Women of : Empowered on Paper, Inferior on the Ground CAP Paper 223, July 2019

Nozima Davletova is a lecturer at the University of World legal system’s approach to wom- Economy and Diplomacy, Tashkent, where she also leads en reflects public narratives on women, placing them in an inferi- the Lab of Negotiation. Over the past two years, she has or position in the social hierarchy. been actively involved in media-related processes in In many cases, women are unable Uzbekistan. One of her projects was setting up an online to legally own property; they also have limited access to education interview project at Gazeta.uz. She was a PR manager for and social capital. Traditional the INGO “Buyuk Kelajak,” which has brought together values, which have permeated all about 300 compatriots abroad to work on Uzbekistan’s spheres of life, combined with the development strategy up to 2035. Her research interests ineffective gender policy of the state, which demands moral pu- include women’s empowerment, media and social media, rity of women while condemning education, and water diplomacy in Central Asia. them to social inferiority, compel n April 24, 2019, the saw the deterioration of social women to face socio-economic Women’s Committee of welfare programs and a decline hardships and deny them recog- Uzbekistan presented a in subsidies for families. As a nition for their contributions to O society. draft law on equal rights for men result, “the burden of nurturing and women. The discussions on activities […] shifted increasingly the draft revealed a considerable away from the state and into the Uzbek Femininity within the gap between the state gender household.” This, combined with Dominant Masculinity policy, which has women’s a decline in GDP and a shrinking empowerment as a declared public sector, caused the reemer- An understanding of Uzbek fem- objective, and the current state gence of a traditional division of ininity is incomplete without a of affairs in Uzbek society. labor between men and wom- thorough analysis of the Uzbek Although state gender policy has en. These systemic changes have masculinity that was constructed been making gradual progress, resulted in the “feminization of by the first president of the in- it has been running up against poverty.” The explicitly patriar- dependent country, Islam Kari- traditional ways of life, which chal nation-building discourse of mov. Nick Megoran deconstructs appear to be stronger than official President Islam Karimov, com- the Andijan discourse produced declarations. Public discourse on bined with the appeal of Islamic by the first president as follows: women and women’s social role values to the broad mass of the “Hegemonic Uzbek masculinity is one of the key indicators of population, only accelerated the (which might be termed ‘dutiful the growing re-traditionalization reduction of women’s role to that son-husband-father’) envisions (and Islamization) that is under of wife and . men as first dutiful sons and then way. heads of families and providers The present paper aims to study for their own wives and children.” Uzbek society has witnessed dra- the legal, economic, and cultural In this hierarchy, the ideal women matic changes over the past three dimensions of this reality in order is represented as a passive recip- decades. The country’s move to to identify the discrepancies be- ient of the man’s dominance and a market economy in the 1990s tween them. It suggests that the provision of a livelihood. Mean- CAP Fellows Paper 223 1 while, the precedence of the duty are abused, the more the govern- Mirziyoyev in April 2018. The of son over the duty of husband ment attempts to fix the emerging latter has taken a strong stance puts younger women in a lower problems with ambivalent instru- on improving the social and eco- position in the social hierarchy. It ments, among them the Council nomic status of women. He is is believed that they should earn of -in-Law and an addi- believed to raise key problems their social status during mar- tional quota of university places related to perceptions of women riage by demonstrating obedi- for males who have completed in national culture in his official ence, patience, and commitment. their military service. The new addresses. In June, Mirziyoyev draft law on domestic violence is ordered the establishment of a In these narratives of masculinity, another example of an paradoxi- committee on inequality under men are praised for their autono- cal approach: it does not propose the aegis of the Senate of the Re- my, which contrasts with wom- criminalizing domestic violence public of Uzbekistan. On June 20, en’s supposed desire for stronger even though doing so would be a Tanzila Narbaeva, a former Head attachment. They are also expect- logical step toward preventing it. of the Women’s Committee, was ed to cut ties more easily than appointed Head of the Senate. women. But this perception of At the international level, Uz- male autonomy does not prevent bekistan has a rather advanced The entrepreneurial rights of women from sometimes being position on women’s rights. It women are formally protected by considered responsible for the has signed on to all the major the Laws “On the guarantees of behavior of their husbands, with conventions: Convention on the business activity” and “On fam- the result that women who seek Elimination of All Forms of Dis- ily entrepreneurship,” as well as divorces are usually denied them. crimination against Women (CE- by the late President Karimov’s DAW), Convention on the Politi- decree “On the measures of fur- Not only men but also women cal Rights of Women, Maternity ther complete improvement of are bearers and translators of Protection Convention, etc. The the business environment and these patriarchal views. Most of Constitution of the Republic of providing broader freedom to the criticism of the draft law on Uzbekistan professes that men business.” As of 2018, more than equality and the elimination of all and women have equal rights, 8,500 women were serving as forms of gender discrimination, while presidential decrees have consultants on religious educa- which is currently under discus- guaranteed women equal politi- tion, spirituality, and enlighten- sion, has for instance come from cal, social, and economic rights. ment in mahallas (town councils). women. Their main argument The amendment to the Law “On The head of the mahalla is always against the law is that it makes the elections to the Oliy Majlis” a man (oqsoqol—an old wise women absolutely equal to men, sets a quota for gender represen- man), but the main job, “preserv- a concept that they perceive as tation, requiring that at least 30 ing national values” (milliy qa- absurd. Following Bourdieu, we percent of all candidates nomi- driyatlarni saqlash), which often might say that masculine dom- nated by political parties should entails public shaming of women, inance in the form of symbolic be women. The Decree “On ad- is done by active local women. violence has “led the dominated ditional measures to support the Those women mainly serve as to take the point of view of the work of the Women’s Committee guardians of national values and dominant on the dominant and of Uzbekistan” (2004) should impart the notion of a “proper on themselves.” have empowered the organiza- ” to other females. (This tion to protect the rights of wom- notion will be elaborated on and Bourdieu’s theory about the sub- en. further conceptualized below.) conscious transmission of mas- culine dominance habitus from The last Decree was replaced by The legal/formal dimension of body to body through sexual di- the Decree “On measures to com- women’s rights protection has vision of labor helps illuminate pletely improve activities in the never been in complete accord the operation of the Uzbek legal field of supporting women and with the real conditions of Uzbeki- system when it comes to women’s strengthening the institution of stan’s female citizens. As Ginn rights. The more women’s rights the family,” signed by President argues, “Kazakhstan, Uzbeki-

