CURRENT and HISTORICAL DEBATES in SOCIAL SCIENCES Field Studies and Analysis

CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES Field Studies and Analysis

Edited by EMRAH DOĞAN CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES Field Studies and Analysis Edited by EMRAH DOĞAN CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS

Edited By Emrah Doğan CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Edited by: Emrah Doğan IJOPEC PUBLICATION London ijopec.co.uk Istanbul

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INTRODUCTION: CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS...... 5

PART I EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES 1. DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSITION IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH...... 11 Farhang Morady

2. POSTMODERNISM AND WHAT IT IS NOT: SOME CLARIFACATION ABOUT AN ONGOING DEBATE...... 37 Eser Keçeçi

3. THE HISTORICAL ORIGIN OF THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS, THE FIRST USAGE OF THE CONCEPT AND ERNST MACH’S GEDANKENEXPERIMENT ...... 51 Alper Bilgehan Yardımcı

4. KANT AND HUGO: THE PHILOSOPHER AND THE POET ON DELIBERATION...... 69 Aliye Karabük Kovanlıkaya

5. THE EMERGENCE OF THE TRUTH IN TURKISH CINEMA: THE SEARCH OF THE “GİZLİ YÜZ-THE SECRET FACE” AND “KOSMOS” ...... 85 Evren Günevi Uslu

PART II RESEARCH EXAMPLES FROM CURRENT DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES 6. APPRAISAL ON THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA ON INFORMATION MANAGEMENT IN PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTICE...... 99 Nuran Öze, Shamah Tatenda Havurovi

7. THE ROLE OF NEW MEDIA ON YOUNG ADULTS IN SPREADING POPULAR CULTURE: AN AMPIRIC RESEARCH IN KAYSERİ ...... 117 İsmailcan Doğan

8. APPLICATION AND EVALUATION OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE PREVENTION TRAINING PROGRAM ON HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS...143 Yasemin Özkan, Meryem Danışmaz Sevin, Nihan Balşık Kaya

3 9. “CORONA EPADEMIC - COVID-19 CRISIS MANAGEMENT” (MBR VS.MBO)...... 165 Bassem H.H. Qushou

10. THE ROLE OF MACHINE LEARNING ALGORITHMS IN DETERMINING PRODUCT SALES IN E-COMMERCE: A CASE STUDY FOR TURKEY...... 175 Hilal Yıldız

11. GREEN MARKETING...... 195 Resul Öztürk

12. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TESTING HETEROSCEDASTICITY IN NONLINEAR REGRESSION...... 211 Sakina I. Babashova INTRODUCTION: CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS

The most beautiful aspect of the discussions in social sciences is that it examines both historical and current debates over and over again and handles the facts from a different perspective. Historical debates or current debates in social sciences guide us in evaluating the past, present, and future while keeping our minds alive in the face of social facts and events. Many points remain in the dark in historical debates. Evaluating these dark spots can guide us in understanding the present again. It can also lead us to look at the future with a different vision. It is necessary to evaluate the articles in this study in this direction.

There have been many studies and discussions on development. However, it has not been discussed how a vague concept such as development takes shape within the framework of the social, political, and cultural characteristics of various regions. In this sense, Dr. Farhang Morady’s article provides us with a look at the various schools of thought that have dominated development debates since World War II. However, it analyzes how it has moved from the form of a state-centered political economy to a neoliberal political economy that engages academics, pol- icymakers, and international organizations dealing with development issues.

One of the controversial concepts in social sciences is postmodernism. Eser Keçeçi touches on what postmodernism is from a different perspective, its formation process with historical contexts, thought leaders, opposition, and critical approaches. Thus, he attempts an alternative explanation of postmodernism.

In this study, two historical analyzes are also in the field of philosophy. The article of Alper Bilgehan Yardımcı, one of these studies, discusses the current definitions of thought experiments and the origin of this concept with the first use in history. From the epistemology of Ernst Mach, who conducted the first systematic research on thought experiments, he describes the views of James Brown and John Norton who support different positions of the general framework of the epistemological status of thought experiments. Another article in the field of

5 INTRODUCTION

philosophy is Ali Karabük Kovanlıkaya’s assessment of a situation in which Jean Valjean is trying to decide what to do in Victor Hugo’s masterpiece Les Misera- bles. This assessment of the situation examines Kant’s general approaches and Jean Valjean’s thoughts. It clarifies the reasons for not knowing exactly the real encouragement of one’s action within the framework of Kant’s thoughts.

Another historical and conceptual analysis is in the field of cinema. Cinema strives to understand and make sense of the existential reality of human beings. Cin- ema, which is not only an artistic work but also a product of human existential effort, is a field of existence for truth. Evren Günevi Uslu also examined the concept of truth in this study and examined the examples of truth language in cinema, Hidden Face – Gizli Yüz, and Cosmos films.

In addition to historical debates in social sciences, current debates also give us important clues in understanding society. Current debates in social sciences are at least as diverse as historical debates. One of these studies is the effects of social media use on Public Relations (PR) experts, which Nuran Öze and Shamah Ta- tenda Havurovi researched together. The researchers, both Public Relations specialists, have done their work on their colleagues in their field. Based on the influence of PR professionals in South Africa on knowledge management (IM), the use of sauce and media in PR practice has been investigated.

In addition to historical debates in social sciences, current debates also give us important clues in understanding society. Current debates in social sciences are at least as varied as historical debates. One of these studies is the effects of social media use on Public Relations (PR) experts, which Nuran Öze and Shamah Ta- tenda Havurovi researched together. The researchers, both Public Relations specialists, have done their work on their colleagues in their field. Based on the influence of PR professionals in South Africa on knowledge management (IM), the use of sauce and media in PR practice has been investigated.

İsmailcan Doğan also researched the role of new media in popularizing popular culture. İsmailcan describes the role of new media on young adults as a means of creating popular culture. In this sense, it has conducted a field study in the province of Kayseri. In the study, it was seen that young adults who use new media tools are influenced by popular culture products both on the internet and social media and they take part personally in the spread of popular culture with the media tools they use.

6 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

One of the researches in the field of social sciences in this study is the study of the effectiveness of awareness education for preventing substance addiction for high school students, which is a joint study of Yasemin Özkan, Meryem Danışmaz Se- vin, and Nihan Balşık Kaya. As a result of the research, important suggestions regarding the necessity of preventive studies for high school students who are likely to encounter the substance at any time due to their age were presented.

Another contribution from social sciences to current debates is Bassem H.H. Qushou’s research on Covid-19, a global epidemic. In this research, Qushou searched for answers to the following two questions: 1. What are the main methodologies, techniques, tools, and strategies adopted, followed, and applied by the world in managing the Covid-19 outbreak? 2. Has the world won in the war to stop the Covid-19 epidemic?

Social science research generally focuses on existing problems and phenomena. It tries to bring solutions to the problems of the human being in the field of existence. One of these efforts is to organize the consumption habits of people and the other is to develop marketing strategies compatible with the environment. Hilal Yıldız, who conducted research in this field, examined how machine learning algorithms are used in shopping sites with the expansion of e-commerce volume. In this sense, it has been analyzing shopping sites operating in the field of e-commerce in Turkey. Another study that focuses on the organization of people’s consumption habits is Resul Öztürk’s green marketing study. In his study, Öztürk focuses on marketing activities that will require businesses to adopt a new and more harmonious relationship with the environment in macro marketing studies. In this context, the emergence and development of the concept of green marketing, its definition and importance, the components of green marketing, and typical green consumer issues are discussed in the article.

The last work of this book is in the field of econometrics. As it is known, econometrics applies statistical and mathematical models quantitatively in order to develop theories in economics, to test hypotheses, and to predict future trends in the light of past data. Sakina I. Babashova also analyzed methods of determining nonlinear behavior in financial time series. Specifically, it aimed to test volatility using three different heteroskedasticity tests (linearity tests, autocorrelation tests, and ARCH and GARCH).

7 INTRODUCTION

If we compare social sciences to an ocean, we can say that the studies conducted within the scope of this book are a drop in terms of contribution to social science discussions. However, although these studies are a small contribution to the social science discussions, they are important in terms of illuminating the dark points in the field of social science.

October 2020 Emrah Doğan

8 PART I EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES

1 DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSITION IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH Farhang Morady (University of Westminster)1

Introduction

Development is a concept ambiguous enough to inspire controversies as to exactly what it means. It is sometimes applied to the world political economy as a whole. It is often used to name processes of, usually progressive, transformation, in the ‘global south’.2 Since 1945, it has become synonymous with efforts to reduce poverty and achieve sustainable development, including, since they were adopted in 2000, realizing the Millennium Development Goals. In pursuing these goals, various governments and national and international organisations have employed different tools with varying degrees of success.

In the post-1945 period, development became the principle focus of most states. In particular, the involvement of the state in the economy was seen as the only solution to the economic difficulties facing the global south. Following John May- nard Keynes, it was believed that government restrictions and regulations would assist the process of capital accumulation (Campbell, 2005: 189). To ensure that the world would not experience another great depression or a war like that of 1939-45, the Keynesian method of economic management was considered vital for every country to follow. It was the accepted policy by both governments and corporations that the state was able to stimulate the crisis-driven global economy. This appeared to be only working model of development until the 1970s, with the world recession that impacted not only the nations of the advanced capitalist ‘West’ but also the socialist nations of Eastern Europe and countries throughout

1 [email protected], Principal Lecturer in International Relations and Development Department of Politics and International Relations, University of Westminster, London. 2 I use the term ‘global south’ to denote the countries in the world that are outside the advanced Western and the East Asian countries. It may be treated as synonymous with the concept of the ‘Third World’ or that of ‘less developed’ countries, and similar terms.

11 DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSITION IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH Farhang Morady

the global south. Suddenly, the state could no longer protect national capitalist accumulation from the effects of the world recession. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s and the end of the Cold War in 1992, the West- ern market approach became the only approach to development. However, the rise of emerging powers such as China, India, and the oil-producing countries in the Persian Gulf, where the state has been playing a crucial role, have challenged the role of market liberalism.

Whatever the strategies involved, it may be asked, what sort of progressive change does development achieve? Under what conditions does it succeed, and who is involved and how? What kind of policy is used to direct it and how is this success measured?

This paper looks at uneven development as a feature of capitalism. The key dy- namics of capitalist development in roughly the last hundred years have included the creation of a world economy that incorporates various regions with their own social, political, and cultural peculiarities. Certainly, successful economic development has not followed a single path globally (for instance, passing through an identical sequence of stages), but has taken a plurality of forms. This variance is part of the meaning of the concept of uneven development, which has further meant “persistent differences in levels and rates of economic development between different sectors of the economy.” This unevenness is obscured by developmental ideologies precisely in focusing on overall processes as if they were uniform, and uniformly beneficial or improving. Among other things, this means that some of the prescriptions for development associated with neoliberalism are less factual than ideological, as the actions indicated may further overall development but in an indeed highly uneven manner.

The paper will first provide an overview of the various schools of thought that have dominated the discussions of development since World War II. It will an- alyse the move from state-centred to neoliberal forms of political economy that has preoccupied academics, policy-makers, and international organisations concerned with development issues. It will also set out a multilevel approach to understanding neoliberal development within the framework of global capitalism.

12 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Conceptualising Development

The term ‘development’ is sometimes used to describe economic, political, and social transformations in modern industrial (capitalist or socialist) societies. The developments that were originally and remained largely specific to capitalism began of course in Europe, and later expanded throughout the world (Wood, 1999). These processes transformed traditional societies into majority urban ones in which the industrial and service sectors dominate the society, which is also divided among the distinct classes of the bourgeoisie or capitalist class, and working classes (Hilton, 1976).

Capitalist development in particular tends to bring with it various social, political, and cultural changes. Some of these result from the fact that the modern nation-state itself forms an important part of the economy and society. It involves the growth of a bureaucracy that is needed for coordinated economic planning and to provide various services, including police and an army, universal education, language and communication networks to reach the population, the pur- suit of societal and economic development coordinated at the national level, and related political institutions such as a representative parliament.

Globally, relatively advanced areas exercise pressure on more backward regions through an international division of labour, managed partly through the international system of states. While capital has historically and constantly constituted a force driving expansion, it is inherently uneven. It does not simply destroy all that lies before it, but reshapes what it finds, and does so to a much greater degree than any previous mode of production, such as feudalism.

This system has embedded within it economic, political, and social contradictions, among which is the way in which concentrations of wealth and capital develop alongside poverty that is increased in the process. According to a recent (2019) Credit Suisse report, one percent of the world’s population owns nearly half (45 per cent) of all global wealth, with the top 10 per cent possessing 82 per cent, while the bottom half of the world’s adult persons holds less than one percent. The unevenness in the ownership of wealth partly reflects the differential growth of sectors, geographical processes, classes, and regions at the global, regional, national, sub-national, and local levels.3

3 See https://www.credit-suisse.com/about-us/en/reports-research/global-wealth-report.html

13 DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSITION IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH Farhang Morady

Capitalism is often associated with the expansion of markets and trade both lo- cally and globally. The market competition that the system is partly based upon is itself inherently unequal and exploitative (Sweezy, 1976). This may of course have ‘progressive’ (Warren, 1980) as well as destructive consequences, as overall wealth is increased, forms of domination may become less repressive and freer in some domains or sectors while moving oppositely in others, and the increased overall prosperity of a society or region will partly accrue to ‘middle class’ professionals, while others may be impoverished or kept in low-wage or precarious jobs.

The Development Since World War II

The transition in the world economy since 1945 is reflected in different inter- pretations of development. The post-war period saw the rebuilding of the Euro- pean economies shattered by the war, and the emergence of global institutions such as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (later to become the World Bank), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (later becoming the World Trade Organisation).

The US, with its undisputed global hegemony, with President Truman putting forth a plan addressing the question in 1949,4 led this reconstruction process, which also was contemporaneous with the decolonization of nations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America (Cypher and Dietz 2008; Hettne 1986; Leys 1996; Worsley 1984).

Truman’s vision came under considerable criticism from scholars and leaders in the global south. Some such as Esteva (2010: 5) have claimed that, under US and Western leadership, the idea of development came to represent the ‘global hegemony of a purely Western genealogy of history, robbing peoples of different cultures of the opportunity to define the forms of their social life’. Others have also pointed out that global development within the post-colonial postwar framework has primarily served the economic interests of the dominant, and mostly Western, economic powers, and this has systematically disadvantaged the global south (Escobar 1995; Rahnema and Bawtree 1998; Sachs 2010a).

Ensuring the stability of capitalist development itself was a crucial aspect of the project of the Western powers led by the US. Hence, Truman’s ‘Four Point Speech’

4 Many pinpoint Truman’s speech as the origin of the notion of development, as it is understood today. See, e.g., Escobar 1995; Rist 2008; Sachs 2010a; Nederveen Pieterse 2010.

14 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

included a program of development based on his concept of ‘fair-dealing’, according to which he believed that the whole world would benefit from the global stability that this project involved (Truman 1949). At the same time, the purpose was also to ensure that the US would maintain its global hegemony and prevent its principal rival the Soviet Union from obtaining the upper hand politically and economically around the world.

It was now understood that development was ‘synonymous with economic growth within the context of a free market international economy’. Economic growth itself was considered necessary for combating poverty, and securing ‘the ability of people to meet their basic material needs through cash transactions’ (Baylis and Smith, 2006: 649).

Significantly perhaps, the term ‘development’ itself was, as Cowen and Shenton (1996) point out, only came into use after 1945, although the notion has roots in the discourses of ‘modernity’ that go back as far as the eighteenth century. Cowen and Shenton distinguish between the immanent and spontaneous development generally characteristic of capitalism on the one hand, and intentional development through planned actions on the other. Within capitalism, intentional development is best understood as an attempt to control or manage the contradictions caused by capitalist development more broadly.

One problem, however, with this distinction between intentional and immanent development is that it assumes a separation of state and market that is always partial and not absolute. This separation is challenged by some Marxists who ar- gue that actually it is often very difficult to separate markets, often viewed in liberal and neoliberal political-economic theory as ‘natural’, from states considered as merely ‘political’ (Dale, 2010).

Modernisation Theories and Development ‘Modernization theory’ holds an optimistic, linear, evolutionist view of development, viewing development processes as necessitated by the ‘underdevelopment’ of poorer countries, and typically or necessarily following certain general ‘stages’ in an ‘evolution’ that can only take a single form moving from less to more wealth, and involving other social changes that also can be evaluated as having this linear/sequential ‘less to more’ character (Lewis 1954; Nurkse 1961; Rostow 1990). This also involved a transition from ‘traditional’ societies, predominantly

15 DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSITION IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH Farhang Morady

agricultural rather than industrial, and modernization theory also assumed that the ‘underdeveloped’ countries would at some point be able to ‘take-off’ and eventually even ‘catch up’ to the Western countries (Kiely 1995:3). The model of development was based on industrialisation and a goal of broadly distributed wealth tied to mass consumption.

Modernisation theory posited a ‘backwardness’ conceived as internally caused but capable of being overcome through the transformation from ‘primitive’ conditions to modern society. This also meant imagining the various nations of the ‘third world’ or ‘global south’ (notions that are both evocative but inexact) in the simplified and exaggerated (if not altogether false) terms of common or similar economic, political, social, and cultural features (Schurman 2000).

Thus, the modernisation strategies seemingly called for the ‘one-size-fits-all’ image of development that was supposed to improve the endogenous conditions of the global south. Economic growth was seen as vital and the state conceived as the main actor in the industrialization and advancement of these societies.

Walt Rostow, following from Smelser in his famous work The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (1990) suggested the modernisation of societies with ‘traditional’ economic and social structures could be achieved if they followed a path leading through industrialisation to mass consumption. Rostow notes optimistically that European powers ‘often included modernisation . . . as one object of colonial policy’ (Rostow, 1990: 112).

Smelser (1969) looks at the effects of economic growth on ‘traditional’ societies as involving a process of change from (a) simple to complex technology, (b) subsist- ence farming to cash crops, (c) animal or human power to industrialisation, and (d) a rural- to urban-based population. These shifts could well all occur at different times and not simultaneously, determined by the character of the prevailing economic, political, social, and cultural forms. The changes to the social structure involved could include a decline in the importance of families, the separation of the economic arena from domestic and religious spheres, increased strat- ification, and the rise of welfare systems, and trade unions and political parties. Smelser’s theory, however, suffered the limitation that it was based on patterns of Western development that were uncritically projected onto the global south.

16 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Dependency and Critique A principal challenge to modernisation theory was posed by dependency theory and ‘world systems theory’. André Gunder Frank and Theotonio Dos San- tos developed models that sought to explain the apparent underdevelopment of the global south as a result of these nations’ historical and geographical position within the global division of labour. Dependency theorists noted that political contestations in this period came from many former colonies, some newly independent as in Africa and others having been so for some time as in most of Latin America. It was the latter that represented the strongest theoretical challenges to the modernization school (Leys 1996: 1).

Frank divides the world system into ‘metropoles’ and ‘satellites’; he characterises the relationship between them as involving the appropriation and expropriation of much, or in some cases all, of the economic surplus of the satellite by its local, regional, or national metropole.5 Frank argues that capitalism is in fact a hindrance to economic advance in the global south, which requires a break from: the capitalist structure, or the dissolution of, the world capitalist system as a whole, [without which] the capitalist satellite countries, regions, localities and sectors are condemned to underdevelopment. . . No country which has been tied to the metropo- lis as a satellite through incorporation in the world capitalist system has achieved the rank of an economically developed country except by finally abandoning the capitalist system (Frank, 1969: 11).

The advancement of capitalism, especially in the 1970s, in countries such as South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Brazil, Singapore and later in China and In- dia challenged the dependency school in general and in particular Frank’s analysis. It appeared possible to achieve real capitalist development without breaking from the system.

The growth rate in some parts of the former ‘third world’ has been higher than that in the advanced countries. In each of the former, with an indigenous capitalist class in control of the nation’s economy, the expansion of the market and

5 This argument developed after WWII, challenging ‘modernisation theories’. The Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA), a regional body of the UN, articulated the ‘centre’ versus ‘periphery’ thesis, which was taken up by dependency theory. It encompasses different views that agree on the basic idea that peripheral countries are conditioned by the external influences of central ones. See Brewer 1987, Larrain 1989, and Warren 1980.

17 DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSITION IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH Farhang Morady

urbanisation has been very rapid. This has especially been the case in Latin Amer- ica and the oil producing countries of the Persian Gulf.

This transformation could occur because in these places an internal logic of pre-capitalist and capitalist economics was operative along with that controlled by external economic powers. There is also no simple correspondence between capitalist development and the progressive erosion of pre-capitalist economic and social relations. The processes of development cannot be explained by taking any single factor, as both internal and external relations must be considered. Indeed, capitalism on the European model advanced slowly in the global south. This was partly because advances in particular industries were dependent on those in others, and so development could be slower where these were lacking. Marx had rec- ognised this in his analysis of the development of industrial capitalism in India:

English millocracy intends to endow India with railways with the exclusive view of extracting at diminished expense the cotton and other raw materials for their man- ufactures. But when you have introduced machinery into the locomotion of a country which possesses iron and coal you are unable to withhold it from fabrication. You cannot maintain railways over an immense country without introducing all of those industrial processes necessary to meet the immediate and current needs of railway locomotion, and out of which there must grow the application of machinery in those branches of industry not immediately connected with railways. The railway system will become, in India, truly the forerunner of modern industry (Marx, 1976: 84).

The dependency theorists presented the external factors as the sufficient cause of underdevelopment and inferred that capitalism could not develop ‘normally’ in any new part of the world. Later events during the processes called globalisation showed otherwise. It now appeared possible to achieve capitalist development on more equal terms with former metropoles without breaking from the global system. As Warren (1980) and others argued, the spread of enhanced productive forces in both industry and agriculture had already taken place in much of the global South.

Warren claimed that the dependency theorists and others who spoke of a ‘neo-colonialism’ were presenting a ‘fiction’ of underdevelopment that was popular because it was found convenient by the nationalist governments of many newly independent countries. ‘Imperialism in his view was a transitional phase that facilitated industrialisation in developing countries. He predicted that the growth of capitalism

18 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

in the global south there would bring about the decline of imperialism (“as a system of domination by advanced over less-developed capitalist states”) (p. 59).

This is consistent with the classical Marxist view that capitalism achieves the historical task of developing the forces of production worldwide, and does so partly through “the penetration and spread of the capitalist system into non-capitalist or primitive capitalist areas of the world” (Warren, 1980: 60). To be sure, such ‘progressive’ theories with their confident teleology based on a view from a distance are intrinsically legitimating and do not tell the whole story that includes the costs of various kinds of such broad and systemic progress.

Development with a Human Face A different perspective was introduced in the 1990s: that of what were known as ‘people-centred’ approaches. In 1990, the United Nations Development Pro- gramme (UNDP) introduced the Human Development (HD) paradigm, which has been adopted by various international institutions and national governments.

Amartya Sen’s (1999) ’capability approach’ to development, also known as the Human Development initiative, challenged the mainstream understanding that largely limits development to the model of production. The idea that Gross Do- mestic Product (GDP) is a sufficient indicator of economic growth has now been widely challenged (Todaro, 1997). Some have proposed other indicators, such as the United Nations Development Programme’s (UNDP) ‘Indicators of Human Development’ (IHD). As a result, the concept of ‘development’ attracted attention to basic needs such as decent health care, education, income for all, and environmental sustainability (Kiely, 1998: 3).

Development with a ‘human focus” rather than one focused on nation-states became a powerful symbol and offered the possibility to combine the different critiques of development policies. The HD provided a much-needed approach that was said to show ‘development of the people by the people, for the people’ (United Nations Development Programme 1991, 13). Much of the discussion of HD was taken from the theoretical work of Sen, which aimed to replace the narrow economist understanding of development.

The rise of HD marked not just a shift in the measurement of development, but also and crucially a redefinition of the agency of development. Sen’s capability

19 DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSITION IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH Farhang Morady

approach presented a theoretical framework for HD whose focus on individuals could be understood as suggesting that they should play a fundamental role in the development process. This may sounds wonderful but in practice may have no meaning or almost none. Who are these individuals and how do they play this role? Is it all of us? Is it “leaders” of some kind

Sen’s approach is not without problems. His analysis is in fact very close to the thinking of liberal and neoliberal economists such as Adam Smith and Friedrich Hayek in championing the economic value of liberties and freedoms. His ideas are more in line not so much with capitalism as with certain moral values and their importance to policy. Sen systematically ignorers the major problem of resource distribution between social groups, and above all that of capital ownership inequalities, including in developing countries. Which is another way of saying that he is not so interested in problems of social classes and wealth distribution.

Neoliberalism

Neoliberalism is a doctrine of managing capitalism by altering government policies to emphasise privatisation and free markets, claiming that they provide the best possible path for development. Neoliberalism in effect reignited the old or- thodoxy of ‘laissez-faire’ economics that prevailed until the Great Depression of the 1930s. After the world recession of the 1970s, concerted efforts mere made to claim that state intervention distorted economic development and wasted resources (Garrison, 1992). This marked a complete U-turn from the post-war period, when state intervention was seen as vital to providing the necessary infrastructure for capitalist development, and this was accepted both in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe and in Western Europe and the US (Harris, 1983).

The Keynesian model faced a huge test in the mid-1970s with the world economic crisis, and state intervention began to be presented as a problem. Various scholars, including notably the monetarist economist Milton Friedman, claimed that governments had caused the crisis by interfering in the free market because they were unable to control the money supply. Others, such as Friedrich von Hayek and Robert Lucas, were vociferous in opposing state intervention, which they characterised as inefficient and waste-generating (Garrison, 1992). They claimed that the economy would be able to solve its problems through free markets and free trade, whereas national monopolies would only distort prices and

20 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

upset the ‘natural’ wages and unemployment levels. The inability of the state to solve the economic crises of the time allowed neoliberalism to gradually succeed in filling the ideological gap.

By the 1980s, a need for readjustment in loan terms forced much of the global south to abandon this model. After experiencing rapid growth from the 1950s to the 1970s, many of these countries, having borrowed from the World Bank (WB) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), accumulated a huge external debt. Most of this came from petrodollars in the wake of the oil price increases of 1973-1974.

The oil-producing countries found themselves overwhelmed with large flows of money that they then invested in international banks (Kiely, 2007). Countries like Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Iraq, courtesy of oil income, went through major economic development, the growth of industries, and a huge modernisation. Latin American countries had to borrow heavily in international financial markets to try to fulfill their development goals. In Argentina and Chile, external debt almost tripled between 1978 and 1981.

The debt crisis in developing countries caused them major difficulties. During the 1970s, global banks committed large sums of money to certain Latin Amer- ican countries; by 1982 the 9 largest banks in the US had committed over twice their combined capital basis to a handful of developing countries. In Latin Amer- ica as a whole, there was a 10 per cent fall in the GNP per capita, as a result of economic policy changes in the USA from 1979 onwards (Harman, 2009). After the world recession of 1974-5, the unsuccessful attempts at expansionary policies and the resulting crisis of confidence in the dollar, the US, and particu- larly under Reagan, elected in 1980, shifted economic policy in favour of controlled inflation, implemented through higher interest rates (Kiely, 2007). With this change in US economic policy, interest rates went up and the time allowed a debtor country to repay its debts generally became shorter. In 1982, Mexico’s announcement that it could no longer service its foreign debt marked the beginning of the debt crisis (Laurell, 2000).

This crisis of capitalism opened a space for neoliberalism. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, neoliberalism along with its associated term ‘globalisation’ became a buzzword in many academic debates, and was widely used to describe the spread of global capitalist markets, the declining role of the state, and the

21 DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSITION IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH Farhang Morady

globalisation of civil society (Harvey, 2005; Saad-Filho & Johnston, 2005). In short, Harvey defines neoliberalism as:

“. . . A theory of political economic practices that proposes that human well-being can best be advanced by liberating individual entrepreneurial freedoms and skills within an institutional framework characterized by strong private property rights, free markets and free trade. The role of the state is to create and preserve an institutional framework appropriate to such practices. The state has to guarantee, for example, the quality and integrity of money. It must also set up those military, defence, police and legal structures and functions required to secure private property rights and to guarantee, by force if need be, the proper functioning of markets. Furthermore, if markets do not exist (in areas such as land, water, education, health care, social security, or environmental pollution) then they must be created, by state action if necessary.” (Harvey 2005: 2)

Harvey claims that before the 1970s capitalist development was expanding because of class compromise between ‘capital and labour’. Through intervention the state was able to focus on:

“. . . Full employment, economic growth and the welfare of its citizens, and [it held] that state power should be freely deployed alongside of, or if necessary, intervening in or substituting for market processes, to achieve these ends.” (Harvey, 2005:11).

Simply put, for Harvey the neoliberal approach was adopted because the capitalist class was determined to restore its profitability and power (Harvey, 2005:16).

For this to happen, the international organisations would have to play their as- signed role in imposing the necessary policies. Heavily indebted governments had little choice but to seek help from these institutions, whose origins were in the now-scraped Bretton Woods system, initiating a new phase in economic development focused on conditionality-based lending (Jomo, 2007). At a conference in 1989, organised in Washington to consider the progress achieved by developing countries in promoting policy reforms since the debt crisis of the 1980s, John Williamson, an economist holding posts at the World Bank and the IMF, was encouraged by the transformations in some of the global south countries. The Washington Consensus, as the conference’s policy document was titled, included various measures for fiscal discipline, reform in public expenditures, financial liberalisation, tax reform, trade liberalisation, encouragement of foreign investment, and privatisation. The reforms varied from country to country but

22 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

became accepted norms around the world, especially as the IMF and the World Bank began to enforce their policies on the global south countries. IMF conditionality meant that governments had to reduce public spending, reverse land reforms, interrupt social programs, close regional development schemes, and priva- tise national industries (Chase, 2002).

The IMF and the World Bank represent ‘disciplinary neo-liberalism’, favouring the increased power of capital to discipline the state and labour through the implementation of policies such as Structural Adjustment Programs (SAP). The neoliberal policy reforms that focused on diminishing government spending and increased competition, favouring the interests of large multinational corporations (MNCs) and financial groups, led directly to a worsening of the social conditions of the region’s poorest people. By the turn of the century, neoliberalism had gained momentum ideologically, with claims that it could provide the best way forward for the development of the global south counties. Bhagwati (2004) hailed the success of neoliberal globalisation, asserting its positive impact of free trade, the integration of the global south into the world economy, and the elimination of poverty. Comparing India to various far eastern countries (Singapore, Hong Kong, South Korea, and Taiwan), he notes that while India kept its economy under close control from 1960 to 1980, these East Asian countries had started to incorporate their economies into the global market.

Yet, capitalism’s international character, including such things as searching for markets around the world, and transferring funds across state boundaries, is not something new (Harman, 1996). Indeed, as early as 1848 Marx and Engels anticipated such things when they pointed out:

The need for a constantly expanding market chases the bourgeoisie over the whole sur- face of the globe. It must nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, and establish connections everywhere. The bourgeoisie has through its exploitation of the world market given a cosmopolitan character to production and consumption in every country. All old established national industries have been destroyed or daily are being destroyed. They are dislodged by new industries ...that no longer work up indigenous raw materials, but raw materials drawn from the remotest zones, industries whose products are con- sumed not at home, but in every quarter in the globe ... In place of the old local and national seclusion we have intercourse in every direction, universal interdependence of nations. (Marx and Engels, 2010:16)

23 DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSITION IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH Farhang Morady

Hay and Watson (1999) stress that neoliberal globalisation was an ideological myth, enforced to justify the political project of neoliberal development. The free-market ideology dominated development discourse, placing an emphasis on the maximisation of profits through the private sector. However, the question remained, whether the market would be able to provide the development problem of the global south.

Chang (2006) argues, against the neoliberal consensus, that it was not the free market that facilitated development in the Far East; the state played an important role, including in Japan and South Korea. It is now also widely acknowledged that the dramatic growth in South East Asian countries is part of a trickle-down effect from other East Asian countries, as well as a result of strong government intervention (Chang, 2006:18).

Others, such as Collier (2008) point to the continuing polarisation in wealth between geographical regions and classes globally:

For the people who are living in the bottom billion, life is worse rather than better’. Globalisation has transformed some areas, ‘the countries at the bottom coexist with the 21st century, but their reality is the 14th century: civil war, plague, ignorance (p. 3).

The world’s most powerful nations, led by the US and the UK, have claimed that the growing internationalisation of production and marketing have provided no alternative for both local and international companies. They are now, much more than before, dependent on their ability to explore new markets in the face of global competition. Corporations must organise production beyond their own national borders. This enables them to avoid being controlled by national states as they are free to move their capital to whereever labour costs are cheapest, un- restrained by labor demands (that are typically organized within national or local contexts). States were forced to conform themselves to capital’s demands for greater deregulation, tariff reduction, and keeping wages low, in order to provide incentives to attract international companies (Harris, 1986).

Post-development The failure of any forces to bring meaningful transitions to many countries in the global south encouraged numerous scholars to revise their approach to development. Various positions were put forward to tackle the challenges that

24 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

underdeveloped and developing countries were facing. Influenced by critiques of colonialism and post-colonialism, ‘post-development’ theories presented some of the strongest challenges to mainstream development theory (Escobar 1995; Es- teva 1987; Ferguson and Lohmann 1994; Rahnema and Bawtree 1998; Sachs 2010b). Encouraged by post-structuralist theories, they saw the processes of development as basically an ‘apparatus for producing knowledge about, and the exercise of power over, the global south (Escobar 1995:9).

At the beginning of the 1990s, Wolfgang Sachs stated in his well-known book, The Development Dictionary: A Guide to Knowledge as Power:

The idea of development stands like a ruin in the intellectual landscape. Delusion and disappointment, failures and crimes have been the steady companions of development and they tell a common story: it did not work (Sachs 1992: 1).

The theoretical tools in most discussions of ‘Post-Development Theory’ derive partly from the work of Michel Foucault and the ‘discourse analysis’ that some have developed from it. Foucauldian analyses of processes of development present them as articulating power relations between core and periphery. They suggest that the predominant uses of development theories in practice has been to construct self-governance and power apparatuses that serve to maintain the West’s domination over the global south (Escobar 1995; Rahnema and Bawtree 1998; Sachs 2010b). Similar to the theories of the dependency school, post-development theory is in fact rooted in earlier colonial discourses that depict the North as ‘advanced’ and ‘progressive’, and the South as ‘backward’, ‘degenerate’, and ‘primitive’.

Arturo Escobar, in his book, Encountering Development: The Making and Un- making of the Third World (2012), presents development theory as functionally a discourse that reproduces structural inequalities through misrepresentations of the global south and its people. His thinking became influential in Latin America, as a way of challenging the “eurocentric” foundations of thinking about development through a “deconstruction of development.” In rejecting the classical development paradigm, they emphasised the uses of local culture, knowledge, and solidarity in grassroots and endogenous movements to improve conditions for the poor. They have been criticized for treating these movements as homogenous entities lacking

25 DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSITION IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH Farhang Morady

internal hierarchy.6 While dependency theory focuses on nation-states, post-development theory puts its faith in endogenous self-reliance.

The post-development theories received much attention across theoretical discussions, especially in the 1990s, Ziai divides post-development theory into two main strands, which he calls ‘sceptical’ and ‘neo-populist’. Neo-populism has been under considerable criticism for being ‘anti-development’ and tending to romanti- cise tradition and community. This crucial feature of post-development theory according to various critiques, though meant to advance post-colonialist epistemological projects, seems to lack any viably practical alternatives at least at the present time (Corbridge 1998; Kiely 1999; Nederveen & Pieterse 1998, 2000).

While post-development analysis seems to support ideas of radical anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist struggle, they also lack any analysis of social classes. For all their sympathy for endogenous and traditional cultures, it is also not clear who would lead the struggle to bringing changes to the global south.

Development: Winners and Losers

A new position that emphasizes the unevenness in the global political economy argues that the development of societies involves coexistence in some cases and isolation in others (Callincos, 2009; Harvey, 2007; Lowy, 2010; Smith, 2010). They have challenged the prevailing trends in economic development despite the economic growth that has been achieved since the emergence of the new neoliberal paradigm.

Yet, developing countries have continued to be on the periphery of the world economy. As Halliday (2001) puts it:

Capitalism unifies the world into a single market and into a system of political domi- nations; yet the different subsections of this world system remain distinct. In many cases the differences between them are accentuated by incorporation into a single system. It is because of this unevenness that the weakest links in capitalism as a whole may be

6 Foucault visited Iran twice in 1978 and argued that the mass movement there was not connected with social class, but was instead the expression of a general “collective will.” He ignored the differences between various political forces, such as the workers and the Islamists. He mistakenly claimed that Khomeini was not a politician and that he did not expect the establishment of an Islamic Republic. See Eribon 1992: 287; Foucault 1988: 215.

26 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

found not in the most developed countries but those countries where the retarded impact of capitalism creates contradictions that are all the sharper because the developments carried through elsewhere have not yet been completed. (Halliday, 2011:44).

Capitalism has developed at different speeds throughout the world, in different nations and sectors, which did not remain in isolation from each other. This development has taken different forms in different places. The economic growth created in some parts of the world, generating wealth for a number of countries, has not, however, been even. Neoliberalism, as both an ideology and mode of economic organisation, is unable to create sustained economic growth that benefits everyone.

The unevenness of capitalist development initially described by Marx in Cap- ital, Volume 1 (Marx, 2013),7 which identify major contradictions of capitalism arising when concentrations of wealth and capital on one hand, and poverty, exploitation, and the oppression of workers, on the other. Marx also writes (in the Grundrisse, 1993) about unevenness in the transitions from one mode of production to a more progressive one. In general, uneven development can be a matter of the differential growth of sectors, geographical processes, or regions at the global, regional, national, sub-national, and local levels. Later, Trot- sky (1970), analysing the possibilities of development in Russia, rejected, as others have since, the notion that a society inevitably develops in a unilinear format, through a series of ‘stages’. Looking at the history of Russia, he concluded that technological and scientific developments co-existed with less developed, more primitive, cultural forms:

7 Shanin (1983) points out that Marx engaged in debate with the Russian revolutionaries. He criticised the Russian populists, who believed that peasant communes [WHAT ARE THEY?] represented a form of backwardness and stagnation. This claim was associated with the argument that Russia had to go through a stage of capitalist development before reaching socialism. Shanin traces this back to the Russian political analyst, Chadayev, who developed a schema that considered nineteenth century Russia as having entered the stage of capitalism because it was being proletarianised, and this afforded the opportunity for a relatively backward, largely peasant economy to make revolutionary leaps. Some of the Russian revolutionaries believed that precisely because they were a bastion of backwardness, the peasant communes could prove an asset in the overthrow of the Czar [WHY?]. This view was not shared by the ‘scientific socialists’, a group of Russian emigrés, including Plekhanov and Zasulich, who insisted on the necessity of a capitalist stage in Russia before the successful outcome of a proletarian revolution. For further details, see Lowy, 1981; Shanin 1983: 6-26; Trotsky, 1977: 25-37.

27 DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSITION IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH Farhang Morady

By drawing countries economically closer to one another and leveling out their stages of development, capitalism operates by methods of its own . . . [it] sets one country against another, one branch of industry against another, developing some parts of the world economy while hampering and throwing back development of others. (p. 20)

Capitalism develops at a different speeds in different places throughout the world, and in different sectors, but these do not develop in isolation from each other. The concept of uneven development names the variation in the growth of the various sectors of an the economy and among regions considered at various levels.

Indeed, development does not need to take the same form in every part of the world. Uneven development is a striking feature of capitalist development, and one of the things it means is that traditional ‘pre-capitalist’ modes and forms of production may continue to survive and influence the state and society, along with more advanced industries that employ and benefit some persons and strata in particular. The form and role of the state, social classes, traditional institutions such as religious establishments, or a monarchy, have had to adapt to this process of change, which of course is never, nor can it be brought, fully under their control.

In general, uneven development involves the differential growth of sectors, geographical processes, and regions. Different processes, sequences, and temporalities may coexist in different places or industries. Often developing countries have also had to accomplish developmental tasks more rapidly than the advanced countries that went through similar processes at an earlier time.

The theory of uneven development allows an examination of continuity and change in the global south, since it focuses on both pre-existing conditions and their interaction with modern forms of economy and society. Indeed, with the expansion of neoliberal globalisation and the impact of urbanisation in the developing world, it has meant continuity rather than a break from capitalism (Harvey, 2007).

