COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES IN PAKISTANI AND INDIAN PRINT MEDIA (1990 – 2010)

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB IN PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN COMMUNICATION STUDIES

SUMERA BATOOL

INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATION STUDIES, UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB, , 2015

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES i

Dedication

Dedicated to my Parents, Sisters, Brother,

Husband and my Daughter

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES ii

DECLARATION

I, Sumera Batool, affirm that this thesis is my original work and has been completed in the supervision of Dr. Bushra H. Rehman, Assistant Professor, Institute of

Communication Studies, University of the Punjab, Lahore. This thesis does not contain any material that has been already submitted anywhere, to the best of my knowledge, except the text for which due references are acknowledged.

SUMERA BATOOL

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES iii

Certificate of approval

It is certified that this PhD dissertation titled “comparative analysis of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani and Indian print media (1990 – 2010)” written by Ms.

Sumera Batool has been completed under my supervision. It fulfills the entire academic and research requirements. This dissertation is recommended for further evaluation.

Dr. Bushra H. Rehman

Assistant Professor,

Institute of Communication Studies,

University of the Punjab, Lahore

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES iv

Acknowledgements

I am humbly thankful to Almighty Who always blessed me with His countless blessings, gave me courage and strength to complete this task, enlightened me with hope and optimism whenever I felt depressed, showed me the right way in all difficulties, gave me opportunities to complete my ambition, and blessed me with beautiful people around like angels who helped me in every difficult situation. I also pay my humble gratitude to The Holy Prophet (May Allah Peace Be Upon Him) and

His holy family Who taught humanity.

I am thankful to my parents, sisters and brother for all the support and appreciation throughout my life. I am also very thankful to my husband, Mudassar Abbas, for all the efforts and support to accomplish this academic endeavor as it could not have been possible without him.

I pay my gratitude to my teachers for facilitating me in learning and writing this thesis specially my supervisor Dr. Bushra H. Rehman who‟s guidance, motivation and affection helped me to complete this thesis. I cannot forget to acknowledge my best teacher Dr. Mughess–ud-Din Sheikh who‟s vision always inspired me, his appreciation and believe in me always strengthened me. I am thankful to Prof. Mrs.

Shama Salman Khaliq and Dr. Anjum Zia for the support in managing all the official matters and giving relaxation in my teaching career so that I might be able to spare time for my studies and to complete this research work. I am also grateful to my

Colleagues, Zaeem Yasin and Naveed Iqbal, for all the encouragement and moral support, my friends, Dr. Abida Eijaz, Romana Bokhari, Saba Sultana and Lubna

Shaheen, for all the best wishes and my students Qandeela Ambreen and Tabinda

Khurshid for facilitating me.

Sumera Batool October, 2015

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES v

Table of Contents

Chapter Title Page no. no. 01 Introduction 01

1.1 Statement of problem 05

1.2 Rationale of the study 05

1.3 Objectives of the study 08

1.4 Significance of study 08

1.5 Limitations of study 09

02 Background 10

2.1 Constitutional Context of Religious Minorities in 10

Pakistan

2.2 Minorities in Pakistan 11

2.3 Constitutional Context of Religious Minorities in 13

2.4 Minorities in India 13

2.5 Conflict between Indian and Pakistan 15

03 Literature Review 21

3.1 Representation of minorities in Pakistani media 21

3.2 Representation of minorities in Indian media 25

3.3 Representation of minorities in Western Media 29

04 Theoretical Framework 34

4.1 Media Hegemony 34

05 Methodology 37

5.1 Content analysis 37

5.2 Universe of the study 37

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES vi

5.3 Sample of the study 37

5.4 Unit of analysis 37

5.5 Categories 38

5.6 Conceptual definitions of categories and keywords 39

5.7 Operational definitions of categories and keywords 40

5.8 Coding the contents 41

5.9 Inter-coder reliability 42

5.10 Data collection 42

5.11 Research questions 43

5.12 Hypotheses 43

06 Descriptive Analysis 44

6.1 Part – I Quantitative Findings 44

6.2 Part – II Media representation of minorities and minority 142

population of Pakistan and India

6.3 Part – III Hypothesis Testing 148

07 Qualitative Analysis 151

7.1 Part I – Qualitative analysis of Pakistani Print media 151

7.2 Part II – Qualitative analysis of Indian Print media 164

7.3 Part III – Critical Discourse Analysis 174

08 Analysis and Discussion 184

Conclusion 190

Summary 192

Future Agenda 194

References 195

Annexure 202

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES vii

List of Tables

Table no. Title Page no.

6.1 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 44 media during 1990 6.2 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print 47 media during 1990 6.3 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 48 media during 1991 6.4 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 51 media during 1992 6.5 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 54 media during 1993 6.6 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 57 media during 1994 6.7 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 60 media during 1995 6.8 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 63 media during 1996 6.9 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 66 media during 1997 6.10 Pattern of representation of Religious Minorities in Indian print 69 media during 1997 6.11 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 70 media during 1998 6.12 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 73 media during 1999 6.13 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print 76 media during 1999 6.14 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 77 media during 2000 6.15 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print 80 media during 2000 6.16 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 83 media during 2001

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES viii

6.17 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print 86 media during 2001 6.18 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 89 media during 2002 6.19 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print 92 media during 2002 6.20 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 94 media during 2003 6.21 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print 97 media during 2003 6.22 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 100 media during 2004 6.23 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print 103 media during 2004 6.24 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 106 media during 2005 6.25 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print 109 media during 2005 6.26 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 112 media during 2006 6.27 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print 115 media during 2006 6.28 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 118 media during 2007 6.29 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print 121 media during 2007 6.30 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 124 media during 2008 6.31 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print 127 media during 2008 6.32 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 130 media during 2009 6.33 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print 133 media during 2009 6.34 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print 136 media during 2010

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES ix

6.35 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print 139 media during 2010 6.36a Patterns of Minority representation in Pakistani print media from 142 1990 – 2010 6.36b Patterns of Minority representation in Pakistani print media from 143 1990 – 2010 6.37 Population Distribution by , 1998 Census 144 Pakistan 6.38 Percentage of minority Population in Pakistan, 1998 Census 144 6.39a Patterns of Minority representation in Indian print media from 145 1990 – 2010 6.39b Patterns of Minority representation in Indian print media from 146 1990 – 2010 6.40 Distribution of population by Religion of India, 2001 Census 147 6.41 Percentage of minority Population in India, 2001 Census 147

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES x

List of Figures

Figure Caption Page no. no. 6.1 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in 46 during 1990 6.2 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The 46 Nation during 1990 6.3 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in 47 Hindustan Times during 1990 6.4 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 50 during 1991 6.5 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The 50 Nation during 1991 6.6 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 53 during 1992 6.7 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The 53 Nation during 1992 6.8 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 56 during 1993 6.9 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The 56 Nation during 1993 6.10 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 59 during 1994 6.11 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The 59 Nation during 1994 6.12 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 62 during 1995

6.13 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The 62 Nation during 1995 6.14 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 65 during 1996

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES xi

6.15 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The 65 Nation during 1996 6.16 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 68 during 1997 6.17 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The 68 Nation during 1997 6.18 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in 69 Hindustan Times during 1997 6.19 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 72 during 1998 6.20 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The 72 Nation during 1998 6.21 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 75 during 1999 6.22 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The 75 Nation during 1999 6.23 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in 76 Hindustan Times during 1999 6.24 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 79 during 2000 6.25 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The 79 Nation during 2000 6.26 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of 82 India during 2000 6.27 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in 82 Hindustan Times during 2000 6.28 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 85 during 2001 6.29 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The 85 Nation during 2001 6.30 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of 87 India during 2001 6.31 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in 88

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES xii

Hindustan Times during 2001 6.32 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 91 during 2002 6.33 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The 91 Nation during 2002 6.34 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of 93 India during 2002 6.35 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 96 during 2003 6.36 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The 96 Nation during 2003 6.37 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of 99 India during 2003 6.38 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in 99 Hindustan Times during 2003 6.39 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 102 during 2004 6.40 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The 102 Nation during 2004 6.41 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of 105 India during 2004 6.42 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in 105 Hindustan Times during 2004 6.43 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 108 during 2005 6.44 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The 108 Nation during 2005 6.45 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of 111 India during 2005 6.46 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in 111 Hindustan Times during 2005 6.47 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 114 during 2006

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES xiii

6.48 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The 114 Nation during 2006 6.49 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of 117 India during 2006 6.50 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in 117 Hindustan Times during 2006 6.51 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 120 during 2007 6.52 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The 120 Nation during 2007 6.53 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of 123 India during 2007 6.54 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in 123 Hindustan Times during 2007 6.55 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 126 during 2008 in The Nation during 2008 6.56 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 126 during 2008 6.57 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of 129 India during 2008 6.58 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in 129 Hindustan Times during 2008 6.59 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 132 during 2009 6.60 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The 132 Nation during 2009 6.61 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of 135 India during 2009 6.62 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in 135 Hindustan Times during 2009 6.63 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn 138 during 2010 6.64 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The 138

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES xiv

Nation during 2010 6.65 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of 141 India during 2010 6.66 Pattern of representation of religious minorities in 141 Hindustan Times during 2010 6.67 Patterns of Minority representation in Pakistani print media 143 from 1990 – 2010 6.78 Patterns of Minority representation in Indian print media 146 from1990 – 2010

List of Appendices

Appendix Title Page no. no.

I Coding sheet for analysis of representation of religious 202 minorities in Pakistani print media

II Coding sheet for analysis of representation of religious 203 minorities in Indian print media

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES xv

Abstract

The research study, “comparative analysis of representation of religious minorities in

Pakistani and Indian print media (1990 – 2010)”, was aimed to analyze the pattern of minority representation in Pakistani and Indian print media. It also investigated whether there are any biases with regard to the representation of religious minorities and specifically Indian Muslims and Pakistani Hindus in their respective print media considering the political relations between Pakistan and India in the selected time period. Furthermore, the study highlighted the included and excluded discourses related to minorities in the Pakistani and Indian print media. Content analysis and critical discourse analysis were applied to analyze the media text. Working under the theory of media hegemony the study concluded that there is an unequal and biased representation of religious minorities in Pakistani and Indian print media. Pakistani print media has been more silent with respect to Pakistani Hindus whereas Indian print media has given more negative representation to Indian Muslims. The nature of representation of Hindu and Muslim minority of both countries has not been found in relation with the broader political relations between Pakistan and India. Moreover, particular issues related to different religious minorities have been raised in both media.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 1

Chapter 1

Introduction

The question of minority, although not new, has been very crucial than ever before. As the fast means of communication technology, global trade and tourism are making the world shrink into a small village of diverse population with their own ideologies and value systems. The countries are no more having a single culture but have transformed into multicultural societies having varieties of cultures due to various religious, ethnic and racial minority groups practicing their own culture and rituals.

Religion is basically consisted of beliefs, cultural practices and views of people in world which are narratives, in symbolic form and those histories that have helped us to understand the way of life and universe. There are about 4,200 religions in world. (Shouler, 2010).

Collective and civil rights always give birth to minority group and has gained popularity in 20th century. Different countries treat minority groups according to their policies towards them whereas the image of minority group can be imagined through one‟s own perception. Moreover, unequal social structure can also lead to perceive their image. (ibid).

Every country is having many minorities in it. They are ethnic and different in languages. Their life style also differs from that Majority. Minorities can be migrants, travelers or indigenous. Minorities don‟t possess a national definition in international law whereas in Europe only minority groups have been defined under the European

Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and by the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (Smihula, 2009). COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 2

Oxford Dictionary defines minority as a smaller group of population living in a community, nation or country etc. they differ from majority as well in terms of language, religion and other in aspects. (Oxford Advance Learner‟s Dictionary, 1992, p. 570). International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences explains them with the help of race, language and national religion who think themselves as an important but much different groups as compare to those living in a society. (International

Encyclopedia of Social Science,1968: 365).

Religious minorities have a religion other than dominant faith. Religious minorities not only have different faith but they also perform their sacred prayers, celebrate different events and make their Gods happy under a religious umbrella (Richard,

2003). Webster‟s dictionary has defined the term minority as lesser or smaller number of total in terms of religion national of political group and playing important role despite of their little presence in a country or nation (Simon & Schuster, 1979, p.1146).

Smihula (2009), elucidates that some minorities are very much small in number that they cannot compete with majority and face neglecting their identity.

Many countries have their own rules to recognize the minorities as majority. This thing helps minority in a sense that it provides them freedom and equal but on the other hand they have also asked to leave their identity. Many countries identify their people on the basis of rather than ethnicity. Spain doesn‟t divide its people in the name of ethnicity and religion and takes them all same.

Media as an important social institution and a mean of socialization shares responsibility in terms of equal and balanced representation of every group of society.

According to minority rights group international (2005), media is not playing its role in cooperating and promoting cultures between different communities and more work COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 3 is needed to be done. However, media can easily utilize its positive role in carrying out cross boundaries culture and the interaction between different communities to know their point of view. But here, the negative role of media should also be addressed like those contents and statements or journalistic standard failure that help in creating bad image of minorities in the world by discrimination of these groups.

Population distribution by religion in Pakistan, 1998 Census reported 96.28 %

Muslims of the total population, 1.6% Hindus, 1.58% Christians, 0.22% Ahmadis,

0.25% scheduled castes and 0.07% others. (Pakistan statistical year book, 2011). A condition of alienation has also been observed in Pakistan with respect to Hindus as minorities. They are not allowed to become prime minister or president under the . Pakistan is having some reasonable and decent treatment with minorities. However, they are allowed to observe and celebrate their religious rituals and event with full freedom. (Express Tribune, 2012). The white part of

Pakistani flag shows their number and by this their importance has been verified as well. Minorities have also played their significant role in Pakistani movement whereas they are happy in living with Muslims in same country. (Ahmad, 2002, p.2).

The population census of India in 2001 reported 80.5% of Hindus of the total population whereas 13.4% Muslims, 2.3% Christians, 1. 9 % Sikhs, Buddhism as

0.8% and Jainism counts about 0.4% whereas rests of the minorities practice other religions. The emerging diversity in Indian culture and religion is due to the multiple communities living and exercising their rights in the country whereas other reasons like integrated social system, trading habits, travelers, those who had migrated and invaders have all mixed up to develop a heterogeneous society. (Nichols, 2003). Yet, there had been many conflicting situations with regard to religious minorities in India.

The demolition of Babri mosque in 1992, Gujrat riots, Ram Janma bhoomi attack in COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 4

2005 in Ayodhya, Jama Masjid explosions in 2006, and the terrorist attack on

Mumbai Train in July 2006 have been blamed to create chaos situation between both countries. There were other incidents as well that started Hindu-Muslim riots. (Human

Rights watch, 2006).

In this era of globalization, technology has advanced in every single field which cannot be denied in terms of power and its potential role specifically the mass media in regard of image building and forming attitudes. Media is responsible in creating image in a bad or good manner as it has been considered as an important tool in projecting image of the world to the people. Every media claims to be free and impartial. But history is replete with such examples when mass media has given biased projection to some issues. Here come the questions that mass media work independently or in relation with the government. The influential power of mass media cannot be denied in building attitudes, perceptions and beliefs about others. As

Kang (1997) explained that everyday people are bombarded by media contents that act as socialization of different agents which affect the attitudes, behaviors and beliefs.

The question of minority representation in media in this scenario is very crucial to address. As, many contemporary sociologists are of the view that minorities are lacking their respect and have made a subject of exclusion in various things like power, importance and have been discriminated throughout the world. (International

Encyclopedia of Social Science, 1968: 368).

Keeping in consideration the importance of media representation of minorities the present research study is aimed to explore the nature of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani and Indian print media from 1990 to 2010 specifically with focus to the representation of each other‟s minorities. In addition the study is also COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 5 aimed to analyze whether or not the media coverage of each other‟s minorities are in association with the foreign relations of these two countries.

1.1 Statement of the Problem

The research study aims to investigate the nature of representation given to religious minorities in Pakistani and Indian print media from 1990 to 2010. It also attempts to investigate whether there are any biases with regard to the representation of Indian Muslims and Pakistani Hindus in their respective print media considering the political relations between Pakistan and India in the selected time period.

1.2 Rationale of the study

The topic has been chosen keeping in consideration the importance for presence of minorities‟ issues in the domain of main debates. The political connections between Pakistan and India intrigued the researcher to investigate and compare the media treatment of the religious minorities due to the historical conflicts between both countries and having highest minority groups with each others‟ major religion. Minorities are essential and most respected part of a society. (Jallal-ud-Din,

2010). The participatory role of minorities cannot be ignored. As minorities are serving in every field of life and putting forward their efforts to enhance the image of their country by bravely participating in development procedures. They have stepped in various professions like judges, journalists, teachers and businessmen. (Ambreen,

2012). Every country is having nation comprises of different ethnic and religious groups. Serving minorities and providing them their rights is democracy. Despite of having democratic system, many countries have failed to provide them rights.

Salim (2006) highlighted the role of minority groups in the development and progress of country as they have contributed a lot towards the success of the nation, however, their attitude is due to historical situations as all of them were patriotic and COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 6 loved Pakistan with high zeal. Moreover, there is considerable number of Hindu minority living in and some people left in , the Frontier and

Baluchistan province, even Punjab is also having some of them. Moreover Sikhs in

Balochistan and NWFP and Bahais in Karachi have never felt to leave this place and to migrate to some other place. They have participated in the development of the country.

Researcher has selected the issue related to „religious minorities‟ considering the importance of minority rights and their participation in the domain of national development. Pakistan and India share historical background which left common cultural legacy to both the countries. As well as, the relations between Pakistan and

India have been quite disturbing over the decades which resulted in wars and sometimes diplomatic affairs. Here this research study is of importance to point out the media treatment towards the religious minorities and specially with the investigation of media representation of religious minorities in the context of Pakistan and India relations.

1.2.1 Rationale for selecting Print Media

Print media has been selected by researcher due to its wide circulation and huge dependence of readers on it. Also print media can easily diffuse and spread information regarding any issue or problem. Print media is very affective in shaping public opinion on any issue. Patel, (2005) had pointed out the significance of print media in comparison with other form of media as India is having different mediums to be used as dissemination of news and information, these mediums include print, television, radio and internet but print media of India is having importance upon others due to its dominance in the term of numbers as well as size. Researcher has COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 7 specified print media into English newspapers because there is far more rigorous debate on minorities‟ issues in English language newspaper.

Furthermore, Daily Dawn and The Nation from Pakistani print media and

Hindustan Times and Times of India from Indian print media have been selected for the present study. These news papers are highly circulated in these countries. In 2012,

Dawn has recorded over 138,000 week-day circulation whereas total readership was based of759,000 (Dawn, 2012). The Nation is also a popular newspaper in Pakistan, according to APNS weekly circulation of The Nation is 50, 0000 . According to

Indian Readership Survey (IRS) in 2012, Times of India has been credited as most readable and circulated newspaper with having 76.43 lakhs (7.643 million) readership whereas Hindustan Times stood at second position with having (37.67 lakhs) readership in India.(India world‟s newspaper and Magazine, 2013).

1.2.2 Rationale for selecting Time Period

The time period of this research study from 1990 to 2010 has been selected keeping in view the prominence of issues raised about the religious minorities in both

Pakistan and India. Secondly, the up and down relations between the two countries in this era created many conflict and many agreement were signed to improve relations between India and Pakistan. India and Pakistan have seen various attempts to improve their relations like the Lahore summit, the Shimla pact and the Agra summit. But these relations never went sustained as during 1980s both countries have faced a chain of hostile relations due to Siachen conflict, Kashmir insurgency in 1989, Babery mosque which was destroyed in 1992 and about 2,000 people have been killed in various riots in major cities of India including Mumbai and Delhi(Times of India,

2013). Pakistan and India in the year 1998 carried out nuclear tests and in 1999 they fought are some important aspects behind choosing time period of the COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 8 study. Talking about confidence-building measures like ceasefire pact and bus service in Delhi during 2003 have been considered important in reducing tensions whereas these efforts have been also hindered due to militants attack. The attack on Indian parliament in 2001 has brought the relations below the line. Moreover, Samjhuta

Express attack in 2007 has left no way out to continue positive relations and killed about 68 civilians among whom most were . Furthermore, Mumbai attacks in 2008 carried out severe descend in the relations of both countries (express tribune,

2012).

1.3 Objectives of the study

1. To explore the patterns of minority representation in Pakistani print media and how the religious conflicts are being treated.

2. To explore how the religious minorities are being represented in Indian print media and how the religious conflicts are being treated.

3. To investigate whether there are any biases with regard to the representation of religious minorities and specifically Indian Muslims and Pakistani Hindus in their respective print media.

4. To investigate whether the political relations between Pakistan and India in the selected time period have any relationship with the media representation of religious minorities.

5. To highlight the included and excluded discourses related to minorities in the

Pakistani and Indian print media.

1.4 Significance of study

The present study is of importance because of its multi fold analysis. Firstly, it analyzes the nature of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani media.

Secondly, it studies Indian media representation of religious minorities. Thirdly, this COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 9 research study gives a special attention to investigate and compare the representation of Indian Muslims and Pakistani Hindus in their respective print media. Fourthly, the study investigates whether the political relations between Pakistan and India in the selected time period have any relationship with the media representation of Pakistani

Hindus and Indian Muslims.

And finally the study provides an explanation of the patterns of media representation of religious minorities by the application of critical discourse analysis.

In this way the present study tries to identify the subtle ways through which media brings biases while forming identities of minorities.

1.5 Limitations of Study

The canvas of the study is limited to the available resources as it analyzes the online data related to minorities in the selected Indian newspapers. The data is retrieved through Factiva data base. While the data related to minorities of Pakistan in the selected newspapers has been collected both online and manually in libraries. The study considers the media representation of minorities whereas the effects of media representation of minorities that analyze the consequences created by depiction of religious minorities in not included.

The study is also limited in the application of critical discourse analysis as it attempts the three layers analysis of communicative event while the analysis of genres and style of representation is not incorporated in the present study. It attempts to describe the available data at first place; secondly, it incorporates the interpretations of the included and excluded issues of religious minorities in media and thirdly this study is limited to the situational explanation of representation of religious minorities of Pakistan and India in the selected time period. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 10

Chapter 2

Background

Minority group is often formed by a minority population in a country, state or region. They usually face some kind of discrimination living in the particular society.

The minority group also subjects to the long lasting prejudice related to religious differences (Mahmud, 1995). Despite having different characteristics with respect to the religion, culture and practices, they try to cooperate with the association in terms of culture and linguistic (Conode, 1999, pp. 89-90). Minorities have strong religious differences from the majority in any country. In western countries, State has been given full religious freedom to all religious minorities and they accept the separate religious identities. State also gives rights to everyone to convert in any other religion.

Minorities are given special treatment and place in every society following their constitution but majorly, minorities have been taken as a discriminatory part of the society. Some countries have many restrictions for minorities especially in Muslim countries (Mahmud, 1995).

2.1 Constitutional Context of Religious Minorities in Pakistan

The constitutions of Pakistan (1956, 1962) were under the shadow of Pakistan

Penal Code which had the roots of British colonial system. However the constitution of 1973 was the biggest liberal and peaceful document which mainly gives protection to the rights of minorities.

 Article 20: freedom to profess religion and to manage religious institutions;

 Article 21: safeguards against taxation of specific religions;

 Article 22: safeguards around education with respect to religious freedom;

 Article 25: equality of citizenship; COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 11

 Article 36: protection of minorities (The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of

Pakistan, 10 April 1973).”

These articles were challenged many times by sharia courts. The amendments in articles caused many violent incidents with minorities. The Minorities are facing discrimination in law and constitutional protection. They have been given less opportunities in infrastructure of Pakistan. These constitutional discriminations gave

Muslims an advantage to suppress minorities and do injustice with them according to their will. These amendments and changing‟s in laws badly affected the constitutional protections for religious minorities in Pakistan.

2.2 Minorities in Pakistan

For the religious perspective, Pakistan was a country as a reward for Muslims to enjoy their freedom from Hindu dominance in India. The idea behind the creation of Pakistan was to create a secular state which has nothing to do with theocracy

(Malik, 2002).

2.2.1 Community of Christians

1.58% population of Pakistan consist of Christian‟s community. Since

September 11, 2001 attacks, two sad violent attacks on Christians brought the attention of international community on troubles of Christian‟s community in

Pakistan. On Oct 28, 2001, in St Dominic‟s church of an eastern town of Bahawalpur,

16 Christians were killed in a shot out. Second attack was held on a protestant church in on March 20, 2002 in which five people were killed.

2.2.2 Community of Hindu

The population of Hindus in Pakistan is recorded as 1.6% and shows plight of various Pakistani i.e. 2.5 million. Hindus have also been converted into various religions specifically into Christianity. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 12

2.2.3 Community of

Ahmediyya hold about 0.22% population in the Pakistan. This religion came into being as a result of reform movement and the Jamaat was formed in 1889 in

Ludhiana, India. They have various beliefs which differ from Muslims. The constitution of Pakistan has dismissed their presence in and declared them as non-Muslims.

2.2.4 Community of Sikh

According to census of 1998, there are 50,000 Sikh living in Pakistan.

