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Essays in Honour of Lise Bender Jørgensen

i GOTHENBURG UNIVERSITY Department of Historical Studies GOTARC SERIES A. GOTHENBURG ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES ISSN1403-8293

No 4. A Stitch in Time: Essays in Honour of Lise Bender Jørgensen Red. Sophie Bergerbrant and Sølvi Helene Fossøy Printing: Reprocentralen, Humanities Department, Gothenburg University, 2014 Layout: Rich Potter Cover: Rich Potter ISBN 978-91-85245-56-9

ii Preface T e idea for this festschrift began with Antointte Rast-Eicher, who compiled the list of contributors and participated in the early stages of producing the volume. Unfortunately she was unable to contribute to the main work with the volume due to other commitments. However, we want to thank her for her initiative. T is book could not have been printed without the f nancial support from Sparebanken Midt-Norges gavefond til Norges Teknisk-Naturvitenskaplige Universitet; Department of Historical Studies, Gothenburg University and the Department of Historical Studies, Norwegian University of Technology and Science. Dr Kristin Bornholdt Collins consulted on language-related issues and assisted with proofreading and revision, and we are grateful for all her help and language support through the various stages of producing the book. We would also like to thank Ragnhild Berge for helping us in Trondheim; Lena Hammarlund for consultations on terminology; Ulla Mannering for tracking down photographs of Lise; and Karina Grömer for providing an excellent opportunity to present the book. T ere is no Tabula Gratulatore in this book; this is due to Lise’s vast network of colleagues and within so many f elds and countries. How could we possibly reach them all, and where would the line be drawn? It therefore seemed preferable to concentrate on the actual content, and to produce a worthy tribute honouring Lise for decades of hard work and her important role as a pioneer in textile research. It comes with heartfelt gratit ude, admiration and best wishes from all of her colleagues and friends, naming none but including all. With this festschrift, the editors, authors, colleagues, friends and all the individuals at supporting institutions wish Professor Lise Bender Jørgensen a somewhat belated Happy 65th Birthday. T e opportunity to present the book at the 2014 NESAT conference was too good to be missed. Gothenburg and Drammen, 2014-03-03

iii iv Contents

A Stitch in Time vii Sophie Bergerbrant

T e red thread xi Lotte Hedeager

Lise Bender Jørgensen: research in textiles xv Antoinette Rast-Eicher

Bibliography of Lise Bender Jørgensen’s publications xix Antoinette Rast-Eicher and Sølvi Helene Fossøy

Science, T eory, Methodology and Prehistoric Textiles

Experimental soil burial studies for archaeological textile preservation and research 1 – a review Elizabeth E. Peacock

Implications of a web - considerations of a craf -oriented research perspective 23 Ulla Isabel Zagal-Mach Wolfe

Speciality f bres for special textiles 43 Antoinette Rast-Eicher

Prehistoric textile patterns: transfer with obstruction 63 Johanna Banck-Burgess

A rich seam: stitching as a means of interpreting Bronze Age textile fragments 77 Sølvi Helene Fossøy

Tacit knowledge and the interpretation of archaeological tablet-woven textiles 91 Lise Ræder Knudsen

T e holistic nature of textile knowledge: fulling cloth in the sea 111 Carol Christiansen & Lena Hammarlund

Social Aspects of Prehistoric Textiles

Out of the dark… New textile f nds from Hallstatt 129 Karina Grömer, Helga Rösel-Mautendorfer and Hans Reschreiter

v Italian textiles from prehistory to Late Antique times 145 Margarita Gleba

Wool fabrics from Arditurri Roman mines, Oiartzun (Basque Country, Spain) 171 C. Alfaro Giner

A well-preserved household textile from Roman Egypt 189 Hero Granger-Taylor and Karen Finch

T rough Roman eyes: cotton textiles from Early Historic India 209 John-Peter Wild and Felicity Wild

Tools of textile production in Roman Iron Age burials and settlements on Funen, 237 Denmark Sophie Bergerbrant

Cloth, clothing and Anglo-Saxon women 253 Penelope Walton Rogers

T e textile interior in the Oseberg burial chamber 281 Marianne Vedeler

An exceptional woman from Birka 301 Eva Andersson Strand and Ulla Mannering

2/2 Herringbone twill fabrics in Early Medieval Poland: Imports or local production? 317 Maria Cybulska and Jerzy Maik

Textiles of f f eenth- to seventeenth-century layers from Heidelberg and Kempten, 331 Germany Klaus Tidow, Textilingenieur, Boostedt 1

vi Italian textiles from prehistory to Late Antique times Margarita Gleba, University of Cambridge

Of Lise Bender Jørgensen’s many valuable contributions to archaeology, her catalogues of Scandinavian (1986) and North European (1992) archaeological textiles are among the most signif cant and long lasting. At the time of writing, little was known about the prehistoric textiles of Italy and comparative material from South Europe included less than ten Italian sites where textiles have been found. Since the more than two decades following Bender Jørgensen’s publications, archaeological textiles of Italy number in hundreds if not thousands, f lling a gap in the European textile corpus. As a tribute to and continuation of Bender Jørgensen’s groundbreaking work, this contribution provides an overview of the archaeological textiles of Italy known today from prehistory through the Roman period.