CAP Fellows Paper 223 2 stan, and Tajikistan have traded en’s issues, claiming that they countries where patriarchy and the rights of women to achieve a can worsen the social status of fe- patriliny are more firmly rooted.” placebo of development. Two of males and raise the level of social Pregnancies in these countries the largest violations of women’s pressure they face. may be subject to sex-selective rights that have manifested be- abortion, and Uzbekistan is no cause of the government’s direct State Discourse on Tradi- exception.) It is likely that the actions are domestic abuse and tions: Controlling a Wom- tense and sometimes tyrannical sex trafficking.” Uzbekistan, like an’s Body nature of relationships between other states in the region, has mothers-in-law and daughters- deployed a discourse of equali- In Uzbekistan, the period of “re- in-law is due to a power struggle ty partly due to inertia (as it is a invention of traditions” accel- over men. legacy of the Soviet period) and erated with the collapse of the partly to enable it to engage with Soviet Union, which brought The public healthcare system the international discourse of the about a whole host of socio-eco- in Uzbekistan, which regulates developed countries, for which nomic, cultural, and value trans- every birth, is the main conduit gender equality is among the top formations. Meanwhile, the na- of the state’s population poli- priorities. tion-building discourse produced cy. According to discussions on by President Karimov, which a female Facebook group, local In this paper, I argue that there is sought the revival of glorious polyclinics require that immedi- a significant discrepancy between traditions and history, was root- ately after giving birth to a baby the state gender program and re- ed in a strict cultural code that a woman acquire contraceptives alities on the ground. Current ef- involved male dominance over and sign an agreement to use forts to improve women’s status women and the responsibility of them regularly—or, preferably, in the society risk facing insur- “proper women” for the purity of have an IUD fitted. The Open De- mountable challenges in a con- the nation. mocracy Foundations found that text of re-traditionalization and “health professionals frequently the dominance of Islamic values. Fertility is one of the dimensions reported that medical clinics, and Meanwhile, the state discourse in which the state’s attempt at in some cases even individual on the equality of men and wom- control may be out of line with doctors, received unwritten di- en is inconsistent and explicitly traditional views. In demotic dis- rectives regarding IUD insertion ambivalent. The effectiveness of course, women are seen predom- quotas.” In some cases, gynecol- secular laws is usually discredited inantly as mothers—preferably ogists inserted hormonal spirals by informal directives and restric- mothers of sons. It is still widely without prior permission from tive actions by local government believed that the status and pow- young mothers. bodies. In a recent interview, the er of a family, and of women in current Head of the Women’s particular, depends on whether The opposition between the state Committee of Uzbekistan, Elmira or not they have a son. In the pa- policy of either overt or covert Basitkhanova, criticized female triarchal system of values, men , on the one hand, pop stars for wearing revealing are considered to be a family’s and the cultural prioritization outfits and proposed to create main breadwinners. Thus, sons of a woman’s reproductive func- a council of “old and powerful are viewed as desired children for tions, on the other, put additional women” to guard the chastity of parents as they get older, partic- pressure on women. The state has other women and thereby pre- ularly in a context where elderly reduced its support for mothers, vent early pregnancy and prosti- people increasingly lack the pro- including by cutting paid mater- tution. She also believes in public tection of the state. Accordingly, nity leave from two years to 126 shaming of women as a means of the main objective of a marriage days, of which post-natal mater- stopping violence against them. is to have as many children as nal leave can be no more than 70 Some progressive social media possible in order to have a son. days. The birth payment for this activists have openly condemned (According to the UN Factsheet, period is the responsibility of the Basitkhanova’s views on wom- “son preference is stronger in organization that registers the

CAP Fellows Paper 223 3 maternity leave. Under the law, peated births until a son is born, Not only do women face compet- any relative who is responsible the state has long been unable ing pressures from society and for taking care of the newborn, to provide economic incentives the state about their reproductive including the father and grand- to reduce the birthrate. This has function, but they are also pres- parents, can register for a month- remained true even though, since sured by both society and state ly allowance in the first two years the socialist system left a legacy to be the bearers of national val- (up to two fixed minimum wag- of decent healthcare for infants, ues (milliy qadriyatlar). For the es). However, in reality the allow- there was no longer a question state, this is part of the national ance is given only to low-income of bringing many children into identity narrative, while for soci- families and is registered by the the world in the hope that some ety it is part of the Islamic code. mahalla. of them would survive. As Figure Women are expected to maintain 1 shows, the infant mortality rate the purity of the nation and pre- The overall gender and birth con- declined in the period from 2006 serve cultural and religious tradi- trol policy of the state is contro- to 2015 even as the birth rate re- tions. Following Hobsbawm and versial and at times inconsistent. mained stable at 1.7 percent an- Ranger, the reinvention of tradi- In a society where specific impor- nually. There is a low correlation tion contributes to legitimizing tance is placed on whether a fami- (~0.2) between infant (under 5) the control over and subjugation ly has a son or not, resulting in re- mortality and population growth. of women.

Figure 1. Correlation index between infant mortality and population growth in Uzbekistan, 2006-2015

Source: World Development Indicators, “Population Growth Rate, Uzbekistan,” accessed July 19, 2019, https://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?ds=d5bncppjof8f9_&met_y=sp_pop_ grow&idim=country:UZB&dl=en&hl=en&q=uzbekistan+population+growth#!ctype=l&strail=- false&bcs=d&nselm=h&met_y=sp_pop_grow&scale_y=lin&ind_y=false&rdim=region&i- dim=country:UZB&ifdim=region&hl=en_US&dl=en&ind=false; Statista, “Uzbekistan: Infant Mortality Rate from 2007 to 2017 (in Deaths per 1,000 Live Births),”accessed July 18, 2019, https://www.statista.com/statistics/807843/infant-mortality-in-uzbekistan/.

CAP Fellows Paper 223 4 The traditional values discourse Article 46 of the Constitution of women under 35 have long been surrounding women permeates Uzbekistan recognizes the equal- obliged to get special permission all spheres, chief among them ity of men and women. It reflects from their local municipal body the economic sphere. Although The Convention on the Elimina- (mahalla) to apply for an overseas the law encourages women’s in- tion of All Forms of Discrimina- sticker to go abroad. This was volvement in entrepreneurial ac- tion Against Women (CEDAW). supposedly part of Uzbekistan’s tivity, society—including women Under the current quota system, efforts to prevent human traffick- themselves—believes that women women must hold 30 percent ing. Significantly, however, a U.S. should not try to earn more than of the seats in local representa- Embassy report on human traf- their husbands nor proceed past tive bodies and the Oliy Majlis ficking in Uzbekistan found that a certain point in their career de- (parliament). However, the re- “the government did not conduct velopment. Usually, women are ality falls far short of the quota: efforts to reduce the demand for expected to earn money to help women hold 17 percent of seats in commercial sex acts. Uzbek wom- maintain their households but the Oliy Majlis and 15 percent of en and children were subjected to not to pursue or achieve career those in the Legislative Chamber. sex trafficking in the Middle East, promotion for their efforts. This proportion has not changed Eurasia, and Asia, and also inter- since 2014. nally in brothels, clubs, and pri- Too Many Discrepancies: vate residences.” In 2018, the rule Women’s Legal Status vs. The Decree “On measures to en- was annulled for those who live in Realities on the Ground hance the role of women in state the capital, Tashkent. The Family and public construction of the Code prescribes equality between Women’s Status under the Republic of Uzbekistan,” signed married couples in terms of prop- Law in March 1995, introduced the erty ownership. That being said, post of a deputy prime minister legal nuances—combined with Formally, women’s equality in al- in charge of women’s issues. This traditional views—usually leave most all spheres of life—politics, post is filled by the head of the women with no right to real estate social security, and economic ac- Women’s Committee of Uzbeki- after a divorce. Claims to own- tivity—is protected under the law. stan (WCU). The organization is ership of living space and other However, Uzbekistan remains in responsible for ensuring equali- property during or after marriage low positions on the various in- ty between women and men and are perceived as shameful and are dexes of women’s empowerment. for improving the role of women often condemned by relatives and This is due to the overall under- in social and political life. The the community. This presents an development of the political cul- WCU is a government-organized obstacle for a woman who seeks a ture surrounding the protection non-governmental organization divorce from an abusive husband. of women’s rights. The members (GONGO) and is a continuation of law enforcement bodies and of the state gender policy. The In 2017, the Women’s Commit- other institutions called upon to organization’s code, like all the tee declared the creation a new protect women’s rights and pre- other normative acts, sets out Council of Mothers-in-Law. The vent violence against them usual- the WCU’s mission to guard the main task of the institute is “to ly hold traditional values. There- “cultural and intellectual growth hold friendly talks with young fore, formal laws never supersede of women and youth” and “teach people starting a new family on the informal habitus of a tradi- them the national and religious the following topics—‘happy fam- tional vision of women. Although traditions, and the ways to follow ily,’ ‘firm family,’ ‘prosperous Uzbekistan has signed a range of them.” family,’ “exemplary family’—and international documents against prepare them for a family life all kinds of discrimination, ’ Theoretically, women’s freedom and share their experience.” The access to education and their in- of movement and ability to choose informal institution of the moth- volvement in economic life re- their residence and occupation er-in-law has become an inter- mains low. is enshrined in law. However, nalized instrument of oppression

