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Ripples of Hope PROTEST AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 4 PROTEST AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS Press Ripples of Hope: How Ordinary People Resist Repression without Violence is the true story of mothers, students, teachers, journalists, attorneys, and others who courageously stood up for freedom and human rights against repressive rulers − and helped bring change. With few exceptions, they did it nonviolently. Global in application and focusing on Kenya, Liberia and Sierra Leone, this tribute to the strength of the human spirit also breaks new ground in social movement theories, showing how people on their own or in small groups can make a difference. Robert M. Press, a former international journalist, earned his PhD in political science at the University of Florida in 2004. He is the author of Peaceful Resistance: Advancing Human Rights and Democratic Freedom (Ashgate, 2006) and The New Africa: Dispatches from a Changing Continent (U. Press of Florida, 1999). Ripples of Hope ‘… a theoretically significant contribution to the social movements literature, particularly those addressing strategic nonviolent action …’ Robert M. Press Stephen Zunes, Professor of Politics and International Studies, University of San Francisco ‘Enormously rich, interesting and original.’ T. Debey Sayndee, Professor of Peace and Conflict Studies, University of Liberia Ripples of Hope ‘It was the domestic activists, whether individually or in organized setting, Press rightly argues, who forced reforms on a reluctant oppressive regime … In the process, the Culture of Resistance becomes irresistible …’ Macharia Munene, Professor of History and International Relations, United How Ordinary People Resist States International University, Nairobi, Kenya Repression Without Violence ‘A very interesting read, and the application of social movement theory; offers new insights into the developments in Sierra Leone between late 1970s and 1990s.’ Ismail Rashid, Professor of History, Vassar College ISBN: 978-90-8964-748-1 AUP.nl 9 7 8 9 0 8 9 6 4 7 4 8 1 Ripples of Hope Protest and Social Movements Recent years have seen an explosion of protest movements around the world, and academic theories are racing to catch up with them. This series aims to further our understanding of the origins, dealings, decisions, and outcomes of social movements by fostering dialogue among many traditions of thought, across European nations and across continents. All theoretical perspectives are welcome. Books in the series typically combine theory with empirical research, dealing with various types of mobilization, from neighborhood groups to revolutions. We especially welcome work that synthesizes or compares different approaches to social movements, such as cultural and structural traditions, micro- and macro-social, economic and ideal, or qualitative and quantitative. Books in the series will be published in English. One goal is to encourage non- native speakers to introduce their work to Anglophone audiences. Another is to maximize accessibility: all books will be available in open access within a year after printed publication. Series editors Jan Willem Duyvendak is professor of Sociology at the University of Amsterdam. James M. Jasper teaches at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York. Ripples of Hope How Ordinary People Resist Repression without Violence Robert M. Press Amsterdam University Press Cover illustration: Many Liberian women demonstrated for an end to Liberia’s civil war. The women shown here continued their vigils for lasting peace after the war ended in 2003, as part of an organization led by Liberian Leymah Gbowee, a 2011 Nobel Peace prize winner. Photo by Betty Press, Monrovia, Liberia, 2006. Cover design: Coördesign, Leiden Typesetting: Crius Group, Hulshout Amsterdam University Press English-language titles are distributed in the US and Canada by the University of Chicago Press. isbn 978 90 8964 748 1 e-isbn 978 90 4852 515 7 (pdf) nur 692 © Robert M. Press / Amsterdam University Press B.V., Amsterdam 2015 All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the written permission of both the copyright owner and the author of the book. Dedicated to the many people of Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Kenya who actively resisted repression from regimes in their country, often at considerable risk to themselves; and to my wife and partner in our travels, Betty Press, who believes as much as I do in the future of Africa. Contents Introduction 15 Case Studies and Organization of the Book 18 Part one: Sierra Leone 19 Part two: Liberia 19 Part three: Kenya 20 1 Resisting Repression without Violence 21 Individual Activism 23 Resistance in Abeyance: Organization without Organizations 25 From Abeyance to Formally Organized Resistance 26 Resistance without “Opportunity” 27 Broader, More Fluid Participation in Resistance 29 Establishing a Culture of Resistance 31 New Universal Model for Social Movements 34 Theoretical Implications 35 Structure and Resistance 35 Motives of Activists 38 Part one Sierra Leone 2 Students Shake the Pillars of Power 43 Roots of Resistance 45 Rebirth of Resistance 47 “Opportunity?” 