that were heavily taxed by the Arab government. Voting restrictions, many Africans were barred from voting, had to read and write Kiswahili, Arabic or English a voter had to be a Zanzibar resident and lived in Zanzibar for at least one year, must be above 25 years old, a voter must be a government employee for at least five years. Such qualifications made many Africans in Zanzibar not to vote hence the revolution was necessary. Generally the revolution was also caused by the desire of Arab rulers and British colonialists to make Zanzibar an Arab state in 1962 which the majorities Africans were not ready to allow Arab state to raise on their own African soil thus the revolution was inevitable. The Strengths, Weaknesses and Contribution of Revolution towards the Road to Independence Assess the strengths, weaknesses and contribution of revolution towards the road to independence Weaknesses of decolonization through revolution

 Loss of lives during revolution process some people loose lives this is due to the use ofdangerous weapons during the struggle that resulted to bloodshed.  Destruction of properties, such as infrastructures like offices and houses.  Fear and insecurity  Low level of consciousness and political awareness  Lack of clear political structures for movement organization.  Lack of patriotism

Strengths and contributions of decolonization through revolution

 It removed the colonial regime from power by force  It managed to adjust the social and economic inequalities in African country  It manage to uphold the African dignity  It managed to bring African independence  It restored the African rights as human being  It promoted unity and solidarity among the Africans

The problems Experienced during the Struggle for Independence through Revolution Analyse the problems experienced during the struggle for independence through revolution Problems experienced during the struggle for independence through revolution means are

 Unwillingness of the colonial power to grant independence, some European nations camein Africa to stay forever and regarded their African colonies as oversea provinces, thusthey were very reluctant to grant independence hence decolonization through revolution.  Fear and insecurity among the Africans, during the struggle for liberation by revolutionmeans most of the Africans did not engaged in revolution process as they fearedpunishments from colonial government.  Lack of political structures to mobilize the people to the common struggles forindependence. For example in rural areas most political parties lacked branches whichwould have been used as centers to create awareness and mobilization of the masses mostas most of the nationalistic activities centered in urban areas.  Colonial state apparatus were very oppressive and coercive to the nationalisticmovements in many nations. These included colonial army, police and prison which wereput in place to facilitate colonial production.  Death, some African nationalists died in the struggle for independence through revolutionmeans this was due to the fact that the revolution always is sudden and blood shade.  Financial problems, the nationalists‟ experienced lacked clear source of funds to meettheir expenditure as most of Africans were poor.  Low level political awareness, many masses in Africa was not educated and lackedpolitical awareness about the essence of their independence. This was the problem sincemost of the indigenous did not know the significance of the struggle.

CHANGES IN POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC POLICIES IN AFRICA AFTER INDEPENDENCE Changes in Political, Ideological and Administrative Systems In 1960‟s many African states started to achieve their political independence. Following this many of the African countries changed their political, social and economic ideology for the sake of attaining developments in their nations after colonialism. The Factors/ Conditions which led to changes in Political, Ideological and Administrative Systems after Independence Explain the factors/ conditions which led to changes in political, ideological and administrative systems after independence Ideology refers to the body of beliefs or principles belonging to an individual or group which guides political and economic system in a given nation for example socialist and capitalist ideology. During the struggle for independence many African states had developed multiparty political system under capitalist ideology as a system to prepare them for independence. For example in Tanganyika there were T.A.A and T.A.N.U while in Uganda there were U.P.C. and K.Y. Soon after independence many African states as from 1960-1970‟s most of them started change the political ideology from multiparty under capitalist ideology to singe dominant party under socialist ideology. Factors for the change of political and economic ideology after independence These factors can be divided into two means internal and external factors Internal factors Promotion of unity and solidarity among the Africans, the changes of political party from multiparty to single party system aimed at promoting unity and solidarity among the Africans since they were dominated by single ideology for example in K.A.N.U in Kenya, C.C.M. in Tanzania and U.P.C. in Uganda. Avoidance of political opposition from other parties, soon after independence most African states expected to have peace and political stability for the national development so they decided to adopt one party system in order to avoid political opposition of other parties as they thought that having multiparty system the national development could be threatened. Avoidance of civil wars among the Africans, since in multiparty system every party struggle to dominate political power, something that cause political instabilities for it was viewed as a tool to divide masses basing on their ethnic origin that may result into civil conflicts. For example in Rwanda and Burundi the Tutsi fought the Hutu in for the domination of political powers. To avoid the imperialist influence on local politics, since the multiparty system emerged from imperialist nations thus most of African states after independence decided to reject it turning to single party system as they thought that having multiparty system could enable foreign influence into the local politics through passing in other political opposition parties as some former colonial power wanted to control their former colonies through opposition parties. Promotion of good governance, they aimed at promoting good governance with political stability through checking out corruption and misallocation of public funds for example in Tanzania and Malawi. Generally in the system of administration they aimed at eradicating the racial discrimination by upholding African dignity in the system of administration. As after independence Africans states changed their political ideology so as to set up a new system of administration under their own direction and control whereby every African would be treated equally with dignity under the single party system External factors The role of USSR, the socialist bloc played a big role to the changes of political ideology and administrative system in most of the African states. Since many African countries adopted Marxist ideology that based on socialist ideology resulted to the formation of single party system. For example the leader of socialist bloc encouraged the formation of workers party. Support from socialist states, many African states that adopted socialism after independence received moral and material support from socialist states like China and Russia. Bad perception towards capitalist ideology, many of the independent African states viewed capitalism as mode of production that is based on exploitation of the recourses and masses thus they decided to adopt socialism as it was discouraging exploitation The Changes which Took Place after Independence Analyse critically the changes which took place after independence Political and administrative system took place in Africa after independence Most African independent states undergo changes in the political and administrative system through adoption of the following government system

 One party system, the post independence Africans allowed one political party andavoided competing politics. The party in power dominated the government and controlledthe state apparatus and other spheres of human activities outside politics. But in 1990sone party system began to collapse especially after the fall of USSR.  Multiparty system, after the collapse of one party system African independent statesadopted multiparty system especially during 1990s  Military rule, independent Africans after few years adopted military rule and they cameunder the control of military rule for example in Egypt, Sudan and Uganda.  Parliamentary system,  Presidential system  Federal system of government

Political ideological adopted after independence African countries adopted different political ideologies after independence. Some countries adopted varieties of political ideologies including;

 Liberal democracy, implying that they adopted capitalism example of such countriesincluded Kenya, Nigeria and Ivory Coast.  Socialism, the countries that adopted socialism included Tanzania, Ghana, Uganda andZambia.  Afro-Marxism, the countries adopted this ideology included Somalia, Ethiopia under Mengistu, Mozambique and Angola among other countries.

The Strengths, Weaknesses and Contribution of Political, Ideological and Administrative Changes in the Newly Independent African States Assess critically the strengths, weaknesses and contribution of political, ideological and administrative changes in the newly independent African states Political strengths Development of African independent political system different from those of colonialists inherited at independence. The political system developed was characterized by democracy for example in Tanzania the socialist system of government enabled her to involve more citizens in government, unlike during the colonial era for African leaders now determined the fate of their own people‟s political features. Opportunities to cooperate and undertake various measures to advance the interests of the continent this was due to the fact that African leaders were able to negotiate with western nations more aggressively than during the colonial times when they were treated as subjects. For example under the regional organizations in the OAU they introduced several measures to uplift the welfare of their citizens. Africans were able to collaborate with other less developed countries especially in the NonAligned Movements Administrative system Eradication of racial discrimination and uphold African dignity in the system of administration through running their own government. Ideology Liberal democracy through open competition for power between different political parties , separation of power between the three pillars of government namely the executive, the legislature and the judiciary Pressure groups and associations like trade unions are allowed to operate without political harassment from the government. Minimization of the gap between the poor and the rich Less exploitation of workers by foreigners and the African merchants as the government controlled provision of most basic services Promotion of national unity by minimizing conflicts based on ethnic, regional or religious consideration as all people work hard. Weaknesses of political, ideological and administrative changes in the newly independent African states Civil wars most African countries have experienced civil wars since independence for example Ugandan civil war lasted from the late 1970s to 1986 when president Yowel Kaguta Museveni took control of the country. Also in Rwanda in 1994 during the genocide which killed over 800,000 people. However currently several civil wars are still being experienced in the DRC and Somalia. Military coups d‟état have been experienced in many African countries including Nigeria, Sudan, Libya, Ghana, Somalia, Ethiopia, Liberia, Mauritania and Guinea. Ethnic affiliation most African citizens in political appointment and voting during general elections try to pick a person from their ethnic groups or religion as a leader in the hope that such a leader would reciprocate by rewarding or giving them favors, this led to bitterness between different communities, clans and religion in Africa something that resulting to civil wars Neo colonialism through partnership with developed countries, for example former colonial masters such as Britain and France continue to interfere in the political affairs of African governments. Services provision such as education, health services and other services became a great financial burden for governments. Contribution of political, ideological and administrative changes in the newly independent African states Nationalism struggle African governments were able to assist fellow African countries to acquire political independence from colonial masters. For example the efforts had done by other African governments in South Africa and Namibia. Training of African citizens to undertake nation-building activities this changes facilitated mobilization of African states to participate in national building activities. For example the harambee spirit in Kenya was used to mobilize funds to construct schools, health centers and other social facilities in order to uplift the living standards of African citizens. Opportunities of African countries to participate more in the activities of regional, continental and international bodies like the United Nations Organizations and the NonAlignment Movemen Changes In Political, Social And Economic Policies In Africa After Independence Changes in Political, Ideological and Administrative Systems In 1960‟s many African states started to achieve their political independence. Following this many of the African countries changed their political, social and economic ideology for the sake of attaining developments in their nations after colonialism. The Factors/ Conditions which led to changes in Political, Ideological and Administrative Systems after Independence Explain the factors/ conditions which led to changes in political, ideological and administrative systems after independence Ideology refers to the body of beliefs or principles belonging to an individual or group which guides political and economic system in a given nation for example socialist and capitalist ideology. During the struggle for independence many African states had developed multiparty political system under capitalist ideology as a system to prepare them for independence. For example in Tanganyika there were T.A.A and T.A.N.U while in Uganda there were U.P.C. and K.Y. Soon after independence many African states as from 1960-1970‟s most of them started change the political ideology from multiparty under capitalist ideology to singe dominant party under socialist ideology. Factors for the change of political and economic ideology after independence These factors can be divided into two means internal and external factors Internal factors Promotion of unity and solidarity among the Africans, the changes of political party from multiparty to single party system aimed at promoting unity and solidarity among the Africans since they were dominated by single ideology for example in K.A.N.U in Kenya, C.C.M. in Tanzania and U.P.C. in Uganda. Avoidance of political opposition from other parties, soon after independence most African states expected to have peace and political stability for the national development so they decided to adopt one party system in order to avoid political opposition of other parties as they thought that having multiparty system the national development could be threatened. Avoidance of civil wars among the Africans, since in multiparty system every party struggle to dominate political power, something that cause political instabilities for it was viewed as a tool to divide masses basing on their ethnic origin that may result into civil conflicts. For example in Rwanda and Burundi the Tutsi fought the Hutu in for the domination of political powers. To avoid the imperialist influence on local politics, since the multiparty system emerged from imperialist nations thus most of African states after independence decided to reject it turning to single party system as they thought that having multiparty system could enable foreign influence into the local politics through passing in other political opposition parties as some former colonial power wanted to control their former colonies through opposition parties. Promotion of good governance, they aimed at promoting good governance with political stability through checking out corruption and misallocation of public funds for example in Tanzania and Malawi. Generally in the system of administration they aimed at eradicating the racial discrimination by upholding African dignity in the system of administration. As after independence Africans states changed their political ideology so as to set up a new system of administration under their own direction and control whereby every African would be treated equally with dignity under the single party system External factors The role of USSR, the socialist bloc played a big role to the changes of political ideology and administrative system in most of the African states. Since many African countries adopted Marxist ideology that based on socialist ideology resulted to the formation of single party system. For example the leader of socialist bloc encouraged the formation of workers party. Support from socialist states, many African states that adopted socialism after independence received moral and material support from socialist states like China and Russia. Bad perception towards capitalist ideology, many of the independent African states viewed capitalism as mode of production that is based on exploitation of the recourses and masses thus they decided to adopt socialism as it was discouraging exploitation The Changes which Took Place after Independence Analyse critically the changes which took place after independence Political and administrative system took place in Africa after independence Most African independent states undergo changes in the political and administrative system through adoption of the following government system