CAP Fellows Paper 223 5 against women by women in a pa- according to lawyer Lenara Hik- tion among women, insufficient triarchal society. Despite benign matova, the court has no legal social protection, and general intentions, the formalization of mandate to refuse to accept an prejudices against divorced wom- the institution of the mother-in- application, nor does the mahalla en, especially those with children, law appears to be schizophrenic, have any authority to withhold its push women to seek a nikah mar- since the key oppressive mecha- consent. Another incompatibility riage. It is widely believed that it nisms against daughters-in-law between law and practice is that is much better to have to “share a (kelin) have not been addressed in the event that a couple fails to man” than to live alone or—even and may even be reinforced. reconcile, the court should ap- worse—return to one’s parents’ point a reconciliatory term of up house. The social outcome of According to a survey conducted to 6 months. In practice, couples this situation is that neither the within the framework of ACT- get the term from the mahalla, as second wife nor her children are ED projects in Uzbekistan by the they are not able to apply direct- protected by law. NGO “Oydin Nur,” 2.5 percent of ly to the court for a divorce. Such respondents said that conflicts terms may be appointed several President Mirziyoyev has spoken leading to physical violence were times. out strongly against polygamy caused, among other reasons, by and berated those imams who the inability of elder relatives to The gender aspect of discrimi- hold rites of nikah that are not understand young people; anoth- nation is that women are often officially registered at Civil Reg- er 2.5 percent stated that moth- shamed publicly during these istry Offices. However, no official ers-in-law were jealous of their reconciliation sessions and are regulation has yet been adopted sons’ relationships with their forced to remain in the marriage, to punish imams for breaking the wives. sometimes at the expense of their secular law. Moreover, it is hard physical and mental health, and to provide legal proof that the Article 2 of the Family Code says even their lives. Physical vio- ritual has been conducted. (Un- that women and men have equal lence committed against a female official sources say that informal rights in families. However, the spouse is not usually considered warnings have been made.) reality for women is far from to be a valid reason for divorce; equality. The unspoken rule in members of reconciliatory com- All the government’s efforts to mahallas is that divorce rates missions apply victim-blaming improve the conditions of wom- should be brought down—and techniques to deprive abused en focus on socializing them women have become instruments wives of divorces. Meanwhile, the into a system of values that puts for imposing this rule. According official number of divorces was them in an inferior position. The to unofficial data, in the majority 32,000 in 2017 and continues to wide-ranging social programs of cases, the mahalla declines to grow. and reforms targeting women give its permission for an individ- prescribe the need to “strength- ual to file for divorce. The divorce Another manifestation of the en families through structural procedure is part of communal dominance of patriarchal values reforms in the WCU and the Oila life, not a personal decision, and is informal polygamy. There are (Family) Centers.” This means is informally administered by the no official statistics on polyga- that women are inevitably seen as mahalla. Civil Registry Offices or my, since it is an offense under part of the broader entity, which courts do not accept applications Uzbek law for a man to have a is superior to their individual in- for divorce unless the petition- second wife. According to unoffi- terests and aspirations. Howev- ers bring a document from the cial data, however, the number of er, women are in charge of—and mahalla approving the divorce illegal nikah marriages (Islamic objectivized by—moral purity and affirming that the couple has religious marriage, which allows and national values. Therefore, undergone a conciliatory com- polygamy for men) reaches into the legal system legitimizes the mission at the municipal body. the hundreds of thousands. Eco- demeaning narrative on women This is in spite of the fact that, nomic hardship, lack of educa- within the discourse on national values. CAP Fellows Paper 223 6 Women in Education 61 women for 100 men in higher of women in tertiary education education institutions and final- continues to decline, reflecting “a According to the Global Gender ly, in research positions, for ev- lack of funding, high tuition costs Gap Index and the Gender Eq- ery 100 men, only 53 women are and an outdated societal expec- uity Index, Uzbekistan is close enrolled.” tation that young women take to gender equality in education on traditional, household roles and health. This relative balance In 2016, Uzbekistan ranked after secondary school.” Mean- is due to the Soviet past, when 105th out of 185 countries on while, the prevalence of tradi- higher education was affordable the Human Development Index tional views means that girls are and the gender balance was bet- and was categorized as a high less often allowed to seek out bet- ter than at present. Compulsory human development country. In ter educational opportunities far primary and secondary education the Gender Inequality Index that from home, much less go abroad. kept the overall level of education same year, Uzbekistan was rated The patriarchal vision, in which equally high for men and women. 57th out of 188 countries, mainly a daughter lives with her parents Uzbekistan has continued this due to high levels of higher ed- until she leaves for her husband’s practice, with the result that girls’ ucation and labor force partici- home and does not become a participation in primary and sec- pation among women. In 2014, breadwinner, causes families to ondary education hovers around the Organisation for Economic invest more heavily in boys’ ed- 92-93 percent—almost equal to Cooperation and Development ucation. From 2007 to 2017, the that of boys. (OECD) included Uzbekistan in number of women enrolled in ter- its Social Institutions and Gender tiary education fell to between 60 While gender parity is nearly Index, ranking it 52nd out of 86 and 69 percent that of men. achieved in preschools through non-OECD countries and giving vocational colleges, thereafter, it an overall score of 0.1475 (put- A 2016 World Bank study (based the share of women declines ting it in the “medium” category). on data from the State Commit- drastically: “In academic lyce- tee on Statistics) reported that ums, there are only 78 women for Yet according to international women’s participation in higher every 100 men enrolled, and only organizations’ reports, the share education showed little progress according to areas of study: they Figure 2. Gender composition of teaching comprised 56 percent of the to- workforce in educational institutions in tal in education and culture, 40 Uzbekistan, 2017 percent in healthcare and phys- ical training; 23 percent in agri- culture; 20 percent in economics and law; and less than 15 percent in communication, construction, and transportation.