Uneven development in some form or other is, for the above reasons, likely to continue as long as the capitalist mode of production is near-universal, as it now is, or globally dominant. The discrepancies involved may often appear as ‘contradictions’ or take the form simply of political instability that may lead to up- heavals or civil wars, as we are witnessing in the Middle East and North Africa.

28 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

To understand processes of capitalist development and their effects on any local- ity, both internal and external relations must be considered. The overseas impact of Europe’s prolonged development after the Middle Ages of the capitalist mode of production involved at first a slow advance in the third world. The resulting changes in the economy and society happened partly as a result of external capitalist influence and over some time.

In contrast to neoliberal assessments, there is not a ‘level playing field’ for all in capitalism, as the global accumulation process does bring about a leveling of economic differences. Rather, investments, and the concentration of markets and skilled labour, are always focused more in certain regions or fields of productive activity. Capital always exists and moves in a competitive environment, striving to maintain its position in the market, and its economies of scale, and investments in research and development in new technology. The market leaders and their respec- tive home states always have a competitive advantage over their competitors that tends to remain. For developing countries, there is no straightforward gain. The regions that have been able to benefit most from the successes are the ones most likely to continue to develop further and generate even more profits. And this gives them their continuing ability to maintain their lead in the world economy.

The emergence of developing countries such as China, India, Brazil, Mexico, and, more spectacularly, South Korea, as well as the Persian Gulf countries, reflects the fact that capitalism has become transnational along with the rise of manufactur- ing in the global south. The transportation costs and increased role of communications, combined with increased allowance for investments from abroad, including with low or absent tariffs and low or subsidized relocation costs, have enhanced this process. However, this still has occurred within different regions rather than as a general pattern.

The change in the international division of labour, and the emergence of, in particular, China and India, have shifted some of the actors in the global hierarchies of power, with long time leading states such as the US and the nations of West- ern Europe facing challenges from upstarts and latecomers. But this has generated various problems in different parts of the world, including in such complex geopolitical regions such as the Middle East at the present time.

Capitalism has winners and losers: increasing international trade and investment, and financial liberalisation can now clearly be seen to not automatically lead to a

29 DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSITION IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH Farhang Morady

global convergence. Indeed, the process rather creates divergence, intensifying the gaps between poor and rich, and between powerless and powerful in the world order. Neoliberal development, while intended to meet some of the basic economic and political needs of the global south, has failed in many countries, notwithstanding the emergence of new powers like China, India, Brazil, and Russia.

One result of the growing divergence and polarisation in wealth and power has been increasing instability in the world, alongside the fierce competition between powerful states to impose and maintain their hegemony in the world’s most significant geopolitical areas. This has included deploying forces in ways that may have consequences for the development of states and the livelihood of peoples throughout the world. Romanticising the global south somehow cannot be enough for embarking on real challenges to the forces retarding the resolution of the global economic, political, and environmental problems that humanity is facing at the present time. This requires both finding a sound theoretical approach to understanding development, which we may still somewhat lack, but also concrete solutions that could bring real change.

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2 POSTMODERNISM AND WHAT IT IS NOT: SOME CLARIFACATION ABOUT AN ONGOING DEBATE / POSTMODERNİZM NEDİR, NE DEĞİLDİR: BIR İZAH DENEMESİ Eser Keçeçi (Arkın University)

Abstract

Postmodernism appears as a critique of modernism, after the denial of the false belief that modernism’s promises could never come true and could solve everything. The dis- appointments can be concretized with the unresolved issues such as; nuclear weapons, chemical waste, hunger, poverty, environmental pollution ... etc. Along with these, modern science’s data began to be used for personal and political, and besides serving the totalitarian state structure, the differences between theory and reality in modern science have increased. At the same time, not being interested in the mystical and meta- physical dimensions of human existence and the over-concretization of modern science, forgetting the emotion are among the most important factors that lead to the emergence of postmodernism. Based on these contexts, the article touches on what postmodernism is, its formation process with historical contexts, thought leaders, opposition, and critical approaches, and an alternative explanation attempt is made about postmodernism.

Keywords: Postmodernism, Modernism, Postmodernist Pioneers, What Postmodern- ism Stands Against

Giriş

Yapılan araştırmalar sonucunda ‘postmodernizm’ söyleyişi, geçmişten günümüze yoğun kritik ve tartışmalara neden olmuş, aynı zamanda teriminin anlamı günü- müzde de tartışma konusu olmaya devam etmektedir. Bunun sonucunda da konu ile ilgili geniş ve ortak bir bilgilenme alanının ortaya çıktığı söylenebilmektedir.

37 POSTMODERNISM AND WHAT IT IS NOT: SOME CLARIFACATION ABOUT AN ONGOING DEBATE Eser Keçeçi

1980’li ve 90’lı yılarda postmodernizim çatısı altında toplanan eylem ve söylem- ler, entelektüel ve kültürel her alanda tartışma konusu olmuştur. Örnek olarak modern sanatın sona erip ermediği ve eğer bittiyse onun yerine gelen postmodern sanatın ya da estetiğin ne olduğu ne tür özellikler taşıdığı yoğun bir biçimde tar- tışılmış ve halen daha da tartışılmaktadır. Postmodern söylemin hangi alanlarda var olduğuna bakıldığında “postmodernizm, mimariden zoolojiye kadar her kül- türel disiplinle ilgileniyor; biyoloji, ormancılık, coğrafya, tarih, hukuk, edebiyat ve tüm sanat dalları, tıp, siyaset, felsefe, cinsellik vb.” (Dochherty, 1995, pp.7) birçok alanda varlığını hissettirmektedir.

Görüldüğü gibi postmodern söyleyiş, estetik endişelerden toplum düzeni ve iş- leyişine, kuramsal çözümlemelerden, bilgi felsefesine kadar uzanan çok geniş bir alanda ortaya çıkan yeni yaklaşım ve tartışma biçimlerini kapsamaktadır. Bu da postmodernizmle ilgili net bir kuramsal bir derleme yapılmasını güçleştiren en önemli etkendir.

Genel anlamıyla, postmodernizm, modernizm sonrası ve daha da ötesi anlamına gelmekte ve modernliğin sorunlarına karşı bir mücadele ve modernleşmeyle bir koz paylaşımı olarak tanımlanmaktadır.

Postmodernizmin nasıl bir ortamda ortaya çıktığına değinildiğinde; Modernizmin sözlerinin gerçekleşmeyerek, her türlü problemin üstesinden gelebileceğine karşı olan hatalı inancın yalanlanması sonrasında, modernizme karşı bir duruş olarak kendini gösterdiği görülmektedir. Bahsi geçen düş kırıklıkları; açlık, kimyasal atık- lar, nükleer silahlar, yoksulluk, çevre kirlenmesi...vb. sorunlarla belirginleştirilebi- lir. Aynı zamanda, modern bilimin verilerinin totaliter devlet yapısına hizmet etmesi, politik ve kişisel amaçlar için kullanılmaya başlaması ve bilimde gerçeklik ile teori arasındaki farkların artması postmodernzmi hazırlayan diğer konulardır. Bunlarla birlikte, insanoğlunun varlığının metafizik ve mistik boyutlarıyla ilgilen- memesi, dolayısıyla da duyguyu unutturması ve modern bilimin fazla somutlaş- ması, postmodernizmin doğuşunu hızlandıran diğer önemli konular arasındadır. Bunlarla birlikte, postmodernistler, Lyotad’ın dile getirmiş olduğu ‘büyük anlatı- ların’ inkarına ve çoğulcu yaklaşımın öne çıkmasına koşut olarak toplumda tüm bütünlükçü yaklaşıma karşı durmuşlar ve ulusu ve ulus-devleti eleştirmişlerdir. Ancak siyasal bağlamlarda toplumu yaşatabilecek ilke ve temeller sunmamış ol- dukları da dile getirilmesi gerekenler arasında olmaktadır.

38 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Postmodernizm nedir?

Postmodern sözcüğünün sözlük anlamına bakıldığında, genel anlamda modernizmin sonrası ve ötesi anlamında kullanılmakta olduğu ve modern düşünceye ve kültüre sahip ana fikir ve görüşlerin sorunsallaştırılması ile ve bunların reddedil- mesiyle birlikte açıklandığı görülmektedir. Postmodern kelimesi, 1960’lı yılarda öncelikle sanatta ve mimaride yeni yönelişleri anlamlandıracak şekilde kullanıl- maya başlamıştır. Bu terim, sanatta ve kültürde radikal bir kopuşu anlatan, ras- yonaliteden uzak duran bir içerikte kullanılmıştır.

Postmodernizm yeni bir tarihsel dönem olarak ele alınmaktan çok, modernizmin içerisinde bir evre, spesifik bir devre olarak değerlendirilmekte ve kendine yönelik eleştirileri de içine alarak bir modern, modernite, modernlik soruşturması ve tar- tışması olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Bunlarla birlikte, oldukça karmaşık bir ya- pıya sahip olmaktadır. “…… Söz konusu alanın sınırları büyük oranda modernist paradigmaların reddi aracılığıyla çizilir. Bundan ötürü, Post-Modernizmin en doğru tanımı, modernizmin yasakladıklarının yasallaştırılması eylemi biçiminde verilmiştir” (Eczacıbaşı, 1997, pp.1506).

Bunla birlikte, postmodernizm sözcüğündeki -post eki -den sonra anlamına gelmektedir. Postmodernizm, modernizmden kopup devam eden, ondan referans alan ve onun sorunsallaştırılması ve aşılması anlamına gelmektedir. Buradaki ‘post’ sözcüğü, bir sonradanlık anlamına geldiği kadar, ötesi anlamında da kullanılmak- tadır. Postmodern sözcüğünü ilk kez Arnold Toyenbee ‘Bir Tarih İncelemesi’ adlı esrinde kaleme almıştır. Bu yapıtta modernizmin I. Dünya Savaşı’nın sona erme- siyle son bulduğunu, bunun sonrasında da postmodern dönemin başladığını söy- leyerek ilk kez postmodern terimini kullanmıştır. Ancak postmodernizmi kuramsal, akademik bir ilginin odağı haline ilk getiren de Lyotard olmuştur.

“Lyotard, postmodernizim terimini keşfeden kişi kendisi olmamasına ve ona çok ge- niş anlam atfetmemesine rağmen, postmodernizmi sosyolojinin ilgilendiği bir konu haline getiren metin, onun 1979’da çıkardığı Postmodern Durum’ adlı eseri ve bu eserinde, ileri kapitalist toplumlarda yaşayan insanların, en azından 1960’ların ba- şından itibaren Postmodern bir dünyada yaşadığını ilan etmesi olmuştur” (Mars- hall, 2005, pp.592).

Bunlarla birlikte postmodern söylem içerisinde ilginç bir ikilemi barındırmakta- dır. Bunlar aynı zamanda ‘tutucu’ ve ‘radikal, ilerici’ olmasıyla açıklanabilmektedir.

39 POSTMODERNISM AND WHAT IT IS NOT: SOME CLARIFACATION ABOUT AN ONGOING DEBATE Eser Keçeçi

Postmodern yönelişler, kapsamlı bir özgürleşme perspektifiyle açıklanabildiği gibi, aynı söylemin kurulu düzene karşı kritik bakmayı reddeden ve kurulu düzeni de- ğişmez bir veri sayan tutucu yaklaşımıyla da izah edilebilmektedir.

Postmodernizm, 1960’lardan sonra teorik çalışmalar sonrasında başlayan felsefi tartışmalar içerisinde yer almaya başlamıştır. Postmodernizmin kendini felsefi olarak ifade etmesinin ardında postyapısalcı felsefe yer almaktadır. Dolayısıyla post yapısalcı felsefenin, postmodernizmin düşünsel felsefi arka planını oluşturduğu söylenilebilmektedir. Bunlarla birlikte, David Harvey ‘Postmodernliğin Durumu’ adlı kitabında, Postmodern düşünceye eleştiri getiren isimler arasından, edebiyat eleştirmeni Terry Eagleton’ın terimi şu şekilde açıklamasına yer vermektedir;

“… tipik postmodernist ürün, şakacıdır, kendi kendiyle dalga geçer, hatta şizoiddir; aynı zamanda yüksek modernizmin gösterişsiz kendine yeterliliğine, ticari ve meta biçimini arsızca kucaklayarak tepki gösterir. Kültürel geleneğe karşı tavrı saygısız bir pastiş görünümündedir. Kasıtlı olarak tasarlanmış bir derinlik yokluğu, her tür metafizik ağırbaşlılığın altını oyar. Bu, bazen acımasız bir sefalet ve sarsma estetiğine açılır” (Harvey, 2003, pp.21).

Postmodernizmin oluşumu Postmodern düşünce ve pratiklerin ortaya çıkması II. Dünya Savaşı sonrasında görülmektedir. Ancak Postmodernitenin gelişim süreci pek çok alanı kapsadığın- dan, kesin bir dönemselleştirme yaparak tarihsel sınırları saptamak mümkün ol- mamaktadır. Hatta kimi postmodernist öncülerin de modernitenin içerisinden gelmekte olduğu göz ününde tutulursa söz konusu saptama daha da güçleşmektedir.

20. yüzyıl tarihini belirleyen en temel süreç 1917 Ekim Devrimiyle Sosyalizmin gerçek konumunu kazanması ve bu yeni düzenin kapitalizme meydan okuması ile başlamaktadır. Bununla birlikte, 1920’li yıllarda kapitalizmin içine düşmüş olduğu evrensel kriz sonrasında, faşist siyasi sistemler ortaya çıkmış ve bu da II. Dünya Savaşına yol açan etkenler arasında yer almıştır. 1920’li yıllarda Kapitalizm, içe- risinde bulunduğu krizi yeniden yapılandırma süreciyle aşmaya çalışacaktır. Yani, kapitalizmin evrensel krizine alternatif olarak sosyalizmin yanıt vermeye çalıştığı ve buna karşılık kapitalizmin de yeniden yapılandırma politikasına yöneldiği gö- rülmektedir. Söz konusu süreç, İngiliz iktisatçı John Maynard Keynes’in geliştir- miş olduğu ekonomi politikası ve insan haklarının yeniden yorumlanması, özgür- lüğün tanımının pozitif özgürlükle açıklanmaya başlamasıyla aşılmaya çalışılmıştır.

40 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

“… Keynesci paradigmaya dayanan refah devleti ve demokratikleşme, sözü edilen yeniden yapılanmanın ana öğeleri arasında sayılabilmektedir ve bu, altı çizilen yeniden yapılandırma ile kapitalizm sadece bunalımın etkisinden kurtulmakla kalma- mış, sosyalizm tarafında kendine yöneltilen eleştirilere de küçümsenmemesi gereken bir yanıt getirmiştir (Şaylan, 2002, pp.21).

Kapitalizmin bu büyük başarısına karşı, sosyalist sistem de 1950 ve 60’lı yıllara kadar hem varlığını korumuş hem de kapitalizme karşı alternatif bir güç olma özelliğini sürdürmüştür. Bunlara karşın 1970’lerde kapitalizm yeni bir evrensel krize girmiş, daha önceki krizlerde olduğu gibi kapsamlı ve köklü bir yeniden yapılanma ile aşılmaya çalışılmıştır. Yaşamın her alanında yapılan radikal değişik- likler sonucunda ortaya çıkan yapıya da ‘yeni bir dünya düzeni’ adı verilmiştir. Ancak, kapitalizm içerisinde bunlar yaşanırken sosyalizm git gide siyasal gerçek- lik olma özelliğini yitirmiş ve 1990’lı yıllarda kapitalizm tekrardan alternatifsiz bir sistem konumuna gelmiştir.

Postmodern söylemin 20. Yüzyılın son yirmi yılında yükselmesi ve giderek başat bir konuma gelmesinde anti-kapitalist ve devrimci alternatif yansımaların yenil- gisi önemli ve ağır bir etken olmuştur. 1960’lar ve 70’lerde anti-kapitalist ve devrimci hareketlerin yükselişe geçmiş olduğu, 1968 başkaldırısı, hippilik ve üçüncü dünya ülkelerinin başkaldırısı gibi örneklerle somutlaştırılabilir. Bu dönemde Gu- evara, Ho Chi Mink, Amilcar Cabral… vs gibi isimler, dünyada milyonlarca in- sanın tanıdığı, göstermiş oldukları özgürlük mücadeleliyle evrensel kahramanlar sıfatını almıştır. Ancak bu dalga, özellikle Emperyalist güçlerin desteğiyle yenil- giye uğrayan Nikaragua Devrimiyle birlikte gerilemeye başlayıp, (sosyalizm he- defli son devrim) sonrasında da giderek sönecektir.

Bunlara ek olarak; “Sosyalist ülkelerin çıkmazı, Sovyetler Birliği’nin otoriterizmi, Çin’deki Kültür devrimi gibi savrulmalar ve Prag Baharı ile simgelenen Doğu Av- rupa Sosyalizminin bunalımı” (Şaylan, 2002, pp.11) söz konusu yenilgiyi artırmış- tır. Bu yenilgi tüm dünyadaki dengeleri değiştirmiş ve sağın karşı saldırısı başla- mıştır. Bu karşı saldırış hem, kapitalizme karşı alternatif olma iddiasında olanlara hem de, demokratik yolla daha adil ve eşitlikçi bir toplum kurmayı amaçlayan sosyal demokrasiye karşı olmaktadır. İşte bu oluşum içerisinde postmodernist söy- lem ortaya çıkıp 21. Yüzyıla girerken de öncelikle sanat ve kültür olmakla yaşa- mın her alanında egemen hale gelmiştir.

41 POSTMODERNISM AND WHAT IT IS NOT: SOME CLARIFACATION ABOUT AN ONGOING DEBATE Eser Keçeçi

Postmodrnizmin Karşı Durdukları

Çok bileşenli ve yönelimli karmaşık bir olgu olan postmodernizmi tanımlarken, birbirinden oldukça farklı olguları bir araya getiren ortak çıkış noktalarından bah- sedilebilmektedir. Bu çıkış noktalarından biri hangi görüşü savunurlarsa savunsun- lar tüm postmodernistler, tarihselliği yadsımaktadır. Tıpkı Lyotard’ın tarih söyle- mine gerek duymadığı gibi. O, tarihin; insanlar arasındaki sorun ve farklılıkları derinleştirmekten, hatırlatmaktan başka bir işe yaramadığından söz etmektedir. Kitle iletişimi ve araçlarının yaygınlaştığı bilgi çağında tarih öğretisine gerek du- yulmadığını, savunmaktadır. Kısaca postmodernistler, tarihin geri dönüşü olmayan, tek yönlü ve ilerici bir eylem olduğuna inanmamaktadırlar.

Aynı zamanda postmodernistler tarihin, sınıfsal farklılıkları oluşturup kimi zaman ötekileştirmelere yol açtığını da savunmaktadır.

“…çağdaş tarih yazımsal modanın sınıfa aldırmazlığı çarpıcı bir biçimde ortaya çık- maktadır. Oryantalist meta-anlatıyı anlaşılır reddiyle ve emperyalist yağmayı ve yerli direnişi talihsiz metinselleştirmesiyle sömürge sonrası yapı bozumcu yazının ironik bir sonucu da, farklılıkları kutsanan, fakat küresel ölçekte sınıfsal oluşumla göbek bağı kültürlerin ve ülkelerin bulanık yalıtılmışlıkları içinde bükülen marjinalleştirilmiş ‘ötekilerin’ daha da susturulmasıdır” (Wood, Foster, 2001, pp.67).

Postdernistlerin bir başka ortak çıkış noktası da toplumbilim ya da kuram yakla- şımlarını tamamıyla yadsıması olmaktadır. Postmodernizm hem sosyoloji teori- lerini hem de kuram anlayışlarını, yani bigi felsefesini tenkite maruz bırakmıştır. Postmodern bilgi, modern süreçte gelişen, bilimsel bilgi tekeline karşı bir özgürle- şim çabasıdır (Lyotard, 1994, pp.9). Postmodernizim, geleneksel modernist görü- şün aksine, bilginin birebir gerçeklerle ötüşmediğini, gerçeğin sürekli üretildiğini ve bunun için de sürekli yeni modellerin geliştirilmesi gerektiğini savunmaktadır. Bunun sonucunda da sanat ve estetik tartışmaları yanı sıra özellikle toplumbilim alanında postmodern söylem de karşı kritiğe maruz kalmıştır. Şaylan’ın (2002, pp.29) da belirtmiş olduğu üzere “postmodernizm, genel olarak modernizmin, modernizmin temel kavramlarından biri olan rasyonelliğin ve bilimsel temsil felsefesinin (epistemolojinin) yadsınması olarak düşünülebilmektedir”. Konuyla ilgili Şaylan (2002, pp.34) şu örneği vermektedir; Aydınlanmanın türevi sayılabilecek olan modernizmi eleştirirken Hiroşima’ya ya da Auschwitz’e gönderme yaparak akılcılığın insanları hiç de iyiye götürmediğini ileri sürmektedirler.

42 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Bunlarla birlikte genel çerçevede, postmodernizmin, modernizmin doğrularının tam tersini savunduğu da yazılı kaynaklarda sıklıkla belirtilmektedir. Postmoder- nizmin temel savunularından biri, moderniteyi izleyen yeni bir dönemin başlangıcı olarak sayılması ve modernizmin sona erdiği görüşü üzerine olmaktadır. Modrnite Max Weber tarafınca formülleştiren ve bir tarihsel dönemi anlamlandıran anlam bütünüdür. Weberci anlamda modernite, feodaliteyi ya da Ortaçağı izleyen ak- lın öncelik aldığı tarihsel dönemi ifade etmektedir. Bu anlamda Aydınlanma çağı ve onun özellikleri ile ilerici tarih anlayışı (insanın aklını ve bilimi kullanarak sü- rekli ileriye doğru gitmesi) modernite çağının genel öncüleridir. Tarihin ilerici öze- liğiyle, insanoğlunun aklını ve bilimi kullanarak giderek doğayı kontrolü altına alıp sonra da doğanın parçası olan toplumun akılcı olarak düzenlenmesinden söz etmektedir. İşte bu noktada postmodern söylem modernizmin en öneli ilkelerin- den kendini tamamen ayrı bir yerde konumlandırmaktadır.

Postmodernizmin bir başka önemli niteliği ise, Marx’ın büyük özgürleşme anla- tısı, Darwin’in evrim teorisi ve Freud’un psikanalitik terapisi gibi total biçim ve yaptırımlara karşı koymaktır.

“Postmodernizm ister siyasi, ister dinsel, ister toplumsal nitelikli olsun bütün küresel, her şeyi kapsayıcı dünya görüşlerine meydan okur. Marksizmi, Hıristiyanlığı, Faşizmi, Stalinizmi, liberal demokrasiyi, laik hümanizmi, feminizmi, İslam’ı ve modern bilimi (modern bilimin bir mit olduğu ve Aydınlanma mirasının totaliter ve tahakkümcü olduğu da vurgulanmaktadır) aynı derekeye indirir ve bunların bütün soruları ön- ceden tahmin edip belirlenmiş cevaplar veren söz merkezci, aşkın ve totalize edici üst anlatılar olduklarını söyleyerek hepsini elinin tersiyle iter” (Rosenau, 1998, pp.25).

Aynı zamanda, Amerikalı filozof Richard Rorty; Postmodernizmin özeliklerinden birinin de ‘dünyayı kutsaldan arındırmak’ olduğuna değinmektedir. Dolayısıyla, postmodernizmin tüm dinlere karşı olma özelliğinin de tekrardan bu bölümde de vurgulanması gereği düşünülmektedir. Bu da, kendisini ölümden sonrasının filozofu olarak nitelendiren Nietzschenin, bir yüzyıl kadar öncesinde Hıristiyan- lığa dolayısıyla da dinlere karşı olan inancını yitirip nihilizme yönelmesiyle para- lellik göstermektedir. Bunla birlikte, birçok postmodernistin Nietzsche’nin yazı- larından etkilenmiş olduğu da bilinmektedir.

“ … Nietzsche’yi okurken bir postmodernisti inceliyormuş izlenimine kapılırız. Nietz- she Hıristiyanlık, Batı Liberalizmi, bilim ve ilerlemecilik gibi ‘büyük anlatıların’ ar- tık iflas ettiğini ilan ediyor.’HAhikat’ ve ‘bilgi’ birer yanılsamadır, diyor. Filozofların

43 POSTMODERNISM AND WHAT IT IS NOT: SOME CLARIFACATION ABOUT AN ONGOING DEBATE Eser Keçeçi

yapabileceği tek şey, dikkatleri bu melankolik duruma çekebilmek için çarpık afo- rizmalar geliştirmektir. Buna rağmen her şey kulaklara tanıdık gelecektir” (Robin- son, 2000, pp.70).

Nietzsche’den etkilenen postmodernistler arasında Derrida, Lyotard, Foucault ve Rotry gibi isimler yer almaktadır.

Postmodern Düşünceye Eleştiri Getiren İsimler

Başlıca, tepki ve karşı çıkışlar, mesleği bilgi ya da kuram üretmek olan çevrelerden gelmektedir. Kuramlaşmaya karşı duran postmodernizm, özellikle toplumbilimci- lerin başkaldırısı dışında, Marksist düşün dünyasında da tepkiyle karşılanmıştır. Bunlarla birlikte, Batılı olmayan ve ilahi geleneklerden gelen toplumları, ya öte- kileştirdiği ya da onlara eşit iktidar ve fırsat paylaşımı vaat ederek tüm kültür ve gelenekleri tek bir alana indirgediği savunusuyla postmoderniteye karşı duruşlar kendini göstermektedir. Karşı görüşler genellikle modernistlerin düşünceleri olmakla birlikte, postmodernizmi eleştirme yönelimlerindeki hedef ve gerekçeleri değişmektedir. Örneğin Alman felsefeci, sosyolog ve siyaset bilimci Jürgen Ha- bermas için “ …modernite halen bitmemiş, tamamlanmanış bir projedir ve Ay- dınlanmanın tarihi kesintilerle birlikte sürmektedir” (Çiğdem, 1997, pp.9). Aynı zamanda, Amerikan teorisyen ve hümanist Marksist olan Marshall Berman modern ve postmodern açıklamalarını şu yönde yapmaktadır. “Ben modern haya- tın, modern sanat ve düşünüşün, kendini biteviye eleştirme ve biteviye yenileme kapasitesinin olduğunu ileri sürüyorum. Post-modernistler de, modernitenin uf- kunun kapandığını, enerjisinin tükendiğini söylüyorlar” (Berman, 2006, pp.18).

Bir başka önemli isim de, Marksist edebiyat teoristyen Amerikalı, Fredric Jame- son olmaktadır. 20.yüzyıl sonlarındaki şartların açıklanmasında oldukça bilindik kuramcılardan biridir, ancak hiçbir şekilde bir postmodern kuramcı olmamak- tadır. Teorisyenin ortaya koyduğu çalışmalar, daha çok postmodern düşüncenin yok sayılmasına yöneliktir. Jameson için,

“…postmodernizm, gelişmiş kapitalizmin kültürel mantığı olarak tanımlanmakta- dır… Postmodernizm, onun için kapitalizmin gelişmesinde belli bir aşamadır, kapitalizmin üçüncü dönemi ya da geç kapitalizmdir” (Şaylan, 2002, pp.38).

44 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Bütün Frankfurt Okulu düşünürleri gibi Jamerson da postmodern dönemde yara- tıcılığın ‘kültür endüstrisiyle’ birlikte yok olduğuna inanmaktadır. Bu yok oluşta, kitle iletişim araçları ve dolayısıyla da medyanın etkileri oldukça yüksektir.

“Adorno gibi, Jamerson da postmodern zamanlardaki bu özgünlük yitiminin, mut- lak kar amacıyla test edilip onaylanmış, kullanıcı dostu medya metinleri üreterek sa- natsal ve kültürel söylemleri sınırlayan tüketim kapitalizminden kaynaklandığını belirtir” (Laughey, 2010, pp.100).

Yukarda değinilmiş isimlerin yanı sıra postmodernist düşünceye eleştiri getiren diğer simler; Anthony Giddens, Terry Eagleton, Alain Touraine, Ernest Geller… Gibi felsefeci ve sosyologlardan oluşmaktadır.

Postmodenizmin Düşünce Öncüleri Postmodernizm ilk önce Amerika’da sanat ve kültür alanında filizlenmiş, ancak bu günkü anlam ve içeriğini kazandıran düşünürler Fransa’dan gelmiştir. 1970’lerin sonunda ilk çalışmalar ortaya çıkmıştır. Baudrillard, Lyotard, Deleuze/Guat- tari, Roland Barthes (1957), Ferdinand de Saussure, 1972; Coward ve Ellis 1977, Henri Lefebvre (1971) ve Guy Debord (1970) postmodernizmin öncüleri olarak kabul edilir (Kellner, 1994:230). Postmodernizme ilham veren Alman filozofları ise Nietzsche ve Heidegger’dir (Rosenau, 1998, pp.35-36).

Genel anlamda postmodernist düşünürler için genel geçerliği olan bir toplum ku- ramı olanaksızdır. Onlar için insan ve toplum belirlenemez, karmaşık ve dağınık olgulardır. Bundan dolayı da belirli bir toplumsal kuramla açıklanması mümkün değildir. Yani postmodern söylem epistemolojik olarak kuramın yapılabilirliğini yadsımaktadır. Onlar toplumla ilgili çözümleme ve önerilerini yorumlamakla ye- tinmektedirler. Postmodernistlerin toplumbilimi sadece yorumsallığa dayalı olarak açıklana bileceğine dair olan görüşleri de kimi çevrelerce eleştirilmektedir

Postmodernist düşünürler Aydınlanma Felsefesine yönelik eleştirel yaklaşmaktadır. Oysa ki Aydınlanma hareketinin asıl amacı “…kötü, bu nitelikte köleleştirici ol- duğuna inanılan mit, önyargı ve hurafenin temsil ettiğine inanılan ‘eski düzenden kurtararak, yine esasta ‘iyi’ ve ‘özgürleştirici’ olduğu çekincesiz kabul edilen ‘ak- lın düzeni’ne sokmaktadır” (Çiğdem, 2003, pp.14). Ancak postmodernistler Ay- dınlanma hareketinin bir düşten öteye gitmediğini, özgürleştirmeden çok büyük bilimsel atılımlar sonrasında insanoğlunu yıkıma yönelttiğini savunmaktadırlar.

45 POSTMODERNISM AND WHAT IT IS NOT: SOME CLARIFACATION ABOUT AN ONGOING DEBATE Eser Keçeçi

Aydınlanma hareketi geçmişte özgürlük adına büyük başarılar elde etmiştir ancak bu yaşanılan dönem içerisinde geçerli değildir. Aynı zamanda bu düşünce, önemli postmodernist isimlerden Feyerabend ve Facault’un da temel tezlerinden birini içermektedir. Onlar için; “… Çağdaş bilim anlayış ve uygulaması insanın özgür- leşmesinin önünde temel bir engel konumuna gelmiştir” (Şaylan, 2002, pp.235).

Baudrillard için 20. Yüzyılın sonlarında Sanayi ötesi topluma geçilmiş ve dolayısıyla da kendine özgü bir kültür ve teknoloji içerisinde toplum gelişmiştir. Baudrillard’a göre görüntüyle gerçek arasındaki fark ortadan kalkmıştır ve bir ‘hiperrealite’ söz konusu olmaktadır. “Baudrillard’ın ‘hipergerçekçilik’ kavramının temelinde, gü- nümüz medya doyumlu kültünün özgün gerçeklik temsillerinin yerini alan gerçek dünya simülasyonları yarattığı düşüncesi yatar” (Laughey, 2010, pp.101). Bu hiperrealite aynı zamanda modernitede var olan yüksek kültür, alt kültür ayırımını da ortadan kaldırmıştır. Bunlarla birlikte sınıf ve sınıf çatışmalarıyla ilgili kuramlar gerekliliklerini yitirmişlerdir. Çünkü, günümüzde artık;

“…olağanüstü uyumluluk (hyperconfority) aşamasına girilmiştir… Yığınlara işaret- lerle belli mesajlar verilmekte ve onların bu işaretleri, uyumlu davranışlarla idealleş- tirmesi öngörülmektedir. Yığınları böylesine uyumlu bir sessiz çoğunluk haline getiren temel mekanizma, Baudrillard’a göre enformasyon ve medya devrimi olmuştur” (Şaylan, 2002, pp.242).

Lyotard ise modernite ideolojilerinin tümünün çöktüğünü savunmakta ve ‘Post- moderne Dönüş’ adlı makalesinde sınıfsız toplum söylemleri üzerinden liberal ekonomiyi eleştirmektedir.

“… Üçüncü dünya ülkeleriyle aramızdaki uzaklık azalmadı, azalmadığı gibi durma- dan artıyor da. Liberal kapitalizm bütün yeryüzündeki yoksulluğun yaratıcısıdır. Bu- gün insanlığın iki çeyreği düşünsel ve materyal olarak, bütün dünyayı ilgilendiren konularda oturup birlikte karar verme durumunda değildirler” (Lyotard, 2000, pp.21).

Bir başka önemli postmodernist düşünürde Michel Foucault’dır. Fıransız filozof, Aydınlanmacı yaklaşımı tümüyle reddetmektedir. Ona göre Aydınlnmanın yeni formları, bilgi ve iktidarı kullanarak yeni tür baskılara yol açmaktadır. Bununla birlikte Foucault modernlteyi eleştirmekte ve modernizmin temeli olan rasyonel- lik ilkesinin indirgemeci ve baskıcı olduğunu ileri sürmektedir. Birçok postmodernistin de dile getirdiği gibi, Focault için de herhangi bir tarih kuramından söz etmek olanaksızdır.

46 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Foucault ilk çalışmalarından itibaren kendini ‘bilginin arkeologu’ olarak nitelen- dirmiştir. Yani o, bilginin arkeolojisini yapmaya çalışmıştır.

“Arkeoloji, Focault’nın 1960’lı yılların sonuna kadar kullandığı ve yalnızca tarihsel bir okuma paradigması olmayan bir yöntemdir… asıl amacı, her şeyden önce, genellikle birbirinden ayrı, değişik alanlardaki değişik boyutları etkileşim içine sokmak; bu yolla, belirli bir anda, bilme söylemlerinin, alanlara göre belirlenmiş olarak değil de, genel olarak ortaya çıkış koşullarını elde etmektir” (Revel, 2005, pp.79).

Faocault, Lyotard ve Baudrillard dışında, Ronald Barthes, Judith Butter, Char- les Jencks, Helen Cixous, Gilles Deleuze, Luce Irigaray, , Dietmar Kamper, Ja- kues Derrida, Julia Kristeva, Thomas S. Kuhn, Gianni Vattimo,Wolfgang Welsch, Slavoj Zizek, Paul Feyerabend, ve Richard Rorty gibi daha pek çok postmodernist bulunmaktadır.

Sonuç Kısaca özetlemek gerekirse, postmodern söylem, eskiye ait her şeyin kapandığını, teori, hümanizm ideoloji ya da öncü olma gibi kültürel değer ya da eğilimlerin sona erdiğini dile getirmektedir. Bireyin özgürlüğünü kısıtlayabileceği düşünce- siyle her türlü insan ve toplum düzenleme önerisi geri çevrilmektedir.

“Postyapısalcılığı ve Postmarksizmi de kapsayacak biçimde postmodernizim, modernizmin ya da modernitenin radikal bir biçimde kritiği ve yadsınmasıdır. Post- modernizm, modernizmin değerlerine (akılcılık ve bilim gibi) karşı çıkmaktadır. Ama bu karşı çıkış, bir tarihsellik iniltisi üzerine oturtulmamakta, bundan özenle kaçınılmaktadır. Örneğin, farklı bir toplumsal aşama olarak postmodern çağa gi- rilmişse, burada artık postmoderniteye ait yapı taşlarının marjinalleştirilmesi gerekmektedir. Halbuki … böyle bir marjinalleştirme söz konusu değildir. Örneğin bilimciliğin, kuramınyapılabilirliğini radikal bir biçimde eleştirmekmümkündür ama bu eleştiri yaşamda, uygulamada bilimin önem ve ağırlığını ortadan kaldır- mamaktadır” (Şaylan, 2002, pp.58).

Bu durumda, postmodernist çözümlemelerde temel sorun alanı, insanın duygu ve düşüncelerinde tam anlamıyla özgürlüğe ulaşabilmesinin sağlanması olarak ele alınabilmektedir. Aynı zamanda, mevcut geçerli bilgi anlayışı düşüncesinin insanı bağımsızlaştırmadığı, tam tersi özgürleşme süreci üzerine ağır kısıtlamalar getir- diği görülmektedir. Bu durumda, postmodern söylemlerin ortak noktası olarak

47 POSTMODERNISM AND WHAT IT IS NOT: SOME CLARIFACATION ABOUT AN ONGOING DEBATE Eser Keçeçi

özgürleşmek için, yerleşik bilgi ve bilim anlayışının yıkılıp yeniden kurulması ge- reği ileri sürülmektedir. Ancak bu noktada da bir paradoks ortaya çıkmaktadır. Postmodernist kritik, sistematik bilginin olanaksızlığından söz ederken, yeni bilgi ve bilimin nasıl oluşturulması gerektiği konusunda herhangi bir bildiride bulun- mamaktadır. Bir başka değişle, postmodernist çözüm, doğru olanı ortaya koymak gibi bir doğruyu yansıtmak iddiası bulunmayan yeni bir bilgi ya da bilim anlayı- şını yansıtmaktadır. Bu noktada da, yeni bilgi ve bilim anlayışının benimsenmesi durumunda toplumun kendini yeniden üretip üretemeyeceği sorunsalıyla karşı karşıya kalınmaktadır. Ancak yeni bir bilgi anlayışla birlikte biçimlenen yeni bir insan ve toplum biçiminin oluşacağından ve bu toplumun yine geçerli bilgi an- layışı içerisinde kendini yeniden üreteceğinden söz edilmektedir.

Kaynakça

Akay, Ali. (2002). Potmodern Görüntü. İstanbul. Bağlam Yayıncılık. Akça, Gürsoy: “Postmodernite ve Ulus Devlet”, http://www.aku.edu.tr/AKU/ DosyaYonetimi/SOSYALBILENS/dergi/VII2/GursoyAkca.pdf Appıgnanesı, Richard ve C. Garratt. (1996). Herkes İçin Postmodernizm. İs- tanbul. Milliyet Yayınları. Aslan Seyfettin ve YILMAZ Abdullah.: “Modernizme Bir Başkaldırı Projesi olarak Postmodernizm” , C.Ü. İktisadi ve İdari Bilmler Fakülte- si, http://public.cumhuriyet.edu.tr/iibfdergi/archive/modernizme%20bir%20ba%C5%9Fkald%C4%B1r%C4%B1%20proje- si%20olarak%20postmodernizm.pdf, Bauman, Zigmunt. (2000). Postmodernlik ve Hoşnutsuzlukları. (Çev. İsmail Türkmen), İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Berman, Marshall. (2006). Katı Olan Herşey Buharlaşıyor. (Çev. Ümit Altuğ, Bülent Peker), İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. Ceylan Ş. Şule: “Francis Fukuyama ve Tarihin Sonu Tezi”, İstanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, http://www.iticu.edu.tr/yay- in/dergi/s10/M00157.pdf, 2006 Çiğdem, Ahmet. (1997). Akıl ve Toplumun Özgürleşimi. Ankara. Vadi Yayın- ları. Çiğdem, Ahmet. (2003). Aydınlanma Düşüncesi. İstanbul. İletişim Yayınları.

