SELECTION OF NATIVE SPECIES FOR ALPINE RECLAMATION,
NORTHEAST COAL BLOCK, BRITISH COLUMBIA
by
NORMAN ANDREW WILLEY
B.Sc. University of Victoria, 1975
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
(Faculty of Forestry)
We accept this thesis as conforming
to the required standards
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
November 1982
© Norman Andrew Willey In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission.
Department of fcrf^tr"-f
The University of British Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3
Date
/an ii
Abstract
Open pit coal mining at the Sheriff minesite, in Northeastern British
Columbia's Coal Block, will be located in the upper reaches of the subalpine and portions of the alpine zones. Because of the adverse growth conditions of this site, reclamation after mining will present problems in using agronomic plant species adapted to lower elevations. This will especially be a problem with clover, alfalfa and other legumes. Moreover, the after-use of the mined land requires a stable plant community capable of supporting wildlife forage (essentially Woodland Caribou and Mountain Goats) at least to the same ability as the pre-mining communities. To deal with these constraints, and to re-establish native plant communities, it will be necessary to incorporate native species in the reclamation program.
As a preliminary selection process, this study has pre-selected five native species on the basis of the constraints mentioned above. These species, Salix arctica, Dryas integrifolia, Hedysarum alpinum, Oxytropis sericea, 0^ podocarpa (Arctic willow, Mountain avens and three high altitude legumes, respectively) were grown on crushed shale (from the minesite) to test inhibitions to growth on simulated spoils. Mature plant portions were collected from the minesite, rooted in the shale under a mist system in five inch (13 cm) standard pots and then placed outdoors. An equal number of each plant species was grown on the top mineral horizon on which these plants normally grow (the control). No fertilizer was added to either growth medium, with the exception of Oxytropis podocarpa. Testing was carried out at the University of British Columbia for one summer; lack of reclamation iii
sites at the minesite and acclimatization of the plants to site growth
conditions did not allow for, or require site testing for growth response to
the type of growth medium. Following the growth period, above ground biomass was clipped and weighed after oven drying. Soil fertility analyses were
concurrently conducted on the shale and control growth media.
Statistical comparison of biomass between the two growth media
indicated no significant difference for Salix arctica, Hedysarum alpinum or
Oxytropis sericea; these species can be applied in site tests when
reclamation begins, though Salix will need to be placed where drainage is not excessive. The rooting problem of Oxytropis podocarpa will necessitate further testing of this species, though seed propagation may overcome this
problem. Dryas should probably not be planted early in the reclamation
program as its growth is inhibited on the less weathered shale. iv
Table of Contents
Page No.
Abstract ii
Table of Contents iv
List of Tables vi
List of Figures vii
Acknowledgements viii
Introduction .... 1
Chapter One 6
Meteorology and Ecology 6
The Growth Environment 14
Chapter Two 15
Species Selection 15 Wildlife Forage Requirements 17 Mine Spoils as a Growth Medium . . • . . 18 The Criteria for Selection 20 Selected Species 22 Chapter Three 25
Experimental Design and Results 25 Plant and Soil Collection 26 Plant and Soil Preparation 27 Soil Fertility Analysis 31 Measurement of Biomass Production 32
Chapter Four 40
Summary and Conclusion • 40 Conclusions 43
References 47 V
Page No.
Appendix I - Plots of Undisturbed Vegetation from Sheriff, 53 Frame and Babcock Mountains
Appendix II - Soil Analysis Data 56
Appendix III - Maximum and Minimum Temperatures, and Precipitation 58 Vancouver Airport, May to August, 1982
Appendix IV - Biomass Data 61
Appendix V - Preparation and Growth of Tested Species 64 vi
List of Tables
Page No.
Table I Methods Used for Fertility Analysis 31
Table II Soil Fertility Parameters 34
Table III Growth Response to Unamended Shale and 37 Colluvium as a Growth Medium
Table IV Number of Plants Used in Testing the 38 Significance of Growth Medium
Table I.I Appendix I 54
Table II.I Appendix II 57
Table IV.I Oven Dry Biomass (grams)/Shale ..... 62
Table IV.II Oven Dry Biomass (grams)/Colluvium 63
Table V.I Germination Testing for Unstratified and 69 Legume Seed vii
List of Figures
Page No.
Figure 1 - Location of the Sheriff Minesite, Northeast . . 3 Coal Block, B.C.
Figure 2 - Climatic Normals for Dawson Creek: 7
Temperature and Precipitation, 1941 - 1970
Figure 3 - Stratigraphic Section for Sheriff Pit 12
Figure 4 - Soil Profile, Plant Collection Site 28
Figure 5 - Particle Size Comparison of Crushed Shale ... 29
and Colluvium
Figure 6 - Pot Temperatures . *. 36
Figure 1.1 - Location of Vegetation Plots by Aspect 55 Elevation and Moisture Figure III.l - Temperature and Precipitation 59 & III.2 - 60 viii
Acknowledgements
For financially supporting a portion of this study and supplying
transportation/accommodations, I am indebted to Bruce Switzer of Denison
Mines, Ltd. In providing facilities on the University of B.C. campus, I would like to thank Dr. Sziklai, Dave Armstrong, Ernie Jaeckeles and Ed
Montgomery; lab space for biomass determinations and soil fertility analyses was provided by Dr. Art Bomke, for which I am truly appreciative. INTRODUCTION
This study is a preliminary step in the selection and testing of native alpine plants for reclamation in the Northeast Coal Block, British
Columbia. As such, the results will need to be incorporated into further studies of a more extensive nature at the site of eventual employment. This will essentially involve plot tests on the Sheriff Mine site, when reclamation sites become available, however, some propagation testing will also be in order. As a preliminary work, this study pre-selects native plants and thereby facilitates high altitude reclamation by providing an alternative to agronomic species.
The undisturbed environment from which the test plant species are derived is generally hostile to plant growth. Soil instability from erosion and frost, and cold winters during which the snow cover is removed by wind create poor growing conditions. Moreover, the plant community, from which the test plants were acquired, is found on well drained ridges with soils of low fertility. The plants inhabiting this community are therefore adapted to the following environmental constraints: 1) soil instability 2) frozen soil during the autumn, winter and early spring 3) wind dessication during late winter and early spring 4) soil moisture deficits during the growing season
5) low soil fertility. While several communities comprise the krummholz and alpine zones (Harcome, 1978), the krummholz ridge-top plant community is most adapted to harsh growth conditions and is most likely to contain plants that will survive on coal mine spoils.
Coal spoils in the Southeast Coal Block are reported to be drought prone, since capillary rise may not supply water to the upper solum, and may exhibit soil creep when slopes exceed thirty degrees. These spoils are also 2
very slow to weather and release plant nutrients (Harrison, 1973; 1977). In general, coal spoils are characteristically low in nitrogen, phosphorus and
organic matter, resulting in a growth medium of low fertility (Doyle, 1976).
The growth environment on coal spoils in the Northeast Coal Block will likely exhibit similar problems; chemical analysis of drill cores from Quintette v
Coal's Sheriff property (Stage II Report, 1982) indicates a very limited
supply of available plant nutrients in the overburden rock. Furthermore, the
subalpine mountain setting will restrict the length of the growing season as well as provide a potential for soil instability. The northerly latitude of
this site will also contribute to a short growing season, coupled with harsh winters. For these reasons, the selection of native species from the ridge-top plant community will provide a pre-adaptation to adverse growth
conditions and thus promote the success of native plants in reclamation efforts.
The location of the plant community, from which the test plants for
this study were obtained, is between 1700 and 1720m in elevation on the southwest facing slope of the Sheriff minesite (latitude 55° 05' Longitude
121° 08'). The open pit coal mine lies east of the Rocky Mountains in the high foothills, about 100 kilometers south of Chetwynd, B.C. To the east lies the Murray River valley, while the north is bounded by Wolverine River valley, along which rail access to the coalfields is currently being constructed (see Figure 1). While the minesite is below the regional treeline, all ridgetops, with a west to south aspect, have developed krummholz and alpine plant communities. This is likely a response to wind since much of the snow is removed from this aspect by late winter winds; sites of snow deposition consist of Picea/Abies subalpine communities. 3
Figure 1 Location of the Sheriff Minesite,
Northeast Coal Block, B.C.
(After stage II report, Quintette Coal Ltd., 1982) 4
Previous reclamation work on the south to west aspect of the minesite involved the seeding of agronomic grasses on exploration roads and test plots
(Pomeroy, 1982). Similar test plots were done by the B.C. Ministry of
Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources at various locations in the Coal Block, generally indicating very poor legume growth at the higher elevations
(Errington, 1978). Most of the test plots in these studies appear to have been located on weathered materials derived at or near the surface.
Extrapolating the results of plot tests on weathered media to plant performance on unweathered coal spoils may be tenuous. To avoid this problem, the testing of plants in this study incorporates an overburden stratum of claystone (shale) as a test medium for growth. The performance of the selected species is compared to their growth on mineral soil (Bm horizon) from the plant collection site.
The employment of a pot study to determine the growth response of plants on overburden material is not unique. Fitter and Bradshaw (1974) employed Lolium perenne and Agrostis tenuis a pot study to determine the response to phosphorus when these grasses were grown on shale. Correlation between field plots and pot tests were found to be high. Grosse-Brauckmann
(1977) also found pot tests of nutrient uptake in mustard to be comparable to results obtained in the field. Pot studies were used by Weston et^ al^ (1964) to successfully show plant response to heavy metals in slag tip material.
Growth response through plant yield has been the main use of pot studies, though mycorrhizal effects in conjunction with mine spoils have also been tested in this fashion (Lindsey e_t al 1977; Aldon, 1978).