As a result, women are overrep- resented in low-paid sectors such as education, healthcare, and so- cial services. In 2006–2013, just 4.5 percent of female tertiary stu- dents were studying engineering, manufacturing, and construction, compared to 27.2 percent of men. Source: Global Partnership, “Education Sector Plan According to the Education Sec- (ESP) of Uzbekistan, 2019-2023,” https://www.global- tor Plan 2019-2023 under the partnership.org/sites/default/files/2019-04-gpe-esp- Global Partnership for Educa- uzbekistan.pdf. CAP Fellows Paper 223 7 tion, the share of female teachers Women on the Job Market mal sector, with men making is much higher in secondary edu- up 54.3 percent. (The slight cation (at almost 71 percent) than Women in Uzbekistan, al- differences between the num- in secondary special and voca- though empowered in legal bers given by different interna- tional education (53.3 percent) or documents and exalted in pub- tional organizations are likely higher education (42 percent)— lic discourse, remain vulnera- attributable to their differing see Figure 2. ble in terms of economic and methodologies.) Another barrier to girls’ access social protection. Although There is also a considerable to higher education is the prefer- they represent one of the larg- ence given to men who have per- est driving forces behind eco- disparity between the sectors formed military service. Those nomic growth, they suffer from in which men and women are who have completed their man- inequality in workplaces and— represented. Traditionally, datory army service receive an particularly in rural house- girls choose their profession in additional 50 points on entrance holds—a lack of infrastructure accordance with the demands exams. This puts women, who (transportation, logistics, gas, of the marriage market. It is have no legal right to serve in electricity, etc.) and utilities. widely believed that nurse/ the army, at a structural dis- physician and teacher are the advantage when it comes to According to data collected by most favorable professions for competing for places. Recent- international organizations a future wife, as these are the ly, the president proposed that (ILO, World Bank), around jobs that parents look for when graduates of the president’s 48 percent of Uzbekistan’s arranging marriages. Health- military school—all of whom women were economically ac- care, arts, and education are are men—be exempted from tive in the period from 2012 to traditionally dominated by taking entrance exams. 2017, compared to 76 percent women; they are also the worst- of men. The figure for women paid fields. By contrast, jobs in Uzbekistan often performs is lower than that in developed the best-paid fields—construc- rather well on human devel- countries and even than that in tion, transport, finance, indus- opment indexes compared to other transitional economies— try, and communication—are developing countries. Howev- in Kazakhstan, for instance, occupied mostly by men. In all er, recent raw data collected an average of 65 percent of sectors, the overwhelming ma- by social media activists show women were economically ac- jority of managerial positions that a group of rural women— tive during the same period. is held by men. Figure 3 shows the majority of whom were In 2016, the employment rate the average monthly wages in victims of domestic violence— among women was just 22.3 various sectors. had, on average, received edu- percent in rural areas and 34.5 cation only through the ninth percent in cities, according to Women may also engage in grade. The superficial way in the EBRD, while for men the cottage industries to earn ad- which the state statistics com- figures were three and two ditional income for the family. mittee collects statistics makes times higher, respectively. According to the ADB Gen- it almost impossible to know Meanwhile, the ADB report, der Assessment Report 2018, the real state of affairs in ed- which was initially presented “Women, who work in the ucation, literacy, and employ- by the State Committee of Sta- fields and also fulfil routine ment, leading to further prob- tistics and the Women’s Com- household activities, engage in lems in the labor market. mittee of Uzbekistan, found home production to sell prod- that women comprised 45.7 ucts and generate income (e.g., percent of workers in the for- downy shawls from the wool of CAP Fellows Paper 223 8 Figure 3. Average monthly nominal wages of remains restricted due to the employees by sphere of economic activity, 2016 prevailing traditional mindset. Low self-esteem among wom- en, time poverty, and a lack of appropriate knowledge and skills are cited as other reasons why women are reluctant to start businesses.

A lack of appropriate knowl- edge and lack of access to knowledge are common prob- lems for a significant part of the population of the country; this problem is compounded for the female population by additional stereotypes and ar- tificial restrictions.

Women and Property Ownership

Source: ADB, Asian Development Bank, “Uzbekistan Even if, formally, women have Country Gender Assessment Update,” 2018, https:// equal rights to property, inher- www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-docu- itance, and entrepreneurship, ment/479841/uzbekistan-country-gender-assessment-up- the public discourse puts them under the protection and cus- angora goats, dairy products, by women. Women are tradi- tody of men, which usually re- sewing, baking), while men tionally represented mostly stricts them from gaining full are responsible for providing in small business; services ac- access to the equal opportu- transport and helping women count for 34 percent of wom- nities guaranteed by the state. to sell products. Despite the en-led enterprises, trade for 16 Another problem is that wom- considerable share of women percent, non-food production en have no access to infor- in home-based production, for 16 percent, food production mation and/or lack sufficient they do not always manage for 9 percent, agriculture for 5 self-confidence to take action. the process, nor do they make percent, and other fields for 21 their own decisions.” percent. A state program en- Among the female entrepre- courages women to start their neurs who participated in the own enterprises by offering ADB survey, 57 percent were microfinance loans and cred- 40–50 years old, 22 percent Small and medium enterprises its targeting women and young were 20–30 years old, and 21 (SMEs) are a leading nation- people. This has increased the percent were 30–40 years old. al employer in Uzbekistan. By representation of women in The statistics demonstrate the first half of 2017, 42.3 per- micro, small, and medium en- the thought patterns that are cent of the management roles terprises (MSMEs), while their dominant among women and in these enterprises were held access to larger businesses the expectations that society

CAP Fellows Paper 223 9 has for them. Usually, wom- Kudbiev, more than 620,000 Often, women are paid less en start an effective business economically active females than men for daily work—10- after they reach a certain age, cannot find jobs, more than 20,000 soms per day com- divorce, have raised their chil- one million are involved in pared to up to 30,000 soms dren, or inherit property from seasonal and non-permanent for men—but the situation is their parents, husbands, or work, and another two mil- different in cotton-picking. other relatives. It is notewor- lion are working without reg- According to data provided by thy that a very small percent- istration. The overwhelming the report, up to 90 percent age of women own real estate. majority of these women are of pickers in some regions are Female-owned real estate ac- rural. women. They are seen as more counted for instance for 29.4 motivated since they have few- percent (424,783) of all regis- Women in rural areas bear er opportunities to earn in- tered real estate transactions the bulk of the responsibility come in other fields. outside the city of Tashkent in for maintaining households, 2016. However, the value of which is one of the key fac- According to unofficial data, property registered to women tors in their social underrep- the number of female mar- is considerably lower, account- resentation and low incomes diker (those who do day work, ing for only 22.3 percent of the compared to men, according one of the most underpaid and total value of property regis- to a World Bank Group re- low-qualification jobs) is huge tered with the national real port from 2017. In some rural and continues to grow. Mar- property registry and cadastre areas, women’s work oppor- diker markets are developing system. tunities are impeded by poor in regions and cities across the household conditions such as country. Men and women of Women in Informal a lack of infrastructure, water, different ages wait for custom- Employment gas, and electricity. Women ers to pick them up for various have more limited prospects jobs at their homes or farms, or At the end of 2018, the Min- for developing their farming sometimes for municipal jobs istry of Labor of Uzbekistan activities, as they cannot trav- paid by official bodies, includ- announced a new methodol- el long distances and commu- ing seasonal cotton pickups. ogy for calculating the unem- nicate with men from outside Depending on the region, a ployment rate, which showed their families. Meanwhile, by day laborer will make between unemployment at 9.3 percent. working in private gardens 25,000 soms ($4) and 100,000 However, this rate only looks (tomorqa), women are able soms ($12) per working day. at formal employment, even to earn money and provide Customers trust female work- though a considerable propor- their family members with ers more than male workers, tion (59.8 percent) of the eco- fresh food. It is worth noting as they usually do not fall into nomically active population of that these activities are usual- cheating and do the same job both genders is involved in the ly not considered to be a con- as male workers no matter the informal economy. Of these, tribution to the family budget physical burden—even though 1.6 million people are em- and are taken for granted. The it is technically illegal to hire ployed in temporary one-off or available income-generating female workers for heavy la- seasonal work, while 2.6 mil- activities do not upgrade the bor that may be detrimental lion are labor migrants abroad. social status of women in fam- to their health. In many cases, According to a recent report by ilies. female workers are subject to the Minister of Labor, Sherzod and oth-

CAP Fellows Paper 223 10 er violations of their rights by be counterproductive, contrib- ditions for women in difficult their employers, making them uting to the gender imbalance situations. The bulk of the re- the most vulnerable stratum of rather than redressing it. sponsibility for implementing the workforce. In some cases, the decree falls on the WCU. they are even deprived of pay- Unpopular Women’s The law is similar to the one ment since the employment is Empowerment in from 2004 but more focused illegal and not registered. Mirziyoyev’s Uzbekistan on existing problems.