Majority of Sikh community is lining in Peshawar.

2.2.5 Community of Buddhist

Approximately 20,000 followers from Buddhist community are living in

Pakistan (International Religion Freedom report, 2004). Main faith among Buddhist which is called as Mahayana Buddhism is present is Pakistan since last 200 years.

Majority of them are living in Sindh and Punjab. Few of Buddhists are living in the high areas of Swat, Ladakh side of Kashmir and Gandhara.

2.2.6 Community of Zoroastrian

The population of Zoroastrian among the whole world is in between 124,000 to190, 000 and in Pakistan their numbers are near 500 and majority of them is living in Karachi.

2.2.7 Community of Jewish

Majority of sources shows that there is no presence of Jews in Pakistan. Still small numbers are found in some area of Lahore and Karachi. Almost 2500 Jews are living which belongs to Baghdadi community of Jews.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 13

2.3 Constitutional Context of Religious Minorities in India

India declared itself as a secular state and argued that religion has nothing to do with the business of state.

1. The 29th article of indent constitution provides freedom for minorities to make their own educational institutes and promote and preserve their culture values. Because of the diverse religions India is a country full of diverse culture. India considers this diversity its key factor and provides all legitimate steps for its promotions.

2. This article also stops people of India to create any discrimination on the basis of caste, race and language. It provides equal opportunity of education and government jobs to everyone.

3. Article 30 of the constitution gives full safeguard for the rights of minorities. It also helps them to create their own institutes at state level.

4. Article 16 of the constitution provides insurance for minorities that they should be provided equal shares in all public employment and jobs. All Indians should be treated equally.

2.4 Minorities in India

India is considered as the biggest democracy of world. Hinduism is the main religion of India which is almost 80 % population of India. Hinduism is one of the oldest religions of the ancient history. (Claude, 2002).

2.4.1 Community of Muslims in India

Indian population consists of 13.4% Muslims. Due to the presence of many

Muslim rulers in India despite of the small population in India, Muslims still have much more strong influence. Majority of Muslims which converted to Islam were belonged to middle class society. Many of Muslim rulers were the invaders in India.

These rulers brought the cultures, businesses and infrastructure from their home lands. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 14

Current population of Muslims in India consists of two main groups, Shuni and Shia.

As everywhere in Muslim world these two groups have tensions between them India also witnessed the same case (John, 2001).

2.4.2 Community of Christians in India

Christians are almost 2.3% of the population of India. St, Thomas spread

Christianity in India in 52 AD. He converted many Indian to Christianity Main groups of Christians in India are Protestants and Catholic (Arvind, 2004).

2.4.3 Community of Sikh in India

Sikh community has its own traditional roots in India. Sikh community is almost 1.9 % of whole Indian population. Sikh religion started in India by Guru

Nanak who was born in Indian Punjab in 1469. Sikh culture was mainly consists on equality and it tried to get rid from the caste system of India and promote human rights and equality among people. Sikh community is now serving at every level in

India. Majority of Indian army is consisting on Sikhs.

(India data profile, 2006).

2.4.4 Community of Buddhist in India

Buddhism was one of the dominant religion in the history if India. It was established in India in 500BC. They are almost 0.8% of the population of India. A son of high aristocratic family Sidartha was 1st started it by working for the life‟s of poor‟s. (John, 2005).

2.4.5 Community of Zoroastrianism in India

A small religious community, which exists mostly in Mumbai, is

Zoroastrianism. The follower is called Parsi because the religion arrived in India from

Persia. They possess less than 0.02% of the population of India. (Dosabhai, 1984)

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 15

2.4.6 Community of Jews in India

Bene Israel, Cochini and Baghdadi are the three Jews communities living in

India. All of them have their own values, cultures, ways of living, worshiping styles and history. They have some religious connections among them but there are also many differences between them. They have their own identities as well.(Mani, 2002).

2.5 Conflict between Indian and Pakistan

Pakistan and India both are geographically located in sub-continent. Both countries got independence after the end of British Raj in 1947. Since the day of independence India and Pakistan are having bad relationships and are famous because of their conflicts. Both countries are in a race to promote and maintain their good relations. (Sarwar, 2004) Indo-Pak relations are grounded in the geographic, demographic and economic links between the Republic of India and the Islamic

Republic of Pakistan, two of the largest countries in . The diplomatic relations between the two are defined by numerous military conflicts and territorial disputes (India Pakistan Relations, 2007).

2.5.1 Partition, Identity and the Politics of Religion

The partition phase had brought various problems to the migrants as tens of millions Hindus, that was living in the territory of Pakistan were shifted to India whereas many of the Muslims in India migrated to Pakistan. Several migrants were martyred in that era. The politics based on religion have created so much chaos in the region that led to the unlimited tensions for many years. (Sarwar, 2004)

2.5.2 Kashmir Dispute

Kashmir was ruled by a Hindu Hari Singh but it was a Muslim majority state.

Hari Singh wanted to remain separate as an independent state and did not want to join with both India and Pakistan. He wanted both India and Pakistan to accept its status of COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 16 an independent state. India was seeking to take military control on Kashmir. Pakistani

Pashtun tribal forces with the help of Pakistani military were sent to Kashmir in

October 1947 on “Operation Guilmarg” to take over Kashmir. They successfully captured Baramullah and were ready to take over Srinagar. The defense of Hari Singh was badly shattered and he declared accession to India and called Indian army to help him. Native Indian Primary Reverend Nehru was prepared to deliver the military, but the performing Governor Common of Native Indian, Mountbatten asked Hari Singh to join India to seek military assistance from them.

2.5.3 The war of 1971

Since the partition there had been so many conflicts between east and West

Pakistan. Till the end of 1960s these conflicts become more severe and India was kept on supporting the rebellion movements in East Pakistan. In 1971 Government of

Pakistan started an army operation to stop to put back the issues and rebellion movements. Army of Pakistan badly tortured the people of East Pakistan and they call

India for their help. There was a big 1000 miles road distance between east and West

Pakistan. Indian army entered in East Pakistan and helped the rebels to fight with

Pakistani army. Pakistani army did not last for too long and they slandered in front of

Indian army and East Pakistan emerged as an independent country named as

Bangladesh. Almost 90,000 soldiers went into the hands of India. India wanted to attack West Pakistan as well but due to the international pressure they did not do that.

Pakistan lost the war and then in June 1972 Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto signed Tashkent declaration with India to get back the 90,000 Pakistani soldiers.

2.5.4 Shimla Agreement

Pakistan and India both in the era of 1970s slow down the process of negotiations. In 1972, the prime ministers of both countries PM Indira Gandhi and COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 17

PM met at Shimla to sign an agreement. According to Shimla

Agreement, it was decided that India would return all Pakistani personnel and the territory of west and they should maintain their relations by identifying the territories.

2.5.5 Kargil Crisis

In May 1998 when both India and Pakistan became nuclear powers it seems like that now there will be no tension between them because both knows that now if there will be any war then it will be a nuclear war which will be going to destroy the whole south Asia. But these hopes went in vain when both countries once again engaged in a war on the mountains of Kargil. In winter 1999 when both armies of

India and Pakistan were down from the top points of Kargil due to winter season,

Pakistan army went back and holds not only Pakistani areas but Indian area as well;

Mission was to cut off the roots of Indian army to enter in Kashmir and force them to set Kashmir free. When Indian army came back Pakistani army killed many Indian soldiers and this started war between two nuclear powers. The whole international community was very much worried because both India and Pakistan were nuclear powers. India fought back and many soldiers died at both ends. Both countries send almost 200000 troops on the borders and Line of control. This situation lasts for two months and both countries were not ready to step down from war. Finally US

President Clinton forced Pakistan to put back its army to ease the situation. The war finally came to end in Feb. 1999.

2.5.6 India-Pakistan Standoff (2001-2002)

The amassing of troops at IB and LoC resulted due to the military standoff of both India and Pakistan during 2001-2002. It was considered to be the second and successful standoff between both countries after the nuclear tests in 1998. Moreover, the other one (standoff) was sought to be the Kargil war. Indian government provoked COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 18 military build-up after the attack on Indian Parliament on December 13, 2001. Indian government alleged two Pakistani behind the attack and afterwards Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammad accepted the responsibility of the attack. Talking about confidence-building measures like ceasefire pact and bus service in Delhi during 2003 have been considered important in reducing tensions whereas these efforts have been also hindered due to militants attack. (India Pakistan Standoffs, 2001-2007).

2.6.7 Recent Developments

Since the partition there are so many issues between India and Pakistan which created a bone of contention in the peace process between two countries. Composite Dialogue

Process was a key to unlock these issues between these two countries.

Peace talks were held in 2004, 2005 between Pakistan and India. These peace talks were held many times during these years. Representatives of both countries argue to settle the intense situation on borders, LOC and Siachen. Further they emphasize on people to coordinate between these two countries. Kashmir was the main focus indeed. General Musharraf also proposed some recommendation to resolve Kashmir issue like to withdraw Indian forces from Kashmir and to give self- autonomy to Kashmir.

Since the soviet withdraws from , Pakistan was keen to help terrorist activities in Kashmir. Pakistan supported both Kashmir based groups and

Pakistani groups. This resulted in terrorist attacks not only in Kashmir but also inside

Indian major cities like Dehli and Mumbai. Both countries started peace talks to stop terrorism. These peace talks were held during 2004 to 2006 which consisted on three rounds. Also some other major issues were discussed like human trafficking, illegal immigration and drugs trafficking. Both sides also released prisoners. Further both countries decided to develop a joint anti-terrorism team to counter terrorism. Further COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 19 peace talks were also held during 2009 and 2010 at different international summits.

India and Pakistan both further wanted to reestablish economic terms between them and to settle economic and recourses issues. Both countries decided to enhance trade and provide the basic facilities for the traders. Both countries decided to cut off taxes and tariffs from trade.

2.5.8 Siachen Issue

The both, Pakistan and India didn‟t meet any conclusion to withdraw security forces from Siachen due to which in September 2006, Musharraf and Manmohan

Singh met to final an agreement to start an Indo-Pak institutional anti-terrorism mechanism (The News, 2006).

2.5.9 Samjhauta Express

Bombings on Samjhauta express was an enemy strike on 18 Feb. 2007. It was a train service between Delhi to Lahore. More than 68 people died in that incident and all of them were Pakistani. Later an Indian military officer Prasad was accused for this attack. This attack was a big disaster and it ruined all attempts of peace making between both countries.

2.5.10 Confidence Building Measures

Both countries wanted to maintain friendly relations with each other in all aspects of life like culture, education, youth affairs, sports etc. Media also played a vital role in bringing both countries together. In 2005-2006 several meetings and dialogues were held between the cultural ministries of both countries. India and

Pakistan opened 5 point at LOC so that people can meet with their relatives across the borders.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 20

2.5.11 Mumbai Attacks

On 26 November 2007 some terrorists attack Mumbai city with heavy weapons and killed hundreds of people at railway station, cinema, cafes and bus stands. Also they hijacked the biggest hotel of Mumbai, the Taj hotel. It was take almost four days for Indian police to kill them and set Mumbai free. Only 1 person was arrested alive and he was proved as Pakistani and this started a blame game between two countries. India asked Pakistan to arrest the terrorists groups involved in this attack but Pakistan did not allow India to get access towards the internal religious groups to whom India was accusing for Mumbai attacks. This once again shattered the whole peace process and both countries were ready for another military standoff.

India said that this whole attack was planned in Pakistan and Pakistani agencies were also involved in this attack that is why they are not taking any action against the terrorist organizations in Pakistan. Both countries were remaining in this critical situation for more than one year and war chances were there during this period.

2.5.12 Pakistani and Indian Forces Firing at LoC

Forces of Pakistan and India exchanged firing at the LoC at Kashmir in

January 2010. This incident brought a long chain of oppression and hostile relations between both countries whereas in February, the secretaries of both states met to initiate table talks but couldn‟t proceeded as Ajmal Kasab found guilty and was given a verdict to execute him.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 21

Chapter 3

Literature Review

This chapter presents a detailed literature review which is a critical and in depth study of previous research studies related to the topic. It is an essential part of a research and is needed to initiate research at any level. A good literature review always reflects the reasons and objective behind the selection of the topic it also evaluates quality and findings of previous research studies. The purpose of doing literature review is to establish relationship between existing body of knowledge and the problem to be addressed. Literature review also refines the problem, identify the significance and define the research question. (Salleh, 2013)

The literature review of the present study consists of following parts.

a- “Representation of minorities in Pakistani media”

b- “Representation of minorities in Indian media”

c- “Representation of minorities in Western Media”

3.1 Representation of religious minorities in Pakistani media

Shaun and Valentine (2009) has explained in the research article“ Pakistan: the situation of Religious minorities” that Pakistan has about 172 million population in which about 95% are Muslims whereas others are divided as Christians, Hindus,

Sikhs, Ahmediyya, Bhaiyas, Zoroastrian the Parsis, Budddhist, Mehdi and some Jews as well. However, among them, some have maintained their positions in a majority and exercise power living in Pakistan. A rough analysis reported that majority of the minorities are facing problem due to discrimination, unequal rights, unequal representation, bad distribution of jobs, uncertain violence and oppression as well.

The study further informed that minorities are having full rights to speak out against violence however they also have special place in the ordinance and constitution of COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 22 every country in accordance to which, they are playing their role in nationalism and patriotism. Moreover, they also enjoy representation in provincial and national assemblies.

Farooqi (2011) analyzed the conditions and circumstances of minorities in

Pakistan in the study entitled, “A question of faith, a report on the status on religious minorities in Pakistan”, and reported that there were violent protests regarding amendments in the controversial blasphemy laws in 2010. While, in the next year to leaders, Governor of Punjab Salmaan Taseer and minister for minority affairs

Shahbaz Bhatti, were killed who were advocating for minority rights. The reported the status and social representation of minorities. Similarly, Gregory (2008) argued in his research, “The Christian minorities in Pakistan: issues and option”, that many

Christians living in Pakistan experience marginalization in every sphere of life. They have been treated at lower level and as second class natives of Pakistan and always faced violence, discrimination, regression and were kept powerless.

Pakistan has diverse forms of media which reflect the divergent issues at national and international level. According to International Media Support (2009) media in Pakistan enjoy full freedom irrespective of any political pressure and bans on different transmissions and reflect the society. The media in Pakistan is also multi- linguistic, multi-ethnic and shows the diversity of society. While, discussing the media representation of minorities, Ali (1999) put forward his views in the article

“media and minorities: exclusion, distortion and stereotype” that people see minorities in similar ways as presented by media. They have been seen as a fanatic and fundamentalists and their image have already been created in the society. The study examined the media distortion of facts related to minorities. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 23

Mesti (2011) considers books as a mean of developing beliefs. In the research study, “Hindu minority in Pakistan”, Mesti investigated about the stereotypical concepts created in schools textbooks against Hindu minority. The study emphasized the need to introduce the critical approaches to teachers so that they can play their role and create awareness to fix these social and political biased truths.

Nazeer (2011) discussed minorities in the article, “rights of Christian minority and blasphemy law in Pakistan”, and argues that the images created for religious minorities were organizationally and institutionally embedded in Pakistani culture.

There are many violent incidents against them but blasphemy law was the worst one.

The discriminations against Christians, and other minorities, were not just random or case of intolerance, actually anti-minority doctrines were deeply rooted in the day to day discourse of peoples‟ beliefs and perceptions. Pre-dominant discourse of Islam,

Islamization of the state, and trends of extremism trends were embedded in the whole debate of minority rights and blasphemy law. The ramifications of war-on-terror, strained Muslim-West relations in general, theological affinities and controversies between Christianity and Islam, and historical tensions and conflicts, multiply the existing biases and bigotries. Therefore, proxy victimization is most frequent.

Malik‟s (2011) report described the system of Pakistan‟s ethnic and religious minorities and has also put light on the diversified culture of the society. The report further narrated different facts that show challenges to the minorities. There are many people who belong to different sects and religion. These include Christians, Hindu,

Sikhs, Ahmediyya and others. It has been gained that minorities are in under continuous threats and cannot live their lives easily. They are victims of biased form of doings and incidents. Pakistan has not provided basic rights to Christians and

Ahmediyya in a society rather they have been victimized of brutal behaviors. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 24

Report showed that racism and „land grabbing‟ created factors which gave birth to political and social antagonism against Christians. Due to Pakistan India disputes, Hindu families in Pakistan face many issues and being depressed by social economic setbacks, their women suffer from moral harassments. Bahais community, landless peasants, nomads and Dalits communities are among Hindu and are facing huge social and economic discriminations. Women are facing sexual harassments.

Christians and Ahmadis communities have faced the most discrimination cases which were properly documented. Most of the minorities groups belonging from Bahais,

Ismailis, Buddhist and Parsi religion have been considered as highly educated and having exceptional economical performances. These minorities are less helpless as compared to other majority minorities. However, Sikhs are not at all under threats to be perceived any social, economic and religion. Muslims consider them as Anti-

Hindu and also allow them to enjoy more freedom.

CPD and SAFHR report on religious minorities in Pakistan analyzed that discrimination against minorities and violation of their rights have been increasing day by day whereas government is not taking any action to prevent this discrimination. The roots of this discrimination embedded in history as the ideological division of Pakistan based on Islam and the situations flared up by the imposition of martial law by General Zia ul Haq in 1977. Zia tried to make so Islamic laws and had violated the basic rights of people of state which failed to protect women and minorities of Pakistan.

Describing the effects of religious extremism on media Munir (2002) highlighted in “The consequence of fundamentalism in Pakistani media” that religious groups have tried to dominate the system and national agenda of the country due to which its progress is restricted and no modernization is carried out. The study COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 25 explored the key moments that changed the media discourse in Pakistan and brought it in the hands of religious extremists. Rehman and Zia (2010) in, “impact of educational policies on Pakistani minorities-1947 to 2010” studied different ideological views related to the representation of minorities in media and in the world.

Bhatti (2008) analyzed, in “The trial of Pakistani Christian nation”, the discriminations and biases for the Christian community in Pakistan. They are being discriminated socially, politically, economically and culturally. Christian youth face discrimination in jobs and unequal representation in assemblies according to their population. Syed (2006), in “representation of cultural diversity in newspapers of Pakistan” have analyzed the ethnicity and religious difficulties and their coverage in Pakistani print media and concluded that minorities lack cultural representation and face discrimination.

3.2 Representation of minorities in Indian Media

Khan (2009) in his ethnographic study explored the role of Indian media regarding the youth living in the Muslim community of New Delhi. The study showed that how Indian media changed since 1991, portraying the lives of Muslim community in the Jamia Enclave. The researcher did field study to understand the views of individuals regarding the role of media in constructing the daily lives and livelihood patterns of Muslim youth. The aim of the researcher was to know how the mediated communications are constructing the identity of Muslim youth in this globalization. The study showed the perception of Muslims as Indians, and as individuals.

The findings further have elucidated that Muslims are taken as isolated and resistant of modernization processes whereas the youth living in Jamia has denied this attitude of old generation. Media has played an important role in this regard, COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 26 women have gain knowledge and have been motivated through ambitious and careers outside their community. They wanted to grow and fulfill their desires. However, this has created some unrest situation among the Muslim men. Rising consumerism has forced the youth to move out of the seclusion to become a part of vast Indian culture, enhanced their views and played positive role to shape their growing identity. After getting their new identities, these youth has not even left their community as this new perspective has carried out fresh environment in the society at global level.

Singh (2003) has evaluated that how Muslims newspaper, Islamic voice, in India has identified the community role and their agendas by portraying image in India.

The study explored the images of Muslim and . It concluded that it is difficult for Muslim to manage their positive image and if they get to make positive image, then it would be very difficult for them to maintain it. Although, being the largest minority Muslims were in a continuous state of maintaining right, however, traditional “Ullama” exercise their strength and have powerful influence. The study questioned the role of Ullama in image building of Muslims and advocated a position that fits in with the uniquely Indian understanding of the term „secularism‟, the equal treatment by the state of all religions. While insisting that the state be neutral vis-a`- visall religions, it called for Muslims to build bridges between people of different faiths so as to promote inter-communal harmony, with inter-faith dialogue assuming various forms.

Furthermore, while discussing about the management of Muslim communities in India, Kutty (1997) highlighted the role of Muslim leadership in rebuilding of

Muslim community after the destruction of Babri Masjid and portrayed the Hindu ideology the “us” versus “them” psyche. He has sketched out the year 1992 riots in which as many as 700 mosques were demolished and converted into temples for COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 27

Hindus. In India, Hindu leaders always degraded Muslims and took them as a third class entity. Here, researcher has put a question mark on the performance of Muslims leadership on the issue of preservation of their rights. He has criticized the Hindu community for neglecting the fundamental rights of the Muslim community. Kutty has suggested Muslim leaders to promote the rights of Muslims for their betterment and has also put light on main issues of both religions. Islamic leaders should put forward positive steps to help and to enhance the image of the Muslims in India and that they should raise their voices for their own welfare and development.

Varadarajan (2010) in his research article “minority images in the Indian print media” has addressed the role of Indian media regarding the image building of

Muslims. In his article, he stated multiple reasons of biases representation of minorities, mainly the relations of journalist with BJP. English print media in India found biased for Muslims. However, the other media had better record while covering riots. The study revealed the weakness of English media with respect to the anti-

Muslims sentiments.

Bajpai, (2006) in his article “Minority Rights in Indian Constitute Assembly debate” analyzed the arguments for supporting and opposing different minority requirements in the context of ideological and political thoughts which shared a legitimate expression. Secularism, national unity, democracy and morality are the factors which define this legitimate expression. During the arguments in the

Constituent Assembly, different political ideas were given by both sides. The minority safeguards were very difficult to implement in the dominant Indian political discourse. In the end researcher argued that during the assembly session main issue was the missing of minority safeguard in the constitution and the need to promote minority safe guards and their development. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 28

Addressing the relationship of religious beliefs and minority status Sahu

(2010) investigated the reproductive behavior of Muslims and Hindus in a study entitled, “Religion, minority status and reproductive behavior among Muslims and

Hindus in India and Bangladesh” .The author described that in Indian and

Bangladeshi cases, the normative order informs the women regarding Islam‟s stand on reproductive matters specifically the use of contraception and induced abortion. According to the interviewed Muslim women, any use of human volition to affect the functioning of human organ through the use of contraceptives and induced abortion was prohibited. Women in India and Bangladesh rationalized the reasons for undergoing induced abortion through their life situation such as conceiving an additional child while the previous child is young or economic constraints. In both countries, the women have shown their appreciation for people who have small families and considered them to be intelligent.

The difference in the Indian and Bangladeshi contexts has given rise to different context-specific strategies developed by the Muslim women in the two countries in order to realize their reproductive aspiration. For instance, the supply of sterilization as the method of contraception propagated by the family planning program of India has resulted in the imposition of religious sanctions on Indian

Muslim couples who undergo sterilization. Further, the Indian Muslim women face relatively greater opposition from their immediate family members in matters of sterilization and induced abortion. However, the Muslim women exercise agency by secretly undergoing sterilization or induced abortion. They use the religiously proscribed methods without informing opposing family members.

According to report by Government of India (2009) on “Minority rights in

India” there are 13% Muslims, 2.5% Christians and 1.5% Sikhs in India. India as a COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 29 secular republic assures the attainment of equal rights for every one without an element of discrimination. There should be equal representation of everyone at every level including social and public as well. Muslims in India are far beyond the development stage and need to get new ways for development. It has raised a question on the deprivation of Muslims regarding Sachar Committee report and urged government to highlight their main issues. Moreover, the report has also highlighted their main issues to lure government attention towards them.

3.3 Representation of minorities in Western Media

Jaffery (1998) in his study “The Portrayal of Muslim Women in Canadian

Mainstream Media” investigated the community views regarding the coverage of

Muslim women in main stream media of Canada. This study emphasized on the importance of creating awareness in the society and to change negative approaches.

This study pointed about the negative image of Islam as a major reason in making such images of Muslims. Muslim women are considered as alien and people do not accept the culture of veil.

Dijik(1991) in “racism and the press” stated that racism remains the most important issue of white society. It has become less intense with the passage of time but still it is there in Europe and West. Protest and civil rights war have gained some success in attaining human rights but the inequality in fundamental rights is still there.

The writer pointed out that racism had remained the ideological factor in the white society but with the passage of time new generations in white society is now not a big supporter of this ideology.

Tolley (2011) in his study “the color of your skin and the content of your character” concluded that race is still the least important factor of identity but the politics of Canada is not paying attention to this discourse. The evidences showed that COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 30 there is lack of minority‟s participation in the elected bodies and the media is also not playing its role in connecting these minorities representation to the voters.

Georgia (2000) in his study “mapping minorities and their media: the national context of UK ” argued that historical, social, political and national context plays a role in creating the mind sets of people and the way people share identity and ethnicity in daily life. This study was about the British politics and racial handling since 1960 till now and how minorities have become aware of their rights in British society. The report concluded that racism has been wiped out British society. The report also explained that debates about the conflicts and the complexity of political and policy issues are inherent in multiculturalism in Britain that has created opportunities for more sensitive politics of difference. The equality of rights can be achieved on the basis of culture and social practices. The report suggested for better opportunities to enhance their image and to provide them with all the best of rights by overcoming cultural differences.