 One party system, the post independence Africans allowed one political party andavoided competing politics. The party in power dominated the government and controlledthe state apparatus and other spheres of human activities outside politics. But in 1990sone party system began to collapse especially after the fall of USSR.  Multiparty system, after the collapse of one party system African independent statesadopted multiparty system especially during 1990s  Military rule, independent Africans after few years adopted military rule and they cameunder the control of military rule for example in Egypt, Sudan and Uganda.  Parliamentary system,  Presidential system  Federal system of government

Political ideological adopted after independence African countries adopted different political ideologies after independence. Some countries adopted varieties of political ideologies including;

 Liberal democracy, implying that they adopted capitalism example of such countriesincluded Kenya, Nigeria and Ivory Coast.  Socialism, the countries that adopted socialism included Tanzania, Ghana, Uganda andZambia.  Afro-Marxism, the countries adopted this ideology included Somalia, Ethiopia under Mengistu, Mozambique and Angola among other countries.

The Strengths, Weaknesses and Contribution of Political, Ideological and Administrative Changes in the Newly Independent African States Assess critically the strengths, weaknesses and contribution of political, ideological and administrative changes in the newly independent African states Political strengths Development of African independent political system different from those of colonialists inherited at independence. The political system developed was characterized by democracy for example in Tanzania the socialist system of government enabled her to involve more citizens in government, unlike during the colonial era for African leaders now determined the fate of their own people‟s political features. Opportunities to cooperate and undertake various measures to advance the interests of the continent this was due to the fact that African leaders were able to negotiate with western nations more aggressively than during the colonial times when they were treated as subjects. For example under the regional organizations in the OAU they introduced several measures to uplift the welfare of their citizens. Africans were able to collaborate with other less developed countries especially in the NonAligned Movements Administrative system Eradication of racial discrimination and uphold African dignity in the system of administration through running their own government. Ideology Liberal democracy through open competition for power between different political parties , separation of power between the three pillars of government namely the executive, the legislature and the judiciary Pressure groups and associations like trade unions are allowed to operate without political harassment from the government. Minimization of the gap between the poor and the rich Less exploitation of workers by foreigners and the African merchants as the government controlled provision of most basic services Promotion of national unity by minimizing conflicts based on ethnic, regional or religious consideration as all people work hard. Weaknesses of political, ideological and administrative changes in the newly independent African states Civil wars most African countries have experienced civil wars since independence for example Ugandan civil war lasted from the late 1970s to 1986 when president Yowel Kaguta Museveni took control of the country. Also in Rwanda in 1994 during the genocide which killed over 800,000 people. However currently several civil wars are still being experienced in the DRC and Somalia. Military coups d‟état have been experienced in many African countries including Nigeria, Sudan, Libya, Ghana, Somalia, Ethiopia, Liberia, Mauritania and Guinea. Ethnic affiliation most African citizens in political appointment and voting during general elections try to pick a person from their ethnic groups or religion as a leader in the hope that such a leader would reciprocate by rewarding or giving them favors, this led to bitterness between different communities, clans and religion in Africa something that resulting to civil wars Neo colonialism through partnership with developed countries, for example former colonial masters such as Britain and France continue to interfere in the political affairs of African governments. Services provision such as education, health services and other services became a great financial burden for governments. Contribution of political, ideological and administrative changes in the newly independent African states Nationalism struggle African governments were able to assist fellow African countries to acquire political independence from colonial masters. For example the efforts had done by other African governments in South Africa and Namibia. Training of African citizens to undertake nation-building activities this changes facilitated mobilization of African states to participate in national building activities. For example the harambee spirit in Kenya was used to mobilize funds to construct schools, health centers and other social facilities in order to uplift the living standards of African citizens. Opportunities of African countries to participate more in the activities of regional, continental and international bodies like the United Nations Organizations and the NonAlignment Movemen Provision of Education in Africa after Independence The Objectives of Education in Africa after Independence Analyse the objectives of education in Africa after independence Changes in provision of education in Africa after independence After political independence many African states inherited the colonial education system which was contrary to their local education system and their environments. As time went on African independent states adopted the policy of educational expansion and education was considered as a human rights. Following this the number of education institutions like schools and colleges were increased and the system of curricular were modeled. Not only that but also all the education policies focused on re addressing the weakness and objectives of the nation. Objectives of education in Africa after independence Provision of relevant education to the Africans, independent African states recognized the weakness of the colonial education as it was irrelevant and inadequate in terms of meeting the needs and requirement of the newly created states. Hence they ensured the education provided was relevant to the demands of African countries. To eradicate education dependence, the African independent states aimed at eradicating the dependence on the European powers so they decided to review the education policy so as to make it suit the African context. To eradicate tribalism and racism in Africa, this was due to the fact that the colonialists had already planted the seeds of racism in education system as there were classes in education following this the changes in education system after independence was necessary so as to eradicate the racism and tribalism in Africa. To promote African cultural values, this was more important since the African cultural values were neglected by the colonialists through glorifying and practicing the white’s culture which they viewed as superior than that of the Africans, therefore this situation necessitated the changes in order to promote the African cultural values. Generally the education brought by the Africans aimed at unifying people national wide, promoting economic development, self r9eliance, social justice, equity and scientific literacy. The Features of Education in Africa after Independence Appraise the features of education in Africa after independence Expansion of secondary and higher education, e.g. by 1966 enrollment in higher education in east Africa had increased almost three times. Training of local staffs, the African independent focused on training the local staffs to replace the European expatriates as they were supposed to leave the African continent free governing themselves. Provision of academic education, since during the colonialism Africans were usually provided with vocational training due to existence of racial discrimination following this African independent state made great efforts to acquire academic education Expansion of primary education, independent African countries expanded primary education under Universal Primary Education (UPE) program, whereby the government adopted this and soon shifted emphasis from provision of high level skills to basic education. For example in Tanzania the government took various measures to expand primary schools especially from 1973 to 1977. Provision of free education, many independent African nations provided free education to all school age children who are supposed to be enrolled in primary education. Thus the education was made free of charges as there was no payment of school fees and it was compulsory to all school aged children. This was practiced for the aim of enabling access to education for all Africans. Revision of curriculum, after independence the curriculum was revised so as to ensure its relevance to the learners. For example in Tanzania there was emphasis on the history of Tanzania, elimination of selection process. Not only that but also teachers training and establishment of new classrooms. Introduction of education for self reliance, after independence schools were advised to put emphasis on useful values such as equality, honest responsibility, cooperation and community involvement rather than focusing on academics only. A good example for this is Tanzania under socialist ideology. Curriculum integration, the African schools were asked to integrate work into the curriculum as results students/children could appreciate the value of the manual work. Emphasis on adult education, since after independence there were a large number of illiterate adults so the education institutions with the support of government emphasized on adult education The Strengths and Weaknesses of Education in Africa after Independence Assess the strengths and weaknesses of education in Africa after independence Strengths of education in Africa after independence

 Expansion of enrollments in both primary and secondary schools.  Freedom of teaching African cultural values and history to the students.  Development of universities in Africa. E.g. in east Africa there was Makerere University, NairobiUniversity and the University of Dar es salaam.  Reduction of dependence education on outside expatriates.  Improvements of University education in Africa through collaboration between Africanuniversities and metro pole universities following the quality of education are beingharmonized.  The increase of literacy rate in African countries following the compulsory and free educationprogram. E.g. in Nigeria the rate of illiteracy rise.  Expansion of education facilities due to citizen support. E.g. the Harambee or self-help effort inKenya.

