Social Problems in Major League Baseball: Revisiting and Expanding Talamini’S Analysis Twenty Years Later

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Social Problems in Major League Baseball: Revisiting and Expanding Talamini’s Analysis Twenty Years Later

Mark Vermillion, G. Clayton Stoldt, & Jordan Bass

Keywords: Abstract baseball, Major League Baseball, deviance, social problems, sport sociology The purpose of this research was to review, revisit, and expand Talamini’s social problems within Major League Baseball (MLB). Talamini’s categories, which include gambling, player/ managerial violence, spectator violence, cheating, crime, and greed are reviewed and applied to social problems in MLB since the original publication in 1987. In order to better understand social problems and deviant behavior within MLB, the original categories are related to specific deviance theories to better understand causation of deviance. Theories are then organized by Shoemaker’s proposed integrated model, which organizes causes of deviance on the structural, social-psychological, and psychological levels. Relating Talamini’s social problems categories to sociology of deviance theories, and then organized by Shoemaker’s proposed integrated model aids in better explaining MLB deviance. Recommendations are made to sport management practitioners, students, and scholars regarding how to ameliorate the aforementioned social problems.

Vermillion, M., Stoldt, G. C., & Bass, J. R. (2009). Social problems in major league baseball: Revisiting and expanding Talamini’s analysis twenty years later. Journal of Sport Administration & Supervision 1(1), 23-38. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.6776111.0001.106; published online April, 2009.

Dr. Mark Vermillion is an organization having a low tolerance for assistant professor of sport Introduction management in the Department deception and unbiased statistical gathering; of Sport Management at Wichita In 1987, John T. Talamini penned an article State University. and 4) the harmonious social dynamics Dr. G. Clayton Stoldt is an in the May issue of the journal Free Inquiry and rituals involved within the game associate professor of sport in Creative Sociology. Using a self-developed management in the Department (Talamini, 1987). Finally, Talamini (1987) of Sport Management at Wichita social problems framework, Talamini (1987) State University. challenged the popular perceptions that Jordan R. Bass is a graduate addressed socially-relevant issues within Major baseball players were “participating solely student in the Department of Sport League Baseball (MLB) illustrating that “[b] Management at Wichita State for the love of the sport and often, in team University. aseball … like other human activities is Janus- sports, as sharing a spirit of powerful group faced” (p. 65). Talamini (1987) argued his morale,” while off the playing field, they analysis was sociologically relevant because, were “humble, selfless, and exemplars of up to that point, baseball was lauded for its conventional virtues” (p. 65). structural aspects and few discussions were In an effort to critically highlight that entertained outside of the popular press social problems exist within the arena of regarding the negative attributes of MLB. The sport, Talamini (1987) provided a review structural aspects of MLB so widely admired of relevant academic and popular literature included: 1) the rules of the game resembling and offered examples illustrating the a moral philosophy; 2) the object of the game presence of various social problems in representing order and stability; 3) the league’s MLB. To organize his analysis, Talamini

(1987) provided a categorization of the social ORIGINAL CATEGORIES: A REVIEW problems within MLB. These typological categories included: gambling, player, Talamini’s (1987) original research managerial and spectator violence, cheating by advocated identifying social problems within players and officials, crime by athletes, and the MLB utilizing a traditional social problems greed of owners and players. framework. The social problems framework The purpose of this article is to revisit was useful for developing the categories of Talamini’s analysis of MLB 20 years after deviant behavior within MLB. These typological his initial examination. The article will first categories included: gambling; player, review each typological category utilized by managerial, and spectator violence; cheating by Talamini and summarize the examples cited at players and officials; crime by athletes; and the the time. It will then provide recent examples greed of owners and players. of incidents relating to each category. Next, Gambling has remained an issue of concern Shoemaker’s (2000) proposed integrated model to MLB for many years. Talamini (1987) noted explaining delinquency and deviance will be that gamblers’ interest in baseball pre-dated introduced as a tool for expanding on the the Civil War, and more bets were placed on analysis of social problems in MLB. Finally, to MLB games than any other sport. Talamini provide a synthesis of practical and theoretical (1987) observed that only a few instances had ideas, known as praxis, this research will come to light in which players or coaches had relate each category to a specific sociological committed gambling-related offenses. The theory of deviance or idea to provide most notable exception was the infamous Black scholars, students, and practitioners with an Sox Scandal in which several members of the understanding of how these acts of deviance Chicago White Sox admitted to taking bribes can be remedied. from gamblers to throw the 1919 World Series. One should note that the purpose of this Talamini (1987) also addressed player and article is not to single out one issue as particularly managerial violence. Specifically, he noted more salient than another, but rather to expand current events, such as a 1984 brawl between on Talamini’s typologies and illustrate how the Atlanta Braves and San Diego Padres, and collectively students, practitioners, academics, stated that baseball is a sport that attempts and policy makers can utilize such a framework. to govern itself with unwritten rules of the By increasing and strengthening theoretical game that often contradict fair play and explanations, scholars and practitioners alike may sportsmanship. Some of these informal norms combine elements of psychology, sociology, and that contradict official rules but involve game criminology to produce a relevant framework strategy include: 1) hard (aggressive) slides into for examining modern phenomena in MLB second base to break up a potential double play, and MLB sanctioned events. Indeed, in the 2) the brush-back pitch, and 3) playing bean criminological tradition, this article uses theories ball (a pitching strategy that occurs when one for practical applications, i.e., translating theory’s team’s pitcher intentionally throws a pitch that contributions directly to practitioners in the field. strikes an opposing batsman in retaliation for Identifying social problems within professional the opposing pitcher hitting one of his team’s sports is important, because recognition of batsmen previously; this dynamic can go back problem facilitates solutions that address and forth in a single game or in various games the core of the problems, not merely their throughout a season). Talamini (1987) also symptoms. acknowledged the sport of baseball’s “macho