Ormond (2002) found, in “ mapping minorities and their media: The national context of Belgium”, that in comparison to UK, with its many digital radio and television stations, there are no such digitalised media to be found in Belgium created by and for ethnic minorities and immigrants.

Mausa (2004) explained, in “the role of mass media in shaping identity construction among British Muslim”, that media has played an important role in maintaining the Muslims identity in Britain. It has helped Muslims to know their original identity and how to react during different situations. Mass media has been appreciated for its role at private as well as at public levels. It continuously helped to construct the identity of Muslims in Britain. Media has been a platform for highlighting the issues of Muslims and the differences with the majority. The COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 31 researcher has also compared the image of Muslims and Islam before 9/11 and after

9/11 and concludes that the images have been affected due to 9/11 and disturbed their reputation in or outside the Britain.

Haenens (2010), in “ethnic minorities and the media: trends in research in the low countries”, studied the deviation in research on minorities and media in

Netherlands during last two decades. In the first section of research, the author studied the content of media while in the second section he examined the perspective of audience. Researcher remarked for the emergence of both traditional and transition media.

Hussian (2000), in “Islam media and minority in Denmark”, examined the role of Dutch media in promoting intolerance against minorities. This study was based on empirical investigation and analysis of the daily newspapers and their contents as how they publish ethnic affairs and promote hatred against religious minorities. Muslims were found as the biggest victims of this fact. The study concluded that there was no proper interaction between majority and minority population and majority was influenced by the media.

Peach and Glebe (1995) narrated in “Muslim minorities and Western Europe” that Muslims in Western Europe have grown up since 1950s. There are now more diversified believes of Muslims. This article investigated about the position, ranking and the number of relevant minorities in different countries.

Marranci (2011) investigated, in “Integration, minorities and the rhetoric of civilization: the case of British Pakistani Muslims in UK and Malay Muslims in

Singapore”, that the Muslims living in Singapore and UK face different problems but the most important problem was their image building that how they have been COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 32 perceived in these two countries of modernization. Further the study revealed that

Muslims had no idea how to get identified by other people of same state.

Gillespie (2003) examined, in “security, media, legitimacy: multi-ethnic media publics and the Iraq war 2003”, the role of country in providing legitimacy and full freedom to the people of that country and found ethnicity as an important factor through ethnographic research.

Larson (2005) argued, in “media and minorities”, that every country has minorities but media is responsible to create its image. The study compare entertainment and new media with regard to special movements related to race, justice and politician roles in forming identities of minorities.

Horton (1999) found, in “portrayal of minorities in the film, media and entertainment industries”, that there were only fewer roles of minorities in the media.

Media especially films were not playing their role and presented hostile images of minorities. There have been stereotypical images of minorities in media.

3.4 Conclusion

The literature related to representation of religious minorities in Pakistani media shows that the religious minorities are being discriminated and marginalized.

Some of the research studies highlighted the reasons of this discrimination as historical ideological conflicts between Pakistan and India, stereotypical thinking of people, rigid belief systems, intolerance, partial and unjustified media mapping of minorities, some constitutional amendments as introduction of blasphemy law, unequal distribution of opportunities in different spheres of life, lack of government‟s initiatives towards minorities, the nature of narratives available in text books related to minorities and domination of interest groups on media. Although the media is COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 33 diversified and pluralist in Pakistan but still there is unequal and biased representation of religious minorities.

The literature related to representation of religious minorities in Indian media revealed that there is biased representation of minorities in Indian media, specifically

Muslim minorities find it difficult to build and maintain their positive image and position in the society. Some of the research studies pointed out the reasons of biased images and questioned the role of Muslim‟s religious leaders in this regards. The researchers suggested that the leaders should come forward to rebuild the positive image of Muslims. The literature also showed that Muslims youth specifically Muslim women are getting educated, modernized and becoming aware of their rights.

The literature related to representation of religious minorities in western media concluded the stereotypical representation of minorities. The western media have portrayed negative imaged of minorities and minority groups found it difficult to rebuilt the identities for them. As media plays the part in constructing beliefs of people so such negative and stereotypical representation of minorities in media affects the reputation of minorities within their own home countries and outside in the world.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 34

Chapter 4

Theoretical Framework

Theoretical framework provides a structure for any research endeavor and helps to build a relationship between the theoretical assumptions and research objectives. It also facilitates to evaluate the assumptions by implementing the research findings.

The present study applies media hegemony.

4.1 Media Hegemony

According to Antonio Gramsci the ruling class maintained its dominance of society primarily by establishing „hegemony.

Between coercive control which is manifest through direct force

or the threat of force, and consensual control which arises when

individuals „willing‟ or „voluntarily‟ assimilate the world-view

or hegemony of the dominant group; an assimilation which allows

that group to be hegemonic. (cited in Williams, 2003: 54)

Gramsci utilized the term „hegemony‟ to indicate the prevalence of one public group over others (e.g. common administration). Hegemony alludes to an approximately interrelated set of decision thoughts saturating a general public, however in such a path as to make the secured request of force and qualities seem regular, taken-for- allowed and normal sensual. A decision philosophy is not forced however seems to exist by righteousness of an unchallenged agreement. Dominion has a tendency to characterize unsatisfactory restriction to the present state of affairs as protester and degenerate. In fact authority is an always reasserted meaning of a social circumstance, by method for talk instead of political or monetary force, which gets to be true in its outcomes. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 35

The Marxist scholar Antonio Gramsci contends that mass media assumes a critical part in the formation of qualities and convictions that are to be trailed by the overall population. Political force is gotten from the ethical and erudite administration, power, or consensus that emerges from this 'false awareness'.

(Hainsworth's study as referred to in West, 2004) Hegemony in mass media lies in the way it makes the decision belief system appear common, diverts the masses from their mistreatment, and upgrades the social steadiness. It is the predominance and subordination that exists inside individuals' handy and un-unsure familiarity with the world, an existed arrangement of implications, a pretty much brought together good request, which is affirmed and nuanced in experience to build an individual's feeling of reality and character. Administration is the "social premise of the lowly tyranny".

(Gramsci‟s study as cited in West, 2004)

Hegemony is success of the overwhelming classes in displaying their

meaning of reality, their perspective of the world, in such a path, to the

point that different classes acknowledge it as 'the ability to think'. The

general "agreement" is that it is the main sensible method for seeing

the world. Any gatherings who present an option perspective are along

these lines minimized: “the supremacy of a social group manifests

itself in two ways, as 'domination' and as 'intellectual and moral

leadership”. (Gramsci‟s study as cited in Hainsworth)

The media has a central part in this speculation and the demonstration of the procedure has wound up additional to the fore in examination of the way the ideological media are at within the fight for buyers' brains and central points of view.

Inside the current hypothetical atmosphere, the hypothesis has been adjusted to COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 36 incorporate the hypothesis of 'assent'. The hypothesis exists to attempt and clarify the route in which Pakistani and Indian media strategies are made and authorized.

Antonio Gramsci's hypothesis of authority is of specific notability to the investigation of representation of minorities in the media on account of its concentrate on society and philosophy. The utilization of Gramsci's thought of administration does not terminate here in light of the fact that predominant gathering making "bargains" that are (or show up as) ideal to the overwhelmed gathering. Prevailing gatherings struggle to safe the assent of subordinate gatherings to their authority, instead of as an issue and utilitarian belief system working in light of a legitimate concern for a decision making class by teaching subordinate gatherings.

As in hegemony, Gramsci‟s claimed that dominant groups maintain their dominance without any cohesion same is spot on the representation of minorities in present media. It is theorized that the dominant mass media do not maintain its dominance by force but through winning consent of minority groups. The nature of treatment and identities presented for the religious minority groups appear so natural and taken for granted to them that there is no question and resistance to media. This is not only in case of majority minority relationship but within the religious minority groups the media maintains its dominance by unequal treatment of various minority groups in the form of over representation or under representation. However, in the present study it is being hypothesized that the representation of Christians is higher in

Pakistani print media as compared to other religious minorities (H1) and the representation of Muslims is higher in Indian print media as compared to other religious minorities (H2).

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 37

Chapter 5

Methodology

The study draws triangulation research methodology by using ‘content analysis’ and

‘Discourse analysis’.

5.1 Content analysis

“Content analysis is designed to produce an objective, measurable, verifiable account of the manifest content of message. It analyses the denotative order of significance. It works best on a large scale, the more it has to deal with, and the more accurate it is. It works through identifying and counting chosen units in a communication system.” (Fiske, 1990, p.137)

5.2 Universe of the study

The universe for this study is comprised of Pakistani and Indian main stream print media from 1990 to 2010.

5.3 Sample of the study

The sample has been selected purposively based on the arguments of highest circulations and widely read newspapers both in Pakistan and India. So the sample is comprised of Daily Dawn and the Nation from Pakistani print media and Hindustan

Times and Times of India from Indian print media in the selected time period (1990 –

2010). The sample has been collected both online and manually from libraries. Online data has been collected through Factiva database and available online archives of newspapers. The rest of data has been collected through libraries whose online archives were not available.

5.4 Units of Analysis

The units of analysis include news and editorial.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 38

5.5.1 Categories for Pakistani print media

Units of Categories Subcategories

Analysis

News Christian Positive Negative Neutral

Hindus Positive Negative Neutral

Sikh Positive Negative Neutral

Ahmadis Positive Negative Neutral

Others Positive Negative Neutral

Editorial Christian Positive Negative Neutral

Hindus Positive Negative Neutral

Sikh Positive Negative Neutral

Ahmadis Positive Negative Neutral

Others Positive Negative Neutral

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 39

5.5.2 Categories for Indian print media

Units of Categories Subcategories

Analysis

News Christian Positive Negative Neutral

Muslims Positive Negative Neutral

Sikh Positive Negative Neutral

Others Positive Negative Neutral

Editorial Christian Positive Negative Neutral

Muslims Positive Negative Neutral

Sikh Positive Negative Neutral

Others Positive Negative Neutral

5.6 Conceptual definitions of categories and keywords

5.6.1 Positive

According to The Australian Concise Oxford dictionary (2004) positive means

“measured or moving forward or in a direction of increase or progress.”(p.1097).

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 40

5.6.2 Negative

It means “expressing, containing or consisting of a negation, refusal, or denial of anything or issue.” (ibid, p. 939).

5.6.3 Neutral

It means “belonging to neither side in a controversy of any issue.”(ibid, p.

943).

5.6.4 Religious

Religious means devoted to any religion. (ibid, p.1193).

5.6.5 Minorities

Minorities are smaller number or part, especially in number, representing less than half of the whole and acknowledge their influence. (ibid, p. 893).

5.6.6 Representation

Representation is the action of speaking or acting on behalf of someone.

(ibid, p. 1123)

5.7 Operational definitions of categories and key terms

5.7.1 Positive

The news story and editorials related to development and progress in social, political, cultural and economic sectors of religious minority groups are operationalized as positive. Furthermore it also incorporates promotion of democratic values, peace and harmony, celebrations of religious rituals and events related to minorities, religious tolerance, , support for pilgrims, educational empowerment, welfare, better health conditions, and employment opportunities and uplift in the life standards of various religious minorities. In addition the statements of leaders whether of minority or majority party for minorities‟ rights and statements of leaders of minority group in the favor of government and majority that show harmony COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 41 and cooperation are also included. The media support for the voices and protests of religious minorities to make amendments in blasphemy law is also considered as positive.

5.7.2 Negative

Negative news stories and editorials are operationalized as depicting corruption, blasphemy, anarchy, violent protests of religious minority group. It also includes political, economic and social and religious conflicts related to minorities groups.

5.7.3 Neutral

Such news stories and editorial that do not support or against and the religious minorities fall in neutral category.

5.7.4 Religious minorities

In the present research religious minorities are operationalized as the groups of people having different religious beliefs as compared to the majority of the people of the country and are committed to their own religious practices. The religion of the majority is Islam in Pakistan so religious minorities are Christians, Sikh, Hindu,

Ahmadis and others. Whereas the religion of majority is Hinduism in India so religious minorities are Muslims, Christians, Sikhs and others.

5.8 Coding the contents

For coding the contents, two coding sheets have been developed; one for

Pakistani print media and other for Indian print media (appendix I and II) because the two countries comprised of different religious minorities. The coding sheet incorporated the units of analysis, categories, sub-categories and month wise record of religious minorities. The coding process further extended towards defining and operationalizing the key term including categories and sub-categories in lines with the COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 42 objectives of the study. The coding group was consisted of total two members. The group was headed by the researcher herself with an assistant. The assistant had been selected from the post graduate class of mass communication. The assistant was selected on the basis of having (a) relevant experience of doing content analysis and specifically, coding process at graduate level (b) having relevant information about the issues of minorities in contemporary period. The assistant coder was briefed about the operationalization of the key terms. As pre-testing, a pilot study had been conducted to ensure appropriate and working instrument, „coding sheet‟. During pre- testing the data of first two years from four newspapers, The Nation and Daily Dawn from Pakistan while Times of India and Hindustan Times from Indian print media, were coded and all the ambiguities about the categories, sub-categories, operationalization of terms, coding procedure and all others were addressed and reformulated in the light of the pre-testing experience.

5.9 Inter-coder reliability

In order to evaluate the consistency between the coders Holsti‟s formula of inter-coder reliability has been applied. i.e; R = 2 M / N1 + N2, where R is reliability, M is number coding decision on which the two coders agree, N1 and N2 are the total number of coding decisions by the two coders. The reliability score was

.98 because the researcher was the part of coding group and the assistant was well aware of the operational definitions of concepts and coding procedure. The pilot study also helped to achieve a high level of consistency between the coders.

5.10 Data Collection

The data has been collected online and manually from libraries. Online data has been collected through Factiva database and available online archives of COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 43 newspapers. The rest of data whose online archives were not available has been collected through libraries.

5.11 Research Questions

1- What is the pattern of minority representation in Pakistani print media?

2- How the religious minorities are being represented in Indian print media?

3- Whether there are any biases with regard to the representation of religious

minorities specifically Indian Muslims and Pakistani Hindus in their

respective print media?

4- Whether the political relations between Pakistan and India in the selected time

period have any relationship with the media representation of Pakistani Hindus

and Indian Muslims?

5- Which sort of minority discourses are included and excluded in the Pakistani

and Indian print media?

5.12 Hypotheses

H1: The representation of Christians is higher in Pakistani print media as compared to other religious minorities.

H2: The representation of Muslims is higher in Indian print media as compared to other religious minorities.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 44

Chapter 6

Descriptive Analysis

6.1 Part – I Quantitative Findings

Table 6.1: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 1990

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 2 5 17 24 Hindus 0 1 2 3 Minority Sikh 0 0 1 1 Dawn Others 0 3 19 22 2 9 39 50 Total 4.0% 18.0% 78.0% 100.0%

Christian 4 23 26 53 Hindus 0 0 6 6 Minority Sikh 0 0 5 5 The Nation Others 0 1 11 12 4 24 48 76 Total 5.3% 31.6% 63.2% 100.0%

Christian 6 28 43 77 Hindus 0 1 8 9 Minority Sikh 0 0 6 6 Total Others 0 4 30 34 6 33 87 126 Total 4.8% 26.2% 69.0% 100.0%

Table 6.1 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Pakistani print media in 1990.

In Dawn 2 (4%) negative, 5 (10%) neutral and 17 (34%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. Total 3 (6 %) news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published out of which 2 (4%) positive, 1 (2%) neutral and 0 (0%) were negative. There was no negative and neutral representation of

Sikhs while 1 (2%) news story was published. No coverage to Ahmadis was given.

There was no negative (0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 3 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 45

(6%) neutral and 19 (38%) positive news stories and editorials were published in

Dawn during 1990.

In The Nation 4 (5.3%) negative, 23 (30.3%) neutral and 26 (34.2%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. Total 6 (7.9 %) news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published which were positive, while 0

(0%) neutral and 0 (0%) were negative. There was no negative and neutral representation of Sikhs while 5 (6.6%) news stories and editorials were published. No coverage to Ahmadis was given. There was no negative (0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 1 (1.3%) neutral and 11 (14.5%) positive news stories and editorials were published in The Nation during 1990.

In Pakistani print media (Dawn and The Nation) total 6 (4.8%) negative, 28

(22.2%) neutral and 43 (34%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was 0 (0%) negative, 1 (.8%) neutral and 8 (6.3%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published. There was no negative and neutral representation of Sikhs while 6 (4.8%) news stories and editorials were published. There was no negative (0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 4 (3.2%) neutral and 30 (23.8%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Pakistani print media during 1990.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 46

Figure 6.1: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during 1990

Figure 6.2: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The Nation during 1990

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 47

Table 6.2: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print media during 1990

Newspaper Category Negative Total Minority Muslims 2 2 Hindustan Times 2 2 Total 100.0% 100.0%

Table 6.2 shows that in Hindustan Times 2 (100%) negative news, number of neutral news was 0 (0%) and positive news stories and editorials related to Muslims were 0 (0%) published during year 1990. No coverage to Christians, Sikhs and Other minorities was given. In Times of India there were no news and editorials related to religious minorities published during the year 1990. In Indian print media total 2 (0%) negative were published number of neutral news was 0 (0%) and positive news stories and editorials related to Muslims were 0 (0%) published during year 1990.

Figure 6.3: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Hindustan Times during 1990

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 48

Table 6.3: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 1991

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 3 6 18 27 Hindus 1 2 1 4 Minority Sikh 0 2 4 6 Dawn Others 1 1 12 14 5 11 35 51 Total 9.8% 21.6% 68.6% 100.0%

Christian 4 16 28 48 Hindus 0 1 2 3 Minority Sikh 1 1 4 6 The Nation Others 3 3 14 20 8 21 48 77 Total 10.4% 27.3% 62.3% 100.0%

Christian 7 22 46 75 Hindus 1 3 3 7 Minority Sikh 1 3 8 12 Total Others 4 4 26 34 13 32 83 128 Total 10.2% 25.0% 64.8% 100.0%

Table 6.3 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Pakistani print media in 1991.

In Dawn 3 (5.9%) negative, 6 (11.8%) neutral and 18 (35.3%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 1 (2%) negative, 2 (3.9%) neutral and 1 (2%) were positive. There was no negative and 2 (3.9%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 4 (7.8%) positive news stories were published. No coverage has been given to Ahmadis. There was negative 1(2.0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 1 (2%) neutral COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 49 and 12 (23.5%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Dawn during

1991.

In The Nation 4 (5.2%) negative, 16 (20.8%) neutral and 28 (36.4%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 0 (0%) negative, 1 (1.3%) neutral and 2 (2.6%) were positive.

There was 1 (1.3) negative and 1 (1.3%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 4

(5.2%) positive news stories were published. No coverage has been given to Ahmadis.

There was negative 3(3.9%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 1

(3.9%) neutral and 14 (18.2%) positive news stories and editorials were published in

The Nation during 1991.

In Pakistani print media (Dawn and The Nation) total 7(5.5%) negative, 22

(17.2%) neutral and 46 (35.9%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 7 (5.5%) negative, 22 (17.2%) neutral and 46

(35.9%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published. There was 1 (0.8) negative and 3 (2.3) neutral representation of Sikhs while 8 (6.2%) positive news stories and editorials were published. There was negative 4 (3.1%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 4 (3.1%) neutral and 26 (20.3%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Pakistani print media during

1991.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 50

Figure 6.4: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during 1991

Figure 6.5: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The Nation during 1991

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 51

Representation of Religious Minorities in Indian print media during 1991

There was no coverage to religious minorities given in Indian Print Media during the year 1991. No news and editorials related to Christians, Muslims, Sikhs and Other religious minorities in Hindustan Times and Times of India can be seen.

So, Indian print media didn‟t give any coverage to religious minorities during this year.

Table 6.4: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 1992

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 5 3 13 21 Hindus 0 0 2 2 Minority Sikh 0 0 2 2 Dawn Others 5 2 14 21 10 5 31 46 Total 21.7% 10.9% 67.4% 100.0%

Christian 2 12 48 62 Hindus 1 0 14 15 Minority Sikh 0 0 5 5 The Nation Others 9 3 41 53 12 15 108 135 Total 8.9% 11.1% 80.0% 100.0%

Christian 7 15 61 83 Hindus 1 0 16 17 Minority Sikh 0 0 7 7 Total Others 14 5 55 74 22 20 139 181 Total 12.2% 11.0% 76.8% 100.0%

Table 6.4 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Pakistani print media in 1992. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 52

In Dawn 5 (10.9%) negative, 3 (6.5%) neutral and 13 (28.3%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 0 (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 2 (4.3%) were positive. There was no negative and 0 (0%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 2 (4.3%) positive news stories were published. No coverage has been given to Ahmadis during this year. There was negative 5(10.9%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 2 (4.3%) neutral and 14 (30.4%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Dawn during 1992.

In The Nation 2 (1.5%) negative, 12 (8.9%) neutral and 48 (35.6%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 1 (0.7%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 14 (10.4%) were positive. No coverage has been given to Ahmadis during this year. There was 0 (0%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral representations of Sikhs while 5 (3.7%) positive news stories were published. There was negative 9 (6.7%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 3 (2.2%) neutral and 41 (30.4%) positive news stories and editorials were published in The Nation during 1992.

In Pakistani print media (Dawn and The Nation) total 7(3.9%) negative, 15

(8.3%) neutral and 61 (33.7%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 1 (0.6%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 16

(8.8%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published. There was 0 (0.0%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 7 (3.9%) positive news stories and editorials were published. There was negative 14 (7.7%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 5 (2.8%) neutral and 55 (30.4%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Pakistani print media during

1992.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 53

Figure 6.6: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during 1992

Figure 6.7: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The Nation during 1992

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 54

Representation of religious minorities in Indian print media during 1992

There was coverage to religious minorities given in Indian Print Media during the year 1992. No news and editorials related to Christians, Muslims, Sikhs and

Other religious minorities in Hindustan Times and Times of India can be seen. So,

Indian print media didn‟t give any coverage to religious minorities during this year.

Table 6.5: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 1993

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 9 6 9 24 Hindus 0 0 1 1 Minority Sikh 0 2 0 2 Dawn Others 2 3 15 20 11 11 25 47 Total 23.4% 23.4% 53.2% 100.0%

Christian 5 17 25 47 Hindus 1 0 5 6 Minority Sikh 0 0 7 7 The Nation Others 3 6 34 43 9 23 71 103 Total 8.7% 22.3% 68.9% 100.0%

Christian 14 23 34 71 Hindus 1 0 6 7 Minority Sikh 0 2 7 9 Total Others 5 9 49 63 20 34 96 150 Total 13.3% 22.7% 64.0% 100.0%

Table 6.5 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Pakistani print media in 1993.

In Dawn 9 (19.1%) negative, 6 (12.8%) neutral and 9 (19.1%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 0 (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 1 (2.1%) were positive. There COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 55 was no negative and 2 (4.3%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 0 (0%) positive news stories were published. No coverage has been given to Ahmadis during this year. There was negative 2 (4.3%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 3 (6.4%) neutral and 15 (31.9%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Dawn during 1993.

In The Nation 5 (4.9%) negative, 17 (16.5%) neutral and 25 (24.3%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 1 (1%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 5 (4.9%) were positive.

There was 0 (0%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 7 (6.8%) positive news stories were published. No coverage has been given to Ahmadis during this year. There was negative 3(2.9%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 6 (5.8%) neutral and 34 (33.0%) positive news stories and editorials were published in The Nation during 1993.

In Pakistani print media (Dawn and The Nation) total 14 (9.3%) negative, 23

(15.3%) neutral and 34 (22.7%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 1 (50.7%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 6

(4.0%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published. There was 0 (0%) negative and 2 (1.3%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 7 (4.7%) positive news stories and editorials were published. There was negative 5 (3.3%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 9 (6.0%) neutral and 49 (32.7%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Pakistani print media during

1993.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 56

Figure 6.8: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during 1993

Figure 6.9: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The Nation during 1993

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 57

Representation of religious minorities in Indian print media during 1993

There was coverage to religious minorities given in Indian Print Media during the year 1993. No news and editorials related to Christians, Muslims, Sikhs and

Other religious minorities in Hindustan Times and Times of India can be seen. So,

Indian print media didn‟t give any coverage to religious minorities during this year.

Table 6.6: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 1994

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 8 7 16 31 Minority Sikh 0 2 0 2 Dawn Others 1 1 10 12 9 10 26 45 Total 20.0% 22.2% 57.8% 100.0% Christian 2 12 29 43 Hindus 0 0 7 7 Minority Sikh 0 1 11 12 The Nation Ahmadis 0 0 1 1 Others 0 2 17 19 2 15 65 82 Total 2.4% 18.3% 79.3% 100.0%

Christian 10 19 45 74 Hindus 0 0 7 7 Minority Sikh 0 3 11 14 Total Ahmadis 0 0 1 1 Others 1 3 27 31 11 25 91 127 Total 8.7% 19.7% 71.7% 100.0%

Table 6.6 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Pakistani print media in 1994.

In Dawn 8 (17.8%) negative, 7 (15.6%) neutral and 16 (35.6%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 58 to Hindus were (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 0 (0%) were positive. There was no negative and 2 (4.4%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 0 (0%) positive news stories were published.No coverage has been given to Ahmadis during this year.There was negative 1(2.2%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 1 (2.2%) neutral and 10 (22.2%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Dawn during 1994.