In this study, pots have been employed to determine plant response to shale and, as pointed out above, the results will need to be applied to future field plots. The reason for not establishing field plots at present 5
is strictly pragmatic; with mining commencing and overburden stripping underway, there is no suitable and safe site to establish study plots. Were these test plants agronomic species, not specifically adapted to the site, pot studies would be invalid since it would be necessary to test their ability to flourish under the minesite conditions. This is not the case with the native species, however, since their ability to grow under the given environmental constraints is not in question. What is not known is whether the selected native species can grow on new coal mine spoils, represented by shale. It is thus the hypothesis of this study that the adaptations of native plants to adverse growth conditions will also provide an adaptation to the growth constraints of coal spoils, making them suitable candidates for reclamation. 6
Chapter One
The Growth Environment, Plant Collection Site
Meteorology and Ecology
Weather records for the Rocky Mountain Foothills physiographic region
(Holland, 1964) in the vicinity of the Sheriff mine/plant collection site, are not extensive. The longest term records have been from Dawson Creek
(1941-1970; see Figure 2); these climatic normals show a minimum of precipitation during April and a maximum in June (Environment Canada, 1975).
While Dawson Creek is actually part of the Alberta Plateau, the same trend of damp summers can be seen for the Foothills stations of Chetwynd and Hudson
Hope, indicating a damp summer as the normal state. Temperature profiles for these stations show a maximum in mean daily temperature of about 15° C.
Short term records (less than two years) from the mine property show similar peaks, but a concomitant depression of temperature with elevation (Stage II report, 1982). As a result, growth conditions at the higher elevations can be expected to be cool and damp from June through August.
Frequency and velocity of winds at the Sheriff meteorological station, situated at 1707m elevation show a predominance of west to southwest winds.
No calm periods were reported from summer through late winter. Again these are short term recordings (cited in Quintette Coal Stage II report), though the wind directions correspond to surrounding stations. The constancy of wind direction is also portrayed in the distribution of krummholz (upper subalpine) plant communities. Those portions of mountains around the Sheriff site which face west to south develop alpine communities, devoid of trees and clear of snow in late winter. Where sheltered from the prevailing winds, Figure 2 Climatic Normals for Dawson Creek:
Temperature and Precipitation, 1941 - 1970
20-, Daily Mean Temperature
10
0
-10
-20 JFMAMJJASOND
60 Total Precipitation
40 4 mm mm 20 mm
0 p.::::.v.v.v.v.v.-.-.v.v.v.v J FMAMJ JASON D (Environment Canada, 1975} 8
Plcea englemannii and Abies lasiocarpa dominate, with definite boundaries
separating the treed subalpine from treeless alpine.
In describing the alpine communities of the Northeast Coal Block,
(Harcombe, 1978) has delineated four communities:
1) Net-leaved Dwarf Willow/Spiked Woodrush
2) Net-leaved Dwarf Willow/Capitate Lousewort
3) Artie Willow/Moss Campion/Fruticose Lichens
4) One-flowered Cinquefoil/Fruticose Lichens
The plant collection site for this study generally fits the third community type with reported community constants of:
Salix arctica
Oxytropis podocarpa
Pedicularis capitata
Saxifraga bronchiolis
Dryas integrlfolia
Bistorta vivipara (Polygonum viviparum)
Silene acaulis
Poa alpina
Cladonia spp. with Dryas dominant in cover.
Such sites are described by Harcome as moist, moderate to well drained on a
colluvial veneer/blanket. The anomoly in comparing Harcombe's description to
the collection site is the notable presence of Hedysarum alpinum on the
site. Plot studies done during the course of this study indicated H. alpinum
to be present on Sheriff, Frame and Babcock Mountains, as described further
in Appendix I. Since H. alpinum is found throughout the B.C. and Alberta
Rockies (Hulten, 1968); Hitchock and Cronquist, 1973; Porsild, 1974, Taylor, 9
1974), the omission from the Harcombe work may have been due to its regional application.
In Signal Mountain, in Jasper (Alberta), (Hrapko and LaRoi, 1978) reported a dominance of Dryas octopetala, lichens and Oxytropis podocarpa on
"semi-xeric" sites. Where snow-cover was more persistent, a willow/heath community developed; both community types were considered climactic. Much as in the N.E. Coal Block alpine, "wind, low soil moisture, coarse texture, and scree instability all tend to inhibit vegetation and soil development on the steep S.W. slope". Viereck (1966) described the early successional stages of the Muldrow Glacier outwash of Alaska as being dominated by Dryas drummondii and D. integrifolia. At this site, above the regional treeline, there was virtually no snow accumulation during the winter due to the rather severe winds. Also occurring with Dryas were legumes of the genera Astragalus,
Hedysarum and Oxytropis, with rare occurrences of Salix spp. Viereck suggested the Dryas stage to be serai, succeeded slowly by a shrub community through several stages. The Dryas mats reportedly showed a yearly size increment of 20 to 25 cm. Similar successional trends were reported by
Tisdale et_ al (1966) on lower elevation terminal and recessional moraines of the Mount Robson area (British Columbia). These sites were dominated initially by Dryas drummundii with Hedysarum mackenzie (a lower elevation analogue of H. alpinum). Due to the elevation, these communities succeeded eventually to Picea englemannii.
(Bryant and Scheinberg, 1970) reported Dryas hookeriana communities occurred on frost patterned ground in the Highwood Range of southwestern
Alberta. These communities formed the second of five successional stages, terminating with a Carex and lichen (Cetraria cuculatta) dominated stage. A climactic stage was not thought to occur as continued frost activity 10
disrupted the deeper rooting species such as Dryas and Silene.
Intense frost action was also noted by Bamberg and Major (1968) in the
Cordilleran Mountains of Montana. While not developing patterned ground,
frost action, soil mobility, rapid drainage and a calcareous parent material
contributed to a climactic community dominated by Dryas octopetala.
Associated with Dryas were Carex, Salix nivalis, Astragalus, Hedysarum and
Oxytropis. It is evident from these studies that Dryas, in association with
alpine legumes and the mat-forming willows, forms the dominant community on well drained higher altitude sites, where the duration of winter snow is
short lived. Dryas communities appear to develop early in the succession and
can be climactic. On Sheriff, Frame and Babcock Mountains, in the N.E. Coal
Block, the most intensive alpine pedogenesis takes place in this community.
Where Dryas mats are well developed, Brunisolic soils occur, while the
absence of Dryas generally coincides with Regosolic soils''". Dryas and its
companion legumes are likely not the sole progenitors of this development but
the Dryas mats create a suitable micro-habitat for other plants such as
Bistorte vivipara, Zagadenus elegans as well as Cladonia and Stereocaulon
lichens. This microhabitat promotes greater plant growth and thus greater
soil development.
Stratigraphy and Soils
The parent materials which have provided the drainage characteristics of the Dryas communities in the N.E. Coal Block were derived from Mesozoic
With the notable exception of Gleysols, dominated by sedges, rushes
and some grasses. 11
sediments. During the Cretaceous period an inland seaway lay just east of the current Sheriff minesite. The coal deposits developed from coastal swamps along this seaway, originating from gingkos, cycads, ferns and conifers. Changes in the ground level due to epeirogeny resulted in alterations to this coastline and periodically permitted the deposition of sand, silt and clay over the swamps. The source of these sediments was a high range of mountains, parallel to and just west of the present Rocky
Mountains. Several cycles of coastline changes resulted in five organic layers of varying thickness and separated by non-marine sediments. The organics developed into coal and the sediments into sandstone, conglomerate and shale rocks, as shown in Figure 3 (Stott, 1973).
The parent material for the plant collection site, located 50 meters north of the coal conveyor embarkation, was a medium to fine grained sandstone. Shown in Figure 4, the site soil profile indicates a limited rooting depth of about 50 to 60 cm. At this depth the bedrock is consolidated to the point of restricting root penetration while permitting water seepage. The latter aspect has been responsible for promoting weathering at depth and has resulted in partially weathered parent material for several meters beyond the rooting depth. This can be clearly seen at numerous points on Sheriff Mountain during the course of road construction and overburden removal.
Pedogenesis at the collection site has proceeded beyond the Regosolic stage with the deposition of organic matter in a Bm horizon and the development of granular structure. With the pH greater than 5.5 (1:2 0.01M
CaCl2) this is an Orthic Eutric Brunisol. While detailed soil characteristics are listed in Chapter III, suffice to say at this point, the soil on which the test plants normally grow is rather infertile. 12
Figure 3 Stratigraphic Section from Sheriff Pit
Coal seams are designated by letter with thickness in meters; siltstone occurs as thin strata in the Gates Member but not extensively enough to appear at this scale.
(After Drawing No. 76-0647-R04, Quintette Coal Ltd., 1976.)
Boulder Creek M Member
LEGEND Hulcross Sandstone...... Member Shale. COMMOTION Siltstone FORMATION Conglomerate.
Coal
i D 2.6m-_ Gates E 8.4m— F 1.1m—• Member G 0.9nrv^ J 8.9m— 13
In Viereck's study of the Muldrow Glacier (1966) he reported 47% organic matter and 0.03% nitrogen in the mineral soil beneath the Dryas communities. This enrichment of the mineral soil (outward) was attributed to
Dryas, and to a lesser extent the other plants of the first pioneer stage.
The Hrapko and La Roi (1978) study reported no free lime present on Signal
Mountain; both salt content and available nitrogen (NO^) were very low.
Phosphorus in this alpine setting was about 4 ppm while potassium was somewhat more variable, ranging from 14 to 319 ppm. Some variation in parent materials may have resulted in this potassium range. 14
The Growth Environment
With the compounded effects of wind exposure and temperature, the alpine environment as a site for plant growth is rather harsh. In comparing
such environments, Billings (1974) has stated that arctic plant species
become more numerous in the mountain alpine as one travels north. The corollary to this is the alpine environment becomes more 'arctic-like' on approaching the north; Dryas integrifolia, the high altitude Dryas of the
N.E. Coal Block, is also the Dryas of the arctic tundra (Bliss, 1977), but not of the Jasper alpine (Hrapko & LaRoi, 1978). The generally cool, damp
summers and harsh winters of the N.E. Coal Block alpine obviously restrict growth to only those species, such as D. integrifolia, which are adapted to such an habitat. Moreover, the limited supply of macronutrients, coupled with frost action and soil instability, further contribute to the harsh nature of this growth environment. For these reasons the success of a
reclamation program at the Sheriff minesite will rest upon the selection of very hardy plant species. While grasses such as Festuca rubra, Calamagrostis
canadensis and Arctagrostis latifolia fit this requirement (Bliss, 1974;
Seiner, 1975) they will not provide for long term reclamation. Were such
species the dominants in the undisturbed alpine communities, and capable of fulfilling a pioneer role, grasses would be the only requirement for a
reclamation program. However, the grasses do not comprise a high proportion of the mesic and sub-mesic communities (Appendix I), though they do constitute an important component in pioneer communities on relatively less disturbed sites such as exploration roads (Meidinger, 1981). Reclamation
success on a long term basis must therefore include plants not only suited to the environment but also capable of succeeding grasses; in short they must establish a sustaining community. The most obvious plants to fit this requirement are native species. 15
Chapter Two
Species Selection
The current guidelines for reclamation of land disturbed by coal mining (Ministry of Energy, Mines & Petroleum Resources, 1982) stipulate the after-use of the mined land must be equal to or better than the pre-mining
quality. This quality is based upon the Canada Land Inventory (CLI) capability rating system of excellent to poor on a scale of one to seven.