48 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Dochherty, D. Thomas. (1995). Postmodernizm: Bir Giriş, Postmodernist Bur- juva Liberalizmi. (Çev. Yavuz Alogan), İstnbul: Sarmal Yayınevi. Eczacıbaşı Sanat Ansiklopedisi. (1997). Postmodernizm, YEM Yayın, İstanbul. Fukuyama, Francis. (1999). Tarihin Sonu ve Son İnsan. (Çev. Zülfü Dicleli), İstanbul: Gün Yayıncılık. Harvey, David. (1997). Postmodernliğin Durumu. (Çev. Sungur Savran), İs- tanbul: Metis Yayınları. Hollinger, Robert. (2005). Postmodernizm ve Sosyal Bilimler: Tematik Bir Yak- laşım, (Çev. Ahmet Cevizci), İstanbul: Paradigma Yayıncılık. Huyssen, Andreas. (1994). Postmodernin Haritasını Yapmak. (Çev. Mehmet Küçük), Modernite versus Postmodernite (Derleyen: Mehmet Küçük), Ankara: Vadi Yayınları. Laughey, Dan. (2010). Medya Çalışmaları. Teoriler ve Yaklaşımlar. (Çev. Ali Toprak), İstabul: Kalkedon Yayınları. Lyotard, F. Jean. (1997). Postmodern Durum. (Çev. Ahmet Çiğdem), Ankara: Vadi Yayınları. Lyotard, F. Jean. (2000). Postmoderne Dönüş. Modernizmin Serüveni, Der. Enis Batur, Çev. Beran Ersan, (Derleyen: Enis Batur (İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2000), s.21. Marshall, Gordon. (2005). Sosyoloji Sözlüğü. Ankara. Bilim ve Sanat Yayınları. Revel, Judith. (2005). Focault: Güncelliğin bir Ontolojisi. (Çev. Kemal Atakay), İstanbul: Otonom Yayıncılık. Robınson, Dave. (2000). Nietzsche ve Postmodernizm. (Çev. Kaan H. Ökten), İstanbul: Everest Yayınları. Rosenau, M. Pauline. (1998). Post-Modernizm ve Toplum Bilimleri. (Çev. Tuncay Birkan), Ankara: Bilim ve Sanat/Ark Yayınları. Serdar, Ziyaüddin. (2001). Postmodernizm ve Öteki. İstanbul: Söylem Yayın- ları. Şaylan, Gencay. (1999). Postmodernizm. Ankara. İmge Kitapevi Yayınları. Turner, S. Brayn. (2003). Oryantalizm Postmodernizm ve Globalizm. (Çev. İbrahim Kapaklıkaya), İstanbul: Anka Yayınları. Williams, Raymond. (2005). Anatar Sözcükler. (Çev. Savaş Kılıç), İstanbul: İl- etişim Yayıncılık.

3 THE HISTORICAL ORIGIN OF THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS, THE FIRST USAGE OF THE CONCEPT AND ERNST MACH’S GEDANKENEXPERIMENT / DÜŞÜNCE DENEYLERİNİN TARİHSEL KÖKENİ, KAVRAMIN İLK KULLANIMI VE ERNST MACH’IN DÜŞÜNCE DENEYİ Alper Bilgehan Yardımcı (Pamukkale University)

Abstract

In this study, the existing definitions of thought experiments and the origin of this concept with its first usage in history will be discussed. Then, the epistemology of Ernst Mach, who conducted the first systematic research on thought experiments, will be provided in order to grasp his views on this subject correctly. In this context, the views of James Brown and John Norton, who support different positions, will be briefly described in order to draw the general framework of the epistemological status of thought experiments. Finally, it will be revealed that the biological theory of knowledge and the doctrine of the economy of thought are the sources of Mach’s ‘instinctive knowledge’ argument about scientific thought experiments.

Keywords: Thought Experiments, Ernst Mach, the Biological Theory of Knowledge, Economy of Thought

51 THE HISTORICAL ORIGIN OF THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS, THE FIRST USAGE OF THE CONCEPT AND ERNST MACH’S GEDANKENEXPERIMENT Alper Bilgehan Yardımcı

Giriş Düşünce deneyleri başta fizik eğitimi olmak üzere bilim eğitimi, bilimsel araştır- malar, kuram seçimi ve hipotez ileri sürme gibi çeşitli alanlarda başvurulan hayal ve düşünce gücünün bir ürünü olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır (Brown & Fehige, 2019). Düşünce deneylerini zihnin laboratuvarında gerçekleştirilen bir faaliyet olarak değerlendiren James R. Brown (1991) düşünce deneyini tanımlamanın zor- luğundan bahsetmekle birlikte düşünce deneyleri ile karşılaştığımızda onları ta- nıyacağımızı ifade etmektedir. John D. Norton (1991) ise düşünce deneylerini a) karşı olgusal durumları ve farazi durumları varsayan ve b) sonucun genelliği ile il- gisiz ayrıntılara başvuran argümanlar olarak tanımlamaktadır. Düşünce deneyinin tanımı konusundaki farklılıklara rağmen standart örneklerinin hangileri olduğu konusunda ortak bir görüş bulunmaktadır. Örneğin, ağır cisimlerin hafif cisim- lere oranla daha hızlı düştüğü yönündeki Aristotelesçi görüşün Galileo tarafın- dan çürütülmesine ilişkin serbest düşme deneyi fiziksel dünyaya ilişkin düşünce deneylerinin paradigmatik örneği olarak kabul edilmektedir. Düşünce deneylerinin klasik örnekleri ise başta Galileo’nun serbest düşme düşünce deneyi olmak üzere Mary’nin odası, Einstein’ın asansörü, Schrödinger’in kedisi ve Newton’un kovası gibi örnekler ile çoğaltılabilir.

Düşünce deneyleri fizik, psikoloji ve felsefe başta olmak üzere birçok disiplinde merkezi bir rol oynamakta ve bilim insanlarınca farklı düzeylerde kullanılmakta- dır (Brown & Fehige, 2019). Genel olarak düşünce deneyleri karmaşık durum- ları tasarlama amacıyla kullanılan ve düşüncede gerçekleştirilen deneylerdir. Bu doğrultuda düşünce deneyi, hayali bir senaryo bağlamında gerçekleştirilen ve bize doğal dünya hakkında bilgiler veren bilimsel akıl yürütmenin metodolojik bir süreci olarak görülebilir. Gerçek deneylerde fiziksel dünyaya ilişkin unsurlar belirli bir plan dâhilinde farklı değişkenlere bağlı olarak gözlemlenmekte ve yapı- lan çalışmaya yönelik uygun sonuçlar elde edilmeye çalışılmaktadır. Aynı durum düşünce deneyleri için de geçerlidir, ancak düşünce deneyi ve gerçek deney ara- sındaki fark gerçek deneylerin laboratuvarda düşünce deneylerinin ise zihnin la- boratuvarında gerçekleştirilmesidir.

Düşünce deneyi genellikle gerçekleştirilmesi fiziki olarak mümkün olmayan bir durumun tasvir edildiği kavramsal bir model olarak da değerlendirilebilir. Dü- şünce deneylerine yönelik kabul gören ayrım bilimsel ve felsefi düşünce deneyi ayrımıdır. Sorensen (1992) bu ayrımı basitçe ortaya koymaktadır. Buna göre, bilimsel düşünce deneyleri bilimsel konu ile ilgili olan düşünce deneyleridir. Felsefi

52 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

düşünce deneyleri ise bilimsel olmayan konularla ilişkili düşünce deneyleridir. Bu kapsamda, bilimsel bir düşünce deneyinin amacı kabul edilen bilimsel argüman- ların tutarlılığını ve rasyonelliğini araştırmak, bilimsel teorilerin sınırlarını test etmek, doğal dünya hakkında yeni sorular ve hipotezler formüle etmek ve doğal fenomenleri zihinde simule etmektir. Bu kapsamda, Kuhn bilimsel düşünce deneylerinin mevcut kuramların düzenlenmesine ve paradigma değişikliği sonucunda kuramların terk edilmesine dahi yol açabileceğini belirtmektedir (Kuhn, 1977).

Düşünce deneylerine yönelik yapılan tanımlamalarla birlikte bu çalışmada dü- şünce deneylerinin ilk kullanımlarına ve bu kavramın ortaya çıkışına ilişkin tarihsel bilgiler aktarılmaktadır. Ardından düşünce deneyleri üzerine ilk sistematik araştırmayı yapan Ernst Mach’ın bu konu hakkındaki görüşlerini doğru bir şe- kilde kavrayabilmek için onun epistemolojisi hakkında bilgilere yer verilmektedir. Bilimsel düşünce deneyleri konusunda kaçınılmaz tartışma yalnızca zihinde yü- rütülen bir süreç olarak düşünce deneylerinin dış dünya hakkında yeni bir bilgi vermesinin imkânına yöneliktir. Bu kapsamda tartışmanın genel çerçevesini çize- bilmek açısından farklı pozisyonlarda yer alan James Brown ve John Norton’un zıt görüşleri kısaca serimlenecektir. Nihai olarak, Mach’ın düşünsel süreçlerin dolaylı olarak duyusal deneyime bağlı olduğu ve a priori olduğu düşünülen bazı bilgilerin de deneyim aracılığıyla elde edildiği konusundaki argümanlarının dü- şünce deneylerinin epistemolojik statüsü hakkındaki özgün görüşlerine kaynak- lık ettiği vurgulanacaktır.

Düşünce Deneyinin Tarihsel Kökenleri

Düşünce deneyleri yalnızca zihinde gerçekleştirilen bir faaliyet olmasından do- layı düşünce tarihi içerisinde önemli bir yere sahiptir. Düşünce deneylerinin tarihsel açıdan kullanımı antik Yunan düşüncesine kadar dayanmaktadır. Rescher (1991) düşünce deneylerinin kullanımının felsefi düşüncenin kendisi kadar eski olduğunu ifade etmektedir. Irvine ise düşünce deneyini hipotetik-dedüktif akıl yürütme ile değerlendirmektedir (Moue, Masavetas, & Karayianni, 2006). Ona (1991) göre, Pre-Sokratik’ler doğa hakkındaki akıl yürütmelerinde düşünce deneylerinin kullanımını ilk başlatanlardır.

Düşünce deneylerinin tarihsel açıdan ilk örneklerini Archytas’ın evrenin sınırı konusundaki düşüncelerinde ve ardından Aristoteles’in yer kürenin şekli konusundaki argümanları içerisinde bulabiliriz. Bilindiği üzere, antik Yunan düşüncesinde

53 THE HISTORICAL ORIGIN OF THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS, THE FIRST USAGE OF THE CONCEPT AND ERNST MACH’S GEDANKENEXPERIMENT Alper Bilgehan Yardımcı

genel olarak yer merkezli evren anlayışının bir sonucu olarak hâkim olan görüş; kozmik kürenin sabit yıldızlarla birlikte sınırına ulaştığı ve böylece evrenin bir sı- nırının ve sonunun olduğu yönündedir. Platon’un yakın arkadaşlarından birisi olarak değerlendirilen ve aynı zamanda önemli bir matematik bilgini ve düşünür olan Archytas of Tarentum ya da Tarantolu Arhitas tarihte bilinen ilk düşünce deneyini tasarlamıştır. Günümüzün bütün teknolojik olanaklarına rağmen hala tar- tışılmaya devam eden evrenin bir sınırının olup olmadığına yönelik soruşturma Archytas tarafından insanlarının fiziksel olarak evrenin sınırına bir yolculuk yap- masının mümkün olamamasından dolayı (bugün içinde geçerli) bir düşünce deneyi çerçevesinde ele alınmıştır (Weinert, 2016). Bu doğrultuda, Archytas ilk olarak zihninde uzayda evrenin sınırına yolculuk eden bir kişiyi hayal eder. Bu kişi eğer evrenin bir sonu var ise o sınıra ulaştığında, sınırdan dışarıya doğru bir hareket yapabilecek midir? Kendi ifadesiyle: “Evrenin sınırında olduğumda elimi veya mızrak gibi bir objeyi bu sınırdan dışarı doğru uzatabilir miyim? Uzatamamam saçma olurdu. Ancak eğer, uzatabiliyorsam dışarıda var olan ya cisim ya da yer olacaktır” (Harrison, 1987, sf. 25). Bu durumda, evrenin dışına eğer çıkabiliyor- sak, yeni ulaştığımız yerin sınırının dışında da yine bir cisim ya da yeni bir uzay olmalıdır. Archytas her sınırın dışında başka bir yerin olacağı düşüncesinden hareketle bu sürecin sonsuza kadar devam edeceğini ifade ederek, bu düşünce deneyinin sonucunda sınırsız genişlemeyi varsayar ve evrenin bir sınırının olamaya- cağı neticesine ulaşır (Jammer, 1993).

Diğer bir yandan Aristoteles tarafından yer kürenin şekli konusunda yürütülen düşünce deneyinde ise Aristoteles eşyaların doğal olarak ait oldukları yere doğru hareket etmesi gerektiği yönündeki iddiasından yola çıkmaktadır. O toprağın do- ğal yerinin yer kürenin merkezi olduğu ve bu nedenle toprağın arzın merkezine doğru hareket etmesi düşüncesinden hareket ederek dünyanın şeklinin yuvarlak olduğunu belirtmiştir. Eğer eşit oranda materyal yerin merkezine doğru hareket etmeye çabalarsa, bu büyüklükteki kütlenin merkeze doğru çekimi yeryüzünü küre biçiminde şekillendirecektir (Aristotle, 1952). Bu noktada vurgulanması gerekir ki ne Archytas ne de Aristoteles düşünce deneyi kavramına sahiptir. Onlar çalış- malarında deney ve düşünce deneyi kavramına yer vermemişlerdir. Bu durumun nedenleri arasında bizim düşünce deneyi kavramında bahsetmiş olduğumuz deney kavramının tam olarak onların zamanında bir karşılığının olmamasından kay- naklanmaktadır. Deney, doğa hakkında gözlemlenebilen ya da gözlemlenemeyen olgularla ilgili tekrarlanabilir durumları ya da doğal durumlarında tekrar edilmesi mümkün olmayan verileri elde etmek amacıyla kullanılan suni bir araçtır. Düşünce

54 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

deneyi nosyonumuz, bu tür bir deney fikrine dayanmaktadır. Aralarındaki fark elbette düşünce deneylerinin fiziksel gerçeklerle sınırlı olmamasından kaynaklan- maktadır. Aristoteles, gerçekleri keşfetmenin bir yolu olarak modern anlamda deneyin vurguladığı ampirik deneylere çok fazla metodolojik ağırlık vermez. Bilinen bir şekilde, onun doğa bilimi, gizli gerçeklerin yapay olarak elde edilmesinden ziyade yardımsız bir şekilde doğada mevcut olanın yani orada bulunanın doğrudan gözlemine ve aktarılmasına dayanmaktadır (Corcilius, 2017).

Bu kapsamda, modern bilim imgesi tarafından antik Yunan düşüncesinde ön plana çıkan gözlem ve gözlemlenenin açıklanmasına yönelik yaklaşımlar değer- lendirildiğinde arada farklılıkların olduğunu ifade etmek yanlış olmayacaktır. Çünkü deneysel yöntem yalnızca gözlem yapma ve bunun sonucunda elde edilen verileri açıklamaktan daha öte bir şeydir. Antik Yunanistan’da daha çok do- ğaya ilişkin ‘eğer olursa’ gibi sorular yöneltilerek elde edilen düşünce ürünlerini günümüzdeki düşünce deneyleri ile aynı statüde değerlendirmek doğru bir yak- laşım olmayacaktır. Çünkü günümüzde gözlemlenen fenomeni olduğu gibi ak- tarmaktan öte, gözleme ve deneye konu olan şeyleri yeniden yapılandırmak gibi bir yaklaşım vardır (Kühne, 2009). Diğer bir deyişle, pasif bir gözlemci olmak yerine, doğaya aktif bir şekilde müdahale edilmektedir. Bu nedenle, mevcut paradigma içerisinde düşünce deneylerini değerlendirdiğimizde söylemlerimizi modern anlamda karşılayabilecek olan düşünce deneylerinin örneklerini Galileo Ga- lilei’nin [(1638), 2001)] ileri sürmüş olduğu ‘Serbest Düşme’ düşünce deneyi ile başlatmak daha doğru olacaktır.

Düşünce Deneyi Kavramının İlk Kullanımı

Düşünce deneyi kavramı düşünsel deney, hayali deney, kurmaca deney (Duhem, 1954) ve ‘Gedankenexperiment’ (Mach, 1897) gibi çeşitli şekillerde kullanılmış- tır. Örneğin, Alman filozof Immanuel Kant bu kavramın yerine ‘saf aklın deneyleri’ tabirini kullanmış, fizikçi ve filozof Lichtenberg ise derleme kitabı olan ‘the Waste Books’ta ‘düşünce ve fikirde deneyler’ kavramını düşünce deneyi kavramı yerine kullanmayı uygun görmüştür (Fehige & Stuart, 2014). Düşünce deneyi kavramının mevcut kullanımının karşılığı Danimarkalı bilim insanı Hans Chris- tian Ørsted, Alman fizikçi ve filozof Ernst Mach ve Albert Einstein’ın çalışmala- rına kadar dayandırılmaktadır. Genel kanının aksine ‘düşünce deneyi’ kavramını literatürde ilk olarak tanımlayan düşünür Ernst Mach değil, Danimarkalı bilim insanı Hans-Christian Ørsted’dir (Witt-Hansen, 1976). O bu kavramı ilk olarak

55 THE HISTORICAL ORIGIN OF THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS, THE FIRST USAGE OF THE CONCEPT AND ERNST MACH’S GEDANKENEXPERIMENT Alper Bilgehan Yardımcı

genel fiziğe ilk giriş olarak dilimize çevrilebilecek “Første Indledning til den almindelige Naturlaere” adlı çalışmasında yer vermiştir [(1811), 1920]. Ancak, Ma- ch’ın çalışmasının İngilizceye çevrilmesi ile ‘Gedankenexperiment’ kavramı ‘dü- şünce deneyi’ (Eng. thought experiment) olarak çevrilerek sözlükteki yerini almış ve bu kavram akademik camiada tam anlamıyla kullanılmaya başlanmıştır. Bu ba- kımdan, ‘düşünce deneyi’ kavramını ortaya çıkaran ve düşünce deneyi hakkında açık bir şekilde yazan ilk kişi Ørsted, düşünce deneyi kavramını belirli bir bilimsel prosedür haline getirerek yücelten kişi Mach; hayal gücümüzü beslemeye devam eden bilimsel düşünce deneylerini icat eden kişi ise Albert Einstein olarak kabul edilebilir (Ierodiakonou & Roux, 2011).

Ernst Mach ve Düşünce Deneyleri

Anlaşılacağı üzere, hayal gücünde yapılan deneyler Mach’dan çok önceleri de ya- pılmasına rağmen, düşünce deneylerinin bilim için önemini açıkça vurgulayan ve düşünce deneyleri üzerine ilk sistematik araştırmalara çalışmalarında yer veren kişi Mach (1883, 1897, 1905) olmuştur. İdealleştirmeleri ve varsayımsal deneysel düzenlemeleri ile düşünce deneyleri her zaman olgulardan radikal bir ay- rılışı gerektirmektedir. Zihin bazen deneysel sonuçlar tarafından desteklense de genellikle saf hayal gücü tarafından yönlendirilerek olgulardan bir sıçrama yap- maktadır. Mach, düşünce deneyi ve gerçek deneyler arasında temel benzerlikle- rin olduğunu ifade etmektedir. Ona (1976) göre, gerçek deneylerde değişken do- ğal koşullar iken, düşünce deneylerinde bu değişkenlerin sonuçlarını görmek için temsiller çeşitlendirilmektedir. Gerçek ve düşünce deneyleri arasındaki bu benzer- lik, düşünce deneyinin bazı gerçek deneylerin çoktan gerçekleştirildiğini varsay- ması gerçeği ile yakından bağlantılıdır. Mach fiziksel deneyim yeterince mevcut olduğu takdirde hayal gücünün devreye gireceğini belirtmektedir.

Ernst Mach düşünce deneylerini zihinsel olarak olgu ya da durumların varyas- yonlarını hayal etme ve düşünme olarak tanımlamakla birlikte, bu zihinsel akti- vitenin yalnızca bilim insanları için değil, aynı zamanda düşünür, yazar ve mü- hendisler gibi çeşitli alanlarda faaliyette bulunan insanların kullanımına da uygun olduğunu belirtmektedir (Engel, 2011). Mach’a (1976) göre, düşünce deneyinin kullanımı bilim tarihi açısından önemli bir yere sahiptir. Bu yöntem dikkatlice kullanıldığı takdirde düşüncemizde muazzam değişikliklere ve yeni araştırma yol- ları açabilme potansiyeline sahiptir.

56 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Ernst Mach’ın Epistemolojisi

Ernst Mach’ın düşünce deneyleri konusundaki görüşlerine ilişkin doğru bir kavra- yışa sahip olabilmek için öncelikli olarak onun genel epistemolojisine ilişkin bilgiler vurgulanmalı ve böylece düşünce deneyleri konusundaki görüşlerini destekleyen arka plan bilgisine yer verilmelidir. Ernst Mach felsefeci kimliği ile en çok pozi- tivizm düşüncesine yapmış olduğu katkı ile ön plana çıkmaktadır. Bu bakımdan, onun bilim anlayışına ve düşünce deneylerine yönelik fikirlerini onun pozitivist bir düşünür olduğunu göz önünde bulundurarak değerlendirmemiz gerekmektedir. Ernst Mach, pozitivist ve anti-realist bir düşünür olarak bilimin kendisini gözlemlenebilir olgulara dayandırması gerektiğini ifade eder. Onun gözlemlene- bilirlik vurgusundan kastı, duyu organlarımız aracılığı ile deneyimleyebileceğimiz dış dünyada bulunan küçük büyük fark etmeksizin bütün varlıklardır. Mach açı- sından bu sınıfın içerisine, atom, enerji, ışık dalgası vb. gibi gözlemlere konu olmayan ve böylece duyumsanamayan varlıklar girmemektedir. Mach sadece pozitif olan ve verili olan ile ilgilenmektedir (Ladyman, 2002). Burada verili olan ile anlatılmak istenen deneyimimize aracısız bir şekilde denk gelecek olan duyu ve- rileridir. Duyu verileri fenomenlerin bizatihi görünüşleri ile bağlantılı olarak elde edilen bilgilerdir, çünkü Mach açısından bilginin temelini varlıkların görünüşle- rinden elde edilen duyumlar oluşturmaktadır. Bu bakımdan fenomenlerin görü- nüşlerinin ötesinde, duyuma konu olamayan bir gerçeklikten bahsetmek müm- kün değildir. Mach deneyime konu olmayan, görünüşlerin ötesindeki gerçekliklere başvurularak elde edildiği iddia edilen bilgileri dış dünyada bir karşılığı olma- masından dolayı metafiziksel bilgiler olarak değerlendirmektedir (Arens, 2012).

Epistemolojide önemli bir yer teşkil eden görünüş-gerçeklik tartışması içerisinde bu tarz bir ayrıma karşı çıkan ve fenomenlerin yalnızca görünüşlerinden söz etmenin mümkün olduğunu ifade eden Mach’ın bu yaklaşımını önceleyen düşün- cesi onun fenomenalizminden gelmektedir. Mach’ın (1976) fenomenalist düşün- cesi duyularımızın bize sağlamış olduğu verileri dikkate almaktadır. Dolayısıyla, bilim alanında gözlemlenemeyen bir varlığın bilgisini elde etmek mümkün değil- dir. Bir şey ancak duyumlara sebep olabilecek fenomenler ile ilişkili olabiliyorsa bi- linebilmektedir. Var olan her şeyin duyu komplekslerinden meydana gelen zihinsel bir yapıda olduğunu belirten Mach (1898), dış dünyaya ilişkin bütün maddi varlıkların duyu deneyimine sahip insan zihni tarafından ortaya konulan komp- leks elementler olduğunu ifade etmektedir. Bütün psikolojik yaşamın duyu de- neyimlerine konu olan elementler arasındaki ilişkiler ile açıklanabileceğine ilişkin

57 THE HISTORICAL ORIGIN OF THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS, THE FIRST USAGE OF THE CONCEPT AND ERNST MACH’S GEDANKENEXPERIMENT Alper Bilgehan Yardımcı

yaklaşıma Mach’ın psikolojik atomizmi1 (psychological atomism) ve çağrışımcı- lığı (associationism) denilmektedir. Bu doğrultuda deneyim, bilincimizde periyo- dik olarak ortaya çıkan-kaybolan ve farklı karmaşıklık dereceleri ve farklı duyusal canlılık kümeleri oluşturan sayısal ve niteliksel olarak çeşitli unsurlardan oluşur. Mach’ın pozitivist düşüncelerine kaynaklık eden fenomenalizminin ön plana çı- kan savı maddi varlıkların duyumları meydana getirmediği, duyumların ve onlara ilişkin düşünce komplekslerinin var olması nedeniyle varlıkların ve maddenin var olduğuna yöneliktir. Bu çerçevede, Mach’ın felsefesinin ve onun bilgi teorisinin genel olarak ampirizm, duyumculuk ve fenomenalizm ile karakterize edildiğini ifade edebiliriz. Mach’ın epistemolojisinin temel özelliği duyusal deneyimi tüm bilginin temeli olarak değerlendirmesi ve en soyut düşünce süreçlerinin dahi duyusal unsurlar içerdiğini belirtmesidir (Čapek, 1969). Bu bakımdan düşünsel sü- reçler dolaylı olarak duyusal deneyime bağlıdır.

Biyolojik Bilgi Teorisi

Bununla birlikte, Mach’ın düşünce deneylerine yönelik görüşlerinde belirleyici olan ancak çoğunlukla göz ardı edilen ‘Biyolojik Bilgi Teorisi’ne ilişkin görüşle- rini de vurgulamak gerekmektedir. Bu görüşe göre, insan zihninin bilişsel faali- yetleri durağan değil, aksine insanın diğer bütün fizyolojik özellikleri gibi geli- şime ve büyümeye tabidir. Bu düşünce on dokuzuncu yüzyılın ikinci yarısında olgunlaşan Darwin’in evrim teorisi ile birlikte desteklenmektedir. Böylece, evrim teorisinin yalnızca fiziksel organizmalara değil, aynı zamanda akıl ve düşünce gibi psikolojik özelliklere de uygulanması Darwin’in ve ondan daha önce Spencer’ın çalışmalarında düşünülmüş ve uygulanmıştır. Buna paralel olarak Mach (1986) düşüncenin, özellikle bilimsel düşüncenin farklı koşullara uyum sağlayabileceğini ve dönüşebileceğini ifade eder: Mach (1976, s. 352) “bilimsel fikirlerin dönüştü- ğünü, daha geniş alanlara yayıldığını, rakipleriyle rekabet ettiğini ve daha az ye- tenekli olanlara karşı zafer kazandığını gördüğümüzü ve her öğrencinin böyle bir süreci kendi zihninde de gözlemleyebileceğini” ifade etmektedir. Böylece, düşün- cenin organik bir süreç olduğunu vurgulayan Mach (1986) bilginin bu biyolojik karakterinden yola çıkarak kendi evrimsel epistemolojisini ortaya koymuştur (Čapek, 1969).

1 Čapek (1969: 172), Russell ve Wittgenstein’ın (erken dönem düşüncelerinde) mantıksal atomcu düşüncelerinin doğrudan Mach, Herbart ve Hume’un psikolojik atomizminden geldiğini ifade etmektedir.

58 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Mach biyolojik bilgi teorisine birçok çalışmasında yer vermekle birlikte, bu teoriyi en açık şekilde “Transformation and Adaptation in Scientific Thought” (1986) isimli yazısında ifade etmiştir. Yerleşik mental alışkanlıkları ile geniş bir gözlem alanı ile karşılaşan insan düşüncesi bu genişletilmiş deneyime göre kendisini ayar- layarak, karşılaşmış olduğu sorunların üstesinden gelebilmektedir. Düşünceleri- mizin deneyime göre ayarlanması olarak ifade edebileceğimiz bu durum, Mach’a (1986) göre, fiziksel organizmaların çevrelerine karşı göstermiş oldukları uyuma oldukça benzerdir. Daha öncede ifade edildiği üzere, en soyut kavramlarda dâhil olmak üzere bütün kavramlarımız uyarlanabilir deneyimin sonuçlarıdır (Čapek, 1969). Uzay, zaman ve nedensellik kavramları bile temelde biyolojik, yani fay- dacı ve ekonomik bir karaktere sahiptir. Bu kavramların hiçbiri Kant’çı anlamda a priori değildir. Nedensellik gibi kavramların gelişimine ve oluşumuna tanıklık etmediğimizden dolayı, sanki bu kavramların deneyim öncesi elde edildiğini dü- şünürüz. Ancak Mach (1960), nedensellik anlayışımızın bireysel olarak edinilme- diğini, insan soyunun gelişimi ile mükemmelleştiğini ifade eder. Čapek (1969, s. 178) Mach’ın bu ifadesini Spencer’ın iddiası ile yakından ilişkili olduğunu ifade eder: “Birey için a priori olan, tür için a posterioridir”. Bu iddiayı Mach’a uygu- layacak olursak, birey için a priori olduğu düşünülen nedensellik düşüncesi, insan türü için aposterioridir. Mach böylece nedensellik örneğinden yola çıkarak a priori olabileceği düşünülen bazı unsurların deneyimsel kaynağını ortaya koymaktadır.

Görüleceği üzere, Mach’ın epistemolojisi ile ilişki olarak ön plana çıkardığı iki un- sur düşünce deneyleri konusundaki görüşlerini yapılandırmaktadır. Bu unsurlardan ilki düşünsel süreçlerin dolaylı da olsa duyusal deneyime bağlı olması, ikincisi ise ‘Biyolojik Bilgi Teorisi’nin a priori olduğu düşünülen bazı unsurların aslında önceleri deneyimle elde edildiğini ortaya koymasıdır. Mach’ın bu düşünceleri, düşünce deneylerine yönelik en önemli tartışma konularından biri olan düşünce deneylerinin doğal dünya hakkında deneyimi aşan yeni bir bilgi vermesinin imkâ- nına yönelik soruşturmada kendi pozisyonuna ilişkin önemli ipuçları vermektedir.

Düşünce Deneylerinin Epistemolojik Durumu

Düşünce deneyleri gerçekleştirildiğinde ulaşılan bilginin nereden kaynaklandığı so- rusu düşünce deneylerinin epistemolojik statüsü ile ilgili bir konudur. Bu konuda önde gelen ve iki zıt kanadı temsil eden düşünürler James Brown ve John Nor- ton’dur. Kısaca Brown (1991) düşünce deneylerinin eski ya da mevcut verilerden mantıksal olarak çıkarsanmamış bir şekilde fiziksel dünyaya ilişkin yeni bilgiler

59 THE HISTORICAL ORIGIN OF THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS, THE FIRST USAGE OF THE CONCEPT AND ERNST MACH’S GEDANKENEXPERIMENT Alper Bilgehan Yardımcı

verebileceğini ifade etmekte ve Platoncu düşünce deneyi olarak adlandırılan bu düşünce deneylerinin a priori bilgiye sezgisel bir şekilde ulaşma imkânı sağlaya- cağını ileri sürmektedir. Brown’ın görüşlerinin aksine, Norton düşünce deneylerinin fiziksel dünyanın bilgisine gizemli bir erişim sağladığı yönündeki düşün- ceyi kesin bir dille eleştirmekte ve düşünce deneylerinin ampirizmi aşan bir bilgi sağlamasının mümkün olamayacağını ifade etmektedir. Çünkü ona (2004) göre, düşünce deneyleri deneysel öncüllere dayanan standart bir argümandan başka bir şey değildir. Düşünce deneyleri tarafından sağlanan bilgi, bir argümanın öncülle- rinin mantıksal akıl yürütme ile dönüştürülmesinin sonucudur (Norton, 1991). Norton (1996) her düşünce deneyinin argüman formuna dönüştürülebilmesinin mümkün olduğunu ifade etmektedir. Norton’un (1991) argüman görüşüne göre, bir düşünce deneyi ile elde ettiğimiz bilgi, bir argümanın öncülünde örtük olarak bulunan bilginin ötesine geçemez. Bu bakımdan, düşünce deneyleri yalnızca fiziksel dünya hakkında önceden deneyimlerimizle elde etmiş olduğumuz bilgile- rimizi genelleyerek veya tekrardan organize ederek bu bilgileri daha açık hale getirmektedir (Brendel, 2017).

Norton’un temel iddiasının aksine, Brown kabaca bütün düşünce deneylerinin yalnızca resimsi argümanlar olarak görülemeyeceğini ifade etmektedir (Brendel, 2017). Platoncu düşünce deneyleri, yeni ampirik kanıtlara dayanmayan ya da mantıksal olarak eski verilerden türetilmeyen a priori bilgiye sezgisel erişim sağla- maktadırlar (Brown, 1991). Bu açıdan, zihnin gözüyle elde edilen a priori bilginin argümanlar aracılığıyla elde edilen çıkarımsal bilgiden niteliksel olarak farklı olacağını vurgulamak gerekir. Brown (2004), Platoncu düşünce deneyinin en iyi örneği olarak Galileo’nun serbest düşme düşünce deneyi olduğunu belirtmektedir. Ona göre (2004), Galileo’nun düşünce deneyini özel yapan husus yer çeki- minin olmadığı bir ortamda bütün cisimlerin eşit hızda düşeceğine yönelik iddi- anın sonuçlarının sadece düşünce deneyleri ile elde edilmesidir.

Peki Mach bilimsel çalışmalarda ve felsefi problemlerde bize birçok açıdan faydası olan düşünce deneylerinin epistemolojik durumuna ilişkin nasıl bir yaklaşım ser- gilemektedir. Düşünce deneyleri doğaya ilişkin bize yeni bir bilgi sağlayabilmekte midir? Diğer bir deyişle, yalnızca düşüncede yürütülen bir süreç, sonucunda bize ampirik bir bilgi verebilir mi? Yoksa Mach genel epistemolojisinin aksine düşünce deneyleri konusunda pozitivist ya da ampirist düşüncelerinden vaz mı geçmektedir?

60 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Bu soruları Mach’ın düşüncesine uyarlayacak olursak soru şu halini almaktadır: Yeni ampirik veriler olmadan doğa hakkında düşünce deneylerinden yeni bilgiler elde etmek nasıl mümkün olabilmektedir? Mach (1960) bu soruya deneyimlerden elde edilen fazlaca ‘içgüdüsel bilgi’ye sahip olduğumuz belirlemesinden yola çıkarak cevap vermektedir. Mach’ın deneyci ve pozitivist bir düşünür olarak deneyim ve duyumlara vermiş olduğu önemi göz ardı edemeyiz. Bununla birlikte, Mach deneyim ve duyular aracılığı ile dış dünyaya ilişkin elde edilen bilginin her zaman açık bir şekilde edinilemeyeceğini ve duyu bilgisinin zihin tarafından her koşulda doğrudan anlaşılabilir olamayacağını ifade etmektedir. Ona göre, bazı durumlarda doğanın bilgisi zihnimizde keşfedilmeye hazır bir şekilde beklemektedir (Ateş, 2015). Bu noktada daha öncede belirtildiği üzere, a priori olarak zihnimizde var olduğunu düşündüğümüz bilgi aslında duyumlarımız aracılığı ile elde edilmiş bir nevi üstü tozlu bir şekilde meydana çıkarılmayı beklemektedir. Mach bu nitelikteki bilgiyi içgüdüsel bilgi (instinctive knowledge) olarak değer- lendirir (Sorensen, 1992).

Mach’ın radikal ampirist perspektifinden düşünce deneylerinin deneyime başvur- madan görünüşte nasıl yeni bir bilgi sağlayacağının açıklanması gerekmektedir. Aksi takdirde, Mach’ı rasyonalist bir filozof olarak kabul etmek yanlış olmaz. Bu açıklamayı Mach fiziksel dünyaya ilişkin üstü örtülü bilgiye herhangi bir teorik çerçeve altında organize edilmemiş bir şekilde sahip olduğumuzu belirterek yap- maktadır. Ona (1960) göre, dünyanın açık olmayan bilgisine yönelik içgüdüsel bilgiyle düşünce deneyi bağlantı kurabilir ve böylece dış dünya hakkındaki bilgileri kullanmamıza ve önceden sistematikleştirilmemiş inançların önemini anla- mamıza imkân verebilir. Bu çerçevede Mach, herhangi bir düşünce deneyi teorisinin ampirik açıdan nasıl çözümlenebileceğine ilişkin bir çözüm önermektedir. Düşünce deneyleri daha önce edinilen bilgi ve becerileri harekete geçirerek bilgimizi genişletmekte ve bilginin ilerlemesine önemli ölçüde katkıda bulunmaktadır (Buzzoni, 2018). Ayrıca vurgulamak gerekir ki Mach açısından hayal gücü oyunu sadece fiziksel deneyim yeterince zengin olduğunda başlayabilmektedir (Mach, 1976). Bu bakımdan Mach, düşünce deneylerinin temel işlevlerinden biri olarak zihnimizde gizil halde bulunan deneyimsel bilgiyi açığa çıkarmak olarak gör- mektedir. Başka bir deyişle, düşünce deneyleri analiz edilmemiş ham bilgiyi ya da içgüdüsel bilgiyi düzenleyerek dış dünyaya ilişkin bilgimizi genişletebilmektedir.

Mach’ın düşünce deneyine atfetmiş olduğu bu işlev aynı zamanda düşünce deneylerinin nasıl tanımlanıp sınıflandırılacağına ilişkin faydalı bir ayraç olmaktadır.

61 THE HISTORICAL ORIGIN OF THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS, THE FIRST USAGE OF THE CONCEPT AND ERNST MACH’S GEDANKENEXPERIMENT Alper Bilgehan Yardımcı

Düşünce deneylerini belirli bir bağlam içerisinde sınıflandırmak ve kategorize etmek, diğer birçok kavramın sınıflandırılmasında da karşılaşılacağı üzere kolay bir girişim değildir. Nasıl ki bilim kavramının gerek ve yeter koşullarını belirlemek açısından ortaya konulan tanımlamalar farklılık göstermekte ve bu konudaki tar- tışmalar bilimde sınır çizme sorunu ile bağlantılı olarak devam etmekteyse, dü- şünce deneyleri konusunda da tam anlamıyla uzlaşılmış bir sınıflandırma yöntemi yoktur. Düşünce deneyleri, mantıksal yapıları bakımından, kuram seçimindeki iş- levleri bakımından, hizmet ettikleri amaç bakımından ve son olarak kurama karşı olanlar (yıkıcı) ya da kuramı destekleyenler (yapıcı) olmak üzere farklı şekillerde sınıflandırılmıştır (Brown, 1986). Düşünce deneylerinin belirten bir sınıf içeri- sinde kullanılması düşünce deneylerinin diğer kullanımlarını ekarte etmek ya da dışlamak anlamına gelmemektedir (Brown & Fehige, 2019). Örneğin, bir düşünce deneyi hem ekonomik nedenlerle hem de değerlendirilen kurama karşı gelmek amacıyla kullanılabilir. Bunun en güzel örneğini Mach’ın, Newton’un Kovası dü- şünce deneyine yapmış olduğu itirazda bulmak mümkündür.

Bu kapsamda, düşünce deneylerini hizmet ettikleri amaçlara göre kabaca sınıflan- dıran Mach, düşünce deneyinin analiz edilmemiş ham bilgiyi açığa çıkarması işle- vinin yanı sıra düşünce deneyinin diğer bir işlevini de ortaya koymaktadır. Mach, duyumcu ve deneyimci bir filozof olarak bütün kontrolü düşünce deneyine ver- memektedir. Onun için asıl önemli olan pek tabi ki gerçek fiziksel deneydir. Bu noktada Mach (1960), deneyden arzulanan kesin sonuçları düşünce deneyinden elde edemediği takdirde, bu kesinliğin sağlanabilmesi amacıyla fiziksel deneyin yardımına ihtiyaç duyacağımızı belirtir. Pek tabi ki Mach için doğanın bilgisini elde etmek ve genişletmek için gereken asıl araç fiziksel deneydir. Bu bakımdan onun bilimsel perspektifinde fiziksel deney başrolü oynamaktadır. Ancak bu demek değildir ki, düşünce deneyinin hiçbir işlevi yoktur. Mach düşünce deneylerinin arzulanan kesinliği sağlayamadığı takdirde, fiziksel deneyle desteklenmesi gerektiğini ve aynı zamanda düşünce deneyinin fiziksel deney için bir ön koşul olma işlevi olduğunu belirtmektedir.