Italian archaeological textiles Although various conditions of textile preservation are present in Italy, textiles surviving in their original and complete form are quite rare (Rottoli 2005). T e largest corpus consists of linen textile fragments found in various Neolithic and Bronze Age sites in the north of the peninsula, where they have been preserved by the alkaline conditions of the Alpine lakes. Wool textile fragments, on the other hand, have been recovered from burials, where they were conserved in waterlogged environments. A few Iron Age clothing articles were recovered from an Alpine glacier (Dal Rì 1996; Bazzanella et al. 2005). Meanwhile, charred or carbonized textiles of the Roman period have been preserved as a result of the eruption of Vesuvius (D’Orazio et al. 2000). T e vast majority of archaeological textiles in Italy, however, has been preserved in association with metal objects and survive in the shape of often minute, mineralized traces. T e following overview of Italian archaeological textiles is certainly far from exhaustive, but it demonstrates the large number of textiles that have survived in Italy, allowing researchers to examine the corpus of extant material in relation to its technical and functional parameters. T e focus is on recent f nds and only the analysed textiles will be presented in detail, although many more fragments, particularly those preserved on metal artefacts, await study (for a more extensive catalogue and bibliography of the pre-Roman material, see Gleba 2008).

Neolithic (6000-2300 BC) Some of the oldest textiles in Italy have been found in the submerged Neolithic settlement of La Marmotta in Lake Bracciano, 14C-dated to 5480-5260 BC

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(Rottoli 1993:310; Rottoli 2003:68). T e threads and textiles are presumably made of f ax. Although f nal analyses of the material have not been published, the f nds demonstrate that f ax-based textile technology appears to have been present in Italy by the early Neolithic.

Bronze Age (2300-1000 BC) T e vast majority of the prehistoric Italian textiles come from northern Italy and have been dated to the third and second millennia BC (Rast-Eicher 1997; Bazzanella et al. 2003). Charred linen tabby fragments woven in S2z yarn as well as numerous cordage examples were found at Lucone di Polpenazze, dated dendrochronologically to the Early Bronze Age (Bazzanella et al. 2003:186-193). T e thread count of the textiles is approximately 10-12 threads/cm in both warp and weft. Some of the fragments preserve fringes and one has been mended in antiquity. A recently excavated fragment also preserves a possible starting border in rep, which is 10-12 threads wide and has about 24 threads per cm in weft (Fig. 1; Gleba & Baioni in press). More than 20 fragments of what appears to be the same open tabby textile made of z-twisted plant f bre (exact nature remains to be identif ed) were found folded at Valle delle Paiole, and are dated to the Early-Middle Bronze Age (Bazzanella et al. 2003:198). T e thread count ranges 3-6 threads/cm.

Fig. 1 Linen textile from Lucone di Polpennazze, Early Bronze Age (Photo: Margarita Gleba, reproduced with kind permission of the Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici della Lombardia).

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Numerous textiles found at Molina di Ledro have been cited extensively for their technical complexity and similarity to the Swiss Neolithic textiles (Bazzanella et al. 2003:161-174; Bazzanella & Mayr 2009). Unfortunately, they were not excavated stratigraphically and are hence rather broadly dated to the Middle- Late Bronze Age. T e majority of the surviving fragments are of f ne linen tabby woven of S2z-twisted yarn, with diameters 0.4-0.6 mm. One of the textiles is decorated with tiny seeds sewn on like beads (Bazzanella & Mayr 2009:52-54). At least two of the fragments are narrow strips over 2 m long and were found rolled-up in bundles (Bazzanella et al. 2003:161 no. 5 and 162 no. 6; Bazzanella & Mayr 2009:41-46). T e ground weave of one of these strips is tabby but the two ends of the cloth had been woven with a pattern of concentric abutting lozenges formed with a technique similar to twill. T e earliest Italian textile entirely made of wool was found in the Terramara of Castione dei Marchesi, and is broadly dated to the Middle-Late Bronze Age. T e fragment is a tabby woven in z-twisted wool, with 8/6 threads/cm and thread diameter of 1.3 mm (Fig. 2; Bazzanella et al. 2003:200). T e wool f bre has been analysed and is composed of very f ne underwool and a few much coarser hairs reaching up to 90 microns in diameter, demonstrating that the sheep had not yet achieved a high degree of selection for particular wool quality (Rast-Eicher 1997, 2003, 2005:127, and 2008:136; Gleba 2012:3647-3648).

Fig. 2 Wool textile from Castione dei Marchesi, Middle-Late Bronze Age (Photo: Margarita Gleba, reproduced with kind permission of the Soprintendenza per i Beni dell’ Archeologici Emilia-Romagna).

147 Margarita Gleba

In addition to these organically preserved examples, mineralized textiles are known from several sites, again mostly from northern Italy. A tabby is preserved on a weapon from a hoard reportedly discovered between Montemerano and Saturnia, and dated to the Early Bronze Age based on the typology of the object (Gandolfo 1981:362-365). A linen textile has been identif ed on a Bronze Age bronze object from Olmo di Nogara (Rottoli 2005:79; Castiglioni et al. 2005). Another mineralized textile was preserved on a f bula at Somma Lombardo, dated to the Late Bronze Age (Castiglioni 1995; Rottoli 2005:79). One of the few prehistoric textile f nds from southern Italy is a metal weapon with traces of an open tabby woven in S2z-twisted hemp yarn with thread diameter of 0.2-0.45 mm, found in Tomb 6 at Gricignano d’Aversa and dated to the Final Eneolithic-Early Bronze Age (Bazzanella et al. 2003:210). T e majority of surviving Italian Bronze Age textiles appear to be balanced tabbies in linen, woven in S2z yarn, the latter being characteristic for the Early and Middle Bronze Age Swiss textiles. T e technique of yarn production may need to be reappraised, as recent evidence shows that the yarn during the Neolithic and Bronze Age in Switzerland was made by splicing and plying spliced yarns together, like in Egypt, rather than by draft spinning (Leuzinger & Rast- Eicher 2011). Other plant f bres, including hemp and tree bast, were used for woven and non-woven textiles. T e only surviving wool textile is a coarse tabby made in thick z-twisted yarn. Textiles could be decorated with more complex weaving techniques, fringes and applied seeds. Rep borders are typical for the tabby textiles from the Neolithic and Bronze Age periods excavated in northern Italy and in Switzerland (Médard 2006, 2010).