ideal” of “being able to take it and dish it out” research. While Talamini (1987) admitted (p. 68). that professional baseball players have “had Spectator violence was also an area of difficulties with the law as with other segments concern for Talamini (1987), who stated that of society” (p. 69) and even cited some despite the gentleman’s sporting ideal, baseball anecdotal examples such as child molestation, was largely contributing to public disorder. attempted rape, assault, and involuntary Talamini pointed to three notable incidents manslaughter, the bulk of his analysis is spent that occurred in the last 15 years. In 1974, on cocaine consumption by baseball players. the Cleveland Indians hosted a Beer Night This discussion was highly relevant to the promotion in which beer was sold for 10 time period in which the article was written cents a cup. During the game, fans showered and related to the broader social phenomenon the visiting Texas Rangers team with cherry of cocaine use during the 1970s and 1980s. bombs and cups of beer before the game Talamini’s discussion once again illustrates how was eventually forfeited to the Rangers. The social problems in sport are often reflective of second event Talamini references is the 1977 the current social climate of the larger culture Disco Demotion Night promotion hosted by in which sport is embedded, i.e., sport is a the Chicago White Sox in which fans rushed microcosm of a society (Coakley, 2007). the field, set fires, and destroyed the batting Regarding the category of greed, Talamini cages. Finally, Talamini (1987) pointed to (1987) indicted MLB owners and players the celebration following the Detroit Tigers’ for their increasing willingness to leverage capture of the 1984 World Series in which fans fan loyalty for their own financial gain. He destroyed police cars and ripped sod from Tiger cited owners who threatened to move their Stadium. franchises if they did not receive new or Talamini (1987) postulates that cheating upgraded stadiums and players who had is part of MLB and is another one of the become like mercenaries since winning the categories vital to analysis of MLB social rights to free agency in 1976.As a result, labor problems (Talamini, 1987). Talamini (1987) relations became of interest to the media also noted numerous deceptive and illegal and proposed legislation, which would have activities that some baseball players use to gain increased regulation on professional sport an advantage. Incidents mentioned include: leagues, failed to pass. 1) Kansas City Royals’ George Brett and the Talamini (1987) was the first scholar to Pine Tar Incident of 1983, 2) corking or other explicitly identify these social problems/deviant alterations of bats, scuffing or altering the behaviors within MLB. The next section will baseball by pitchers to gain more grip and provide recent updates of the aforementioned therefore, an advantage, and 3) corporate, off- categories to illustrate they are still relevant the-field cheating in unfair competitive trade today. practices, such as the 1981 incident in which NIKE officials had baseball players cover UPDATING THE SOCIAL PROBLEMS up competitors’ shoe symbols with NIKE ANALYSIS symbols. These examples help Talamini (1987) Evaluating the utility of Talamini’s illustrate the wide variety of cheating that (1987) original social problems in MLB and occurred within MLB. the resultant framework is an important step Crime and its relationship to baseball were for developing a social problems framework narrowly examined within Talamini’s original