In The Nation 2 (2.4%) negative, 12 (14.6%) neutral and 29 (35.4%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 0 (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 7 (8.5%) were positive.

There was 0 (0%) negative and 1 (1.2%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 11

(13.4%) positive news stories were published. Representation of Ahmedises were 0

(0%) negative, neutral was 0 (0%) and positive were about 1 (1.2%). There were negative 0 (0%) representations for other religious minorities whereas 2 (2.4%) neutral and 17 (20.7%) positive news stories and editorials were published in The

Nation during 1994.

In Pakistani print media (Dawn and The Nation) total 10(7.9%) negative, 19

(15%%) neutral and 45 (35.4%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 0 (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 7 (5.5%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published. There was 0

(0%) negative and 3 (2.4%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 11 (8.7%) positive news stories and editorials were published. Representation of Ahmadis were 0 (0%) negative, neutral was 0 (0%) and positive were about 1 (0.8%). There was negative 1

(0.8%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 3 (2.4%) neutral and 27

(21.3%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Pakistani print media during 1994. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 59

Figure 6.10: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during 1994

Figure 6.11: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The Nation during 1994

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 60

Representation of religious minorities in Indian print media during 1994

There was coverage to religious minorities given in Indian Print Media during the year 1994. No news and editorials related to Christians, Muslims, Sikhs and

Other religious minorities in Hindustan Times and Times of India can be seen. So,

Indian print media didn‟t give any coverage to religious minorities during this year.

Table 6.7: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 1995

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 6 7 11 24 Hindus 0 0 1 1 Minority Sikh 0 2 1 3 Dawn 1 0 4 5 Others 3.0% 0.0% 12.1% 15.2% 7 9 17 33 Total 21.2% 27.3% 51.5% 100.0%

Christian 1 14 24 39 Hindus 1 0 2 3 Minority Sikh 0 0 1 1 The Nation Ahmadis 0 1 0 1 Others 0 0 30 30 2 15 57 74 Total 2.7% 20.3% 77.0% 100.0%

Christian 7 21 35 63 Hindus 1 0 3 4 Minority Sikh 0 2 2 4 Total Ahmadis 0 1 0 1 Others 1 0 34 35 9 24 74 107 Total 8.4% 22.4% 69.2% 100.0%

Table 6.7 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Pakistani print media in 1995.

In Dawn 6 (18.2%) negative, 7 (21.2%) neutral and 11 (33.3%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 61 to Hindus were (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 1 (3%) were positive. There was no negative and 2 (6.1%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 1 (3%) positive news stories were published. No coverage has been given to Ahmadis during this year.

There was negative 1(3%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 0

(0%) neutral and 4 (12.1%) positive news stories and editorials were published in

Dawn during 1995.

In The Nation 1 (1.4%) negative, 11 (18.9%) neutral and 24 (32.4%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 0 (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 1 (3%) were positive.

There was 0 (0%) negative and 2 (6.1%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 1 (3%) positive news stories were published. Representation of Ahmadiswere 0 (0%) negative, neutral was 1 (1.4%) and positive were about 0 (0%). There were negative 0

(0%) representations for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 30

(40.5%) positive news stories and editorials were published in The Nation during

1995.

In Pakistani print media (Dawn and The Nation) total 7 (6.5%) negative, 21

(19.6%) neutral and 35 (32.7%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 1 (0.9%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 3 (2.8%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published. There was 0

(0%) negative and 2 (1.9%) neutral representations of Sikhs while 2 (1.9%) positive news stories and editorials were published. Representation of Ahmadiswere 0 (0%) negative, neutral was 1 (1.9%) and positive were about 0 (0%). There was negative 1

(1.9%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 0 (20%) neutral and 34

(31.8%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Pakistani print media during 1995.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 62

Figure 6.12: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during 1995

Figure 6.13: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The Nation during 1995

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 63

Representation of religious minorities in Indian print media during 1995

There was coverage to religious minorities given in Indian Print Media during the year 1995. No news and editorials related to Christians, Muslims, Sikhs and

Other religious minorities in Hindustan Times and Times of India can be seen. So,

Indian print media didn‟t give any coverage to religious minorities during this year.

Table 6.8: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 1996

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 3 11 8 22 Hindus 0 2 1 3 Minority Sikh 0 0 2 2 Dawn Others 0 5 3 8 3 18 14 35 Total 8.6% 51.4% 40.0% 100.0%

Christian 1 14 29 44 Hindus 0 1 0 1 Minority Sikh 0 0 5 5 The Nation Others 0 4 20 24 1 19 54 74 Total 1.4% 25.7% 73.0% 100.0%

Christian 4 25 37 66 Hindus 0 3 1 4 Minority Sikh 0 0 7 7 Total Others 0 9 23 32 4 37 68 109 Total 3.7% 33.9% 62.4% 100.0%

Table 6.8 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Pakistani print media in 1996. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 64

In Dawn 3 (8.6%) negative, 11 (31.4%) neutral and 8 (22.9%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were (0%) negative, 2 (5.7%) neutral and 1 (2.9%) were positive. There was no negative and 0 (0%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 2 (5.7%) positive news stories were published. No coverage has been given to Ahmadis during this year. There was negative 0(0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas

5 (14.3%) neutral and 3 (8.6%) positive news stories and editorials were published in

Dawn during 1996.

In The Nation 1 (1.4%) negative, 14 (18.9%) neutral and 37 (39.2%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 0 (0%) negative, 1 (1.4%) neutral and 0 (0%) were positive.

There was 0 (0%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 5 (6.8%) positive news stories were published. No coverage has been given to Ahmadis during this year. There were negative 0 (0%) representations for other religious minorities whereas 4 (5.4%) neutral and 20 (27%) positive news stories and editorials were published in The Nation during 1996.

In Pakistani print media (Dawn and The Nation) total 4 (3.7%) negative, 25

(22.9%) neutral and 37 (33.9%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 0 (0%) negative, 3 (2.8%) neutral and 1 (0.9%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published. There was 0

(0%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 7 (6.4%) positive news stories and editorials were published. There was negative 0 (0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 9 (8.3%) neutral and 23 (21.1%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Pakistani print media during 1996.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 65

Figure 6.14: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during 1996

Figure 6.15: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The Nation during 1996

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 66

Representation of religious minorities in Indian print media during 1996

There was coverage to religious minorities given in Indian Print Media during the year 1996. No news and editorials related to Christians, Muslims, Sikhs and

Other religious minorities in Hindustan Times and Times of India can be seen. So,

Indian print media didn‟t give any coverage to religious minorities during this year.

Table 6.9: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 1997

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 8 11 16 35 Hindus 1 1 0 2 Minority Sikh 0 4 0 4 Dawn Others 1 4 1 6 10 20 17 47 Total 21.3% 42.6% 36.2% 100.0%

Christian 16 8 22 46 Hindus 0 0 2 2 Minority Sikh 0 0 3 3 The Nation Ahmadis 0 0 1 1 Others 0 1 8 9 16 9 36 61 Total 26.2% 14.8% 59.0% 100.0%

Christian 24 19 38 81 Hindus 1 1 2 4 Minority Sikh 0 4 3 7 Total Ahmadis 0 0 1 1 Others 1 5 9 15 26 29 53 108 Total 24.1% 26.9% 49.1% 100.0%

Table 6.9 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Pakistani print media in 1997.

In Dawn 8 (17.0%) negative, 11 (23.4%) neutral and 16 (34%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 67 to Hindus were 1 (2.1%) negative, 1 (2.1%) neutral and 0 (0%) were positive. There was no negative and 4 (8.5%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 0 (0%) positive news stories were published. No coverage has been given to Ahmadis during this year. There was negative 1(2.1%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 4 (8.5%) neutral and 1 (2.1%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Dawn during 1997.

In The Nation 16 (26.2%) negative, 8 (13.1%) neutral and 22 (36.1%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 0 (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 2 (3.3%) were positive.

There was 0 (0%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 3 (4.9%) positive news stories were published. Representation of Ahmadiswere 0 (0%) negative, neutral was 0 (0%) and positive were about 1 (1.6%). There were negative 0

(0%) representations for other religious minorities whereas 1 (1.6%) neutral and 8

(13.1%) positive news stories and editorials were published in The Nation during

1997.

In Pakistani print media (Dawn and The Nation) total 24 (22.2%) negative, 19

(17.6%) neutral and 38 (35.2%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 1 (0.9%) negative, 1 (0.9%) neutral and 2

(1.9%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published. There was 0 (0%) negative and 4 (3.7%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 3 (2.8%) positive news stories and editorials were published. Representation of Ahmadis were

0 (0%) negative, neutral was 0 (0%) and positive were about 1 (0.9%). There was negative 1 (0.9%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 5 (4.6%) neutral and 9 (8.3%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Pakistani print media during 1997. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 68

Figure 6.16: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during

1997

Figure 6.17: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The Nation during 1997

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 69

Table 6.10: Pattern of representation of Religious Minorities in Indian print media during 1997

Newspaper Category Negative Positive Total

4 2 6 Hindustan Times Minority Muslims 66.7% 33.3% 100.0%

Table 6.10 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Indian print media in 1997. In Hindustan Times 4 (66.7%) negative news, number of neutral news was 0 (0%) and positive news stories and editorials related to Muslims were 2 (33.3%) published during year 1997. There was no coverage given to Christians, Sikhs and other minorities in Hindustan Times. In

Times of India there were no news and editorials related to religious minorities published during the year 1997. In Indian print media (Hindustan Times and Times of

India) total 4 (66.7%) negative were published number of neutral news was 0 (0%) and positive news stories and editorials related to Muslims were 2 (33.3%) published during year 1997.

Figure 6.18: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Hindustan Times during 1997

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 70

Table 6.11: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 1998

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 10 10 31 51 Minority Hindus 0 0 1 1 Dawn Others 0 2 6 8 10 12 38 60 Total 16.7% 20.0% 63.3% 100.0%

Christian 16 22 38 76 Hindus 0 0 1 1 Minority Sikh 0 0 1 1 The Nation Others 1 1 31 33 17 23 71 111 Total 15.3% 20.7% 64.0% 100.0%

Christian 26 32 69 127 Hindus 0 0 2 2 Minority Sikh 0 0 1 1 Total Others 1 3 37 41 27 35 109 171 Total 15.8% 20.5% 63.7% 100.0%

Table 6.11 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Pakistani print media in 1998.

In Dawn 10 (16.7%) negative, 10 (16.7%) neutral and 31 (51.7%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 1 (1.7%) were positive. No coverage has been given to Ahmadis and Sikhs during this year. There was negative

0(0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 2 (3.3%) neutral and 6

(10%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Dawn during 1998.

In The Nation 16 (14.4%) negative, 22 (19.8%) neutral and 38 (34.2%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 71 editorials related to Hindus were 0 (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 1 (0.9%) were positive. There was 0 (0%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral representation of Sikhs while

1 (0.9%) positive news stories were published. No coverage has been given to

Ahmadis during this year. There were negative 1 (0.9%) representations for other religious minorities whereas 1 (0.9%) neutral and 31 (27.9%) positive news stories and editorials were published in The Nation during 1998.

In Pakistani print media (Dawn and The Nation) total 26 (15.2%) negative, 32

(18.7%) neutral and 69 (40.4%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 0 (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 2 (1.2%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published. There was 0

(0%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 1 (0.6%) positive news stories and editorials were published. There was negative 1 (0.6%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 3 (1.8%) neutral and 37 (21.6%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Pakistani print media during

1998.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 72

Figure 6.19: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during

1998

Figure 6.20: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The Nation during 1998

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 73

Representation of religious minorities in Indian print media during 1998

There was coverage to religious minorities given in Indian Print Media during the year 1998. No news and editorials related to Christians, Muslims, Sikhs and

Other religious minorities in Hindustan Times and Times of India can be seen. So,

Indian print media didn‟t give any coverage to religious minorities during this year.

Table 6.12: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 1999

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 6 5 18 29 Hindus 1 0 0 1 Minority Sikh 2 1 0 3 Dawn Others 0 1 2 3 9 7 20 36 Total 25.0% 19.4% 55.6% 100.0% Christian 2 12 39 53 Hindus 0 0 3 3 Minority Sikh 0 2 6 8 The Nation Others 0 3 30 33 2 17 78 97 Total 2.1% 17.5% 80.4% 100.0% Christian 8 17 57 82 Hindus 1 0 3 4 Minority Sikh 2 3 6 11 Total Others 0 4 32 36 11 24 98 133 Total 8.3% 18.0% 73.7% 100.0%

Table 6.12 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Pakistani print media in 1999. In Dawn 6 (16.7%) negative, 5

(13.9%) neutral and 18 (50%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 1 (2.8%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 0 (0%) were positive. There was 2 (5.6%) negative and 1 (2.8%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 0 (0%) positive news stories were published. No COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 74 coverage has been given to Ahmadis during this year. There was negative 0(0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 1 (2.8%) neutral and 2 (5.6%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Dawn during 1999.

In The Nation 2 (2.1%) negative, 12 (12.4%) neutral and 39 (40.2%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 0 (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 3 (3.1%) were positive.

There was 0 (0%) negative and 2 (2.1%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 6

(6.2%) positive news stories were published. No coverage has been given to Ahmadis during this year. There were negative 0 (0%) representations for other religious minorities whereas 3 (3.1%) neutral and 30 (30.9%) positive news stories and editorials were published in The Nation during 1999.

In Pakistani print media (Dawn and The Nation) total 8 (6%) negative, 17

(12.8%) neutral and 57 (42.9%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 1 (0.8%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 3 (2.3%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published. There was 2

(1.5%) negative and 3 (2.3%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 6 (4.5%) positive news stories and editorials were published. There was negative 0 (0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 4 (3%) neutral and 32 (24.1%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Pakistani print media during 1999.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 75

Figure 6.21: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during 1999

Figure 6.22: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The Nation during 1999

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 76

Table 6.13: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print media during 1999

Newspaper Category Negative Total

3 3 Hindustan Times Minority Muslims 100.0% 100.0%

Table 6.13 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Indian print media in 1999. In Hindustan Times 3 (100%) negative news, number of neutral news was 0 (0%) and positive news stories and editorials related to Muslims were 0 (0%) published during year 1999. There was no coverage given to Christians, Sikhs and other minorities in Hindustan Times. In

Times of India there were no news and editorials related to religious minorities published during the year 1999.

Figure 6.23: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Hindustan Times during 1999

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 77

Table 6.14: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 2000

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 0 11 15 26 Hindus 2 0 0 2 Minority Sikh 0 3 2 5 Dawn Others 1 12 10 23 3 26 27 56 Total 5.4% 46.4% 48.2% 100.0%

Christian 1 26 41 68 Hindus 1 0 5 6 Minority Sikh 2 3 8 13 The Nation Others 2 8 39 49 6 37 93 136 Total 4.4% 27.2% 68.4% 100.0%

Christian 1 37 56 94 Hindus 3 0 5 8 Minority Sikh 2 6 10 18 Total Others 3 20 49 72 9 63 120 192 Total 4.7% 32.8% 62.5% 100.0%

Table 6.14 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Pakistani print media in 2000.

In Dawn 0 (0%) negative, 1 (19.6%) neutral and 15 (26.8%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 2 (3.6%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 0 (0%) were positive. There was no negative and 3 (5.4%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 2 (3.6%) positive news stories were published. No coverage has been given to Ahmadis during this year. There was negative 1(1.8%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 12 (21.4%) neutral and 10 (17.9%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Dawn during 2000. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 78

In The Nation 1 (0.7%) negative, 26 (19.1%) neutral and 41 (30.1%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 1 (0.7%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 5 (3.7%) were positive.

There was 2 (1.5%) negative and 3 (2.2%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 8

(5.9%) positive news stories were published. No coverage has been given to Ahmadis during this year. There were negative 2 (1.5%) representations for other religious minorities whereas 8 (5.9%) neutral and 39 (28.7%) positive news stories and editorials were published in The Nation during 2000.

In Pakistani print media (Dawn and The Nation) total 1 (0.5%) negative, 37

(19.3%) neutral and 56 (29.2%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 3 (1.6%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 5 (2.6%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published. There was 2

(1.0%) negative and 6 (3.1%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 10 (5.2%) positive news stories and editorials were published. There was negative 3 (1.6%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 20 (10.4%) neutral and 49

(25.5%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Pakistani print media during 2000.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 79

Figure 6.24: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during 2000

Figure 6.25: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The Nation during 2000

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 80

Table 6.15: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print media during 2000

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 0 1 1 Minority Muslims 8 0 8 Times of Others 1 1 2 India 9 2 11 Total 81.8% 18.2% 100.0%

Christian 0 1 2 3 Minority Sikh 0 0 5 5 Hindustan Muslims 9 0 1 10 Times 9 1 8 18 Total 50.0% 5.6% 44.4% 100.0%

Christian 0 2 2 4 Sikh 0 0 5 5 Minority Muslims 17 0 1 18 Total Others 1 1 0 2 18 3 8 29 Total 62.1% 10.3% 27.6% 100.0%

Table 6.15 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Indian print media in 2000.

In Times of India 0 (0%) negative, 1 (9.1%) neutral and 0 (0%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Muslims were 8 (72.7%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 0 (0%) were positive. There was no news related to Sikhs were published. There was negative 1 (9.1%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 1 (9.1%) neutral and 0 (0%) positive news stories and editorials were published in TIMES OF INDIA during 2000.

In Hindustan Times 0 (0%) negative, 1 (5.6%) neutral and 2 (11.1%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was 0 (0%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral representation of Sikhs. News and editorials related to COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 81

Muslims were 9 (50%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 1 (5.6%) were positive while 5

(27.8%) positive news stories were published in Hindustan Times during 2000. No news related to other minorities were 0.

In Indian print media (Times of India and Hindustan Times) total 0 (0%) negative, 2 (6.9%) neutral and 2 (6.9%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 0 (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 5 (17.2%) positive news stories and editorials related to Sikh were published. There was 17

(58.6%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral representation of Muslims while 1 (3.4%) positive news stories and editorials were published. There was negative 1 (3.4%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 1 (3.4%) neutral and 0 (0%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Indian print media during 2000.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 82

Figure 6.26: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of India during 2000

Figure 6.27: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Hindustan Times during 2000

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 83

Table 6.16: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 2001

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 2 3 14 19 Hindus 0 0 3 3 Minority Sikh 0 1 17 18 Dawn Ahmadis 1 0 0 1 Others 0 0 2 2 3 4 36 43 Total 7.0% 9.3% 83.7% 100.0%

Christian 9 5 51 65 Hindus 1 0 14 15 Minority Sikh 0 0 3 3 The Nation Others 4 3 21 28 14 8 89 111 Total 12.6% 7.2% 80.2% 100.0%

Christian 11 8 65 84 Hindus 1 0 17 18 Minority Sikh 0 1 20 21 Total Ahmadis 1 0 0 1 Others 4 3 23 30 17 12 125 154 Total 11.0% 7.8% 81.2% 100.0%

Table 6.16 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Pakistani print media in 2001.

In Dawn 2 (4.7%) negative, 3 (7.0%) neutral and 14 (32.6%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 3 (7.0%) were positive. There was no negative and 1 (2.3%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 17 (39.5%) positive news stories were published. Ahmadis news were 1(2.3%) negative, and no neutral and positive news found. There was negative 0(0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 2 (4.7%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Dawn during 2001. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 84

In The Nation 9 (8.1%) negative, 2 (4.5%) neutral and 51 (45.9%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 1 (0.9%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 14 (12.6%) were positive. There was 0 (0%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral representation of Sikhs while

3 (2.7%) positive news stories were published. No coverage has been given to

Ahmadis during this year. There were negative 4 (3.6%) representations for other religious minorities whereas 3 (2.7%) neutral and 21 (18.9%) positive news stories and editorials were published in The Nation during 2001.

In Pakistani print media (Dawn and The Nation) total 11 (7.1%) negative, 8

(5.2%) neutral and 65 (42.2%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 1 (0.6%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 17 (11%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published. There was 0

(0%) negative and 1 (0.6%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 20 (13%) positive news stories and editorials were published. Representation of Ahmadiswere 1 (0.6%) negative, neutral was 0 (0%) and positive were about 0 (0%). There was negative 4

(2.6%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 3 (1.9%) neutral and 23

(14.9%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Pakistani print media during 2001.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 85

Figure 6.28: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during

2001

Figure 6.29: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The Nation during 2001

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 86

Table 6.17: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print media during 2001

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 0 1 1 2 Minority Muslims 8 0 1 9 Times of India 8 1 2 11 Total 72.7% 9.1% 18.2% 100.0%

Christian 2 0 2 Minority Sikh 2 0 2 Hindustan Muslims 7 12 19 Times 11 12 23 Total 47.8% 52.2% 100.0%

Christian 2 1 1 4 Minority Sikh 2 0 0 2 Total Muslims 15 0 13 28 19 1 14 34 Total 55.9% 2.9% 41.2% 100.0%

Table 6.17 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Indian print media in 2001.

In Times of India 0 (0%) negative, 1 (9.1%) neutral and 1 (9.1%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Muslims were 8 (72.7%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 1 (9.1%) were published in TIMES OF INDIA during 2001. There were no news related to Sikhs and other minorities published.

In Hindustan Times 2 (8.7%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 0 (0%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was 2 (8.7%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral and positive 0 (0%) representations of Sikhs. No news related to other minorities was published. News and editorials related to Muslims COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 87 were 7 (30.4%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 12 (52.2%) were positive published in

Hindustan Times during 2001.

In Indian print media (TIMES OF INDIA and Hindustan Times) total 2 (5.9%) negative, 1 (2.9%) neutral and 1 (2.9%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 2 (5.9%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 0 (0%) positive news stories and editorials related to Sikh were published. There was 15

(44.1%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral representation of Muslims while 13 (38.2%) positive news stories and editorials were published during 2001.

Figure 6.30: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of India during 2001

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 88

Figure 6.31: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Hindustan Times during 2001

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 89

Table 6.18: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 2002

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 1 5 13 19 Hindus 0 1 3 4 Minority Sikh 1 2 10 13 Dawn Ahmadis 5 6 6 17 Others 0 0 6 6 7 14 38 59 Total 11.9% 23.7% 64.4% 100.0%

Christian 0 0 2 2 Hindus 4 0 4 8 Minority Ahmadis 0 3 0 3 The Nation Others 2 0 0 2 6 3 6 15 Total 40.0% 20.0% 40.0% 100.0%

Christian 1 5 15 21 Hindus 4 1 7 12 Minority Sikh 1 2 10 13 Total Ahmadis 5 9 6 20 Others 2 0 6 8 13 17 44 74 Total 17.6% 23.0% 59.5% 100.0%

Table 6.18 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Pakistani print media in 2002.

In Dawn 1 (1.7%) negative, 5 (8.5%) neutral and 13 (22.0%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were (0%) negative, 1 (1.7%) neutral and 3 (5.1%) were positive. There was

1(1.7%) negative and 2 (3.4%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 10 (16.9%) positive news stories were published. News related to Ahmadis were 5 (8.5%) negative, 6 (10.2%) neutral and positive news items were 6 (10.2%) There was negative 0(0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 6 (10.2%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Dawn during

2002. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 90

In The Nation 0 (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 2 (13.3%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 4 (26.7%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 4 (26.7%) were positive. No news related to Sikhs was published. Representation of Ahmadis were 0 (0%) negative, neutral was 3 (20%) and positive were about 0 (0%). There were negative 2

(13.3%) representations for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 0

(0%) positive news stories and editorials were published in The Nation during 2002.

In Pakistani print media (Dawn and The Nation) total 1 (1,4%) negative, 5 (6.8%) neutral and 15 (20.3%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was 4 (5.4%) negative, 1 (1.4%) neutral and 7 (9.5%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published. There was 1 (1.4%) negative and 2 (2.7%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 10 (13.5%) positive news stories and editorials were published. Representation of Ahmadiswere 6 (6.8%) negative, neutral was 9 (12.2%) and positive were about 6 (8.1%). There was negative 2 (2.7%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 6 (8.1%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Pakistani print media during

2002.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 91

Figure 6.32: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during 2002

Figure 6.33: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The Nation during 2002

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 92

Table 6.19: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print media during 2002

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 8 0 1 9 Minority Sikh 0 1 3 4 Times of India Muslims 20 3 1 24 28 4 5 37 Total 75.7% 10.8% 13.5% 100.0%

Christian 8 0 1 9 Minority Sikh 0 1 3 4 Total Muslims 20 3 1 24 28 4 5 37 Total 75.7% 10.8% 13.5% 100.0%

Table 6.19 shows that in Times of India 8 (21.6%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 1 (2.7%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published in 2002. News related to Sikhs were 0 (0%) negative, 1 (2.7%) neutral and 3 (8.1%) positive. News and editorials related to Muslims were 20 (54.1%) negative, 3 (8.1%) neutral and 1 (2.7%) were positive in Times of India during 2002. There was no news related to religious minorities published during the year 2002. In Times of India and

Hindustan Times, total 8 (21.6%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 1 (2.7%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was 0 (0%) negative,

1 (2.7%) neutral and 3 (8.1%) positive news stories and editorials related to Sikh were published. There was 20 (54.1%) negative and 3 (8.1%) neutral representation of

Muslims while 1 (2.7%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Indian print media during 2002.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 93

Figure 6.34: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of India during 2002

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 94

Table 6.20: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 2003

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 3 4 16 23 Hindus 1 1 3 5 Minority Sikh 1 5 17 23 Dawn Ahmadis 3 4 5 12 Others 0 0 4 4 8 14 45 67 Total 11.9% 20.9% 67.2% 100.0%

Christian 2 9 25 36 Hindus 0 1 2 3 Minority Sikh 0 2 5 7 The Nation Others 1 4 13 18 3 16 45 64 Total 4.7% 25.0% 70.3% 100.0%

Christian 5 13 41 59 Hindus 1 2 5 8 Minority Sikh 1 7 22 30 Total Ahmadis 3 4 5 12 Others 1 4 17 22 11 30 90 131 Total 8.4% 22.9% 68.7% 100.0%

Table 6.20 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Pakistani print media in 2003.