Iron Age (tenth-fi rst centuries BC) In the f rst millennium BC, textile f nds are more evenly distributed throughout the Apennine peninsula.

Northern Italy Several f nds of organically preserved textiles from northern Italy provided much new information regarding Iron Age textile technology in the area, which was inhabited by Etruscan, Venetic and, later, Celtic peoples. Six nearly complete articles of clothing, two pairs of leggings and a pair of inner shoes, were found in a glacier at Vedretta di Ries/Riesenferner, and 14C-dated dated to 795-466 BC (Fig. 3; Dal Rì 1996; Bazzanella et al. 2003:179-182 and 2005; Rottoli 2005: 73). Dif erent weaving techniques were employed in the making of these textiles: the under-leggings are made in s/s tabby with 18/7 threads/ cm, the over-leggings are in diagonal or herringbone Z2s/Z2s twill with 8/7 threads/cm, while the shoes are in 2/2 z/s twill with 12/8 threads/cm. T e

148 Italian textiles from prehistory to Late Antique times

Fig. 3 Clothing items from Vedretta di Ries, Early Iron Age (© South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology). Vedretta di Ries textiles were sewn together, in some cases from several pieces of dif erent fabrics. Numerous mends are also clearly visible, indicating the re- use of textiles that once constituted larger garments. Another relatively recent f nd is a wool sock or a shoe lining measuring 15x7 cm from the urban excavations of Largo Europa in Padova, dated to the f fth century BC (Maspero 1998:63, f g. 20). It is a rather coarse tabby with c. 10/14 threads/cm, woven in z-twisted yarn. Wool analysis has shown that the textile was made of very f ne f bre with hairs and kemp completely absent (Gleba 2012:3650). Contemporary with the textile from Padova and from the same cultural area is a wool textile fragment from the site of Este, Via Gambina, dated to the sixth- fourth century BC (Fig. 4). T is textile fragment measuring 8x12 cm is another relatively coarse balanced tabby with c. 10/10 threads/cm, woven in z-twisted yarn. In contrast to the Padova example, the wool of this textile has a coarser quality, suggestive of a dif erent type of wool and possibly sheep (Gleba 2012: 3653). Some of the most spectacular Italian Iron Age textile f nds have been found over the past decades at Verucchio, in the northern Adriatic region of Italy. Among

149 Margarita Gleba

Fig. 4 Wool textile from Este Via Gambina, sixth-fourth century BC (Photo: Margarita Gleba, reproduced with kind permission of the Sopprintendenza per i Bemi Archeologici del Veneto). them are virtually complete male and female garments including mantles and tunics in wool. T e publication of the textiles found in male Tombs 89 and 85 has provided the f rst glimpse of this sensational material (Stauf er 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2012; Ræder Knudsen 2002, 2012); textiles from the female tombs are being currently analysed. T e eighth-century BC Tomb 89, also known as the Tomba del Trono, a richly appointed cremation burial of an important male personage, contained over 160 textile fragments that were preserved by the cremation process, as well as two mantles and what was probably a tunic-like garment, which survived almost intact. T e mantles are of very f ne wool (cf. Gleba 2012: 3650), woven in 2/2 twill, with groups of s and z spun single yarns in both directions (‘spin-pattern’) and coloured red, with borders dyed blue. T e thread counts in both tunics average 22-26/12-16 threads/cm. T e tunic-like garment, also made of wool, was woven in 2/2 twill with 19-20/14-16 threads/ cm. It was also ‘spin-patterned’ and dyed red with red borders. Both mantles have elaborate borders made by the tablet weaving technique and featuring a triangle motif and three horizontal lines (Ræder Knudsen 2002 and 2012; also see in this volume). Among the numerous fragments preserved in the cremated remains, most of them twills with varied spin ef ect, there are some pieces that are very f ne and dyed red or blue. One of the fragments is decorated in soumak technique and another is looped (Stauf er 2003). T e presence of hundreds of amber and glass beads and other decorative elements indicates that many of

150 Italian textiles from prehistory to Late Antique times

these textiles were luxuriously decorated. Some of the Verucchio textiles bear traces of regular folding (Stauf er 2012:250), conf rming that Etruscan artistic representations of garments, like those seen in the painted tombs of (cf. Steingräber 1986 and 2006), are accurate depictions of contemporary practices. Numerous mineralized textiles are also known (Gleba 2008:48). For example, at Monte Bibele, fourth-third century BC Celtic burials yielded mineralized textile fragments on 26 metal objects from 15 burials (Moulhérat 2008). T e yarns are invariably z-twisted and occasionally S-plied. T read counts range from 6/8 to 36/40 threads/cm. Textiles include balanced and weft-faced tabbies, as well as a few 2/2 twills. T e materials include wool, linen and mixed. T e predominance of z/z tabbies at the site corresponds well to contemporaneous Gaulic sites in Central Europe, indicating standardization of textile production (Moulhérat 2008:94).