Weaknesses in the expansion of education in Africa after independence

 Inadequate resources to meet the growing demand resulted by large enrolment in primaryschools under universal primary education (UPE). Such resources are classes, desks,laboratories, libraries, books and teachers.  Lacks of experience on vocational courses, the academic teachers was having no experiences inteaching practical courses like agricultural courses.  Problems in using English language in secondary and higher education as medium of instructionthis is due to the use of Kiswahili language as a medium of communication in primary schools asa result student failed to communicate in English when they are in higher education.  Gender gap, most of African literacy were men this inherited from colonialism where girls wereleft aside without enrolled in school as a result even after independence there were higher rateof illiteracy among women than men especially in the higher levels of education.  Under development in higher educational institutions especially from 1980’s due to provision ofinadequate resources to support higher education for example lack of enough library materialsand laboratory equipment since independence.  Unemployment, most of the university graduates was facing the problem of being unemployeddue to few employment opportunities.  Shortage of teachers, especially after independence this was due to higher enrolment of pupilsin primary schools and few teachers training colleges existed

Changes in the Provision of Health Services after Independence in Africa The health care facilities of most African countries were inherited from colonialism that were used to care the Europeans and civil servants and few and poor medical facilities caring the ordinary citizens. Most of them were allocated in urban areas unlike in villages especially in capital cities. In fact most of Africans preferred traditional medicines offered by the traditional doctors in their communities. This was due to the fact that imported medicines from overseas provided in a modern hospital were very expensive t the extent that most Africans could not afford them. After independence the dominant diseases that affected people to the large extent were bilharzias, malaria, typhoid, polio, measles, cholera, tuberculosis. In Tanzania health services have been provided by the government, national parastatal agencies, and churches, local and international voluntary agencies. Government put more emphasis was to rural areas through funds allocation as health centers and dispensaries were established. The Objectives of Health Services after Independence in Africa Analyse the objectives of health services after independence in Africa Objectives of provision of health services after independence

 To uplift the standard of living of the people  To promote the health of the people  Expanding health facilities for the citizens  Reduction of imbalance in the provision of health facilities between urban and rural areas  To stop the high infant mortality rate and high maternal death rate during child birth

The Features of Health Services after Independence in Africa Appraise the features of health services after independence in Africa Features of health services in Tanzania after independence

 It is provided by the government, churches, local and international voluntary agencies.  It is based on benefiting rural areas and support for preventive rather than curative aspects of health services  It emphasizes on the need to provide basic needs including housing, water supply and healthcare  Allocation of more fund in the provision of health services by the government  Provision of health services free of charge until the 1980’s  Introduction of user charges in the government hospitals after 1980’s

The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Provision of Health Services after Independence Assess the strengths and weaknesses of the provision of health services after independence Weaknesses in the provision of health services in Africa after independence

 Lack of human resources, especially well trained health personnel this is due to the fact thatduring colonial rule many Africans were not trained by the colonialists.  Corruption, most of the civil servants in health sector are not faithful as they had beenpracticing corruption through selling of government funded medicines at a throwaway price tounscrupulous business people something that result to suffering among the populations.  Inadequate financial resources, most of African countries experience lack of enough funds toprovide quality health services to whole country free or at low cost following this access topersonnel health care has therefore remained the privilege of a few people in society. Forexample rural areas are neglected as good services are mainly available in the urban centers.  Poor planning and lack of resources to support the provision of health services, for examplepoor provision of infrastructure, clean water and transport has affected the delivery of healthservices.  Dependency on donor funding who provide conditions to the African countries under StructuralAdjustment Programs. For example the introduction of cost sharing policy discouraged manypoor people from seeking good medical attention.  Failure to research on local traditional medicines has led African governments to spend a lot ofresources in buying medicines from other parts of the world.  Existence of incurable diseases like HIV/AIDS, cancer and diabetes has created heavy burden tomost African countries since they require a lot of financial resources and time in caring. Forexample by the end of 1980’s over six million people had been infected in the continent

Strengths of provision of health services in Africa after independence

 Expansion of health facilities like hospitals, dispensaries and health equipments has beenexpanded through constructional activities and provision of health equipments.  Provision of health services in both urban and rural areas for example most hospitals wereallocated in urban centers while most of dispensaries were allocated in rural areas so as todelivery health services to the people of urban and rural areas.  Training of African health personnel who take charge of the health sectors in the countries. Forexample medical doctors, nurses and other caregivers.  Eradication of epidemic diseases that existed in Africa for a long time this was done through theprovision of vaccines for diseases like polio and measles.  Establishment of many medical training institutions for example medical training centers anduniversities for training health practitioners.  Establishment of research centers I most African countries with a view to investigate causes ofcertain ailments and seeking for the cure.  Adoption of alternative medicines to tackle health problems.  Reduction of infant mortality rate.

Changes in the Provision of Water Services in Africa after Independence In African countries provision of clean and safe piped water during colonialism was mainly available in urban centers particularly in the European neighborhoods, African residential areas lacked clean water supply especially in rural areas where people continued to trot for many kilometers in search of water for human activities and for their livestock. Soon after independence most African countries inherited colonial system of water provision that was very inadequate, disorganized and imbalanced in nature this was due to absence of government policies focusing on national water provision. As time went on most African countries recognized the importance of having clean, safe and reliable water supply because provision of water is the only way of sustaining a healthy population. Following this they started to put emphasis on water provision through establishment of different strategies, projects and programs that ensures the provision of water supply in the country. The Objectives of the Provision of Water Services in Africa after Independence Analyse the objectives of the provision of water services in Africa after independence Objectives of provision of water services in Africa after independence

 Improvement of the provision of clean and reliable water supply to the citizens  Provision of equitable distribution of infrastructures in the country  Improvement of levels of sanitation in the country  Expansion of more land for irrigation in order to be self sufficient in food production  Uplifting standard of living of the people by providing more reliable water supply

Weaknesses in provision of water services in Africa after independence

 Limited access of water supply, only few people accessed clean water and good sanitation in thewhole country. For example in Ghana only 32% of the population had access to clean water andgood sanitation by 2005.  Unequal distribution of clean water between urban and rural areas  Existence of natural hazards, like droughts even when there is plenty of water that could betapped for irrigation many farmers suffered from drought. Drought has led to the shrinking ofwater resources like dams and rivers.  Lack of skilled personnel who could repair and install facilities to supply water to residents.  Lack of financial resources as a result most government do not prioritize provision of goodsanitation following this many people loose lives due to water transmitted epidemics includingcholera typhoid and dysentery.  High water charges, water firms charge high tariffs for provision of water as a result poor facedlimitations from accessing clean and safe water.  Corruption and embezzlement of some water companies workers whereby they engaging incorruption and embezzling funds meant for water provision. For example this has been a bigchallenge for the city council of Nairobi since independence.

Success and Failures in the Provision of Water Services after Independence Evaluate success and failures in the provision of water services after independence Achievements in the provision of water services in Africa after independence

 Establishment of water infrastructures for example water pipes  Establishment of water treatment plants to treat clean water and supply it to the areas with noclean and safe water  Building of dams for water preservation in rural areas for human being and their animals  Protection of water resources through reforestation to preserve water resources.  Provision of education to the mass advising them to boil drinking water in order to avoid watertransmitted diseases like typhoid.  Licensing companies to provide clean bottled water to citizens in order to reduce drinkingunsafe water

Changes in the Provision of Housing Services after Independence Since 1960s most African countries were experiencing population increase especially in urban areas, as a result most countries found it very hard to cope with the demands created by the new development. For example it became difficult to meet the basic services like provision of water, housing and health services. The Objectives of the Provision of Housing Services after Independence Analyse the objectives of the provision of housing services after independence Objectives of provision of housing services in Africa after independence

 Promotion of sanitation so as to avoid unnecessary suffering and to increase their lifeexpectance.  Promotion of standards of living through establishment of modern housing for Africans.  To enhance development in the country through promotion of better planning in urban centers.  Eradication of racial discrimination in residential neighborhoods.  Provision of enough accommodation spaces for the citizens and do away with slums especially inurban centers.

The Pattern of Housing Distribution after Independence Appraise the pattern of housing distribution after independence The patterns of housing distributions after independence

 The best and quality houses in the continent have been in the main urban centers such asNairobi, Mombasa, Harare and Dar es Salaam.  Soon after independence the best houses in urban centers was owned by or inhabited by theEuropean and Asian communities, while most African communities occupy the poorlyconstructed houses.  Expansion of slum areas in African countries, for example Kibera in Nairobi and Soweto inSouth Africa slum areas has been common.  Mark of the main urban centers in the cities was skyscrapers and tall building.  Rapid growth of African population in main urban centers and in smaller towns especiallyamong the low income groups all over the continent soon after independence. For example inDar es salaam population growth rate rose by 14% between 1957 and 1967.  Urban areas was characterizing by haphazard planning while in rural areas characterized byhouses constructed using local materials.

The Steps taken to Change the Colonial Pattern of Distribution of Housing after Independence Assess the steps taken to change the colonial pattern of distribution of housing after independence Steps taken to change the colonial patterns of housing distribution in Tanzania after independence After independence the government of Tanzania did not have a systematic policy on how to deal with the challenges of urban growth however the following measures were taken to improve housing distribution in Tanzania after independence.