(or a common vocabulary) that can assist not have an exemption to PASPA (King, 2004). in the collaboration between scholars and While MLB opposes legalized betting, it practitioners. Talamini’s original framework has not chosen to completely disassociate included: gambling, violence (player, itself from gambling. League franchises managerial, and spectator), cheating, crime, and accept advertising from casinos, and the Las greed. Vegas market has generated some interest as a Gambling potential site for a MLB franchise (King, 2004). The issue of gambling is a multifaceted Further, many MLB franchises are licensing the problem that influences both society and use of their marks on instant-win lottery tickets, sport. Betting on sports is arguably the including a Massachusetts game featuring the most widespread form of gambling in Boston Red Sox logo that generated $200 America (“National Gambling Impact Study million in revenue in its first year (Lefton, Commission,” 1999). Legal sports betting 2007). in Las Vegas totaled $2.48 billion in 1996, Violence: Player, Managerial, and Spectator but that number has since declined given Player and managerial violence is an the prevalence of gambling via the Internet important category because of the high-profile (“Leaving Las Vegas,” 2004). Government nature of professional athletes, especially as officials estimate that $12 billion is annually role models for the youth (Eitzen & Sage, wagered online (Ahrens, 2006). In light of 2003). Recent examples of player or managerial the burgeoning online gaming business, the violence include a variety of violent actions, United States Government passed the Illegal such as such as sliding into bases and the Internet Gambling Enforcement Act in 2006, perpetuation of bean ball or other forms prohibiting financial service providers from of retaliation. Additional forms of violence processing payments to online gambling include fights between teams, such as the companies (McCarthy & Swartz, 2006). The bench-clearing brawl between the Baltimore new law complemented previously existing laws Orioles and the Seattle Mariners in 1993 against sports betting, including the Federal (“Brawltimore,” 1993) or the more recent 2008 Wire Act of 1961 and the Professional and incident of a minor league player throwing a Amateur Sports Protection Act (PASPA) of baseball at the opposing team’s dugout, but 1992. missing and hitting a fan in the face (“Minor Despite existing laws, legalizing sports betting league pitcher,” 2008). remains an issue that arises on an isolated Spectator violence is an important concern basis periodically. In 2007, Delaware officials for sport organizations in general. Since 1987, received a recommendation from a consultant Major League Baseball has endured several that the state legalize sports betting (Chase, high-profile violent incidents involving fans 2007). The consultant noted that Delaware fighting with each other and with baseball was one of four states (along with Nevada, players, managers, or coaches. For example, in Montana, and Oregon) with a grandfathered 2002, Tom Gamboa, the first-base coach for exemption to PASPA and projected that the Kansas City Royals, was attacked during a Delaware could garner an additional $70 game with the Chicago White Sox in Chicago million in state revenue as a result of increased by a 34-year-old fan and his 15-year-old son gambling at state casinos. State officials in New who attacked Gamboa from behind when the Jersey have also recently considered legalizing two rushed onto the field (“I was stunned,” sports gambling, even though that state does 2002). Other incidents of spectator violence

in MLB include: 1) a fan charging Chicago the first or only revelation of cheating within Cubs pitcher Randy Myers on the field in 1995, MLB, it did refocus attention on it. Other 2) a fan attacking first base umpire Las Diaz notable examples of cheating in MLB since during a 2003 Chicago White Sox/Kansas City 1987 include the suspected use of performance Royals game (“Incident was the night’s fourth,” enhancing substances by high-profile players 2003), and 3) a homicide at a 2003 Los Angeles (e.g. Mark McGwire, Jason Giambi, Barry Dodgers baseball game (Wakefield & Wann, Bonds, Alex Rodriguez), which has brought 2006). their accomplishments into question. With Cheating seven-time Cy Young Award winner Roger Conceptually, the term cheating is extremely Clemens under investigation for using HGH flexible and can encompass both on- and and potential perjury to the Clemens-McNamee off-the-field examples of deceptive actions. congressional hearing (“Top Republican’s Lumpkin, Stoll, and Beller (2006) conceive report,” 2008), discussion of cheating in MLB of cheating as “violating a promise” (p. 35) is at an all-time high. and a form of dishonesty, all of which affect Crime the perception of baseball throughout social Since Talamini’s (1987) original analysis culture and can negatively influence youths. As touched upon crime, distinction between the strategic tactics evolve, cheating in MLB is still types of crimes in which MLB employees an issue of concern for sport managers, MLB are allegedly involved becomes useful. The administrators, and the public. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) generates When considering the aforementioned statistics within their Uniform Crime Report definition offered by Lumpkin et al. (2006), (UCR) based upon two categories of crimes: cheating appears to still be part of the 1) violent crimes against persons (such as rape MLB landscape. For example, in 2003, The and assault), and 2) property crimes (such as Plain Dealer newspaper in Cleveland, Ohio, theft and arson) (Barak, 1995; Leonard, 1998). published a story in which the subject of These categories are useful for identifying the cheating in baseball was discussed with 19 types of crimes associated with professional hitters and 13 pitchers in MLB. Forty-two baseball players since 1987. Relatively few percent of the hitters said they would use a professional baseball players are involved in corked bat to hit the winning run in the World reported property crimes (Leonard, 1998), likely Series, while 17% of pitchers said they would due to the upscale lifestyle afforded by lucrative doctor a ball to get the final out in the World salaries associated with professional baseball, Series. As one anonymously quoted player which afford players the abilities to purchase stated: “It’s always been part of the game” and maintain many material possessions. As (Manoloff, 2003, p. D2). a result, the majority of MLB employees When former MLB American League Most associated with criminal activity stem from Valuable Player and six-time all-star Jose alleged involvement in crimes against persons. Canseco released his 2005 book Juiced: Wild Leonard (1998) notes many athletes are Time, Rampant ‘Roids, Smash Hits, and How accused of domestic violence or some form of Baseball Got Big, he claimed to not only battering every year in the United States and openly use steroids during his MLB career cites MLB players Barry Bonds, Jose Canseco, but also that he showed other teammates and Darryl Strawberry as examples from that how to use these performance enhancing era. Parrish (2000) notes even more examples substances. While Canseco’s book was not of MLB players who were accused of assault,