47 Phase I: Student Resistance 48 The Power of Small Groups 50 Regime Repression Stimulates more Resistance 52 Resistance Impact 54 Civil Society Fails to Support Protesting Students 56 Phase II: Political Shape Shift: A “War” of Words 59 The Cost of Resisting Repression with Words 62 Refusing to Flee 63 Independent Journalist Escapes Arrest by Jumping out a Window; Press Dynamited 65 Phase III: Radical Activism: From Seeking Regime Reform to Regime Change 67 Training for Revolution 72 Implications of an Informal Resistance 78 3 Women Help Restore Democracy 81 A Modern David Uses Words, not Stones 82 Tracking Resistance via Energy and Ideas, not just Social Movement Organizations 83 Motives of Activists 86 Deepening a Culture of Resistance: Civil Society Re-emerges 87 Military Abuses 89 Birth of a Social Movement: Women Lead the Charge for Regime Change 90 Growing Civil Society Opposition to Military Rule 95 National Conferences: “The Military Realized Late We Were Serious” 97 Market Women v. the Military: The story of two Maries 98 Implications of a Successful Nonviolent Resistance to a Military Junta 102 4 Mass Noncooperation Helps Defeat a Violent Junta 105 Nonviolent Social Movement 106 Democracy on Hold 108 A Brutal Regime: “The Whole Nation Was Crying” 110 A Critique of Theories of Nonviolence 112 Violent Resistance 115 Civil Society’s Nonviolent Resistance: Junta “Not Wanted” 116 Individual Noncooperation 117 A Minor Theory: the Overlooked Role of Minor Actors in Helping Major Activists 119 Individual Resistance: Part of a Larger Social Movement 120 Resisting and Surviving: “We All Thought We Were Going To Die” 121 Organizational Nonviolent Resistance: Lessons from Gandhi and King 124 Teachers and Labor Strike 126 Journalists Wage Nonviolent “War” against the Military Junta 128 Drawn to activism by their profession 129 Underground Resistance by Journalists 132 A Journalist with a “Revolutionary Fervor” for Democracy 132 Radio Democracy: Psychological Warfare against the “Foot” of State 135 A “Ray of Hope” 136 Invisible Networks Supporting Social Movements in Repressive Settings 138 A Nonviolent Woman “Warrior” 139 Dangerous Marches 140 Marching on the Rebel Leader’s Home: “We Shall Overcome” 141 Final Orgy of Violence: “We Thought We Would All Be Dead” 143 International Interventions: A Nigerian Dictator Helps Restore Democracy 144 Implications of the Noncooperation with a Military Junta 146 Part two Liberia 5 Nonviolent Resistance in Abeyance 151 A History of Authoritarianism and Resistance 153 Cultural Restraints on Resistance? 156 Emergence of Civic Resistance 157 Rice Riots (1979): Opening the Door for the 1980 Coup 160 Short-Lived Hopes for Human Rights and Democracy 162 Resistance in Abeyance: Courage, Commitment, Danger 164 Shooting Books 165 Professional Duty: Pathway to Resistance 167 American Ambivalence over Repression in Liberia 168 Civil War Stirs More Regime Repression – and Resistance 170 Implications of Peaceful Resistance in Abeyance 171 6 Peaceful Resistance during a Civil War 175 One Country, Two Presidents 177 Resisting a Tyrant, Peacefully 179 Moral Basis for Resistance 180 Human Rights Activism – “Delivering Body Blows to Taylor” 183 International Support for Advocacy 184 Ripples of Hope: Activists Inspire Others 186 Array of Tactics in the Resistance 188 Courage and Commitment: Intangible “Resources” in the Struggle for Human Rights 190 Women’s Peace Movements 191 “When Mother Calls” 195 Women Seize Peace Talks Hall 197 Implications of Nonviolent Resistance during a Civil War 198 Part three Kenya 7 Individual Resistance against Repression 205 Professionalism: an Overlooked Entry Path to Activism 209 Resistance despite Repression, Few “Opportunities,” Limited Material Resources 210 Early Resistance 211 Hiding in a Charcoal Truck to Run for Parliament 212 Growing Resistance 214 Freedom Corner: Early Cracks in the Wall of Fear 215 Individual Activism (1): Urban Legal “Guerrillas” 217 Organization without Organizations 219 Unpredictability of Social Movements: Minor Actors; Chains of Events 220 Chess Game of Tactics 225 Individual Activism (2): Resistance by Writers, Clergy and Others 227 Weapons of Words 227 “God’s Kingdom Grows with
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