 Control of building and land strategy so as to alleviate pressure on urban housing andcommunity services, through creation of new residential areas and prohibiting residential insome areas which are densely populated.  Establishment of National Housing Corporation (NHC) for the aim of providing housing needsthrough financing. Furthermore NHC took over the management of the low cost houses whichhad been put up by the local government in Dar es Salaam and put up new houses afterclearing part of the squatter settlement in the capital city.  Control of land allocation in the country by the government, especially those freehold landsreverted to government ownership and previous owner were expected to pay rent to thegovernment. Conditions on development of land in urban areas were laid down to all. Howeverpriority on plot allocation, site and services schemes was given to low income areas in theurban centers.  Decentralization of the number of functions with the aim of locating new industries away fromcapital cities like Dar es Salaam. Also minimization of resource allocation to urban developmentfor the sake of spreading benefits to all classes.  To stimulate development by relocating the capital city from Dar es Salaam to Dodoma300miles (480 km) west. This was a plan announced by the government in 1973.  To emphasize on the need of making use of low cost materials for construction purposes toprovide housing for more people rather than following international standards blindly.

Challenges facing the provision of housing services after independence

 Inadequate of qualified human resources, for example lack of skilled personnel like townplanners to help in planning and implementing the desired programs in most African countries.Following this there were slow pace in the implementation of housing projects as a result 70% oflow income housing in Dar es Salaam was part of the slum clearing projects.  Ignoring the low income earners by giving the priority to the middle income earners while lowincome earners getting disadvantaged at the project implementation stage.  Inadequate financial resources, the government expected and depended much overseas fundingfor the project of the housing programs. Following this most of the medium sized constructionfirms died as they depended on investments in higher income residential properties.  Bias in fund allocation, more taxpayers’ money was used to fund establishment of betterhousing for the middle class in society and less funds were allocated for the housing of the poor.  Lack of commitment among the government officers especially in the middle income cadreswho did not embrace some of the new policies this was due to insufficient training among thepolitical leaders and the government officials responsible for the implementation of the projectsin the most countries.  Financial irregularities in the National Housing Corporation due to the fact that mostbeneficiaries of the new housing schemes were unable to pay their rents to the NHC therebyundermining its efficiency. For example in 1976 a number of NHC employees including thegeneral manager were terminated due to financial irregularities.  Unnecessary bureaucratic procedures for one to get funds for house construction as theprocedures could take several years for one to be funded this undermined the projectsdevelopment.  The use of expensive and unsustainable house design and materials as a result most countriesfailed to be innovative in designing house for the low income earners in the continent.

Achievements of housing distribution after independence After independence the government succeeded on the following;

 Reduction of inequalities in the income between the highest and the lowest income earnersthrough provision of reasonable houses by local authorities in different countries.  Decentralization of development for the promotion of development in other parts of thecountry. For example in Tanzania decentralization was made when Dodoma became the newcapital city of Tanzania.  Owning of homes in urban centers by the majority through sites and service schemes in Kenyaand Tanzania.  Provision of employment opportunities for Africans through establishment of new housingschemes. For example they provided plumbing, carpentry, electrical installation and otherimportant services to the residents.  Provision of new investment opportunities to many people due to expansion of the housingmarkets. For example the investment was made through establishment of high class hotels,tourism centers, commodities modernization, airports and importation of luxury commoditiesfor the benefits of tourists from western countries.

Establishment of National Military and National Legal Institutions After independence, African governments established their own armed forces and police for the purpose of ensuring security. Tanzania established her own military force called Tanzania People’s Defense Forces on 1st September 1964. It comprised of four branches namely 1. ) Land Forces Command 2. ) Naval Command 3. ) Air Force Command 4. ) Military Intelligence

The Objectives of Establishing National Military and National Legal Institutions Analyse the objectives of establishing national military and national legal institutions Objectives of establishing national armed forces

 To provide assistance during national emergencies  To participate in nation building activities  Promotion of internal security and integrity  To protect the country from external aggression  To detect and fighting off criminals  To ensure peace in the country

The Functions, Strengths and Weaknesses of National Military Forces and National Legal Institutions Assess the functions, strengths and weaknesses of national military forces and national legal institutions Functions of the national armed forces

 To safeguard the national security of the country from external aggression. For exampleTanzania military force took part in the military campaign against the forces of Idd Amin ofUganda in 1978. Similarly to Kenyan military force took part in campaigns against the Shiftabandits from Somalia in the 1970’s.  To preserve internal security. For example Kenya in 1978 during the attempt coup d’etat whenKenya Army fought off some elements of the rebel Kenya Air Force who wanted to take over thegovernment using unlawful means.  To participate in nation-building activities for example road and bridge construction.  To provide assistance to the public during national emergencies. For example during floods,famine, fire outbreaks and other national disasters.  To detect and fight off criminals who use water masses like the Atlantic and Indian Ocean tocommit crimes. For example the Somali pirates, narcotic runners and gunrunners as well asillegal trawlers who steal fish and other marine resources from African states.  To participate in peace keeping missions in different parts of the world by participating in UnitedNational, African Union and Commonwealth peacekeeping duties.

Weaknesses of national military forces in Africa after independence

 To abort coup attempts and overthrowing their governments  Corruption in the running of operations for example military officers from Zimbabwe wasaccused for having smuggled gold and other mineral resources during peacekeeping operations in the Democratic Republic of Congo.  Tribalism and sectionalism  Inadequate funds for soldiers payments  Indiscipline for example some soldiers have been accused of looting and raping civilians.  Lack of financial resources and modern military equipments  Dependence from developed countries for example some African countries depend onEuropean and USA countries in training and equipping their armies.  Low level of education the majority of the military personnel were not well educated in Africafor a long time due to the fact that military career was not taken as a prestigious occupation.

Strengths of national military forces in Africa after independence

 A lot of military personnel in recent years have been enrolled in institutions for higher educationand have improved their image while relating with members of the public.  Safeguarding the national security of the country from external aggression.  Preserving internal security.  Participating in peace keeping missions within and outside the country.  Participating in nation-building activities  Assisting the public during national emergencies.  Detecting and fighting off criminals

National legal institutions The national legal institutions include judiciary however; there is close coordination of different departments in the government in making sure that the law and order are preserved without denying anyone his or her rights in society. This can be witnessed through their different functions in the country. For example when the police force and the armed forces ensure preservation of national security and integrity the judiciary ensures the administration of justice through the court of law. Objectives of the national legal institutions

 To settle disputes among different parties  To guarantee rule of law for all citizens  Assisting in the law development  Constitution protection  Administering justice in the country  To swear in senior members of government like the prime ministers and presidents

Functions of the national legal institutions

 They settle disputes among individuals and between the individuals and the state.  They administer justice through law interpretation  They spell out the penalties to be meted out to offenders and the amount to be compensatedto the offended part.  They ensure citizen’s protection under the law and to sentence accordingly those who violatethe rights and freedoms of others.  They protect the national constitution by ensuring that everything in the country is done withinthe constitutional provisions in each country  They safeguard national sovereignty through swearing in of senior members of government.

Strengths of the national legal institutions

 They are based on equality and fairness of all the parties  Training of legal officers in different countries  They guarantee the justice for all the parties  The legal system is flexible and embraces some of the traditional methods of conflict resolution.For example Islamic courts are given rooms to handle cultural and religious matters in Africanlegal systems with a large population of Muslims.

Weaknesses of the national legal institutions

 Some of them are corrupt for example in Kenya many magistrates and judges lost their jobs in2003 following allegations of corruption.  Incompetence of some judiciary officers who fail to prioritize important issues in the legalsystem and underfunding of the institutions  Interference of some senior members of the executive in the work of legal institution therebyundermining administration of justice in the state.  Illiteracy and ignorance of the citizens hampered the efficiency in the administration justice bylegal institutions.  Dependence on other government departments like armed force and police force as theycannot operate efficiently in the absence of support from these departments.  Lack of financial resources to hire enough officers to assist in the administration of judiciary.  Interference of cultural traditions in the operations of the legal institutions as some communityapplies cultural methods of administration of justice, some of which contradict the official legalinstitutions for example traditional forms of compensation or avenging crime among clans.

The police force In Tanzania the national police force comprises the following departments or sections

 The Regular  Firefighting Unit  Anti-Stock Theft Police  Traffic Police  Native Intelligence Services

Other sections include Criminal Investigation Unit, Game Reserve Unit, Field Force Unit, Anti- Narcotics Police, Police Air Wing, Flying Squad and the General Service Unit. In Kenya there are some similar departments like those found in Tanzania however their police comprise a unit known as the administration police, whose work is to assist officers in the provincial administration. Objectives of establishing a national police force in African countries after independence

 To ensure maintenance of law and order  To protect the law and preserve both life and property  To investigate crime and prosecute offenders  To arrest and detain suspected offenders  To assist the public especially during emergencies  To regulate traffic and punish offenders

Functions/responsibilities of the police force

 Maintaining law and order by arresting and punishing the law breakers.  Safeguarding people’s life and properties  Detecting those about to commit the crime  Investigating the crime and prosecute the offenders  To confine suspected criminals in remand  Regulating tariffs and arrests the offenders by checking for defective vehicles on the roads inorder to safeguard life.  Provision of assistance during national emergencies  They take part in national projects like constructional activities of national infrastructures andfacilities.  Provision of entertainment in marking national days like Independence Day, Union Day inTanzania while in Kenya Jamuhuri Day and other national holidays.  They investigate and arrest international criminals such as terrorists, drug traffickers and thenotorious Somali pirates who harass water vessels playing the Indian Ocean.

Challenges/weaknesses facing the national police forces in Africa

 Lack of efficient transport and communication equipment for discharging their dutiesefficiently.  They have been accused of being involved in corrupt practices for example demanding fromthe public and failing to do their duties according to the law.  Recruitment of people with law academic qualifications in the force  Interference with police work by politicians and senior servants  The influx of small armies in the continent as a result some of the criminals posses moresophisticated weapons than the national police.  Poor relationship between the police officers and the citizens due to the use of harsh methodsby the police officers in their work to the citizens/public as a result public fear to pass usefulinformation to the police.  Terrorist disturbances to the police force for example in 1998 both the American Embassies inTanzania and Kenya was bombed by terrorists. Moreover, Uganda suffered a terroristsbombing attack in July 2010.  Cyber crimes resulted from modernization of information technology whereby some criminalsuse the internet to steal from banks and from innocent people not only that but also the use ofcell phones to defraud innocent members of the public.