battery, or rape, including Wil Cordero, Dwight renovations that provide them with additional Gooden, David Cone, Bobby Chouinard, revenue sources (e.g., suites, club seats). On Albert Belle, Ricky Henderson, and Vince the whole, the average total revenues generated Coleman. by MLB teams grew from $52 million per The wealth and status of MLB players can franchise in 1990 to $170 million in 2006 (Fort, also influence their involvement in alleged 2007a). Accordingly, average franchise values criminal activity or criminal victimization. Swift increased from $116 million in 1990 to $431 (2005) notes how Venezuelan MLB players million in 2007 (Fort, 2007b). are at a greater risk of being victimized (or The players have also fared well since having their family victimized) in their country Talamini’s (1987) analysis. The average annual because of their wealth and status. For example, salary of a MLB player increased from $513,000 former shortstop Gustavo Polidor was killed in in 1989 to $2.9 million in 2006 (Fort, 2007c), a 1995 robbery, while in 2002, Texas Rangers an increase of 465%. By contrast, mean outfielder Richard Hidalgo was shot in the arm household income in the United States was during an attempted theft of his car (Swift, $37,000 in 1989 and $63,000 in 2005 (United 2005). Additionally, former pitcher Ugueth States Census Bureau, 2007), an increase of Urbina’s mother was kidnapped and held for 70%. ransom in 2005 (Swift, 2005). Two years later, Not surprisingly, owners’ pursuits of however, Urbina, was involved in an incident increased revenue and escalating franchise with five of workers on his family’s ranch in values and the players’ pursuit of salary Venezuela and was eventually sentenced to a increases have frequently clashed. MLB and 14-year prison term for the attempted murder the MLB Players Association have endured of these workers (“Former Major Leaguer,” an acrimonious relationship for most of the 2007). These examples illustrate the complex last 20 years. The game has endured two relationship of MLB personnel and criminal work stoppages since 1987. A players’ strike activity. in 1990 ended prior to the loss of any regular season games, but another strike in 1994 and Greed 1995 resulted in the loss of 669 regular season games and the entire 1994 post-season (Stoldt, In the 20 years since Talamini’s critique Dittmore, & Branvold, 2006). regarding greed in MLB, owners and players The impact of all this on the popularity of have become even more adept at garnering the game among fans is debatable. Television revenue gains. Only one MLB franchise has ratings for MLB, like most all sport properties, relocated in the last 20 years; in 2005, the have declined over the last 20 years (Ourand, Montreal Expos were purchased by MLB 2007). However, attendance at MLB games has and moved to Washington, D.C., where they grown during that time from an average of 1.8 became the Washington Nationals (Bloom, million fans per franchise in 1986 to 2.5 million 2004). Despite that relocation, MLB owners fans per franchise in 2006. Not only are more have successfully secured 20 new stadiums fans attending, they are also paying more to since 1987, the vast majority of which have attend games. The Fan Cost Index, a measure been funded at least in part by public monies of the costs incurred by a family of four to (Howard & Crompton, 2004). Additionally, attend a single game (including tickets, parking, numerous franchises that have not received concessions and souvenirs), has grown from a new facilities have been benefited from stadium league average of $80 in 1991 to $171 in 2006,

an increase of 114% (Team Marketing Report, Criminological and Sociology of Deviance Theories 2006). Integrating the varied social problems From the previous discussion, the social associated with deviant behavior within one problems that Talamini (1987) identified in the theoretical framework becomes a challenging MLB in the late 1980s are still as prevalent 20 endeavor. However, Shoemaker (2000) years later. Since Talamini’s (1987) category proposed an integrated model explaining structures appear useful, organizing these delinquency and deviance that incorporates categories into a more cohesive framework “three levels of conceptualization, structural becomes imperative to extend understanding as (that is, pertaining to societal conditions), applied to the modern MLB game. Shoemaker’s individual (biological and psychological), (2000) integrated model of deviance will and social-psychological (social controls, help expand the usefulness of not only self-esteem, and peer associations)” (p. 268). each category but also the social problems Shoemaker (2000) notes that the analytical framework in general. levels within the proposed model (i.e. structural, individual, social-psychological) oftentimes EXTENDING TALAMINI’S ANALYSIS coordinate with specific theories of delinquency or deviance. Table 1 illustrates the relationships The purpose of this research is to organize between the proposed model’s analytical level and extend Talamini’s (1987) original social and the corresponding delinquency theory. problems framework by integrating it with The structural level, according to Shoemaker traditional criminological (i.e. juvenile (2000) involves institutional arrangements delinquency explanations) and sociology and society-wide processes. The associated of deviance theories in order to provide delinquency theories of anomie and social greater clarity of the types of deviant disorganization focus on larger normative behavior in which MLB employees (i.e. structures, such as disruptions or decreased players, administrators, managers) and team access to legitimate (e.g. economic, status, owners engage. Shoemaker’s (2000) proposed expectations) activities (Shoemaker, 2000). integrated model of deviance establishes According to these theories deviant behavior by links between differing analytical levels of the athletes or other sport organization personnel deviance theories and provides a framework (e.g. administrative staffs, scouts, officials, with greater utility. Once this focus is umpires) occurs because society or sport’s provided, then sport managers, academics, influence over individuals is not strong enough and students are better able to: 1) identify the to constrain their behavior (Shoemaker, 2000). types of problems facing MLB, and sport in Radical and neo-Marxist theories, which general, 2) develop a deeper understanding more explicitly focus on economic factors, see of the types of problems, and 3) find ways of deviant behavior as the result of conflicting ameliorating these social problems within MLB. group interests (Shoemaker, 2000). Essentially, By increasing and strengthening theoretical the distribution of wealth and power within explanations, scholars and practitioners alike sport is inequitable, and the conflicting interests may combine the aforementioned elements of of differing groups (e.g. athletes vs. franchise psychology, sociology, and criminology in order owners) influences the definition of what is to produce a useful framework for examining considered as deviant behavior. Analysis of modern phenomena, especially deviant the structural level in society is crucial for behavior, in MLB. understanding how larger institutional or