The guidelines further stipulate the responsibility for deciding before and after use capability rests with the mining company. In the case of the
Sheriff Mine, Quintette Coal Ltd. has stated in the Stage II proposal that wildlife habitat will have the highest capability for after-use in the alpine and krummholz vegetation zones.
As a baseline study, the B.C. Resource Analysis Branch (RAB) (Ministry of the Environment, 1977) carried out two regional surveys of the N.E. Coal
Block. The first study covered the "core" area of mine and infrastructure development while the second, published the following year, covered the
southern section. Unlike the CLI which uses seven capability classes for
rating wildlife habitat the RAB uses a scale of one to three. Furthermore, only winter habitat is classified since the authors feel this is the limiting factor in yearly survival. The rating scale uses class 1W to signify the highest capability, class 2W for moderate and class 3W for low value. Since
this Is a regional survey, the three point scale gives a reasonable overview of habitat locations but is too general for a specific site. For the Sheriff minesite the only habitat evaluation is for Woodland Caribou (Rangifer
tarandus montanus Seton), Class 1W, and Mountain Goats (Qreamnos americana
Blainville), Class 2W. Caribou habitat appears to have been evaluated on the 16
presence of ground lichens and sedges In the alpine, while arboreal lichens and shrub presence was used for the subalpine. Goat habitat was rated on the presence of both alpine ridge and rugged escape terrain.
A more detailed habitat analysis for the Sheriff minesite appears in
Quintette's Stage II report. Again, this site is rated as most important for winter use with the following capabilities:
Caribou Class 4 winter use
Elk Class 4 non-winter use
Goats Class 4 non-winter use
Moose Class 5 non-winter use
Limitations: excessive snow depth which reduces mobility,
poor distribution of necessary landforms.
The report uses the CLI rating system, in which Class 4 has moderate limitations and Class 5 has moderately severe limitations for use capability. The discrepancy in classifying the Caribou habitat, occurring between the two reports, indicates a difference in opinion on the value of the undisturbed habitat. Such differences also occur in the classification of soils and vegetation (Lavkulich, pers. comm., 1982; Ganders, pers. comm.,
1981, respectively), due to the subjective nature of classification systems.
Nonetheless, wildlife habitat is the main before and after-use of the minesite, requiring reclamation planning to re-establish such at a quality equal to or better than the pre-mining condition. As the two major alpine ungulates are Caribou and Goats (Cowan & Guiget, 1973), this study has employed the forage requirements for these two species in the pre-selection of alpine plants for testing. 17
Wildlife Forage Requirements
Cowan and Guiget describe the food requirements of the Mountain Goat
as being considerably varied, consuming grasses and forbs in the alpine.
This is similar to Kodiak Island and the Kenai Peninsula of Alaska, where the
summer dietary preference concentrated on forbs (Hjeljord, 1973). Saunders
(1955) reported a reliance on grasses, sedges and rushes (56% of diet) in the
Crazy Mountains of Montana. The remaining porti on of the summer diet consisted of forbs at 24% (including Hedysarum sulfurescens) and shrubs such as Salix spp. at 16%. During the fall, a greater usage of grasses/sedges/rushes was noted. This usage decreased in winter with an emphasis on Oxytropis sericea and some conifers. Lichen consumption occurred
in all seasons. In summarizing dietary requirements of the Mountain Goat,
(Rideout and Hoffmann, 1975) reported similar summer consumption. Winter diets, however, appeared to vary considerably, depending on location and vegetation present. The lower sodium content of lush spring vegetation was cited as the reason for requiring a salt input, usually from salt licks
ranging from 22 ppm to 5500 ppm sodium. These authors also reported the
Goats migrated to lower elevations after the first heavy alpine snowfall and
remained at the lower elevations until spring. High altitude forage requirements are therefore generally restricted to late spring, summer and fall, though Goats will utilize alpine ridges that are cleared of snow in the winter.
Forage requirements for Caribou, however, are less well documented.
Cowan and Guiget (1973) indicated a summer diet that was quite similar to that of the Goats. During the winter there is a heavy reliance on foliose
lichens and some shrubs in the alpine, while arboreal lichens are important
below the timberline. The RAB report (1977) simply states that ground 18
lichens and sedges form the bulk of the alpine diet. A more comprehensive study was done on the Slate Islands of Lake Superior by Cringan (1957); during the summer there was a heavy dependence on forbs with some consumption of lichens and shrubs, while arboreal lichens predominated in the winter diet. The obvious problem for alpine reclamation imposed by the consumption of lichens is the total lack of practical experience with promoting their growth. Nonetheless, the alpine lichens strongly coincide with the occurence of the Dryas mats (Appendix I) and can be encouraged to grow by establishing
Dryas. This may be possible during the later stages of reclamation, as discussed in Chapter Four, below, but until such time the fruticose lichens will likely be scarce.
Mine Spoils as a Growth Medium
Shown in Figure 3, above, are the two main types of overburden that can become the surficial coal mine spoil after mining, namely sandstone and shale (claystone). Of these two, the sandstone has the lowest content of clay and feldspar which will release plant nutrients upon weathering (Garrels
& Mackenzie, 1971). Moreover, the rate at which sandstone will weather is slower than shale (Birkeland, 1974; Potter et al, 1980), indicating sandstone as a poor surficial material for promoting reclamation success.
This has been recognized in Quintette's Stage II report.
Foscolos and Stott (1975), analyzed shale from the Commotion Formation
(Wolverine Ridge, north of Wolverine River), reporting a predominance of illite clay. The normative value for illite consists of about 78% oxides of silicon and aluminum (in the clay lattice) with small quantities of iron, magnesium, calcium and potassium oxides (Degens, 1965). As illite weathers, potassium in particular is replaced by water and becomes available for plant 19
growth (Birkeland, 1974). The small percentage of organic matter present in sedimentary deposits also contains plant growth nutrients. More than 95% of the organic matter is composed of the high molecular weight aromatic compound kerogen; in shale the kerogen is composed of about 81% carbon, 7% hydrogen,
10% oxygen and 2% nitrogen (Degens, 1965). The latter, of course, is a macronutrient required for plant growth. Of the other two macronutrients required, potassium Is made available from illite weathering, however the source of phosphorus in sediments i s so limited that it is not reported in specific shale analyses (Foscolos & Stott, 1975) or normative shale values
(Degens, 1965). It is therefore quite likely that phosphorus may be the limiting factor in plant growth on sediments such as shale.
Another source of nitrogen in shales occurs as ammonium, fixed within the clay lattice (Stevenson, 1959). In gray calcareous shales of a
Pennsylvanian coal mine, the total percent nitrogen ranged from 0.12% to
0.21% with a mean of 0.17% or 1700 ppm by Kjeldahl analysis (Cornwall &
Stone, 1968). Shale from the Seneca Mine in Colorado (2011 m elevation) was reported to contain 1112 ppm total nitrogen, also by the Kjeldahl method, with 1 ppm sodium bicarbonate extractable phosphorus. Incubation of this shale showed mineralization and subsequent nitrification were very limited in one season (Reeder & Berg, 1977). Power et_ al (1974) pointed out, however, that Kjeldahl analysis may indicate only a third of the fixed ammonium; destruction of the clay lattice by hydrofluoric acid will release the remaining ammonium. While a less drastic form of destruction, acid mine drainage from the oxidation of pyrites in shale will considerably enhance the rate of shale weathering and the subsequent release of nitrogen (Cornwell &
Stone, 1968). As indicated by these authors, "spoils containing little oxidizable sulphur, or having a high ratio of calcium and magnesium to 20
sulphur, do not undergo much silicate destruction, and may therefore release little nitrogen, regardless of total content or form". Since the Commotion sediments are low in sulphur (Foscolos & Stott, 1975), this problem is applicable; the anticipated release of nitrogen from the Sheriff mine spoils can thus be expectedly slow. For this reason the selection of nitrogen fixers from among the native species will need to be considered.
The Criteria for Selection
Perhaps the greatest drawback to the employment of native species in reclamation is the lack of practical knowledge of propagation methods
(Ziemkiewicz et al, 1978). For this reason, the ease of propagation must be taken into consideration when selecting native species for testing. In some cases this will entail some extrapolation from known characteristics at the
Family taxonomic level, such as the hard seed coat problem encountered in some of the Rosaceae. Other native species have closely allied species of the same genera used in alpine gardens, with their propagation characteristics reported in the various trade journals. However for the majority of species encountered in the N.E. Coal Block alpine, there is little or no information available. This necessitates propagation testing for seed stratification requirements, the success of cuttings and so forth, as has been done to a limited extent in this study (Appendix V).
Several authors have addressed themselves toward the selection of plant species for reclamation purposes. In Britain, Whyte and Sisam (1949) suggested the following:
1) rapid development
2) low nutrient requirement
3) heavy litter production 21
4) toxic materials resistance
5) nitrogen fixation ability
6) pioneer species*
Similar criteria were reported by Ziemkiewicz et al (1978) for reclamation plants used on various Alberta projects:
1) availability of seed
2) cold hardiness
3) salt tolerance
4) competitive ability
5) drought hardiness
6) low nutrient requirements
7) provide a balance of rooting habit
8) able to fix nitrogen
9) provide quick ground cover-
In western Canada, Mains (1977) promoted the employment of native species for alpine reclamation, as they are acclimatized to site conditions and mineral cycles. A similar point of view has been promoted by Bell and Meidinger
(1977) for the N.E. Coal Block. For high altitude mine reclamation in
Colorado, Brown et^ al_ (1978) listed the following criteria:
1) low growth form
2) drought resistant
3) able to reproduce
4) grow at low temperatures.