Mach’ın genel görüşü, düşünce deneyi ile gerçek deney arasındaki ilişki netice- sinde gerçek deneyin düşünce deneyine göre hem zamansal hem de mantıksal açı- dan daha önce geldiğidir. Zamansal açıdan düşünce deneyi gerçek deneyden sonra gelmektedir, çünkü bir düşünce deneyini formüle edebilmek için kişinin gerçek deneyimlere sahip olması gerekir. Mantıksal açıdan ise düşünce deneyinin sonuç- ları hakkında şüpheye düştüğümüzde gerçek deneylere başvurmamızdan dolayı

62 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

gerçek deney diğerine göre daha önce gelmektedir. Mach (1976, sf. 137-138) bu durumu eserinde şu şekilde ifade eder: Bir düşünce deneyi ile ilişkili olarak ortaya çıkan şüphe, kişinin fiziksel deney ile daha fazla test yapmasına yol açabilir. Düşünce deneyinden elde edilen sonuç ne kadar az kesin olursa, araştırmacının sonuca ilişkin karar verebilmesi için fiziksel deneye duyduğu ihtiyaç o kadar fazla olacaktır. Mach’ın düşünce deneyi yönteminin temel argümanı düşünce deneylerinin yalnızca deneyimlerden hareket etmediği, süreç sonucunda tekrardan deneyime döndüğüne yöneliktir. Mach, deneyci bir düşünür olmasının doğal sonucu olarak, deneyimi her türlü bilginin nihai ölçütü olarak değerlendirmektir. Düşünce deneyinde herhangi bir sonuca varma yetkisi yalnızca deneyimde bulunabilir. Ay- rıca Mach’ın deneyin nasıl yürütüleceğine ilişkin zihinsel hazırlık sürecini de bir düşünce deneyi olarak değerlendirmesi dikkate değerdir. Bu kapsamda, örneğin bir biyokimyacının gerçek deneyi gerçekleştirmeden önce nasıl bir prosedür izle- yeceğini tasarlaması ve hangi kimyasalları deneyinde kullanacağını planlaması da Mach açısından bir düşünce deneyi olarak değerlendirilmektedir.

Diğer bir yandan, düşünce deneyi arzulanan sonucu kesin ve ayırt edici şekilde sağladığında, Mach fazladan gerçek bir deney gerçekleştirmenin anlamı olmaya- cağını ifade eder. Bu ifade Mach’ın ‘düşünce ekonomisine’ ilişkin görüşlerine bir zemin hazırlamaktadır. Mach’a (1960) göre, bilimin rolü fenomenlerin en ekonomik tasnifini sağlamaktır. Gerçek deneyin temel öğelerinden bir tanesi fiziksel dünyadır. Belirli planlanmış durumlarda dünyaya ilişkin unsurları gözlemleyerek dünya hakkında bilgi ediniriz. Ancak, bu durumu tekrarlamak bilimsel çalışma- lar açısından ekonomik olmayacaktır. Bu nedenle bilim literatürü bizi sık sık, tamamen akılda gerçekleştirilen düşünce deneylerine başvurmaya sürekler. Düşünce deneyinin önemli özelliklerinden bir tanesi yeniden düşünülebilir olmasıdır. Dü- şünce deneyleri zihinde gerçekleştirilen bir süreç olması bakımından kayda değer bir fayda sağlamaktadırlar.

Dolayısıyla düşünce deneylerinin temel kullanım amaçlarından bir tanesi simule edilmiş bir karşı-olgusal senaryoda değişen nedenler ve koşullar yoluyla deneyimi kurtarmaktır. Düşünce deneyleri, fiziksel deneylere kıyasla nispeten düşük mali- yetleri nedeniyle, deneysel düzenlemelerin tasarlanması ve eksikliklerin önlenmesi için gerekli bir ön koşulu oluşturmaktadır. Bazen bir düşünce deneyi o kadar kesin ve belirlidir ki, deneyi yürüten kişi düşünce deneyini fiziksel deneylerle doğrula- mayı gerekli görmeyebilir (Mach, 1897). Düşünce deneyi kesin bir çözüm sağla- masa bile, bir başlangıç noktası olarak hizmet edebilir (Mach, 1897). Bu nedenle,

63 THE HISTORICAL ORIGIN OF THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS, THE FIRST USAGE OF THE CONCEPT AND ERNST MACH’S GEDANKENEXPERIMENT Alper Bilgehan Yardımcı

düşünce deneyleri, Mach’ın ekonomik bilişsel çaba idealini, diğer bir deyişle ‘dü- şünce ekonomisi’ fikrini karşılamaktadır. Mach deneyimlerin yerine düşüncede gerçeklerin yeniden üretimini ve öngörülmesini sağlamayı bilimin amacı olarak görmektedir (Birke, Butter, & Köppe, 2011). Ona (1960) göre, hafıza deneyimden daha kullanışlıdır ve genellikle aynı amaca hizmet eder. Bu ifade, Mach’ın düşünce ekonomisi olarak adlandırılan görüşünü özetleyerek ortaya koymaktadır.

Sonuç

Görüleceği üzere, düşünce deneyleri üzerine ilk sistematik soruşturmayı yürüten kişi olarak Ernst Mach’ın konuya ilişkin görüşleri başta epistemolojisi olmak üzere onun genel bilim anlayışına yönelik bilgileri yansıtmaktadır. Mach sıkı bir deneyimci filozof olmasına rağmen düşünce deneylerinin destekleyicisi olmuştur. Bu doğrultuda düşünce deneylerinin ilk detaylı kuramını ortaya koymuş ve hatta ba- zılarına göre düşünce deneyi kavramını ilk ortaya çıkaran kişi olmuştur. Mach’ın önemi deneyimsel yöntemin düşünce deneylerini dışlamadığı konusundaki ısra- rından gelmektedir. O deneyimci düşünceleri ile ters düşmek yerine düşünce deneylerini deneyimlerin bir uzantısı olarak değerlendirmiştir.

Ayrıca, Mach Darwin’in evrim teorisini göz önünde bulundurarak ortaya koymuş olduğu biyolojik bilgi teorisi ile düşünce deneyleri zaman zaman yanılsa dahi bu yöntemin her zaman çalışacağının bilgisini vermektedir. Ona göre, düşünce deneyleri her zaman geçerli olacaktır, çünkü biyoloji düşünceyi her zaman çevreye uyum sağlaması konusunda zorlayacaktır. Mach kişisel iç dünyamız ile ortak dış dünya arasında benzerliğin olduğunu, zihnin dış dünyanın düzenli olmayan bilgisine sahip olduğunu ve bu depolanmış içgüdüsel bilginin düşünce deneyleri ile ortaya çıkarılabileceğini vurgulamıştır. Böylelikle Mach, içgüdüsel bilginin dü- şünce deneyi ile nasıl açık bir ilkeye dönüştürülebileceğinin yollarını bize göster- mektedir. Bu doğrultuda, Mach düşünce deneylerinden elde ettiğimiz içgüdüsel bilginin yalnızca yeniden düzenlenen eski bilgiler olduğu konusunda ısrar etmektedir. Düşünce deneyleri doğrudan gözlem ve deneye başvurmasa da dolaylı olarak gözlem ve deneye dayanmaktadır.

Değerlendirecek olursak, bir bilim insanının başkaları tarafından gerçekleştirilen deneylerin verilerinden yararlanarak başka bir deney yapmaya ihtiyaç duymadan sonuca ulaşması bu şekilde mümkün gözükmektedir. Bu doğrultuda düşünce deneyini gerçekleştiren kişilerin geçmiş deneyimlerden faydalanarak bulundukları

64 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

yerden keşif yapma imkânı olabilir. Vurgulamak gerekir ki düşünsel süreçlerin dolaylı olarak duyusal deneyime bağlı olması ve a priori olduğu düşünülen bazı unsurların a posteriori olarak edinildiği yönündeki kazanımlar Mach’ın düşünce deneylerinin epistemolojik durumuna ilişkin içgüdüsel bilginin açığa çıkarılarak dünyaya ilişkin yeni bir bilgi ortaya koyabileceği yönündeki argümanlarının ge- rekçelendirilmesine imkan tanımıştır. Son olarak, Mach’ın hafızanın deneyimden daha kullanışlı olması ve bilimin ekonomik karakterinden hareketle ‘düşünce ekonomisi’ doktrininin uygulama alanı olarak ‘düşünce deneyleri’nin kullanımını ön plana çıkarması da yapmış olduğu önemli katkılardan birisidir.

Kaynakça

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68 4 KANT AND HUGO: THE PHILOSOPHER AND THE POET ON DELIBERATION Aliye Karabük Kovanlıkaya (Galatasaray University)

“When liberty returns, I will return.” V. Hugo

Abstract This paper is intended to evaluate a situation in Victor Hugo’s masterpiece Les Miséra- bles in which Jean Valjean tries to decide what to do. I will use this case for illustrat- ing the impossibility of one’s knowing her or his real incentive even if she or he sincerely endeavors to act not only in conformity with, but also from duty in Kant’s sense. First, I will briefly present some factual evidence for discussing Kant and Hugo together, notwithstanding the considerable difference in their overall approaches. According to Kant, when an action does not conform to the moral law, the subject of this action knows very well that it is not moral. If the action in accordance with duty, but the incentive of the agent for this action is simply not having acted against the law, she is similarly conscious that it is not moral. Conversely, when one acts not merely in conformity with the letter of the law but also with its spirit, she cannot be sure that her action is moral; she can only hope that it is. I will exemplify these cases by examining Jean Valjean’s thoughts and I will clarify the grounds of the inability to know exactly the real incentive of one’s own action within Kant’s framework.

Keywords: Kant, Hugo, Morality, Deliberation

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Introduction1 It is not quite often that we see the names of Immanuel Kant (April 22nd, 1724 - February 12th, 1804) and Victor Hugo (February 26th, 1802 - May 22th-, 1885) appear together. ‘The great rationalist philosopher of the 18th century’ and ‘the great romantic poet of the 19th century’ seem to occupy such remote positions that bringing them together may look misguided. As it is the case with other points that seem to be very far away from each other, the distance between them depends on the seer’s distance from them. If the seer is very close to any of them, she is either not able to see the other or she sees the other bearing the shadow of the first. If she is equally close to both, she cannot see them independently of the distance between them; that is, her sight of any of them is dominated by their distance. If we sufficiently distance ourselves without losing sight of them, all things that are far away from each other seem to be closer though they preserve their distinction.

Independently of how far we are from any of them, there are two instances in which Kant and Hugo are factually connected. First, Hugo himself, in his long poem L’Âne (The Ass), made Kant one of the poem’s two main characters, the other being an ass. (Hugo,1926) Secondly, the 19th century neo-Kantian French philosopher Charles Renouvier (Millet, 1995), one of the first interpreters of Hu- go’s work, who composed two books on him, one on Hugo as a philosopher (Re- nouvier, 1900a) and the other as a poet (Renouvier, 1900b), links them closely in his own work.

However, my interest in Hugo’s Les Misérables is independent from both of these two perspectives; i.e., from Hugo’s own attitude toward Kant’s philosophy or what he took to be Kant’s philosophy and from Renouvier’s extremely valuable and interesting attempt to relate them to each other. I think that not much effort is needed to admit the affinity of these two honorable men: However different their motivations and however distinct their points of view may be, they are not only on the same side but they are also oriented to the same point since their central concern is always the same: Freedom. To examine and to establish the central place of freedom in their works is an endeavor which transcends the present work. I shall here try to give a reading of a scene in Les Misérables from

1 I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my colleague Coşkun Şenkaya, my friend Ayşem Özbaşaran and my husband Taylan Kovanlıkaya for their indispensably valuable suggestions and helps.

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the point of view of Kant’s account of deliberation. I hope that the reason why I prefer a novel rather than a real case will become clear in what follows.

A Brief Description of Kant’s Conception of Morality

The distinguishing character of Kant’s conception of morality is that it finds its possibility only in one of the activities of reason as a human faculty. Therefore, it requires that the distinction of reason from other faculties of the soul as well as the distinctions between the activities of human reason should be established. Grounding these distinctions involves an examination of a chain of highly com- plicated arguments, which requires considering -at least- the basic writings of Kant such as Critique of Pure Reason (Kant, 1998), Groundwork of The Meta- physic of Morals (Kant, 1996a) and Critique of Practical Reason (Kant, 1996b). In this paper, I shall not deal with the details of this grounding, it will be accepted as already achieved. Nevertheless, some fundamental concepts of Kant’s morality should be briefly recalled, in order to be able to evaluate Jean Valjean’s ‘inner struggle’ in the light of it.

According to Kant, human reason has two activities; one is its theoretical activity, the other its practical activity. (Kant, 1998, p. Bx) To put it in simple terms, theoretical activity aims at the cognition of what the case is (or was or will be) whereas the practical one aims at that of what the case ought to be. What is, what was and what will be are all subject to the laws of nature. If everything that happens is merely subject to the laws of nature, then there would be no place for “what ought to be” alongside with “what is/was/will be” and neither freedom nor morality would be possible. That means that in order morality to be possible, it should be possible for our will to be determined independently of natural laws, that is, independently of our nature. (Kant, 1998, pp. A542/B570-A559/ B587) Then if what ought to be is to be really distinct from what is/was/will be, there must be a law to which it is subject; that is, it should be possible for our will to be determined by a law which is distinct from the laws of nature; that is, there must be a moral law. (Kant, 1996b, pp. 5: 30-31) Thus, for Kant, a moral action, as all actions are, i.e., as a physical event, as an effect which can be reduced to changes in space and time, is subject to natural laws. What makes it moral is the will’s being determined to that action independently from and freely of nature; to put it in other terms, the will’s submission to the moral law freely.

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This law, as every law, should be necessary, universal and a priori on the one hand, and also independent from time as a condition of every natural thing. However, the content of any moral principle can be only empirical and a posteriori. (Kant, 1996b, p. 5:21) Thus, a moral principle cannot be a moral law with respect to its content. Therefore, it is only by virtue of its form, that is by virtue of its universality that brings with itself necessity and a priority that a moral principle conveys a moral law. (Kant, 1996b, p. 5:27) That is the reason why what is practical finds its possibility in the reason alone independently of sensibility and imagination. If this is so, this law, the law of what ought to be, the law of what is practical is possible only on the condition that it is valid for all rational beings, whether infinite, or finite as human beings are. (Kant, 1996b, p. 5:32) All human beings, as rational beings, are conscious of this fundamental moral law. We are aware of it through an infringement of our inclinations all of which constitute the regard for oneself (Selbstsucht). This infringement gives rise to a feeling, the sole a priori feeling, i.e., the respect for moral law. (Kant, 1996b, p. 5:73) This is why we, as finite rational beings, can represent the practical law to ourselves as only a command, as a categorical imperative. (Kant, 1996b, p. 5:32) Respect, which is our sole moral feeling while all others being pathological, is the effect of the restriction of our inclinations by this command. As a feeling, it is subjective; but it gives the possibility of a consciousness that is not merely subjective. What is called ‘duty’ is the objectification of this subjective feeling at the conceptual level. The concept of duty requires that the action relates to moral law both objectively and subjectively; it must be in conformity with moral law objectively and also its maxim should have the respect for the moral law as its incentive. (Kant, 1996b, p. 5:81) This leads to Kant’s simple but profound formulation of the conditions of being a moral action: For an action to be moral, it must both be in conformity with and from duty. The reason is that even an action, to which our will is determined not by moral law but by some natural inclination, might be in conformity with duty. However, such action cannot be admitted as moral. The action must be also from duty, in the sense that it must take place for the sake of the law itself. (Kant, 1996b, p. 5:81)

The regard for oneself can either be self-love (Eigenliebe) or self-conceit (Ei- gendünkel). The second is clearly against moral law and for this reason, moral law “strikes down self-conceit”. (Kant, 1996b, p. 5:73) If what is determining is our self-conceit, the action possibly resulting from that decision cannot be moral. In contrast, self-love, that is “natural and active in us even prior to the moral law”

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(Kant, 1996b, p. 5:73) may or may not conform with the moral law. When it is in conformity with the moral law through respect for it, the action that results is moral; but when there is an opposition between self-love and moral law, moral law infringes self-love without striking it down. Therefore, if the deliberation of a human being (not that of a monster) for an action is under consideration, the point at issue is always the struggle between the self-love which always aims at one own’s happiness and the respect for moral law that alone makes her action morally worthy.

One of the consequences of Kant’s conception of morality is that since, properly speaking, an action’s moral worth does not depend on the effects resulting from it but only on its maxim, that is, on the subjective moral principle that determines the will to that action, it cannot be known externally. It is possible that the agent’s will might be determined on moral grounds but the action to which the will is determined might not be realized due to some natural hindrance. This does not diminish the moral value of the action intended by this maxim. To the contrary, the effect that is in conformity with duty or with the letter of the law may be produced actually; however, this does not guarantee that the will is determined to that action solely through the moral law. Thus, in the first case, it cannot be known externally, since the only thing which could make such a judgment possible, i.e., the effect which can be observed externally, is absent. In the second case, although the effect is realized, one cannot connect this effect to the determining ground of the will externally; that is, one cannot know externally the maxim upon which the action which produces this effect rests. Hence, although we are accustomed to judge and we cannot help making judgments, there is no way for knowing immediately and definitely whether an action of another person is right or wrong morally. Therefore, our evaluation of others’ actions has to be mediated through that of our own actions, and for this reason, it is bound to remain at the level of opinion; it cannot go further than that to constitute knowledge.

Can we know the moral value of our own actions? I think that this question might be evaluated better in a fictional case in which every reader has access to the inner consciousness of the character, to the extent, of course that the author may be said to have. For this reason, I will try to explore it by evaluating Jean Valjean’s inner struggle.

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A Brief Description of the Main Characters and Their Relationships

As Hugo had already foreseen it, since the three great problems he stated in his preface to Les Miserables, i.e., “the degradation of man through pauperism, the corruption of woman through hunger, the crippling of children through lack of light” (Hugo, n.d., p. 4) are not solved, and since ignorance and poverty still hold sway, his famous novel continues to be relevant. This monumental novel gives us -amongst others- the opportunity to become acquainted with a very high number of characters all of whom can be seen more easily in our contemporary world, if one wishes to do so. All these characters are “miserable” and connected to each other through Jean Valjean who is the principal character of the novel.

1. Jean Valjean

Jean Valjean was a convict who spent nineteen years in galleys, five years for bur- glary and fourteen years for four attempts to escape. (Hugo, n.d., p. 131) On a very hard winter day, he had broken the glass of a bakery with his fist and had taken a loaf of bread, because his sister and her seven children had had none. (Hugo, n.d., p.148) After suffering cruel persecutions in galleys, he believed “that his punishment was not, in truth, unjust, but that it most assuredly was iniqui tous.” (Hugo, n.d., p. 156). The excessive nature of the punishment resulted in the conversion of the guilty man into a victim. He judged both the society and the Providence, and condemned them. On his document of identity, he was described as a dangerous man and this was not without reason. (Hugo, n.d., p. 164)

On the fourth day of his liberation and after many unsuccessful attempts to find a place for quenching his hunger and spending the night, some coincidences brought Jean Valjean to Bishop Bienvenu’s highly modest lodgment (Hugo, n.d., p.130) where he was living with his sister Mademoiselle Baptistine and Madame Magloire who was the domestic servant in the house. This was the only place where Jean Valjean was welcomed since his liberation. He was extremely stupe- fied and also entangled by the kindness and the goodness of the Bishop’s manner. After supper and a few hours of sleep he woke up. He could not keep himself from thinking about the sets of silver forks and spoons that he had seen on the table. Late at night, he left the Bishop’s lodgment with the silverware in his knapsack. (Hugo, n.d., p. 181) On the following morning, the household of the

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lodgment noticed the absence of both the silverware and Jean Valjean. Soon, he returned to the door of the lodgment with three gendarmes accompanying him. Monseigneur Bienvenu said that it was him who gave him the silverware. He also added that Jean Valjean forgot two candlesticks which were also of silver. Jean Valjean was astonished and he could not believe that he was released. Bishop Bi- envenu brought the candlesticks, gave them to Jean Valjean who was “trembling in every limb” (Hugo, n.d., p. 186), so that he may sell them and make some money. The gendarmes left the house. The Bishop approached Jean Valjean and said to him in a low voice:

“Do not forget, never forget, that you have promised to use this money in becoming an honest man.” (Hugo, n.d., p.186)

Although Jean Valjean did not remember such a promise, as he was not able to weigh the situation, he said nothing. However, this did not mean that he straight- away decided to start a new life. On the contrary, as he was acquainted with a man who acted in a way which was completely strange to him, he was troubled by this new situation; the hardness he acquired during the last twenty years of his life prevented him from giving approval and acknowledging the kind of the deed thanks to which he was liberated once again. Before devoting himself to be a good man, he would commit a purely evil action; that is, an evil action through which nothing even purportedly good was aimed: While sitting down on a hill and bearing conflicting thoughts in his mind, he heard the voice of a child who was singing and then he saw a ten-year-old boy, who had his marmot-box on his back, was dressed in shabby clothes with holes and played with the coins which probably constituted his whole fortune. One of the coins, a forty-sou piece fell from his hand and came rolling towards Jean Valjean. Jean Valjean put his foot on the piece and did not give it back. The boy, Little Gervais, insisted in different ways and in different tones but finally, when Jean Valjean threatened him, ran away without looking back. Jean Valjean remained still for a while. When he felt the chill of the evening, he recovered, saw the coin, realized what he had done, and he began to look for Little Gervais. After unsuccessful efforts, he understood that there was no hope for finding him and for returning the piece, so he con- fessed to himself: “I am wretch.” (Hugo, n.d., p.194) Or, to use original French word: “I am a miserable.” He began to weep for the first time in his last nineteen years, because “When the heart is dry, the eye is dry.” (Hugo, n.d., p. 164.)

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The next time Jean Valjean appears in the novel, we see that he changed completely, even his name has changed: Father Madeleine. After committing the most monstrous crime of his life; that is, after he robbed a poor child, he realized that he had no chance of being in between, he had either:

“to mount higher than the Bishop, or fall lower than the convict; that if he wished to become good he must become an angel; that if he wished to remain evil, he must become a monster” (Hugo, n.d., p. 195)

He decided to follow the light of Bishop Bienvenu’s words. He came to Mon- treuil-sur-Mer with the money he made by selling the silver spoons and forks. He developed a new technique for producing the imitation of English jet and the black glass trinkets of Germany, and this technic was more profitable than the traditional one. In three years, he became rich; he spent most of his money for the town and for the poor who lived there. Five years later, he was appointed by the King as the mayor of the town. (Hugo, n.d., pp. 273-280.) Almost everyone loved him and had respect for him.

2. Fantine and Javert It is in this town where Monsieur Madeleine’s path crossed with those of two other principal characters of the novel. The first one is Javert who is a police inspector. Being a man that has devoted himself to enforcement of the law, this man who might at first sight be viewed as a crude cartoon of Kant’s conception of morality, deserves to be examined separately in another essay in view of that conception. Javert confusedly remembered Monsieur Madeleine as someone whom he had met in the galleys, when he had been working there as a guardian. (Hugo, n.d., p. 292) It was this fact that put Monsieur Madeleine in the difficult situation I want to consider. The second one is a young woman named Fantine. Fantine is a single mother, she has a three-year-old daughter called Cosette. She confided her child to the care of a couple whom she met on her way from Paris to Mon- treuil-sur-Mer, her natal town where she began to work in Monsieur Madeleine’s factory to earn a living for herself, and most importantly for paying Thénardiers, both of whom are among the most wicked characters of the novel, who suppos- edly cared for Cosette. (Hugo, n.d., pp. 259-263)

Fantine, since she was unmarried, told no one that she had a little girl. How- ever, as always, certain people who were “malicious solely through a necessity

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for talking” (Hugo, n.d., pp. 307-308) were not absent. A gossiper and gorgon woman did her best to find out Fantine’s secret; she even went to see the little girl. As a result, Fantine lost her job in the factory. This fact was unknown to Monsieur Madeleine, because he had left the management of the women-room to a woman who was totally reliable in his eyes. It was women who judged, condemned and executed Fantine. (Hugo, n.d., pp. 307-308) The only way that remained for providing the amount of money that constantly increased depending on the needs of Thénardiers, was to sell something. She sold her admirable long golden hairs to a barber, she sold her two upper front teeth to a dentist, and finally she began to sell “what is left”, i.e., her body. (Hugo, n.d., pp. 316-322) Soon she began to lose her health.

One day, Fantine attacked a man who provoked her. Inspector Javert arrested and condemned her to six months in prison. Monsieur Madeleine who coinci- dentally witnessed the scene, ordered to set her free. (Hugo, n.d., pp. 327-334) This was the first confrontation between the Inspector and the Mayor. Each of them thought that he was doing what was his duty and that he was obeying the law. In that case, it was the law to which the Mayor referred prevailed over that of the Inspector. By means of that incidence Monsieur Madeleine learned Fan- tine’s story, he held himself responsible even if indirectly for what had happened to her, and decided to take care of her and her daughter. And thus, Fantine who was in very poor health was moved to the infirmary of Monsieur Madeleine’s factory and was confided to the sisters there. He also promised that he would bring the little girl to her. (Hugo, n.d., pp. 344-347)

Compelled to Decide: Demon in Paradise or Angel in Hell

Inspector Javert who suspected that the Mayor might have formerly been a convict in the galleys sent a letter informing against him to Paris, to the Prefecture of Police. Through the investigation he had made, he had also learned that Jean Valjean seemed to have robbed a bishop and a little boy. The answer he received from Paris was that Jean Valjean had already been arrested. He went to the May- or’s office to request him “to instigate the authorities to dismiss” (Hugo, n.d., p. 353) himself. He thought that he had committed a ‘culpable act’ by denouncing the Mayor wrongly and thus he should be punished. He told the whole story to Monsieur Madeleine: A man who claimed his name to be Champmathieu was arrested, because he was suspected to have stolen a small number of cider apples

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since he was seen with a broken branch of apple tree. When he was transferred to the prison, an ex-convict who had become a turnkey because of his good behavior, saw him and claimed that he had known this man from the galleys and he was Jean Valjean. The investigation took place, two other ex-convicts confirmed that the man was Jean Valjean. Moreover, it was also discovered that Champ- mathieu was a pruner of trees just as Jean Valjean was before going to the galleys. Furthermore, Javert himself recognized that he was in fact Jean Valjean. How- ever, Champmathieu accepted neither the alleged theft nor the claim that he was Jean Valjean and had changed his name. Javert also gave to the Mayor the information that the case was taken to the Assize Court in Arras and was to be tried on the following day. (Hugo, n.d., pp. 353-359)

Jean Valjean, after his encounter with Little Gervais, had devoted himself to be what the Bishop wished him to be. He was not ‘transformed’, he was ‘transfigured’; that is, he changed to such an extent that Jean Valjean disappeared and Father Madeleine appeared as a totally new man. He sought two things only: “to conceal his name and to sanctify his life.” (Hugo, n.d., p. 377) Since then, he had been successful in acting according to these principles. In cases where he had to choose between them, he sacrificed the former for the latter, security for the virtue without hesitation; he thought that “his first duty was not towards himself.” (p.378) However the present situation was totally different and extremely difficult, the struggle between his two principles had never been so severely tested.

Now, let us describe the struggle which took place in Jean Valjean step by step:

Step 1: At the beginning, when he was listening to Javert, his first thought was to denounce himself and to go to prison. (Hugo, n.d., p. 379) But this thought was so painful for him that he gave it up quickly. On the one hand, it can be seen merely as an immediate and instantaneous reaction, but not as one that aims to reach a final decision. On the other hand, as his first response to what he learned from Javert, it is possible to regard it as a sign of Jean Valjean’s conscience. As the instinct of self-preservation outweighed, he decided to wait, or to put it more properly, to postpone his decision. Meanwhile, he almost immediately began to arrange a journey to Arras; he hired a horse and a cabriolet; by those ar- rangements, he told himself that he did not intend to go to Arras for denouncing himself, his aim was only to be able to see what would happen, if he wished to do it. (Hugo, n.d., pp. 372-373) By planning the journey and then trying to

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go there, he, even unconsciously, wanted to preserve the possibility of deciding what to do for as long as possible. He also recognized that the most fearful thing in his life, that is, the re-appearance of the name Jean Valjean, might give him, that is, the Mayor, the most advantageous opportunity, because his place in the galleys would be filled up by Champmathieu and “the good and worthy citizen Monsieur Madeleine would emerge more honored, more peaceful, and more respected than ever” (Hugo, n.d., pp. 382-383) In order to support his choice, he told himself that he had no responsibility; no fault ‘in the least’; moreover, it was the Providence, that is, God who willed that Jean Valjean attains what he always wanted. The only thing to do was to do nothing, to “let things take their course and the good God do as he likes!”. (Hugo, n.d., p. 385)

Step 2: However, this decision of doing nothing did not make him feel better. He recognized that his decision was a monstrous one, because it meant robbing and even murdering Champmathieu; robbing “his life, his peace, his place in the sunshine …, morally murdering a wretched man”. (Hugo, n.d., p. 387) On the contrary, to return to be Jean Valjean and then to save Champmathieu would be in fact his own resurrection and “to close forever that hell whence he had just emerged”. (Hugo, n.d., p. 387) He had not aimed merely to conceal his name but also to become an honest, a just and good man. Therefore, in order to be what the Bishop wanted him to be, that is, in order to sanctify his life and to do ‘his duty’, he must not conceal his name and he must denounce himself. (Hugo, n.d., p. 388) Yet, this is far from being his final decision.

Few hours later, when he recalled his resolution to inform against himself, he suddenly remembered Fantine: Remembering Fantine meant that, in the mean- time, he had forgotten what he had promised her. He realized that he thought of only himself. Whether by remaining silent or by denouncing himself, this did not matter: “… all this is egotism; these are diverse forms of egotism.” (Hugo, n.d., p. 392) He recognized that he had not considered the town, the factory, both fe- male and male workers of the factory, their children, their relatives. What would these poor people do without him? If he denounced himself, Fantine would die before reuniting with her daughter and he could not help them; he would not be able to keep his promise. (Hugo, n.d., p. 393) Once more he returned to the first option and began to search for what would be if he did not denounce himself: Of course, Champmathieu would go to the galleys, but the town, people who lived in this town, Fantine and Cosette would live in better conditions. Even if

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one day he would be guilty, in his own eyes, of remaining silent, since what he did would be good for others, his attitude would be self-sacrifice and therefore virtuous. In this way, his two principles; i.e., concealing his name and sanctifying his life, met in a harmonious state again. (Hugo, n.d., p. 395)

Step 3: As he decided to remain Monsieur Madeleine, he had to get rid of everything that would connect him to Jean Valjean. These included the coin stolen from Lit- tle Gervais and the two silver candlesticks that the Bishop had given him. When he took the two candlesticks to melt them by putting into the fire, he heard a voice that was calling the name he tried to escape: ‘Jean Valjean! Jean Valjean’ The source of the voice was within himself; it was his own conscience that accused him for ruining Champmathieu’s life. He reconsidered denouncing himself. He thought what he would be obliged to leave behind and what he would be obliged to have once more: A good life, respect of all persons in town, honor, liberty on the one side; the iron necklet, the red waistcoat, the chain on his ankle, the cell, the camp bed and humiliating glances of others on the other side (Hugo, n.d., pp. 396-400) He was not ready for all those things. It became crystal clear to him that he had to choose one of them: there were absolutely only two options:

“Should he remain in paradise and become a demon? Should he return to hell and become an angel? What was to be done?” (Hugo, n.d., p. 401)

After evaluating each option, he was back to square one; that is, to the state of indecision. This state continued throughout his journey to Arras, which he insisted on carrying on in spite of numerous hindrances. At times when he could not go further due to an obstacle, he certainly and sincerely looked for some solution; but this did not prevent him from expecting that there would be none and he would be late for the trial in the court. Even at the entrance of the courthouse, even when he grasped the knob of the court-room’s door to go in, he was still in this state of indecision.

Let us put the question once more: Can we know the moral value of our own actions? In order to answer this question properly, it would be better to distinguish between three cases: First, the case in which one’s maxim for action is contrary to the moral law; second, in which the maxim is in accord with the moral law but it is merely a maxim of self-love, that is, the agent’s will is determined to that action by the principle of happiness rather than by respect for moral law. And third, the case in which one sincerely decides what to do only for the sake of the duty.

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What characterizes Kant’s conception of morality is the solid relation he con- ceives between freedom and morality. On the one hand, if freedom were impos- sible for us, so would be morality. On the other hand, if moral law was not cog- nized by us, we would not have any consciousness of freedom: “… freedom is indeed the ratio essendi of the moral law, the moral law is ratio cognoscendi of freedom.” (Kant, 1996b, p. 5:5) Since freedom is the condition of morality, for her action to have moral worth, one must decide what her duty is by herself. That is, everyone can and must decide her own duty by her reason. All limitation concerning duty comes from reason; what one regards as her duty must be consistent with universality of moral law and universality can be provided only by reason.

Evaluation of Jean Valjean’s Inner Struggle

To return to Jean Valjean’s case, as it is stated above, he has two subjective principles: ‘to conceal his name and to sanctify his life.’ When these two principles conflict with each other, he chooses to follow the latter, because he thinks that his first duty is not toward himself but towards others.2 From these, it is clear that the only thing he takes to be a duty to himself is concealing his name and this duty is secondary in relation to the other. Jean Valjean seems to relate only his first principle to self-love and the second one to morality -whatever he takes it to be.

In the case under consideration, he has only two options: remaining silent and denouncing himself. In Step 1, he follows his first principle and prefers not to do anything, that is, to remain silent. In deciding for this option, he took into consideration its favorable consequences such as breaking conclusively off his connection with the name ‘Jean Valjean’. Since his decision depends only upon his self-love, it is contrary to his duty which he admits to be sanctifying his life. Soon he becomes aware that what he decided to do is not morally right. This is in parallel with what is stated above as the first case: Whenever our maxim for action does not conform to the moral law, we know that our action is morally wrong; i.e., when we know what ought to be done, but we either do not do anything or do something other than what we ought to do, deep inside, we are aware that we act wrongly.

2 I shall not discuss in this paper whether what Jean Valjean regards as duty is in conformity with Kant’s concept of duty, because this question deserves to be considered separately. For pointing out the difference, it would be sufficient to recall that for Kant, a person’s primary duty is always towards herself.

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In Step 2, his second principle, which he takes to be his first duty, outweighs; he decides to denounce himself. However, what makes him choose this option is not merely his wish to abstain from robbing Champmathieu’s life and from send- ing him to the galleys; but also his desire for his own resurrection. As he himself soon recognizes, this decision is also based merely on self-love. The aim of becoming a ‘good’ and ‘honorable’ man, if it is not mediated by the respect for the moral law, is not moral by itself. This step corresponds to the second case. Although the action is in conformity with what he sees as his primary duty; i.e., sanctifying his life, he almost immediately recognizes that it is far from being moral since it originates from self-love. This exemplifies that when one’s action is in conformity only with the letter of the law but not with its spirit, she knows very well that that is not moral.

In Step 3, Jean Valjean returns to his first choice: to remain silent. However, this time he comes to this option not by considering what his own situation would be if he denounced himself; rather he compares the well-being or happiness of Fantine, of Cosette, of his factory’s workers, of the town with that of Champ- mathieu and he chooses the former. Although he seems to act in accordance with his second principle, this is not true, because, as he does accept later, he has no right to disregard Champmathieu in favor of others. On the other hand, his de- votion himself to others other than Champmathieu may equally spring from self- love as it is the case in Step 2. This third step, which is similar to the first with respect to the decision of remaining silent, is similar to the second insofar as it originates from self-love despite seeming to be in conformity with duty. In either case, Jean Valjean quickly recognizes that his decision is far from being moral in virtue of his inner voice, the voice of his own conscience.

Conclusion

The main problem with Jean Valjean’s struggle is the fact that he tries to decide what to do by taking only the consequences of his action into consideration, which can be reduced to happiness or well-being and unhappiness or ill-being of himself or of others. Leaving aside the impossibility of knowing all possible consequences and which of them will be actualized, it is possible that one and the same decision, for example the decision to remain silent, has opposite consequences: both his happiness and his unhappiness through unhappiness of others. More- over, one and the same decision, e.g., to remain silent might rest on conflicting

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incentives: happiness of one’s own self as in Step 1 and happiness of others as in Step 3. Furthermore, one and the same aim might be achieved through conflicting decisions: happiness of one’s own self through remaining silent in Step 1 and through denouncing himself in Step 2.

Therefore, in so far as one considers the consequences of her action in deciding what to do, whether her decision conforms to what ought to be done or not, she can know that the action is not moral, if she reflects upon it. What is the case when one tries to decide on the grounds of pure respect for moral law? Kant clearly states that “no one can become aware with certainty of having performed his duty quite unselfishly” (Kant, 1996c, p. 8:284), because no one can be sure that there is no inclination, of which she or he is not conscious, that originates from self-love and operates under the pure feeling of respect for moral law. Thus, although everyone can know easily that her action is not moral, no one can know definitely that it is moral. To put it briefly, according to Kant, everyone can know what her duty is; she can know whether her action is in conformity with or contrary to duty; she can know that her action is not from duty; however she cannot know that her action is from duty; that is, although everyone can know that she does not act morally, she can never be sure that she acts morally.

This brings us back to our starting point; i.e., to the distinction between theoretical and practical activities of reason. Morality, which finds its ground in practical activity of the reason alone, does not require that what one does or tries to do both in conformity with and from duty be theoretically known as such; what is required is simply not turning a deaf ear to the voice of the moral law within us and to continue to hope to act not only in conformity with, but also out of respect for it.

References

Hugo, V. (n.d.). Les Miserables. (Isabel F. Hapgood, Trans.) Retrieved from https://www.planetebook.com/les-miserables/ Hugo, V. (1926) L’Âne, pp. 270-377 in Œuvres complets de Victor Hugo, Poésie, XIV, Paris : J. Hetzel & A. Quantin. Retrieved from https://gallica. bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k37485k/ Kant, I. (1996a). Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. (M. J. Gregor, Trans. and Ed.), in The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel

83 KANT AND HUGO: THE PHILOSOPHER AND THE POET ON DELIBERATION Aliye Karabük Kovanlıkaya

Kant: Practical Philosophy. (pp. 41-108). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kant, I. (1996b). Critique of Practical Reason. (M. J. Gregor, Trans. and Ed.), in The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant: Practi- cal Philosophy. (pp. 137-273). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kant, I. (1996c). On the Common Saying: That May Be Correct in Theory, but It is of No Use in Practice. (M. J. Gregor, Trans. and Ed.), in The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant: Practical Phi- losophy. (pp. 277-309). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kant, I. (1998). The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant: Cri- tique of Pure Reason. P. Guyer and A. Wood (Trans. and Ed.), Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press. Millet, C. (1995) Le philosophe et le poète : Charles Renouvier lecteur de Victor Hugo. In Romantisme, n°88. pp. 101-113. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.3406/roman.1995.2998 Retrieved from www.persee. fr/doc/roman_0048-8593_1995_num_25_88_2998 Renouvier, C. (1900a). Victor Hugo: le philosophe. Arman Colin. Retrieved from https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k75196r/ Renouvier, C. (1900b). Victor Hugo: le poète. Arman Colin. (3rd edition). Retrieved from https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k- 206517k?rk=21459;2

84 5 THE EMERGENCE OF THE TRUTH IN TURKISH CINEMA: THE SEARCH OF THE “GİZLİ YÜZ-THE SECRET FACE” AND “KOSMOS” Evren Günevi Uslu (Düzce University)

Abstract

Cinema, when evaluated terminologically, can be defined as the fabulous transfer of reality. Cinematically presented language does not have an image dictionary. For this reason, the picture language used in cinema can present a pure or artificial expression. However, on the contrary, reality, which is also read visually, at the same time can be accepted as an irrational type of the cinema, linguistically. Therefore, it should not be ignored that every film has both a cinematic and artistic language. The effort of human to understand and sense-making of the existential reality is the source of cinema. Cinema is not only an artistic work, but also a product of human existential effort. Although the reality of truth is denied by pragmatists, cinema is an area of existence for truth. In this direction, it is seen that the capacity and effort of cinema to express the truth has increased in recent years rapidly both in World Cinema and Turkish Cinema.

In this study, the concept of truth was examined, and the language of truth in cinema was tried to be revealed through films. During the research, one of the qualitative research techniques, general survey model was used. As a data collection tool, as many databases as possible were reviewed and the general frame of the concept was tried to be drawn by using original sources in the literature. As a result, in general manner, a literature on the concept of truth in cinema has been created, and in particular, the concept has been exemplified through the films Gizli Yüz - The Secret Face and Kosmos.