Prostitution is another conse- President Mirziyoyev has be- As a GONGO, the Women’s quence of socio-economic in- come the first political leader Committee of Uzbekistan is an stability and gender inequality in Uzbekistan to speak openly active conduit of the gender in Uzbekistan. There are no of- about the deplorable state of policy of the state, and it has ficial statistics for prostitution, women in Uzbek society. He been encouraged to become but unofficial figures range has discussed tense relations an active protector of wom- from 22,000 to 32,000 people between mothers-in-law and en’s rights, initiating numer- or even more. The market for daughters-in law, addressed ous draft laws and projects. sex work is growing rapidly, the problem of divorces, and The WCU has initiated a draft especially in big cities, even as initiated a number of laws law that would equalize rights female sex workers are stig- and social projects. Activists and opportunities for women matized and publicly shamed, for women’s rights have been and men. The key paragraphs represented as deviants who able to relaunch their social include equal opportunities in are out of touch with tradi- projects and operate relatively workplaces, including at deci- tional values. Prostitution is a freely. sion-making levels. The draft criminal offense: as of 2019, introduces the term “indirect the fine has been raised from In April, the minimum age discrimination” and states that 3 minimum wages to 7 for the of marriage for women was “household work cannot be first offense, and from 7 to 10 raised from 17 to 18, making considered a basis for gender for a repeat violation. it the same as that for men. discrimination as it is carried According to the head of the out by both men and women.” The situation on the ground WCU, the legal norm reflects For the first time, a draft law cannot be understood from realities on the ground: today’s on women’s issues includes the data provided by official young people are not eager to the point: “Behavior based on agencies and international marry too early. Outside the rituals, traditions and culture organizations. In spite of the capital city, however, girls as that contradict the require- fact that the government is en- young as 16 can be pushed into ments of the law of the Re- gaging in various strategies to arranged nikah marriages that public of Uzbekistan and the tackle gender issues (without lack official registration. norms of international law are calling it a “gender” problem), not allowed.” the results are limited since The president’s February 2018 the problems are addressed Decree “On measures to fun- Discussions on the draft law within the popular traditional damentally improve activities ended on May 8. The reaction discourse of female inferiori- in the field of supporting wom- to the draft law among social ty. As a result, many programs en and strengthening the insti- media users was mostly nega- by the state and international tution of the family” focuses on tive. The majority of comments organizations alike appear to preserving traditional family on news posts by various on- values and improving the con-

CAP Fellows Paper 223 11 line newspapers expressed from July 2018 mentions the law enforcement bodies; and fear of women becoming equal need to collect statistics on do- what the overall reactions to to men in duties. Both female mestic violence. These do not the domestic violence were. and male commenters said that exist, since bringing a domes- they would not like the rights tic violence claim runs counter Sixty percent of respondents of the two sexes to become ab- to the traditional values that never reported domestic vi- solutely equal. In some cases, discourage taking a family olence. The main reasons for the argumentation contrast- quarrel outside the home. The this were: lack of trust in the ed the evil “Other”—Western majority of social institutions system, lack of knowledge, fear liberal feminist values, which and law-enforcement bodies of condemnation and sham- contradict national ones—with take the traditional approach, ing, fear of a perpetrator, etc. the benign “Self.” Increasing backed up by the absence of a Those who did report it faced equality is widely believed to legal basis criminalizing any either ignorance or/and vic- be toxic for the future of the kind of domestic violence. tim-blaming while reporting/ society. suing the abuser. Women re- In the absence of such statis- ported having been told, “We In 2018, the WCU initiated tics, I conducted a small-scale get used to beaten wives, it’s another draft law, this time anonymous survey to deter- normal” or “You have to stay on domestic violence, which mine how reported domestic quiet so as not to get beat- is not criminalized in Uzbeki- violence is addressed by those en,” or having district police- stan. The document defines bodies that are responsible for men tell their husbands, “You the following terms: victim of preventing it. The survey was shouldn’t have left bruises domestic violence, asocial be- conducted on the Facebook when you beat her.” In some havior, domestic psychological social-project page NeMolchi. cases, the abusers were forced violence, domestic economic uz (Do Not Be Silent), an inde- to pay an administrative fine violence, domestic physical pendent information project to the state budget—but the violence, and domestic sexual against domestic violence that fines are usually an additional violence. It also proposes that accepts anonymous stories burden on the family budget, victims of domestic violence from readers and has around which may discourage women should be allowed to get a re- 10,000 followers. The survey from reporting violence. Just straining order against their spread among those who have four percent of cases result- attackers. The draft law focus- been victims of domestic vio- ed in legal prosecution of the es predominantly on the pre- lence. It collected 87 responses abuser. Usually, law enforce- vention of domestic violence, to its questions about report- ment officers use the phrase not entrenching domestic vio- ing domestic violence and the “no body, no case” to describe lence in the criminal code. responses of law enforcement the absence of a legal basis for organs and mahallas. Most of prosecuting an abuser. Survey on Domestic the respondents were from Violence Tashkent and Tashkent re- In a 1,000-respondent sur- gion. The survey included six vey, UReport looked at public The ruling of the President “On questions on whether wom- opinion on domestic violence. measures to improve the social en experienced domestic vio- Eighty-three percent indicated rehabilitation and adaptation lence; whether they reported that the problem of domestic system, and also prevention of it; if not, why not; if so, what violence is real, while another family and domestic violence” measures were taken by the part responded that the prob-