In viewing such criteria it becomes evident that each author is
Influenced by unique site conditions. Where one reclamation site requires salt tolerance or resistance to toxic materials, another site needs plants adapted to the harsh growing conditions of the alpine. Nonetheless, 22
similarities in requirements are apparent and generally recognize the reclamation site as unfavorable for plant growth wherever it occurs. Drawing from these similarities, as well as from the site constraints of the Sheriff minesite, the following criteria were used to preselect species for this study:
1) able to function as a pioneer species
2) easily propagated
3) grow fast and/or develop extensive roots
4) cold hardness and drought resistance
5) fix atmospheric nitrogen
6) provide wildlife forage
The criteria are listed in the order of importance, though very few plants are likely to meet them all. Instead, prospective species should meet the first three criteria and either of the last two. It is also recognized that this list of criteria will likely exclude some potentially useful species.
This is partially intentional; in order to limit the scope of this study to a manageable size, only those species which best fit currently evident requirements were chosen. Practical experience on site application will likely modify these criteria, permitting other species excluded by this study to be incorporated into the reclamation program.
Selected Species^"
Dryas integrifolia Vahl.: Though not a species utilized as wildlife forage,
Dryas has been recognized as a pioneer species on outwash gravels (Viereck,
1966) and a climax species on alpine colluvium (Hrapko & LaRoi, 1978). It 23
will fix atmospheric nitrogen (Lawrence e_t al, 1967) and forms extensive mats
that provide erosion control. Reported growth increments (Viereck, 1966)
indicate it will spread about 20 to 25 cm annually. While not being directly
consumed by wildlife, it is evident from the field survey done in this report
(Appendix I) that foliose lichens (utilized by Caribou) grow in close association with Dryas. Propagation from seed is reported as slow and uncertain, while cuttings taken late in the summer are more productive (Lowe,
1967; Deno, 1977; Lyster, 1978).
Salix arctica Pallas: The major reason for selecting this species is its value as wildlife forage. As a foragable shrub it will be generally higher
in percent phosphorus, carotene (vitamin A precursor) and percent digestible protein than forbs and grasses, while lower in digestible energy (Johnston, et al, 1968; Cook, 1971). Salix in general is easily propagated from cuttings (Hartmann & Kester, 1975). This species has not been reported as a
significant pioneer, however it does occur with Dryas (Tisdale ejt al, 1966;
Vierick, 1966; Barrett & Schulten, 1975); Hrapko & LaRoi, 1978). Salix arctica forms extensive root systems in the N.E. Coal Block, as observed during the plant collection stage of this study.
Hedysarum alpinum L.: While this species has not been reported to be utilized by wildlife (alpine ungulates), closely related Hedysarum sulfurescens is consumed (Saunders, 1955). The greatest advantage of this alpine legume is its ability to fix nitrogen. The root system of H. alpinum
Voucher specimens are deposited in the University of British Columbia
Herbarium. 24
involves very long taproots extending down to bedrock with a very fine and
copious root system just below the soil surface (personal observation,
Sheriff minesite). As with Salix arctica, H. alpinum occurs with Dryas
integrifolia.
Oxytropis podocarpa Gray & (). sericea Nutt.: As in the case of Hedysarum,
these two legumes will fix atmospheric nitrogen. 0. sericea is also an
important component in the winter diet of Montana Mountain Goats (Saunders,
1955). The root systems of both species are similar to H. alpinum but have
less extensive taproots. Propagation of all legumes tested can be accomplished by seed (Appendix V). 0. sericea is also known as 0. spicata. 25
Chapter Three
Experimental Design and Results
With their adaptation to a harsh growing environment, the native
species of the alpine ridge community should be able to grow under the equally harsh conditions of mine spoils. The hypothesis of this study
concerns the ability of native species to grow on shale as the most fertile and most easily weathered of potential coal spoils. To test this hypothesis, mature plants were grown on crushed shale during one growth season; the control consisted of the mineral soil (Bm horizon) from the plant collection
site. Evidence of significant growth differences between the two media, was measured by above-ground biomass production. Such measurements were
subjected to statistical hypothesis testing for rejection of the null hypothesis (differences due to 'chance'). Soil analyses were done concurrently to determine the availability of nutrients for plant growth.
In the design and execution of this procedure three assumptions were made and should be examined at this point:
1) Since site conditions prohibited the establishment of test plots,
it was necessary to resort to a pot study. As mentioned earlier, the ability of the test plants to grow on the site is not questionable, however it is not known whether they would establish and grow on coal spoil. Since only the effect of growth medium was to be tested, the use of pots was deemed adequate. This assumption was also employed by McFee et al (1981) on a similar pot study.
2) Shale is the 'ideal' overburden layer to become the top of the
spoil yet it does not predominate in the overburden. Furthermore, Stage II
reclamation plans indicate that "topsoil" from the site will be stockpiled 26
and placed on top of the spoil. With relatively little topsoil available it will need to be spread quite thinly (or used only on the most adverse sites), allowing a greater influence of the spoil as a secondary parent material. As shale has been recognized in this report as the best selection for surfacing
the spoil, the assumption was made that such a material would play a significant role In long term reclamation success.
3) In the role as a preliminary testing procedure, this study will be superseded by site tests and its methods must be applicable to both conditions. While foliar analysis for macro- and micronutrients would also have yielded the necessary data (Munshower & Neuman, 1980), the facilities and financial support may not be available during site tests.
Plant and Soil Collection
Both test plants and growth media were collected from the south side of the Sheriff minesite between May 5 and 10, 1982. Dryas integrifolia, along with the other four species, was collected on a small knoll immediately north of the embarkation point for the conveyer belt. At the time only the south to west facing ridges were snowfree and frozen ground extended down from the base of the LFH soil horizon. Dryas was collected by lifting large sections of the mat, pruning away woody stems and breaking off portions of the mat. These portions were approximately 6 to 10 cm in diameter; an attempt was made to acquire a uniform fragment size. The fragments were then placed in plastic bags (ca. 8 litre capacity) and inter-layered with wet moss. Salix arctica was acquired by cutting a 10 cm portion of root and including at least one branch with pre-formed buds. Again, an attempt was made to acquire a standard size cutting but, as in all collected species, some size variation existed. All species were packed in the same manner as 27
Dryas. Hedysarum alpinum was severed from its taproot at the mineral soil
surface, while the fine root system retained part of the LFH layer when
lifted. Having much shorter taproots, both Oxytropis species were lifted with most of the taproot if it did not penetrate more than about 10 cm.
After bagging, the plants were covered with snow and transported to Dawson
Creek by truck. Shipment to Vancouver was via air freight.
Mineral soil (top 10 cm Bm horizon) was obtained on the north side of the collection site and was loaded directly into clean coal sample barrels
(see Figure 4). The soil, also referred to herein as colluvium, was moist but not wet when collected. Shale was acquired from the rock face exposed by road building, just above the "J" coal seam. This zone of rock appeared to be slightly weathered as iron oxide deposits were noted on crack faces. The amount of partially weathered shale was minimized by collecting large pieces; because the shale was representing new coal mining spoils it was necessary to utilize unweathered material. The shale was containerized in the same manner as the colluvium and both were shipped by truck to Vancouver.
Plant and Soil Preparation
While no preparation of colluvium was required before potting the plants, it was necessary to break down the pieces of shale. This was accomplished with a small Jaw-Crusher, ordinarily used in the preparation of rock samples for chemical analysis. The size range for both shale and colluvium Is shown in Figure 5. 28
Figure 4 Soils Profile, Plant Collection Site
Located on the north side of the conveyor embarkation, Sheriff minesite; an Orthic Eutric Brunisol (Can. System Soil Classification, 1978).
^ ,,.it,_3cm LFH
Bm Horizon
I 18 cm
C Horizon
51cm
1 R Horizon ure 5 Particle Size Comparison of Crushed Shale and Colluvium
Mean of three samples for each composite growth medium.
100-
80-
% Total 60-
Weight
40- shale colluvium
20-
2 1 .25<25 2 1 .25 <25
Sieve size (mm) 30
Plants were prepared for potting by gently washing the roots in water
to remove remnants of soil. Removing mineral soil was relatively easy but
where the organic LFH still adhered to the fine roots it was not possible to
wash this off without removing all fine roots. With Dryas and Hedysarum this was such a problem that very little of the well decomposed organic matter
could be removed. Not only did the roots hold the organic material together
but fungal hyphae abounded in this material, exascebating the problem. Both
species of Oxytropis, as well as Salix, were completely bare-root when
planted. There was a two day lag between potting plants on the colluvium and
shale due to problems in attaining access to a Jaw-Crusher.
After potting (5 inch/13 cm standard pots) all plants were placed
under intermittent mist in the greenhouse, where they remained for twelve
days (10 days for those plants on shale). Salix was pruned back during the
first day since bud flush was proceding root development; much of the second
flush was produced from pre-formed initials under the bark. With the
exception of Oxytropis podocarpa no fertilizer was applied to any plants.
Following the rooting period under mist, all plants were transported to an
outdoor shade frame, constructed in similar fashion to a flat topped cold frame. Shade was provided by three layers of gray plastic window screen, each layer mounted on a wooden frame. Wood chips covered the floor of the frame, allowing for water absorption and higher humidity in the frame.
Plants were watered daily to avoid water stress, utilizing city water. The frame was located to provide shade from adjacent trees until after 10:30 a.m.
(PDST, June 2); shade returned after 6:30 pm. The shade frames were completely removed in stages, with the final being taken off June 8;
Oxytropis podocarpa continued to receive a single layer of shade frame for a
further 20 days. The sides of the shade f rame (30—40 cm high) were left in place during the entire growth period to reduce any wind. 31
Soil Fertility Analysis
To obtain information on the nutrient status of both shales and colluvium, analyses were carried out with nine replications of each list on each growth medium. As a guideline, the "Laboratory Methods Recommended for
Chemical Analysis of Mined-Land Spoils and Overburden in Western United
States" were used (USDA, 1977). Some of the suggested tests were inappropriate due to the inavailabllity of equipment, quantities required or differences in composition of the shale, in which case the "Methods Manual,
Pedology Laboratory" (Lavkulich, 1978) was employed. Both methodologies rely heavily on Black (1965). Tests and methods used are illustrated in Table I, below.