Keywords: Truth, Gizli Yüz - The Secret Face, Kosmos

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Introduction

The volition to meaning of man is a basic instinct that drags him into a deep search since his existence. The sense of the meaninglessness of life, or the will to explore the soul, makes man strive for what he really needs. When evaluated in this regard, the search for truth is an emotion that occurs due to the existential need. The way to understand the truth is through its being applicable. There- fore, cinema seems to be the most suitable area for this. Cinema as an area where people can reflect on the truth in the deepest way offers a great opportunity for man to relate to the truth.

In sense-making of life and the world, cinema is not only a tool of discovery but also an area of thinking. While, in all areas of his existence, directing the search of man on unexplored areas for the limits of man to be crossed, cinema reveals that the depth of the truth that frees man can be rediscovered.

At this point, there are many directors who have contributed to the formation of a narrative in a certain style in order to create a way of thinking through cinema, and have given a style to the cinema in this sense, and who are trying to reveal the truth of cinema in Turkish cinema as well as all over the world. Ömer Kavur’s ‘Gizli Yüz-The Secret Face’ and Reha Erdem’s ‘Kosmos’ films, selected within the framework of the sample, are not only a cinematic work but also a product of human’s existential effort.

Truth... Is it concrete? Is it abstract?

Although the word is widely used in many languages, it is still a concept that philosophers cannot be able to work out. Even though the concept was identified with words such as true, real, reality; it hasn’t found its exact acception. For this reason, the concept of truth is of great importance in the field of philosophy.

According to the Turkish Language Association, while the Arabic origin word means “real”, “reality”, “the original of something”; the word truth in English is derived from “true”, which is a problem-free adjective, that characterizes a sentence or answer to a question. In classical Greek, truth is the guarantor of knowledge beyond appearances or righteous ideas. It means a final point that refuses to question. It is the final point that is generally desired to be reached (Doorly, 2019: 461). According to Ivan Frolov, truth is the true, real reflection

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of reality in thought, verified in practice as the criterion. It is a term that cannot be refuted in the case of development of knowledge. However, in the process of knowing, man primarily deals with relative truths that contain only the seeds of absolute truth (1972; 199-200). While the concept expresses a linguistic meaning concretely, it objects to objectivity by deepening with human understanding, abstractly. It is not clear, then, in what sense and how, outside of the sym- bolic world, the truth can be shown. Because although the concept is identified as ‘real’, it does not fully meet the expression. In this respect, Orhan Hançer- lioğlu prefers the philosophical use of the concept of truth in order not to con- fuse the concept of real with its original meaning. Hançerlioğlu states that the concept of ‘real’ expresses the objective reality, and ‘truth’ expresses the subjective reflection of this objective reality in our minds. Because concepts such as truth, trueness, real are not identical with each other, but are interdependent concepts (1967: 266-277). Since the concept can be defined as subjective truth, objective truth and absolute truth, it is identified with its opposites in terms of comparison. For this reason, the concept does not have a single acception that is valid always and everywhere. Therefore, other concepts that need to be dwelled on in order to understand the concept of truth more clearly are “zahiri - apparent” and “bâtıni - esoteric”. While the “bâtın” is defined as internal, “zahir” is defined as external. In Arabic, “al-bâtın” is one of the names of Allah and it means hidden. According to mysticism, it consists of an apparent image, the gospel truth is in the core “bâtın” (Hançerlioğlu, 1967: 141). In Sufism, the essence of the inner vision in the truth is “bâtın”. “Zahir” means external appearance and is expressed as a superficial concept. Although the two words correspond to each other as reverse as a concept, they do not require in truth a distinction in terms of meaning. Because, as al-Ghazali states, representation (apparent, external appearance) is truth, it is true, and it is a fact that this representation lets one have the mys- tery of the “bâtın” (2016: 18). Kenan Rifai, on the other hand, defines the truth as “… we know things as they appear. In Truth, beings have secrets that are not ev- ident to us. The truth is in these secrets.” (2000). So representations are for reaching the truth. Therefore, limiting the truth only to representations is also against the content of the concept.

The Search for Truth in Cinema Truth, hence existence, can only appear through images that take a form imagined in the imaginary realm. Cinema “is the journey of understanding and sense-making

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of all the invisible and visible aspects, dimensions and layers of truth” (Gülşen, 2011: 13). To express it more deeply, cinema is the discovery of man on the spiritual journey. It is an area of discovery that makes possible the human journey in search of meaning and produces much more results than expected. The realistic form created by the cinema reveals the visualization dimension of the truth.

Cinema raises also the human mind to the level of truth like the human spirit. The unexperienced scenes are an expression of what the mind remembers and sup- presses in the truth. Scenes are as Burnett expresses “as if it was something visible and waiting to be produced in order to be understood” (2012: 56). From this point of view, there is no reservation in defining the interaction of people with cinema as “a reality whose signs are replaced by the original” (Baudrillard, 2014: 14). Jean Baudrillard tells mental reality from the ideal point of view while said, “... though can reality dominate a world whose dreams have been taken away? To the extent we try to create a world consisting of reality, we get in a tizzy and we gradually get away from this reality. We live in a universe of reality that begins to disappear the moment it happens ... “ (2015: 13). In this case, the worlds unlikely to be seen come to life in the mind and images that express those worlds find reality with cinema. Therefore, as Gülşen has stated, every movie has a world. Each movie presents a unique cosmos to the audience. The specifity of the cosmos of the film itself reveals that cinema has both creative and destructive potentials. Because cinema is a field of existence and creation that has the claim to comprehend and teach life, hence the cosmos, hence the truth, as not seen as in other type of art, way of thinking and practice. For this reason, a movie can take the viewer on a wing- ing journey into the depths of the cosmos (2011: 16-17).

This journey of seeking the truth in cinema is described by Paul Schrader as “The Transcendent Style”. Stating that a new style has recently been developed used by different artists of different cultures, Schrader discovers that artists from different and unrelated cultures find similar means to express similar spiritual feelings. This style is not inherently transcendent or religious, but offers a way to reach those who are transcendent. Likewise, in cinema, film directors who are unaware and disconnected from each other create the common form of the transcendent style. This common form is not determined by the directors’ personality, culture, financial situation, political or moral understanding. There are two deci- sive things; the desire to express transcendent through art and the nature of the means of the film. The transcendent content is different in every example, but

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the purpose and method are the same when looking at their purest form (2017: 5). Hence, the searching form for truth in the transcendent style can be analyzed in a different framework. The way of searching the truth in cinema cannot be defined, but it can be described as a narrative that cannot be ignored. Factors such as camera use, dialogue, sound, music, fiction, place, metaphor and symbol use are quite functional in describing the truth and being an expression of the truth.

A work of art can be evaluated in four layers in terms of creating meaning. Each layer represents the levels that the artwork can reach. The first of these layers is the apparent bare reality dimension of the work, in a word the visible part. The second layer is the layer that covers its allegorical meanings. Allegorical meanings are meanings that the artist implies but conceals behind symbols. The third layer is the Spiritual Layer that directs and melts in itself both underlying layers. Just like a mystical experience, the spiritual layer associates the work of art to the viewer’s own spiritual experience, and makes each person live the work in his own spiritual experience in his own spirituality. For this reason, the allegorical layer is no longer a field where the symbols used to hide the hidden inten- tion of the artist run wild. Each movie has a true story when evaluated in terms of the movie that allows a different experience for each person. The layer of reality, on the other hand, gradually loses its visibility of the first moment and turns into a door that opens to the truth. The top layer is the truth layer that allows for an experience like a sufi experience. (Gülşen, 2011:89-90).

When the concept of truth in cinema is evaluated through the viewer, a semantic confusion may occur. While the concept, on one side, will make spiritual feelings that are not comprehended yet new; on the other side, the sharpness of those regarding the unknown will also disappear. The illusion of the images presented through the film may, albeit partially, increase the discovery tendency of the viewer and be sufficient to attract him. When the desired realized with the meaning achieved through the film, the director’s function of expressing the truth will find its place. However, such narratives also do not offer the same expectations for every viewer. The driving spring of the cinema can work differ- ently for the director and the viewer. Cinema is the field of images and symbols presented, shown, announced. The viewer pursues the messages presented with plain content. The viewer, who wants to understand the visible and the perma- nent, draws his inner vision from the film’s ground. Because the most trusted is

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the visible. This difference makes it inevitable for the way the directors present the truth in the cinema to differ.

A Roadmap: Gizli Yüz - The Secret Face

The 1990 film, Gizli Yüz-The Secret Face, written by Orhan Pamuk and directed by Ömer Kavur, tells a search story. The film, in which the science of mysticism is frequently used, is actually a young photographer’s spiritual journey in himself, in a word a journey of search of the truth. The young man, who came to Istanbul to study but could not agree with his father and started to work in a nightclub as a photographer, one day receives an offer from a mysterious woman. This woman, who asks him to bring the photos he takes in the nightclub every night to her in the morning, is in search of a secret hidden in human faces. The woman examines every photograph every day for two years. Finally, the woman who finds the face she is looking for asks the photographer to find out who the face in the photo belongs to and ask him what he wants the most in life. The photographer finds the man and takes the woman to this watchmaker. The face that women have been looking for for years is the face of this watchmaker.

In the film, which consists of four chapters, Kavur uses a unique style of expression. Each chapter is part of an interconnected narrative. The film begins with the words of the sufi Feridüddin Attar, one of the important figures of the science of Sufism: “Thousands of thousands of secrets will be known when that secret face shows himself” . In fact, the secret is the words that have become sounds. For this to be understood, the truth must be seen. Acting on the “seeing the shape is one thing, seeing the meaning is another” motto, Ömer Kavur aims for the viewers to see the truth through the metaphors he uses in the film. Every object in the movie comes into existence with a different meaning. However, Kavur has left the realm of emotions and thoughts that bring the truth to its appearance to the viewers. “… you say tell me a story. Okay, let me tell. Let me tell you a story. But I don’t know if I can open my soul.’’ says the director without informing the photographer that he is the last stop on his own journey of truth. For this reason, Kavur tells the truth journey of the character (photographer) in the film through four main stops in order to demonstrate this. These stops are the City of Cities, the City of the Dead, the City of Strangers and finally the City of Hearts. Each stop in the film is a step that drags the viewer to the truth layer. In this sense, the film is open to Sufistic understanding. When evaluated from this point of view,

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in the story that goes on between the woman, the watchmaker and the photographer, in the way through the truth; the woman represents the mind, watchmaker represents the perfect human being1, and the photographer represents the one who wants to reach the truth. Hours represent people, the sound of the clock represents the heartbeat, and roads represent the journeys made to reach the truth, while photographs and faces represent people who want to reach the truth. Ka- vur presents the information he wants to give about the concept of truth to the viewers not only through metaphors but also through dialogue:

-do you need to work in such a shop to be peaceful? -the secret is not in the shop but in the clocks -what do you want to happen in life most? -I would like to tell people about the clocks. -the thinness of the mechanisms, the dreadfulness of the springs, the darkness of the wheels. Now nobody is aware of the clocks. Maybe people are mournful because of this. I would like to tell people the secret of clocks. Then they reopen their eyes as if waking up from sleep and get rid of their grief.

Ömer Kavur conceptualizes the images and questions he uses regarding the concept of truth by presenting them in the entirety of the film and leaves the inter- pretation to the viewers. When evaluated superficially, the director presents an allegorical narrative with the symbols he uses in the film, which is formed around the search for a lost watchmaker but has a layered structure.

The language of the film, which is often blended with Sufi texts, is also supported by images. Transitions between the stops are transferred through stories in an interconnected way. The film, which has an allegorical narrative, has an integrity with the narrative in the cinematographic sense. The places used and the use of cameras are harmonized with the cinematographic narration and give the viewer a different perspective both mentally and visually. The semantic relationship between the images is directly related to the positioning of the camera, as seen in the film, where a certain meaning is created by giving all natural images of daily life one after another. Despite its mystical narrative, no image is extraordinary in the film.

1 Kamil İnsan (Perfect Human Being): He is the person who will conduce to reaching the secret of truth in Sufism. He is a guide in the way of truth.

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Considering that cinema is a way of thinking, Gizli Yüz-The Secret Face, in which Ömer Kavur allegorically presented his surreal expression, is a work that has an area for existence for the truth.

The Search: Kosmos’da Seyr-ü Sûluk - Spiritual Journey in Cosmos

Written and directed in 2009 by Reha Erdem, the film Kosmos tells the story of a mystical man looking for love. In the superficial reality of the film, there is an extraordinary man coming to a town and interesting events that take place there. Battal or with the name he calls himself Kosmos attracts everyone’s attention with his different characteristics in the town where he came to. Rescuing the immersed child, healing the sick people, and saying wise words about the secret of life causes him to be respected and given a sacred meaning. Kosmos is a different person, expressing his point of view on human and life through his relationship with Allah. With these characteristics, he attracts the attention of the townspeople and arouses great curiosity. In this direction, it can be stated that Reha Erdem formed the character of Kosmos as expressed by Taburoğlu as “… in the ensorcelled world, where everything that strikes the senses reaches the status of semi-holiness, dervishes wander as semi-lunatic under the influence of the heavy air surrounding them. They feel the weight of the density of meaning that the immaterial beings carry, and they are ensorcelled with this load. The body of the dervish forms an interface between everyday life and holiness, taking the form of an intermediate form. The ensorcelled holy person personates the images that emerge from the place where the worldly and the afterlife meet. He, embosomed by esoteric codes, becomes the object of the indescribable pain. ‘’ (2019, 213)

Erdem creates an allegorical meaning with the metaphors he uses in the film. De- spite the initial visibility of the characters and objects presented as real, they have a strong narrative that does not remain in the allegorical layer in Erdem’s film. The images, symbols, allegories given in the film are images that Erdem tries to transfer the truth. The film does not require a separate perspective from the viewer in terms of opening up to the spiritual and truth layer. Because the dialogues Er- dem uses do not allow the viewers to make a separate effort to reach the truth. Dialogues such as “There is nothing for human beings other than eating and drinking and making their lives happy with their effort. It is Allah who does this.”, “I do not know what my body knows, and my body does not know what I know. My body and

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I fear Allah.”and “What is human to be clean? And you say that Allah (…) does not know my problem. (…) Raise your face to Allah.” that dominate the film in general have dominated the entire film.

When Kosmos is evaluated from a cinematographic point of view, every scene of the film points to the representation of the truth. All objects and people taken into the frame have become representatives of the truth. The constant full moon state of the moon symbolizes the clarity of the truth and that it will never change, the bridge of the town symbolizes the way to reach the truth, and the various animal images symbolize the current moods. However, Reha Erdem gives water a different meaning in his films. The stream in Kosmos, which is present at the beginning of the film and in various points, and makes itself known and flows in the middle of the town, and used as an important metaphor, is an important representation in terms of shaping the truth of the water. What Reha Erdem wants to express with this metaphor may be, as Akıncı Yüksel and Özgür (2013) state, thought as “Water stands out with different functions and meanings, especially in belief systems. The most prominent of these can be considered as the importance of water as the source of life, the purifying and refreshing aspect of water and its destructive and deadly aspect.”.

Kars, chosen as the place in the film, is the place of isolation from the outside world, the area where existence is gained, the other side of the border, the transition between the world of the truth and the real world. The director does not hesitate to present these representations in the form of visible reality throughout the film. Because, although each representation used is used figuratively, it strengthens the way of expression of the director.

Erdem focuses intensively on the truth of man in almost every scene. The director demonstrates this with images and sounds, in which he uses them in a way that affects the mood of the person as the film deepens. One of the most striking scenes of the film, the dance, is performed by Neptune and Kosmos’s court- ship by imitating birds with their bodies and souls, accompanied by wild bird sounds. In this sense, the film, in which human animal impulses also emerge, has a great philosophical depth about human truth.

Erdem did not prefer to use a traditional narrative method in terms of both cine- matography and screenplay. He shaped the relationship between cinema and truth with the layers he formed throughout the film and transferred it to the viewer.

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The film Kosmos, in which the human being is presented as a complex being, can be described as a special film made on human nature.

Conclusion

In this study, the concept of Truth was examined and the language of the concept in cinema was tried to be revealed through the films Gizli Yüz-The Secret Face and Kosmos.

Both directors present the concept of truth in a different, own language, but in a common form, centered on the human being. It is possible to encounter all the elements of truth in both films, and both directors have created an allegorical meaning with the metaphors they use. The manifestation of the truth has been represented both esoteric and apparent in films. In addition, the use of cameras, dialogue, music, sound and fiction in both films allow the elements to be interpreted in terms of truth.

Both Ömer Kavur and Reha Erdem have used cinema as an area of discovery that makes possible the human journey in search of meaning and produces much more results than expected. In Gizli Yüz-The Secret Face and Kosmos, the realistic form created by cinema reveals the visualization dimension of truth. When evaluated from this point of view, both Gizli Yüz-The Secret Face and Kosmos have taken their places in the history of Turkish cinema with a very original narrative.

References

Akıncı Yüksel, A. ve Özgür, Ö. (2013). The Use of Water as a Theme in Turk- ish CinemaI. International Bursa Water Congress and Exhibition, Congress Book Volume 1, s.256-265 Turkey: Bursa Baudrıllard, J. (2014). System of Objects. Translated by, Oğuz Adanır, Aslı Kara- mollaoğlu, İstanbul: Boğaziçi University Publications. Baudrıllard, J. (2015). Spirit Sold to Satan. Translated by, Oğuz Adanır, Ankara: Doğu Batı Publications. Doorly, P. (2019). Truth in Art. Translated by, Aydın Çavdar, Istanbul: Ayrıntı Publications

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Frolov, İ. (1972). Dictionary of Philosophy. Translated by, Aziz Çalışlar, Istanbul: Cem Publishing House. Rifai, K. (2000). Mathnawi Sharif. Istanbul: Kubbealtı Publications. Gülşen, E. (2011). Cinema of Truth. Istanbul: Külliyat Publications. Gazzali, (2016). Mişkatil Envar. Translated by, Mahmut Kaya. : Istanbul: Klasik Publications. Hançerlioğlu, O. (1991). Dictionary of Philosophy. Istanbul: Varlık Publica- tions. Schrader, P. (2017). Transcendent Style in Cinema. Translated by, Kemal Çelik. İstanbul: İnsanart. Taburoğlu, Ö. (2019). Earthly and Holy. Istanbul: Metis Publications Turkish Language Society. (t.y.). Truth. Access address (09.01.2020): https:// sozluk.gov.tr/

PART II RESEARCH EXAMPLES FROM CURRENT DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES

6 APPRAISAL ON THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA ON INFORMATION MANAGEMENT IN PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTICE Nuran Öze (Arkın University) Shamah Tatenda Havurovi (Freelance Researcher)

Abstract

Social media usage has effects on Public Relations (PR) experts as have on other aspects of life. The aim of this study is to comb out into the use of social media in PR practice in the basis of the impact of social media (SM) on information management (IM) of PR experts in South Africa. With the help of mixture of positivist and interpretivist philosophy, deductive approach has accepted during the research. Mixed method simple used as a methodological choice to conduct a research. Semi-structured questionnaire forms send to respondents in order to make it possible the in- terpretation. By conducting the designed electronic survey data’s collected on online platform. Online field research has been carried out in between 1 March - 30 April 2019 with of 30 PR experts across Southern Africa. Findings emulate that the use of Facebook by PR experts staled first, ensued by Twitter, Instagram, Blogs many but to allude a few. SM has no doubt that undermined IM in terms of access, transaction, promulgation and flow of information in a multi-directional pattern compared to unidirectional flow that individuates the traditional media practices. The SM platforms have simplified relational and dialogic communications which are essentials of dialogic theory of PR management. Also the SM platforms have improved the gate keeping role of PR experts. This article also warranted the gushing idea that digital media portrayed gatekeeping theory. The article ends with the need for knowledge-based IM connectivity based on the philosophy of spreading and maintaining mutual understanding and two-way symmetric communication supported by truth, transparency, honesty, and respect. Moreover, social media

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seems to offer PR professionals the best information input and preferred platforms for non-confidential communication and information distribution.

Keywords: Public Relations, Public Relations Experts, Information Management, Social Media

Introduction

Information and dissemination the board is a key capacity PR experts perform. As a delivery person to other uniquely planned capacities, data and correspondence the executives cook on PR experts the guardian’s job. As formal watchman, they are hugely adjusted to inside just as outside groups of onlookers; they have abilities of deciphering authoritative data crosswise over correspondence outskirts (Geoffrey, 2006, 16). The information and correspondence the executives work in present day PR tangles precise social event, arranging of data, investigating them to decide their congruity to authoritative and singular needs; and structur- ing right correspondence plan that adequately advises and instructs planned association’s open. As indicated by Geoffrey (2006), it likewise alludes to proactively imparting to different hierarchical publics and adequately overseeing disinforma- tion, misconception, negative and positive responses of correspondence gatherings of people which may show emerge from channel twists, semantic or encod- ing / interpret issues and other ecological components affecting correspondence method and movement Geoffrey (8-14).

In playing out this capacity, PR experts depend on various potential outcomes, media systems, approaches or correspondence stages. These assets, media stages are extensively partitioned into two: the customary, standard or traditional correspondence media (assets) and the New Information and Communication Tech- nologies (NICTs), that SM has a place with. It is possible to state that both have some advantages and disadvantages. It is not including here with the advantages or faults of the previous division however it includes the impacts on the IM. With the expansion of the usage of SM platforms, it leads to the transformation on the way PR experts impart and dispatch their occupations, especially, the IM. This thought is very account in communication and PR writing and lays footing to researchers perceive that SM has not just transfigured a portion of the ordinary correspondence traditionalist Taylor and Perry yet has additionally reconfigured PR media landscape and correspondence biology (2005, 209-217).

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SM, for example, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Blogs, have framed an indispen- sable piece of PR experts’ hierarchical media blend, plan or methodology. All the more critically, there is an understanding among correspondence experts that customary regular media of correspondence have been re-imagined to the degree that their utilizations in any PR effort are dictated by the unavoidable web-based social networking and other ICT resources. One wide reason advanced in help of the above thought grapple on various benefits web based life provide for associations, governments, people and in fact correspondence based callings. For example, Wright and Hinson, present that one clear guarantee of online networking is a swell in correspondence of different types, among people and furthermore among associations and governments (2013, 6-18). The energy of data stream SM and its capacity to empower social and dialogic correspondence has additionally been commended in PR circles and other same spaces.

Disregarding these and other praiseworthy advantages of SM use in PR, issues of how they ease hierarchical data the board as far as get-together, handling and spread to different publics should be further test. Once more, IM pillar on gate keeping job of PR experts. Authoritative IM is dependably put to test or incite- ment amid emergency circumstance as a result of the picture and reputational impact of the emergency in the association. All these structures the setting on which the examination assess online life sway on data the board. Fundamentally, the wide target of this paper is to investigate the effect of SM on IM of PR experts in Southern Africa. The particular goals include: To pinpoint and analyze distinctive SM platforms utilized by PR experts; to decide explicit effect of every one of the SM platforms on IM, handling and spread to publics; to see whether SM has either encouraged or modified the gate keeping job of PR experts; lastly, to sort out if reception of SM in arranging authoritative emergency sway em- phatically on IM.

Answers tried to find out in this study for the research questions below:

RQ1: How regularly do PR professionals utilize SM? RQ 2: What are these SM platforms? RQ 3: How do PR practitioner’s associations utilize SM? RQ 4: Has SM decidedly improved the gate keeping job of PR specialists?

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RQ 5: What amount do PR experts’ associations depend on various kinds of SM instruments for crisis management? RQ 6: Has selection of SM in crisis management affected decidedly on data the board?

SM A Conceptual Framework

PR is a particular administration work which sets up and keep up common lines of correspondences, getting, acknowledgement, and participation between an association and its publics; includes the administration of issues or issues; encourages the board to keep educated on and responsive general assessment; characterizes and stresses the obligation of the executives to serve open intrigue; enables the executives to stay up to date with and viably use change, filling in as an early cautioning framework to help foresee patterns; and uses research and sound and moral correspondence systems as its main tools (Harlow, 1976, 36).

SM are digital platforms that gives an opportunity to it users (individuals, communities and organizations) to use it in virtual sense to create and share their information, knowledge or opinions interactively via virtual communities and networks. There are different types of SM platforms that can be used for different purposes. That’s why there are some challenges to define SM as a unique concept. According to the common features of these SM platforms; they all web based technologies or digital platforms which can be accessible with laptops, desktops, tablets and especially with smart phones; they are user engaged platforms which means that they are interactive platforms for individuals, communities and organizations; individuals, communities and organizations; can share, co-create, discuss, and modify user-generated content.

In 2004, Merriam-Webster dictionary described SM as “forms of electronic communication (such as websites for social networking and micro blogging) through which users create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, and other content (such as videos)”.In the presence of new media, for instance, SM. PR specialists have ended up scrambling to change as per the head- ways dial have contemplated more noteworthy insight with within and outside publics and has rendered basically trivial the necessity for a middle man.

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Tancer (2008) says electronic life have outperformed sexual stimulation as the fundamental use of the Internet. As demonstrated by the ABC most of all In- ternet customers have joined a casual network, relational associations have transformed into the primary stage for making sharing substance and about 75% of all Internet customers have done this (Young 2009).

At the point when numerous individuals consider social media, they consider Facebook and Twitter. Social media don’t simply incorporate informal communication locales, yet additionally writes, gatherings, message sheets, photograph sharing, digital recordings, RSS (Rich Site Syndication), web index showcasing, video sharing, Wikis, interpersonal organizations, proficient systems, and micro- blogging destinations (Wright and Hinson, 2009).

Jenkins portrays SM as a union culture: It converts into media intermingling, par- ticipatory culture and aggregate insight. SM was created in this exceptional blend of these parameters (Jenkins, 2006). Media assembly changed the “connection between existing advancements, businesses, markets, classifications, and gatherings of people” and thusly may be viewed as an outlook changing society. This adjusted the rationale conventional media worked on and by which purchaser’s procedure news and entertainment. The writer trusts this combination is a procedure, not an end-point and we are now living in this culture for a long while now. Erik Qualman (2009) alludes to SM as the time of moment correspondence and straightforwardness considering it the glasshouse chooses. He defines it as the device to manage the overabundance data on the Internet: an approach to “modify” the data you really are scanning for.

Sinclaire and Vogus (2011, 294) refer to O’Reilly’s definition web-based social networking is a wide term that depicts programming instruments that make user generated content can be shared. However, there are some fundamental highlights important for a site to meet prerequisites as an informal organization site, the webpage must contain clients to interface with one another and remarks on one another’s pages (Gross and Acquisti, 2005, 2007, Winder 2007, Boyd and Elli- son 2007, as cited in Cox 2010).

According to Kaplan and Haenlein, SM is distinctive in light of the fact that it enables members to join by creating individual data profiles and welcoming companions and partners to approach these profiles (2010, 63). Thus SM is nature

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which person to person communication happens and has adjusted the manner by which customers accumulate data and settle on purchasing choices.

SM systems administration is an in vogue articulation that has a kick out of progressively broad exchanges in for all intents and purposes all circles of human endeavor or prepares. These media stages have changed how individuals, affiliations pull in individual and corporate exchanges (Jenkins 2006) depicts the presenta- tion of SM in media and correspondence organizations as another model move from winning press, for instance, papers, magazine, TV, radio, to a hyper media (Meyer, 2008). This move has engaged the progression of correspondence channels that have empowered publics to be increasingly in charge of what they read, hear and watch (Ahlquist and Back, 2008, 13).

Notwithstanding the inescapability of electronic life and the people who use these channels, the importance of what make online long range informal communication is so far making or substance. Attempt is made here to demonstrate a part of the musings of electronic life as found in the composition. Safko and Brake im- ply web based life as activities, practices, and lead among systems of people who collect online to share information, learning, and evaluations using conservational media. According to Ahlgvist, et. al (2008) electronic life implies the techniques for coordinated efforts among people in which they make, offer, and exchange information and contemplations virtual systems and framework.

Kaplan and Haenlein describe SM as “a social affair of web set up together applications that work as for the ideological and mechanical foundations of Web 2.0, and that license the creation and exchange of User – Generated Content. In winning press and mainstream culture, web based systems administration are every now and again used to depict destinations like Facebook, YouTube and Twitter, and all spots where individuals can go to interrelate and interface with others by fundamentally marking on through a PC or mobile phone (2010, 59-69). Addi- tionally, Palen’s (2008) which means of electronic long range interpersonal communication is parallel to Kaplan and Heinlein’s definition above. Palen depicts internet organizing as “destinations, long range relational correspondence conditions, individual to-singular telecom educating and other Web 2.0 applications. The web is an arrangement of information resources and a mind blowing particular mechanical assembly; information on basically any subject can be found on the web (2008, 76-78). To Vender Merwe, Pitt and Abratt the web gives a

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“generally convenient correspondence medium” (2005, 90-93). Composing on web 2.0 demonstrates that it shapes the fundamental correspondence designing of SM. As working definition, SM implies propelled conference stages and applications that license individuals, get-together, affiliations and their publics, or a system of people gather online to talk, share information, data and perspectives. Its features consolidate open instinct, joint endeavors, meeting and seat total understanding.

Taxonomy of SM

SM is still expanding and will keep on advancing similarly as the segment of data correspondence advancements or PC intervened stages keep on growing having different characterizations. It is essential to take note of that a large number of these administrations can be unsegregated by means of informal community grouped stages. There are seven unique kinds of SM can be recognized. They include:

Collaborative projects (for example Wikipedia); Blogs and microblogs (for example Twitter, Linkedln); Content communities (for example YouTube and Daily motion); Social networking sites (for example Facebook); Virtual game Worlds (for example World of Warcraft) and; Virtual social Worlds (for example Second Life) (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010); Content publishing (wikis)

Outskirts within these various kinds have been progressively indistinct; this is to a great extent because of their interface and likeness in data manufacture and transport. Therefore, Twitter, as a mix of broadcasting administration and interpersonal organization is smarter to be named a social telecom innovation. Aside from the above typologies, there is additionally portable web based life. At the point when web-based social networking is utilized in conglomeration with cell phones it is named versatile SM. SM is a gathering of portable advertising applications that permits the formation and trade of client produced content. A qualification can be made between the conventional SM and portable web-based social networking. Because of the way that portable web based life keeps running on cell phone, it separates from conventional web based life as it consolidates new

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factors, for example, the present location of the client (location based affectabil- ity) or the time lateness among messages exchange.

PR and SM

The interface between PR and social developing media pillar on correspondence and data spread. The scholastic writing has been enslaving by endeavors to apply Grunig and Hunt (1984, 15) two-way symmetrical model of correspondence to scrutinize the capability of new (social) media to manufacture useful connections among associations and their publics. The utilization of hierarchical online networking or new media stages as a device for a two-path correspondence among associations and their publics has been contemplated and supported broadly by advertising specialists and professionals like Kent and Taylor (1998, 273-280); Ki and Hon (2006, 27-43); Quin and Allan (2008, 42-53). Kent and Taylor (1998, 273-288) had contended that the idea of intrigue or sites offers an un- predictable opportunity to PR professionals to make exchange with their publics. In light of the above consistence, the dialogic hypothesis is arrogating as a hypothetical structure.

Dialogic Public Relations Theory

As per Kent.ML (1998) PR can encourage discourse by setting up channels and strategies for dialogic communication. Dialogic hypothesis contends that associations ought to be happy to connect with publics in legit and moral routes so as to make compelling association open correspondence channels (Kent.ML, 2002).

Scholar Martin Buber was aforethought as the dad of the cutting edge idea of exchange. In PR, exchange was clarified as conveying about issues with publics. There has been a hypothetical move from PR mirroring an accentuation on overseeing communication. To an accentuation on correspondence as a device for setting up connections.

The thought of exchange as a PR hypothesis ought to be credited to Pearson. As per Pearson (1989), advertising can be conceptualized as the administration of relational reasoning. Then, Botan (1997, 192) guaranteed that discourse shows itself more as a position, introduction, or bearing in correspondence instead of as a particular strategy, system, or arrangement. Kent and Taylor (1998, 323)

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contended that exchange is item as opposed to process and saw the symmetrical model as a procedural method to tune in or request criticism. Besides, illumi- nated the idea of exchange in PR and proposed standards of dialogic hypothesis.

As indicated by Kent ML (2002, 2017) Dialogue as an introduction has five highlights: Mutuality

The acknowledgment of association open relationship. Without the public’s, associations have no reason. Looking for coordinated effort through the publics through discourse will contribute towards fruitful relationship building.

Propinquity

The transience and suddenness of collaborations with people in general. By approaching the publics for their contribution before the basic leadership procedure could be valuable relying upon the association/action/thought. The use of a dialogic circle online is a path for the open’s voices to be heard. Just as, making the association present to its publics.

Empathy

The steadiness and affirmation of open objectives and interests. Backing is critical. Having the capacity to work together to keep up a collective mentality is basic. The possibility of a collective attitude demonstrates the significance in structure the network, not exclusively the association.

Risk

The goal to speak with publics all alone terms. The measure of data shared or they sort of data imparted to another association or publics prompts powerless- ness and startling outcomes.

Commitment The goal to speak with publics all alone terms. The measure of data shared or they sort of data imparted to another association or publics prompts powerless- ness and startling outcomes.

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Kent and Taylor five dialogic principles:

Dialogic Loop

A dialogic circle enables publics to inquiry associations and gives associations the chance to react to questions, concerns, and issues.

Usefulness of Information

Sites should endeavor to post data of general an incentive to all publics.

Generation of Return Visits

Sites ought to incorporate highlights that make them appealing for rehash visits, for example, refreshed data, evolving issues, and unique discussions.

The Intuitiveness

Sites should give accommodations to guests to make sense of and get it. Tables of substance are helpful and ought to be efficient and progressive.

Conservation of Visitors

Sites ought to contain just fundamental connections with obviously checked ways for guests to come back to the locales.

These dialogical principles could guide organizations to improve their dialogic relationships with publics via websites. The dialogic hypothesis has been reached out to clarify how different associations assemble dialogic associations with publics through, online journals and SM platforms, for example, Facebook and Twit- ter. For occasion, Esrock and Leichty (1999) contemplated the dialogic limit of authoritative Web locales and found that just a minority of Fortune 500 associations utilized Kent and Taylor’s standards of dialogic communication. Another ponder inspected how ecological backing associations utilized dialogic methodologies on their Facebook profiles and explore that utilizing dialogic procedures prompted more noteworthy dialogic commitment among associations and guests.

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Methodology and Findings

Ontologically and epistemologically mixture of positivist and interpretivist philosophy, deductive approach has accepted during the research. Mixed method simple used as a methodological choice to conduct a research. Semi-structured questionnaire forms send to respondents in order to make it possible the inter- pretation. By conducting the designed electronic survey data’s collected on online platform. Online field research has been carried out in between 1 March - 30 April 2019 with of 30 PR experts across Southern Africa. Drawn nearer from quantitative research configuration, review investigate was utilized in the execu- tion of the examination and was disseminated to PR professionals crosswise over Southern Africa in nations like Zimbabwe, Zambia, Namibia, Malawi and most eminently South Africa.

Review inquire about technique was wanted to different strategies since it enables the analysts to concentrate consideration on delegate tests indicated from the whole populace. This technique to information gathering empowered the scien- tists to pick up understanding into and rich experience of PR experts who are data chiefs and watchmen in their different associations.

The number of inhabitants in the examination involved individuals who are as of now working in PR consultancies, open and private corporate organizations/ associations over the world. Questionnaires contemplated were chosen by methods for purposive inspecting procedure dependent on their nature with SM assets; their dimension of PR experience and the sort of association in which they work.

There were 30 respondents who gotten the surveys by means of email after already talking about with them the reason for the examination and acquire their co-task to take part. The instrument, a 13-itemed survey included inquiries went for acquiring data about respondents’ demography and their reactions to the examination questions.

Distinct insights, for example, recurrence tables and rates were utilized.

Data Analysis and Results

The analysis of demographic data for the respondents show that females are more than males; 14 males (46.7%) and 16 females (53. 3%).The lowest academic

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qualification is a college degree that is 1(3.3%) respondent, 8 or 26.7% hold a master’s degree while 10 (33.3%) hold a bachelor’s degree while 11 respondents representing 36.7% is doctoral. In a nutshell to become a PR Professional education is important.

The lowest work experience/years spent by respondents in their organizations is between 16-20 that is 2 (6.7%), 6 (20%) have spent 10-16 years while 7 (23.3%) have spent 1-5 years, 15 representing 50 have spent 6-10 years. Experience to become a manager is an essential part of the job.

Of those who have reported their PR role within their organizations (total number is 30) 40% (n= 12) are Executives, 33.3% (n= 10) are directors. Managers and technicians are tied at 13.3% (n= 4).

3.3% (n= 1) are independent professionals, 23.3% (n= 7) work in small agencies whilst 36.7% (n= 11) work in large and middle sized agencies.

Table 1: Frequency of using SM by PR Professionals

Always Often Sometimes Never Rarely (% / n) (% / n) (% / n) (% / n) (% / n) Frequency of Using SM 66.7 / 20 3.3 / 1 30 / 9 0 / 0 0 / 0

PR professionals were asked about their frequency in the use of SM for PR. As reported in table 1 everyone almost often or sometimes uses SM, in their professional practice. In total 100% (n=30) use SM in their practice.

Table 2: Descriptions of Impact of SM on Information Gathering, Processing & Dissemination

Yes No (% / n) (% / n) Enhanced the Speed and Information Gathering 83.3 / 25 16.7 / 5 Quickens Information Processing, Storage and Retrieval 63.3 / 19 36.7 / 11

These were general yes or no Dichotomous questions. As shown on the table 83.3% (n=25) believe SM enhanced the speed and information gathering whilst 16.7% (n=5) do not. 63.3% (n=19) believe that SM quickens information processing, storage and retrieval whilst on the other side 36.7% (n=11) believe it does not.

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Table 3: Purposes Respondents Organizations Use SM

Yes No (% / n) (% / n) To listen to problems before they become a crisis 80 /24 20 / 6 To communicate with the members of traditional media such as 46.7 /14 53.3 / 16 newspapers and TV

These were also dichotomous survey questions in the purposes of the use of SM. 80% (n=24) use SM to listen to problems before they become a crisis, whilst 20% does not. 46.7% (n=14) use SM to communicate with the members of traditional media such as newspapers and TV whilst the greater percentage 53.3% does not.

Table 4: SM Impact on Gate keeping Role of PR Professionals

Strongly Agree Neutral Strongly Disagree Agree (% / n) (% / n) Disagree (% / n) (% / n) (% / n) By your own use and assessment, 63.3 / 19 33.3 / 10 3.3 / 1 0 / 0 0 / 0 do you agree that SM has enhanced the gate keeping role of PR professionals?

Table 4 reveals SM impact on gate keeping role of PR professionals. Respondents were asked considering their SM use or assessment, if SM have either enhanced or not gate keeping role of PR professional. The majority of the respondents either agree or strongly agree (96.6% n=29) agreed that SM has enhanced the gate keeping role of Public Relation Professional whilst 3.3% (n=1) couldn’t take either side.

Table 5: Organizations Use of SM for Crisis Planning / Management

Facebook Twitter Instagram YouTube Blogs (% / n) (% / n) (% / n) (% / n) (% / n) Which SM platform do you 40 / 12 26.7 /8 20 / 6 0 / 0 13.3 / 4 mainly rely on during a crisis planning / management?

Respondents were asked specifically about the platform heavily relied on during a crisis management or planning. As shown in Table 5 Facebook 40% (n= 12) is the SM tool organizations rely on the most, followed by twitter 26.7% (n= 8), Instagram is at 20% (n= 6) the least are Blogs 13.3% (n= 4).

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Table 6: Description of SM Impact on IM

Strongly Agree Neutral Strongly Disagree Agree (% / n) (% / n) Disagree (% / n) (% / n) (% / n) Given your answers so far, do 76.7 / 23 23.3/ 7 0 / 0 0 / 0 0 / 0 you agree that SM has positively impacted on IM?

Table 6 indicates respondents’ views or descriptions of impact SM on IM generally. All 100% (n=30) respondents answered in the affirmative that SM has positively impacted on IM.

Conclusion

SM based has reconfigured media scene and correspondence nature; it has likewise changed the manner in which PR professional speaks with different partners or publics. The SM apparatuses have been giving PR professionals the scope to sidestep the conventional prevailing presses to speak with the publics. They do this by connecting with the public’s straightforwardly through the utilization Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and blogs. IM, handling and spread are presently quicker contrasted and utilizing the controlled customary predominant press, for example, radio, TV, paper. One key philosophy of data the board is through the idea of gate keeping. As a guardian, the PR proficient is the ear, the eye and the mouth bit of the association.