Central Italy Large numbers of textile f nds are known from central Italy, an area associated with Etruscan, Faliscan, Picene and cultures, although few of these have been analysed. Rich Etruscan burials in particular have produced numerous textiles. Bender Jørgensen described in her catalogue (1992:105-106) the material from Sasso di Furbara near , a large number of wool textile fragments which were retrieved in 1953 at the Caolino necropolis after being found by construction workers in a wooden monoxile boat, interpreted as a cenotaph (Masurel 1982; Mames & Masurel 1992). T e boat was 14C-dated to the eighth century BC, which is consistent with the stylistic dating of the materials found in the surrounding necropolis (Brusadin Laplace & Patrizi Montoro 1982). More than 60 fragments survive, which were dif erentiated by Masurel into seven fabric types. T e textiles are currently conserved under glass at the Pigorini Museum in Rome, Italy. T e textiles preserve some of their original colour and recent dye analysis of a few samples identif ed likely use of madder and woad. Textiles made of animal and plant f bre were excavated in several tombs at Casale Marittimo, dated to the eighth - sixth centuries BC (Esposito 1999:41 f g. 31, 68-69 f g. 65, 71 f g. 67 and 93-94). In Tomb G, an iron dagger and an axe were wrapped in wool rep, while food of erings were covered with linen tabby with 10/10 threads/cm woven in – unusually – S-plied or possibly spliced yarn, a remnant of the Bronze Age technology. In Tomb A, a bronze cinerary urn contained textile remains that probably served as wrapping for cremated bones. Mineralized textiles were found on two iron spear counterweights from Tombs 1 and 4 at Poggio Aguzzo, Murlo in central Italy dated to the early seventh century BC (Tuck 2009). T e textile from Tomb 4 is a relatively balanced tabby woven in single-spun z-twisted yarn of medium twist. T e yarn measures c.

151 Margarita Gleba

0.4-0.5 mm in diameter in both systems. T e thread count is about 18-20 threads/cm in both systems. Tomb 4 contained two iron spear counterweights, each preserving traces of a textile. One of these is a twill, most likely a simple 2/2 twill. T e thread measures about 0.4 mm in both systems and is single, medium z-twisted. T e thread count in both systems is about 20 threads/cm. T e second textile is a tablet weave made using at least 17 tablets alternating 3Z3S with about 12 tablets/cm (Fig. 5). T e threads are single z-twisted and measure about 0.3 mm in diameter. A mineralized fragment of plain z/z tabby weave was found adhering to the bottom of an oinochoe of a sixth-century BC Italo-Corinthian style attributed to Orvieto (Hayes 1977: 144). T is completely calcif ed fragment is probably part of a cloth on which the jug was placed or in which it was wrapped. T e Etruscan city of produced another completely calcif ed textile fragment found inside a clay burial urn, now in the Royal Ontario Museum, Canada (Hayes 1977:144). T e latter fragment is unusual in being of a very f ne weave described as ‘twined’. A sixth-century BC bronze bowl from another Etruscan city, Veio, currently at the Newark Museum, USA, has a z/z tabby imprint on the bottom (Carroll 1973). Numerous mineralized textiles are known from the cemeteries of the of Tarquinia, Veio, and Faliscan Civita Castellana (Gleba 2008:55-56). A cloth (presumably linen) measuring 10.6 x 9.4 cm was found inside a bronze and silver box containing cremated bones in Tomba del Duce at Vetulonia, 650- 630 BC (Torelli 2000: 582 no. 130). Another large fragment of linen was found at , Portone, dated to the fourth-f rst century BC (Fiumi 1976:65), while fragments of light tabby with yellowish borders and remains of gold thread from the same site come from unknown contexts. One of the largest and probably the most famous specimen of Etruscan cloth is the so-called , preserved by the dry climate of Egypt (Fig. 6; Flury-Lemberg 1986, and 1988:344-357, 496; van der Meer 2007). T e cloth survives in twelve 35 cm wide strips, which originally comprised a part of a linen book, liber linteus. It is believed that the book was taken to Egypt c. 150 BC and after some time torn into strips to be used as mummy wrappings. T e textile itself, however, was 14C-dated to 390±45 BC (Srdoč & Horvatinčić 1986) and may have been produced in the region of . T e textile is a close- woven warp-faced tabby, with 23/12 threads/cm. T is type of weave is unusual and may indicate particular requirements of the linen books. Several calcif ed textiles from second-century BC tombs at Strozzacapponi, near Perugia, have recently been tested for dyes and shellf sh purple was identif ed in three samples (Fig. 7; Gleba & Vanden Berghe in press). T e textiles appear to have been folded and placed in the travertine urns or a ceramic vessel. T e cremated remains of the deceased were either placed on the folded textile or

152 Italian textiles from prehistory to Late Antique times

Fig. 5 Detail of a mineralized tablet-woven textile from Tomb 1 at Poggio Aguzzo, Murlo, seventh century BC (Photo: Margarita Gleba, reproduced with kind permission of Anthony Tuck, Poggio Civitate Excavation Project).

Fig. 6 Liber linteus zagrabiensis, the linen book of Zagreb, third-second century BC (© Zagreb Archaeological Museum, reproduced with permission).