Table I Methods Used for Fertility Analysis
Analysis Method Source pH 1:1 Water USDA, 1977 pH 1:2 0.01M CaCl2 Lavkulich, 1978 Salt concentration Electrical conductivity USDA, 1977 CaC03 equivalent Gravimetric Black, 1965 Gypsum (qualitative) Precipitation with acetone USDA, 1977 Total Nitrogen Semi Micro Kjeldahl Lavkulich, 1978 Phosphorus (available) Bray's PI Lavkulich, 1978 Sulphate Turbidity Lavkulich, 1978 Cation Exchange Capacity Ammonium acetate Lavkulich, 1978 Basic Cations & Atomic Absorption USDA, 1977 Total Carbon Leco Analysis Foscolos & Barefoot, 1970; Lavkulich, 1978 % Iron & Aluminum Sodium Pyrophosphate Extraction Lavkulich, 1978
In preparation for analysis both shale and colluvium were air dried and screened; only the fraction less than 2 mm was utilized (Lavkulich, 1978). 32
Measurement of Biomass Production
At the end of the growth season, evident by the cessation of growth and change in leaf color, the plants were removed from the pots. Biomass
(leaves, stems, fruits, roots) produced during the current growth season was removed by clipping and bagged in paper 'lunch bags'. Above ground biomass
('leaves') was bagged separately from below ground biomass ('roots'). The clippings were then dried in convectional ovens at 65 °C until a constant dry weight was obtained. Following drying, the clipped biomass for each plant was weighed and recorded. For each species except Dryas this meant 25 measurements for leaves and 25 for roots on each growth medium, minus the number of plants which died during the growth season or initially failed to root. Drya is was reported by Lyster (1978) to transplant poorly, so 50 plants were used on each of the two growth media, yielding more than 25 leaf measurements per medium. Root measurements were considered to be inaccurate as no feasible means of separating soil from roots was found (Nelson &
Allmaras, 1969). This problem was most evident with the fine roots which comprised the bulk of the season's growth. During the separation of soil and roots, either by gentle washing or manipulation, more than three quarters of the root tips were lost on all species (by visual inspection). The root system of Dryas was composed almost entirely of fine roots and therefore was not clipped.
Statistical analysis of the biomass weights was accomplished through the computer program "MIDAS, Elementary Statistics", available on the
University of British Columbia MTS system. This program was used to derive measurement parameters (minimum and maximum weight, mean and standard deviation) as well statistical inferences run on 'leaves' only. The latter involved hypothesis testing by way of the Mann-Whitney "U" Test and Median 33
Test ; both tests measured the significance of difference in populations In
this case shale and colluvium grown plants. While the "U" Test Is the more powerful of the two, its power is diminished by ties in ranked data,
necessitating the inclusion of the Median Test which is not affected by this
(University of Michigan, 1976). The significance levels of these tests allowed for acceptance or rejection of the null hypothesis that growth differences between shale and colluvium were due to chance.
Results
The physical description of the colluvium or control growth medium is as follows:
a) Landform: ridge, upper slope, colluvium.
b) Erosion: shedding, has been eroded in the past to form
stone stripes.
c) Stoniness: excessively stoney.
d) Rockiness: exceedingly rocky.
e) Soil water Regime: Mesic, moderately well drained.
f) Color: moist 2.5Y 2/1 yellowish gray dry 2.5Y 5/1
black.
g) Soil texture: gravelly, subangular rock 25%; 75% medium
granular.
h) Mottles: None
i) Soil Structure: weak, fine to medium granular structure;
fraction 2 mm = sandy loam.
1 The Histogram display, also available in MIDAS indicated the data to
require non-parametric tests. 34
j) Consistence: slightly sticky, slightly plastic, friable,
k) Roots: abundance of fine roots in LFH, more coarse
roots in Bm with taproots passing through C to
bedrock (50 - 65 cm).
1) Horizon Boundary: LFH to Bm = abrupt, Bm to C = clear and wavy,
(after The Canadian System of Soil Classification 1978).
Soil fertility analyses are shown in Table II.
Table II Soil Fertility Parameters Top 10 cm of mineral (Bm) horizon for Colluvium
Test Shale Colluvium pH 1:1 water 6.4 6.2 pH 1:2 0.01M Calcium chloride 5.9 5.5 Calcium carbonate equivalent 5.47% 0.35% Gypsum none none Total Nitrogen 455 ppm 1203 ppm Phosphorus (Bray's PI) 1.1 ppm 2.5 ppm Sulphate (soluble) less than 2 ppm less than 2 ppm Percent Total Carbon 5.29% 10.46% Percent Organic Matter 9.10% 18.03% Percent Iron 0.029% 0.104% Percent Aluminum 0.194% 0.142%
Basic Cations
Cation Exchange Na Mg K Ca Capacity (meq /100g)
Shale 0.28 3.04 0.28 8.05 7.43 Colluvium 0.0055 2.5 0.12 11.5 24.99 35
Surface temperatures of both shale and colluvium in the pots are Illustrated in Figure 6. These temperatures were recorded on a clear day and display the lower albedo of the dark gray shale over the dark brown colluvium.
Plant growth response to the differences in growth media are shown in
Table III. Dryas integrifolia was the only species to have a significant response to shale as compared to colluvium. ure 6 Pot Temperatures
A comparison of temperatures in pots containing shale and
colluvium; measured at a depth of one centimetS from the surface, during a one day period; weather was clear with 0/10 cloud cover. wxu
AS
35
25J
Z/Vambient
15J
0900 1200 1500 1800 TIME (days) 37
Table III Growth Response to Unamended Shale and Colluvium as a Growth Media
Population Similarity
Species Dry Weight Leaves (g) Mann-Whitney Median Test
Mini- Maxi- Std. Significance Significance mum mum Mean Deviation Level Level
S 0.14 1.1 0.52 0.26 Salix arctica 0.4529 0.5231 C 0.15 1.2 0.60 0.30
0.06 0.84 0.34 0.19 Dryas 0.0002 0.0027 integrifolia C 0.05 1.3 0.61 0.35
S 0.025 1.5 0.66 0.36 Hedysarum 0.9152 0.3306 alpinum C 0.21 1.6 0.73 0.43
0.30 4.6 1.64 0.95 Oxytropis 0.8797 0.1528 sericea 0.56 3.7 1.97 0.91
0.22 1.2 0.71 0.33 Oxytropis 0.8797 0.3281 podocarpa C 0.11 1.3 0.68 0.40
S Shale
C colluvium
Hr differences in growth due to chance; rejection levels = 0.01
H\ differences in growth due to growth medium. 38
The number of plants which successfully rooted and grew to the end of the growth season are shown In Table IV.
Table IV Number of Plants Used In Testing the
Significance of Growth Medium
Species Number of Plant
Shale Colluvium
Salix arctica 19 23
Dryas integrifolia 45 45
Hedysarum alpinum 23 24
Oxytropis spicata 24 23
Oxytropis podocarpa 10 10
The raw data for biomass measurements can be found in Appendix IV, while raw data on soil analysis appears in Appendix II.
By mid-June only seven of the legumes had flowered (4 Hedysarum alpinum, 3 Oxytropis sericea) with no preference for either growth medium.
The most significant growth of all species, after removal from the greenhouse, was evident during cool and rainy weather. During a period of hot, dry weather in June all leaf and shoot growth ceased. Water stress occurred inadvertently on Salix and Oxytropis sericea during this period
(June 11); Oxytropis wilted but recovered with watering, while Salix showed more permanent damage. Tip burning was noticed on very few leaves of Salix 39
grown on colluvium , however, those plants on shale showed the destruction of whole shoots. Of the six Salix on shale which died, five of these expired shortly after the period of water stress.
Root growth of all species was consistently more extensive on colluvium than shale; root balls were larger and consisted of more fine tips than were present on shale. Mycorrhizal root tip development on Dryas was much greater with colluvium than with shale, though no plants were missing such root tips. No nitrogen fixing nodules were seen on either population of
Dryas, however, nodulation was observed at the plant collection site.
Nodulation on the legumes was slightly more extensive on colluvium, though this may have been due to the greater number of roots present on this medium. Interveinal leaf chlorosis developed on the older leaves of
Hedysarum alpinum in early August. This was most noticeable with colluvium, since the plants on shale had a greater proportion of younger leaves.
Oxytropis podocarpa received a liquid starter fertilizer (10-15-10) to enhance rooting. After removal from the greenhouse, this species began to die; with very little root development showing on those that had died, it was evident the remaining plants required assistance. The quantity of fertilizer
5 (150 ppm P2°5^ added amounted to 2.7 x 10~ kg per pot. On a field basis this would be about 24 kg/ha P2^5 broadcast. Though some plants died after the fertilizer treatment, ten plants on shale and ten on colluvium were salvaged.
Electrical conductivity on both shale and colluvium were too low to
produce salt-induced tip burning.
Soil surface area of a 5-inch (13 cm) standard pot is about 1.13 x
10 ^ ha; this was used to derive the field application rate. 40
Chapter Four
Summary and Conclusion
On the basis of above ground biomass there is no significant growth difference between shale and colluvium for Salix arctica, Hedysarum alpinum or Oxytropis sericea and in these species the null hypothesis must be accepted. With the use of fertilizer on Oxytropis podocarpa, this species must be excluded from the test results, even though it was not inhibited when growing on shale. Dryas integrifolia, by contrast, showed a significantly depressed growth response to shale. On this medium the plants had a lower mean and maximum weight, indicating growth limitations may be present on shale as a spoil material. Though Viereck (1966) described Dryas as a pioneer species on alpine outwash, it would appear from the results of this study that Dryas integrif olia may not be an initial colonizer. Such a role in the Northeast Coal Block alpine appears to Involve primarily grasses, though this information was derived from disturbed surficial deposits
(Meidinger, 1981). Applying successional tendencies on weathered surficial deposits to unweathered shale should be done with caution. In the case of
Dryas, however, it seems likely this species supersedes an initial colonizing stage since it shows a preference for weathered growth medium. In all tested species results obtained pertain to normal Sheriff minesite growth conditions where water is not limited during the growth season.