social factors influence individual actors, i.e., or environmental factors which, when how issues in society affect the structure and combined with specific psychological states, can individuals in sport. influence deviant behavior. While psychological The social-psychological level includes abnormalities exist and are prevalent, for our cultural and social control mechanisms and purposes, personality configurations will be focuses on social factors and their influences the focus of the individual level. Specifically, upon individuals. Of specific importance is if deviant behavior presents itself, then this the role of culture or sub-cultures and social negative behavior is preceded by a negative connections, such as peer groups or agents of trait, which influences the deviant’s overall social control. Social bond theory focuses on outlook and disposition (Shoemaker, 2000). why individuals conform to social norms (as While this analysis primarily focuses on the opposed to violating them) and is analyzed social foundations of sport-based deviance, based on how attached, involved, committed, individual traits (such as their core personality) and how much belief an individual has in rules and the influence that these traits have on and norms. The four aforementioned social behavior and relationships with other people bond components—involvement, commitment, are important to understand. attachment, and belief—influence how much control society’s rules have upon the individual and can be used to explain certain social trends, e.g., if sport participation promotes or inhibits Table 1

delinquency (Vermillion, 2007). Containment Shoemaker’s (2000) Integrated Model for Deviance theory is very similar and explicates the role an and Traditional Deviance Theories individual’s self-concept has on delinquency. Differential Association and Drift Theory Analytical Level Associated Delinquency are interpersonal explanations that focus on Theory the power of context and groups. Differential Association identifies the importance of Structural Anomie learning deviant behavior from close-knit Social Disorganization Radical Theories peer groups, while Drift Theory emphasizes Neo-Marxist Delinquency the individual’s choice to engage in deviance, Theories which depends largely upon social context (or situation). Since baseball takes place in a social Social-Psychological Social Control Theory setting that includes opponents, teammates, (Social Bond) Containment Theory and organizational personnel, understanding Differential Association the influence of other actors is crucial for Drift Theory understanding and controlling deviant behavior within MLB. The social-psychological level Individual Biological Explanations is important for understanding how sport Psychological Explanations (Personality Configurations) deviance, while manifesting itself in the form of individual behavior, can be influenced by relationships or a lack of relationships with cultural norms and other actors. Finally, the individual level of deviant behavior includes a wide variety of biological

Table 2

Application of Shoemaker Model to Social Problems Identified by Talamini

Social Problem Associated Associated Comment Analytical Level Delinquency Framework(s)

Gambling Social-Psychological Differential Association Despite prohibitions, MLB Drift Theory personnel may view gambling as culturally acceptable based upon individual rationalizations.

Player & Managerial Social-Psychological Differential Association On-field violence, like other social Violence processes, is a learned activity from close-knit peer groups.

Spectator Violence Individual Psychological Addressing specific and/or Explanations individual disruptions within a crowd setting can prevent collective disturbances.

Cheating Structural Anomie Cheating results from a state of “normlessness” where athletes see the goal of winning as more important than the means of achievement.

Criminal Activity Social-Psychological Drift Theory Athletes do not see themselves as criminals, but as individuals taken advantage of by many groups, including women. The unique lifestyles of MLB players influence their rationalizations of their behaviors.

Greed Structural Radical theory, Marxism, Commercialized sport is Neo-Marxism predicated upon economic gain and profit maximization. Those that own sport properties receive a disproportionate amount of the revenue generated.