153 Margarita Gleba

Fig. 7 Calcif ed textile fragment from Tomb 24 at Strozzacapponi, Corciano, second century BC (Photo: Margarita Gleba, reproduced with kind permission of the Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici dell’ Umbria).

Fig. 8 Textile from Cogion-Coste di Manone, Tuscania, fourth century BC (© University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, reproduced with permission).

154 Italian textiles from prehistory to Late Antique times

wrapped in it. Heavy mineralization precludes technical analysis but it is likely that the textiles were made in wool and likely woven in rep. Another rep fragment, found in 1899 and recently rediscovered in a museum, comes from a Faliscan chamber tomb at Cogion – Coste di Manone, in the territory of ancient , modern Civita Castellana (Fig. 8; Gleba & Turfa 2007). T e fragment is dated to the later fourth century BC based on two Faliscan red-f gured cups associated with the tomb. T e fragment presents a twisted jumble of golden brown threads measuring 11x5 cm in size. It is a f ne s/s tabby with 10/60 threads/cm. A small part of the textile, now separated from the larger fragment, has a portion of an edge in which the denser system is folded over and sewn with a thicker dark yarn which is Z2s. T e fact that it is woven in s-twisted yarn and is made of unusually f ne wool (Gleba 2012:3653- 3654) suggests that the textile may have a non-local origin. A fragment of asbestos textile supposedly from the Etruscan area is currently in the collections of the British Museum (Granger-Taylor 1982:23 note 2). T e fragment is a relatively coarse tabby 13x14 cm with possibly one selvedge preserved. T e yarn is s-twisted, about 1-2 mm in diameter. T e thread count is about 5-6 warp threads/cm and 4 weft threads/cm. Asbestos is derived from a mineral amphibole and has a unique quality of withstanding extremely high temperatures (Pionati Shams 1987:3-11), a trait that was noticed and used in antiquity. T us, in the f rst century AD, Pliny the Elder (36.19-21) calls it live or incombustible linen and praises its usefulness for making funeral shrouds, napkins, lamp wicks and f shing nets. From the Latin area, published f nds are signif cantly less numerous. Tomb 41 at Borgo le Ferriere (ancient Satricum), dated to the f fth century BC, contained a metal object with two layers of f ne z/z weft-faced tabby with 11 threads/ cm in warp and 60-80 threads/cm in weft (Gnade 1992:115 and f g. 35). An important recent discovery is a mineralized tablet-woven fragment with a complex geometric pattern from the ninth-century BC cemetery of Santa Palomba near Rome (Fig. 9; De Santis et al. 2010). T e f nd indicates that by the Early Iron Age, tablet-weaving technique was not only known but also well established in central Italy.

Southern Italy and Sicily Signif cantly fewer textile f nds are known from southern Italy and Sicily, and none are published for Sardinia. T is, however, is unlikely to ref ect the actual lack of f nds but rather lack of publication. Several bronze objects at Pontecagnano, including two axe-heads, a bowl and a tripod, found in the eighth-century BC tomb 928, have traces of textile adhering to them (d’Agostino 1977:14, 60). Other textiles are preserved on three iron

155 Margarita Gleba

Fig. 9 Mineralized patterned tablet weave from Tomb 2, Santa Palomba, ninth century BC (Photo: Margarita Gleba, reproduced with kind permission of Anna De Santis, Soprintendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici di Roma). f bulae from Tomb 3284, and on a large iron f bula from Tomb 4870. Tomb 1697 had not only f ne tabby traces on iron spits but also numerous small rings and bronze buttons that were probably attached to a sumptuous dress of the deceased. Tabby and twill traces are also noted on metal f bulae from the nearby sites of Eboli, Sala Consilina, and Massa Lubrense, dated to the seventh-sixth centuries BC. Other mineralized fragments, dated between the eighth and fourth centuries BC have been noted at Vico Equense, Cales, San Marzano sul Sarno, Cuma, Capua, Fratte and Paestum in Campania; San Salvatore, Montescaglioso, Difesa San Biaggio, and Pisticci in Basilicata; Rutigliano and Bitonto in Puglia; and Torre Galli in Calabria (see Gleba 2008:61). At Canosa, in Puglia, Tomba degli Ori dated to the third-second century BC contained organic textile fragments of extremely f ne quality with traces of gold thread. At least three qualities of weft-faced tabby have been noted (De Juliis 1984:329-330, 339). Other examples of gold thread have been found in Taranto, dated to the second-f rst centuries BC (De Juliis 1984:330, 339-340). As in the case of southern Italy, few textiles from Sicily have been analysed but their presence has been noted, indicating that many examples survive. For example, numerous iron knives and daggers found in tombs at Vassallaggi were wrapped in bands of textile and usually deposited inside a crater or other vessel (Orlandini 1971). A small rope fragment on a sixth or f fth-century BC iron object from Colle Madore is interesting in that its f bre has been identif ed as hemp (Terranova & Lo Campo 1999). Hemp was also identif ed as the f bre of a z/z tabby, found in a f fth-century BC burial at Himera (Di Scalafani et al. 2005). Finally, at Marsala, a Punic shipwreck dated to the third century BC

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produced large quantities of string and rope made of esparto grass, including strings of medium to thick plait, plaited cord and a rope piece 30 m long ending in an eye-splice (Frost 1981). Esparto is not native to Italy and its presence suggests that the ship was kitted out in Iberia. Iron Age textiles in Italy represent a wide spectrum in terms of the weaves utilized and include z/z and spin patterned 2/2 twills, z/z balanced and weft- faced tabbies and one s/s weft-faced(?) tabby. While there is a prevalence of z-twist, spin-patterning is quite common. Tablet weaving, used to decorate borders of various garments, is quite common and is already well developed at the beginning of the period. T e material is predominantly wool, but linen was also utilized and other f bres such as hemp and asbestos have been identif ed. Already in the early part of the period there is evidence of familiarity with sophisticated dyeing techniques.