However, contingent upon the sort of association the specialist work in he / she may have the job or choice to permit get to or restrict data to authoritative channels of correspondence, especially on the off chance that he/she is an individual from the predominant alliance (top administration). As per Hammersley and At- kinson (1995) there is no other individual increasingly urgent to the correspondence procedure of associations than formal guards.

In a sense, gate keeping gives key individuals inside associations the capacity to allow or prohibit access to authoritative data. The basic of data the executives depend on the theory of making and supporting shared comprehension, and information dependent on two-way symmetric correspondence upheld by truth, straightforwardness, genuineness and regard. Nonetheless, SM offers the PR professional better access to data and the best stages for momentary data conveyance.

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Quinn-Allan, D. (2008). Public Relations, Education, and Social Media: Issues for Professionalism in the Digital Age. Asia Pacific Public Relations Journal. 65 (11), 42-53. Sinclaire, J.K., & Vogus, C.E. (2011). Adoption of social networking sites: an exploratory adaptive structuration perspective for global organizations. Information Technology and Management, 12, 293-314. D0I 10007/s 10799-011-0086-5. Tancer. B. (2008). What Millions of People are Doing Online and Why it Matters. New York: Hyperion. Taylor, M, & Perry D.C.(2005). Diffusion of traditional and new media tactics in crisis communication. Public Relations Review, 3 (2): 209- 217. Taylor, M. & Kent, M.L. (2010). Anticipatory socialization in the use of social media in public relations: A content analysis of PRSA’s public relations tactics. Public Relations Review, 36, 207- 214. Doi:10.1016/j. pubrev.2010.04.012 VenderMerwe, R., P.H, L. & Abratt, R. (2005). Stakeholder strength: PR sur- vival strategies in the internet age. Public Relations Quarterly, 50, 90-93. Windmills marketing. (2009). “What is LinkedIn and why should you join”, Retrieved from http://windmillsnetworking.com/2009/08/26/ what-is-linkedln-and-why- should-you-join Wright, D., & Hinson, M. (2009). An analysis of the increasing impact of social and other new media on public relations practice. A paper presented to 12th annual International Public Relations Research Conference. Wright, D.K. & Hinson, M. D. (2009). An Updated look at the impact of social media on public relations practice, Public Relations Journal, 2(2), 6-18. Young. R. (2009). Social media: How new forms of communications are changing job search and career management: Be Heard. Newslet- ter of the Toronto Chapter of the International Association of Business Communicators. January-February.

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7 THE ROLE OF NEW MEDIA ON YOUNG ADULTS IN SPREADING POPULAR CULTURE: AN AMPIRIC RESEARCH IN KAYSERİ / POPÜLER KÜLTÜRÜN YAYILMASINDA YENİ MEDYANIN GENÇ YETİŞKİNLER ÜZERİNDEKİ ROLÜ: KAYSERİ İLİNDE AMPİRİK BİR ARAŞTIRMA1 İsmailcan Doğan (Erciyes University)

Abstract

With the industrial revolution, there have been significant changes and developments in many areas. Culture is undoubtedly at the beginning of the areas affected by these changes and developments. In particular, dizzying developments in communication technologies also affect the culture of societies. On the other hand, another of these developments is in the field of media.

Advances in technology have affected every field as well as the media field. Especially the introduction of New Media Media into our lives, the increase in the number of media organizations every day has led to an increase in information from the media of individuals. This affects the preferences of people and also contributes to the spread of this culture by creating an artificial culture.

In this study, it is aimed to reveal the role of new media on young adults when it is considered as a means of creating popular culture. In this context, a field study was carried out in Kayseri province. It is seen that young adults, who are both users and consumers of the internet and social media, are both influenced by popular culture

1 Bu çalışma Erciyes Üniversitesi Bilimsel Araştırma Projeleri Birimi tarafından desteklenmiştir.

117 THE ROLE OF NEW MEDIA ON YOUNG ADULTS IN SPREADING POPULAR CULTURE: AN AMPIRIC RESEARCH IN KAYSERİ İsmailcan Doğan

products on the internet and social media, and are personally involved in the spread of popular culture through new media.

Keywords: Popular Culture, Culture, Media, New Media, Culture, Young Adults.

Giriş

Sanayi devriminden sonra ortaya çıkan bilim ve teknolojide baş döndürücü geli- şeler birçok alanda kendisini göstermiştir. İnsanların yaşam tarzlarının da değiş- mesine neden olan bu gelişmelerle birlikte yeni kavramlar da hayatımıza girmiş- tir. Bu kavramlardan birisi olan popüler kültür kavramı gün geçtikçe hayatımızda daha fazla yer edinmektedir. Modadan siyasete, müzikten, sinemaya kadar bir- çok alanda kendini gösteren bu olgu, kitleleri yönlendiren, istemli ya da istemsiz bir şekilde insanları kendi girdabına alan bir kavram olarak karşımıza çıkmakta- dır. Dolayısıyla bu kavram, araştırmacıların ve farklı alanlardan akademisyenle- rin de dikkatini çekmiş ve konuyla ilgili birçok araştırma yapılmıştır ve yapıl- maya devam edilmektedir.

Popüler kültür kavramı birçok disiplini ilgilendiren bir konudur. Zira popü- ler kültür artık günümüzde insanların ve toplumların hayatlarını her açıdan etkilemektedir. İletişim alanında ise son dönem popüler kültür araştırmaları yeni medya araçlarına yönelmiştir. Bu araçlardan birisi olan internet günümüzde po- püler kültürün sadece oluşmasında değil yayılmasında da önemli bir rol oynamak- tadır. Buradan hareketle çalışmamız bir saha araştırmasıyla bu durumun önemini ortaya koymayı amaçlamıştır. Bu kapsamda çalışmamızda öncelikle popüler kül- tür ve kitle iletişim araçlarına, daha sonra popüler kültür ve yeni medya arasın- daki ilişkiye değinilmiştir. Son olarak ise bir saha araştırması yapılarak ortaya çı- kan sonuçlar değerlendirilmiştir.

Popüler Kültür Kavramı ve Kitle İletişim Araçları

Popüler kültür kavramını açıklamadan önce kültürün ne anlama geldiğini açık- lamakta yarar vardır. Sosyal antropologların kültürle ilgili düşünceleri, büyük öl- çüde Edward Tylor’un 1871’de yapmış olduğu, kültürün bilgi, inanç, sanat, ahlâk ve gelenek olarak öğrenilmiş yapıyı gösterdiği şeklindeki tanıma dayanmakta- dır. Kültür, antropolojinin merkezi kavramıdır ve insanların tüm ortak bilgisini, teknolojileri, değerleri, inançları, âdetleri ve davranışlarını kapsamaktadır. Bazen

118 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

kitle kültürü olarak da adlandırılan popüler kültür ise, çok daha yaygın ve herkes için erişilebilir bir içeriğe sahip olan kültürdür (Marshall, 1999, s. 442-591).

Popüler kavramı en klasik anlamla halka ait olan demektir. Günümüzde ise birçok kişi tarafından sevilen veya seçilen anlamında kullanılmaktadır. Popüler kavramı- nın birçok alanda farklı alana taşındığı bilinmektedir. Bu alanlardan olan medya ve yeni medya alanlarında popüler kavramı sistem için yeni bir dayanak rolü bü- rünmüştür. Örneğin popüler film yıldızı, popüler sorucu, popüler fenomen veya popüler kültür gibi (Erdoğan, 2004). Bu kavramlardan popüler kültür kavramı birçok özellik ve karaktere sahip olan ve insanların yaşam tarzları üzerinde önemli değişiklikler yapabilme gücü bulunan bir olgudur. Popüler kültürün özellikleri ve karakteri ile ilgili farklı görüşler bulunmaktadır. Oktay’a (1995:21) göre popüler kültürün özellikleri şunlardır: • Biçim olarak orta karmaşıklıktadır. • Aktarımı ya da iletimi, ortam ve teknoloji olarak dolaylıdır. • Bilinen bir kaynağı ya da yaratıcısı (üreticisi) vardır. • Kültürel değerleri ve gelenekleri, yeni formüller biçiminde yansıtır. • Ürün tüketiciye dönüktür. • Oldukça ucuza fakat parayla elde edilir.

Erdoğan (2001:75) ise popüler kültürün genel karakterlerini şöyle sıralamaktadır: • Formüller ve tekrarlarla standartlaşmıştır; • Daha çok dileklerin gerçekleşmesini (fantezileri) ön plana çıkartır; • Sistemin ve pazarın çıkarına ise (moda, soda, yiyecek, içecek, eğlence) kolek- tifliği destekler; çıkarına karşıysa (örneğin işsizlik, grevler, ücret sorunu) birey- selliği vurgular; • Ahlak ve resmi sansür karşısında risk almaz, çünkü amaca ulaşmak bu tür riski dışlar; • Halk/folk kültüründen farklı olarak, popüler kültür onu kullanan toplum ta- rafından üretilen kültürel kaynaklardan oluşmaz; • Sadece ürün tüketilmez aynı zamanda insanın kendiyle ve başkalarıyla olan ilişkisel anlamlar tüketilir ve üretilir (“Marlboro” zehrinin tüketimiyle, “Sam- sun” zehrinin tüketiminin tükettiği ve ürettiği ilişkisel anlamlar farklıdır: Ör- neğin, kişisel ve sosyal statü ve sınıfsal farklılıklar üretilir). • Yaratılan duyarlılık ve duygusallıklarla burjuva üretim ve yaşam tarzı yücelti- lir ve idealleştirilir. • Gösteriş ve imajlar/görüntüler özün üstüne çökertilir, önüne geçirilir.

119 THE ROLE OF NEW MEDIA ON YOUNG ADULTS IN SPREADING POPULAR CULTURE: AN AMPIRIC RESEARCH IN KAYSERİ İsmailcan Doğan

Popüler kültür gündelik hayatta her taraftan insanları kuşatmıştır demek yanlış olmaz. Evde, sokakta, televizyonda alışverişte, sinemada, siyasette popüler kültü- rün bir meta haline getirdiği ürünler, kişiler ya da olgular günlük yaşamı tamamen içine almaktadır. Bu bağlamda popüler kültür toplumun çoğunluğu tara- fından izlenen, tercih edilen, tutulan ve çoğunluk için olan kültürdür denilebilir. Dolayısıyla popüler kültürü belirli bir topluma mal etmek doğru değildir. Yani popüler kültür çoğunluğun kültürüdür (Erdoğan, 2001:73).

Bilindiği gibi liberal toplumlarda, her şey bir alım satım için bir meta haline dö- nüştürülebilmektedir. Bu durum toplumda insanların duygu ve düşünceleri de dahil olmak üzere birçok şeyi değiştiren büyük endüstrilerin doğmasına sebep ol- muştur. İnsanları ikna etmek ve bilinç yönetimi yapmak için çaba gösteren bu endüstrilere reklam, televizyon, halkla ilişkilerin de dahil olduğunu söyleyebili- riz. Zira bu endüstriler toplumdaki bireylere hangi ürünün popüler olduğunu, gündemin ne olduğunu ileten endüstrilerdir (Erdoğan, 2004). Popüler kültürün ele alındığı disiplinler ele alış biçimleri sadece bu alanlardan ibaret değildir. Po- püler kültürün ilişki içerisinde olduğu disiplinlere bakacak olursak (Erdoğan & Korkmaz, 2005, s. 40):

Popüler sanat, popüler mimarlık, popüler tasarım, kitle iletişimi (elektronik ile- tişim ve internet; film, müzik, radyo, televizyon, basın, kitap, dergi, reklamcılık, halkla ilişkiler), eğitim, eğitim felsefesi, genel eğitim ve eğitim kurumları, yiyecek ve halkın yaşam yolları, edebiyat (şiir, roman, güldürü, korku, macera, detektif, tarihsel kurgu, aşk, bilim-kurgu ve fantezi hikayeleri, romanları), giyecek, vücut ve görünümü, koleksiyon olanları toplama, teknoloji, metodoloji, performans ve tiyatro (dans, müzik, sahne), yer ve zaman: etnik kültürler, fiziksel popüler kül- tür (eros ve porno; spor, çocuk edebiyatı), yaşlılık, ölüm ve ölme, savaş ve cina- yet gibi birçok disiplinin konusudur. Bununla beraber bu disiplinlerden popü- ler kültürün oluşturulması ve yayılmasında medya sektörünün rolü yadsınamaz. Medya aracılığı ile kitlelere kültürel ürünler üretilip dağıtımı sağlanabilir. Radyo ve televizyon programları, reklam, diziler, filmler, haberler, dergiler, romanlar, çizgi filmler, kasetler vb. buna örnek olarak gösterilebilir (Erdoğan & Korkmaz, 2005, s. 41). Dolayısıyla bu araçlar kültürle beraber popüler kültürün de üretiminde ve yayılmasında rol oynamaktadırlar. Örneğin reklam popüler kültürün beslendiği alanlardan birisidir. Ünlü sporcuların, şarkıcıların ya da aktör ve aktrislerin kul- landıkları giysiler, renkler, markalar yaşam tarzları reklamla topluma yansıtılmak- tadır (Şentürk, 2007, s. 30-31). Popüler kültür reklamla birlikte sürekli yeniden

120 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

üretilmektedir. Yeni ürünler ya da hizmetler piyasaya sunulurken ya da mevcut ürünler yeniden pazarlanırken, ürünlerin veya hizmetlerin imaj ve itibarları sü- rekli yeniden üretilirken reklam kullanılan önemli bir araçtır. Reklamla birlikte popüler olan metalar çok fazla insana ulaşabilmektedir. Zira reklam kitle iletişim araçlarından faydalanan bir disiplindir. Ancak hem reklam hem de popüler kül- tür yirminci yüzyılın eleştirilen kavramlarındandır (Fowles, 1996).

Kitle iletişim araçları, bizim dünyaya ilişkin anlayışımızı biçimlendirmede çok bü- yük bir öneme sahiptir. Bu araçlardan birisi olan televizyonla ilgili geçmişte bir- çok etki araştırması yapılmıştır. Özellikle çocuklara olan etkisi üzerinde yoğun- laşan (Giddens, 2008, s. 208) televizyon araştırmalarının konularından birisi de popüler kültür bağlamında incelenmesidir. Zira popüler kültür insanların yaşam tarzlarını etkilemektedir. Bunu yaparken televizyon, popüler kültürün oluşturul- ması ve yayılmasında rol almaktadır. Televizyonun avantajı radyo ile birlikte daha önce hiçbir kitle iletişim aracının yapamadığını yaparak evlere girmiş olmasıdır (Giddens, 2008, s. 635). Televizyon ve popüler kültür ilişkisini inceleyen birçok araştırma bulunmaktadır. Dreyer (2011) yaptığı araştırmada popüler televizyon programları üzerinden insanların siyasi davranışları arasında bir ilişki olduğu sonucuna varmıştır.

Televizyon popüler kültürü oluşmasını ya da yayılmasını birçok yöntemle yapar. Örneğin kimi zaman spesifik konulardaki televizyon programları bir popüler kül- tür ürünü haline gelebilir. Ya da bir televizyon dizisi popüler bir biçimde toplumda yer edinebilir. Televizyon popüler kültürü yayarken ünlüleri de kullanabilir. Hatta televizyonda bireyler birer kurum haline bile gelebilir. Örneğin geçmişteki önemli haber spikerlerinden Ali Kırca, Reha Muhtar, Mehmet Ali Birand gibi isimler ku- rumlarının bile önüne geçmişlerdir (Nalçaoğlu, 2005, s. 64).

Popüler Kültür ve Yeni Medya

Sanayi toplumundan bilgi ve iletişim toplumuna geçiş sürecini yasadığımız gü- nümüzde toplumlarında bilişim teknolojilerinin giderek yaygınlaşmaları ve bilginin temel ve stratejik bir üretim faktörü olarak ekonomik sisteme dâhil edilmesi, bilgiye verilen önemin artmasının bir sonucudur. 20. yüzyılın sonları ve 21. yüz- yılın başlarından itibaren bilgi teknolojisi alanındaki baş döndürücü değişim ve gelişim günümüzde bilginin önemini arttırmıştır. İşte bu önemin artmasının so- nuçlarından birisi de yeni medyanın ortaya çıkmasıdır (Doğan, 2014, s. 54-55).

121 THE ROLE OF NEW MEDIA ON YOUNG ADULTS IN SPREADING POPULAR CULTURE: AN AMPIRIC RESEARCH IN KAYSERİ İsmailcan Doğan

Dijitalleşmenin getirdiği en önemli yeniliklerden birisi olan yeni medya araçları ile birlikte geleneksel medya araçlarındaki ses, görüntü ve yazı artık bir tek araçla birleşmiştir. Bilgisayar teknolojisi ile birlikte mümkün hale gelen bu durum mul- timedyanın gelişmesine kaynaklık etmiştir Bununla birlikte dijitalleşme ve internet teknolojisi çok önemli bir olanağı da beraberinde getirmiştir. Artık bireyler içeriklere müdahale edebilmekte, dijital ortamda paylaşım yapabilmekte, içeriği kendileri üretebilmekte yani aktif bir şekilde gördükleri ve işittiklerine katılım yapabilmektedirler. Dahası bireyler dijitalleşmeyle birlikte birbirleri ile etkileşim imkânı da bulabilmektedirler. Bu avantajlar yeni medyanın gelişimi sağlamıştır (Giddens, 2008, s. 638).

Bununla beraber yeni medyanın en önemli araçlarından bir tanesi internet tek- nolojisidir. Soğuk savaş döneminde 1969 yılında ilk kez Amerikan Askeri Karar- gâhı olan Pentagon internet teknolojisi ile Amerika’nın farklı yerlerindeki askeri bilgilerin paylaşılması amaçlamıştır. Böylece elektronik posta kavramı doğmuştur. Daha sonra ise 1980’lerde internet teknolojisini üniversiteler kullanmaya başla- mıştır. 1990’larda World Wide Web’in kullanılmaya başlamasıyla internet tekno- lojilerindeki baş döndürücü gelişim de başlamıştır (Giddens, 2008, s. 640). Gü- nümüzde ise milyonlarca kişinin kullandığı en önemli kitle iletişim araçlarının başında gelmektedir.

İnternette özellikle sosyal ağlar en yüksek derecede paylaşımın gerçekleştiği, online medyanın yeni bir türü olarak fırsatlar sunduğu en yeni fikirlerden biridir ve aşağıdaki özellikleri içerir (Mayfield, 2008, s. 6):

-Katılımcılar: Sosyal ağlar katılımcıları cesaretlendirir ve ilgili olan her bir kulla- nıcıdan geri bildirim alır.

-Açıklık: En çok sosyal ağ servisleri geribildirime ve katılımcılara açıktır. Bu servis- ler oylama, yorum ve bilgi paylaşımı gibi konularda cesaret aşılarlar. Bunlar çok nadir ulaşıma yönelik engeller koyarlar.

-Konuşma: Geleneksel medya yayına ilişkin iken (içerik aktarımı ya da dinleyi- ciye bilgi ulaşımı), sosyal ağlar iki yönlü konuşmaya olanak tanıması bakımın- dan daha iyidir.

122 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

-Toplum: Sosyal ağlar topluluklara çabuk ve etkili bir oluşum için izin verir. Top- luluklar da böylece sevdikleri fotoğraf, politik değerler, favori TV şovları gibi ilgili oldukları şeyleri paylaşırlar.

-Bağlantılılık: Sosyal ağların çoğu türü, bağlantılı işler gerçekleştirir; diğer site- ler, araştırmalar ve insanların ilgili oldukları herhangi bir konuda link verilme- sine olanak tanır.

Diğer taraftan günümüzde sosyal ağlar yaşamımızın vazgeçilmez bir parçası haline gelmiştir. İnsanlar gün geçtikçe sosyal ve özel hayatlarını sosyal ağlar aracılığı ile daha faza rapor eder hale gelmiştir. Bu durum sosyal ağlardaki mahremiyetin boyutlarını tartışma konusu haline getirmektedir. Öte yandan bu durum sosyal medyada oluşturulan yapay bir kültürün de oluşmasına neden olmuştur. Özel- likle sosyal medya sitelerinde popüler olan olgular gündelik hayatta da popüler olmaktadır. Ancak bir gerçek şu ki tüm bu tartışmalara rağmen sosyal ağlar her geçen gün daha fazla kullanıcı tarafından ziyaret edilmekte ve sosyal ağlara olan ilgi sürekli artmaktadır (Doğan, 2014, s. 63).

Popüler kültür sosyal medya aracılığıyla toplumsal bünyeye daha kolay girmekte ve bu şekilde olayları, toplumsal koşulları, hayatı anlamlandırmayı etkilemekte ve yeni yaşam tarzlarını şekillendirmektedir. Sosyal medyanın insanlar için kaçınıl- maz ve vazgeçilmez bir hale geldiği günümüzde her yaştan kullanıcılar bu araç- larla içeriğin hem üreticisi hem de tüketicisi olarak popüler kültürün oluşturul- ması ve aktarılması bağlamında önemli bir rol oynamaktadırlar.

Popüler kültürün yeni medya teknolojisinde kendisine yer bulmasıyla beraber özellikle internet üzerinden ve sosyal ağlar aracılığı ile bireyleri etkilemesi daha kolay hale gelmiştir. Bu durum da beraberinde yeni yaşam tarzlarını getirmiştir. Bir başka ifadeyle bireylerin yaşam tarzlarını etkilemiştir. Zira günümüzde bu teknolojileri her yaştan insan rahatlıkla kullanabilmekte, kullanan her birey de hem popüler kültür üreticisi hem tüketicisi haline gelmiştir. Bunun yanında popüler kültürün yayılmasında da kullanıcılar yeni medya aracılığı ile etkin bir rol almış- tır Yeni medya araçlarından internet ve sosyal medyanın kolay erişilebilir olması, etkileşiminin yüksek olması, anlık etkileşim imkânı tanıması, ucuz olması gibi avantajları bu araçları önemli bir konuma taşımıştır. İnternette ve sosyal medyada paylaşılan bilginin sunumu ile bireyler ve toplumlar arasında da bir yakınlaşma gerçekleşmiştir. Bu durum da ortak ilgi alanlarının, farklı yaşam tarzlarının, farklı

123 THE ROLE OF NEW MEDIA ON YOUNG ADULTS IN SPREADING POPULAR CULTURE: AN AMPIRIC RESEARCH IN KAYSERİ İsmailcan Doğan

davranışların dijital ortamda doğmasına ve yayılmasına imkân tanımıştır. Şüphesiz kültürel değişimler ve yayılmalar da buna dahildir (Karaduman, 2017, s. 8-12).

Araştırmanın Amacı Önemi ve Yöntemi Sosyal bilimlerin son dönemlerdeki birçok çalışmasına konu olan popüler kültür kavramı günümüzde bireylerin etkisinden kurtulamadığı bir olgu haline gelmiş- tir. Bunun yanında yeni medyanın insanların yaşam biçimlerini şekillendirmedeki rolü yadsınamaz. Popüler kültür ve yeni medya arasındaki ilişkiye gelince, yeni medyanın popüler kültür oluşturma ve yayama aracı olarak önemli bir rol üst- lendiği bilinen bir gerçektir. Bu bağlamda çalışmamızın genel amaçları; popüler kültür oluşturma aracı olarak yeni medyanın ve özellikle internet ve sosyal med- yanın, genç yetişkinler üzerindeki rolünü ortaya koymak, genç yetişkinlerin hangi yeni medya mecrasını daha fazla kullandığını tespit etmektir. Bu bağlamda araş- tırma sorularımız şu şekildedir:

1. Genç yetişkinlerin yeni medyadaki (internette/sosyal medya) popüler içerik- leri takip etme alışkanlıkları nasıldır? 2. Genç yetişkinlerin yeni medyadaki (internette/sosyal medya) popüler içerik- leri paylaşma alışkanlıkları nasıldır? 3. Genç yetişkinlerin yeni medyadaki (internette/sosyal medya) en fazla takip ettikleri kişiler/hesaplar hangileridir? 4. Genç yetişkinlerin yeni medyadaki (internette/sosyal medya) popüler içerik- lere yönelik düşünceleri nelerdir?

Çalışmamızda popüler kültür oluşturma aracı olarak yeni medyanın genç yetiş- kinler üzerindeki rolünü ortaya koymak için saha araştırması yapılmıştır. Anket modelinin esas alındığı araştırmamızda açık uçlu ve kapalı uçlu soruların yan sıra likert ölçeği kullanılmıştır. Ankette öncelikle yeni medya araçlarının ne sık- lıkla kullanıldığını ortaya koymak için bir soru grubu yöneltilmiştir. Daha sonra ise internete hangi araçla girdiğini, internette en çok kimleri takip ettikleri, ortalama kaç saat geçirdikleri ve ne sıklıkla paylaşım yaptıklarına yönelik sorular so- rulmuştur. Likert ölçekli sorularda 5’li likert tekniği kullanılmış, katılımcının bir soruya katılıp katılmadıkları ve hangi düzeyde katıldıkları tespit edilmeye çalış- ması amacıyla “1 Kesinlikle Katılmıyorum, 2 Katılmıyorum, 3 Kararsızım, 4 Ka- tılıyorum, 5 Kesinlikle Katılıyorum” şeklinde yöneltilmiştir. Son olarak ise katı- lımcıların demografik özelliklerini ortaya çıkarmaya yönelik sorular sorulmuştur.

124 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Evren ve Örneklem Araştırmamız Kayseri ilinde yaşayan genç yetişkinler üzerinde yapılmıştır. Bu bağ- lamda araştırmamızın evreni Kayseri’de ikamet eden 18-30 yaş arası genç yetişkin- lerden oluşmaktadır. Evren içerisinden araştırmamızı uygulayacağımız örneklem ise basit tesadüfi örneklem tekniği ile belirlenmiştir. Bu kapsamda %95 kesinlik düzeyi ve %5 hata payı ile 382 kişi olarak belirlenmiş ancak daha sonra karşıla- şılabilecek sorunlar göz önünde bulundurularak 400 kişi esas alınması planlan- mış toplamda ise 410 kişiye anket uygulanmıştır. Anket sonuçlarının ise SPSS 22 istatistik programında bilgisayar ortamına girilip, bulgular yorumlanmıştır.

Araştırmanın Sınırlılıkları Popüler kültürün yeni medya ile yayılmasını konu aldığımız araştırmamızın temel sınırlılıkları şunlardır; • Araştırmamız evrenin tümüne ulaşılamayacağından dolayı araştırmamız ör- neklem ile sınırlanmış ve Kayseri ili merkez ilçelerinde 410 kişi üzerinde yü- rütülmüştür. • Veri toplama yöntemi anket ile sınırlıdır. • Araştırmamız genç yetişkinlere odaklandığı için 18-30 yaş arası ile sınırlanmış- tır. • 2020 yılının ocak ve şubat aylarında gerçekleştirilmiştir.

Bulgular Bu bölümde araştırmamız kapsamında yapılan analizlerin tablo haline getirilip yorumlanmıştır.

125 THE ROLE OF NEW MEDIA ON YOUNG ADULTS IN SPREADING POPULAR CULTURE: AN AMPIRIC RESEARCH IN KAYSERİ İsmailcan Doğan

Tablo 1 Katılımcıların Demografik Özellikleri

Frekans Yüzde Kadın 185 %45,1 Cinsiyet Erkek 225 %54,9 Toplam 410 100,0 18-22 yaş 194 %47,3 Yaş dağılımı 22-26 yaş 171 %41,7 26-30 yaş 45 %11,0 Toplam 410 100,0 1000 TL’den az 41 %10,0 1001 TL -2500 TL 75 %18,3 Ekonomik durum 2501 TL -3500 TL 154 %37,6 3501- TL 5000 TL 83 %20,2 5001 TL -6000 TL 23 %5,6 6001 TL ve Üstü 31 %7,6 Toplam 407 100,0 Evli 32 %7,8 Medeni durum Bekar 376 %92,2 Toplam 408 100,0

Araştırmamıza katılan deneklerin sosyo demografik özellikleri incelendiğinde; ka- dın katılımcı %45,1 erkek katılımcı ise %54,9 olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. Yaş dağı- lımına bakıldığı zaman %47,3 18-22 yaş arası, %41,7 22-26 yaş arası, %11 ise 26-30 yaş arasıdır. Buna göre araştırmaya katılanların çoğu 18-22 yaş arası genç- lerden oluşmaktadır. Katılımcıların ekonomik durumları ise %10 1000 TL’den az, %18,3 1001-2500 TL, %37,3 2501-3500 TL, %20,2 3501-5000 TL ve %7,6 ise 6001 TL ve üstü gelir düzeyine sahip bireylerden oluşmaktadır. Bu sonuca göre araştırmamıza katılan katılımcıların çoğunun orta düzey gelire sahip olduğu gö- rülmektedir. Son olarak katılımcıların medeni durumları incelendiğinde %92,2 bekarken %7,8 ise evli olduğu cevabını vermiştir. Araştırmamızın genç yetişkinler üzerinde yapılmış olmasının bu sonucun ortaya çıkmasında rol oynadığı söylenebilir.

126 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Tablo 2 Katılımcıların Yeni Medyada En Fazla Takip Ettikleri Kişiler

Sayı Yüzde Sosyal Medyada kimleri Aile Üyelerimi 326 17,1% takip ediyorsunuz? Akrabalarımı 289 15,2% Sektörün Önde Gelen İsimlerini 173 9,1% Diğer 23 1,2% Arkadaşlarımı 393 20,6% Hocalarımı 204 10,7% Sivil Toplum Örgütlerini 143 7,5% Siyasileri 138 7,2% Din Adamları 41 2,2% Fenomenleri 176 9,2% Toplam 1906* 100,0%

*Çoklu yanıt olduğundan dolayı N sayısı örneklem sayasını geçmektedir.

Araştırmamız kapsamında katılımcıların yeni medya araçlarından sosyal medyada en fazla kimleri takip ettiklerini ortaya çıkarmak için sorulan soruya verdikleri cevaplar incelendiğinde, katılımcılar %20,6 ile en fazla arkadaşlarını takip ettiklerini söylemişlerdir. İkinci sırada ise %17,1 ile aile üyeleri gelmektedir. Diğer sonuçlar ise şu şekildedir: %15,2 akrabalarımı, %10 hocalarımı, %9,2 fenomenleri, %9,1 sektörün önde gelen isimlerini, %7,5 sivil toplum örgütlerini, %7,5 sivil toplum örgütlerini %7,2 siyasileri takip etmektedirler. En az takip edilenler ise %2,2 din adamları ve %1,2 diğer olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. Ortaya çıkan sonuçlar katılımcı- ların arkadaş çevresi, aile ve akrabalarını takip ettiklerini göstermektedir. Diğer taraftan sonuçlar incelendiğinde dikkat çeken bir nokta; kanaat önderi olarak ele alınabilecek, deneklerin hocaları, sektörün önde gelen isimleri ve internet feno- menlerini takip edenlerin oranı %29 olarak ortaya çıkmıştır.

127 THE ROLE OF NEW MEDIA ON YOUNG ADULTS IN SPREADING POPULAR CULTURE: AN AMPIRIC RESEARCH IN KAYSERİ İsmailcan Doğan

Tablo 3 Katılımcıların İnternette Geçirdikleri Ortalama Süre

Sayı Yüzde 1-2 saat 61 14,9 3-4 saat 165 40,2 5-6 saat 118 28,8 7-8 saat 36 8,8 9-10 saat 18 4,4 10 saatten fazla 12 2,9 Toplam 410 100,0

Katılımcıların sosyal medyada ya da diğer yeni medya mecralarında ortalama kaç saat geçirdiklerini belirlemek için yöneltilen soruya %40,2 ortalama 3-4 saat zaman geçiririm cevabını verirken, katılımcıların %28,8’lik kısmı ortalama 5-6 saat zaman geçirdiklerini belirtmişlerdir. Diğer cevaplar incelendiğinde ise ortaya şu sonuçlar çıkmıştır. %14,9 ortalama 1-2 saat, %8,8 ortalama 7-8 saat, %4,4 ortalama 9-10 saat, %2,9 ise 10 saatten fazla zaman geçiririm cevabını vermişlerdir. Ortaya çıkan sonuçlar gençlerin azımsanamayacak bir kısmının yeni medya mec- ralarında zamanlarının önemli bir kısmını geçirdiklerini göstermektedir.

Tablo 4 Katılımcıların İnternette Paylaşım Yapma Sıklığı

Sayı Yüzde Saatte en az 1 paylaşım 4 1,0 Günde en az 1 paylaşım 32 7,8 Haftada en az 1 paylaşım 29 7,1 Ne zaman denk gelirse o zaman paylaşım yaparım 344 83,9 Toplam 409 99,8 Cevapsız 1 ,2 Toplam 410 100,0

Araştırmaya katılan deneklerin yeni medya araçlarında yaptıkları paylaşımların sıklıkları ile ilgili sorulan soruya verdikleri cevaplar incelendiğinde ortaya şu so- nuçlar çıkmaktadır: katılımcıların %83,3gibi büyük bir çoğunluğu herhangi bir zaman belirtmemiş, ne zaman denk gelirse o zaman paylaşım yaparım cevabını vermiştir. %7,8 günde en az bir defa paylaşım yaptıklarını söylerken, %7,1 ise

128 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

haftada en az bir defa paylaşım yaparım cevabını vermiştir. Saatte en az bir pay- laşım yapanların oranı ise %1’de kalmıştır.

Tablo 5 Katılımcıların Kullandıkları Yeni Medya Araçları Ortalaması

Ortalama Maximum Minimum Instagram 4,76 5,00 1,00 Twitter 3,28 5,00 1,00 Youtube 4,23 5,00 1,00 Facebook 2,58 5,00 1,00 Snapchat 1,92 5,00 1,00 Sözlük Siteleri 2,45 5,00 1,00 Swarm 1,43 5,00 1,00 Haber Siteleri 3,52 5,00 1,00 Bloglar 2,45 5,00 1,00 Whatsapp 4,73 5,00 1,00 Eposta 3,67 5,00 1,00 Forumlar 2,17 5,00 1,00 Diğer 2,07 5,00 1,00

Yeni medyanın bize sunduğu ve insanların zamanlarının önemli bir kısmını ge- çirdikleri mecra internet ve sosyal medyadır. Bu kapsamda araştırmamıza katılan deneklerin internetteki yeni medya araçlarını ve sosyal medya mecralarını kul- lanım sıklıklarını ölçmek için yöneltilen soru grubuna verilen cevapların ortala- maları incelendiğinde ortaya çıkan sonuçlar şu şekildedir: 1 ile 5 arasında verilen cevapların ortalaması 4’ün üzerinde olan sosyal medya aracı üç tanedir. Bunlar- dan ise ortalaması en yüksek olan bir fotoğraf ve video paylaşım uygulaması olan Instagramdır (4,76). İkinci sırada gelen sosyal medya aracı akıllı telefonlar için geliştirilen bir mesajlaşma ve arama uygulaması olan Whatsaapptır (4,73). Ka- tılımcıların en fazla kullandıkları üçüncü sosyal medya aracı ise video paylaşım sitesi olan Youtube web sitesidir (4,23). Katılımcıların diğer yeni medya ve sosyal medya araçlarını kullanım sıklıkları ise sırasıyla şu şekildedir; ilk üçten sonra ve ortalaması üçün üzerinde olan yeni medya araçlarından ilki e-posta olarak karşı- mıza çıkmaktadır (3,67). Daha sonra gelen ortalaması en yüksek araç haber siteleri olarak ortaya çıkmıştır (3,52). Ortalaması üçün üzerinde olan son yeni medya aracı ise bir gönderi paylaşım sitesi olan Twitterdır (3,28).

129 THE ROLE OF NEW MEDIA ON YOUNG ADULTS IN SPREADING POPULAR CULTURE: AN AMPIRIC RESEARCH IN KAYSERİ İsmailcan Doğan

Ortalaması üçün altında olan yeni medya araçlarına baktığımızda karşımıza ilk olarak bir paylaşım sitesi olan Facebbok çıkmaktadır (2,58). Daha sonra ise kişi- sel paylaşım siteleri olan blogların ve bilgi paylaşım siteleri olan sözlüklerin orta- lamaları eşittir (2,45). Ortalaması ikinin üzerinde olan forum siteleri (2,17) ve di- ğer (2,07) cevabı daha sonra gelmektedir. Kullanım sıklığı en az olan yeni medya araçları ise bir anlık mesajlaşma uygulaması olan Snapchat (1,92) ve yer bildirim sitesi olan Swarm (1,43) olmuştur.

Bu sonuçlar bize genç yetişkinlerin en fazla kullandıkları araçların fotoğraf ve video paylaşım siteleri ile anlık mesajlaşma uygulamaları olduğunu göstermektedir. Bunların başında gelen Instagram, Whatsapp ve Youtube en fazla ortalamaya sahip araçları olarak dikkat çekmektedir. Dikkat çeken bir diğer nokta ise genç ye- tişkinlerin haber sitelerini de azımsanmayacak bir biçimde takip ettikleridir. Ay- rıca Facebook’un gençler nezdinde eski önemini kaybettiği de ortaya çıkan veriler ışığında söylenebilir.