As a growth medium, unweathered shale has about half the total nitrogen, phosphorus and organic matter of the surface mineral soil
(colluvium or Bm horizon). The granular structure and slight stickiness indicate the additions of organic matter and clay in the weathering of the parent material and development of soil. The clay and organic matter content also enhances the cation exchange capacity or CEC (Birkeland, 1974); with the 41
CEC of the colluvium greater than that of the shale, the colluvium is able to hold onto more cationic nutrients than shale. The CEC value for shale is probably low since the sum of basic cations (meg/100 g) is greater than the
CEC. Foscolos & Stott (1975) report CEC values for marine shale in the
Wolverine River area (N.E. Coal Block) between 11 and 12 meg/100 g, and similar values for shale collected elsewhere in the Rocky Mountain (Peace
River) region. Given the same amount of time for weathering as has been available for the colluvium, the clay-rich shale would produce a higher CEC than the sandstone derived colluvium. At present, though, the nutrient holding capacity of shale and the amount of nutrients available is rather limited. This is further evidenced in the size of root balls on Salix arctica, Hedysarum alpinum and Oxytropis sericea. While not showing a significant above ground response to the growth media differences, root development was noticeably enhanced in the higher nutrient status colluvium; root development in both media, however, extended to the limits of the pots.
It would appear that even the small differences in nutrient availability between the two growth media have an important impact on fine root development. The implications for on-site use of fertilizer suggest small
additions could be all that is required. The 24 kg/ha P205 (15% analysis) applied to Oxytropis podocarpa had a very definite effect on promoting fine root growth. Moreover, root samples from all species, taken at the minesite, showed a very close association of fungal hyphae. The implication Is that mycorrhizal associations could be a very important component in the acquisition of nutrients by the native species. Salix arctica root samples from the site showed root tip development typical of ectomycorrhizae, as did Dryas integrifolia on both site and potted plants.
Since mycorrhizae on legumes have been shown to be inhibited by increasing 42
levels of phosphorus fertilizer (Kucey & Paul, 1980), field applications of fertilizer should be kept to a minimum if employing native plants.
Since whole plant portions were utilized in this study the possibility
of stored reserves carrying the plants through the season must be addressed.
As mentioned earlier, the plant fragments acquired for this study involved severe pruning of the root system where most of the alpine plant biomass
occurs. This is especially true of Hedysarum alpinum, where about 10% or less of the total taproot was acquired. With Salix arctica the initial bud flush was pruned completely so it would not preceed root growth, requiring an even greater drain on stored reserves from the previous growing season.
Tieszen et_ al (1980) have indicated that flowering of arctic plants (eg.
Salix arctica, Dryas integrifolia) is dependent upon the reallocations of stored reserves. Had reserves been adequate to carry these plants through the growth season they should also have been adequate to promote flowing.
Dryas integrifolia was also collected with a small amount of LFH which could not be separated by washing. Had this additional nutrient source been sufficient to carry the plant through the season, there would have been no significant difference in growth between the two growth media. This was not the case, however as Dryas was inhibited by growing on shale when compared to colluvium. The ability of these growth media to supply nutrients clearly had an effect on plant growth.
In employing Salix arctica on alpine coal spoils in the N.E. Coal
Block, water stress will need to be considered. This will especially be true where dark colored spoils like shale are not covered by a lighter colored
"topsoil". During normal weather years, with cool wet summers, water stress will not be a problem, while sunny and dry weather will lead to leaf
destruction or even death of entire plants. Because of this susceptibility 43
to drought, Salix arctica will need to be employed in depressions or other micro-sites where water is ensured or some sheltering from direct sunlight is available.
The two test species with the least inhibition to growing on shale as a spoil material are Hedysarum alpinum and Oxytropis sericea. The latter was planted as a bare root mature plant and showed no significant inhibition on shale. Hedysarum was planted with a small collar of LFH remnant, held by fine roots and fungal hyphae, which could have imparted an initial advantage after transplanting. However, Dryas was transplanted with a similar amount of LFH remnant but its growth on shale was significantly inhibited. In view of such, it appears the LFH remnant was not able to sustain growth during the entire growth period. Hedysarum obviously was able to root into the shale and exploit its limited nutrient supply; were this not the case it would have shown stunted growth compared to the colluvium grown plants. The interveinal chlorosis on the older leaves (Hedysarum) may have been due to a magnesium deficiency as Meidinger (1981) indicated magnesium to be deficient in this area. The chlorosis may also be an indication of senescence brought on by the translocation of elements as a result of internal cycling, as in arctic plants (Bunnell, 1980).
Conclusions
Of the five native species selected for their ability to ameliorate nutrient poor soils, or provide wildlife forage, four species were selected.
One of the four species, Oxytropis podocarpa, transplanted poorly due to a loss of the fine root portion of the root system. As this species is an important component in the dry alpine ridges, it is tempting to use it on 44
potentially droughty potential coal spoils. However, if 0_. podocarpa is to
be utilized it will need to be planted with the fine roots intact; this might
be avoided by starting plants from seed, though the percent germination is
low (Appendix V). Due to the problems encountered with (). podocarpa, this
species should probably be dropped from field trials.
Dryas integrif olia was the only species of the five that showed
significantly less growth on shale than colluvium. For this reason its immediate employment on alpine spoils is not recommended. Nonetheless, it is the dominant species in the climax community, In a close association with foliose lichens. Because such lichens are important to Caribou winter habitat, promotion of their growth can be accomplished by establishing the micro-habitat provided by a Dryas mat. Successful introduction of Dryas appears to require a more weathered, higher nutrient soil. This is not provided by unweathered shale, though "topsoil" added on top may overcome this problem. Dryas should likely be planted as a final stage in reclamation following a build-up of organic matter and some weathering.
While Salix arctica was not inhibited by growing on shale, its susceptibility to water stress will limit the type of sites it can be planted on. Salix will be restricted to moist sites and will show considerable mortality if planted as a rooted cutting during dry sunny weather. Water will be less of a problem with Hedysarum alpinum, however, it does occupy moist habitats on the undisturbed alpine ridges. This legume will not be suited for very dry sites where drainage is excessive, and may require magnesium to be added to the soil. Interveinal chlorosis, evident on the older leaves, was shown to occur on both shale and colluvium.
Oxytropis sericea also a nitrogen fixing legume, showed no problems with transplanting or water stress. Moreover, it was not significantly 45
Inhibited by growing on shale and will likely be the best of the five species tested for planting in an alpine reclamation program.
On the basis of results shown in this study, the rating of suitability for using selected native species in alpine reclamation is as follows:
Oxytropis sericea Hedysarum alpinum Salix arctica
(). podocarpa Dryas integrifolia
This rating is for mature bare-rooted plants and is based on the ability to survive the following: handling, transplanting, a low nutrient growth medium, and limited moisture deficiency. No one plant should be chosen, however, from this group and utilized in a monoculture. As pointed out in
Chapter Two, very few native plant species will meet all the criteria of soil amelioration and wildlife forage requirements. Of the five species tested, the best selections to meet these criteria, and for further testing on site, are Oxytropis sericea, Hedysarum alpinum and Salix arctica. The first two will add nitrogen to the spoil through fixation and perhaps form a portion of the forb requirement of ungulate summer diets. Salix will promote spoil stability through extensive rooting and summer forage for ungulates. Long term reclamation plans should probably include Dryas integrifolia in a final planting stage. These species should not be viewed as complete replacements for successful agronomic species but rather as supplemental in promoting the return of native vegetation. As such they may best be employed after an initial stage utilizing agronomic grasses.