Roman period (fi rst century BC-fourth century AD) While much is known about the textiles produced in Italy during Roman times from the written sources (e.g. Vicari 2001), Roman textiles excavated throughout Italy have not been systematically catalogued, making it dif cult to provide here a detailed survey. In particular, the large number of textiles found on sites buried by the Vesuvian volcanic eruption of AD 79, still remain largely unpublished (see Bender Jørgensen 1992:109), although some of the material from Pompeii has been recently analysed (Médard, Borgard & Moulhérat 2011). Sheep wool and f ax linen were identif ed as the two main materials. Linen textiles have s-twisted yarn while wool textiles are woven in z-twisted yarn. Linen textiles are all tabbies while wool textiles include a variety of tabbies and twills. A much wider spectrum of materials, including Angora wool, cotton, sea-silk, hemp, broom and kapok, was previously published for other textile material from the site, although the lack of f nd inventory numbers and unclear methods of identif cation render these data rather problematic (D’Orazio et al. 2000). Some of the old f nds have recently been published by the DressID project and include the supposedly earliest knitted textile made of purple- coloured silk, raw sea-silk f bres, a wool 2/2 twill fragment with an in-woven gamma shape and a calcif ed fragment preserving traces of purple colour and gold thread (Paetz gen. Schieck et al. 2014). Asbestos textiles have also been mentioned (see Bender Jørgensen 1992:109). Many other Roman sites, primarily burials, in Italy yielded textile fragments of diverse nature, although they are generally fewer than Iron Age examples due to changes in burial customs, whereby fewer metal objects that would favour textile mineralization were included with the dead. Bender Jørgensen noted the linen shroud with fringes found in a funerary urn of the mid-f rst century AD, excavated in 1928 at Ponte Fratta on the Rome-Ostia

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road (Soler Villabella 1937) and recently re-analysed (Mitschke & Paetz gen. Schiek 2012:117-121). T e cloth survives in its entirety, measuring 183x72.5 cm, and has 14-17 threads/cm in both systems. It is decorated with two purple wool stripes in one corner, and self bands and long fringes at the borders (Fig. 10). T e linen warp and weft threads of the ground weave measure 0.2-0.3 mm in diameter and are s-twisted; the coloured wool weft threads are 0.8-1 mm in diameter and z-twisted. T e new analysis suggests Egyptian origin of the cloth (Mitschke & Paetz gen. Schiek 2012:120). Similar ‘towel-like’ Roman cloths from the Lateran Basilica are conserved in the Vatican Museums (Soler Villabella 1937:80) Numerous coins from various f rst-third century AD funerary contexts in Rome produced traces of linen tabbies in s-twisted yarn (Giuliani et al. 2011). Meanwhile objects of personal use in metal preserve wool tabbies and even silks. T e rather unique Roman mummy of an eight-year-old girl found in a second- century AD grave at Grottarossa near Rome, was buried with linen wrappings of various qualities, woven in z-twisted yarn, indicating local production (Ascenzi et al. 1996:215). In addition, silk fragments of a possible tunic were identif ed. Another second-century AD burial of a young girl, Crepereia Tryphaena, found at Valerano south of Rome, contained mineralized traces of linen tabby (Portoghesi 1983). Meanwhile, a man found in a third-century AD grave in Brescia, was wrapped in z/z tabby (Castiglioni & Rottoli 2004). Recent examination of several burials from the catacomb of Sant’ Agnese in Rome identif ed silk textiles among the materials used to dress the dead of the third century AD (Mitschke & Paetz gen. Schiek 2012:121-124). T e same study also identif ed two kinds of rare silk block damask among the textiles buried with man in Tomb 7 found under the f oor of the church of San Sebastiano on Via Appia, dated to the late second-early third century AD (Mitschke & Paetz gen. Schiek 2012:125-130). T e silks were likely imported from Syria.

Fig. 10 Details of a linen shroud from Ponte Fratta, mid-f rst century AD: a) purple wool wef stripes; b) close-up of the ground weave (Photo: courtesy of Sylvia Mitschke, rem/ CEZA).