Problems Hindering Development in Africa after Independence African continent has faced a number problem since independence that hindered development over the years. These are social, political and economic problems. The Social, Political and Economic Problems Hindering Development in Africa after Independence Analyse the social, political and economic problems hindering development in Africa after independence Social problems Illiteracy, Africans experiencing illiteracy since some people are unable to read or write, this is attributed by some of the cultural traditions of the people and sometimes failure of government to provide conducive environment for schooling. For example failure to provide enough educational facilities like school infrastructures for the communities has made it difficult for some children to access schooling. Poor living conditions, most of the Africans are poor following this the parents are unable to provide uniforms and other school materials to facilitate the education of their children. Poverty also led some student to drop out from school in order to work and provide to their siblings and parents. Diseases, African countries since independence have been experiencing diseases both cured and uncured resulted by environmental pollution, poor sanitation and poor hygiene, careless in eating habits, poverty and ignorance. Examples of the serious disease that affect African people include malaria, dysentery, HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis. Following this most people loose lives unnecessarily especially in the rural areas where health centers are few. Religious differences some African country experienced serious religious differences that led to religious wars and country division. For example in Nigeria and Sudan some of the Islamic groups have advocated for the introduction of sharia or Islamic law in some parts of the country while Christian and African traditional religions therefore this intensified conflict in such countries. Fear and insecurity, some African people are forced to flee from their homes and rendered refugees due to several factors including electoral disputes, land and water resources conflicts. Since these people flee from one African country to another within the continent this led to highest number of refugees in African continent than other continent, For example in eastern Africa there are millions of refugees from Burundi, DRC Congo, Sudan and Somalia, living in refugees camps in neighboring countries. Political problems Tribalism in Africa attributed by different factors some of them include language differences and colonial policy of divide and rule this contributed to political animosity and civil wars. For example in Nigeria, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, Ivory Coast and Uganda there are serious political divisions, civil wars, displacement of people and death due to tribalism. Regionalism in some African countries some parts of the regions have experienced faster development than other areas hence disunity. For example in Sudan some parts of southern experiences great poverty while northern parts is more developed, following this there has been a very serious civil war that was that was fought from the 1980s to 2011. Single party system of ruling, most of African countries until 1990s were characterized with single party rule following this many there was problem of corruption, authoritarian and lack of democracy. However in 1990s many African countries such as Kenya, Zambia and Mali struggled for multiparty government. Political instabilities caused by disputes over electoral outcomes, land resources and sharing of government positions. This has hampered political unity to many African countries and resulted to lack of economic progress, loss of life and properties and displacement of people. Abortive coup attempt and overthrow of governments due to several challenges within the country including economy mismanagement, sectionalism, corruption, nepotism, violation of human rights and tribalism for example in Nigeria the coups against the prime minister Abubakar Tawafa Balewa while in Uganda Idd Amin overthrew the government of Militon Obote in 1971. Neo-colonialism resulted to ideological differences among the political leaders and political disunity which hampered unity between African countries. For example in Democratic Republic of Congo, several political readers were unhappy because Patrice Lumumba the prime minister adopted socialism and in Kenya the president Jomo Kenyatta adopted capitalism while his vice president supported socialism. Economic problems Poverty is experienced in African countries due to the failure of governments to allocate resources equitably and to provide development infrastructures such as schools, roads, electricity as well as economic exploitation of certain regions of the country. Mismanagement of public resources for one’s benefits or for the benefits of one’s friends or associates for personal gain or favors for example land have been grabbed by corrupt government officials and civil servants thus undermining the economy. This problem has been prevalent in Nigeria, Kenya and Burundi where a high level of corruption has been reported for many years. The Steps Taken to Solve Problems Hindering Development in Africa after Independence Examine critically the steps taken to solve problems hindering development in Africa after independence Introduction of multiparty, most African countries decided to introduce more than one political party so as to provide an opportunity for citizens to compete in the political arena since this contribute in making the government more accountable as the oppositions operate as a watchdog. Constitution revision most African countries have been revised their constitution to limit the term of the leaders to a maximum period usually two terms. Also political candidates are now required to show proof of a good educational background in order to eliminate possibility of having inept leaders. Strengthening of democracy through African Union by allowing innervations in case of evidence of violence and abuse of human rights in member countries, this prevents political instabilities in countries and pre-empts refugee problems in the continents. Affirmative action has been accepted in order to uplift women I leadership. For example Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda have made great progress in this sphere. Establishment of regional organizations contributing to the stability of African states by improving social and economic welfare of the citizens and expanding commerce, transport and communications infrastructures. Introduction of modern information systems such as internet and cell phones helped in boosting economies of Africa by cutting down on unnecessary labour and by ensuring watertight security of money and goods in both government offices and private companies. Use of cell phones also facilitates quicker and more financial transactions. Partnership with developed countries through privatization of public corporations for the aim of promoting development especially in productive areas such as minerals and oils prospecting HIV/AIDS campaigns in order to inform citizens on ways of protecting themselves and on how to assist infected people Establishment of social security fund aimed at protecting retirees and those retrenched from work due to ill health from experiencing serious financial problems. Establishment of revenue collecting bodies like Tanzania Revenue Authority, Uganda Revenue Authority and Kenya Revenue Authority in order to strengthen economy and avoiding economic dependency on foreign countries Success and Failures of the Steps Taken to Solve Problems Hindering Development in Africa

Qn. Analyse the successes and failures of the steps taken to solve problems hindering development in Africa

Failure of the measures taken to resolve African political independence problems The influence of external powers in African politics example in 2011 the USA and NATO powers attacked the forces of Muammar Gaddafi in spite of pressure from the African Union to allow more time for dialog among the rebels and government forces.

 Corruption  Diseases  refugees

Successes of the measures taken to solve problems hindering development in Africa Multi party system has promoted democracy and government accountabilities as well as helped to reduce abuse of powers and corruption among African political leaders within the continent. Respect and adhering constitutional requirements especially in political issues like elections Promotion of gender mainstreaming programs in order to allow women and girls to advance politically, economically and socially since now day women are no longer sidelined in political activities in Africa. For example Liberia is led by President Ellen Johnson-Sir leaf, a lady while Tanzania’s speaker of the parliament is also a woman honorable Anne Makinda. Regional economic organizations contributing to political achievements in African countries through ECOWAS, SADC and EAC for example, African Union has played an important role in enhancing political stability by condemning electoral irregularities and condemning military takeovers in the continent as well as has participated in peace keeping operation in Darfur and Somalia since 2009. Improvement of social arena through saving retirees and those retrenched from work due to ill health from experiencing serious financial problems. For example in Kenya the National Social Security Fund (NSSF) and the National Hospital Insurance Fund (NHIF) have both played a key role in uplifting the life the poorer members of the society. Similar program have also been instituted in Uganda and Tanzania. Improvement of education system through adoption of different educational policy like Universal Primary Education (UPE), Education for All (EFA), Primary and Secondary development programs (SEDP & PEDP) all of these aim to fight illiteracy in the society. Enhancement of economic stabilities and reducing dependency on foreign donor through establishment of revenue collection bodies; For example Tanzania Revenue Authority, Uganda Revenue Authority and Kenya Revenue Authority. African states stability through setting up of regional organizations for example Uganda is the most important trading partner of Kenya. Activity to do

1. Explain five common political features of the post independent African countries. 2. Give five reasons why African countries decided to adopt new economic strategies after independence. 3. State the objectives of education in Africa after independence. 4. What are the measures adopted to improve education sector by independent African countries 5. Mention five challenges experienced by African government 6. Why African government wanted to change the colonial system of education? 7. What are the objectives of health sector in post independent African countries? 8. Give three challenges experienced by the independent African countries in the provision of health services. 9. State three weaknesses and strengths of the health services in Africa after independence 10. Explain five improvements in water provision in Africa since independence 11. What are the measures adopted by African countries to improve the housing situation of their people since independence? 12. State two objectives behind the establishment of the armed forces and police force after independence 13. Give four functions of the military and police force.

AFRICA IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS This topic is largely concern with the relationship and cooperation between African nations among themselves and cooperation between African countries and the outside world. We shall concentrate much on regional integration between African nations and also relationship with international organizations by examining the objectives, achievements, impacts and challenges. In our sub topics will include the following:

 The African Unity (AU)  The East African Community (EAC)  The Southern African Development Community (SADC)  The Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)  The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)  The Common Wealth Nations a. Continental Cooperation Continental cooperation was facilitated by the social, political and economic exploitation imposed on Africans. Through these, the African people realized the need for cooperation and the consciousness that they share a common destiny. So they decided to cooperate with the view to overcome their terrible situation. Hence they started by establishing Pan African Unity in the Diaspora and the ultimate emergence of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) as well as African Unity (AU) and various regional groupings have emerged in the continent. The Objectives of Establishing Continental Co-operation Qn. Analyse the objectives of establishing continental co-operation.