With the poor growth of agronomic legumes in the N.E. Coal Block alpine (Errington, 1978), and the regression of agronomic grasses on reclamation sites (Gates, 1962; Down, 1973; Dabbs, 1974; Baker, 1975; Bell &
Meidinger, 1977; Brown e_t sd, 1978), native species are the most promising for alpine reclamation. The drawback to employing native species, however, 46
has been the lack of knowledge on propagation and handling techniques
(Ziemkiewicz et^ al, 1978). In selecting and testing native species for reclamation purposes, perhaps the benefit of studies such as this is to further our knowledge along these lines. Likely the greatest contribution, though, is to encourage others to view native species as viable alternatives to agronomic species in the promotion of a stable and self sustaining plant cover. 47
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Appendix I
Plots of Undisturbed Vegetation from
Sheriff, Frame and Babcock Mountains
Due to the discrepancy of the Harcombe study (1978) with observed physiognomic characteristics at the plant collection site, the following vegetation plots were analyzed. This was an attempt to determine whether Hedysarum alpinum, not reported by Harcombe, was "endemic" to Sheriff Mountain or found at other alpine krummholz sites. Division of sites by moisture is subjective and does not necessarily coincide with such ratings by other authors (eg. Hrapko & LaRoi, 1978), however sites rated as 'mesic' have a notably higher ground coverage. From these plots it is evident H_. alpinum is not found on the drier portions of the alpine ridge communities. Plot Number 1 5 6 7 15 16 17 2 3 4 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Location^ S P P F B B B S F F F B B B B B B Moisture2 a a a a a a a sx sx sx a sx X sx •X sx sx Aspect WSV S ssw SSW SSW SW NNW SW WNW SSW S SSW EST. wsw NNW SSE ssw Elevation (axlO) 170 186 177 177 156 155 152 176 184 186 178 171 170 170 186 184 172 Slope (degrees) 15 24 21 5 8 26 19 22 27 19 11 1 4 8 11 13 12 Quadrat Area (»2) 25 32 49 39 48 36 96 36 18 45 49 108 90 56 40 45 48
Species Naae
Salix reticulata3 + 1.2 2.3 3.4 2.3 + 1.3 1.2 2.4 1.2 2.3 3.4 Salix arctica 2.3 2.3 3.4 1.4 3.4 2.4 + + Betula glandulosa + 2.4 Plcea engleaannli + Abies laslocarpa +
Bedysarua alpinum 2.2 1.2 1.2 2.3 2.3 2.3 1.3 Dryas Integrifolia 3.* 2.4 3.4 4.4 3.4 3.4 3.4 2.4 2.4 3.4 3.4 2.3 3.4 1.3 1.3 2.3 Saxlfraga bronchialis 2.3 1.2 1.2 1.2 2.3 1.3 1.3 1.2 2.4 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 2.3 2.3 2.3 Oxytropis splcata 2.2 + 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 1.2 1.2 2.2 + + 0. podocarpa 2.2 1.2 2.2 1.2 1.2 2.3 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.3 Arnica mollis 1.1 + 1.1 1.1 + + 1.1 + 1.1 + + + 1.1 + Potentllla unlflora 1.1 1.2 + + + 2.2 + 1.3 2.2 1.2 + 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.3 Aconltua delfinifoil urn 1.1 + + + + + + Zagadenus elegans 1.1 1.2 1.2 + Epllobiua latlfollvai 1.1 + 1.1 + + Erlgeron coaposltus + 1.2 + + + + + E. grandlflorus 1.2 1.2 + + 1.2 E. lariat us + + + 1.1 1.1 Pedlcularis capitata 1.1 + 1.1 1.1 1.1 + P. lanata + + + 1.1 + + + 1.1 Polygonum vivaparua + + + 1.1 1.1 1.1 + Delphinliai glaucun + + 1.1 + + + + + + + Aneaone drusaundil + + + + 1.2 + - + + + Vacclnlua Vltis-ldaea 2.3 + + + Taraxacum ovinun + + Solidago aultlradlata + + + 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.3 + + + + 1.2 + 2.3 + 1.3 Antennarla aedla + Sllene acaulls + + 1.3 1.3 + + 1.2 + 1.1 1.1 Caapanula laslocarpa + + + 1.2 2.4 Seneclo pauperculus + + + + + + Astragalus alplnus + 1.2 2.2 1.3 1.3 + + + Hyosotis alpestrls + + + + + 1.3 1.3 Cerastrlua spp. + + + Saxlfraga trlcuspidata
Grasses 1.1 1.2 1.2 + 1.2 + + + + 1.2 + + + 2.2 + 2.2 2.2 Sedges/Rushes + + + + + + + + Mosses 1.3 2.4 2.3 3.3 2.3 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.3 3.4 2.3 1.2 1.2 3.4 2.2 2.2 3.3 Lichens 2.3 + 1.3 1.2 2.2 1.2 2.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 2.3 2.2 2.2 3.4 2.2 3.2 2.2
1 Location: S - Sheriff F - Fraae B - Babcock. Cover class: 4- IX; 1-1-5X; 2-6-25X; 3-26-50X; 4-51-75X; 5-76-100X. 2 Moisture: a - aeslc sx • subxerlc x - xeric (in order, aolst to dry) Sociability: l-gro*s singly; 2-tufts; 3-aaall patches; 4-carpetB; 3 Zurich-Montpellelr florlstlc description: exaaple 2.3, 2 - cover class, 5«pure populations. 3 - sociability. 55
Figure 1.1 Location of Vegetation Plots by Aspect, Elevation and Moisture
Note plot number 10 is the only xeric representative. 56
Appendix II
Soil Analysis Data Tests
plica• pH pH CaC03 Total Avail. SO4 Total X Z CEC Al Ca Mg Na tion (H20) (CaCl2) equlv. N P C Fe
67.33 14.98 SI* 6.40 5.83 5.8 525 1 2 5.43 0.041 0.029 7.50 4.60 0.35 S2 6.45 5.78 # f 0.8 2 5.16 0.028 0.019 7.66 4.60 72.49 15.67 0.37 0.028 6.72 4.58 68.01 15.18 0.36 S3 6.40 5.90 5.34 547 2 2 5.31 0.019 63.25 14.50 S4 6.38 5.90 6.43 525 1 2 5.08 0.027 0.018 7.81 4.55 0.36 0.026 7.97 4.51 68.11 14.69 0.34 S5 6.38 5.93 5.18 f 1 2 5.43 0.018 0.030 0.018 6.88 4.52 68.69 14.98 0.34 S6 6.35 5.95 5.44 438 0.5 2 5.20 0.030 0.017 8.06 4.58 69.18 15.08 0.35 S7 6.35 6.00 5.34 569 1.5 2 5.35 0.027 0.019 6.94 4.39 65.29 15.08 0.35 S8 6.35 5.95 5.14 656 1. 2 5.16 0.028 0.018 7.34 4.45 65.48 14.69 0.35 S9 6.38 5.98 5.34 # 1 2 5.50
CI 6.18 5.50 0.36 1444 2.5 2 10.65 ,104 0.151 25.56 2.11 94.67 12.55 0.16 C2 6.20 5.50 # f 2.5 2 10.45 104 0.137 25.06 2.10 92.34 12.07 0.16 C3 6.20 5.45 # 1225 2.5 2 10.42 ,103 0..14 5 26.00 2.05 92.53 12.16 0.15 C4 6.15 5.50 0.18 1247 • 2.5 2 10.42 ,104 0..15 4 24.69 2.04 102.94 12.84 0.13 C5 6.20 5.45 0.12 f 2.5 2 10.57 # 25.63 2.05 95.35 12.45 0.13 C6 6.23 5.48 0.42 # 3.2 2 10.28 104 0.138 24.69 2.03 96.13 12.45 0.13 C7 6.20 5.45 0.38 1291 2.0 2 10.40 .103 0.134 26.41 2.07 92.53 12.16 0.14 C8 6.20 5.48 0.28 1313 2.5 2 10.51 103 0.137 20.47 2.05 90.88 11.97 # C9 6.20 5.45 0.70 1225 2.5 2 10.44 ,107 0.143 26.41 1.05 100.99 12.55 # Blank - - - 88 0.0 0.0 0.22 0.31 0.02 0.09 Units - - X ppm ppm ppm X eq/lOOg ppm ppn ppa ppn •S - Shale C - Colluvlui # - contamination or spillage Appendix III
Maximum and Minimum Temperatures, and Precipitation,
Vancouver Airport, May to August, 1982
Data for this appendix was obtained from local newspapers (Vancouver Province, Vancouver Sun), available through the University of B.C. Library. Missing data indicate missing editions. The original data was collected by Environment Canada, and at the present time is not available in a published form other than newspapers.
Figure III.2 60
JULY/AUGUST
1 10 20 1 10 20 31 July August 61
Appendix IV
Biomass Data
Data in these tables are in order of replication number, starting with number 1 at the top and proceeding down to number 25. For Dryas this numbering extends to 50 for leaves only; overflow from the first column appears in the second column. 62
Table IV.I Oven Dry Biomass (grams)/Shale
Dryas Salix Hedysarum Oxytropis Oxytropis intergrifolia arctica alpinum spicata podocarpa
Leaves Leaves Roots Leaves Roots Leaves Roots Leaves Roots
0.19 0.46 — — 0.39 3.6 1.1 3.5 _ — 0.44 0.41 0.22 0.72 1.1 5.3 0.81 2.7 - - 0.30 0.30 0.14 0.24 0.54 2.8 2.0 10.5 0.42 3.1 0.06 0.57 0.73 1.7 0.84 4.3 2.1 8.4 1.2 3.8 - 0.63 0.78 1.3 0.94* 3.9 4.6 7.5 - - 0.47 0.21 0.46 0.80 0.56 3.0 - - - - - 0.30 0.60 0.70 - - 1.1 3.2 0.80 2.2 0.72 0.50 1.1 3.0 0.45 2.4 1.0* 7.9 - - 0.11 0.36 0.67 1.1 0.57 3.5 1.4 4.3 - - 0.44 0.38 0.92 2.4 0.62 2.6 1.6 10.2 0.22 2.4 0.43 0.20 0.54 1.3 0.64 4.3 0.30 2.6 - - 0.55 0.41 - - 0.41 2.6 0.48 1.2 0.90 0.83 0.38 0.79 0.32 0.95 0.67 1.7 2.0 7.2 0.75 6.3 0.20 0.78 3.7 0.35 1.7 1.1 3.4 1.1 3.5 - 0.27 1.8 1.1 6.2 2.5 12.3 0.60 2.5 - - - 1.2 5.7 0.57 7.9 0.81 1.9 0.23 0.33 1.8 0.74 3.2 0.81 3.4 - - 0.30 0.30 1.1 0.87 4.4 2.5 6.4 - - 0.28 - - 0.025 0.97 3.2 10.0 - - 0.84 0.30 2.0 0.55 4.7 1.6 4*9 - - 0.12 0.53 0.55 1.5 14.2 2.1 6.0 - - 0.30 0.30 0.36 0.14 0.83 1.8* 5.9 - - 0.45 - - 0.20 0.88 1.5 5.0 - - 0.61 0.50 1.7 0.88 8.0 2.0 7.9 0.27 0.40 0.26 - - - - 1.2 3.3 - - 0.24 0.24 0.18 0.13 0.22 0.07 0.03 0.10 0.21
0.28 0.30
* = flowers/fruit present 63
Table IV.II Oven Dry Biomass (grams)/Colluvium
Dryas Salix Hedysarum Oxytropis Oxytropis intergrifolia arctica alpinum spicata podocarpa
Leaves Leaves Roots Leaves Roots Leaves Roots Leaves Roots
0.86 0.40 0.97 3.6 0.21 1.6 2.9 8.1 _ _ 0.13 0.55 0.48 2.1 0.38 1.0 - - 1.0 2.2 0.11 0.51 0.27 1.4 0.51 3.5 1.0 1.8 - - 0.76 - 0.96 3.5 1.3 8.4 2.9 16.0 0.42 1.1 0.10 0.58 0.47 1.1 0.89 7.1 2.4 8.9 - - 1.3 0.10 0.96 3.5 1.2 3.9 2.5 10.6 0.11 0.44 0.21 0.33 0.45 1.6 0.51 2.9 3.5 10.0 - - 1.1 0.82 0.53 1.7 0.48 2.0 1.7 5.9 1.3 1.5 - 1.3 0.75 2.0 0.99 3.9 3.7 18.7 0.64 4.6 0.40 1.1 0.99 3.1 1.3 15.2 2.8 17.2 - - - 0.26 0.15 0.90 0.5 2.0 1.1 3.9 - - 0.83 0.65 1.2 0.67 0.36 3.9 0.56 0.20 - - 0.38 0.88 0.63 1.3 1.3* 4.5 - - 0.61 0.60 0.34 0.05 0.60 3.8 1.4 4.1 1.4 4.5 - - 1.2 0.84 - - 0.66* 4.0 1.4 8.6 - - 0.68 0.71 2.1 - - 1.8 5.4 - - 0.45 0.37 2.1 0.54 3.9 1.1 2.5 - - 0.51 0.18 1.3 0.43 4.1 2.0* 7.5 0.57 2.1 0.64 0.64 2.3 1.6 14.6 3.2 15.2 - - 0.42 0.25 1.2 0.37 4.6 0.77 1.2 - - 0.20 - - 0.23 3.8 0.95 3.8 1.1 6.1 0.55 0.56 3.0 0.40 1.8 1.9 2.9 0.93 2.2 1.2 0.43 1.6 1.1 4.0 2.3 10.4 - - 0.15 0.32 0.82 0.27 5.9 2.2 9.2 0.11 0.38 0.92 1.0 2.5 0.61 0.85 1.3 4.1 - - 0.75 0.71 1.0 0.22 0.89
1.0
0.63 0.60 64
Appendix V
Preparation and Growth of Tested Species
The following contains observations on growth characteristics of the tested species, as well as seed germination tests for the legumes. Suggestions for propagation and utilization are based on these observations. 65
V.l Salix arctica
Propagation of j>. arctica by cuttings is an easy and straightforward method. Utilizing a 10 to 15 cm portion of the underground 'stem', found in and just under the LFH mat, roots and shoots are easily initiated. Preformed buds or roots are not necessary. After cutting the stem into sections the cut faces should be dipped in a fungicide, though rooting hormones are not necessary. During the rooting period a moist environment is required; this plant should be started as container stock, and placed under mist if available. About two weeks are required for sufficient root development to take place before the plants can be moved from the moist rooting environment to a shade frame. Rapid shoot development may occur during the root period, requiring pruning; all shoots can be removed at the beginning of the rooting period without deleterious effects. Shade should be continued for about two weeks, though hot weather will require a longer shade period. The volume provided by a 5 1/2 inch standard pot is adequate for one season's growth 3
(roughly 1200 cm ) but is too small for two seasons as a significant amount of root growth takes place. Growth of shoots and leaf buds will continue until about mid-summer, as long as cool, damp weather prevails. Senescence appears to be keyed to day length, recurring after August 15 at 55° latitude.