Utilizing the Deviance Model to Analyze Problems in Historically, gambling is a victimless crime MLB often perpetrated within sub-cultures, which The Shoemaker (2000) model is particularly are extremely influential upon whether or useful for understanding the variety of social not the individual engages in many forms of problems and deviant behavior that Talamini deviant behavior (Hughes & Kroehler, 2007). (1987) identified within MLB. Table 2 illustrates To understand sport gambling, one must this relationship, and the following narrative focus on the power of learning sub-cultural elaborates on the application. behaviors and the notion that gambling, like

other deviant behaviors, is a learned activity. both situations and individuals within a deviant Differential Association (DA) is a cultural situation, which theorizes that individual feels transmission theory that examines, in particular, they are good people, but they might drift into the role of peers in socializing individuals how and out of deviant behaviors (Matza, 1964). to engage in a particular behavior (Hughes Additionally, using techniques of neutralization, & Kroehler, 2007). Additionally, Shoemaker offenders are able to justify their behaviors (2000) notes DA is a situational explanation of as not overtly deviant (Sykes & Matza, 1957). crime and deviant behavior, which illustrates The ideas from DA and Drift theory better how individualistic experiences are the result of help to understand reinforcements, which current and situational contexts. are crucial for developing the MLB culture While players, managers, and other personnel that accepts gambling while simultaneously are aware of MLB’s official stance on gambling, justifying the fact that MLB personnel still they still may pursue gambling activities, which engage in a behavior explicitly prohibited by the they do not see as violating larger normative organization. structures. Specifically, with the increase in DA is also an important theory for gambling’s popularity in society, coupled with understanding how types of violence become MLB’s lack of disassociation with gambling- routine within MLB. Specifically, DA’s focus related activities, any MLB personnel’s on peers’ importance within the socialization involvement in gambling should not be viewed process of deviant behavior is applicable in as surprising. Indeed, Alan Marr, the top scout this situation. As young ballplayers at various for the Baltimore Orioles, was fired after levels of competition (including MLB) become MLB’s investigative unit, in conjunction with immersed in their respective organizations, the New York Police department, linked him they learn certain unwritten rules of baseball, to a gambling investigation (“Report: Orioles which often include a normative understanding scout,” 2008). The firing of Marr is part of an of accepted risks and violence within the daily ongoing MLB investigation of scouts and their occurrences of the game. Once the deviant relationship with gambling activities. Teams behavior is learned, it can then be socialized to with scouts under investigation have not fired future ballplayers that may eventually become the other scouts linked to Barr in the 2008 New managers and sport organization personnel. York City police investigation into gambling. While players and managers know such deviant In fact, MLB has officially reprimanded no acts violate the rules, the practice of engaging scouts or teams (“Seven or eight’ scouts in these acts game after game by player after linked to gambling investigation,” 2008). What player helps to reinforce not only the behavior, becomes evident is that multiple scouts are but also the participants’ membership in such under investigation, illustrating that this deviant an elite fraternity (i.e. MLB, or professional activity is not isolated to single individuals baseball, in general). What may result is the within MLB, but involves multiple parties loyalty to the group (i.e. their team) becomes who have administrative controls over the more important than the prevailing rules or game and who may have had communication structure of the game, especially regarding and interaction. Understanding how close the violent behavior engagement on the playing aforementioned scouts were can be useful for field. limiting further gambling activities of MLB Sometimes employing an individual level of personnel. analysis is useful for understanding spectator Combined with DA, Drift theory focuses on violence. Wakefield and Wann (2006) conducted

a study focusing on dysfunctional fans at examining the suspected increase in players’ sporting events. Social dysfunction is important using performance enhancing substances, to sport spectators, because “social dysfunction thus exemplifying the adage of utilizing “any often leads to other forms of aggressive means necessary” to achieve fame, fortune, or a behavior and violence. These persons are often competitive advantage. loud and obnoxious at sporting events, freely Understanding criminal behavior is difficult and readily directing their anger toward other to do without examining the individual and fans, players, and officials” (Wakefield & Wann, environmental contexts simultaneously. 2006, p. 170). This individual (or psychological) Matza’s (1964) Drift theory identifies deviant focus is important for understanding how behavior as associated with specific situations single fans (or very small groups) become and is a useful social-psychological level disruptive. Since Shoemaker (2000) notes how theory for examining crime in MLB. More psychological determinants influence deviant specifically, Sykes and Matza’s (1957) techniques behavior, one can posit that identifying single of neutralization, often utilized with Drift disruptions and finding ways to curb individual theory, are important for understanding disruptions help prevent collective violence how individuals develop justifications or before it becomes widespread at the sporting rationalizations for their behaviors. The unique event. lifestyles of MLB personnel undoubtedly Employing a more structural level of influence how they view the world, including analysis, a useful way to examine cheating determining concepts of right and wrong. is by employing Merton’s Anomie theory. Athletes often act based upon the masculine Anomie theory is helpful for identifying how culture of professional sports. For example, some cheating in MLB occurs. According by conforming to higher loyalties (those of to Merton’s theory, a cheater is considered the MLB fraternity) these individuals may to be an innovator who knowingly steps see women as targeting athletes in order to outside the bounds of society’s prescribed exploit them for personal gain, thus, further means for achievement to seek a specific institutionalizing the secret society mentality goal or reward (Leonard, 1998). If the goal within professional sports (Coakley, 2007). in baseball is winning and prescribed means Developing an understanding of athletes who (theoretically) include fair play, then players do not seem violent but engage in domestic taking performance-enhancing substances violence or other person-related crimes is are innovators operating outside of current challenging, but Drift theory and techniques game’s rules and regulations. Indeed, Leonard of rationalization provide useful explanations (1998) lists several other examples of how regarding these individuals’ engagements in professional baseball players can be considered criminal activities because it helps to clarify how as innovators. For example, infielders that fake individuals, who seem law abiding may engage a double play by using “sleight-of-hand (and in criminal or deviant activities. foot) tactics” deceive umpires and as a result Summarily, greed, economics, and structural can be labeled as cheaters (Leonard, 1998, analysis are seemingly intertwined with MLB. p. 148). Utilizing this theoretical framework Shoemaker (2000) notes that Radical theorists can help to not only better understand who (or Neo-Marxists) view economics, capitalism, cheats in MLB, but also explain why individuals and class struggles as precipitating factors might engage in such deceptive acts. Indeed, influencing deviant behavior. For purposes Merton’s innovator concept may be useful for of this discussion, a traditionally Marxist