Tablo 6 Betimsel İstatistik

N Min. Max Mean S.S. Alışveriş yapmadan önce internetteki yorumlara bakarım. 405 1,00 5,00 4,0074 1,22371 İnternette üzerinden alışveriş yaparım. 403 1,00 5,00 3,8536 1,25619 İnternette siyasi gündem oluşturulabilir. 407 1,00 5,00 3,8133 1,32223 Bir filmi/diziyi izlemeden önce İnternette araştırırım. 406 1,00 5,00 3,5665 1,32935 İnternette popüler olan müzikler gündelik hayatta da 408 1,00 5,00 3,5000 1,29068 popüler olur. İnternette popüler olan müzikleri merak ederim. 410 1,00 5,00 3,4000 1,33268 Milli günlerde internette paylaşım yaparım. 408 1,00 5,00 3,3750 1,38935 Sevdiğim markaları internetten takip ederim. 404 1,00 5,00 3,2698 1,40505 Bir markanın internette olması onun değerini arttırır. 404 1,00 5,00 3,2426 1,43358 İnternette trend olan videoları takip ederim. 407 1,00 5,00 3,1966 1,30768 Özel günlerde (doğum günü vb.) İnternetten paylaşım 405 1,00 5,00 3,1284 1,47699 yaparım. Gündemle alakalı paylaşım yaparım. 403 1,00 5,00 3,1191 1,34598 İnternet üzerinden modayı takip ederim. 403 1,00 5,00 3,1141 1,41135 İnternette popüler olan bir filmi/diziyi izlerim. 404 1,00 5,00 3,0545 1,41316 Dini günlerde internette paylaşım yaparım. 407 1,00 5,00 2,9754 2,92002

130 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

N Min. Max Mean S.S. İnternette siyasi yorumlar benim için önemlidir. 407 1,00 5,00 2,9165 1,34013 İnternette siyasileri takip ederim. 407 1,00 5,00 2,8034 1,46576 İnternette en çok dinlenenler listesini takip ederim. 402 1,00 5,00 2,7239 1,36974 İnternette popüler olan ürünleri satın almak isterim. 401 1,00 5,00 2,7082 1,39361 Popüler filmlerin/dizilerin hesaplarını takip ederim. 409 1,00 5,00 2,5575 1,39581 Bilgisayar/mobil oyunu satın almadan önce internette 407 1,00 5,00 2,4791 1,43116 popüler olan oyunları araştırırım. Sevdiğim filmleri/dizileri internette paylaşırım. 406 1,00 5,00 2,4360 1,31828 Popüler bir film/dizi ile ilgili görüşlerimi internette 408 1,00 5,00 2,3529 1,29370 paylaşırım. İnternette bir anda popüler olan kişileri takip ederim. 403 1,00 5,00 2,2928 1,26908 İnternette popüler olan müzikleri paylaşırım. 403 1,00 5,00 2,2556 1,25253 İnternette siyasi paylaşım yaparım. 401 1,00 5,00 2,2469 1,30629 İnternet fenomenlerinin gündemle ilgili yorumlarını 407 1,00 5,00 2,2383 1,28259 merak ederim. İnternet fenomenlerinin tavsiye ettiği dizileri/filmleri 404 1,00 5,00 2,2228 1,24429 izlerim İnternette trend olan videoları paylaşırım. 400 1,00 5,00 2,1750 1,16523 İnternet fenomenlerinin tavsiye ettiği kitapları okurum 405 1,00 5,00 2,1654 1,18355 İnternet siyasi tercihimi etkiler. 400 1,00 5,00 2,1325 1,30545 İnternette popüler olan akımlarına katılırım. 403 1,00 5,00 2,0397 1,23321 İnternet fenomenlerinin paylaştığı ürünler satın alırım. 405 1,00 5,00 1,9185 1,12169 Satın aldığım ürünleri internette paylaşırım. 407 1,00 5,00 1,8624 1,13421 Valid N (listwise) 311

Popüler kültür ürünlerinin yayılmasında yeni medyanın rolünün ortaya konul- ması amacıyla yaptığımız çalışmamızda deneklerin, popüler kültürü yeni medyada üretimiyle beraber karşımıza çıkan formlardan olan popüler müzik, popüler video, alışveriş, siyaset, sinema, diğer paylaşımlar ve yeni medyada takip edilen po- püler fenomenler temalarıyla ilgili ifadelere verdikleri cevapların betimsel istatis- tikleri ve ortaya çıkan sonuçlar şu şekildedir;

Verilen cevaplar incelendiğinde 3,50 ve üstü ortalamaya sahip olan ifadeler şu şe- kilde ortaya çıkmıştır; “Alışveriş yapmadan önce internetteki yorumlara bakarım.” ifadesi ortalaması en yüksek olan madde olarak öne çıkmaktadır (4,00). “İnternette

131 THE ROLE OF NEW MEDIA ON YOUNG ADULTS IN SPREADING POPULAR CULTURE: AN AMPIRIC RESEARCH IN KAYSERİ İsmailcan Doğan

üzerinden alışveriş yaparım” maddesi ikinci sırada gelmektedir (3,85). “İnternette siyasi gündem oluşturulabilir.” İfadesinin ortalaması (3,81), “Bir filmi/diziyi izlemeden önce İnternette araştırırım” ifadesinin ortalaması (3,56), “İnternette popüler olan müzikler gündelik hayatta da popüler olur.” ifadesinin ortalaması ise (3,50) olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. En fazla ortalamaya sahip olan cevaplar incelendiğinde popüler kültür metalarının yayılması bağlamında katılımcıların internetteki yo- rumları dikkate aldığı görülmektedir. Satın alma davranışlarında etkili olan yo- rumların satın alınan ürün ya da hizmetin popüler hale gelmesinde etkili olduğu söylenebilir. Bu bağamda üç buçuk ortalama üstü ifadelerden olan “Bir filmi/diziyi izlemeden önce İnternette araştırırım” ve “İnternette popüler olan müzikler gün- delik hayatta da popüler olur.” İfadeleri bu yargıyı desteklemektedir. Bununla beraber ortalama değeri üç üzeri olan “internette popüler olan müzikleri merak ederim” (3,40) “İnternette trend olan videoları takip ederim” (3,19) “İnternet üzerinden mo- dayı takip ederim” (3,11) “İnternette popüler olan bir filmi/diziyi izlerim” (3,05) ifa- delerinin, katılımcıların yeni medyadaki popüler metaları merak ettiklerini, takip ettiklerini ve kullandıklarını göstermektedir.

Tablo 7 Popüler Kültürün Yayılması ile İlgili İfadelerin Frekans Analizi

Sayı Yüzde Kesinlikle Katılmıyorum 135 33,5% Katılmıyorum 138 34,2% İnternette popüler olan müzikleri paylaşırım. Fikrim yok 56 13,9% Katılıyorum 40 9,9% Kesinlikle Katılıyorum 34 8,4% Kesinlikle Katılmıyorum 62 15,2% Katılmıyorum 61 15,0% Milli günlerde internette paylaşım yaparım. Fikrim yok 45 11,0% Katılıyorum 142 34,8% Kesinlikle Katılıyorum 98 24,0% Kesinlikle Katılmıyorum 92 22,6% Katılmıyorum 83 20,4% Dini günlerde internette paylaşım yaparım. Fikrim yok 77 18,9% Katılıyorum 103 25,3% Kesinlikle Katılıyorum 52 12,8%

132 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Sayı Yüzde Kesinlikle Katılmıyorum 142 35,5% Katılmıyorum 128 32,0% İnternette trend olan videoları paylaşırım. Fikrim yok 66 16,5% Katılıyorum 46 11,5% Kesinlikle Katılıyorum 18 4,5% Kesinlikle Katılmıyorum 154 38,4% Katılmıyorum 110 27,4% İnternette siyasi paylaşım yaparım. Fikrim yok 55 13,7% Katılıyorum 48 12,0% Kesinlikle Katılıyorum 34 8,5% Kesinlikle Katılmıyorum 154 38,1% Katılmıyorum 105 26,0% İnternet fenomenlerinin tavsiye ettiği dizileri/ filmleri izlerim Fikrim yok 70 17,3% Katılıyorum 51 12,6% Kesinlikle Katılıyorum 24 5,9% Kesinlikle Katılmıyorum 159 39,3% Katılmıyorum 102 25,2% İnternet fenomenlerinin tavsiye ettiği kitapları okurum Fikrim yok 76 18,8% Katılıyorum 54 13,3% Kesinlikle Katılıyorum 14 3,5% Kesinlikle Katılmıyorum 211 51,8% Katılmıyorum 106 26,0% Satın aldığım ürünleri internette paylaşırım. Fikrim yok 42 10,3% Katılıyorum 31 7,6% Kesinlikle Katılıyorum 17 4,2% Kesinlikle Katılmıyorum 93 23,0% Katılmıyorum 54 13,3% Özel günlerde (doğum günü vb.) İnternetten paylaşım yaparım. Fikrim yok 51 12,6% Katılıyorum 122 30,1% Kesinlikle Katılıyorum 85 21,0%

133 THE ROLE OF NEW MEDIA ON YOUNG ADULTS IN SPREADING POPULAR CULTURE: AN AMPIRIC RESEARCH IN KAYSERİ İsmailcan Doğan

Sayı Yüzde Kesinlikle Katılmıyorum 187 46,4% Katılmıyorum 101 25,1% İnternette popüler olan akımlarına katılırım. Fikrim yok 50 12,4% Katılıyorum 42 10,4% Kesinlikle Katılıyorum 23 5,7% Kesinlikle Katılmıyorum 129 31,8% Katılmıyorum 106 26,1% Sevdiğim filmleri/dizileri internette paylaşırım. Fikrim yok 74 18,2% Katılıyorum 59 14,5% Kesinlikle Katılıyorum 38 9,4% Kesinlikle Katılmıyorum 133 32,6% Katılmıyorum 122 29,9% Popüler bir film/dizi ile ilgili görüşlerimi internette paylaşırım. Fikrim yok 66 16,2% Katılıyorum 50 12,3% Kesinlikle Katılıyorum 37 9,1%

Araştırmamıza katılan katılımcıların yeni medyadaki popüler kültür ürünlerinin paylaşılması ve yayılmasına yönelik olarak yöneltilen ifadelere verdikleri cevapla- rın frekans analizleri incelendiğinde öne çıkan sonuçları şu şekildedir;

Katılımcıların yeni medyada en fazla paylaşımda bulunduğu tema “Milli günlerde paylaşım yaparım” ifadesidir. Bu ifadeye katılımcıların %58,8’i çeşitli düzeylerde katıldıklarını belirtmişlerdir. %30,2 ise farklı düzeylerde bu ifadeye katılmadık- larını belirtmişlerdir. En fazla paylaşımda bulunulan popüler kültür temaları- nın ikincisi “Özel günlerde (doğum günü vb.) İnternetten paylaşım yaparım” ifadesidir. Bu maddeye katılıyorum ve kesinlikle katılıyorum cevabını verenlerin oranı %51,1 olarak ortaya çıkmaktadır. %36,3 ise olumsuz yönde cevap vermiş- tir. Yeni medyada yer alan popüler kültür ürünlerinin paylaşımı ve dolayısıyla ya- yılmasıyla ilgili verilen diğer yanıtlar şöyledir; “İnternette popüler olan müzikleri paylaşırım” ifadesine çeşitli düzeylerde olumsuz yanıt verenlerin oranı %67,7’dir. %18,3 ise çeşitli düzeylerde olumlu cevap vermişlerdir. %13,9 ise fikrim yok se- çeneğini işaretlemiştir. “Dini günlerde internette paylaşım yaparım” ifadesine ka- tılımcıların %38,1’i farklı düzeylerde katılım göstermiştir. %43 ise olumsuz cevap göstermiştir. %19,9 ise fikrim yok demiştir. “İnternette trend olan videoları

134 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

paylaşırım” ifadesine olumlu yönde katılım gösterenlerin oranı %16’dır. Bu ifadeye olumsuz yönde yanıt verenler ise %67,5 olmuştur. Bu ifadeye %16,5 fikrim yok demiştir. “İnternette siyasi paylaşım yaparım” maddesinin olumlu düzeylerde katılım gösterenlerin oranı %20,5 iken olumsuz yönlerden katılım gösterenlerin oranı %65,8dir. Fikrim yok diyenlerin oranı ise %13,7dir. “İnternet fenomenlerinin tavsiye ettiği dizileri/filmleri izlerim” ifadesine %18,5 olumlu düzeylerde ka- tılım gösterirken, olumsuz düzeylerde cevap verenlerin yüzdesi %64,3 olmuştur. %17,3 ise fikri olmadığını belirtmiştir. “İnternet fenomenlerinin tavsiye ettiği kitap- ları okurum” ifadesine katılımcıların %16,8’i olumlu yanıtlar verirken, %64,5 bu ifadeye olumsuz yanıtlar vermişlerdir. %,8 ise fikri olmadığını söylemiştir. “Satın aldığım ürünleri internette paylaşırım” ifadesine çeşitli düzeylerde katılım gösteren- lerin oranı %11,8 olarak ortaya çıkarken, %77,8 ise paylaşmadığı yönünde cevap vermiştir. Bu ifadeye fikrim yok diyenlerin oranı ise %10,3tür. “İnternette popü- ler olan akımlarına katılırım” ifadesine farklı düzeylerde %16,1’lik bir oran katıl- dığını belirtmiştir. Katılmadığını belirtenlerin oranı %71,5 olarak ortaya çıkmış- tır. %12,4 ise fikrim yok demiştir. “Sevdiğim filmleri/dizileri internette paylaşırım” ifadesinin frekansı incelendiğinde ise %23,9 farklı düzeylerde paylaşırım derken %57,9 farklı düzeylerde paylaşmam cevabını vermiştir. %18,2 ise fikrim yok se- çeneğini işaretlemiştir. “Son olarak Popüler bir film/dizi ile ilgili görüşlerimi internette paylaşırım” ifadesine verilen cevaplara baktığımızda ise %21,4 çeşitli düzey- lerde görüşlerini paylaştığını belirtirken bu ifadeye olumsuz bakanların oranı ise toplamda %62,5 olmuştur. %16,2 ise fikrim yok demiştir.

Bu sonuçlardan hareketle genç yetişkinlerin popüler kültür ürünlerinin yayılma- sında azımsanmayacak düzeyde bir rol oynadığını söyleyebiliriz. Popüler kültür ürünlerinin yayılması ile ilgili olarak en fazla özel günlerde yapılan paylaşımlar dikkat çekerken diğer konularda yapılan paylaşımlar da önemli bir yer tutmak- tadır. Diğer taraftan katılımcıların satın aldıkları ürünleri yeni medya araçlarında çoğunlukla paylaşmadığı ayrıca büyük kısmının popüler olan akımlara katılma- dığı sonucu da dikkat çeken diğer sonuçlardır.

Ki-Kare Testi Sonuçları

Araştırmamız kapsamında yapılan karşılaştırmalı analizlerden birisi olan ki-kare testi (chi-squared test) sonucunda aralarında anlamlı bir ilişkinin olduğu tespit edilen değişkenlerden ilki “internetteki popüler müzikleri merak ederim” ifadesi ile katılımcıların yaşları arasındaki ilişkidir (x2 = 35,421 sd=8 p= 0,000).

135 THE ROLE OF NEW MEDIA ON YOUNG ADULTS IN SPREADING POPULAR CULTURE: AN AMPIRIC RESEARCH IN KAYSERİ İsmailcan Doğan

Sonuçlar incelendiğinde ifadeye katılmıyorum diyenlerin %44,4’ü 18-22 yaş ara- lığında, %43,1 23-25 yaş aralığında, %12,5 ise 26- 30 yaş aralığındadır. İfadeye katılıyorum diyenlerin yaş aralığına baktığımızda ise katılımcıların %52,6’sı 18- 22 yaş aralığında, %42,8 23-26 yaş aralığında ve %4,6 ise 26-30 yaş aralığındadır. İfadeye kesinlikle katılıyorum diyenlerin yaş aralıkları ise %51,1 18-22 yaş arası, %42,4 23-26 yaş arası ve son olarak %6,5 ise 26-30 yaş arasındadır.

Ortaya çıkan bu sonuçlar genç yetişkinler içerisinde yaş aralığının yükseldikçe yeni medya araçlarından olan internetteki popüler müzikleri merak edenlerin oranı- nın azaldığını göstermektedir. Bir başka ifadeyle yaşı genç olanlar dijital ortam- daki popüler olan müzikleri daha fazla merak etmektedir.

“İnternette en çok dinlenenler listesini takip ederim” ifadesiyle katılımcıların yaşları karşılaştırıldığında anlamlı bir ilişki ortaya çıkmıştır (x2= 25,021 sd=8 p= 0,002). Bu bağlamda otaya çıkan sonuçları şöyledir; bu ifadeye aralığı 18-22 olanların %17,7’si, 23-26 yaş aralığındakilerin %24,7’si ve 26-30 yaş aralığındakilerin ise %50’si kesinlikle katılmıyorum cevabını vermişlerdir. Katılıyorum satısına baktı- ğımızda; 18-22 yaş aralığındakilerin %24’ü, 23-26 yaş aralığındakilerin %23,5’i ve 26-30 yaş aralığındakilerin ise %9,1’i katılıyorum cevabını vermiştir. Kesinlikle katılıyorum diyenlerde ise 18-22 yaş arasındakilerin %14,6’sı, 23-26 yaş aralığın- dakilerin %12’si ve 26-30 yaş aralığındakilerin ise %4,5’i kesinlikle katılıyorum cevabını verdiği görülmektedir. Buradan hareketle yaşı geç olan katılımcıların internette en çok dinlenenler listesini takip etme alışkanlıklarının daha ileri yaşta- kilere oranla daha fazla olduğu görülmektedir. Bir başka deyişle yaş arttıkça internette en çok dinlenenler listesini takip etme düzeyinin düştüğü görülmektedir. Bu bağlamda popüler kültür ürünlerden olan yeni medyadaki popüler müzikleri gençlerin daha fazla takip ettiği söylenebilir.

Araştırmamız kapsamında deneklere yöneltilen ifadelerden birisi olan milli gün- lerde internetten paylaşım yaparım maddesidir. Milli, dini veya özel günlerde özellikle sosyal medyadan paylaşım yapmak toplumda popüler bir durumdur. Bu bağlamda popüler kültürün bir ritüeli haline geldiğini söylemek yanlış olmaz. Bu bağlamda ortaya çıkan sonuçlarda milli günlerde yapılan paylaşım ile katılımcıla- rın gelir düzeyleri arasında anlamlı bir ilişki ortaya çıkmıştır (x2= 40,288 sd=20 p= 0,005). Sonuçlar incelendiğinde kesinlikle katılıyorum diyenlerin satırında ortaya çıkan sonuçlara göre; 100 TL altında gelire sahip olanların %7,5’i, 1001-2500 TL gelire sahip olanların %21,3’ü, 2501-3500 TL gelire sahip olanların %24,7’si,

136 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

3501-5000 TL gelire sahip olanların %26,8’i, 5001-6000 TL gelire sahip olan- ların %30,7’si ve 6001 TL ve üstü gelire sahip olanların %38,7’si milli günlerde internette paylaşım yaparım ifadesine kesenlikle katılıyorum cevabını vermişler- dir. Buradan hareketle gelir düzeyi arttıkça milli günlerde internetten paylaşım yapanların sayısının da arttığı görülmektedir.

Yeni medyada popüler kültürü besleyen içeriklerden bir tanesi de videolardır. Özel- likle belirli dönemlerde popüler olan videolar popüler kültürü yaymada rol oy- namaktadır. Araştırmamız kapsamında deneklerin İnternette Popüler olan vide- oları paylaşırım ifadesine verdikleri cevaplar ile yaşları arasında anlamlı bir ilişki ortaya çıkmıştır (x2= 26,441 sd=8 p= 0,001). Ortaya çıkan sonuçlar katılıyorum ve katılmıyorum seçeneklerine verilen cevaplar yaş itibariyle incelendiğinde şu şe- kildedir; İnternette Popüler olan videoları paylaşırım ifadesine katılmıyorum ce- vabını verenlerde 18-22 yaş arasında %37,4, 23-26 yaş arasında %29,8 ve 26-30 yaş arasında ise %1708 olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. Diğer taraftan İnternette Popüler olan videoları paylaşırım ifadesine katılıyorum cevabı verenlerin yaş içerisindeki dağılımı; %13,9 18-22 yaş, %10,1 23-26 yaş ve %6,7 ise 26-30 yaş aralığında olduğu görülmektedir. Bu sonuçlar bize internetteki popüler videoları gençlerin daha fazla paylaştığını göstermektedir. Yani popüler videoların yayılmasında yaş arttıkça paylaşım yapanların sayısı azalmaktadır.

Araştırmamızda yapılan analizde katılımcıların Alışveriş yapmadan önce internetten yorumları okurum ifadesine verdikleri cevaplarla yaşları arasında anlamlı bir ilişki ortaya çıkmıştır (x2= 26,205 sd=8 p= 0,001). Alışveriş yapmadan önce internetten yorumları okurum ifadesine verilen cevapların yaş içerisindeki dağılımları incelendiğinde kesinlikle katılmıyorum satırında 18-22 yaş aralığındaki katılım- cıların %5,8’i, 23-26 yaş aralığındaki katılımcıların %7,6’sı ve 26- 30 yaş aralı- ğındaki katılımcıların ise %25’i bu ifadeye kesinlikle katılmıyorum demişlerdir. Katılmıyorum satırı incelendiğinde 18-22 yaş arasının %4,2’si, 23-26 yaş arsının %4,7’si ve 26- 30 yaş arasının %11,4’ü bu ifadeye katılmadıklarını belirtmişlerdir.

Diğer taraftan kesinlikle katılıyorum cevabını verenlere baktığımızda 18-22 yaş aralığında %47,1, 23-26 yaş aralığında %45,9 ve 26- 30 yaş aralığında %22,7 kesinlikle katılıyorum cevabını vermiştir. ortaya çıkan sonuçlara göre gençlerin Alış- veriş yapmadan önce internetten yorumları yaşı büyük olanlara göre daha fazla okuduğu görülmektedir.

137 THE ROLE OF NEW MEDIA ON YOUNG ADULTS IN SPREADING POPULAR CULTURE: AN AMPIRIC RESEARCH IN KAYSERİ İsmailcan Doğan

Yapılan ki-kare testi sonuçlarında göre “internet üzerinden modayı takip ederim” ifadesi ile katılımcıların yaşları arasında anlamı bir ilişki vardır (x2= 36,020 sd=8 p= 0,00). Buna göre kesinlikle katılmıyorum diyenlerin yaş içerisindeki dağılım- ları;18-22 yaş arasında %11,6, 23-26 yaş arasında %20,2, 26-30 yaş arasında ise %44,4 olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. Diğer taraftan katılıyorum diyenlere baktığımızda ise 18-22 yaş aralığında %32,1, 22-26 yaş aralığında %31 ve 26-30 yaş aralığında %13,3 olmuştur. Kesinlikle katılıyorum cevabını verenlerde ise; 18-22 yaş ara- lığında %23,7, 23-26 yaş aralığında %17,9, 26-30 yaş aralığında ise %4,4 olarak ortaya çıkmıştır.

Ortaya çıkan sonuçlara göre yaşı genç olanların yaşı daha ileri olanlara göre İnter- net üzerinden modayı daha fazla takip ettikleri söylenebilir. Bilinildiği gibi moda da popüler kültürle ilgili bir kavramıdır ve insanların yaşam tarzlarını etkilemektedir. Gençlerin daha fazla modayı takip etmesi ve bu takibin yeni medya üze- rinden yapılması popüler kültürün gençler üzerindeki etkisi bakımından önemli bir sonuçtur denilebilir.

T- Testi

Tablo 8 T Testi

İfadeler Cinsiyet N SS t-value SD Sig. İnternette popüler olan Kadın 185 3,63 1,29 3,23 408 ,001 müzikleri merak ederim. Erkek 225 3,20 1,33 İnternette siyasi yorumlar benim Kadın 184 2,71 1,33 -2,82 405 ,005 için önemlidir. Erkek 223 3,05 1,32 İnternet üzerinden modayı takip Kadın 182 3,48 1,34 4,98 401 ,000 ederim. Erkek 221 2,80 1,39 Sevdiğim markaları internetten Kadın 181 3,59 1,35 4,22 402 ,000 takip ederim. Erkek 223 3,00 1,39

Araştırmamız kapsamında katılımcıların yeni medyadaki içeriklerle cinsiyetleri arasındaki farklılıkları Tablo 8’de görülmektedir. Aralarında anlamlı ilişki bulunan ifadeler katılımcıların cinsiyetleri itibariyle, “internette popüler olan müzikleri merak ederim, internette siyasi yorumlar benim için önemlidir, internet üzerin- den modayı takip ederim ve sevdiğim markaları internetten takip ederim” ifade- leridir. Yapılan t testi sonuçlarına göre internette popüler olan müzikleri kadın- lar erkeklere oranla daha fazla merak etmektedirler. İnternetteki siyasi yorumlar

138 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

ise erkekler için daha önemlidir. Diğer yandan kadınlar erkeklere göre internet üzerinden modayı daha fazla takip etmektedirler. Son olarak ise kadınlar erkeklere oranla sevdikleri markaları internetten daha fazla takip etme eğilimindedirler.

Sonuç

Sanayi devrimi ile insanların boş zamanlarının artması ve kitle iletişim teknoloji- lerindeki gelişmeler bireylerin kitle iletişim araçları ile geçirdikleri zamanı da art- tırmıştır. Öyle ki kitle iletişim araçları insanların günlük yaşamlarının vazgeçil- mez bir parçası haline gelmiştir. Bu durum insanların kitle iletişim araçlarından etkilenmesi, onların düşünce ve yaşam tarzlarının bu araçlarla biçimlenmesini beraberinde getirmiştir (Giddens, 2008: 207-208). Dolaysıyla kaçınılmaz olarak kitle iletişim araçları geçmişten günümüze kültürü de etkilermiş, kültürün oluş- masında ve aktarılmasında önemli bir rol oynamıştır. Özellikle popüler kültürün yayılmasında kitle iletişim araçları önemli bir yere sahiptir.

Günümüzde her alanda olduğu gibi kitle iletişim alanında da teknolojik değiş- meler ve gelişmeler yaşanmaya devam etmektedir. Nitekim literatüre yeni medya kavramının girmesi bunun bir göstergesidir. Yeni medya araçlarından birisi olan internet ise günümüzde en hızlı gelişen kitle iletişim aracı olarak karşımıza çık- maktadır. Günümüzde insanların gündelik hayatlarının önemli bir bölümünü ge- çirdikleri bu araç hiç şüphesiz diğer kitle iletişim araçlarının yaptığı gibi insanları birçok yönden etkisi altına almaktadır. Bu bağlamda popüler kültür ürünlerinin de kendisine yer bulduğu internet ve sosyal medya hem popüler kültürün üre- tilmesi noktasında hem yayılması noktasında rol almaktadır. Buradan hareketle popüler kültürün yayılmasında yeni medyanın internet ve sosyal medyaya odak- lanarak nasıl bir rol üstlendiğini, genç yetişkinler üzerinde ortaya çıkarmak için yapılan araştırmamızın öne çıkan sonuçları şu şekilde olmuştur:

• Genç yetişkinler yeni medya araçlarından internette en fazla Whatsapp, Ins- tagram ve Youtube’da zaman geçirmektedirler. • En fazla takip etikleri hesaplar; aile, arkadaş çevresi ve akrabalarla birlikte, hocalar ve sektörün önde gelen isimlerinin de genç yetişkinler tarafından takip edildikleri görülmüştür. • Popüler kültür ürünlerinin yayılmasında gençler internet ve sosyal medyayı önemli bir ölçüde kullanmaktadırlar. Popüler müziklerin takip etmekte ve

139 THE ROLE OF NEW MEDIA ON YOUNG ADULTS IN SPREADING POPULAR CULTURE: AN AMPIRIC RESEARCH IN KAYSERİ İsmailcan Doğan

paylaşmakta, özel günlerde internetten paylaşım yapmakta, popüler videoları takip etmekte olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. • Gençlerde yaş arttıkça internetteki popüler müzikleri merak edenlerin oranı- nın azaldığını sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. • Yaş arttıkça internette en çok dinlenenler listelerini daha az takip ettikleri son- cuna ulaşılmıştır. • Gelir düzeyi daha yüksek olan katılımcıların milli günlerde daha fazla payla- şım yaptıkları sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. • Yaş arttıkça internetteki popüler olan videoları daha az paylaşıldığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. • Yaşı daha genç olanlar alışveriş yapmadan önce internetteki yorumları, yaşı daha ileri olanlara göre daha fazla okuduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. • Yaşı daha genç olanların internetten modayı daha fazla takip ettikleri sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.

Bununla beraber ortaya çıkan sonuçlara göre internetteki popüler müzikleri ka- dınlar erkeklere göre daha fazla merak etmektedir. Siyasi yorumları ise erkekler kadınlara göre daha fazla önemsemektedir. Son olarak ise kadınlar sevdikleri markaları internette erkeklerden daha fazla takip ettikleri sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.

Sonuç olarak yeni medya araçlarının popüler kültürün yayılmasında genç yetiş- kinler üzerindeki rolünün araştırıldığı çalışmamızda, internet ve sosyal medyanın hem kullanıcıları hem tüketicileri olan bireylerin, popüler kültürün yayılmasında internet ve sosyal medyadan hem etkilendikleri hem de bizzat içinde bulunduk- ları görülmektedir. Konuyla ilgili daha büyük ve daha geniş yaş aralığında yapı- lacak olan çalışmalar ise literatüre katkı sağlayacaktır.

Kaynakça

Doğan, İ. C. (2014). Propaganda aracı olarak internet:Kayseri ili merkez seç- meni üzerinde bir alan araştırması (Yayınlanmış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Konya: Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Dreyer,, D. R. (2011). Learning from Popular Culture: The “Politics” of Com- petitive Reality Television Programs. PS: Political Science and Po- litics, 44(2). Erdoğan, İ. (2001). Popüler Kültürde Gasp ve Popülerin Gayri Meşruluğu. Doğu Batı(15), 67-96.

140 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Erdoğan, İ. (2004). Popüler Kültürün Ne Olduğu Üzerine. Bilim ve Aklın Ay- dınlığında Eğitim Dergisi Popüler Kültür ve Gençlik Özel Sayı- sı(57), 7-19. Erdoğan, İ., & Korkmaz, A. (2005). Popüler Kültür ve İletişim ( (Genişletilmiş 2. Baskı) b.). Ankara: Erk Yayınları. Fowles, J. (1996). Advertising and Popular Culture. CA: Sage. Gıddens, A. (2008). Sosyoloji. İstanbul: Kırmızı Yayınları. Karaduman, N. (2017). Popüler Kültürün Oluşmasında ve Aktarılmasında Sosyal Medyanın Rolü. Erciyes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ensti- tüsü Dergisi, 31(43), 113-133. Marshall, G. (1999). Sosyoloji Sözlüğü. Ankara: Bilim ve Sanat Yayınları. Mayfıeld, A.(2008). www.icrossing.co.uk. 03.04.2020 tarihinde http://www. icrossing.co.uk/fileadmin/uploads/eBooks/What_is_Social_Me- dia_iCros sing_ebook.pdf adresinden alındı Nalçaoğlu, H. (2005). Medya ve Toplum. S. ALANKUŞ içinde, Medya ve Top- lum İlişkisini Anlamak Üzere Bir Çerçeve (s. 51-64). İstanbul: IPS İletişim Vakfı Yayınları. Oktay, A. (1995). Türkiye’de Popüler Kültür (3. Baskı b.). İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Pendergast, T., & Pendergast, S. (2000). Encyclopedia of Popular Culture. Det- roit:: St. James Press. Şentürk , Ü. (2007). Popüler Kültür Örneği Olarak Spor. C.Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 31(1), 25-41.

141

8 APPLICATION AND EVALUATION OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE PREVENTION TRAINING PROGRAM ON HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS / LİSE ÖĞRENCİLERİ ÜZERİNDE MADDE BAĞIMLILIĞI ÖNLEME EĞİTİM PROGRAMININ UYGULAMA VE DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ1 Yasemin Özkan (Hacettepe University), Meryem Danışmaz Sevin (Hacettepe University), Nihan Balşık Kaya (Hacettepe University)

Abstract The purpose of this study is to provide high school students with information and awareness training for preventing substance addiction and to analyze the effectiveness of this education. In the research, a quasi-experimental study based on pre-test and post-test model with single experimental group was conducted. The study group of this research consists of 197 volunteer students studying in Vocational and Techni- cal Anatolian High Schools in Altındağ, Etimesgut, Mamak and Pursaklar districts of Ankara. The data were studied in the SPSS 23 program with a 95% confidence level and the difference between the answers given to the questions before and after the training was analyzed with the Chi-square test. As a result of the research; When the situations of seeing substance use as harmful (p = 0.000), thinking that substance use causes diseases (p = 0.000) and thinking that substance use causes people from problems (p = 0.000) were analyzed before and after the training, a statistically significant relationship was found. As a result, suggestions were presented on the necessity of

1 Bu çalışma, YEŞİLAY Mali Destek Programı kapsamında desteklenen YEŞİLAY BAM 2016/ 137 nolu proje çalışmasından üretilmiştir.

143 APPLICATION AND EVALUATION OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE PREVENTION TRAINING PROGRAM ON HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS Yasemin Özkan, Meryem Danışmaz Sevin, Nihan Balşık Kaya

preventive and preventive studies for high school students who are likely to meet the substance at any time, especially due to their age.

Keywords: Substance addiction, Addiction prevention, Protective-preventive work, School-based preventive programs, High school students

Giriş

Son yıllarda, dünyada ve Türkiye’de lise öğrencileri arasında madde kullanım oran- larının artış gösterdiği bilinmektedir. Avrupa Uyuşturucu ve Uyuşturucu Bağım- lılığını İzleme Merkezi (EMCDDA) tarafından hazırlanan “Avrupa Uyuşturucu Raporu: Eğilimler ve Gelişmeler (2019) adlı çalışmasında”, uyuşturucu kullanı- mının geçmişe oranla çok daha geniş bir madde dizisini kapsadığı, kullan kişiler arasında çoklu madde tüketiminin yaygınlık kazandığı, esrar kullanımının yaygın- lığının da diğer maddelere göre beş kat daha fazla olduğu ve tedaviye giren esrar kullanıcılarının ilk kullanımdaki ortalama yaşı 17 olduğu ortaya çıkmıştır. Tür- kiye’de yapılan araştırmalar da bu çalışmaya benzer sonuçlar göstermektedir. Tür- kiye Uyuşturucu Raporuna göre (2019) Türkiye genelinde 2017 yılında toplam 118.482 uyuşturucu olayı görülmüşken, 2018 yılında % 22,23 artış göstererek 144.819 olay meydana gelmiştir. Bu olaylar da bir önceki yıla göre %21,13’lük artış göstermiştir. Yine aynı raporda, 2018 yılında hayatında en az bir kere madde kullananların %94’ü erkek, %6’sı ise kadındır. Yaş grubu değişkenine göre in- celendiğinde; 15-24 yaş grubu %35,4, 25-34 yaş grubu %30, 35-44 yaş grubu %18,3, 45-54 yaş grubu %7,8 ve 55-64 yaş grubu %8,5 olduğu görülmüştür. Bu rapora göre en yoğun yaş grubu 15-34 yaş grubudur (%65) ve maddeyi ilk kullanım yaş ortalaması 19’dur.

Yapılan çalışmalarda görüldüğü gibi ilk madde kullanım yaş ortalamasının ergenlik dönemine denk gelmesi de ayrıca, bağımlılık için önemli bir risk unsurudur. Ergenlik genellikle 11- 12 yaşından onlu yaşların sonuna ya da yirmi yaşların ba- şına kadar bir yayılım gösterse de ergenliğin ne zaman başladığı ve ne zaman bit- tiği değişiklik göstermektedir. Ergenlik çocukla yetişkinlik arasındaki geçiş dönemi olarak karakterize edilir ve bu dönemde gençler, bedensel ve cinsel bakımdan ol- gunlaşır (Zastrow ve Kirst- Ashman, 2016). Bu dönemde bireyler cinsellikle ilgi- lenme, hem aile hem de akran ilişkilerinde önemli değişimler, kendi kararlarını

144 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

daha iyi alabilme, kendilerinin daha fazla farkına varma ve daha bağımsız olma gibi değişimler yaşamaktadır (Santrock, 2005).

Literatürde ergenlerde, silah tasıma, suc isleme, kavgaya karısma, evden kacma, erken yasta ve korunmasız cinsel iliskiye girme, akademik basarısızlık, intihara tesebbus, kendine zarar verme gibi davranışların madde kullanımı ile birlikte sıkça görüldüğünü doğrulanmaktadır (Crosby ve ark., 2004; La Greca, Prins- tein ve Fetter, 2001; Lindberg, Boggess ve Williams, 2000; akt. Erdem, Eke, Ögel ve Taner, 2006). Maddelere ve madde kullanımına ilişkin yeterli düzeyde bilgisi ve farkındalığı olmayan ergenlerin eğlenmek, çevresinde madde kulla- nanların var olması, arkadaş özellikleri (örneğin; anti-sosyal vb.) maddenin kolay erişilebilir olması, aile içi ilişkilerin zayıf olması, yaşadıkları sorunlarından uzaklaşması, merak, yeni zevkleri tatma isteği, heyecan arama ve ısrarlara daya- namama gibi çeşitli nedenlerle madde kullandıkları görülmüştür (Ögel, 2010). Bunun yanı sıra ergenlerin madde ile tanışmasında koruyucu bir faktör olarak kabul edilen “hayır deme” becerisine sahip olmayan ergenler, sosyal çevresinin etkisiyle maddeyle tanışabilmekte ve bağımlılığa giden sürecin içine dâhil ol- maktadır (McNeal ve Hansen, 1999).

Madde bağımlılığı ile mücadelede koruyucu ve önleyici hizmetlerin yanında ba- ğımlılığı iyileştirmeye dönük müdahale yöntemleri de kuşkusuz karmaşık ve zorlu aşamaları içeren bir süreci kapsamaktadır (Işık, 2018). Madde bağımlılığını ön- leme ve mücadelede koruyucu, önleyici ve iyileştirici tedbirler toplumdan topluma farklılık göstermekle birlikte bunlar birincil önleme (primary prevention), ikin- cil önleme (secondary prevention) ve üçüncül önleme (tertiary prevention) şek- lindedir. Maddeyle tanışmamış ancak içinde bulunduğu yaşı itibariyle maddeyle tanışma ihtimali yüksek çocuklara/ ergenlere yönelik yapılacak çalışmalar birincil önleme ya da başka bir deyişle koruyucu önleyici çalışmaları oluşturmaktadır. Bu önleme çalışmalarında temel hedef, madde deneyimi olmamış bireylerde madde kullanmaya başlamanın, madde kullanmayı denemiş ve/veya madde kullanımına devam eden fakat bağımlı olmayan kişilerde ise madde bağımlılığına geçişin en- gellenmesidir. Bu bağlamda kuşkusuz pek çok sosyal sorunda olduğu gibi madde bağımlılığı ile mücadelede de en etkili yöntemlerden biri bu koruyucu çalışmalar hem okullar hem de kitle iletişim araçları ve sivil toplum kurumları aracılığıyla hazırlanmalı ve ergenlerin bağımlılık davranışları geliştirmelerinin önüne geçilme- lidir (Sales, 2005; akt Çoşkun, 2006).

145 APPLICATION AND EVALUATION OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE PREVENTION TRAINING PROGRAM ON HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS Yasemin Özkan, Meryem Danışmaz Sevin, Nihan Balşık Kaya

Bu bağlamda araştırmanın temel amacı; lise öğrencilerine madde bağımlılığını önlemeye dönük bilgilendirme ve farkındalık eğitimi vererek bu eğitimin etkilili- ğini analiz etmektir. Eğitim kapsamında lise öğrencilerinde bağımlılık yapıcı maddelere, bağımlılığın nasıl geliştiğine, toplum sağlığı açısından olumsuz etkilerine, toplum içinde var olan maddeye yönelik yanlış inanç ve tutumlara ve hayır diyebilmenin önemine ilişkin farkındalık kazandırılması yer almaktadır.

Yöntem Araştırmanın Modeli Nicel araştırma desenine dayalı yapılan bu çalışmada ön-test ve son-test kullanı- larak yarı deneysel bir çalışma gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırmada madde bağımlılığı konusunda koruyucu önleyici nitelikteki eğitim programının, ergenlerin bağımlı- lık yapıcı maddeye ilişkin görüşleri, madde kullanımını zararlı görme durumları, madde kullanımının hastalıklara yol açma durumları ve maddenin sorunlardan uzaklaştırdığı düşüncelerine ilişkin görüşleri üzerinde oluşturduğu etki incelenmiştir.

Çalışma Grubu Bu araştırmanın çalışma grubunu, Türkiye’de madde kullanım oranın yüksek ol- duğu düşünülen Ankara ilinde bulunan bölgelerdeki Mesleki ve Teknik Anadolu Liselerinde öğrenim gören ve amaca uygun örneklem yöntemi ile belirlenen lise öğrencileri oluşturmaktadır (Aziz, 2015). Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu belirlerken ilk aşamada bağımlılık konusu ile ilgili literatür taranmış ve madde kul- lanımı ile düşük sosyoekonomik seviye arasında bir ilişki olduğu bulunmuştur (Ögel, 2010). Bu nedenle, Ankara (Altındağ, Etimesgut, Mamak, Pursaklar) ilinde sosyoekonomik seviye bakımından orta ve düşük seviyede olan ilçeler araştırma kapsamına alınmıştır. Çalışma grubunu belirlerken ikinci aşamada, hem liseler arasında taban yerleşme puanının hem de akademik başarının düşük olması yu- karıda belirtilen ilçelerdeki Mesleki ve Teknik Anadolu Liselerinin seçim kriterini oluşturmuştur. Araştırma kapsamına Altındağ, Etimesgut, Mamak ve Pursaklar ilçelerinde bulunan ve bu ilçelerde öğrenci sayısı en fazla olan Mesleki ve Teknik Anadolu Liselerinde öğrenim gören gönüllü öğrencilerin %5’i dâhil edilmiştir.

Bu araştırmada 24- 30 Nisan 2018 tarihleri arasında koruyucu- önleyici kapsamda eğitim verilen okullara ait öğrenci sayıları ve araştırma kapsamına dâhil edilen ör- neklem sayısı aşağıdaki tabloda verilmiştir:

146 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

İl İlçe Öğrenci Sayısı Çalışma Grubu Sayısı(%5) Altındağ 1710 86 Etimesgut 1330 67 Ankara Mamak 1760 88 Pursaklar 1029 52 Toplam 5829 293

Veri Toplama Araçları

Lise öğrencilerine madde bağımlılığını önlemeye dönük bilgilendirme ve farkın- dalık eğitimi vermek ve bu eğitimin etkililiğini ölçmek amacıyla yapılan bu ça- lışmada, araştırmacılar tarafından ulusal ve uluslararası literatür taranarak geliş- tirilen anket formu kullanılmıştır. Anket formu dağıtılmadan önce öğrencilere anketin doğru bir şekilde cevaplandırılması için bilgilendirilmiş onam okunmuş- tur ve anketin ve eğitimin amacı hakkında açıklamalar yapılmıştır. Eğitim çalış- malarından önce öğrencilere “Lisedeki öğrencilerin madde bağımlılığına ilişkin görüşleri ”anket formu dağıtılmıştır. Öğrencilerden çalışmaya başlamadan önce öncelikle gizlilik/ etik ilkelere uygun davranmak ve kendilerini daha özgür ve ta- rafsız ifade edebilmeleri için anketlere isim yazmak yerine bir rumuz vermeleri istenmiştir. Madde bağımlılığına yönelik verilecek olan koruyucu-önleyici eğiti- minin ardından bu eğitimin etkililiğini ölçmek amacıyla eğitim öncesinde verilen anket formu eğitim sonrasında da yeniden dağıtılmıştır.