Salix should probably be planted only on flat to concave slopes where drainage is not excessive. With frost action a significant factor at the alpine/krummholz site, planting should not include a container to avoid frost heaving. A rootball with potting soil adhering is suggested. Site preparation at the Sheriff mine will need to include an initial application of fertilizer though this should be kept to a minimum to avoid inhibiting 66
nitrogen fixation in the legumes and mycorrhizal development in general.
Based on the analysis of shale in this study and the growth response of
Oxytropis podocarpa to fertilizer, a rate of 25 kg/ha for phosphorus (as
10-15-10) is suggested. While larger applications may promote more growth, the promotion of mycorrhizal development should be considered as part of the soil amelioration process. Short term gains in foliage development through heavy fertilizer applications will inhibit mycorrhyzal and in the long term will make the plant dependent upon fertilizers. A one-time application of phosphorus at 25 kg/ha will provide a source of the element where essentially none exists but should not inhibit mycorrhizal development. In general, it will be necessary to test Salix and other native species for fertilizer requirements to accurately assess the optimum rate to promote growth, while not inhibiting mycorrhizal development or nitrogen fixation.
V.2 The Legumes: Hedysarum alpinum, Oxytropis spicata, (). podocarpa
While this study utilized whole plants, the easiest method of propagation is by seeds. These are readily available to the Sheriff minesite on the west face of Frame Mountain, below and slightly south of the adits.
On Babcock Mountain all three species can be collected on the northwest shoulder, on the north side of the adit face. H. alpinum can be found in ample quantity at these sites but is not available on the more dry sites surrounding; both Oxytropis are ubiquitous. Whole seed pods should be collected before dehiscence or detachment from the plant. For (). podocarpa this can be done between August 1 and 15, while (). sericea and H. alpinum can be collected at the end of August. Care will need to be taken to avoid 67
collecting too late as both Oxytropis open their pods when ripe (at this point the pods are tan in color and dry), while the loment of II. alpinum breaks into segments when dry (dark brown).
For seedling growth in containers a Spencer-LeMaire system is suggested, but of a larger volume than utilized for conifers since a considerable amount of root growth will occur. The seedlings will likely be too small at a 1+0 stage and should probably be placed out at 2+0 years.
V.3 Dryas integrifolia
As an alpine plant adapted to a short, cool growing season, Dryas is an amazing species. Dryas integrifolia is, of course, frost hardy but is also able to assimilate CO2 to about -5 °C and within 4 or 5 days after removal of the snow cover. While soil and air temperatures will determine when Dryas Is able to begin its growth season, J), integrif olia will enter dormancy without a cold stimulus. This is considered a mechanism to prevent late season growth and frost damage to new growth (Hartgerink & Mayo, 1976;
Mayo ejt _al, 1977). The flowers of Dryas are also adapted to the cool environment; the parabolic arrangement of petals focus solar radiation on the reproductive structures (androecium/gynocecium). By increasing the temperature of these parts, a warm micro-site is provided for pollinating insects, enticing them to remain longer on the flower and enhancing pollination (Kevan, 1975). Moreover, I), integrifolia is also adapted to low soil nutrient levels and is inhibited in growth by high levels of fertilizer
(Babb, 1977).
Propagation of Dryas by fragmenting a mature mat, as was done in this study, is feasible but will not be practical for large scale out planting. 68
Where large numbers of plants are required the seed heads should be collected and seeds germinated, probably after a short period of stratification. The
short term stratification requirements of the alpine legumes, reported above, may be applicable. Seeds will probably need to be "pricked-off" a germination medium and placed on a growth medium in containers, if container stock is to be used. Paper pots are suggested since they allow for sufficient root development while having some soil surface exposed around the plant; the latter aspect is discussed below. Since the presence of organic matter appears to be of importance in the growth of Dryas, a potting mix using about 50% peat should be sufficient. The remaining volume could be made up with a varying size range of sand and pebbles to approximate an Ap horizon of LFH/Bm. As with the other native species, it will be necessary to introduce the appropriate organisms to establish nodules and mycorrhizae into the potting mix.
Perhaps the greatest advantage gained with Dryas in a reclamation program will be the concurrent development of fruticose lichens. These form part of the Caribou diet and will need to be re-established. One way this might be accomplished is to introduce the lichens with Dryas, already attached to the potting medium. By collecting lichens and chopping them up in a blender, a slurry could be made. The slurry could then be poured into the exposed soil surface, provided with paper pots. Such a method may mimic natural reproduction by fragmentation (Alvin, 1977). 69
V.3 The Legumes
Germination tests on seed of the three legumes collected in the vicinity of the Sheriff minesite (Frame Mtn.) indicate a short period of cold stratification is beneficial to two species. Table IX shows the results of these tests:
Table V.I Germination Testing for Unstratified and
Stratified Legume Seed
Values are the mean of five replications, plus
or minus the standard error; a Jacobsen-Zepher
Germinator was used for this testing; day
length was 12 hours under Gro-lux lamps.
Unstratified Stratified Species %G %GC Rio(days) %G %GC Rio(days)
Hedysarum 72+1.8 88+2.2 6+0.2 60+2.7 88+4.9 1+0 alpinum
Oxytropis 49+2.2 87+1.3 5+0.4 14+0.9 78+1.8 5+0.4 sericea
Oxytropis 14+1.8 92+1.3 14+0.9 13+1.8 90+0.9 2+0.4 podocarpa
%G = percent of total seed germinated %GC = percent germination capacity, disregarding time; %GC = %G + % sound seed at end of test Rio = rate in days required to germinate 10% of %GC 70
Stratification was accomplished by placing the seed between wet
blotter paper and then in a plastic bag. The bags were held at about 2 °C
for 26 days. This is an effective method but is subject to mold development,
requiring the blotter paper to be dipped previously in a fungicide.
Stratifying these legume seeds did not improve the %G but decreased the rate
of germination in Hedysarum alpinum and Oxytropis podocarpa. Oxytropis
serica did not benefit from stratification; the decrease in %G of stratified
seed was due in part to the mold infesting stratified seed. The 26 day
stratification period was excessive since both Oxytropis germinated during
this period, with germinants dying. This likely contributed to the lack of
increase in the %G with stratification.
For reclamation work on the Sheriff minesite, Oxytropis podocarpa can
be collected about mid-August. £. sericea and Hedysarum alpinum pods ripen
at the end of August. All three species are easily collected by hand and a
season's seed requirement could be met by two people collecting for one or
two days. The volume of clean seed for (). podocarpa is about 16g/l of seed
pods; 0. sericea produces about 21g/l of seed pods. E. alpinum does not need
to be cleaned as the loment breaks into individual seed segments and will
sprout from the segment without inhibition. Since the seed pods are part of
the utilized seed, the weight of seed per litre will be much lower than
either Oxytropis. All seed should be inspected during collection since a
small portion may be empty and is also subject to boring insects. Once
collected, pods of Oxytropis should be placed In a dry environment to open
the two "shells" or valves of the legume pod. Tumbling the seeds and pods will separate most of the seeds, which then need be passed through a nest of
sieves to remove foreign matter. Both Oxytropis will collect on the 1 mm 71
mesh, along with a few leaflets that can be separated (if necessary) by gentle blowing. For storage all legume seeds will need to be as dry as possible or mold will occur. Storage temperature should be well below 5 °C and probably below 0 °C as Oxytropis seed in a moist 2 °C environment will germinate. About one week before the seed is required, Hedysarum and 0. podocarpa should be stratified. This process should probably not exceed five days; check stratified seed daily for germination. Stratified and unstratified (0. sericea) seed could then be germinated on a suitable medium before pricking-off to containers.