Objectives of establishing continental cooperation

i. To preserve political independence and freedom ii. To preserve African culture from destruction iii. To protect African dignity iv. Unifying Africans in the struggle against political oppression v. To challenge the ideology of European supremacy which undermines African political independence, economic stability and cultural civilization vi. To fight against economic exploitation including land alienation, poor wages and forced labour. The Achievements and Problems Resulting from the Establishment of Continental Co-Operation and their Impact on Africa Qn. Explain the achievements and problems resulting from the establishment of continental co- operation and their impact on Africa

Achievement resulting from the establishment of continental cooperation on Africa

1. Tackling disputes experienced in the African continent for example post-election violence in Kenya in 2007, the AU sent a group of eminent to assist in tackling the crisis, not only that but also during the post election violence in Zimbabwe the AU helped to mediate in the crisis between Morgan Tsvangirai and Robert Mugabe. 2. Supporting regional cooperation including the formation of EAC, SADC and ECOWAS 3. Enhancing democracy and good management of economies. 4. Interfering with countries facing threats of conflicts or war. 5. Provision of an important forum where independent African states could sit and discuss the issues facing their continent. 6. Supporting the national liberation movements in Africa against colonialism, the assistance was provided in form of shelter, funds, weapon, training facilities and expertise as well as logistics. For example the OAU liberation committee which was based in Dar es salaam, Tanzania assisted liberation movements all over the continent to eradicate colonialism. 7. Promotion of economic, social and technical advancement in the continent. Through the African Development Bank (ADB), member states have benefited from financial assistance which has facilitated the expansion of infrastructural development in the continent. 8. Promotion of communication in the continent by developing postal, telecommunications, radio and television networks in Africa. 9. Promotion of social and cultural heritage in the continent through All Africa Games that were held every four years, peoples from across the continent interacted through participation in different sports such as soccer, athletics and other sporting activities. Problems resulting from the establishment of continental cooperation and their impacts on Africa

a. Interference by external powers in the affairs of the African continent, the notorious powers like USA, Britain, France and former Soviet Union provides support in form of finances and armaments to different African states and by so doing divided African states by persuading them to take side during disputes involving these major power. b. Disputes involving different member states especially over boundaries greatly undermine the continental unity. In fact the member states engaged in war over boarder disputes, some of these wars include Ghana and Togo, Algeria and Morocco, Ethiopia and Somalia/Eritrea as well as Cameroon and Nigeria. c. Personality differences between African leaders for example personality difference experienced between president Museveni of Uganda and president Bashir of Sudan in1980s and 1990s and between Idd Amin of Uganda and President J.K. Nyerere of Tanzania in the 1970s. d. Dependency on former colonial masters, several times African countries ask support from their former colonial masters especially in the face of political threat from neighboring African states rather than seeking the continental body support hence existence of Britain and French military bases in different African countries up to date. e. Persuading national interests at the expense of the continental interests and thereby undermined the continental spirit promoted by the organization. f. Ideological differences that is Capitalism and Socialism. g. Violation of human rights by the leaders for example member countries have continued to support president Omar al-Bashir of Sudan who has already been indicated for abuse for human rights in Darfur. h. Lack of common position toward issues further waters down some of the decisions and opinions of the organization. i. Unable to meet organization objectives in the absence of external support due to relying on financial support from more economically advanced nations and the United Nations, in order to fund some of the program. j. Terrorism, for example in 2010 Uganda faced bomb attack which killed over 70 people. This was carried out to punish Uganda for sending AU troops to serve in Somalia.

b. African Regional Cooperation

The need for regional cooperation in Africa arose from the need to tackle political, social, and economic needs of the people. Leaders from different regions realized the need to work together in order to overcome developmental challenges facing individual countries as a group rather than as individual countries. This regional approach was found more beneficial given that the people in one region are likely to work more closely together due to geographical, historical and cultural advantages. Among the regional groupings existing in Africa include COMESA, SADC, ECOWAS and EAC.

The Organization of African Unity (OAU)

The organization of African unity was found on 25 may 1963in Addis Ababa Ethiopia by thirty two heads of the independent African states the first chairman was Emperor Haile Sellasie of Ethiopia

This was inspired by Pan African’s sentiment of bringing all people of African origin both in the Diaspora and Africa under a single organization to fight and protect their rights.

Nkurumah one of the pioneers of African union and the founding father of Ghana was greatly influenced by his education in USA he believed that the only way to achieve complete economic as well as political freedom from European domination was to create a powerful new “United States of Africa” then though continental wide cooperation.

Africa would real take place on the world economic and political stage on terms of equality. In unity Nkurumah was saw strength but in practical terms his dream proved illusory.

In the beginning of the second millennium OAU faced a lot of challenges and the need to for reform to cope with the new trend of global economic cooperation in different region of the world as demonstrated by the success of European Union. The idea of forming the new organization was later formed. The idea of forming the strong organization which would accommodate these new challenges were pioneered by Muammar Gadaf (the former leader of Libya) during the OAU summit at the town of Sirte Libya on 9th September 1999, where African heads of state made the “Sirte declaration” and called for the establishment of an African Union.

In the following year in Lome Togo 2000 the African head of states adopted the constitutive act of the union. And then in Lusaka Zambia summit 2001 the final go ahead to the establishment of AU and finally in 2002 in Durban South Africa AU was officially born replacing OAU.

The African union is made up of both political and administrative bodies. The highest decision making is Assembly of the African union, made up of the all heads of state or government of member states of the AU.

The assembly is chaired by Yayi Boni, president of Benin elected at the 18th ordinary meeting of the assembly on January 2012. The AU also has a representative body, the Pan African parliament, which consists of 265 members elected by the national parliaments of the AU member states. Its president is Idriss Ndele Moussa.

Founding fathers of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), 1963. Source: thisisafrica

PICTURE SH OWING THE NEW HEADQUATERS OF AFRICAN UNION

Membership

The African Union of the Blind, AFUB’s work cuts across the whole of the African continent. Currently we have national organisations of and for the blind and partially sighted persons from 53 African countries and we run programs in all these countries indiscriminately. The membership is currently organised into five regions.

Central Africa with 10 countries Burundi, Cameroon, Central Africa Republic, Chad, Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Rwanda, and Sao Tome & Principe.

East Africa with 12 countries

Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles, Somalia, Sudan, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda

North Africa with 6 countries

Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia

Southern Africa with 10 countries

Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia, and Zimbabwe

West Africa with 15 countries

Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Ivory Coast, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo

Each region has a regional assembly that meets at least six months before the union’s general assembly. Part of its agenda is to elect a regional chair who will later be a member of the AFUB board of Officers.

List of Chairpersons # Portrait Chairperson Took Office Left Office Country Region

[10] Southern 1 Thabo Mbeki 9 July 2002 10 July 2003 South Africa

Africa

[11] Southern 2 Joaquim Chissano 10 July 2003 6 July 2004 Mozambique

Africa

[12] 24 January 3 Olusegun Obasanjo 6 July 2004 Nigeria West Africa 2006

[13] 24 January 24 January Republic of Central 4 Denis Sassou Nguesso

2006 2007 Congo Africa

# Portrait Chairperson Took Office Left Office Country Region

[2] 30 January 31 January 5 John Kufuor Ghana West Africa 2007 2008

[14] 31 January 2 February 6 Jakaya Kikwete Tanzania East Africa 2008 2009

[15] 2 February 31 January 7 Muammar Gaddafi Libya North Africa 2009 2010

[16] 31 January 31 January Southern 8 Bingu wa Mutharika Malawi

2010 2011 Africa

Teodoro Obiang Nguema 31 January 29 January Equatorial Central 9 [17] Mbasogo 2011 2012 Guinea Africa

[18] 29 January 27 January 10 Yayi Boni Benin West Africa 2012 2013

[19] 27 January 30 January 11 Hailemariam Desalegn Ethiopia East Africa 2013 2014

Mohamed Ould Abdel 30 January 30 January 12 [20] Mauritania North Africa Aziz 2014 2015

# Portrait Chairperson Took Office Left Office Country Region

[21] 30 January 30 January Southern 13 Robert Mugabe Zimbabwe

2015 2016 Africa

[22] 30 January 30 January Central 14 Idriss Déby Chad

2016 2017 Africa

[23] 30 January 28 January 15 Alpha Condé Guinea West Africa 2017 2018

[24] 28 January 16 Paul Kagame Incumbent Rwanda East Africa 2018

Bureau

The Chairperson is assisted by a bureau of three vice-chairpersons and a rapporteur.[24]

Portrait Incumbent Country Region Title

Fayez al-Sarraj Libya North Africa First Vice-Chairperson

Cyril Ramaphosa South Africa Southern Africa Second Vice-Chairperson

Denis Sassou Nguesso Congo Central Africa Third Vice-Chairperson

Alpha Condé Guinea West Africa Rapporteur

THE STRUCTURE ORGANIZATION OF AU Objectives of OAU

a. To forge unity and solidarity, the primary aim of OAU was to promote African unity and solidarity as the only way forward to achieve complete economic as well as political freedom from other countries of the world, because unity and solidarity would make Africa as super power among other countries. b. To coordinate and intensify the cooperation and the efforts of Africa states to achieve a better living of people and also to help the speeding up of the decolonization in the rest of Africa. c. To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of African states, one of the OAU principle states the acceptance of the principle of non interference in internal affairs of member state. d. To eradicate all forms of colonialism in Africa and acts of slavery in the entire continent of Africa by promoting freedom and human rights to be given first priority. e. To promote international cooperation in accordance of the United Nations organization and the universal declaration of human rights f. To promote peace security and stability in region g. To promote democratic principles and institutions particularly good governance h. To promote human and people’s rights in accordance with African human and people’s right and other relevant human rights instruments. i. To establish the necessary conditions this would enable Africans play its rightful role not only in the local economy but also internationally. j. To promote sustainable development at economic, social and cultural levels towards the integration of African economies. k. To coordinate and policies between the existing and future regional economic communities for attainment of the ultimate objectives of the union. l. To collaborate in international partner, towards the eradication of preventable diseases and promotion of good healthy in the continent.

Principles of OAU

i. The existence of sovereign equality of all members ii. Non interference in the internal affairs of the member states. iii. Respect for the sovereignty and the inalienable right to independent of all member states. iv. Peaceful settlement of disputes by negotiation, mediation and conciliation or arbitration. v. The affirmation of the policy of non alignment vi. Unreserved condemnation of political assassination as well as of subversive activitiesagainst any member state

Achievement of OAU It achieved to unite the diverse countries of Africa; this has been attained despite discrepancies in political ideology, levels of economic development, language, colonial experiences and vast geographical differences.

There was of course disagreement between states and groups of states but its main aim was unity and OAU survived its first three decades with no permanent spirit

It has been achieved in providing a forum for discussing common problems of African states and offering solutions like discrimination or apartheid, diseases and civil wars among others. That to a big extent has been dealt with.