CAP Fellows Paper 223 12 lem is not openly discussed. ular on Facebook, is starting to cial protection in difficult sit- Among the latter group, 52 substitute for underdeveloped uations. Women are left with- percent of respondents were civil society activism. out property after divorces, female. Forty-eight percent they usually lack legal knowl- have witnessed violence, while The overall tendency of the edge on social protection, and 52 percent have never en- governmental organs toward they have no clue whom to ap- countered it. According to the increasing openness, com- proach in the event of disabili- answers, 60 percent do not bined with concerns about Uz- ty for them and their children. know where to report domes- bekistan’s public image and the The system of social protec- tic violence if they witness it feminist movement on social tion is underdeveloped, while or become victims thereof. media, has pushed the WCU to the environment of violence is To the question on whether develop some accountability. normalized. one should tolerate domestic The organization has begun to violence for the sake of pre- address some individual cases In response to the question serving the family, 54 percent of despair and violence among “What are the main reactions responded that it depends on women and has developed a to your publications and social the situation, while 34 per- system for aiding those who media posts?” respondents cent think that one “definitely are in need of urgent help. To cited reactions related to vic- should not.” date, 136 shelters have been tim-blaming. They indicat- opened across the country and ed that society is reluctant to Growing Feminist a helpline has been launched. speak openly about the prob- Activism on Social Media However, the objective struc- lem, which is interpreted dif- tural problems—such as a lack ferently by different people, The issue of domestic violence of communication, lack of in- and that gender equality is is almost exclusively discussed frastructure, and public ad- considered an alien concept. on social media. The NeMol- ministration issues—as well chi.uz project, started by ac- as subjective problems like the According to the activists, the tivist Irina Matvienko, has population’s traditional views roots of discrimination against become one of the first plat- continue to impede women’s women are the following (in forms on which it is possible to development. order of decreasing impor- speak openly about domestic tance): violence, LGBTQ+ issues, poor To learn about the intangibles - Strictly patriarchal val- social protection of women of the state gender policy, I ues and traditions; and children, and advocating conducted open-ended inter- - Non-compliance with for equal rights and opportu- views with 11 social media ac- laws; and nities. Faina Yagafarova is an- tivists who considered them- - Imperfect legal system. other individual activist; she selves feminists. writes daily on Facebook about Asked “What should the state issues facing women and how Respondents universally do to combat discrimination to fight against domestic vio- agreed that the main prob- against women?” respondents lence within the existing legal lem that prompts women to recommended the following system, as well as participating approach them is domestic policy moves: in social projects and meetings violence. This is followed by - Change the narratives promoted by the WCU. Activ- inequality at work and home, related to women in ism on social media, in partic- objectification, and lack of so- the society, diversify

CAP Fellows Paper 223 13 the female image, and reasons are also among the key mentioned, demonstrating not reduce the role of factors causing conflicts and that they are seen as part of the women to maternity violence. In some areas, hus- cultural reality in those areas. and marriage; bands’ alcohol addiction is the - Criminalize domestic main reason that they commit Conclusion violence; (up to - Recognize the real 90 percent in some mahallas This analysis of three dimen- problems and start to in the Samarkand region). sions of women’s participation talk about them open- and representation—legal, ly; and The question about what type economic, and cultural— - Develop gender sen- of women usually become showed a dramatic discrepan- sitivity and involve victims of domestic violence cy between the government’s women in political de- was answered similarly by stated objective of women’s cision-making follow- self-government leaders in empowerment and the real ing CEDAW recom- different mahallas: around 20 situation on the ground. The mendations. percent think uneducated, il- women of Uzbekistan are em- literate, spiritually underde- powered on paper but de facto One of the activists called for a veloped women; 13.8 percent put in an inferior position in more sustainable program for frivolous women; 13.8 percent the labor market, education, empowering women, explain- modest, naïve, hardworking business, social relations, and ing that in her opinion, the women; and 5.5 percent wom- public discourse. The legal ba- major steps taken in the recent en who are sick and/or have sis of gender equality proves period are closely connected to mental or physical disabilities. to be controversial and diffi- the upcoming submission of a Meanwhile, 33.3 percent con- cult to follow due to explicit report to CEDAW and a desire sider that scandalmongers and contradictions between laws. to improve the international gossips usually become the ob- Moreover, informal habits, image of the country. jects of violence. Around 3-5 which reflect traditional per- percent stated that the reason ceptions of women and their According to my respondents, for violence can be financial social roles, are much more the most popular image of inferiority and a woman’s poor powerful among citizens than an Uzbek woman is someone social and economic back- legal regulations. who is submissive and tender, ground. obedient and wise, a mother The growing re-traditionaliza- and good wife. According to a According to a report by Jam- tion of Uzbek society, along survey conducted by the NGO ilya Vafaeva for ACTED, in with decreased trust in the “Oydin Nur,” 18 percent of some surveyed areas, physical economic system, have led self-government leaders con- violence toward women is ha- not only to the feminization of sider that domestic violence bitual and has become a part poverty, but also to the femi- is caused mainly by the sharp of men culture. In addition, to nization of public pressure. tongue of women, 26 percent men, the term “discrimination Women bear the main respon- stated that husbands consider against women” means mainly sibility for preserving national their wives to be lazy and bad physical violence, the survey values and family values, and housekeepers, and 5.6 percent found. Other types of violence, have been put in charge of the said it happens because wom- such as violent jokes or a ban moral purity of the nation. en are disobedient. Financial on visiting parents, were not

CAP Fellows Paper 223 14 The Soviet-era discourse on still strong. The ongoing mas- have deep knowledge equal rights has been bor- sive changes in the legal sys- of Islamic theology. rowed by independent Uz- tem should be accompanied The main focus should bekistan and has been left on by a comprehensive reforma- be not on preserving a paper for box-checking pur- tion of social life and cultural family, but on prevent- poses and to improve the over- habits. As such, I propose the ing violence and figur- all international image of the following recommendations ing out possible solu- state. Meanwhile, the demotic to supplement the ongoing re- tions for both sides. discourse can be described as forms on gender balance, cre- 4. Create a Domestic Vi- explicitly patriarchal and in- ating equal opportunities and olence Resource Net- tolerant of all types of women’s preventing violence against work. The Network empowerment. and among women. should embrace victims of domestic violence, The repressive policies of the Recommendations law enforcement agen- Karimov era, a poor level of cies, health organiza- upward mobility, and the de- 1. Design a nationwide tions, and influential teriorating quality of secular publicity campaign us- individuals and provide education brought about ret- ing TV commercials, the organizations with rogression to traditionalism videos, and billboards up-to-date information, among the broad mass of the that would show fami- methods, and research. population. The re-tradition- ly relationships involv- alizing discourse clothes its ing educated working arguments in particular inter- women. The campaign pretations of Islam and puts should promote egal- women in so-called traditional itarian relationships roles. This results in the ne- within the family. glecting of concrete social and 2. Hold interactive train- economic problems and shifts ings for law enforce- the focus of attention to the ment officers with an issues of chastity, spirituality, emphasis on role-play- and national values. ing to stimulate em- pathy outside of the The Uzbek government is try- context of their family ing to improve its internation- setting. The aim should al image by declaring its com- be to develop officers’ mitment to universal rights conflict resolution skills and values, which inevitably and foster an attitude of include the equality of women zero-tolerance vis-à-vis and men. An institutional sys- domestic violence. tem of gender equality has not 3. Introduce NGOs that yet been established and cre- can provide mediation ating new government bodies for families. The ap- and committees is likely to be proach of the profes- insufficient, as intangible fac- sionals should be im- tors of cultural resistance are partial and they should