view explains how those that control the behaviors and is an outgrowth of the tenets of means of production (i.e., franchise owners) Differential Association, i.e., the concept that have the ability to exploit the workers (i.e., violent or deviant activity is learned. Specifically, athletes, staff). Additionally, the exploitation the unwritten rules and self-policing that occurs of municipalities regarding public subsidies amongst MLB players appears related to two of stadiums illustrates the inequities in power ideas: 1) structure/organization of the game, and economic influence. Local advocates of and 2) masculinity. One prime example of a multimillion-dollar sport venues oftentimes manager openly admitting that he encourages rely on rationalizations such as increasing jobs on-field violence is Chicago White Sox manager or increasing tourism dollars within the city to Ozzie Guillen, who stated in 2008 that he justify subsidizing these facilities (Howard & has ordered pitchers on his team to hit the Crompton, 2006). As a result, the economic opposing players because he had a duty to power franchise owners possess empowers protect his players (“Ozzie admits,” 2008). them to embrace greed (deviant behavior) and The comments were a reaction to a White Sox further expand their wealth. incident with the Kansas City Royals in which a Royals player was hit by a pitch and charged the RECOMMENDATIONS mound. Guillen also added that if hit someone is “going to bring in (his) best guy and make Based on the social problems in MLB as sure he gets it done.” Guillen reiterated his identified by Talamini (1987) and the relevant old-school thinking by finishing with, “(t)hat’s associated analysis proposed by Shoemaker Major League Baseball. That’s baseball. That’s (2000), the authors offer the following the baseball I grew up with. Not the (expletive) recommendations regarding how MLB may they play right now” (“Ozzie admits,” 2008, 10). best address the social problems affecting the MLB can discourage player violence by game of professional baseball today. reprimanding managers or even removing Gambling players that engage in such conduct, thereby Since gambling behavior is fundamentally changing the culture of accepting on-field affected by perceptions of norms within violence. MLB, in turn, would need to monitor the larger society (i.e. anomie) and MLB in managers on a yearly basis through increase particular, the league should move to further supervision to mandate that such a cultural distance itself from associations with gambling shift would occur. To mandate compliance to enterprises. This would mean refusing to MLB policy, MLB could institute a strict and accept advertising from casinos and refusing punitive policy similar to the NBA’s bench to partner with state lotteries. Further, MLB rule, which dictates that players who leave the should move to aggressively investigate and, bench area to become involved in a brawl, fight, when appropriate, punish anyone within or disagreement be automatically suspended. the game that has violated rules pertaining In cases of fights on the baseball diamond, to betting on baseball, thereby legitimating MLB could dictate subjection to suspension rules and showing MLB personnel how these to anyone—player or manager/coach—who normative structures apply to them. leaves the dugout or bullpen areas. Player & Managerial Violence When making ethically relevant decisions, Since on-field violence is a learned activity, such as administering suspensions or fines, the socialization process of players at all MLB could follow some of Simon’s (1991) levels becomes crucial for eliminating violent guidelines for sound moral reasoning. Two of