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T anks to a micro-excavation approach, one of the best-investigated Roman burials from Italy is the so-called ‘Lady of the Sarcophagus’, dated to the early third century AD (Rossignani et al. 2005). Several thousand tiny textile fragments were documented. At least f ve dif erent textile types were identif ed, including: A) z/z tabby with 16/41-43 threads/cm; B) z/z tabby with 20-22/26- 29 threads/cm; C) z/z and s/s tabbies with 30-40 threads/cm in both systems; D) s/s tabby with 12/12 threads/cm; and E) 2s/2s tabby with 17.5/4.5 threads/ cm (Maspero & Rottoli 2005:74). T e burial also contained numerous fragments of a very f ne reticulum made in gold thread. Sarcophagus found in Piazza Mateotti of Modena contained remains of tabbies, identif ed as silk (Tusa 1948:35 note 1). One of the samples had a thread count 35/32 threads/cm, while others 20/18 threads/cm. In addition the burial contained extremely f ne, spun gold threads, with their organic core no longer identif able. Many Italian gold thread f nds of the Roman period, primarily from Rome, have been well analysed and published (Bedini et al. 2004). All of these were made with metal strips z-twisted around some organic core, which in most cases does not survive. T e gold thread has been used for weaving, sprang, embroidery and twisting techniques. Among the more unique f nds is an almost complete hairnet or reticulum made in sprang technique, an item also known from Pompeian frescoes. To these should be added several f nds from the so-called tomb of St Peter at the Vatican, Rome, which include gold thread with a wool core dyed red as well as gilded copper thread with vegetal core (Guarducci 1965: 30, 182 nos. 2-4, f g. 9, pl. 43). Several other f nds of gold thread of imperial date have been found in the Vatican necropolis (Guarducci 1965:33). Similar f nds are mentioned in old excavations reports of burials in Perugia (Guarducci 1965:32, 34). Another f nd of Italian provenance but currently located in the National Museum in Copenhagen, Denmark, consists of three small fragments of gold weaving (Gleba 2008). A relatively large piece of ribbon woven with gold thread has been found in the barrel vault number 5 of the ancient port of Roman Herculaneum (D’Orazio & Martuscelli 1999: 177 no. 202). Late Antique textiles woven in tapestry are known from Italian churches, as for example the silk damask dalmatic from the Sant’ Ambrogio in Milan, discussed by Bender Jørgensen (1992:109-110). T e National Museum of Ravenna preserves several examples of silk taqueté from the church and tomb of San Giuliano in Rimini, dated to the fourth-sixth century AD (Stauf er 2000). From non-burial context, a textile fragment measuring 13.7x7cm was excavated in 1982 in a waterlogged reclamation f ll (bonif ca) in the Retratto locality of Adria (De Min 1986). Based on thousands of pottery fragments, the f ll is dated to the late f rst century BC – early f rst century AD. T e textile is made in what is probably a weft-faced tabby with approximately 8 warp threads/cm and 28 weft

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threads/cm. T e warp yarn is z-twisted with a hard twist and measures 0.6-0.7 mm in diameter. T e weft yarn is also z-twisted with medium-hard twist but is f ner and measures 0.3-0.4 mm in diameter. T e textile was originally dyed using madder and possibly some other red dye. Last but not least, numerous cordage fragments and a fragment of z/z tabby made of wool have been excavated from a rare shipwreck context at Pisa San Rossore, dating from Etruscan-Roman times (Lentini & Scala 2002, 2005). Cordage materials include hemp, Hybiscus sp., Calotropis sp., Musa sp., Asclepias sp., Gossipium sp., Spartium junceum, Lygeum spartum, Chamerops umilis. Some linen textiles, used as caulking, were found during early excavations of ships in the lake of Nemi (Soler-Vilabella 1937:74). Textiles reused as caulking were also found in the Roman shipwreck of Comacchio (Castelletti et al. 1990). T e major change observable during the Roman period is a wider range of the materials used to make textiles, including silk. Tabbies - balanced and weft- faced, z/z and s/s - seem to have dominated, but twills were still widely used. Z-twist was still dominant, but s-twist occurred more frequently than in the preceding periods, particularly in linen tabbies and in silk. Tablet weaving, generally used to create starting borders when weaving on a warp-weighted loom, is virtually absent and may possibly be explained by the fact that, by the early Empire, the warp-weighted loom was being displaced by the vertical two- beam loom (Wild 1970:69). Tapestry and other complex weaving techniques, on the other hand, are known to have been popular in Roman times, although few actual examples survive in Italy. Sprang and other twining techniques were used for the precious gold-thread hairnets.

Conclusions As the material presented above illustrates, sophisticated technologies were being utilized by ancient inhabitants of the Italian peninsula for textile production by the Bronze Age, and by the Early Iron Age Italic populations were familiar with diverse f bres, dyes and weaving techniques. In Roman times, Rome (and Italy) was a major centre of the Western world, which not only produced textiles on a large scale but also imported a variety of exotic materials from as far away as India and China (cf. e.g. Vicari 2001; Liu 2013; Albaladejo Vivero 2013; Droß-Krüpe 2013). Despite the fact that the majority of extant textiles have not been analysed systematically, some conclusions can be drawn on the basis of the corpus reviewed above. In terms of materials, as elsewhere in continental Europe according to Bender Jørgensen (1992: 114), plant f bres dominated during prehistory, but appear to have been somewhat supplanted by wool by the f rst millennium BC. In addition to the primary materials of f ax linen and wool, a variety of other f bres were utilized in textile production in ancient Italy. T ese include: hemp, esparto,