In Dawn 3 (4.5%) negative, 4 (6.8%) neutral and 16 (23.9%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 1 (1.5%) negative, 1 (1.5%) neutral and 3 (4.5%) were positive. There was 1 (1.5%) negative and 5 (7.5%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 17 (25.4%) positive news stories were published. Nature of contents related to Ahmadis were 3

(4.5%) negative, neutral were 4 (6.0%) and positive were 5(7.5%). There was negative 0(0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 4 (6.0%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Dawn during

2003. In The Nation 2 (3.1%) negative, 9 (14.1%) neutral and 25 (39.1%) positive COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 95 news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 0 (0%) negative, 1 (1.6%) neutral and 2 (3.1%) were positive.

There was 0 (0%) negative and 2 (3.1%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 5

(7.8%) positive news stories were published. No news published for Ahmadis. There were negative 1 (1.6%) representations for other religious minorities whereas 4

(6.2%) neutral and 13 (20.3%) positive news stories and editorials were published in

The Nation during 2003. In Pakistani print media (Dawn and The Nation) total 5

(3.8%) negative, 13 (9.9%) neutral and 41 (31.3%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was 1 (0.8%) negative, 2 (1.5%) neutral and 5 (3.8%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published.

There was 1 (0.8%) negative and 7 (5,3%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 22

(16.8%) positive news stories and editorials were published. Representation of

Ahmadis were 3 (2.3%) negative, neutral was 4 (3.1%) and positive were about 5

(3.8%). There was negative 1 (0.8%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 4 (3.1%) neutral and 17 (13.0%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Pakistani print media during 2003.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 96

Figure 6.35: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during 2003

Figure 6.36: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The Nation during 2003

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 97

Table 6.21: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print media during 2003

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 0 4 2 6 Minority Sikh 1 0 0 1 Times of Muslims 3 4 0 7 India 4 8 2 14 Total 28.6% 57.1% 14.3% 100.0%

Christian 1 6 0 7 Minority Sikh 0 0 8 8 Hindustan Muslims 4 0 0 4 Times 5 6 8 19 Total 26.3% 31.6% 42.1% 100.0%

Christian 1 10 2 13 Minority Sikh 1 0 8 9 Total Muslims 7 4 0 11 9 14 10 33 Total 27.3% 42.4% 30.3% 100.0%

Table 6.21 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Indian print media in 2003.

In Times of India 0 (0%) negative, 4 (28.6%) neutral and 2 (14.3%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Muslims were 3 (21.4%) negative, 4 (28.6%) neutral and 0 (0%) were positive. There was negative 1 (7.1%) representation for Sikhs religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 0 (0%) positive news stories and editorials were published in TIMES OF INDIA during 2003. No news for other minorities published.

In Hindustan Times 1 (5.3%) negative, 6 (31.6%) neutral and 0 (0%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was 0 (0%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral representation and 8 (42.1%) positive news of Sikhs. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 98

News and editorials related to Muslims were 4 (21.1%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 0

(0%) were positive news stories were published in Hindustan Times during 2003. No news for other minorities published.

In Indian print media (TIMES OF INDIA and Hindustan Times) total 10

(30.3%) negative, 2 (6.9%) neutral and 2 (6.1%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was 1 (3%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 8

(24.2%) positive news stories and editorials related to Sikh were published. There was

7 (21.2%) negative and 4 (12.1%) neutral representation of Muslims while 0 (0%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Indian print media during 2003.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 99

Figure 6.37: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of India during 2003

Figure 6.38: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Hindustan Times during 2003

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 100

Table 6.22: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 2004

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 2 3 26 31 Hindus 0 0 3 3 Minority Sikh 0 2 6 8 Dawn Ahmadis 16 3 7 26 Others 0 3 5 8 18 11 47 76 Total 23.7% 14.5% 61.8% 100.0%

Christian 1 4 11 16 Hindus 1 0 2 3 Minority Sikh 0 1 8 9 The Nation Others 1 0 3 4 3 5 24 32 Total 9.4% 15.6% 75.0% 100.0%

Christian 3 7 37 47 Hindus 1 0 5 6 Minority Sikh 0 3 14 17 Total Ahmadis 16 3 7 26 Others 1 3 8 12 21 16 71 108 Total 19.4% 14.8% 65.7% 100.0%

Table 6.22 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Pakistani print media in 2004. In Dawn 2 (2.6%) negative, 3

(3.9%) neutral and 26 (34.2%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were (0%) negative,

0 (0%) neutral and 3 (3.9%) were positive. There was no negative and 2 (2.6%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 6 (7.9%) positive news stories were published.

Nature of contents related to Ahmadis were 16 (21.1%) negative, neutral were 3

(3.9%) and positive were 7 (9.2%). There was negative 0 (0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 3 (3.9%) neutral and 5 (6.6%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Dawn during 2004. In The Nation 1 (3.1%) negative,

4 (12.5%) neutral and 11 (34.4%) positive news stories and editorials related to COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 101

Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 1 (3.1%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 2 (6.2%) were positive. There was 0 (0%) negative and 1

(3.1%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 8 (25%) positive news stories were published. No coverage has been given to Ahmadis during this year. There were negative 1 (3.1%) representations for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 3 (9.4%) positive news stories and editorials were published in The Nation during 2004. In Pakistani print media (Dawn and The Nation) total 3 (2.8%) negative,

7 (6.5%) neutral and 37 (34.3%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 1 (0.9%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 5 (4.6%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published. There was 0

(0%) negative and 3 (2.8%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 14 (13%) positive news stories and editorials were published. Representation of Ahmadis were 16

(14.8%) negative, neutral was 3 (2.8%) and positive were about 7 (6.5%). There was negative 1 (0.9%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 3 (2.8%) neutral and 8 (7.4%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Pakistani print media during 2004.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 102

Figure 6.39: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during 2004

Figure 6.40: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The Nation during 2004

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 103

Table 6.23: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print media during 2004

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 0 0 3 3 Sikh 0 1 0 1 Minority Times of Muslims 8 0 6 14 India Others 0 0 1 1 8 1 10 19 Total 42.1% 5.3% 52.6% 100.0%

Sikh 2 1 0 3 Minority Hindustan Muslims 6 0 8 14 Times 8 1 8 17 Total 47.1% 5.9% 47.1% 100.0% Christian 0 0 3 3 Sikh 2 2 0 4 Minority Muslims 14 0 14 28 Total Others 0 0 1 1 16 2 18 36 Total 44.4% 5.6% 50.0% 100.0%

Table 6.23 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Indian print media in 2004.

In Times of India 0 (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 3 (15.8%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was negative 0 (0%) representation for Sikhs religious minorities whereas 1 (5.3%) neutral and 0 (0%) positive news stories and editorials were published. News and editorials related to

Muslims were 8 (42.1%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 6 (31.6%) were positive. News related to other minorities 0 (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 1 (5.3%) positive in

TIMES OF INDIA during 2004.

In Hindustan Times There were 2 (11.8%) negative and 1 (5.1%) neutral and positive 0 (0%) representation of Sikhs. News and editorials related to Muslims were

6 (35.3%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 8 (47.1%) were positive were published in COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 104

Hindustan Times during 2004. No coverage has been given to other minorities during this year.

In Indian print media (Times if India and Hindustan Times) total 0 (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 3 (8.3%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 2 (5.6%) negative, 2 (5.6%) neutral and 0 (0%) positive news stories and editorials related to Sikh were published. There was 14

(38.9%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral representation of Muslims while 14 (38.9%) positive news stories and editorials were published. There was negative 0 (0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 1 (2.8%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Indian print media during 2004.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 105

Figure 6.41: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of India during 2004

Figure 6.42: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Hindustan Times during 2004

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 106

Table 6.24: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 2005

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 3 2 17 22 Hindus 3 3 4 10 Minority Sikh 0 3 6 9 Dawn Ahmadis 6 2 4 12 Others 0 0 6 6 12 10 37 59 Total 20.3% 16.9% 62.7% 100.0%

Christian 3 7 14 24 Hindus 2 1 7 10 Minority Sikh 0 0 5 5 The Nation Others 1 1 10 12 6 9 36 51 Total 11.8% 17.6% 70.6% 100.0%

Christian 6 9 31 46 Hindus 5 4 11 20 Minority Sikh 0 3 11 14 Total Ahmadis 6 2 4 12 Others 1 1 16 18 18 19 73 110 Total 16.4% 17.3% 66.4% 100.0%

Table 6.24 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Pakistani print media in 2005.

In Dawn 3 (5.1%) negative, 2 (3.4%) neutral and 17 (28.8%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 3 (5.1%) negative, 3 (5.1%) neutral and 4 (6.8%) were positive. There was no negative and 3 (5.1%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 6 (10.2%) positive news stories were published. Nature of contents related to Ahmadis were 6 (10.2%) negative, neutral were 2 (3.4%) and positive were 4(6.8%). There was negative 0(0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 6 (10.2%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Dawn during 2005. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 107

In The Nation 3 (5.9%) negative, 7 (13.7%) neutral and 14 (27.5%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 2 (3.9%) negative, 1 (2%) neutral and 7 (13.7%) were positive.

There was 0 (0%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 5 (9.8%) positive news stories were published. No coverage has been given to Ahmadis during this year. There were negative 1 (2%) representations for other religious minorities whereas 1 (2%) neutral and 10 (19.6%) positive news stories and editorials were published in The Nation during 2005.

In Pakistani print media (Dawn and The Nation) total 6 (5.5%) negative, 9

(8.2%) neutral and 31 (28.2%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 5 (4.5%) negative, 4 (3.6%) neutral and 11

(10%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published. There was 0 (0%) negative and 3 (2.7%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 11 (10%) positive news stories and editorials were published. Representation of Ahmadis were

6 (5.5%) negative, neutral was 2 (1.8%) and positive were about 4 (3.6%). There was negative 1 (0.9%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 1 (0.9%) neutral and 16 (14.5%) positive news stories and editorials were published in

Pakistani print media during 2005.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 108

Figure 6.43: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during 2005

Figure 6.44: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The Nation during 2005

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 109

Table 6.25: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print media during 2005

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 0 0 2 2 Minority Sikh 0 0 1 1 Times of Muslims 8 1 6 15 India 8 1 9 18 Total 44.4% 5.6% 50.0% 100.0%

Christian 0 0 1 1 Sikh 2 2 1 5 Minority Hindustan Muslims 12 1 11 24 Times Others 0 0 3 3 14 3 16 33 Total 42.4% 9.1% 48.5% 100.0%

Christian 0 0 3 3 Sikh 2 2 2 6 Minority Muslims 20 2 17 39 Total Others 0 0 3 3 22 4 25 51 Total 43.1% 7.8% 49.0% 100.0%

Table 6.25 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Indian print media in 2005.

In Times of India 0 (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 2 (11.1%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was negative 0 (0%) representation for Sikhs religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 1 (5.6%) positive news stories and editorials were published. No coverage has been given to other minorities during this year. News and editorials related to Muslims were 8

(44.4%) negative, 1 (5.6%) neutral and 6 (33.3%) were positive news published in

TIMES OF INDIA during 2005. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 110

In Hindustan Times 0 (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 1 (3%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was 2 (6.1%) negative and 2 (6.1%) neutral and positive was 1 (6.3%) representation of Sikhs.

News and editorials related to Muslims were 12 (36.4%) negative, 1 (3%) neutral and

11 (33.3%) were positive. News related to Other minorities were 0 (0%) negative, 0

(0%) neutral and positive 3 (9.1%) were published in Hindustan Times during 2005.

In Indian print media (TIMES OF INDIA and Hindustan Times) total 0 (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 3 (5.9%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 2 (3.9%) negative, 2 (3.9%) neutral and 2

(3.9%) positive news stories and editorials related to Sikh were published. There was

20 (39.2%) negative and 2 (3.9%) neutral representation of Muslims while 17 (33.3%) positive news stories and editorials were published. There was negative 0 (0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 3 (5.9%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Indian print media during 2005.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 111

Figure 6.45: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of India during 2005

Figure 6.46: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Hindustan Times during 2005

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 112

Table 6.26: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 2006

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 1 4 12 17 Hindus 2 2 16 20 Minority Sikh 5 4 12 21 Dawn Ahmadis 2 1 5 8 Others 0 0 1 1 10 11 46 67 Total 14.9% 16.4% 68.7% 100.0%

Christian 2 7 19 28 Hindus 1 1 5 7 Minority The Sikh 0 1 3 4 Nation Others 1 0 9 10 4 9 36 49 Total 8.2% 18.4% 73.5% 100.0%

Christian 3 11 31 45 Hindus 3 3 21 27 Sikh 5 5 15 25 Minority Ahmadis 2 1 5 8 Total 1 0 10 11 Others 0.9% 0.0% 8.6% 9.5% 14 20 82 116 Total 12.1% 17.2% 70.7% 100.0%

Table 6.26 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Pakistani print media in 2006. In Dawn 1 (1.5%) negative, 4

(6%) neutral and 12 (17.9%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 2 (3%) negative, 2 (3%) neutral and 16 (23.9%) were positive. There was 5 (7.5%) negative and 4 (6%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 12 (17.9%) positive news stories were published. Nature of contents related to Ahmadis were 2 (3%) negative, neutral were 1 (1.5%) and positive were 5(7.5%). There was negative 0 (0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 1 (1.5%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Dawn during 2006. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 113

In The Nation 2 (4.1%) negative, 7 (14.3%) neutral and 9 (38.8%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 1 (2%) negative, 1 (2%) neutral and 5 (10.2%) were positive.

There was 0 (0%) negative and 1 (2%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 3 (6.1%) positive news stories were published. No coverage has been given to Ahmadis during this year. There were negative 1 (2%) representations for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 9 (18.4%) positive news stories and editorials were published in The Nation during 2006.

In Pakistani print media (Dawn and The Nation) total 3 (2.6%) negative, 11

(9.5%) neutral and 31 (26.7%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 3 (2.6%) negative, 3 (2.6%) neutral and 21

(18.1%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published. There was 5 (4.3%) negative and 5 (4.3%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 15 (12.9%) positive news stories and editorials were published. Representation of Ahmadis were

2 (1.7%) negative, neutral was 1 (0.9%) and positive were about 5 (4.3%). There was negative 1 (0.9%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 10 (8.6%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Pakistani print media during 2006.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 114

Figure 6.47: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during 2006

Figure 6.48: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The Nation during 2006

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 115

Table 6.27: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print media during 2006

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 1 0 1 2 Minority Sikh 0 1 3 4 Times of India Muslims 13 0 8 21 14 1 12 27 Total 51.9% 3.7% 44.4% 100.0%

Christian 0 0 5 5 Minority Sikh 2 0 4 6 Hindustan Times Muslims 9 6 21 36 11 6 30 47 Total 23.4% 12.8% 63.8% 100.0%

Christian 1 0 6 7 Minority Sikh 2 1 7 10 Total Muslims 22 6 29 57 25 7 42 74 Total 33.8% 9.5% 56.8% 100.0%

Table 6.27 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Indian print media in 2006.

In Times of India 1 (3.7%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 1 (3.7%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was negative 0

(0%) representation for Sikhs religious minorities whereas 1 (3.7%) neutral and 3

(11.1%) positive news stories and editorials were published. No coverage has been given to other minorities during this year. News and editorials related to Muslims were 13 (48.1%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 8 (29.6%) were positive were published in TIMES OF INDIA during 2006.

In Hindustan Times 0 (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 5 (10.6%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was 2 (4.3%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral and 4 (8.5%) positive representation of Sikhs. No COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 116 coverage has been given to other minorities during this year. News and editorials related to Muslims were 9 (19.1%) negative, 6 (12.8%) neutral and 21 (44.7%) were positive in Hindustan Times during 2006.

In Indian print media (Times of India and Hindustan Times) total 1 (1.4%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 6 (8.1%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 2 (2.7%) negative, 1 (1.4%) neutral and 7

(9.5%) positive news stories and editorials related to Sikh were published. There was

22 (29.7%) negative and 6 (8.1%) neutral representation of Muslims while 29 (39.2%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Indian print media during 2006.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 117

Figure 6.49: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of India during 2006

Figure 6.50: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Hindustan Times during 2006

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 118

Table 6.28: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 2007

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 6 4 11 21 Hindus 1 0 8 9 Minority Sikh 5 5 12 22 Dawn Ahmadis 3 0 3 6 15 9 34 58 Total 25.9% 15.5% 58.6% 100.0%

Christian 1 5 16 22 Hindus 0 0 3 3 Minority Sikh 0 1 3 4 The Nation Others 0 0 5 5 1 6 27 34 Total 2.9% 17.6% 79.4% 100.0%

Christian 7 9 27 43 Hindus 1 0 11 12 Sikh 5 6 15 26 Minority 3 0 3 6 Ahmadis Total 3.3% 0.0% 3.3% 6.5% 0 0 5 5 Others 0.0% 0.0% 5.4% 5.4% 16 15 61 92 Total 17.4% 16.3% 66.3% 100.0%

Table 6.28 shows that in Dawn 6 (10.3%) negative, 4 (6.9%) neutral and 11

(19%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published in

2007. News and editorials related to Hindus were 1 (1.7%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 8 (13.8%) were positive. There was 5 (8.6%) negative and 5 (8.6%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 12 (20.7%) positive news stories were published. Nature of contents related to Ahmadis were 3 (5.2%) negative, neutral were 0 (0%) and positive were 3 (5.2%). There was negative 15 (25.9%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 9 (15.5%) neutral and 34 (58.6%) positive news stories COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 119 and editorials were published in Dawn during 2007. No coverage has been given to others during this year. In The Nation 1 (2.9%) negative, 5 (14.7%) neutral and 16

(47.1%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published.

News and editorials related to Hindus were 0 (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 3

(8.8%) were positive. There was 0 (0%) negative and 1 (2.9%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 3 (8.8%) positive news stories were published. No coverage has been given to Ahmadis during this year. There were negative 0 (0%) representations for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 5 (14.7%) positive news stories and editorials were published in The Nation during 2007.In Pakistani print media

(Dawn and The Nation) total 7 (7.6%) negative, 9 (9.8%) neutral and 27 (29.3%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was 1

(1.1%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 11 (12%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published. There was 5 (5.4%) negative and 6 (6.4%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 15 (16.3%) positive news stories and editorials were published. Representation of Ahmadiswere 3 (3.3%) negative, neutral was 0 (0%) and positive were about 3 (3.3%). There was negative 0 (0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 5 (5.4%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Pakistani print media during 2007.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 120

Figure 6.51: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during 2007

Figure 6.52: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The Nation during 2007

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 121

Table 6.29: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print media during 2007

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 2 2 3 7 Sikh 2 0 9 11 Minority Muslims 2 0 3 5 Times of India Others 0 1 0 1 6 3 15 24 Total 25.0% 12.5% 62.5% 100.0%

Christian 0 3 3 6 Minority Sikh 4 0 0 4 Hindustan Muslims 10 13 3 26 Times 14 16 6 36 Total 38.9% 44.4% 16.7% 100.0%

Christian 2 5 6 13 Sikh 6 0 9 15 Minority Muslims 12 13 6 31 Total Others 0 1 0 1 20 19 21 60 Total 33.3% 31.7% 35.0% 100.0%

Table 6.29 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Indian print media in 2007.

In Times of India 2 (8.3%) negative, 2 (8.3%) neutral and 3 (12.5%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was negative 2

(8.3%) representation for Sikhs religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 9

(37.5%) positive news stories and editorials were published. News and editorials related to Muslims were 2 (8.3%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 3 (12.5%) were positive. There was negative 0 (0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 1 (4.2%) neutral and 0 (0%) positive news stories and editorials were published in TIMES OF INDIA during 2007. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 122

In Hindustan Times 0 (0%) negative, 1 (5.6%) neutral and 2 (11.1%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was 0 (0%) negative and 3 (8.3%) neutral and 3 (8.3%) positive representation of Sikhs. News and editorials related to Muslims were 10 (27.8%) negative, 13 (36.1%) neutral and 3

(8.6%) were positive were published in Hindustan Times during 2007. No coverage has been given to other minorities during this year.

In Indian print media (TIMES OF INDIA and Hindustan Times) total 2 (3.3%) negative, 5 (8.3%) neutral and 6 (10%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 6 (10%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 9 (15%) positive news stories and editorials related to Sikh were published. There was 12

(20%) negative and 13 (21.7%) neutral representation of Muslims while 6 (10%) positive news stories and editorials were published. There was negative 0 (0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 1 (1.7%) neutral and 0 (0%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Indian print media during 2007.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 123

Figure 6.53: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of India during 2007

Figure 6.54: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Hindustan Times during 2007

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 124

Table 6.30: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 2008

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 3 1 19 23 Sikh 0 0 8 8 Minority Ahmadis 2 0 1 3 Dawn Others 0 2 17 19 5 3 45 53 Total 9.4% 5.7% 84.9% 100.0%

Christian 0 6 19 25 Hindus 1 0 5 6 Minority Sikh 0 0 8 8 The Nation Ahmadis 1 0 0 1 Others 0 0 1 1 2 6 33 41 Total 4.9% 14.6% 80.5% 100.0%

Hindus 1 0 5 6 Sikh 0 0 16 16

Ahmadis 3 0 1 4

Others 0 2 18 20 7 9 78 94 Total 7.4% 9.6% 83.0% 100.0% Table 6.30 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Pakistani print media in 2008.

In Dawn 3 (5.7%) negative, 1 (1.9%) neutral and 19 (35.8%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. No coverage has been given to Hindus during this year. There was no negative and 0(0%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 8 (15.1%) positive news stories were published. Nature of contents related to Ahmadis were 2 (3.8%) negative, neutral were 0 (0%) and positive were 1 (1.9%). There was negative 0 (0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 2 (3.8%) neutral and 17 (32.1%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Dawn during 2008. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 125

In The Nation 0 (0%) negative, 6 (14.6%) neutral and 19 (46.3%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 1 (2.4%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 5 (12.2%) were positive.

There was 0 (0%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 8

(19.5%) positive news stories were published. Representation of Ahmadiswere 1

(2.4%) negative, neutral was 0 (0%) and positive were about 0 (0%). There were negative 0 (0%) representations for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 1 (2.4%) positive news stories and editorials were published in The Nation during

2008.

In Pakistani print media (Dawn and The Nation) total 3 (3.2%) negative, 7

(7.4%) neutral and 38 (40.4%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 1 (1.1%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 5 (5.3%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published. There was 0

(0%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 16 (17%) positive news stories and editorials were published. Representation of Ahmadis were 3 (3.2%) negative, neutral was 0 (0%) and positive were about 1 (1.1%). There was negative 0

(0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 2 (2.1%) neutral and 18

(19.1%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Pakistani print media during 2008.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 126

Figure 6.55: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during

2008

Figure 6.56: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during 2008

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 127

Table 6.31: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print media during 2008

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 0 5 5 10 Minority Muslims 25 0 0 25 Times of India Others 0 0 6 6 25 5 11 41 Total 61.0% 12.2% 26.8% 100.0%

Minority Muslims 1 1 Hindustan Times 1 1 Total 100.0% 100.0%

Christian 0 5 5 10 Minority Muslims 26 0 0 26 Total Others 0 0 6 6 26 5 11 42 Total 61.9% 11.9% 26.2% 100.0%

Table 6.31 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Indian print media in 2008.

In Times of India 0 (0%) negative, 5 (12.2%) neutral and 5 (12.2%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Muslims were 25 (61%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 0 (0%) were positive.

No news related to Sikhs. There was negative 0 (0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 6 (14.6%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Times of India during 2008.