these guidelines include: 1) remaining impartial organizational personnel have internalized the during the evaluation of offenses and 2) being win-at-all-costs mentality, which relates to the systematically consistent. To remain impartial, anomic situation resulting from weak social punishments should be categorized beforehand, structures. With so much at stake, including done in consultation with the MLBPA, agreed multi-million dollar salaries, the penultimate upon by all parties, and have clearly established goal of sport success (baseball in this case) enforcement guidelines proportionally becomes increasingly important. Appropriate established beforehand to accommodate ways to achieve this goal, however, are being various offenses. circumvented by many individuals. Even in Spectator Violence non-sporting strata of society, high-profile American sporting events generally do examples of businesses engaging in unfair or not suffer from the same types of crowd illegal practices help to influence how players, misbehaviors as other sporting events managers, and organizational personnel around the world (e.g., soccer hooliganism). view their game. MLB must set a standard Nonetheless, identifying individual disruptions for monitoring and sanctioning all forms before crowd disturbances erupt remains of cheating. With the high-profile nature crucial. Developing event management of cheating, MLB, working in conjunction strategies aimed at individual fans aids in with MLBPA, must respond by aggressively preventing larger, collective disruptions. monitoring and severely penalizing the According to Wakefield and Wann (2006), most egregious forms of cheating such as security or event management strategies performance-enhancing drugs. could include pre-game, game-day, and Crime post-game procedures; pre- and post-game According to Drift theory, athletes and others procedures could include limiting attendance in MLB may be primarily law abiding while and implementing audio-visual equipment possessing the potential for deviant behavior. to monitor high-risk spectator areas. Game- As a result, these individuals drift into or out of day procedures could include: 1) limiting and negative or deviant situations, depending upon controlling alcohol, 2) increasing undercover the individual’s mood or context (Shoemaker, security in the stands, and/or 3) having other 2000). The athlete’s mood, however, is an fans assist in identifying disruptive fans important focal point. As Coakley (2007) notes, (Wakefield & Wann, 2006). Wakefield and some elite athletes develop hubris, a sense Wann’s (2006) recommendations illustrate how of pride-driven arrogance, which can result a psychological or individual focus regarding in a feeling of invulnerability or an attitude spectator violence aids in developing security that society’s laws and rules do not apply to and event management strategies. them. While this might not always occur, Cheating some athletes engage in criminal behavior as a The long-standing tradition of cheating in result of such feelings of independence from MLB is highly variegated. Cheating occurs on normative standards or laws. Understanding the many levels, ranging from trying to influence contexts in which MLB athletes or personnel umpires’ decisions to using performance- are situated becomes important for ameliorating enhancing substances. Regarding process, the criminal activity. however, these acts are similar, and the anomie MLB officials need to make sure that theory’s contributions are useful to MLB its athletes and employees recognize their administrators. Athletes, managers, and even preferred status in society comes with

obligations to (at minimum) comply with product more fan and consumer friendly. Being society’s laws. MLB needs to provide additional sensitive to economic hardships facing fans, educational opportunities that inform players such as lowering ticket prices in select sections, (and minor league players as well) of their containing food/beverage prices, and working unique lifestyle challenges which result from in equitable ways with city officials when their status and wealth. The MVP (Mentors building newer facilities, are important ways for in Violence Prevention) program, which MLB to remain profitable while not alienating is associated with the Center for the Study its fan base in the process. of Sport in Society (www.sportinsociety. Conclusion org), is an example of a program designed Talamini’s (1987) work identified social to address domestic violence; this program problems in MLB, and this current research is currently utilized by the Boston Red Sox. work revealed that these social problems MLB could institute similar initiatives (or this were still evident 20 years later; updated program specifically) as a way to educate all the framework by extending the analysis to MLB employees and inform them how their include traditional criminological theories as unique lifestyles can contribute to involvement explanations while conceptually connecting in criminal activity, especially crimes against with Shoemaker’s (2000) integrated model; and persons. provided practitioner recommendations based Beyond crime prevention, advancement upon the aforementioned concepts. The ideas of corporate social responsibility initiatives presented herein are an attempt to amalgamate that directly engage MLB players and other theoretical concepts and applied strategies organizational personnel with others in their for decreasing persistent social problems in communities (particularly citizens from MLB. Essentially, by strengthening theoretical disadvantaged backgrounds) may serve to explanations for deviance within MLB, scholars diminish the isolation that contributes to and practitioners alike may combine elements hubris. Conducting youth baseball clinics, of psychology, sociology, and criminology serving holiday meals to those in need, and to produce a relevant framework for better working on community improvement projects addressing modern phenomena in MLB and diminish the insulation of MLB personnel from MLB-sanctioned events. While some limitations their social worlds. Additionally, increasing the are present, the research is the first attempt to social networks of many MLB personnel assists bring together such a wide range of ideas. in developing life-skills for these individuals. Finally, with MLB’s Mitchell Investigation Greed and the FBI’s probe into online pharmaceutical Radical or Neo-Marxist theorists focus on distribution of performance-enhancing the economic aspects of sport properties. substances (Nightengale, 2007), cheating and As previously mentioned, MLB has enjoyed the larger context of general social problems unprecedented growth and economic prosperity have the potential to significantly impact the (for both athletes and owners), despite future of MLB. Eitzen and Sage (2003) note frequently enduring work stoppages due to sport’s power for socializing the youth of labor disputes. Issues of public subsidies for society. If MLB players and personnel not only stadiums are another important component engage in various aspects of deviant behaviors to this issue. MLB has done well to recover but also allow those behaviors to be condoned economically from the 1994 work stoppage. by the baseball culture itself, sport may be However, MLB needs to continue to make its counterproductive in the socialization process,

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