CAP Fellows Paper 223 15 Notes po voprosam zhenshchin i gender- losing a name prompts families to nogo ravenstva,” Gazeta.uz, June wish to have a son. Some men marry 1 Pierella Paci, “Gender in Tran- 22, 2019, https://www.gazeta.uz/ a second or a third wife to be sure sition,” The World Bank, Eastern ru/2019/06/22/women/. of having a male child. Moreover, 10 Europe and Central Asia Region, OHCHR, “Informatsiia natsion- in many communities in Asia and May 21, 2002, http://docu- al’nogo tsentra Respubliki Uzbeki- Africa, sons perform burial rites for ments.worldbank.org/curated/ stan po pravam cheloveka na Vo- parents. Parents with no male child en/892681468751807453/pdf/ prosnik UVKPCh OON v kontekste cannot expect to have an appro- multi0page.pdf. vypolneniia Respublikoi Uzbekistan priate burial that will “secure their 2 Ibid., 12. Rezoliutsii SPCh OON 35/10 ‘Aktiv- peace in the next world.” Religious 3 Ibid., xiii. izatsiia usilii v tseliakh iskoreneniia leaders play a major role in the 4 Globally, there is a growing nasiliia v otnoshenii zhenshchin: perpetuation of son preference: in perception that poverty is being vovlechenie muzhchin i mal’chikov almost all religions, ceremonies are feminized—that is, that an in- v preduprezhdenie i presechenie performed by men; priests, pastors, creasing proportion of the world’s nasiliia v otnoshenii vsekh zhen- sheikhs, and other religious leaders poor are female. The idea is that shchin i devochek,’” accessed July are men of great status to whom the costs of transition have not 3, 2019, https://www.ohchr.org/ society attaches great importance. been distributed evenly among Documents/Issues/Women/WRGS/ See Women’s UN Report Network, the population and that women MenAndBoysGenderEquality/ “Fact Sheet No. 23, Harmful Tradi- are more likely to fall into pov- States/Uzbekistan.pdf. In 1993, the tional Practices Affecting the Health erty than men. See Valentine M. Uzbek government reorganized ma- of Women and Children,” OCHCR, Moghadam, “The ‘Feminization halla councils as bearers of “Uzbek accessed July 3, 2019, https://www. of Poverty’ and Women’s Human nationhood” and “morality,” effec- ohchr.org/Documents/Publica- Rights,” SHS Papers in Women’s tively reproducing Soviet-style state tions/FactSheet23en.pdf. 15 Studies/Gender Research 2 (July domination over the society. Mahal- S. Correa and R. Petchesky, 2005), http://www.cpahq.org/ la councils are formal structures run “Exposing the Numbers Game: cpahq/cpadocs/Feminization_ by committees (headed by chairs Feminists Challenge the Population of_Poverty.pdf; Sylke V. Schnepf, called oqsoqols) and regulated by Control Establishment,” Ms. 5, no. 2 “The Feminization of Poverty in the government. See “Mahalla (Uz- (1994): 10-7. 16 Transition Countries: Evidence beks),” Revolvy.com, accessed July Women’s UN Report Network, from Subjective Data,” working 3, 2019, https://www.revolvy.com/ “Fact Sheet No. 23.” 17 paper, 2004, https://miau.my-x. page/Mahalla-%28Uzbeks%29. Pregnant women must register at 11 hu/osiris/content/docs/fao_sem- Megan A. Ginn, “A Comparative public polyclinics according to their inar/women/feminizationofpov- Study: Women's Rights in Kazakh- living address and provide their ertyppr.13A.SVS.pdf. stan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan” pregnancy history. 18 5 Nick Megoran, “Framing Andi- (BA thesis, University of Central The discussion can be found jon, Narrating the Nation: Islam Florida, 2016). on the “Ya-MAMA!” Facebook 12 Karimov’s Account of the Events “Ekskliuzivnoe interv’iu s pred- page: https://www.facebook. of 13 May 2005,” Central Asian sedatelem Komiteta zhenshchin com/groups/224305077630604/ Survey 27, no. 1 (2008): 15-31. El’miroi Basitkhanovoi,” July 14, search/?query=заставляют%20 6 Suzanne Keller, Beyond the 2019, https://repost.uz/basitxano- спираль&epa=SEARCH_BOX. 19 Ruling Class: Strategic Elites in va. Natalia Antelava, “Forced Steril- 13 Modern Society (London: Rout- Nira Yuval-Davis, “Gender and ization of Women in Uzbekistan,” ledge, 2017). Nation,” in Women, Ethnicity, and Open Society Foundations Policy 7 Law of the Republic of Uzbeki- Nationalism, ed. Rick Wilford and Report, December 2013, https:// stan “On the Guarantees of Equal Robert L. Miller (London: Rout- www.opensocietyfoundations.org/ Rights and Opportunities for Men ledge, 2004), 23-35. uploads/9b3b427b-444b-4ba4- 14 and Women,” ID-3220, accessed In many societies, the family lin- 9a33-160a31932976/steriliza- July 3, 2019, https://regulation. eage is carried on by male children. tion-uzbek-20131212.pdf. 20 gov.uz/ru/document/3220. The preservation of the family name Decree of the President of the 8 Pierre Bourdieu, Masculine is guaranteed through the sons. Republic of Uzbekistan, “On the Domination (Stanford, CA: Stan- With the exception of a few coun- Forecast of the Main Macroeconom- ford University Press, 2001), 42. tries, such as Ethiopia, a takes ic Indicators and Parameters of the 9 “V Senate poiavitsia Komitet her husband's family name, drop- State Budget of the Republic of Uz- ping that of her parents. The fear of