In Hindustan Times 1 (100%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 0 (0%) positive news stories and editorials related to Muslims were published in Hindustan Times during 2008. There was no coverage given to Christians, Sikhs and other minorities in

Hindustan Times. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 128

In Indian print media (Times of India and Hindustan Times) total 0 (0%) negative, 5 (11.9%) neutral and 5 (11.9%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was 26 (61.9%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral representation of Muslims while 0 (0%) positive news stories and editorials were published. There was negative 0 (0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 6 (14.3%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Indian print media during 2008.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 129

Figure 6.57: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of India during 2008

Figure 6.58: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Hindustan Times during 2008

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 130

Table 6.32: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 2009

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 4 6 29 39 Hindus 10 1 10 21 Minority Sikh 0 11 15 26 Dawn Ahmadis 4 3 1 8 Others 3 4 37 44 21 25 92 138 Total 15.2% 18.1% 66.7% 100.0%

Christian 6 9 28 43 Hindus 1 1 3 5 Minority Sikh 0 1 5 6 The Nation Ahmadis 0 0 1 1 Others 1 0 7 8 8 11 44 63 Total 12.7% 17.5% 69.8% 100.0%

Christian 10 15 57 82 Hindus 11 2 13 26 Minority Sikh 0 12 20 32 Total Ahmadis 4 3 2 9 Others 4 4 44 52 29 36 136 201 Total 14.4% 17.9% 67.7% 100.0%

Table 6.32 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Pakistani print media in 2009. In Dawn 4 (2.9%) negative, 6

(4.3%) neutral and 29 (21%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 10 (7.2%) negative, 1

(0.7%) neutral and 10 (7.2%) were positive. There was no negative and 11 (8%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 15 (10.9%) positive news stories were published. Nature of contents related to Ahmadis were 4 (2.9%) negative, neutral were 3 (2.2%) and positive were 1 (0.7%). There was negative 3(2.2%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 4 (2.9%) neutral and 37 (26.8%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Dawn during 2009. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 131

In The Nation 6 (9.5%) negative, 9 (14.3%) neutral and 28 (44.4%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 1 (1.6%) negative, 1 (1.6%) neutral and 3 (4.8%) were positive. There was 0 (0%) negative and 1 (1.6%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 5 (7.9%) positive news stories were published. Representation of Ahmadis were

0 (0%) negative, neutral was 0 (0%) and positive were about 1 (1.6%). There were negative 1 (1.6%) representations for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 7 (11.1%) positive news stories and editorials were published in The

Nation during 2009.

In Pakistani print media (Dawn and The Nation) total 10 (5%) negative, 15

(7.5%) neutral and 57 (28.4%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 11 (5.5%) negative, 2 (1%) neutral and 13

(6.5%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published. There was 0 (0%) negative and 12 (6%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 20 (10%) positive news stories and editorials were published. Representation of Ahmadis were

4 (2%) negative, neutral was 3 (1.5%) and positive were about 2 (1%). There was negative 4 (2%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 4 (2%) neutral and 44 (21.9%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Pakistani print media during 2009.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 132

Figure 6.59: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during

2009

Figure 6.60: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The Nation during 2009

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 133

Table 6.33: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print media during 2009

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 0 5 6 11 Minority Sikh 1 9 0 10 Times of India Muslims 4 10 2 16 5 24 8 37 Total 13.5% 64.9% 21.6% 100.0%

Sikh 1 0 1 Minority Muslims 2 2 4 Hindustan Times 3 2 5 Total 60.0% 40.0% 100.0%

Christian 0 5 6 11 Minority Sikh 2 9 0 11 Total Muslims 6 10 4 20 8 24 10 42 Total 19.0% 57.1% 23.8% 100.0%

Table 6.33 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Indian print media in 2009.

In Times of India 0 (0%) negative, 5 (13.5%) neutral and 6 (16.2%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was negative 1

(2.7%) representation for Sikhs religious minorities whereas 9 (24.3%) neutral and 0

(0%) positive news stories and editorials were published. News and editorials related to Muslims were 4 (10.8%) negative, 10 (27%) neutral and 2 (5.4%) were positive in

Times of India during 2009. No coverage has been given to other minorities during this year.

In Hindustan Times 1 (20%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 0 (0%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Muslims were 2 (40%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 2 (40%) were positive COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 134 in Hindustan Times during 2009.No coverage has been given to Christians and other minorities during this year.

In Indian print media (TIMES OF INDIA and Hindustan Times) total 0 (0%) negative, 5 (11.9%) neutral and 6 (14.3%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was 2 (4.8%) negative, 9 (21.4%) neutral and 0

(0%) positive news stories and editorials related to Sikh were published. There was 6

(14.3%) negative and 10 (23.8%) neutral representation of Muslims while 4 (9.5%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Indian print media during 2009.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 135

Figure 6.61: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of India during 2009

Figure 6.62: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Hindustan Times during 2009

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 136

Table 6.34: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media during 2010

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 7 4 31 42 Hindus 0 0 19 19 Minority Sikh 0 2 15 17 Dawn Ahmadis 8 2 3 13 Others 0 0 3 3 15 8 71 94 Total 16.0% 8.5% 75.5% 100.0%

Christian 6 5 25 36 Hindus 3 0 10 13 Minority Sikh 0 0 3 3 The Nation Ahmadis 6 1 7 14 Others 0 0 7 7 15 6 52 73 Total 20.5% 8.2% 71.2% 100.0%

Christian 13 9 56 78 Hindus 3 0 29 32 Minority Sikh 0 2 18 20 Total Ahmadis 14 3 10 27 Others 0 0 10 10 30 14 123 167 Total 18.0% 8.4% 73.7% 100.0%

Table 6.34 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Pakistani print media in 2010. In Dawn 7 (7.4%) negative, 4

(4.3%) neutral and 31 (33%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were (0%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 19 (20.2%) were positive. There was no negative and 2 (2.1%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 15 (16%) positive news stories were published. Nature of contents related to Ahmadis were 8 (8.5%) negative, neutral were 2 (2.1%) and positive were 3 (3.2%). There was negative 0 (0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 3 (3.2%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Dawn during 2010. In The Nation 6 (8.2%) negative, 5 (6.8%) COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 137 neutral and 25 (34.2%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. News and editorials related to Hindus were 3 (4.1%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 10 (13.7%) were positive. There was 0 (0%) negative and 0 (0%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 3 (4.1%) positive news stories were published.

Representation of Ahmadis were 6 (8.2%) negative, neutral was 1 (1.4%) and positive were about 7 (9.6%). There were negative 0 (0%) representations for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 7 (9.6%) positive news stories and editorials were published in The Nation during 2010.

In Pakistani print media (Dawn and The Nation) total 13 (7.8%) negative, 9

(5.4%) neutral and 56 (33.5%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 3 (1.8%) negative, 0 (0%) neutral and 29

(17.4%) positive news stories and editorials related to Hindus were published. There was 0 (0%) negative and 2 (1.2%) neutral representation of Sikhs while 18 (10.8%) positive news stories and editorials were published. Representation of

Ahmadiswere14 (8.4%) negative, neutral was 3(1.8%) and positive were about 10

(6%). There was negative 0 (0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas

0 (0%) neutral and 10 (6%) positive news stories and editorials were published in

Pakistani print media during 2010.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 138

Figure 6.63: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Dawn during 2010

Figure 6.64: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in The Nation during 2010

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 139

Table 6.35: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print media during 2010

Newspaper Category Negative Neutral Positive Total

Christian 0 1 0 1 Minority Muslims 5 1 1 7 Times of India Others 0 0 1 1 5 2 2 9 Total 55.6% 22.2% 22.2% 100.0%

Christian 0 1 2 3 Sikh 0 1 1 2 Minority Muslims 6 4 4 14 Hindustan Times Others 0 1 2 3 6 7 9 22 Total 27.3% 31.8% 40.9% 100.0%

Christian 0 2 2 4 Sikh 0 1 1 2 Minority Muslims 11 5 5 21 Total Others 0 1 3 4 11 9 11 31 Total 35.5% 29.0% 35.5% 100.0%

Table 6.35 shows the nature of representation (news stories and editorials) of religious minorities in Indian print media in 2010.

In Times of India 0 (0%) negative, 1 (11.1%) neutral and 0 (0%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was negative 5

(55.6%) representation for Muslims religious minorities whereas 1 (11.1%) neutral and 1 (11.1%) positive news stories and editorials were published. There was negative

0 (0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 0 (0%) neutral and 1

(11.1%) positive news stories and editorials were published in TIMES OF INDIA during 2010. No coverage has been given to Sikhs during this year.

In Hindustan Times 0 (0%) negative, 1 (4.5%) neutral and 2 (9.1%) positive news stories and editorials related to Christians were published. There was 0 (0%) COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 140 negative and 1 (4.5%) neutral and 1 (4.5%) positive representation of Sikhs. News and editorials related to Muslims were 6 (27.3%) negative, 4 (18.2%) neutral and 4

(18.2%) were positive. News related to Other minorities were 0 (0%) negative, 1

(4.5%) neutral and positive 32 (9.1%) were published in Hindustan Times during

2010.

In Indian print media (Times of India and Hindustan Times) total 0 (0%) negative, 2 (6.5%) neutral and 2 (6.5%) positive news stories and editorials related to

Christians were published. There was 0 (0%) negative, 1 (3.2%) neutral and 1 (3.2%) positive news stories and editorials related to Sikh were published. There was 11

(35.5%) negative and 5 (16.1%) neutral representation of Muslims while 5 (16.1%) positive news stories and editorials were published. There was negative 0 (0%) representation for other religious minorities whereas 1 (3.2%) neutral and 3 (9.7%) positive news stories and editorials were published in Indian print media during 2010.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 141

Figure 6.65: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Times of India during 2010

Figure 6.66: Pattern of representation of religious minorities in Hindustan Times during 2010

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 142

6.2 Part – II Media representation of minorities and minority population of Pakistan and India

Table 6.36 a: Patterns of Minority representation in Pakistani print media from

1990 – 2010

Minority Christians Hindus Sikh Ahmadis Others Total

Positive 919 63.5% 180 75% 229 73.9% 45 35.2% 528 80.6% 1901

Row % 48.3% 9.5% 12% 2.4% 27.8% 100%

Negative 176 12.2% 40 16.7% 17 5.5% 57 44.5% 44 6.7% 334

Row% 52.7% 12% 5% 17% 13.2% 100%

Neutral 351 24.3% 20 8.3% 64 20.6% 26 20.3% 83 12.7% 544

Row% 64.5% 3.7% 11.8% 4.8% 15.2% 100%

Total 1446 240 100% 310 100% 128 100% 655 100% 2779

Total % 52% 8.6% 11.2% 4.6% 23.6% 100%

Table 6.36a shows the overall pattern of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media. According to the table Christians were given 63.5% positive,

12.2% negative, and 24.3% neutral coverage. Hindus were given 75% positive, 16.7% negative and 8.3% neutral coverage. Sikh were represented as 73.9% positive, 5.5% negative, and 20.6% neutral. Ahmadis were given 35.2% positive, 44.5% negative and 20.3% neutral coverage in media. In addition, other religious minorities were given 80.6% positive, 6.7% negative and 12.7% negative representation.

Analyzing patterns of representation Christians have highest, 48.3, whereas

Ahmadis have lowest, 2.4%, positive representation. Christians have given highest

52.7% whereas Sikh have given lowest 5% negative representation. Christians have given highest 64.5% whereas Hindus have given lowest 3.7% neutral representation. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 143

Figure 6.67: Patterns of Minority representation in Pakistani print media from

1990 – 2010

Others

Ahmedies

Neutral Sikh Negative Positive Hindus

Christian

0 20 40 60 80 100

Table 6.36 b: Patterns of Minority representation in Pakistani print media from

1990 – 2010

Minority Christians Hindus Sikh Ahmadis Others Total

Positive 919 180 229 45 528 1901

Total % 33% 6.5% 8.3% 1.6% 19% 68.4%

Negative 176 40 17 57 44 334

Total % 6.3% 1.4% 0.6% 2.1% 1.6% 12%

Neutral 351 20 64 26 83 544

Total % 12.7% 0.7% 2.3% 0.9% 3% 19.6%

Total 1446 240 310 128 655 2779

Total % 52% 8.5% 11.2% 4.6% 23.6% 100%

Table 6.36 b shows the overall patterns of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media. It determines that Christians have highest media COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 144 representation, 52%, other religious minorities 23.6%, Sikh 11.2%, Hindus 8.5% whereas Ahmadis have lowest media representation 4.6%.

Table 6.37: Population Distribution by Religion in Pakistan, 1998 Census Pakistan

Total Muslims Christian Hindu Qadiani Scheduled Others

(Jati) (Ahmedi) Castes

132352279 127433409 2092902 2111271 286212 332343 96142

100% 96.28% 1.58% 1.6% 0.22% 0.25% 0.07%

Source: Pakistan statistical year book 2011, Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, Govt. of Pakistan

Table 6.37 shows the population distribution of minorities in Pakistan that constitute 1.6% Hindus, 1.58% Christians, 0.22% Ahmadis, 0.25% scheduled castes and 0.07% others.

Table 6.38: Percentage of minority Population in Pakistan, 1998 Census

Total Christian Hindu Qadiani Scheduled Others

(Jati) (Ahmadi) Castes

4,918,870 2092902 2111271 286212 332343 96142

100% 42.5% 42.9% 5.8% 6.8% 2%

Table 6.38 shows the percentage of minority population in Pakistan according to 1998 census. It shows that Hindus is the largest minority of Pakistan, 42.9%,

Christians constitute 42.5% of minority population, Sikh and others minorities as

11.2% and 23.6% respectively. Ahmadis consists of 5.8% of minority population.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 145

Table 6.39 a: Patterns of Minority representation in Indian print media from

1990 – 2010

Minority Christians Sikh Muslim Others Total

Positive 37 45.7% 35 51.4% 92 29.3% 13 76.4% 177

Row % 20.9% 19.8% 52% 7.3% 100%

Negative 14 17.3% 17 25% 179 57% 1 5.9% 211

Row % 6.6% 8% 84.9% 0.5% 100%

Neutral 30 37% 16 23.6% 43 13.7% 3 17.7% 92

Row % 32.6% 17.4% 46.7% 3.3% 100%

Total 81 100% 68 100% 314 100% 17 100% 480

Total % 16.9% 14.2% 65.4% 3.5% 100%

Table 6.39 a shows the overall pattern of representation of religious minorities in Indian print media. According to the table Christians were given 45.7% positive,

17.3%negative, and 37%neutral coverage. Sikh were given 51.4%positive,

25%negative and 23.6% neutral coverage. Muslims were represented as

29.3%positive, 57%negative, and 13.7%neutral. In addition, other religious minorities were given 76.4%positive, 5.9% negative and 17.7% negative representation.

Analyzing patterns of representation Muslims have highest, 52%, whereas other religious minorities have lowest, 7.3%, positive representation. Muslims have given highest 84.9% whereas other minorities have given lowest 0.5% negative representation. Muslims have given highest 46.7% whereas other minorities have given lowest 3.3% neutral representation.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 146

Figure 6.68: Patterns of Minority representation in Indian print media from

1990 – 2010

Others

Muslim Neutral Negative Sikh Positive

Christian

0 20 40 60 80 100

Table 6.39 b: Patterns of Minority representation in Indian print media from

1990 – 2010

Minority Christians Sikh Muslim Others Total

Positive 37 35 92 13 177

Total % 7.7% 7.3% 19.2% 2.7% 36.9%

Negative 14 17 179 1 211

Total % 2.9% 3.5% 37.3% 0.2% 43.9%

Neutral 30 16 43 3 92

Total % 6.3% 3.3% 8.9% 0.6% 19.1%

Total 81 68 314 17 480

Total % 16.9% 14.2% 65.4% 3.5% 100%

Table 6.39b shows the patterns of representation of religious minorities in

Indian print media. It shows that Muslims have highest media representation, 65.4%, COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 147

Christians 16.9%, Sikh 14.2% whereas other religious minorities including

Bhuddhists and Jains have 3.5% media representation.

Table 6.40: Distribution of population by Religion of India, 2001 Census

Hindus Muslims Christians Sikhs Buddhists Jains Others Religion not stated

80.5% 13.4% 2.3% 1.9% 0.8% 0.4% 0.6% 0.1%

Source: Census of India 2001, Ministry of home affairs, Govt. of India

Table 6.40 shows the population distribution of population in India according to 2001 census that constitute 80.5% Hindus, 13.4% Muslims, 2.3% Christians, 1.9%

Sikh, 0.8% Buddhists, 0.4% Jains, 0.6% others and 0.1% who do not state any religion.

Table 6.41: Percentage of minority Population in India, 2001 Census

Total Muslims Christians Sikhs Others Minorities

235,987,717 162,165,918 27,834,449 22,993,675 22,993,675

100% 68.7% 11.8% 9.75% 9.75%

Table 6.41 shows the percentage of minority population of India according to

2001 census. It shows that Muslims are the largest minority of India, 68.7%. Christian minority is the second largest religious community in India that constitutes the 11.8% of overall minority population and Sikh are 9.75%. The other religious minorities

(including Bhuddhists, Jains and others) in India are 9.75% of the total minority size.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 148

6.3 Part – III Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis testing is significant as it answers a specific question or statement.

The process of determining whether the statement is supported by the results of research project is referred to as hypothesis testing. A research hypothesis (H1) / alternative hypothesis (Ha) and null hypothesis (Ho) are formulated to test a hypothesis. Research hypothesis or alternative hypothesis is what research wants to support predicting that a significant difference exists between the groups being compared. And a null hypothesis predicts that no difference exists between the groups being compared. . (Jackson, 2003, Pp.120-121)

6.3.1 Analysis of first hypothesis (H1)

H1: The representation of Christians is higher in Pakistani print media as compared to other religious minorities.

Chi Square test has been applied to test the first hypothesis H1 taking into account as chi-square test of independence is applied to evaluate group differences when the test variable is nominal, dichotomous, ordinal, or grouped interval.

Chi Square Test for measuring H1

H1: The representation of Christians is higher in Pakistani print media as compared to other religious minorities.

Ho: The representation of Christians is as same as other religious minorities in

Pakistani print media.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 149

Table: Chi square test for measuring the differences among representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media

Minority Observed N Expected N Residual Christian 1446 555.8 890.2 Hindus 240 555.8 -315.8 Sikh 310 555.8 -245.8 Ahmadis 128 555.8 -427.8 Others 655 555.8 99.2 Total 2779

Test Statistics Minority Chi-Square 2060.915 Df 4 Asymp. Sig. .000 Interpretation of result

Level of significance = 0.05

P value = 0.000

Here p value is less than 0.05 that means Ho is rejected. The research findings supports research hypothesis so H1 is accepted as the representation of Christians is higher in Pakistani print media as compared to other religious minorities.

6.3.2 Analysis of second hypothesis (H2)

H2: The representation of Muslims is higher in Indian print media as compared to other religious minorities.

Chi Square test has been applied to test second hypothesis H2 taking into account as chi-square test of independence is applied to evaluate group differences when the test variable is nominal, dichotomous, ordinal, or grouped interval. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 150

Chi Square Test for measuring H2a

H2: The representation of Muslims is higher in Indian print media as compared to other religious minorities.

Ho: The representation of Muslims is as same as other religious minorities in Indian print media.

Table: Chi square test for measuring the differences among representation of religious minorities in Indian print media

Minority Observed N Expected N Residual Christian 81 120.0 -39.0 Sikh 68 120.0 -52.0 Muslims 314 120.0 194.0 Others 17 120.0 -103.0 Total 480

Test Statistics Minority Chi-Square 437.250 Df 3 Asymp. Sig. .000

Interpretation of result

Level of significance = 0.05

P value = 0.000

Here p value is less than 0.05 that means Ho is rejected. The research findings supports research hypothesis so H2 is accepted as the representation of Muslims is higher in Indian print media as compared to other religious minorities.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 151

Chapter 7

Qualitative Analysis

This section has been divided into three parts. Part I deals with the qualitative analysis of the news and editorials related to religious minorities in Pakistani print media (Daily Dawn and The Nation from 1990 to 2010), part II deals with the qualitative analysis of Indian print media (The Times of India and Hindustan Times from 1990 to 2010) and part II incorporates critical discourse analysis.

7.1 Part I – Qualitative analysis of Pakistani Print media

In qualitative analysis, news contents are interpreted by different themes in accordance with the developed categories as positive, negative and neutral.

7.1.1 Positive coverage of issues related to religious minorities

Pakistani media has positively covered the issues like celebrations of cultural events of religious minorities, ensuring equal rights, embracing Islam by minority groups and raising the voices for the protests of religious minorities.

Celebrations of cultural events of religious minorities have been highlighted in a supportive ways that determines the religious freedom and autonomy. Christians celebrate Christmas, Easter, Good Friday and New Year. They have their own churches for the prayers and meet ups. Sikhs also have equal freedom and they come from all over the world to celebrate the birthday of Guru Nanak in Pakistan. They also celebrate besakimela. Similarly Hindus celebrate Diwali, Rangoli, Raksha Bandhan and Holy. Moreover, Parsis have also enjoyed their Eid-e-Nouraz in the past, along with enthusiasm and zeal as:

“Dr. Alexander John Malik bishop of Lahore has greeted the Muslims brethren on the occasion of Eid ul Azha, along with the message of peace”. (Nation, June, 1992)

“Arrangements of Guru Nanak anniversary are in final stage. Yatrees are coming COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 152 from the neighboring country to celebrate this event.” (Dawn, November, 1993)

“Parsis to celebrate Eid-e-Nourooz today”. (Nation, March, 1993).

Baisaki Mela: first batch of yatrees arrived. (Nation, April, 1993)

All the minorities have equally been appreciated by the media that showed the solidarity and unity among the common public. The media also highlighted the efforts and initiatives of government to facilitate minorities. As:

PM Benazir accorded the approval for declaration of leave for the Christian

community on 26th December. She ordered release of pay for the month of

December before 25 December and there will be no load shedding as well.

(Nation, December, 1994)

“President, PM greet Christians on X-MAS”. (The Nation, December, 1997)

“Christmas brings message of love”. (The Nation, December, 2003)

“Muslims, Christians are like brothers”. (The Nation, February, 1997)

“Hindu observes Diwali with the peace message”. (Dawn, November, 2004)

“Shehbaz open annual celebration of Buddha”. (The Nation, May, 1999)

The print media of Pakistan also covered the issues that were related to the demand of equal rights for religious minorities. Most of the rights demanded by minorities included right of living, equal representation in politics and education, providing scholarship, no discrimination in private sphere and at federation level and fixation of quota in job opportunities. As:

“The article 36 of the constitution president of Christian‟s community said that state would safe guard the rights of minorities including their due representation in federal and provincial services”. (Dawn, Jan, 1992)

"Christian demand service quota". (The Nation, Jan, 1992) COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 153

The media also highlighted the need for equality and criticized the national identity cards with religions that can create discrimination. Media also ensured the equal rights of minorities by highlighting the issues as:

“Religion on ID cards opposed”. (Dawn, June, 1992)

“Minorities protection our foremost duty, says Nawaz”. (The Nation, July,

1992)

“Government committed to minorities‟ rights”. (Dawn, Jan, 1994)

Government is providing equal rights to the minorities of Pakistan; they are

having freedom to live and to move in the country according to their own

religion. (Dawn, Jan, 1994)

“Minorities not being discriminated.” (Dawn, Jan, 1995)

Minority affair minister Mr. Hary Ram said that there was no discrimination

against minorities in Pakistan, particularly in the province, and all were being

treated equally, irrespective of religious affiliations. (Dawn, Jan, 1995).

“Scholarships announced for Christians”. (Dawn, February, 1996)

Rs 60,000 have been served for the award of scholarship at high school level

to Christians and scheduled cast students for the year 1996-97.(Dawn,

February, 1996).

During rains of 1996, many houses of Christian‟s community got damaged. There was a demand of providing these victims with funds, about 160 Christian‟s families‟ houses collapsed due to rains including the church building. The media gave coverage to the issue and raised voice for the help of Christian community as:

“Christian colony dire need of relief” (The Nation, September, 1996) COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 154

Pakistani media also raised voices for the protections and maintenance of religious places of minorities and called for funds. In Rawalpindi, a church has been renovated by the government of Pakistan by the funds of two million as:

“100-year-old city church gets facelift” (Dawn, March, 2007)

In the editorial, “Plight of minorities” (Dawn, June, 2007), the statement of bishop was discussed who has raised his voice for minorities and said that blasphemy is an anti-minority agenda has shattered all the minorities. Blasphemy law is a controversial term and needs to be amended in the favor of minorities. Another editorial, “Muslims

Christian value” (Dawn, October, 2007), emphasized the need for talks among religious leaders to solve the emerging issues between Christians and Muslims. The editorial, “Minority rights” (Dawn, October, 2008), pointed out the problems faced by minorities like blasphemy and unequal representation in professional fields and called for need of positive role of government. After Gojra incidents, the religious leaders of Muslims and Christians preached their followers to show peace and harmony. Pakistani government granted the victims with funds to rehabilitate as:

“Rs 100million more sought for rebuilding in Gojra”. (Dawn, August, 2009)

“Christian Muslims urged to work for peace”. (Dawn, December, 2009)

During the era of 1990 and 2010, different cases were reported related to conversion of religion by religious minorities by Pakistani print media. Many families from other religions were converting to Muslims. Media has shown positive role in portraying the positive image of Islam on the world as:

“Hindu family embraces Islam”. (Nation, July, 1992)

“Yousaf Yohana embraces Islam”. (Dawn, September, 2005)

“Hindus embrace Islam”. (The Nation, July, 2007)

“DGPR officer embraces Islam”. (The Nation, October, 2007) COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 155

“Christian woman embraces Islam”. (The Nation, March, 2008)

Pakistani print media also played positive role to highlight the problems of religious minorities. Media raised the voices for the protests of minorities to ensure the equal participation of minorities and establishing media as plural. The protests were found related to blasphemy laws, unequal representation of minorities and delay in funds.