The regular meeting of ministers and heads of state have helped to generate greater awareness of other countries problems.

OAU has also achieved in liberation of Africa from colonialism e.g. Zimbabwe, Angola and Namibia, through the provision of moral and material support to the nationalistic movements in various nations.

The African Development Bank that grew out of the OAU in 1967 became an invaluable tool for mobilizing world finance for Africa development projects.

The idea of coordinating and mobilizing international capital for the benefit of Africa was of particular value during the 1970‟s and early 1980‟s.

Provision of jobs and education to many African refugees, who came as a result of internal conflicts in various African nations. The organization has taken measures to improve agriculture, industry, transport, and communication trade and education cooperation in various countries.

The meeting of heads of states each year to discuss problems and achievement of continent is one of the achievements.

Many conflicts have been solved by the organization in the continent e.g. the war between Tanzania and Uganda 1978, Mali and Burkina Faso 1985 as well as Kenya and Somalia in 1970.

OAU has encouraged regional integration among is member states such as ECOWAS 1975, SADC 1980, COMESA 1993 has its roots from OAU.

OAU has achieved in acting as chief mediator between various African states to avoid the occurrence of bloodshed e.g. between Ethiopia and Eritrea.

PICTURE SHOWING AFRICAN UNION PARLIAMENT Problems faced Organization of African Union

The issue of temporarily withdrawing. A member states decide individually and voluntarily to be the member of the organization and it could withdraw its membership at any time that it feels to do so, this weakens the strength of the organization e.g Morocco is not a member.

No legal sanction to enforce another big problem that faced OAU was that it was no legal sanction to enforce its resolution.

Member state could decide to refuse or ignore to implement the organization decisions, that is why it was always been blamed for being little more than „a talking shop‟ with no serious implementation of her resolutions.

Lack of adequate funds it largely based on the annual contribution of members states most of the member states delayed to pay or defaulted to pay their contributions, this made the organization to fail to run its activities.

Unequal development caused by poverty, illiteracy and unequal distribution of resources.

Refuges. There are many refugees in Africa which is the result of civil wars in many areas of the continent such as Burundi, DRC Sudan and Somalia.

Poverty. The continent is still poor depending on debts and loans from World Bank and I.M.F with difficulty conditionality to fulfill.

Language differences. Differences in language and religion, some societies are proud of their mother tongue other countries are using English, others Arabic, and French every state or tribe wanted to use the language of her interests. Religion problems. There is tension between fundamentalists Muslims who want to apply sharia law while Christians wants western system of democracy.

Natural hazards. African countries are affected by natural disasters such as drought, floods, AIDS and earthquake. These affect the welfare of the people.

Ideological differences. Difference in ideology of the member states, head of states are unable to come together to discuss their problems

Currency problem. Lack of a single currency to be used by all member states since it is not decided on to be used; this hinders trade activities in the continent.

Weak economic base. Weak economic base of many of the member states most of the member states had got their independence from European imperialist nations, all are based on production on production of primary goods of agriculture products and minerals that fetched little prices,

Terrorism. Terrorism continues to plague the member states for example Uganda in 2010 over 70 people were killed in a bomb attack. This is a great challenge to the continental cooperation especially to the AU as the attack was carried out to push Uganda for sending AU troops to serve in Somalia.

Political Instability. Political instability is still prevailing in some African countries for example in 2007 eminent persons from the AU had to come and assist Kenya to solve her electoral disputes after they turned bloody. East African Community (E.A.C)

PICTURE SHOWING EAST AFRICAN LOGO AND FLAG

The East African Community (EAC) is an intergovernmental organization comprising five countries in East African states, Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda. The current EAC‟s chairman is Pierre Nkurunzinza, the president of the republic of Burundi.

The organization was originally found on June 1967, collapsed in 1977, and was officially revived on July 7, 2000; Burundi and Rwanda joined the EAC on 6th July 2009.

East African Federation is also the second most populous nation in Africa (after Nigeria) and eleventh in the world. The population density would be 70 people the GDP (PPP) by IMF estimate would be $ 131,772,000 USD and be the fourth largest in Africa and 55th in the world. The GDP per capital would be $1036 USD, the vernacular language would be Swahili and the official one would be English. The proposed capital is the Tanzanian city of Arusha which is close to the Kenyan border, Arusha is the current headquarters of the East African Community, it was founded on June 1967, and the government of Tanganyika, Kenya and Uganda signed a treaty in Kampala Uganda. Aims of East African Community

 To promote free trade in goods and services produced among the members.  To provide common services such as railways, harbors, posts and telecommunication.  To provide wider and more secure market for industrial and agricultural goods.  To allow free movement of people in the region for trade recreation and other socialactivities.  To achieve technological innovation and advancement  To conduct research activities in agriculture, population, medicine and mining for itsdevelopment  It aims at solving regional problems jointly by the heads of the member states.

Challenges to the federation of EAC / why the EAC is delaying to form political union The issue of free movement of labour, may be perceived as highly desirable in Uganda and Kenya, and have important developmental benefits in Tanzania however in Tanzania there is widespread resistance to the idea of ceding land rights to foreigners, including citizens of Kenya and Uganda, Tanzania has more land than all other EAC nations combined, and Tanzanians fear land grabs by the current residence of the other EAC member nations.

Land scarcity is a recurring issue in east Africa, particularly in Kenya, where clashes on the Kenyan side of Mount Elgon in 2007 left more than 150 dead and forced at least 60,000 away from their home, this proves to be a big challenge to the federation of East African community

Changing on power/power greediness, there is a political challenge to the confederation, its political differences between the states. Museven‟s success in obtaining his third term amendment and his unwillingness to relinquish power to others raised doubts in the other countries.

The single party dominance in the Tanzanian and Ugandan parliaments is an attractive to Kenyans, while Kenya‟s ethic politics is not apparent in Tanzania, Rwanda has a distinctive political culture with a political elites committed to build a developmental state, partly in order to safeguard the Tutsi group against a return to ethnic violence.

The question of Zanzibar, apart from the above the confederation has got serious challenge about the question of Zanzibar in Tanzania the question still stands whether Zanzibar is a state or not, it‟s disturbing the member states in finding the solution.

Involvement in other regional integration, other problems involve states being reluctant to relinquish involvement in other regional groups e.g. Tanzania‟s withdraw from COMESA but staying within SADC bloc, such move make her to remain with double standards and weaken the power of the confederation.

Tanzanians are also concerned because creating a common market means removing tariffs from all import which may turn the nation to become a dumping place for goods from the federal states that may perturb the development of her domestic industries.

MAP SHOWING EAST AFRICA COUNTRIES Qn. Why East African Community collapsed in 1977?

In 1977 the East African Community collapsed after ten years because of the following factors;-

(i) Personality differences among heads of states of the member states. This in great extent hampered the organization because the supreme organ (Authority) could not meet to discuss some issues. Forexample J.K Nyerere of Tanzania had problem with Iddi Amin of Uganda. (ii) The ideological disparity between the three countries. The ideological differences led to the collapse of the community. For example Tanzania adopted self reliance and socialism, Kenya capitalist ideology and Uganda fascism during Idd Amin. (iii) Unequal distribution of social services, the problem of the distribution of different services, the distribution was more beneficial to Kenya than Uganda and Tanzania. (iv) The misunderstanding between member states over the issue of railway transport. It has indicated that Tanzania 1973 was unhappy with the way the East African Railway was operating and accused Kenya of increasing the haulage of the road facilities while ignoring the railway lines. (v) Unequal development among member state. (vi) Failure of the member country to contribute the agreed fees at a/ on time. (vii) Currency differences. The absence of common currency to all member states made the government restriction to the free transfer and exchange of currency. This discourages interstate transaction in goods. (viii) Demands by Kenya for more seats than Uganda and Tanzania in decision making organs (Assembly). (ix) Disagreement with Ugandan dictator Idd Amin and disparate economic system of socialism in Tanzania and capitalism system in Kenya. (x) Border conflicts e.g. between Tanzania and Uganda during Idd Amin over Mtukula. (xi) The organization had its roots from colonial period nothing changed fundamentally that Britain went on benefiting through Kenya. (xii) The East African Bank failed a balance development of industries in the three countries where by Kenya benefited more than Tanzania and Uganda in income tax and custom duties. (xiii) The problem of the distribution of different services, the distribution was more beneficial to Kenya than Uganda and Tanzania. (xiv) The multi membership of the EAC member states something led to the failure in fee payments. For example.

Following this the three member state lost over sixty years of cooperation and the benefits of economies of scale. However, some Kenyan government officials celebrated the collapse with champagne each of the former member state had to embark, at great expense and lower efficiency, up on establishment of services and industries that had previously been provided at the community level. The new East Africa Community

The Southern African Development Community (SADC) It was formed as the replacement of Southern African Development Coordination Conferences (SADCC) formed in 1980. It was in 1993 when it was changed to SADC this is an association of eleven countries such as Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa.

Objective of SADC

 To help member states to have a genuine and equitable regional integration.  To mobilize the regional resources for their benefits.  To foster international cooperation.  To enhance the development of industries, trade, mining, agriculture and energyresources.  To improve transport and communication links  To improve internal market.

Problems faced SADC

 Weak financial base, members rely on foreign aid and loan  Members produce similar agricultural goods such as coffee, sisal and tobacco whichcompete for market.  All members depend on agricultural rather than industries, when the prices of agriculturalcommodities fluctuates which leads to low earnings.  Lack of qualified and skilled man power to run the organization, they depend on foreignexperts.  Unequal distribution of the benefits of the associations discourages other states.  Every member tries to cater her national interests rather than those of SADC The Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) Before 1993 COMESA was known as preferential trade area for eastern and southern Africa P.T.A. the heads of member states met at Kampala Uganda on 6th November 1993 and signed a treaty which created COMESA. A member of COMESA includes Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Botswana, Swaziland, Mauritius, Comoro, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Somalia and South Africa.