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various tree basts and mineral asbestos. By Roman times, silk and cotton made their appearance, imported over vast distances from Asia. T is variety ref ects not only availability of raw materials – whether locally or through exchange – but also the knowledge of technologies to convert them from their raw state to usable f bre. While plied yarn is characteristic for the Bronze Age – possibly due to the splicing technique used to make linen yarn - single yarns are most common during the f rst millennium BC, when wool f bre predominates. Z-twisted yarn appears to be prevalent throughout all periods but it is not exclusive. During the Early Iron Age, there is a clear tendency to combine yarns of opposite twists to create spin-patterned textiles, such as those of Verucchio and Sasso di Furbara. T e reason for this may be aesthetic, but it also ref ects the knowledge of technique and appreciation of the subtlety of spin pattern. During Roman times, linen in s-twisted yarn was possibly imported from Egypt. If one considers the quality of textiles as ref ected by their thread counts, i.e. density of threads per cm, the majority of the Bronze Age textiles have a relatively narrow range, between 10 and 20 threads/cm and the textiles are relatively balanced, i.e. they have similar numbers of threads in warp and weft. During the Early Iron Age, the thread counts increase to 30-40 threads/cm, with even higher numbers in some cases, demonstrating a wider variety of qualities. T is ref ects not only the more advanced raw materials and more developed skills in their processing, spinning and weaving techniques, but also possibly a wider range of specialized functions that textiles were being produced for, as well as a developing creativity and aesthetic appreciation of the textile craft. By Roman times, textiles had become more standardized on the one hand, likely due to the much more industrial level of their production, while on the other, very high quality luxury textiles were being produced and imported, such as silks. A variety of techniques were used to create textiles, including loom weaving, tablet weaving, soumak, sprang and other types of twining. T e loom weaves include a variety of tabbies and twills. Tabbies, characterized by plied yarn in one or both systems and def ned by Bender Jørgensen (1992:122) as ‘Döhren type’, are characteristic for the Neolithic/ Bronze Age Italian f nds. Plain linen z/z tabby seems to be prevalent in Italy during the Iron Age and Roman period, just as in the eastern area of Central Europe (Bender Jørgensen 1992: 125). Many of the Roman tabbies are not balanced and weft-faced tabbies are especially common. Although regarded as an Iron Age feature of textile technology, twill developed during the Bronze Age (Bender Jørgensen 1992:120; Rast-Eicher 2005:128) and by the Early Iron Age, complex twills were ubiquitous throughout Europe. T e sophistication of Early Iron Age twills points to a well-established and settled technology. Prominent among them is Bender Jørgensen’s (1992:122)

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‘Vače type’, a spin-patterned twill in single yarns. T is technique is probably illustrated in the numerous Etruscan artistic representations showing a variety of plaids, diagonals, chevrons, diamonds and elaborate borders, and, to a certain extent, is one of the def ning features of Etruscan textiles. Borders woven in tablet technique are found on textiles from the rich Iron Age burials in Italy (Verucchio, Sasso di Furbara) as well as in Central Europe (Hallstatt, Austria; Hochdorf and Hohmichele, Germany). T e recent f nd of a complex tablet-woven textile in a ninth-century BC tomb at Santa Palomba near Rome (De Santis et al. 2011), demonstrates that the technology was already well developed in Italy in the Early Iron Age. Sophisticated dyeing techniques were also known in Italy at least since the Early Iron Age. Among the identif ed dye sources are woad, madder, some type of yellow dye and shellf sh purple. In the later periods, gold thread was used for decorative purposes. T e overview presented here not only f lls in an important gap in our knowledge of Italian archaeological textiles but also demonstrates that Bender Jørgensen’s general conclusions regarding textile development in Europe are still valid, once again conf rming the importance of her contributions to textile archaeology.

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LEUZINGER, U. and A. RAST-EICHER. 2011. Flax processing in the Neolithic and Bronze Age pile-dwelling settlements of eastern Switzerland. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 20:535–542. LENTINI, A. and G. SCALA. 2002. Identif cation and technology of textile f bres and leather from Roman ships of Pisa San Rossore, Italy. Revue d’Archéométrie 26: 171-176. LENTINI, A. and G. SCALA. 2005. Il cordame dalle navi di Pisa San Rossore: identif cazione della tecnologia della lavorazione delle funi, dei tessuti, dei materiali da intreccio e delle f bre tessili. Caratterizzazione della tecnologia di concia del cuoio. In Intrecci vegetali e f bre tessili da ambiente umido. Analisi Conservazione e Restauro. Atti Trento 28-30 maggio 2003. Incontri di Restauro 4: 198-214. Trento: Provincia Autonoma di Trento. LIU, J. 2013. Trade, Traders and Guilds (?) in Textiles: the Case of Southern Gaul and Northern Italy (1st-3rd Centuries AD). In M. Gleba and J. Pásztókai- Szeöke (eds.), Making Textiles in Pre-Roman and Roman Times: People, Places, Identities: 126-141. Oxford: Oxbow Books. MAMEZ, L. and H. MASUREL. 1992. Étude complémentaire des vestiges textiles trouvés dans l’embarcation de la nécropole du Caolino à Sasso di Furbara. Origini 16: 295-310. MASPERO, A. 1998. I resti di tessuto. In E. Bianchin Citton, G. Gambacurta and A. Ruta Seraf ni (eds.), “Presso l’Adige ridente…” Recenti rinvenimenti archeologici da Este e Montagnana: 62-67. Padova: Adle Edizioni. MASPERO, A. and M. ROTTOLI. 2005. Il microscavo e le analisi di laboratorio: metodologie e risultati. In M. Pia Rossignani, M. Sannazaro and G. Legrottaglie (eds.), «La Signora del sarcofago»: una sepoltura di rango nella necropoli dell’ Università Cattolica: 55-84. Milan: Vita e Pensiero. MASUREL, H. 1982. Les vestiges textiles retrouvés dans l’embarcation. Origini 11: 381-414. MÉDARD, F. 2006. Les activités de f lage au Néolithique sur le Plateau suisse. Analyse technique, économique et sociale. Paris, Collection CRA monographies, 28. MÉDARD, F. 2010. Le tissage au Néolithique sur les sites lacustres du Plateau suisse. Matières premières, techniques et contexte de production. Paris, Collection CRA monographies 30.

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