“Christians observe hunger strike”. (Nation, September, 1992)

“Christians announced agitation”. (Dawn, Feb, 95)

Bishop of Faisalabad Rt. Rev Dr. john Joseph has announced the launching of

a nationwide agitation by the Christian community to express their resentment

against the blasphemy laws. He disclosed that an emergency meeting of all

bishops in a country was being called in which mode of agitation was being

discussed. (Dawn, Feb, 95)

Protest has been seen against the article 295-c of the constitution. A resolution

adopted at the bishop Joseph matrimonial meeting. (The Nation, May, 1998)

“Stop killing Innocent Christians, arrest the culprits”. (The Nation,

September, 2003)

The editorial, “Attack on Christians”, (Dawn, June, 2007) showed solidarity with

Christians and discussed the attacks on Christians and called for the active role of government. The media also gave positive coverage to voices of Christian minorities regarding the amendments in the blasphemy law as:

The section 295-c of PPC should be prevented from being miss used and a

proper system should be introduced which follows steps of proper trial. There

were many confusions related Section 295-c which should be resolved. (The

Nation, May, 1998) COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 156

A reading of the blasphemy under the section of 295-c of PPC reveals that it

is not discriminatory against any religious minority and prescribes punishment

for Muslims and non-Muslims alive. (The Nation, May, 1998)

7.1.2 Negative coverage of issues related to religious minorities

Mostly negative coverage given to religious minorities is related to blasphemy cases. Blasphemy is an act of insulting or dishonoring the respect of holy persons or anything that is sacred for the people in a religion. To avoid blasphemy, many countries have made laws to prevent people from talk or write against the Holy spirits.

In Pakistan, many cases of blasphemy have been reported in the last two decades.

Majority of the reported blasphemy cases against Christians have been reported as compared to other minorities. Gojra incidents and case of Asia Bibi have been reported as major issues to create chaos between Muslims and Christian community.

Christian community wants to have amendment in this law.

In 1994 a blasphemy case was reported by a Christian and a minority minister demanded for amendment in blasphemy law. As:

“Manzoor Masih‟s murder government ignoring storm”. (Dawn, April, 94)

The editorial treated the issue as:

The Muslims all over the world and especially in Pakistan will not tolerate any

indignity spoken, written or implied, to the name of their Holy Prophet PBUH,

is obvious. The services of the Christian to the cause of Pakistan and their

loyalty to the state is well known and well acknowledged. They therefore,

need have no fear about any law in the country. (The Nation, April, 94)

In February 1995, two persons accused to death because of blasphemy. It was reported that these people have used derogatory language against Prophet PBUH and COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 157 have also written insulting words on the walls of mosque Ratta Shutran in

Gujranwala. Media reported as:

“Blasphemy case accused sentenced to death”. (Dawn, Feb, 95)

Additional session judge Muhammad Mujahid Hussain on Thursday awarded

the death sentence to people accused in Gujranwala blasphemy case. (Dawn,

Feb, 1995)

The judgment was announced in the bolted court room. Both the accused were

awarded capital punishment under sec 295, PPC and fined Rs. 25000 each.

(The Nation, Feb, 1995)

After the decision of court, many protests and disobedience were seen by Christian community.

In February 1997, an incident of blasphemy occurred in Shantinagr,

Khanewal. A person claimed some Christians who scattered pieces of Quran in mosque. The case was taken to the court and on the request of governor of Punjab, a judicial inquiry committee was made. A long range of protects were seen by

Christians community as a reaction to this, who again demanded the change in the blasphemy law to show some relaxation. In a result of Khanewal blasphemy, some

Muslim police officers were arrested in blasphemy case against Bible. Christians all over the world protested and claimed the death of these officers. Christian Muslims riots started in Khanewal and many buildings and schools were destroyed in protests.

Media reported the issue as:

The incident was reported by a person who had gone the mosque to offer

prayers. According to him he found scattered pages of Holy Quran and a chit

with some Christians name written on it. (The Nation, February, 1997). COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 158

Accused in Khanewal incident held. The persons allegedly involved in the

desecration of some pages of Holy Quran at Khanewal have been arrested and

a case has been registered against them. The governor of Punjab has ordered

judicial inquiry for the incident. (The Nation, February, 1997)

Call to arrest culprits of Khanewal incident. The members of the group said

that both the Christians and Muslims should live in harmony and called upon

the people belonging to both the religions not to allow any incident in future.

(The Nation, 1997)

In May 1998, an editorial, “The bishop‟s suicide” (Dawn, May, 1998), reported the suicide of a bishop in Sahiwal who shot himself outside the court as he was accused of blasphemy. Bishop Joseph was accused of using derogatory words against Holy Prophet during a procession. The court ordered to arrest him and start investigation. But Christian community protested against the orders of court and

Bishop led a procession towards and shot himself in front of session court. Media reported the event as:

Doctor John Joseph in a public spear in Sahiwal is a traumatic event it is

reported that the bishop led special prayers for the member of Christian

community sentenced to death under the blasphemy law by the session judge

of Sahiwal. The bishop led a procession in the session court took out a

revolver and short himself in the temple. The argument is that the extreme step

taken by the bishop was perhaps a case of overreaction .The HRC of Pakistan

has stressed in its annual report that the blasphemy law is known to have been

widely abused it has provided a handle to fanatical sentiment and has served

as an instrument for mischief and personalize. (Dawn, May, 1998) COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 159

In year 2003, another blasphemy case was observed which created a chaos among Muslims and Christians. The case was reported under the section 295-A and

298-C by arresting a Muslim, Malik Ghulam Shabir, resident of Peshawar who expressed humiliating and offensive words against Jesus Christ. Similarly destruction of 140 years old Hindu Temple by local police to make plaza created hype by Hindus community which later on decided by to leave their places. Dawn reported these incidents in news and editorial as:

“Blasphemy case registered” (Dawn, November, 2003)

“Leave Temple alone” (Dawn, December, 2003)

The coverage of these incidents by Pakistani print media shows that not only

Christians even Muslims who had done any blasphemy against Holy spirits were also arrested under blasphemy law.

In year 2004 another incident took place when priest Mukhtar Masih of Basti

Sadian died by torture of police officer named as Faryad Ali and his body was found near Khanewal railway station. It was reported that he used to litter the garden and walls of religious placed and acted unethically. This incident created a very bad image of Pakistan. Media report that case as:

“Priest found murdered in Khanewal” (Dawn, January, 2004)

“Priest‟s murder “sectarian terrorism” (Dawn, May, 2004)

“Christians protest murder” (Dawn, June, 2004)

The editorial published “Blasphemy law abuse” (Dawn, May, 2004) explained the incident and suggested to amend the blasphemy law.

Another incident was occurred during the same year when a boy named Javed

Anjum of Faisalabad was sentenced to death for not embracing the Islam. Christian community protested and claimed that government was failed to provide justice and COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 160 equal rights. Human rights commission of Pakistan condemned the murder of

Christian youth and said that he was died by „religious fanatics‟ in the area of Toba

Tek Singh. Media reported the case as:

“Christians condemn murder of Youth” (Dawn, May, 2004)

“Demo against „murder‟ of Christian youth” (Dawn, May, 2004)

“Christian youth heirs seek compensation” (The Nation, May, 2004)

In 2005, the case of blasphemy was done by Hindu couple named as Chaman

Lal and his Wife Karishna who talked against the respect of Holy Quran. Dawn report the case in the news as

“Couple sent into police custody.” (Dawn, September, 2005)

Afterward, in the same year a case of blasphemy against the community of Christians occurred as a result of which unidentified group of people attack on hostels and churches of Christian in Sangla Hills. Protest all over the country was observed by

Christian‟s community and they demanded the justice. Following news were published regarding this case as:

Christians to mourn attack on churches Dawn, October, 2005)

The editorial under the headline “Sangla Hill outrage (Dawn, November, 2005)” supported the protests in a neutral way and gave future recommendations for future law and order situations.

In 2006, the media covered the case in news and editorial as:

“Two churches tortured in Sukkur” (The Nation, February, 2006)

Editorial “Attack on churches” (The Nation, February, 2006)

The incidence showed that blasphemy still continued when a group of mob tortured

St. Savior Church and another one fired the St. Mary Church and set on fire in front of COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 161 police. Protest had been seen by Muslim majority against the incidence of Sukkur in which a Christian family uttered some words against the Holy book Quran. During the investigation it was revealed that Saleem Gill was not actually involved in this shameful act but the son in law was accused to have done blasphemy. It was demanded that blasphemy law should help Christians.

In 2007, editorial published by the title “Time to review blasphemy law”

(Dawn, February, 2007) discussed the impact of blasphemy law on minorities. It further explained different cases of blasphemy and demanded to repeal the blasphemy law; and in case if it was not done then some reasonable amendments in the law should be made.

In 2009, a huge violent incident occurred in which many human beings were humiliated. The incident took place in Gojra when Atif Jamil Pagaan and Ashfaq

Fateh told that the riots began due to Mukhtar Masih, Talib Masih and his son Imran desecrated the pages of Holy Quran in a wedding ceremony. After this, violent group of Muslims started destroying Christian‟s religious places and this matter turned into a huge Chaos. Police officers asked him to apologize on his this act, but he refused.

Protests by Muslims and Christian were started against each other which caused causalities. Later judicial commission was made to look after the case and government faced too much criticism regarding this incident. Media reported the case in news and editorial as as:

Editorial: “Fires of hate in Gojra” (Dawn, August, 2009)

“Negligence of officials blamed for Gojra riots”. (Dawn, August, 2009)

“Negligence of officials blamed for Gojra riots”. (Dawn, August, 2009)

“Judicial probe into Gojra violence” (Dawn, August, 2009)

Editorial: “Rampant bigotry” (Dawn, August, 2009) COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 162

“Governor accuses Punjab Govt. of lethargic response”. (Dawn, August, 2009)

“Peacemakers implicated in violence, says PML-N”. (Dawn, August, 2009)

“Mob Justice”. (Dawn, August, 2009)

“Christians of Gojra still under threat”. (Dawn, August, 2009)

“Committee to monitor Gojra relief operation” (Dawn, August, 2009)

“Innocent held for Gojra violence”. (Dawn, August, 2009)

During the same year another Christian was accused to be a blasphemer. The case occurred in Jaithikey Village Sambrial, Sialkot, where Fanish Masih along with four others dishonored the paraas of Holy Quran and threw them into the drain.

Meanwhile, protests by Muslim community were also seen. He was arrested and committed suicide in jail but Christian community refused to accept. Media reported the case as:

“Prime suspect in blasphemy case arrested” (Dawn, September, 2009)

“Blasphemy accused found dead in jail” (Dawn, September, 2009)

“Fanish denied burial in hometown” (Dawn, September, 2009)

The editorial “Communal tensions” (Dawn, September, 2009) described the case and gave a viewpoint that government should re amend the blasphemy law.

The news published as “Blasphemy law: minorities fail to reach consensus” (Dawn,

October, 2009) showed the failure of blasphemy law. In the editorial “Gojra Accused”

(Dawn, December, 2009) discussed the further investigation regarding the incident.

Blasphemy didn‟t end up in the year of 2010 and another case of Aasia Bibi came forward to disturb the relations of Muslims with minority. She was alleged to be accused in a case of blasphemy. She was objectified by a group of Muslim women that she should not touch the water from well being non-Muslim. After this, someone went to police station and claimed that Aasia bibi has uttered some derogatory words COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 163 against the respect of Holy Prophet. Under this allegation, police arrested her from the area of Ittanwalai village and prosecuted under Section 295-C of the PPC. Protests in favor of Asia Bibi were observed. Petition was also filed against Governer Salman

Taseer to favor the release of Aasia Bibi. Media reported the case as:

“Christian woman sentenced to death in blasphemy case” (Dawn, November,

2010)

“Protesters oppose pardon for Aasia Bibi” (Dawn, November, 2010)

“Amnesty urges release of Pakistani Christian woman” (The Nation,

November, 2010) “Petition filed against Governor for support to Asia Bibi”

(The Nation, November, 2010) “Pakistani-Americans, HR groups seek

blasphemy laws review” (Dawn, November, 2010) .

In an editorial “Blasphemy case” (Dawn, November, 2010) described that government of Pakistan has failed to provide full rights to the minorities. Despite having full protection, minorities have been neglected every time.

7.1.3 Representing Ahmedis in Pakistani Print Media

Ahmedis or Qaddiyani (Marzai) are religious minorities living in Pakistan.

They have the conflict with the other sects and their religious views are different from

Muslims that‟s why they were considered as non-Muslims by the government of

Pakistan. They were not allowed to cast the vote. Due to the declaration Ahmedis boycott the electoral system of Pakistan and demanded to respect the individuality through nationality rather than by religion. Later Ahmedis filed petition against the discrimination between sects.

The media of Pakistan gave the negative coverage of this minority but to some extent they also give positive coverage. Media also covered their protests, demands and prayers in a neutral way. Media represented this minority as: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 164

“The Ahmedi community has decided to boycott the elections, once again, in

keeping with the decision taken en masse since they were declared non-

Muslims through an act of parliament in 1974” (Dawn, Feb, 2002)

“Ahmedis‟ votes „deleted‟ from rolls” (Dawn, July, 2002)

“Partiality against Ahmedis alleged” (Dawn, October 2002)

In the editorial “Plight of minorities” (Dawn, June, 2007) the statement of

Bishop of Rochester, Michael Nazir Ali was discussed who has raised his voice for minorities as Ahmedi and Hindu communities were routinely targeted under the blasphemy law.

In May, 2010, a suicidal attack on the worship places of Ahmadis was seen in

Ghahri Shahu and Model Town mosques. These blasts were carried out by the extremists. Media report the events as:

“The President of Ahmadiyya Community UK Rafiq Hayat said that the attack

on two mosques in Pakistan during Friday prayers is an act of sacrilege and an

example of pure hate that fuels terrorism” (Nation, May, 2010)

“Jamiat Nazim-e-Aala, Hafiz Abdul Kareem during a meeting with Ehl-e-

Hadith Youth Force on Saturday said that enemies of Muslims would not

succeed in their conspiracies. He called upon the Muslims of the world to

unite against such conspiracies” (Nation, May, 2010)

7.2 Part - II Qualitative Analysis of Indian Print media

In Indian print media, Hindustan Times and Times of India (1990 – 2010) were selected for qualitative analysis. Mostly news was related to Muslims minorities‟ issues which showed biases against Muslims. Muslims were portrayed as a most violent and terrorist group. Some of these issues and news are discussed below.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 165

7. 2.1 Negative representation of issues related to religious minorities

Most of the coverage was against the Muslims and news regarding the

Muslims was treated negatively by the Indian press. Muslims were labeled as terrorists, fundamentalists and extremists. During the Babri Mosque and Bombay

Riots (1990-1993), a Hindu volunteer demolish the Babri Mosque of Muslims in

Ayodha, Utar Pardesh who claimed that Ayodha is the place of Ram and Muslims have no right to build the mosque here. Many conflicts started among both religious groups resulting more than 2000 death causalities. The Media of India (Times of India and Hindustan Times) portrayed this issue as:

“…the demolition of the Babri Masjid, Bombay (Maharashtra) was the scene

of serious Hindu–Muslim violence. As the news of the demolition spread in

the city on December 6, Muslims flowed out into the streets. Communal

Hindu victory processions, such as the celebration rally held by the

in the slum of Dharavi, provoked the rage of Muslims. Transport buses and

Hindu temples were damaged. Muslim criminals looted Hindu shops.

Policemen were targeted by Muslim mobs: two constables were killed on

December 7. The situation further degraded on December 7 and 8…” (Times

of India,8 December 1992)

“The state of Karnataka was the worst hit of the four southern states by the

post-demolition (Babri Masjid) violence. Violence flared up in the districts

and towns that had already experienced communal troubles in 1990 during the

Ram RathYatra of L. K. Advani. The media reported 73 deaths in the state.

Muslim anger, in the days following the destruction of the Babri

Masjid”….(Hindustan Times, 18 January, 1993) COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 166

“…The industrial and communally-sensitive city of Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh)

was also badly affected by the Babri Masjid violence. Rioting spread to the

city in subsequent days, with a peak of massive killings on December 9 and

10…” (Hindustan Times, 18 January, 1993).

In 1993 Hindustan Times published news about the post violence of Babri

Mosque destruction showing Muslim mob destructing the industrial area as a revenge of demolishing Babri Mosque. In post era of Babri Mosques demolition Bombay riots started. Approximately, nine hundred people were died in which 575 Muslims and

275 Hindus death were reported. Commission was made but failed to find out the facts. Times of India reported the issue as:

“In retaliation for the Bombay riots of December 1992 and January 1993, a

series of bomb blasts occurred in different areas of Bombay; killing 257

persons and injuring 713 others; according to the Srikrishna Commission. The

authors of the blast were Muslims recruited by the Muslim mafia

leader Dawood Ibrahim, operating from Dubai.”(Times of India, 20 January,

1993).

Similarly the Indian Parliament Attacks on 13 December 2001 increased the tension between Pakistan and India. Media reported the incident in a negative way and declared Muslims as a terrorist. Times of India reported the issue like:

“…The Indian Prime Minister, Atal Behari Vajpayee, addressed to the nation

after the attacks, and was quick to denounce the militants. No group has

admitted to carrying out the attack. Many have suggested that Kashmiri

militants may also be behind today's attack.which were convicted and COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 167

sentenced to death helping to plan the attack on parliament”(Times of India,

2001).

In Gujarat Riots 2002, conflict between Muslims and Hindu was started that resulted in violence. The conflict began due to the burning of train in Godhra that resulted into the deaths of 58 Hindus and Muslim community was suspected for this.

It was also said that these riot was well-planned and sponsored by the BJP-led Gujarat administration and its chief minister, Narendra Modi. It was alleged that a mob of approximately 2000 people encircled the train and set fire to the wagons, killing 58

Hindus, including 25 women and 14 children. By evening, the corpses had been transported to Ahmedabad for a public ceremony. The VHP, with the support of the

BJP administration, subsequently called for a February 28 strike in Gujarat. This conflict lasts for three months. Hindustan Times reported this incident as:

“…..The violence was ignited on February 27 by an attack in Godhra (Gujarat)

on a train carrying Hindu pilgrims and karsevaks who were coming back from

Ayodhya (Uttar Pradesh) where they had offered support for the campaign to

construct a Ram temple in place of the destroyed Babri Masjid….” (Hindustan

Times, 28 February, 2002).

On the other hand Indian print media also published news that Muslims became the victims of the protests and riots. Following are the news of Times of

India, which reported the issues like this.

“In Ahmedabad, 252 people died. In Naroda Patia, 65 people were

burned alive.In Gulmarg Society, the 250 persons along with former

Muslim MP Ahsan Jafry were dismembered and burned alive” (Times

of India, 1st March, 2002). COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 168

“The entire state of Gujarat was rocked by the violence resulting huge

amount of causalities. In the city of Baroda, on March 1, 12 persons

were burned alive at the Best Bakery, a Muslim establishment. 249

people died in Panchmahal district, 54 in Dahod district, 57 more in

Mehsana district, 30 in Kheda district, 28 in Sabarkantha district, and

many more in other districts” (Times of India, 2nd March, 2002)

In 30 September 2005, Danish Cartoon Controversy started when 12 editorial cartoons publish in Danish Newspaper “Jyllands Posten” which depicted the Islamic

Prophet and criticized the Islam and its teachings. After this incidence the protests and riots began by the Muslims. Media of India represented Muslims as a violent destroying the public property of India. Times of India reported the issue as:

“Lucknow (a peaceful city) witnessed violence, following violent speeches

delivered by the UP minister, Haji Yakoob, regarding the Danish Mohammed

cartoons. The Muslims from the localities of Aminabad, Kaiserganj, and

Latoosh Road staged large demonstrations after Friday prayers. Violence

started and procession was then stoned and a riot erupted, in which four

persons were killed.” (Times of India, 1st Oct, 2005).

In 2007-2008 Muslims Hits Temple in India create the hype in Indian Print.

They started blaming and criticizing Muslims in all way. They represented that

Muslims as terrorists and they destroyed the religious places of Hindus which created conflicts. The news showed Muslims as extremists and wanted to disturb the peace in

India. Media reported this case as: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 169

“Troubles occurred in Gorakhpur (Uttar Pradesh) temple, located in a Muslim

area. Terrorist mob came to the site and retaliated by destroying a temple.

Violence resumed when Adityanath was arrested for provoking violence. His

supporters wreaked havoc on the city. Around five Hindus died in the

violence…” (Hindustan Times, 29 Jan, 2007)

“The city of Indore (Madhya Pradesh) was hit by communal violence, over the

conflict concerning the Amarnath temple in Kashmir. On May 2008, the

Jammu and Kashmir state government announced the transfer of one hundred

acres of forest land to the Amarnath temple to set up temporary facilities for

Hindu pilgrims. This led to widespread protests in the Kashmir valley On July

1; the state government had to revoke the land-transfer decision” (Times of

India 27 May, 2008)

7.2.2 Positive coverage of issues related to religious minorities

In India, there are other minorities as well like Sikh and Christian community.

The Media of India covered the issues about the improvement in the minorities‟ education, social issues of minorities, scholarship issues for minorities, political issue and employment issues regarding minorities in a positive manner.

Sikhs Minorities in India has been treated in a positive manner in India print media. Media gave the coverage to the Legendary Balbir Singh (senior), who won three successive Olympics gold medals. The news was treated as:

“Legendary Balbir Singh (senior), who won three successive Olympics

gold medals, was on Wednesday adjudged the No. 1 Sikh hockey

player produced by India. Balbir, the 81-year-old versatile centre

forward, was picked as Top 10 'Sardars of Hockey'. (Times, 27 April,

2006). COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 170

Indian media covered the Christian minority as well in which All Indian

Association for Christian Higher Education arranged the training programs for

Christian so that they enhance their abilities to get better employment opportunities.

Indian government made strategies for the betterment of minorities. Indian

Universities focused on the University‟s building infrastructure for minority student.

In 2010 Patna University built a new hostel for minority girl students. Government of

India helped the minorities in any disaster. India helped the minorities of Bihar, who became victimized of floods of 2008 in India. In 2010 Times of India has published news that minorities in India especially Muslim minorities are contributing in the social development of the society. The government of India also purposed the minority flagship program to the social development of minorities in 2010.

Following news of Times of India and Hindus time that covered the issues in a positive ways as:

“...A six-day training course in management for the minority institutions was

jointly organized by All India Association for Christian Higher Education

(AIACHE) which is the right of the religious to establish and administer

educational institutions of their choice…” (22 June 2010, Times of India).

“HRD ministry has written to Congress General Secretary and leaders to

suggest names that can be made members of NMCME. Muslim intellectuals,

writers and academics will be made part of it to come up with a strategy on

Muslim education (Times of India, 25 July, 2010)”.

“Patna University is likely to get a new hostel for minority girl students soon.

The construction of the hostel building is almost complete and only final

touches are due (Times of India, 3 March, 2010)”. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 171

“Gujarat government on Saturday said more than Rs 20 crore cheque was

given to help the Bihar flood victims. (Times of India, 21 June 2010)”.

In 2009 Times of India also published the news about financial assistant of

2008 flood victimized minorities of India. Many organizations and Non-

Governmental organizations were working for the development of minorities in India.

Media reported as:

“The Karnataka Minority Development Corporation Limited (KMDCL) has

come forward to provide financial assistance to the tune of Rs 429 lakh to the

members of minority communities who have been affected by the recent

floods. The assistance will be for rehabilitation and construction of houses.

(Times of India, 19 November, 2009)”.

“In a major initiative, HRD ministry has called a meeting of 18 leading

Muslim industrialists and philanthropists. The ministry wants them to suggest

the ways of education and to help to set up community-based polytechnics to

bolster varied craft skills of Muslims.”(Times of India, 22 September, 2010).

“The government is mulling a proposal to separately map the share of

religious minorities in flagship welfare programs.(Times of India, 5

Decemebr, 2010)”.

After Mumbai attacks Indian print media focused on the education and employments of all minorities especially Muslims in which scholarships to

Minorities and employment opportunities were given in 2010. Media report it as:

… “Students from minority communities in state will have 13,000

scholarships in which 11,000 scholarships are for professional courses. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 172

Muslim, Christian, Parsi, Jain and Sikh students whose annual family income

is below Rs 2.5 lakh will be eligible. Merit will be the sole criteria. Around

7,080 scholarships have been reserved for Muslims. (Hindustan Times, 6

February, 2010).

“The state government is planning to start special training sessions for

minorities at the Industrial Training Institute across 43 tehsils from July or

August. There will also be 40 additional seats (10 each) at Indian

Administrative Service (IAS) training centres in Mumbai, Nagpur, Kolhapur

and Aurangabad,the government was also planning to set up two ITI centres in

Mumbai city.”(Hindustan Times, 28 January, 2010).

“Over 42,000 students from minority communities in Yavatmal district call

for scholorship .According to sources, the Central government had announced

educational scholarship to students hailing from minority communities like

Muslims, Christians, Buddha, Sikh and Parsi. (Times of India, 11 December,

2010)”.