Objective of COMESA

 Promoting and facilitating cooperation among member countries in trade, transport and communication.  Harmonizing and coordinating development strategies, policies and plans within the region.  It encourages cooperation in monetary and financial affairs in order to facilitate sub region integration.  It aimed at establishing joint industries and agricultural institution to raise the production capacity.  It aims at reducing and eventually eliminating tariffs among members in order to facilitate trade.  It encourages economic independence of a region by establishing strong economic base.

Achievements of COMESA Member states have become more cooperative in the field of trade, industry and agriculture. The organization has also established the bank known as the trade and development bank situated in Bujumbura Burundi which finances trade and development projects

Problems facing COMESA

 Different levels of development of members of states.  Poor transport shipping facilities and communication links  Existence of too many currencies in the region,  Weak economic base of member states e.g. dependency economies.  Civil wars, natural calamities and neo colonialism

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) The Economic Community of West Africa was formed on 28th may 1975, member states includes Guinea, Ivory Coast, Mauritania, Senegal, Benin, Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso, Gambia, Ghana, Sierra Leon, Liberia, Guinea Bissau, Togo, Cameroon, Cape Verde and Nigeria.

Aims of ECOWAS

 ECOWAS aimed at removing barriers and allowing free movement of people servicesand capital for the development of the member states.  It aims at developing industries, agriculture and mining by using good and applicablepolicies.

Achievement of ECOWAS

 The organization has managed to set energy resource development fund for oil mining industry in the region.  There have been agriculture and communication development of the whole part of the region this has been through special fund to develop the projects and through joint ventures between members.

Problems facing ECOWAS

 Each member wants to benefit more than the other members of the community accordingto their interests.  Political instability affects member states, there have been civil wars and coup d‟état inthe region, e.g. Nigeria, Sierra Leon, Liberia and Ivory Coast.  Poor communication network system in many parts of the region hinders organizationactivities to all places.  Language differences, other members are using English while others French this led tocommunication barrier between the members.  Lack of single currency creates the problem of the rate of exchange between the memberstates.  The problem of members to have a membership in more than one organization and all theorganization have demands in terms of contribution i.e. it‟s difficult to contributemembership to all the organization due to poverty

Common Wealth of Nations The common wealth of nations normally referred to as the common wealth and formerly intergovernmental organization of 54 independent member states. All members except Mozambique and Rwanda were part of the British Empire, out of which the commonwealth developed.

The common wealth is an intergovernmental organization in which countries with diverse social, economic, and political backgrounds are regarded as equal in status, not a political union. Activities of the common wealth are carried put through the permanent commonwealth secretariat, headed by the secretary-general and biennial meetings of commonwealth heads of government. The symbol of their free association is the head of the commonwealth, which is ceremonial position currently held by Queen Elizabeth II.

The member states cooperate between a framework of common values and goals as it outlined in the Singapore declaration. This includes the promotion of democracy, human rights, good governance, and rule of law, individual liberty, egalitarianism, free trade, multilateralism and world peace.

Objectives of commonwealth

The commonwealth‟s objectives were first outlined in the 1971 Singapore declaration which committed to the commonwealth to the institution to the following objectives.

 Maintain world peace and stability  Promotion of representative democracy and individual liberty.  The pursuit of equality and opposition to racism.  The fight against poverty, ignorance and diseases.  To promote free trade to all member nations. To these was added opposition todiscrimination on the basis of gender by the Lusaka declaration of 1979.  To maintain environmental sustainability by the LangKawi declaration of 1989

These objectives were reinforced by the Harare declaration in 1991 Generally, the commonwealth‟s highest priority aims are on the promotion of democracy and development, as outlined in the 2003. Also rock declaration which built on those in Singapore and Harare and clarified their terms of reference, stating we are committed to democracy, good governance, human rights, gender equality as well as more equitable sharing of the benefits of globalization. The Objectives of the Different Regional Groupings in Africa

Analyse the objectives of the different regional groupings in Africa

Objective of different regional groupings in Africa

 To attain sustainable growth and development of member states  To promote social, economic and political development  To cooperate in the promotion of peace, security and stability among member states  To promote good relations between member states  To promote trade and industrial developments  To promote cultural cooperation  To facilitate movement of people and goods in the region  To promote environmental protection and utilization of resources

Problems resulting from the establishment of regional groupings on Africa

 Political instability example Angola, Kenya, Uganda, Siera Leone, Liberia andDemocratic Republic of Congo  Differences in political ideologies example Mozambique, Angola and Tanzaniapursued socialism while other member states pursued capitalism  Language barrier example Mozambique and Angola is Portuguese speaking,Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda are Kiswahili speaking, Rwanda and Burundi areFrench speaking and the other member states use English as the main medium ofcommunication.  Poor interstate communication  Differences in economy  Unequal gain by member states  Different currency  Foreign interference  Failure to remit contribution required by the regional organizations  Boarder quarrels between member states example Nigeria and Cameroon, Ethiopiaand Eritrea as well as Tanzania and Malawi/Uganda.  Personality differences between political leaders of member states  Civil wars among member states example Northern and Southern Sudan, DemocraticRepublic of Congo.

The Achievements and Problems Resulting from the Establishment of Regional Grouping and their Impact on Africa Critically analyse the achievements and problems resulting from the establishment of regional grouping and their impact on Africa

Achievements resulting from the establishment of regional groupings on Africa

 Promotes culture of democratic governance, accountability and respect for human rights  Expansion of employment opportunity among the member states  Trade liberalization among the member states  Improvement of transport and communications in order to ease movement of services,people and goods in the region.  Provision of market for member states‟ commodities.  Enhancing and standardizing the quality of education in the region.  Promotion of democracy and the rule of law in the region  Boosting of economic cooperation among member states by formulating economic,financial and monetary policies for the organization.  Sharing of social services such as water resources and electricity among the memberstates  Enhancing peace and security in the region by establishing regional multinational forcelike the Economic Community Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) in the Western part ofAfrica.

Problems/challenges resulting from Africa’s participation in International Affairs

 Failure to intervene quickly in Africa to avoid catastrophes  They depend on contributions of member states. Unfortunately a majority of its membersin Africa are poor countries, who are unable to remit their contributions.  Ideological differences between different nations globally especially among the majorpowers. Following this African countries fall victim depending on which side theysupport in the global tensions even today.  The use of veto powers by the permanent members of the Security Council. Africancountries added their voice to demand that some African states also acquire this vetopower in order to level the status of international relations.

BASIC ASSIGNMENT/ ACTIVITY TO DO

1. Why has the dream of united Africa not been achieved up to now? 2. What are the major achievements and problems of the organization of Africa unity sinceits formation? 3. What are the problems in the process of establishing regional economic integration inAfrica? 4. Show success and shortcoming of United Nations Organization? 5. Analyze the objectives and problems of SADC 6. What are the achievements and problem of ECOWAS? 7. What are the problems and achievement facing African Union? 8. Show how african countries have benefited from being members of the UN 9. Discuss the benefits Tanzania get from Commonwealth Community 10. With examples show challenges that likely to face the new African Union 11. What are the problems and achievements of African countries to participate ininternational affairs

Africa in International Affairs The independent African states had been participating in international affairs through joining International Organizations. These international organizations exist into two types namely;

 International Governmental Organizations (IGOs)

These are organizations made up of two or more sovereign states for example The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and THE World Health Organization

 International Non-Governmental Organizations (INGOs)

These are organizations made up of individuals or private groups for example International Red Cross, Amnesty International and Transparency International. The Objectives of Africa's Participation in International Affairs Explain the objectives of Africa's participation in international affairs Objectives of participating in international affairs  To demonstrate African sovereignty by participating in the global affairs  To receive more international attention by participating in the General Assembly of United Nations  To put African continent in a strategic situation in the struggle between the Easternand the Western bloc during the cold war by participating in the Non-AlignmentMovement for the aim of being able to receive support from both sides.  To give African continent forum through which they could discuss their continentalaffairs by participating in the Organization of African Unity  To enhance Africa‟s development in collaboration with their English speaking states that are more developed. By participating in the Commonwealth of Nations.  To coordinate cooperation of the Francophone and their former colonial masters by participating in the French Community.  To show solidarity with other states of the world especially during emergencies by participating in the affairs of International Non-Governmental Organizations.

The Achievements and Problems Resulting from Africa's Participation in International Affairs Critically assess the achievements and problems resulting from Africa's participation in international affairs Achievements of African to participate in the International Affairs (UN)

 Peaceful resolution of conflicts through UN by using peacekeepers, observer missions,special envoys and mediators to intervene in volatile areas. For example thepeacekeeping operation have taken place in Africa include the Democratic Republic ofCongo, Liberia, Sierra Leone and Somalia.  Efforts towards disarmament done by UN over the years it has spearheaded the crusadetowards reducing dangerous arms in the world especially nuclear weapons for exampleseveral treaties have been signed with the aim of cutting down numbers of nuclearweapons including the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT)  Promotions towards the protection of human rights for example the General Assemblyadopted the universal declaration of human rights in 1948 which identifies the universalrights and freedoms of a person in spite of age, gender or race.  Promotion of humanitarian efforts including support for refugees, relief provision forthose in distress like those experiencing natural calamities.  Promotion for democracy and good governance for example in 1970s South Africa andSouthern Rhodesia were slapped with UN sanctions due to failure in the area ofdemocracy and good governance.  Establishment of environmental programs that fight against environmental degradationby helping the global community to realize the dangers of the climatic changeparticularly global warming and how to reduce the dangers. For example the UnitedNations Environmental Program whose headquarters is in Nairobi Kenya.  Fighting for underdevelopment through establishment of different programs such asUnited Nations Development Program (UNDP) this assists nations of the world tostrategize on how to uplift development through industrialization and agriculture.  Promotion of health, education and cultural interaction among the people of the worldregardless of their race, languages and geographical areas.