CAP Fellows Paper 223 16 bekistan for 2018,” accessed July 3, port: Uzbekistan,” accessed July conomy.ru/dataviewer/wb/wbd/ 2019, http://lex.uz/docs/3480354. 3, 2019, https://uz.usembassy. wdi?ref_area=UZB&series=SE_ 21 “‘Dekretnyi otpusk’: nestandart- gov/2018-trafficking-in-persons-re- ENR_TERT_FM_ZS. nye situatsii,” Norma.uz, November port-uzbekistan/. 43 The Borgen Project, “Girls’ Educa- 30, 2018, https://www.norma.uz/ 30 “Profilaktikoi razvodov zaimet- tion in Uzbekistan.” nashi_obzori/dekretnyy_otpusk_ sia ‘Sovet svekrovei,’” Nuz.uz, 44 TrendEconomy, “Sootnoshenie nestandartnye_situacii. July 25, 2017, https://nuz.uz/ob- zhenshchin i muzhchin.” 22 Suffice it to say that women are schestvo/24866-profilaktikoy-raz- 45 Ibid., 72. rarely desirable employees, as they vodov-zaymetsya-sovet-svekrovey. 46 Asian Development Bank, “Uz- usually end up taking maternity html. bekistan Country Gender Assess- leave. Employers usually ask female 31 S. Gulyamova, “Otchet o prove- ment Update,” 235. employees explicitly about their dennom issledovanii po voprosam 47 Global Partnership, “Education future personal plans, and gen- gendernogo ravenstva i nasiliia v Sector Plan (ESP) of Uzbekistan, der-based employment discrimina- otnoshenii zhenshchin,” 2018, p. 23. 2019-2023,” https://www.global- tion is not rare. Received from an unofficial source. partnership.org/sites/default/ 23 Statista, “Uzbekistan: Infant 32 “Rastrozhenie braka v sude: files/2019-04-gpe-esp-uzbekistan. Mortality Rate from 2007 to 2017 neobkhodimye dokumenty,” Norma. pdf (in Deaths per 1,000 Live Births),” uz, June 30, 2017, https://www. 48 https://www.gazeta.uz/ 2019, accessed July 3, 2019, norma.uz/nashi_obzori/rastorje- ru/2019/05/06/schools/ [no longer https://www.statista.com/statis- nie_braka_v_sude_neobhodimye_ available]. tics/807843/infant-mortality-in-uz- dokumenty. 49 This point was made by ac- bekistan/. 33 Article 40 of the Family Code of tivist Irina Matvienko in a 24 Trading Economics, “Uzbeki- Uzbekistan. Facebook post: https://www. stan—Population Growth (Annual 34 “Chislo razvodov uvelichilos’ na facebook.com/matvienko.irina/ %),” accessed July 3, 2019, https:// 8% v 2017 godu,” Gazeta.uz, Janu- posts/2191953064197632. tradingeconomics.com/uzbekistan/ ary 19, 2018, https://www.gazeta. 50 “Economically active” is defined population-growth-annual-per- uz/ru/2018/01/19/marriage/. as either employed or actively hunt- cent-wb-data.html. 35 “Polygamy Crackdown Leads ing for a job. 25 Eric Hobsbawm and Terence to Fierce Debate,” BBC, July 17, 51 UNDP Uzbekistan, “Neustoi- Ranger, The Invention of Tradition 2017, https://www.bbc.com/news/ chivaia zaniatost’ v Uzbekistane: (Cambridge: Cambridge University blogs-trending-40570635. sostoianie, problemy i puti ikh Press, 2012). 36 Maksim Yeniseyev, “Uzbekistan resheniia,” Tashkent, 2018, https:// 26 World Bank Group, “Wom- Acts Against Illegal Marriages,” Cen- www.undp.org/content/dam/ en, Business, and the Law 2019: tral Asia News, July 7, 2017, http:// uzbekistan/docs/un_uzb_employ- A Decade of Reform,” https:// central.asia-news.com/en_GB/arti- ment_in_uzbekistan_report.pdf, openknowledge.worldbank.org/ cles/cnmi_ca/features/2017/07/07/ 52. bitstream/handle/10986/31327/ feature-02. 52 Asian Development Bank, “Uz- WBL2019.pdf?sequence=4&isAl- 37 Asian Development Bank, “Uz- bekistan Country Gender Assess- lowed=y. bekistan Country Gender Assess- ment Update,” 11. 27 Asian Development Bank, “Uz- ment Update,” 27. 53 Ibid., 54. bekistan Country Gender Assess- 38 Ibid., xii. 54 Ibid., 13. ment Update,” 2018, https:// 39 The Borgen Project, “Girls’ Edu- 55 Ibid., xvi. www.adb.org/sites/default/files/ cation in Uzbekistan,” accessed July 56 Ibid. institutional-document/479841/ 3, 2019, https://borgenproject.org/ 57 Asian Development Bank, “Uz- uzbekistan-country-gender-assess- girls-education-in-uzbekistan/. bekistan Country Gender Assess- ment-update.pdf, 10. 40 Asian Development Bank, “Uz- ment Update,” 62. 28 Women’s Committee of Uzbeki- bekistan Country Gender Assess- 58 Ibid., 35; United Nations Develop- stan, “Uzbekiston khotin-kizlar ment Update,” 55. ment Program and Japan Interna- kumitasi ustavi,” January 25, 41 Ibid., 4. tional Cooperation Agency Chamber 2013, http://wcu.uz/uploads/ 42 TrendEconomy, “Sootnoshenie of Commerce and Industry, “The docs/6836db0aa3de74c344f4ee10d- zhenshchin i muzhchin v sisteme Portrait of Business Women of ef61ab3.pdf. vysshego obrazovaniia (%) (%) v Uz- Uzbekistan: The Survey Conducted 29 U.S. Embassy in Uzbekistan, bekistane v 2017 godu—Vsemirnyi under Business Forum of Uzbeki- “2018 Trafficking in Persons -Re Bank,” 2018, http://data.trende- stan Project. Phase 2,” Tashkent,

CAP Fellows Paper 223 17 2017, http://central.asia-news. в-узбекистане-рабсила-рабская- otnoshenii zhenshchin,” 2019, p. 6. com/en_GB/articles/cnmi_ca/fea- сила/a-710671. Received from an unofficial source. tures/2017/07/07/feature-02. 68 The State Internal Affairs Depart- 81 Ibid., 18. 59 Objects in the real estate register ment of Uzbekistan reported the in 2011-2016 had a total value of 8.7 raids on brothels on TV and social billion soms. Of this, only 1.9 billion media, showing female sex-workers’ soms’ worth was registered in the faces openly. names of women. Data provided 69 “V Uzbekistane uzhestochili by the Chamber of Commerce and nakazanie za prostitutsiiu,” UZdaily, Industry to the ADB in September/ December 14, 2018, https://www. October 2017—see p. 59 of Asian uzdaily.uz/articles-id-40747.htm. Development Bank, “Uzbekistan 70 Decree of the President of the Re- Country Gender Assessment Up- public of Uzbekistan “On Measures date.” to Fundamentally Improve Activities 60 “Uroven bezrabotitsy sostavil in the Field of Supporting Women 9,3%,” Gazeta.uz, October 4, and Strengthening the Institution of 2018, https://www.gazeta.uz/ the Family,” accessed July 3, 2019, ru/2018/10/04/employment/. http://lex.uz/docs/3546745. 61 “Zhenskaia dolia i rol’: chego ne 71 Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan khvataet Uzbekistanu dlia gender- “On the Guarantees of Equal Rights nogo ravenstva,” Sputnik News, July and Opportunities for Men and 11, 2018, https://uz.sputniknews. Women.” ru/analytics/20181107/9900246/ 72 Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan Zhenskaya-dolya-i-rol-chto-ne-kh- “On the Prevention of Domestic vataet-Uzbekistanu-dlya-gender- Violence,” ID-658, accessed July 3, nogo-ravenstva.html. 2019, https://regulation.gov.uz/ru/ 62 World Bank Group, “Diagnos- document/658. ticheskoe issledovanie bar’erov, 73 https://www.facebook.com/ sderzhivaiushchikh povyshenie nemolchi.uz/?__tn__=%2C- dokhodov maloobespechennykh d%2CP-R&eid=ARDWvnanRkqW- sel’skikh zhenshchin v Uzbekistane,” p7iQ6QVgXr_qxutF7U_tky7mizQY- 2017, accessed July 18, 2019, http:// j99WBeSFw-tT9Cofh32rohk1X- documents.vsemirnyjbank.org/ I8K0-QH9OuTuMUn [no longer curated/ru/182931504199462465/ available]. Диагностическое-исследование- 74 Survey conducted by the author. барьеров-сдерживающих- 75 “Voprosy bytovogo nasiliia v повышение-доходов- Uzbekistane,” UReport, January 24, малообеспеченных-сельских- 2019, https://uzbekistan.ureport.in/ женщин, 18. story/292/. 63 Ibid., 19. 76 NeMolchi.uz’s Facebook page is 64 Ibid., 18. available at: https://www.facebook. 65 “Uzbekistan: Mnogochislennost’ com/nemolchi.uz/. zhenshchin-mardikerov otrazhaet 77 Faina Yagafarova’s Facebook page situatsiiu s bezrabotitsei v strane,” is available at: https://www.face- EurasiaNet, January 13, 2017, book.com/fernanda.manchini. https://russian.eurasianet.org/ 78 Women’s Committee of Uzbeki- node/63781. stan, “Markaz faoliiati,” accessed 66 Labor Code of the Republic July 3, 2019, http://wcu.uz/uz/ of Uzbekistan, http://lex.uz/ menu/markaz-faolijati. docs/145261#146843. 79 Gulyamova, “Otchet o proveden- 67 “Prava zhenshchin v Uzbekistane: nom issledovanii,” 36. Rabsila = rabskaia sila,” Deutsche 80 Jamilya Vafaeva, “Otchet o prove- Welle, December 11, 2002, https:// dennom issledovanii po voprosam www.dw.com/ru/права-женщин- gendernogo ravenstva i nasiliia v

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