Indian print media focused on the employment and political issues of

Minorities in India. The media illustrated that Muslim minorities were enjoying better employment opportunities. Positive coverage has been given to the political issues of minorities. Quota for the resolution of political issues of minorities in India was emphasized. Following are the news that was covered by Indian print as:

“….Well-known urologist of Indian-origin Navin Shah has been appointed

president of the medical staff at Doctors Community Hospital (DCH) in

Lanham, Maryland (Hindustan Times, 6 January, 2006) COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 173

“On June 3, HT had reported a steady rise in minority employment, from 6.9

per cent in 2007-08 to 9.5 per cent in 2009-10, on the back of focused

initiatives of the minority affairs ministry.” (Hindustan Times, 24 July, 2010).

“Numbers sourced from the ministry of minority affairs show that 2009

registered a six-fold increase in the number of people from minority

communities recruited to jobs in public sector banks and other public sector

financial institutions compared to 2007 (Times of India, 22 June, 2010)”.

“…A grassroots Muslim leader, , MLA Arif Aqueel represents the minority

community in Dig Vijay Cabinet. He was inducted as a Minister of State in the

Council of Ministers led by Dig Vijay Singh on Dec 6, 1998 and later elevated

to the Cabinet rank…” (Hindustan Times, 16 October, 2003).

“The BJP on Monday questioned the government's motive to create a minority

affairs ministry, saying it smacked of "vote-bank politics." The BJP feels

every attempt be made to ensure economic and educational development of

the minorities and bring them to the national mainstream. However, the

present decision has been taken in pursuit of vote bank politics. (Hindustan

Times, 26 January, 2006)”.

“Minority leaders have appealed to voters to come out in large numbers and

encouraged to cast their votes. Minorities are part of India and democracy so it

is believed that power in democracy comes from ballot and not bullets. So

everyone must exercise their franchise. (Times of India, 25 November, 2009)”.

Overall, Indian print media found biased in presenting Muslims and depicted

Muslims minority as violent and aggressive and victimizing Hindus in the times of conflicts. In comparison to other religious minorities Muslim community is negatively COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 174 represented in controversial issues. However, Indian Print media represented political, educational, employment and social issues of all religious minorities positively.

7.3 Part III – Critical Discourse Analysis

Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) as an approach of analyzing text is characterized to highlight the embedded ideologies and power relations in the text be it is written, spoken or visual. The discourse analysts have their own specific perspectives with retaining their scientific methodologies. Critical discourse analysis is generally regarded as an approach that consists of various perspectives and methods to analyze the text. The many main key contributors of this domain but this study implements Norman Fairclough method of critical discourse analysis. There are some key terms that are used in Fairclough approach of critical discourse analysis. He describes text as any spoken or written language and sees critical discourse analysis as multilayered process consisting of communicative events and order of discourse. Both are complementary and essential for analysis of any particular text. Communicative event incorporate the analysis of text, discourse practices (production processes and consumption of text) and socio cultural practice. Whereas, order of discourse involves the analysis of discourses and genres.(Fairclough, 1995a).

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 175

Socio-cultural practice

Discourse Practice (production and

consumption of text) Text production

&consumption

Text

Fig. A framework of critical discourse analysis of communicative event

(Fairclough, 1995, p.59)

The present study attempts to describe the text of news and editorials related to all the religious minorities in Pakistani and Indian print media in selected time period as a first layer of analysis. i.e. how the minorities have been sketched, portrayed, depicted or expressed by the media.

The study also attempts to interpret the included and excluded issues related to religious minorities in selected media as a second layer of analysis that points to the role of media as a gate keeper in the selection of information. i.e. To develop an understanding about the version of print media by analyzing the choices of issues reported related to religious minorities.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 176

Third layer of analysis is limited to the situational explanation of representation of Pakistani Hindus and Indian Muslims only with reference to the broader Political relations between Pakistan and India. i.e. To develop a justification and give rational for the treatment of minority within certain context. Thematically the spectrum of present study can be sketched as:

Socio-cultural practice

Discourse Practice (production and consumption of text)

Text Description of text from selected A print media

Interpretation of included and excluded issues related to religious minorities in selected media

Situational explanation of representation of religious minorities of Pakistan and India in selected time period

Figure: A conceptual framework of applying critical discourse analysis based on Fairclough approach of CDA

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 177

7.3.1 Representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media

The present study categorizes religious minorities of Pakistan as including

Christians, Hindus, Sikh, Ahmadis and others. As a first layer of analysis the study focuses on the description of available news stories and editorials related to the religious minorities.

Pakistani print media has highlighted Christians more than any other religious minority. Many news and editorials related to Christians promoting good relations and harmony have been published including the celebrations of Christmas, Good Friday,

New Year and Easter. Pakistani media also represented Christians as taking initiative towards peace and solidarity and loyal to state and embracing Islam. Media also reported the role of Pakistani government in ensuring rights of minorities. But most of the times Pakistani media portrayed them as hostile creating agitation and termed them as „protesters‟, „Culprits‟, and „terrorists‟ while representing blasphemy cases whereas their call of protest on a priest murder was entitled as, „sectarian terrorism‟.

Hindu minority is the largest religious minority of Pakistan (“Pakistan statistical year book”, 2011) but print media covered a few stories related to them except their right to celebrate their rituals as Holy, Diwali, Rangoli and Rakshaw Bandhan and emphasizing their rights. Media reported the cases of abuses of Hindu women and killing of Hindu children so highlighting the need for equal rights.

“Policemen rape three Hindu women” (The Nation, February, 1992)

“14 arrested for killing Hindu children” (The Nation, December, 1992)

Pakistani media played a positive role by emphasizing their equal rights and need of protection ensuring the loyalties of Hindus to their state.

“Pagaru, Talibul Moula urge to protect Hindus” (The Nation, December,

1992) COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 178

“Hindu leaders urge rights for minorities” (Dawn, November, 1993)

“Pakistani Hindus are patriotic” (The Nation, December, 1992)

Pakistani media raised voices for the rights of Hindu minority and condemned the act of demolishing a Temple by government in 2003. Media also reported some of the Hindus families‟ acceptance of Islam and appreciated them as their right to have a religion of their own choice.

Pakistani media also highlighted the status of Indian Muslims when Hindus attacked on the Muslim community and harassed the girls of Muslims and forced them to convert into Hindus in New Delhi.

“Protest against Hindu attack” (The Nation, February, 1999)

“100,000 Muslims protest Hindu oppression” (Dawn, April, 2000)

Pakistani print media highlighted rare cases related to Ahmadis and reported their conflicts of being declared as non Muslims in Pakistan and their boycott of elections.

Sikhs and other religious minorities were presented in media in a very positive manner. Particularly, media spotted the pilgrimage of Sikhs as a sign of mutual cooperation and showed a hospitable attitude of government in this regard. Media also supported the celebrations of eid-e-nouraz by Parsis.

The second layer of analysis incorporates the interpretation of issues covered by the media related to religious minorities. Media included most of the issues related to Christians as compared to other religious minorities. The issues raised were political representation in provincial and federal governments, Rights to get employments, educational opportunities, giving scholarships, demand for fixing quota, equal minority rights in constitution, security threats and demand to amend COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 179 blasphemy law by Christians. Whereas other issues like health conditions and uplifting the life standards of Christians were excluded in media coverage.

The Pakistani media is more silent on the issues of Hindus and Ahmadis in comparison to Christians. The issues raised about Hindu minority were concerning embracing Islam and protection of their rights and religious places while other types of issues were not included in the media coverage regarding Hindu minorities.

Ahmedies were reported in media regarding protection of their religious places. Sikhs got notified in Pakistani media comparatively more because of the pilgrimage of

Sikhs to Pakistan every year.

Critical discourse analysis focuses on the role of text in the production of dominance and power. While such dominance and exercise of power by any institution or group results in social inequality of any type. Media as a social institution is a source to exert power and has the capacity to create inequality including religious one. There are certain modes of exerting power by emphasizing one aspect over the other. Here Pakistani media have over represented one religious group, Christians, while the some others religious groups have been under represented as Hindus and Ahmadis resulting in unequal and biased treatment of media. Moreover, particular issues related to different religious minorities have been raised. As media is the available source of information has power to influence and make consumers conditioned about the gated information. This strategy helps to legitimate control and thus the choices and representations of media appear natural and taken for granted i.e. Hegemony.

Critical discourse analysis views language in a dialectical relationship with society. This relationship implies that language is not only socially constructed but also socially conditioned. So the language used for any groups or individuals COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 180 determines the existing patterns of beliefs about those groups and also plays its part in constituting and strengthening the belief systems and social identities of that groups or communities. Implying this notion of critical discourse analysis the language used for the minority groups determines the beliefs about the minority which in turns shapes the beliefs and identities of the minority groups.

The third layer of analysis attempts to discuss the situational explanation of representation of religious minorities of Pakistan (either over representation or under representation) and tries to give the reasons and justifications of the media representation of religious minorities within the broader socio-cultural practice.

Pakistani print media has covered the issues related to Christians more than any other religious minorities although they are not the largest minority of Pakistan.

The possible reason for the higher coverage of Christian minority in Pakistani media is the conflicts associated with the blasphemy law. There have been tensions and reservations of Christian minority in the application of law. Media reported many cases of blasphemy accused and the protests of Christians including Lahore blasphemy case in 1994, Gujranwala blasphemy case of 1995, Khanewal crises in

1997, Sahiwal blasphemy case in 1998, Khanewal blasphemy case in 2004, Sukkur crises of 2006, Gojra blasphemy incidents of 2009 and Asia bibi case of 2010. So

Blasphemy cases were reported from many cities of Pakistan in the selected time period and mostly Christians were found accused of blasphemy whereas rare cases were reported against Hindus and other religious minorities. That is the basic reason that Christians were spotted in media among other religious minorities. The nature of media representation for Christians has been constructive as well by creating atmosphere of harmony, peace and tolerance and supporting their rights. Due to these reasons Christians have been overrepresented in media. Whereas, there has been no COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 181 such conflicts and issues related to Hindu minority in Pakistan, so, they have been underrepresented; although they are the largest religious minority in Pakistan.

7.3.2 Representation of religious minorities in Indian print media

The present study categorizes religious minorities of India as including

Christians, Sikh, Muslims and others. As a first layer of analysis the study focuses on the description of available news stories and editorials related to the religious minorities in Times of India and Hindustan Times in selected time period.

Muslims are the largest minority of India and print media has highlighted

Muslims more than any other religious minority accordingly. Many news stories and editorials were published in Indian print media representing minority Muslims as terrorists and criminals. They had been portrayed as violent and extremists disturbing the peace and causing agitation in the times of conflict. They have been shown as facing prejudices, discrimination and Hindu extremism. Indian print media portrayed

Muslim minorities in a positive manner as well by highlighting their educational empowerment, social and political participation.

Indian media has highlighted the issues of minority groups concerning educational development, need for technical trainings, ensuring rights, employment opportunities and assuring support in the times of crises.

The second layer of analysis incorporates the interpretation of the issues covered by the media related to religious minorities. Media included most of the issues related to Muslims as compared to other religious minorities. The issues raised in media included communal riots between Muslims and Hindus, involvement of

Muslims in terrorist attacks, security threats, political participation in government,

Rights to get employments, educational opportunities, giving scholarships and equal COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 182 minority rights. Whereas other issues like health conditions, political representation and empowerment of Muslim women were excluded in media coverage.

Indian print media did not significantly report the issues related to Christians,

Sikhs and other religious minorities. However, Indian media has highlighted the issues related to religious minorities in general.

Critical discourse analysis focuses on the role of text in the production of dominance and power. While such dominance and exercise of power by any institution or group results in social inequality of any type. Media as a social institution is a source to exert power and has the capacity to create inequality including religious one. There are certain modes of exerting power by emphasizing one aspect over the other. Moreover, particular issues related to different religious minorities have been raised. As media is the available source of information has power to influence and make consumers conditioned about the gated information.

This strategy helps to legitimate control and thus the choices and representations of media appear natural and taken for granted i.e. Hegemony.

Critical discourse analysis views language in a dialectical relationship with society. This relationship implies that language is not only socially constructed but also socially conditioned. So the language used for any groups or individuals determines the existing patterns of beliefs about those groups and also plays its part in constituting and strengthening the belief systems and social identities of that groups or communities. Implying this notion of critical discourse analysis the language used for the minority groups determines the beliefs about the minority which in turns shapes the beliefs and identities of the minority groups. The negative patterns of representation of Muslim minority in Indian media determine the prejudiced beliefs about the community that in turns can shape the identities about them. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 183

The third layer of analysis attempts to discuss the situational explanation of representation of religious minorities of India (either over representation or under representation) and tries to give the reasons and justifications of the media representation of religious minorities within the broader socio-cultural practice.

Muslim minority is the largest religious minority of India so has been over represented in Indian print media. The possible reason for the higher coverage of

Muslim minority in media, firstly, is their size as 13.4 % of the total population of

India that is a big difference from other minorities as Christians on 2.3% and Sikh

1.9% of total population. In addition, the conflicts between minority Muslims and

Hindus has focused media to give attention to them as the demolition of Babri mosque and Bombay riots from 1990 to 1993, Indian Parliament attack in 2001, Gujrat riots of

2002,Danish cartoon controversy in 2005, Hindu Muslim conflicts of 2007 and 2008.

Whereas, there has been no such conflicts has been reported in media regarding other religious minorities.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 184

Chapter 8

Analysis and Discussion

1. What is the pattern of minority representation in Pakistani print media?

Analyzing the patterns of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media reveals that Christians have highest media representation, 52%, other religious minorities 23.6%, Sikh 11.2%, Hindus 8.5% whereas Ahmadis have lowest media representation 4.6%, in comparison to all other religious minorities, see table 6.106b.

Comparing the overall representation of religious minorities in Pakistani media with the population size of minorities in Pakistan it can be observed that Hindus constitute the largest minority of Pakistan, 42.9%, see table 6.108, while only 8.6% media coverage has been given to Hindus. Whereas, highest media representation (52%) have been given to Christians, who are 42.5% of overall minority population in

Pakistan. It determines the overrepresentation of Christians and underrepresentation of Hindus in Pakistani print media among all other religious minorities, yet there is a little difference in their population size. The research findings have supported the hypothesis (H1) that the representation of Christians is higher in Pakistani print media as compared to other religious minorities. The media also reported for Sikh, (11.2%) and others minorities, (23.6%), collectively as 34.8% that also determines the higher coverage in comparison to the minority size of scheduled castes, (6.8%), and others religious minorities, (2%), collectively as 8.8%. Ahmadis consists of 5.8% of minority population while media has given 4.6% representation that determines almost balanced media representation of the religious group. The overall nature of representation has been more positive, 48.3%, for Christians, whereas Ahmadis have lowest, 2.4%, positive representation, see table 6. 106 a. Christians have given highest COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 185

52.7% whereas Sikh have given lowest 5% negative representation. Christians have given highest 64.5% whereas Hindus have given lowest 3.7% neutral representation.

2. How the religious minorities are being represented in Indian print media?

Analyzing the patterns of representation of religious minorities in Indian print media reveals that Muslims have highest media representation, 65.4%, Christians 16.9%,

Sikh 14.2% whereas other religious minorities including Bhuddhists and Jains 3.5%,

Hindus 8.5% whereas in comparison to all other religious minorities, see table 6.109b.

Comparing the representation of minorities in Indian media with the population size of minorities in India it can be observed that Muslims are the largest minority of

India, 68.7%, and the media has given 65.4% coverage to Muslim minority that determines almost balanced media representation of Muslims. Christian minority is the second largest religious community in India that constitutes the 11.8% of overall minority population while the media has given 16.9 % representation. Similarly Sikh are 9.75% of the total minority but media representation of Sikh is 14.2% that determines the overrepresentation of Christians and Sikhs in Indian print media.

While the other religious minorities (Buddhists, Jains and others) in India are 9.75% of the total minority size but media representation for them is 3.5% that determines the underrepresentation of other religious minorities in Indian print media. The research findings have supported the hypothesis (H2) that the representation of

Muslims is higher in Indian print media as compared to other religious minorities.

The overall nature of representation has been more positive, 52%, for Muslims, whereas other religious minorities have lowest, 7.3%, positive representation, see table 6. 109 a. Muslims have given highest 84.9% whereas other religious minorities have given lowest 0.5% negative representation. Muslims have given highest 46.7% whereas other religious minorities have given lowest 3.3% neutral representation. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 186

3. Whether there are any biases with regard to the representation of religious minorities specifically Indian Muslims and Pakistani Hindus in their respective print media?

There is unequal representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media that shows the biases for minorities. There is overrepresentation of Christians and underrepresentation of Hindus in Pakistani print media among all other religious minorities. There is unequal representation of religious minorities in Indian print media that shows the biases for minorities. There is overrepresentation of Christians and Sikhs, underrepresentation of other religious minorities in Indian print media and almost balanced media representation of minority Muslims. Pakistani print media has been more silent with regard to Pakistani Hindus whereas Indian print media has given more negative representation to Indian Muslims.

The more and more inclusion of issues related to particular minority makes that group to dominate in the available discourses of minority. The treatment of media by giving importance and emphasizing the issues of one religious group and exclusion of others from the main domain creates inequalities among religious groups. Media being a social institution is source of inequalities thus can create the domination of one group. Media forms and builds the identities of minorities in society and makes those identities common and taken for granted, hegemony.

4. Whether the political relations between Pakistan and India in the selected time period have relationship with the media representation of Pakistani Hindus and Indian

Muslims?

Pakistan and India share a history with wars, conflicts, negotiations, peace talks and diplomatic relations. There have been many conflicting relations and peace talks in the selected time period of study, 1990 – 2010, between Pakistan and India as nuclear COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 187 tests of both countries in 1998, Kargil crises of 1999, military standoff of 2001-2002, confidence-building measures (CBMs) and peace talks of 2004, Baglihar dam issue of

2005, Samjhauta Express bombing of 2007, Kashmir specific CBMs and trade agreements of 2008 and Mumbai attacks of 2009. The issues that were raised related to minorities in Pakistani print media were of domestic nature as equal rights of minority, security of Hindu women and protection of religious places. So the nature of representation of Hindu minority in media did not seem to be in relation with the broader political relations between Pakistan and India. However, the underrepresentation and exclusion of Hindus in the media, although being the largest religious minority of Pakistan, raise a question.

The issues that were raised related to minorities in Indian print media were of domestic nature as communal riots between Muslims and Hindus, involvement of

Muslims in terrorist attacks, security threats, political participation in government,

Rights to get employments, educational opportunities, giving scholarships and equal minority rights. So the nature of representation of Muslim minority in media did not seem to be in relation with the broader political relations between Pakistan and India.

However, there is more negative representation of Muslim minority in comparison to other religious minorities in Indian print media.

5. Which sort of minority discourses are included and excluded in the Pakistani and

Indian print media?

The religious minorities in Pakistan are Christians, Hindus, Sikh, Ahmadis and others. Pakistani Media included most of the issues related to Christians as compared to other religious minorities. The issues raised were political representation in provincial and federal governments, Rights to get employments, educational opportunities, giving scholarships, demand for fixing quota, equal minority rights in COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 188 constitution, security threats and demand to amend blasphemy law by Christians.

Whereas other issues like health and uplifting the life standards of Christians were excluded in media coverage. The Pakistani media is more silent on the issues of

Hindus and Ahmadis in comparison to Christians. The issues raised about Hindu minority were concerning embracing Islam and protection of their rights and religious places while other types of issues were not included in the media coverage regarding

Hindu minorities. Ahmedies were reported in media regarding protection of their religious places. Sikhs got notified in Pakistani media comparatively more because of the pilgrimage of Sikhs to Pakistan every year.

Here Pakistani media have over represented one religious group, Christians, while the some others religious groups have been under represented as Hindus and

Ahmadis resulting in unequal and biased treatment of media. Moreover, particular issues related to different religious minorities have been raised. As media is the available source of information has power to influence and make consumers conditioned about the gated information. This strategy helps to legitimate control and thus the choices and representations of media appear natural and taken for granted i.e.

Hegemony.

The religious minorities in India include Christians, Sikh, Muslims and other religious minorities. Indian media included most of the issues related to Muslims as compared to other religious minorities. The issues raised in media included communal riots between Muslims and Hindus, involvement of Muslims in terrorist attacks, security threats, political participation in government, Rights to get employments, educational opportunities, giving scholarships and equal minority rights. Whereas other issues like health, political representation and empowerment of Muslim women were excluded in media coverage. Indian print media did not significantly report the COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 189 issues related to Christians, Sikhs and other religious minorities. However, Indian media has highlighted the issues related to religious minorities in general.

Here Indian media have over represented Christians and Sikh, while the some others religious groups have been under represented. Moreover, particular issues related to different religious minorities have been raised. Media being the available source of information has power to influence consumers about the provided information. This helps to legitimate control and thus the choices and representations of media appear natural and taken for granted, ‘Hegemony’.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 190

Conclusion

The research study was aimed to analyze the pattern of minority representation in Pakistani and Indian print media. It also investigated whether there are any biases with regard to the representation of religious minorities and specifically Indian

Muslims and Pakistani Hindus in their respective print media considering the political relations between Pakistan and India in the selected time period. Furthermore, the study highlighted the included and excluded discourses related to minorities in the

Pakistani and Indian print media.

The study concluded that there is an unequal and biased representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media and as there is overrepresentation of

Christians and underrepresentation of Hindus in Pakistani print media among all other religious minorities. There is an unequal and biased representation of religious minorities in Indian print media as well as there is overrepresentation of Christians and Sikhs, underrepresentation of other religious minorities and almost balanced media representation of Muslims. Pakistani print media has been more silent with regard to Pakistani Hindus whereas Indian print media has given more negative representation to Indian Muslims. The treatment of media by giving importance and emphasizing the issues of one religious group and exclusion of others from the main domain creates inequalities among religious groups so media being a social institution is a source of inequalities. Media forms and builds the identities of minorities in society and makes those identities common and taken for granted, hegemony.

The nature of representation of Hindu and Muslim minority of both countries was not found in relation with the broader political relations between Pakistan and

India. However, the underrepresentation and exclusion of Hindus minority in

Pakistani print media, although being the largest religious minority of Pakistan and COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 191 more negative representation of Indian Muslims is considerably notable. In addition, particular issues related to different religious minorities have been raised in both media.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 192

Summary

The research study, “comparative analysis of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani and Indian print media (1990 – 2010)”, was aimed to analyze the pattern of minority representation in Pakistani and Indian print media. It also investigated whether there are any biases with regard to the representation of religious minorities and specifically Indian Muslims and Pakistani Hindus in their respective print media considering the political relations between Pakistan and India in the selected time period. In addition, the study highlighted the included and excluded discourses related to minorities in the Pakistani and Indian print media. Media hegemony theory has provided the theoretical underpinning to the study. Data has been collected by through content analysis and has been presented in qualitative and qualitative manners. And critical discourse analysis has been applied to describe, interpret and explain the text related to religious minorities. The quantitative analysis has been carried out by the application of Chi-square test and the research findings have supported the research hypotheses.

The findings revealed that there is an unequal and biased representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media and as there is overrepresentation of

Christians and underrepresentation of Hindus in Pakistani print media among all other religious minorities. There is an unequal and biased representation of religious minorities in Indian print media as well as there is overrepresentation of Christians and Sikhs, underrepresentation of other religious minorities and almost balanced media representation of Muslims.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 193

Pakistani print media has been more silent with regard to Pakistani Hindus whereas Indian print media has given more negative representation to Indian

Muslims. The treatment of media by giving importance and emphasizing the issues of one religious group and exclusion of others from the main domain creates inequalities among religious groups so media being a social institution is a source of inequalities.

Media forms and builds the identities of minorities in society and makes those identities common and taken for granted, hegemony.

The nature of representation of Hindu and Muslim minority of both countries was not found in relation with the broader political relations between Pakistan and India.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 194

Future Agenda

The study considers the media representation of minorities while it can be extended to the effects of media representation of minorities to analyze the consequences created by depiction of religious minorities. It can also incorporate in depth interviews of minorities and to come up with the experiences and feelings of minority groups.

The study highlights the role of media as social institution in creating and building identities of minorities and a source of oppression whereas the other factors like gender, class, race and ethnicity can further be studies working under intersectional theory to explore the systems of oppression.

The study considers only one aspect of critical discourse analysis as it attempts the three layer analysis of communicative event while it can be extended to the analysis of genres and style of representation.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 195

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Appendix I: Coding sheet for analysis of representation of religious minorities in Pakistani print media

News Paper: ------Year: ------Unit of Minorities Categories Jan. Feb. Mar. April May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total Analysis Number News Christian + - 0 Hindu + - 0 Sikh + - 0 Ahmadis + - 0 Others + - 0 Editorials Christian + - 0 Hindu + - 0 Sikh + - 0 Ahmadis + - 0 Others +

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES 203

Appendix II: Coding sheet analysis of representation of religious minorities in Indian print media

News Paper:______Year: ______

Unit of Minorities categories Jan. Feb. Mar April May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total Analysis Number News Christian + - 0 Muslim + - 0 Sikh + - 0 Others + - 0 Editorials Christian + - 0 Muslim + - 0 Sikh + - 0 others +