Araştırmacılar tarafından hazırlanan bu anket formunda öğrencilerin sosyo- de- mografik bilgilerini (cinsiyet, yaş, arkadaş çevresi, kiminle birlikte yaşadığı, anne- baba birlikteliği, anne- baba ayrı olma sebebi, anne- baba eğitim durumu) elde etmenin yanı sıra öğrencilerin madde bağımlılığına ilişkin bilgi ve görüşlerini (ailede veya arkadaş çevresinde madde kullanma durumu, aile ve çevresinde madde kullanım nedenleri, maddenin yol açtığı hastalıklar, madde kullanmanın olumsuz etkileri, madde kullanımının kontrol edilebilirliği, madde kullanan insanları nasıl tanımladıkları, esrarın araba kullanma üzerindeki etkisi, eroinin saldırgan davranışlara yol açması, ecstasy bağımlılık yapması vb. gibi) de ölçmeye yönelik sorular yer almaktadır.

Bu araştırmada veri toplama aracı olarak kullanılan anket formu toplam 293 öğ- renciye uygulanmıştır. Fakat veri toplama aracının eksik/ yanlış doldurulması ve/

147 APPLICATION AND EVALUATION OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE PREVENTION TRAINING PROGRAM ON HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS Yasemin Özkan, Meryem Danışmaz Sevin, Nihan Balşık Kaya

veya araştırmacıların tüm kontrollerine rağmen öğrencilerin eğitim öncesinde doldurulan anket formu ile eğitim sonrasında doldurulan anket formuna verdikleri rumuzların eşleşmemesi nedeniyle veriler toplam 197 öğrenci üzerinden de- ğerlendirilmiştir.

Eğitim Programı Deney grubundaki öğrencilere uygulanan eğitim programı, maddeye yönelik merak uyandırmayacak şekilde 45 dakikalık tek oturum biçiminde olmak üzere dü- zenlenmiştir ve araştırma ekibi ve Yeşilay’ın alanında uzman formatörleri tarafın- dan verilmiştir. Madde bağımlılığına yönelik koruyucu önleyici kapsamda verilen bu eğitimin içeriği şu şekildedir: • Madde bağımlılığı nedir ve bağımlılık yapan maddeler nelerdir? • Bağımlılığın zararları nelerdir? • Bağımlılık süreci nasıl başlar ve ilerler? • Madde kullanmaya nerede ve ne zaman davet edilir? • Madde kullananların sığındıkları gerekçeler nelerdir? • Madde kullanımını reddeden genci bekleyen klişeler nelerdir? • Bağımlılıktan korunmada hayır diyebilmenin önemi nedir? • Madde kullanan arkadaşın veya aile üyeleri için neler yapılmalıdır? • Okuldaki disiplin süreci nasıl işler ve cezalar nelerdir?

İşlem Verilerin analizi SPSS 23 programı ile yapılmış ve %95 güven düzeyi ile çalışıl- mıştır. Tüm kategorik değişkenlerin frekans (f) ve yüzde (%) değerleri verilmiş- tir. Çalışmada eğitim öncesi ve sonrası sorulara verilen cevaplar arasındaki farklı- lık iki kategorik değişken arasındaki ilişkinin belirlenmesinde kullanılan Ki kare testi ile analiz edilmiştir.

148 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Bulgular

Tablo 1. Ergenlere İlişkin Sosyo- Demografik Bilgiler

N % Kız 32 16,2 Cinsiyet Erkek 165 83,8 15 yaş ve altı 101 51,3 Yaş 16 yaş üstü 96 48,7 9. sınıf 153 77,7 Sınıf düzeyi 10.-12. sınıf 44 22,3 Okul 97 49,7 Akraba 14 7,2 Arkadaş çevresi Okul dışı 66 33,8 Sosyal medya 18 9,2 Birlikte olan 161 84,7 Anne baba birlikteliği Birlikte olmayan 29 15,3 Anne baba boşandı. 19 65,5 Anne baba ayrı yaşıyor. 3 10,3 Anne-baba ayrı olma nedeni Anne vefat etti. 3 10,3 Baba vefat etti. 4 13,8 Okuryazar değil 14 7,1 İlkokul 85 43,1 Ortaokul 65 33,0 Anne öğretim durumu Lise 30 15,2 Yüksekokul 1 ,5 Üniversite 2 1,0 Okuryazar değil 5 2,5 İlkokul 51 25,9 Ortaokul 76 38,6 Baba öğretim durumu Lise 53 26,9 Yüksekokul 2 1,0 Üniversite 10 5,1

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Öğrencilerin çoğunluğu (%83,8) erkek, yarısından fazlası (%51,3) 15 yaş ve altı ve yine çoğunluğu (%77,7) 9. sınıftır. Öğrencilerin yarısına yakının (%49,7) ar- kadaş çevresi okul çevresindendir. Öğrencilerin annesinin %43,1’i ilkokul me- zunu, %38,6’sınında babası ortaokul mezunudur.

Tablo 2. Ergenlerin Aile ve Arkadaşlarının Zararlı ve Bağımlık Verici Madde Kullanımına İlişkin Bilgileri

N %

Ailede zararlı ve bağımlılık yapan madde Kullanan 139 70,5 kullanma durumu Kullanmayan 51 25,8 Denemek 21 18,4 Eğlenmek 29 25,4 Ailede zararlı ve bağımlılık yapan madde Ailenin etkisi 9 7,9 kullanılma nedeni Arkadaş ortamının etkisi 56 49,1 Sıkıntılarından kurtulmak 24 21,1 Kullanan 80 40,6 Arkadaş grubunda madde kullanma durumu Kullanmayan 117 59,4 Denemek 8 11,1 Eğlenmek 19 26,4 Arkadaşlarda zararlı ve bağımlılık yapan Ailenin etkisi 7 9,7 madde kullanılma nedeni Arkadaş ortamının etkisi 32 44,4 Sıkıntılarından kurtulmak 14 19,4

Öğrencilerin %70,5’inin ailesinde zararlı ve bağımlılık yapan madde kullanıl- maktadır ve bu maddeleri %49,1’i arkadaş ortamının etkisiyle kullanmaktadır. Buna ek olarak öğrencilerin %40,6’sının arkadaşlarının zararlı ve bağımlılık yapan madde kullandığı ve bu maddelerin %44,4’ü arkadaş ortamının etkisiyle kullanmaya başladığı bilgisi edinmiştir.

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Tablo 3. Ergenlerin Eğitim Öncesi ve Sonrası Zararlı ve Bağımlık Verici Maddeye İlişkin Bilgi ve Görüşleri

Eğitim Öncesi Eğitim sonrası N % N % Madde kullanımını zararlı Evet 180 91,4 165 90,7 görme durumu Hayır 17 8,6 17 9,3 Madde kullanımının Evet 138 70,1 124 69,7 hastalıklara yol açma durumu Hayır 59 29,9 54 30,3 Esrarın sinir sitemi ve akciğer Evet 167 84,8 159 91,9 üzerinde etkisinin olduğunu düşünme durumu Hayır 30 15,2 14 8,1 Esrarın araba kullanmada Evet 164 83,2 155 87,1 etkisinin olduğunu düşünme Hayır 33 16,8 23 12,9 Bilgi durumu Kokain bağımlılık yapma Evet 173 87,8 157 90,2 durumu Hayır 24 12,2 17 9,8 Bali ve tiner gibi yapıştırıcı Evet 178 90,4 157 88,1 madde kullanmanın zararlı olma durumu Hayır 19 9,6 21 10,8 Eroinin saldırgan davranışlara Evet 175 88,8 163 94,8 yol açma durumu Hayır 22 11,2 9 5,2 Ectasy kullanmanın bağımlılığa Evet 162 82,2 146 89,6 yol açtığını düşünme durumu Hayır 35 17,8 17 10,4

Madde kullanımının Evet 22 11,2 24 13,1 sorunlardan uzaklaştırdığını Hayır 122 61,9 110 60,1 düşünme durumu Bilmiyorum 53 26,9 49 26,8 Hasta 45 22,8 47 27,2 Suçlu 9 4,6 16 9,2 Yardıma muhtaç 32 16,2 35 20,2 Madde kullanan insanları tanımlama Özgür 11 5,6 8 4,6 Görüş Psikolojik olarak 80 40,6 55 31,8 sağlıksız Normal 20 10,2 12 6,9 Madde kullanımının kontrol Kontrol edilebilir 150 76,1 137 79,7 edilebileceğine ilişkin görüşler Kontrol edilemez 47 23,9 35 20,3 Psikolojik bağımlılığın fiziksel Önemli 65 33,0 90 52,6 bağımlılıktan daha önemsiz olduğuna ilişkin düşünce Daha önemsiz 132 67,0 81 47,4

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Eğitim öncesi öğrencilerin görüşleri incelendiğinde;

Öğrencilerin büyük çoğunluğu madde kullanmanın zararlı olduğunu (%91,4) düşünmekte, çoğunluğu hastalığa yol açtığını (%70,1) ve sorunlardan uzaklaş- tırmadığını (%61,9) belirtmektedir. Öğrencilerin %40,6’sı madde kullanan in- sanları psikolojik olarak sağlıksız tanımlamıştır. Öğrencilerin %76,1’i insanların istemesi durumunda madde kullanımını kontrol edebileceğini belirtmiştir. Öğ- rencilerin %67,0’si fiziksel bağımlılığın psikolojik bağımlılıktan daha önemli ol- duğunu belirtmiştir. Öğrencilerin %84,8’i esrarın sinir sistemi ve akciğere etkisini bilmekte, %83,2’si araba kullanmada etkisinin olduğunu düşünmektedir. Öğren- cilerin %87,8’i kokainin bağımlılık yaptığını belirtmiştir. Ergenlerin %90,4’ü bali ve tiner gibi yapıştırıcı madde kullanımının zararlı olduğunu düşünmekte, %88,8’i eroinin saldırgan davranışlara yol açtığını düşünmekte, %82,2’si, ecstasy’nin ba- ğımlılık yaptığını düşünmektedir.

Eğitim sonrası öğrencilerin görüşleri incelendiğinde ise;

Öğrencilerin %90,7’si madde kullanmanın zararlı olduğunu ve %69,7’si hastalığa yol açtığını düşünmekte, %60,1’i sorunlardan uzaklaştırmadığını belirmektedir. Öğrencilerin %31,8’i madde kullanan insanları psikolojik olarak sağlıksız tanım- lamıştır. Öğrencilerin %79,7’si insanların istemesi durumunda madde kullanımını kontrol edebileceğini belirtmiştir. Öğrencilerin %52,6’sı fiziksel bağımlılığın psikolojik bağımlılıktan daha önemsiz olduğunu belirtmiştir. Öğrencilerin %91,9’u esrarın sinir sistemi ve akciğere etkisini bilmekte, %87,1’i araba kullanmada etkisinin olduğunu düşünmektedir. Öğrencilerin %90,2’si kokainin bağımlılık yap- tığını belirtmiştir. Öğrencilerin %88,1’i bali ve tiner gibi yapıştırıcı madde kul- lanımının zararlı olduğunu düşünmekte, %94,8’i eroinin saldırgan davranışlara yol açtığını düşünmekte, %89,6’sı ecstacy’nin bağımlılık yaptığını düşünmektedir.

152 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Tablo 4: Eğitim Öncesi ve Eğitim Sonrası Madde Kullanımına İlişkin Bilgi ve Görüşlerin Değişim Düzeyleri

Çocukların eğitim öncesi ve eğitim sonrası değişimleri yüzde olarak tabloda gö- rülmektedir.

153 APPLICATION AND EVALUATION OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE PREVENTION TRAINING PROGRAM ON HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS Yasemin Özkan, Meryem Danışmaz Sevin, Nihan Balşık Kaya

Tablo 5. Katılımcıların Eğitim Öncesi ve Eğitim Sonrası Madde Kullanımını Zararlı Görme Durumunun Karşılaştırılması

Madde kullanımını zararlı görme durumu (Eğitim sonrası)

2 Evet Hayır X p

N % N %

Evet 158 93,5 7 53,8 Madde kullanımını zararlı ** 0,00* görme durumu (Eğitim öncesi) Hayır 11 6,5 6 46,2

*p<0,05 anlamlı ilişki var, p>0,05 anlamlı ilişki yok , **Exact test

Öğrencilerin eğitim öncesi madde kullanımını zararlı görme durumu ile eğitim sonrası madde kullanımını zararlı görme durumu arasında istatistiksel anlamlı ilişki bulunmaktadır (p=0,000). Eğitim öncesi madde kullanımının zararsız olduğunu düşünenlerin çoğunluğu eğitim sonrası zararlı görmüştür (%53,8).

Tablo 6. Katılımcıların Eğitim Öncesi ve Eğitim Sonrası Madde Kullanımının Hastalıklara Yol Açma Durumunun Karşılaştırılması

Madde kullanımının hastalıklara yol açma durumu (Eğitim sonrası) X2 p Evet Hayır

N % N %

Yol açar 99 79,2 25 47,2 Madde kullanımının hastalıklara 16,584 0,00* yol açma durumu (Eğitim öncesi) Yol açmaz 26 20,8 28 52,8

*p<0,05 anlamlı ilişki var, p>0,05 anlamlı ilişki yok , **Exact test

Öğrencilerin eğitim öncesi madde kullanımının hastalıklara yol açtığını düşünme durumu ile eğitim sonrası madde kullanımının hastalıklara yol açtığını düşünme durumu arasında istatistiksel anlamlı ilişki bulunmaktadır (p=0,000). Eğitim ön- cesi madde kullanımının hastalıklara yol açmadığını düşünenlerin %47,2’si eği- tim sonrası zararlı görmüştür.

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Tablo 7. Katılımcıların Eğitim Öncesi ve Eğitim Sonrası Madde Kullanımının Sorunlardan Uzaklaştırdığını Düşünme Durumunun Karşılaştırılması

Madde kullanımının sorunlardan uzaklaştırdığını düşünme durumu (Eğitim sonrası) X2 p Evet Hayır Bilmiyorum

N % N % N %

Madde Evet 7 35,0 13 11,4 4 8,2 kullanımının sorunlardan Hayır 9 45,0 82 71,9 19 38,8 uzaklaştırdığını 32,932 0,00* düşünme durumu (Eğitim Bilmiyorum 4 20,0 19 16,7 26 53,1 öncesi) *p<0,05 anlamlı ilişki var, p>0,05 anlamlı ilişki yok , **Exact test

Öğrencilerin eğitim öncesi madde kullanımının insanları sorunlardan uzaklaştır- dığını düşünme durumu ile eğitim sonrası madde kullanımının insanları sorunlardan uzaklaştırdığını düşünme durumu arasında istatistiksel anlamlı ilişki bu- lunmaktadır (p=0,000). Eğitim öncesi madde kullanımının insanları sorunlardan uzaklaştırdığını düşünenlerin %45,0’i eğitim sonrası sorunlardan uzaklaştırmadı- ğını düşünmektedir.

Tablo 8. Katılımcıların Eğitim Öncesi ve Eğitim Sonrası Madde Kullanımının Kontrol Edilebilirlik Durumunun Karşılaştırılması

Madde kullanımının kontrol edilebilirlik durumu (Eğitim sonrası) X2 p Evet Hayır

N % N %

Evet 111 84,7 26 63,4 Madde kullanımının kontrol 7,490 0,006* edilebilirlik durumu (Eğitim öncesi) Hayır 20 15,3 15 36,6

*p<0,05 anlamlı ilişki var, p>0,05 anlamlı ilişki yok , **Exact test

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Öğrencilerin eğitim öncesi madde kullanımının kontrol edilebilirliğini düşünme durumu ile eğitim sonrası madde kullanımının kontrol edilebilirliğini düşünme durumu arasında istatistiksel anlamlı ilişki bulunmaktadır (p=0,006). Eğitim ön- cesi madde kullanımının kontrol edilebilir olmadığını düşünenlerin çoğunluğu eğitim sonrası kontrol edilebileceğini düşünmektedir (%63,4).

Tablo 9. Katılımcıların Eğitim Öncesi ve Eğitim Sonrası Esrarın Sinir Sitemi ve Akciğer Üzerinde Etkisinin Olduğunu Düşünme Durumunun Karşılaştırılması

Esrarın sinir sitemi ve akciğer üzerinde etkisinin olduğunu düşünme durumu (Eğitim sonrası) X2 p Evet Hayır

N % N %

Esrarın sinir sitemi ve akciğer üzerinde Evet 139 93,9 20 80,0 etkisinin olduğunu düşünme durumu ** 0,034* (Eğitim öncesi) Hayır 9 6,1 5 20,0

*p<0,05 anlamlı ilişki var, p>0,05 anlamlı ilişki yok , **Exact test

Öğrencilerin eğitim öncesi esrarın sinir sistemi ve akciğer üstünde etkisi oldu- ğunu düşünme durumu ile eğitim sonrası esrarın sinir sistemi ve akciğer üstünde etkisi olduğunu düşünme durumu arasında istatistiksel anlamlı ilişki bulunmak- tadır (p=0,034). Eğitim öncesi esrarın sinir sistemi ve akciğer üstündeki etkisi ol- madığını düşünenlerin çoğunluğu eğitim sonrası etkisinin olduğunu düşünmek- tedir (%80,0).

156 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Tablo 10. Katılımcıların Eğitim Öncesi ve Eğitim Sonrası Esrarın Araba Kullanmada Etkisinin Olduğunu Düşünme Durumunun Karşılaştırılması

Esrarın araba kullanmada etkisinin olduğunu düşünme durumu (Eğitim sonrası) X2 p Evet Hayır

N % N %

Esrarın araba kullanmada etkisinin Evet 135 90,6 20 69,0 olduğunu düşünme durumu (Eğitim ** 0,004* öncesi) Hayır 14 9,4 9 31,0

*p<0,05 anlamlı ilişki var, p>0,05 anlamlı ilişki yok , **Exact test

Öğrencilerin eğitim öncesi esrarın araba kullanmaya etkisi olduğunu düşünme durumu ile eğitim sonrası esrarın araba kullanmaya etkisi olduğunu düşünme durumu arasında istatistiksel anlamlı ilişki bulunmaktadır (p=0,004). Eğitim öncesi esrarın araba kullanmaya etkisi olmadığını düşünenlerin çoğunluğu eğitim son- rası etkisinin olduğunu düşünmektedir (%69,0).

Tablo 11. Katılımcıların Eğitim Öncesi ve Eğitim Sonrası Ectasy Kullanmanın Bağımlılığa Yol Açtığını Düşünme Durumunun Karşılaştırılması

Ectasy kullanmanın bağımlılığa yol açtığını düşünme durumu (Eğitim sonrası) X2 p Evet Hayır

N % N %

Ectasy kullanmanın bağımlılığa yol Evet 123 92,5 23 76,7 açtığını düşünme durumu (Eğitim ** 0,018* öncesi) Hayır 10 7,5 7 23,3

*p<0,05 anlamlı ilişki var, p>0,05 anlamlı ilişki yok , **Exact test

Öğrencilerin eğitim öncesi ectacy’nin bağımlılık yapabileceğini düşünme durumu ile eğitim sonrası ectacy’nin bağımlılık yapabileceğini düşünme düşünme durumu arasında istatistiksel anlamlı ilişki bulunmaktadır (p=0,018). Eğitim öncesi

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ectacy’nin bağımlılık yapabileceğini düşünmeyenlerin çoğunluğu eğitim sonrası bağımlılık yapabileceğini düşünmektedir (%76,7).

Tartışma

Bu araştırma, lise öğrencilerine madde bağımlılığını önlemeye dönük bilgilendirme ve farkındalık eğitimi vermek ve bu eğitimin etkililiğini analiz etmek ama- cıyla gerçekleştirilmiştir. Nicel araştırma olarak tasarlanan bu araştırmada anket formu aracılığıyla 197 gönüllü katılımcıdan elde edilen bulgular sunulmuştur.

Bu araştırmada öğrencilerin ailesinde ve arkadaş çevresinde zararlı veya bağım- lılık yapan madde kullanımının varlığı belirlenmiştir. Aile ve arkadaş çevresinde madde kullanma nedenleri incelendiğinde ise ilk sırada arkadaş ortamının etkisi olduğu görülmektedir. Aile ve/ veya arkadaş çevresinde madde kullanan birilerinin olması, özellikle ergen bireylerin madde kullanma riskini artıran faktörle- rinden birisidir. Yapılan araştırmalar alkol bağımlılığı olan ailelerde çocukların alkol problemi yaşamaya dört- altı kat daha fazla meyilli olduğunu ortaya koy- muştur (Russell, 1990). Diğer taraftan bu tip ailelerin çocuklarının depresyon ve anksiyete bozukluğu yaşamalarında yüksek risk altında (Ellis, Zucker ve Fitzge- rald, 1997’dan aktaran Webb, 2011) oldukları ve madde kullanan arkadaşı olan- larında madde kullanma riskinin yaklaşık altı kat daha fazla (Erdem, Eke, Ögel ve Taner, 2006) olduğu bulunmuştur. Karatay ve Kubilay’ın (2004) lisede öğre- nim gören 380 öğrenci ile yaptıkları araştırmada da ailesinde sigara ve alkol kul- lanımı olan, aile ilişkileri iyi olmayan ve arkadaşları sigara ve alkol kullanan öğ- rencilerin daha fazla sigara ve alkol kullandıkları ortaya konulmuştur. Ailede veya arkadaş çevresinde birilerinin zararlı ve bağımlılık yapan maddeleri kullanması demek ayrıca ergenlerin ev ortamında da bu maddelere kolaylıkla erişebilmesi demektir. Ergenlerin madde kullanım nedenleri arasında yalnızca madde kullanan aile üyelerinin olması değil bunun yanında psikiyatrik saglık sorunu olan aile u- yeleri, aileleri tarafından genellikle ihmal edilen, boşanmış, ayrı yaşayan, ebevey- nlerden birinin kaybedildiği, parçalanmış ailelerde, baskıcı ya da asırı koruyucu/ kollayıcı aile ve idealize edilen bir ebeveynin olmaması gibi nedenler yer almak- tadır (Yüncü, Kesebir, Özbaran, Çelik ve Aydın, 2009; Ögel, 2010). Tüm bu sü- reçte çevresel faktörlerden kaynaklı risk faktörlerinden korunmak için ergenlerin ailesi ile bağlarının güçlü olması, ailesinin ergeni okulda başarılı olabilmesi için desteklemesi, gelişimsel olarak onu izlemesi ve ona rehberlik etmesi gerekmektedir (Alikaşifoğlu ve Ercan, 2009; Akkuş, 2010).

158 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Bağımlılığın ciddi bir sosyal sorun olarak ele alınması ve önlenmesi bağlamında, politika yapıcılar farklı ülkelerde çeşitli okul, aile ve toplum temelli yaklaşımlar geliştirmişlerdir (Lochman ve Steenhoven, 2002; Fletcher, Bonell ve Hargreaves, 2008). Madde bağımlılığının önlenmesine yönelik okul temelli önleyici programlar arasında yer alan eğitim çalışmaları da bu yaklaşımlardan birisini oluşturmaktadır. Literatürde olumlu etkileri öne çıkan okul temelli önleyici programlar arasında Project SUCCESS -Schools Using Coordinated Community Efforts to Strengthen Students - Öğrencileri Güçlendirmek için Koordineli Toplum Çabalarını Kulla- nan Okullar Projesi (http://www.sascorp.org/success.html), Project TND-Project Towards No Drug Abuse – Madde Bağımlılığına Hayır Projesi (http://tnd.usc. edu/), Project ALERT-Adolescent Learning Experiences in Resistance Training - Ergen Direnç Eğitiminde Öğrenme Deneyimleri Projesi (https://www.projectalert. com/) ve Project LST - Life Skills Training - Yaşam Becerileri Eğitimi Projesi (https://www. childtrends.org/programs/life-skills-training-lst/) yer almaktadır (Özbay ve ark., 2018). Bu programların etkililiğini inceleyen araştırmalarda; programa ka- tılan öğrencilerin madde bağımlılığı oranlarında, problem davranışlarında, şiddet içerikli davranışlarında (silah taşıma) ve madde kullanan akranlarla ilişkilerinde azalma olduğu, maddelerin etkilerine ilişkin bilgi düzeylerinde ve maddeyi red- detmeye ilişkin tutumlarında artma, madde kullanımına ilişkin istek ve eğilimle- rinde azalma yaşandığı görülmüştür (aktaran Özbay ve ark., 2018).

İran’ın İsfahan şehrinde lise öğrencilerinin kendine güven, karar verme, öz kontrol, stres ve kaygıyı hafifletme, sosyal direnç ve gençlerin madde riskini azaltma- larına yardımcı olan ve diğer becerileri de kapsayan madde bağımlılığını önleme ile ilgili yaşam becerileri eğitim çalışması, 14-15 yaş arası 445 kız ve 452 erkekle bir araştırma gerçekleştirilmiştir. Verilen bu eğitim ile madde bağımlılığına yöne- lik bilgi ve tutumda değişiklik yaratmak, öğrenciler arasında madde kullanımına yol açabilecek yanlış düşünce ve bilgi konusunda farkındalık oluşturmak ve on- ları madde kullanımının riskleri, zararları ve bunların olumsuz etkileri hakkında bilgilendirmek hedeflenmiştir. Bu çalışma sonucunda, erkek ve kız öğrencilerde, yaşam becerileri eğitimi ve madde kullanımının önlenmesine yönelik video klip ve ders içeriğinde yer alan bilgiler, madde kullanımına yönelik tutumları değiştir- mede etkili olmuştur. Madde bağımlılığı konusundaki tutumlarda cinsiyet değiş- keni ele alındığında, kız ve erkek öğrenciler arasında istatistik açıdan anlamlı bir farklılık olmadığı, ancak bu öğrencilerin nispeten olumsuz bir tutum sergiledik- leri belirlenmiştir (Bonyani ve ark, 2018). Siyez ve Palabıyık (2009) tarafından 10. sınıf lise öğrencilerine yönelik gerçekleştirilen “Günebakan Madde Bağımlılığını

159 APPLICATION AND EVALUATION OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE PREVENTION TRAINING PROGRAM ON HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS Yasemin Özkan, Meryem Danışmaz Sevin, Nihan Balşık Kaya

Önleme ve Eğitim Programının” da öğrencilerin maddeler hakkında bilgi düzey- leri ve maddeyi reddetme becerileri üzerinde artış gösterdikleri ve maddelere yö- nelik yanlış inanışlarında azalma sağlandığı belirlenmiştir. Bu çalışmada da bu bul- gulara benzer olarak, madde bağımlılığını önlemeye dönük verilen bilgilendirme ve farkındalık eğitiminin öğrencilerin madde bağımlılığına dönük bazı bilgi ve tutumlarında olumlu değişimler sağlandığı ortaya çıkmıştır.

Araştırmada eğitim öncesi madde kullanımının hastalıklara yol açmadığını dü- şünenler, eğitim sonrasında %47,2 oranında bir değişimle madde kullanımının hastalıklara yol açtığını düşündüklerini ifade etmiştir. Buna ek olarak bu araştır- mada eğitim öncesi esrarın sinir sistemi ve akciğer üstündeki etkisi olmadığını dü- şünenlerin çoğunluğu eğitim sonrası etkisinin olduğunu düşünmektedir. Yapılan araştırmalarda maddenin, bireyin biyo-psiko-sosyal işlevselliğini olumsuz yönde etkilediği tespit edilmiştir. Özellikle bağımlılık yapıcı maddelerin etkilediği hedef organ beyindir. Bağımlılığın nörobiyolojisi incelendiğinde; amigdala, frontal kor- teks ve hipokampus gibi limbik yapılar da nukleus akkumbens aktivitesinin mo- dulasyonu aracılıgı ile odullendirmede rol oynayabildiği bilinmektedir. Adı gecen tum bu anatomik yapıların ve yolakların alkol, opioidler, sempatomimetik stimu- lanlar ve sigara basta olmak uzere tum bagımlılık yapıcı maddelerin odullendirici (keyif verici) etkinliklerinde ve pozitif pekistiri alanında onemli bir role sahip ol- dugu konusunda bilim insanları fikir birligi icindedir (Koob, 1992; akt Uzbay, 2011). Bu durum ise; bireyin haz eşiğini yukarı çekmekte, kişi süreç içerisinde daha fazla haz ve mutluluk yaşama arzusundan ziyade vücudun normal denge- sini korumak adına bu maddeleri kullanmayı sürdürmektedir. Bu bağlamda ba- ğımlılık yapan maddelerin kullanımı devam ettikçe, beyin işleyişini olumsuz etkilemekte, bu olumsuz etkileniş bağımlılık yapan maddelerin dozunu arttırmaya sebep olmakta ve müdahale edilmemesi durumunda beyin ve bağımlılık yapıcı madde ilişkisi kısır bir döngüye dönüşmektedir (Stoehr, 2006).

Araştırmada elde edilen bulgular, madde bağımlılığını önlemeye dönük bilgilendirme ve farkındalık eğitimi alan grupta, eğitim öncesi madde kullanımının in- sanları sorunlardan uzaklaştırdığını düşünenlerin %45,0’i eğitim sonrası sorunlardan uzaklaştırmadığını düşünmektedir. Bireyin sahte hoşlanım ile haz duygusunun etkisi, eğlenme amaçlı ve bilişsel açıdan daha aktif ve yaratıcı olma isteği, maddeye ilişkin merak, sosyal çevre, arkadaş etkisi, aile de madde kullanımının ol- ması, özgüveni zayıf, kendini değersiz hissetme ve eksik yanları olan biri gibi al- gılayan kişilik özelliklerinin olması, çaresizlik, gerginlik, madde bağımlılığının

160 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

zararları hakkında daha az bilgi sahibi olma, gençlerin boş zamanlarını değerlen- direcek bir faaliyet bulamamaları, sorunlarla baş edememe ve psikolojik sorunlarla baş etme yolu olarak madde kullanım nedenleri sıralanabilir (Ögel, 2010; Erdem, Eke, Ögel ve Taner, 2006; Albayrak ve Balcı, 2014; Bonyani vd., 2018). Çeşitli nedenler ile bağımlılık sürecine giren bireyler madde ile sorunlardan uzaklaşmak yerine yukarıda bahsedilen pek çok sorunun yanı sıra intihar, suça yönelme, dış- lanma gibi pek çok boyutu olan biyo- psiko- sosyal sorunlarla da (Ögel, Tamar, Evren ve Sır, 1999; Evren, Evren, Ögel ve Çakmak, 2001) baş etmek zorunda kalmaktadırlar. Bu sorunlardan biriside madde kullanımının yol açtığı trafik ka- zalarıdır. Araştırma da eğitim öncesi esrarın araba kullanmaya etkisi olmadığını düşünenlerin çoğunluğu eğitim sonrası etkisinin olduğunu düşünmektedir. Alkol ve madde etkisi altında araç kullanımı, dünyada ve Türkiye’de birçok insanın ya- şamını kaybetmesine neden olmaktadır. Literatürde kaza nedenleri incelendiğinde % 95 oranı ile en büyük nedenin sürücülerin olduğu ve sonrasında hız, alkol ve madde kullanımı, uyku ve yorgunluk gibi nedenler sıralanmaktadır (Sungur, Ak- dur ve Piyal, 2014). Emniyet Genel Müdürlüğü Trafik Hizmetleri Başkanlığı’nın 2020 verilerine göre 2020 Ağustos ayında toplam 18.184 kaza sürücü kaynaklı- dır ve bu kazaların 206’sı alkol araç kullanma nedeniyle meydana gelmiştir. Buna ek olarak yine aynı raporda 2020 yılında toplam 100.804 kaza sürücü kaynaklıdır ve bu kazaların 1.297’si alkol kullanma nedeniyle meydana gelmiştir.

Araştırma da eğitim öncesi ve eğitim sonrası öğrencilerin çoğunluğu madde kullanan bireyleri “psikolojik hasta” olarak tanımlamışlardır. Azınlıkta olmakla birlikte bazı öğrenciler de “normal”, “özgür” ve “suçlu” olarak tanımlamışlardır. Yapılan çalışmalar ergen bireye “bağımlı” etiketlemesinin yapılmasının tehlikeli olabile- ceğini göstermiştir (Akkuş, 2010). Sahip olduğu koşullardan dolayı dezavantajlı grubu oluşturan ve sosyal dışlanmanın farklı biçimleri ile karşı karşıya kalan bu bireyler aynı zamanda toplum tarafından bağımlı, tembel, iradesiz veya suçlu olarak etiketlenmektedir. Bu bağlamda etiketlenme ile mücadelede en etkili yöntem- lerden birisi de, şüphesiz toplumu ve grubu eğitim aracılığıyla bilgilendirmek ve farkındalık yaratmak olacaktır.

Sonuç ve Öneriler

Bu araştırma ile lise öğrencilerine madde bağımlılığını önlemeye dönük bilgilendirme ve farkındalık eğitimi verilmiştir ve bu eğitimin etkililiğini analiz edilmeye çalışılmıştır.

161 APPLICATION AND EVALUATION OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE PREVENTION TRAINING PROGRAM ON HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS Yasemin Özkan, Meryem Danışmaz Sevin, Nihan Balşık Kaya

Madde bağımlılığı ile mücadele etkili olan ve genellikle en yaygın kullanılan mü- dahaleler okul ve ebeveynlerini kapsayan müdahaleler olarak belirlenmiştir. Özel- likle öğrenciler arasında madde, maddenin vücuda verdiği zarara ilişkin ve madde bağımlılığına yönelik bilgi eksikliği bulunmaktadır. Lise öğrencilerine yönelik verilen bu farkındalık eğitim çalışması ile öğrencilerin bilgi ve tutumlarında deği- şimler olduğu görülmüştür. Öğrencilerin madde kullanımının zararlı olmadığı, hastalıklara yol açmadığı, insanları sorunlarından uzaklaştırdığı ve madde kulla- nımının kontrol edilebilir olmadığı ile ilgili düşüncelerinde değişimler gösterdiği bu araştırma sonuçlarında açıkça görülmüştür. Bu bağlamda koruyucu- önleyici kapsamda verilen bu eğitimlerin düzenli ve istikrarlı bir şekilde tüm öğrenim ka- demelerinde yer alan öğrencileri kapsaması gerekmektedir. Bu eğitim çalışmalara çevresi içerisinde birey perspektifi ile ailelerinde dâhil edilmesi, madde bağımlılı- ğına yönelik farkındalığının artmasına neden olacak ve bu bilgileri de içselleştir- melerini sağlayacaktır. Ayrıca bu kapsamda verilecek eğitimlerin ders programla- rının müfredatına yayılması da gerekmektedir.

Kaynakça

Akkuş, D. (2010). Ergende esrar kullanımı: Toplum ruh sağlığı yaklaşımı (Olgu Sunumu). Journal of Psychiatric Nurses, 1(1), 43-46. Albayrak, S., & Balcı, S. (2014). Gençlerde madde bağımlılığının önlenmesi. Koç Üniversitesi Hemşirelikte Eğitim ve Araştırma Dergisi (HEAD), 11(2), 30-37. Alikaşifoğlu, M., & Ercan, O. (2009). Risky behaviors in adolescents. Turkish Archives of Pediatrics, 44(1), 1-6. Avrupa Uyuşturucu Raporu: Eğilimler ve Gelişmeler (2019) https://www. emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/11364/20191724_ TDAT19001TRN_PDF.pdf adresinden 15.08.2020 tarihinde ulaşıldı. Aziz, A. (2015). Sosyal bilimlerde araştırma yöntemleri ve teknikleri. Ankara: No- bel Yayıncılık. Bonyani, A., Safaeian, L., Chehrazi, M., Etedali, A., Zaghian, M., & Mash- hadian, F. (2018). A high school-based education concerning drug abuse prevention. Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 7.

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Coşkun, S. (2006). Uçucu madde kullanan ergenlerde bilinçlendirme eğit- iminin etkinliği. (Doktora Tezi) Marmara Üniversitesi, İstanbul. https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/tezSorguSonucYeni.jsp adresinden edinilmiştir. Erdem, G., Eke, C. Y., Ögel, K., & Taner, S. (2006). Lise öğrencilerinde arkadaş özellikleri ve madde kullanımı. Journal of Dependence, 7, 111-116. Emniyet Genel Müdürlüğü, Trafik İstatistik Bülteni (2020) http://trafik.gov.tr/ kurumlar/trafik.gov.tr/04-Istatistik/Aylik/agustos20.pdf adresinden 20 Eylül 2020 tarihinde edinilmiştir. Fletcher, A., Bonell, C., & Hargreaves, J. (2008). School effects on young people’s drug use: A systematic review of intervention and observation- al studies. Journal of Adolescent Health, 42(3), 209-220. Işık, A. (2018). Türkiye’de madde bağımlılığıyla mücadelede bir sosyal politika uygulaması olarak okul sosyal hizmetinin önemi. Toplum ve Sosyal Hizmet, 29(1), 208-228. Karatay, G., &Kubilay, G. (2004). Sosyoekonomik düzeyi farklı iki lisede madde kullanma durumu ve etkileyen faktörlerin belirlenmesi. Hemşirelikte Araştırma Geliştirme Dergisi, 6 (1) , 57-70. Lochman, J. E., & van den Steenhoven, A. (2002). Family-based approaches to substance abuse prevention. Journal of Primary Prevention, 23(1), 49-114. McNeal Jr, R. B., & Hansen, W. B. (1999). Developmental patterns associated with the onset of drug use: Changes in postulated mediators during adolescence. Journal of Drug Issues, 29(2), 381-400. Ögel K. (2010). Sigara, alkol ve madde kullanım bozuklukları: Tanı, tedavi ve önleme. İstanbul: Yeniden Yayınları. Ögel, K., Tamar, D., Evren, C., Sır, A. (1999). Madde kullanımı ve suç. 3P Dergisi, 7. Özbay, Y., Yılmaz, S., Büyüköztürk, Ş., Aliyev, R., Tomar, İ. H., Eşici, H. … Akyıldız, F. D. (2018). Madde bağımlılığı: Temiz bir yaşam için bireyin güçlendirilmesi. Addicta: The Turkish Journal on Addic- tions, 5, 81−130. Russell, M. A. H. (1990). The nicotine addiction trap: A 40-year sentence for four cigarettes. British Journal of Addiction, 85(2), 293-300.

163 APPLICATION AND EVALUATION OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE PREVENTION TRAINING PROGRAM ON HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS Yasemin Özkan, Meryem Danışmaz Sevin, Nihan Balşık Kaya

Santrock, J. W. (2005). Adolescence. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Siyez, D., & Palabıyık, A. (2009). Günebakan madde bağımlılığını önleme eğitim programının lise öğrencilerinin madde kullanım sıklığı, uyuşturucu maddeler hakkındaki bilgi düzeyleri ve yanlış inanışları ile madde reddetme becerileri üzerindeki etkisi. Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 8(28), 56-67. Stoehr, J. D. (2006). The neurobiology of addiction. Chelsea House. Philadel- phia. Sungur, İ., Akdur, R., & Piyal, B. (2014). Türkiye’deki trafik kazalarının analizi. Ankara Medical Journal, 14(3). Türkiye Uyuşturucu Raporu (2019) http://www.narkotik.pol.tr/kurumlar/ narkotik.pol.tr/TUB%C4%B0M/Ulusal%20Yay%C4%B1n- lar/2019-TURKIYE-UYUSTURUCU-RAPORU.pdf adresinden 15.08.2020 tarihinde ulaşıldı. Uzbay, İT. Beyin nasıl bağımlı oluyor?. Gülhane Askeri Tıp Akademisi Tıp Fakül- tesi Meslek İçi Sürekli Eğitim Dergisi. 2011a, 34-48. Webb, N. B. (2011). Social work practice with children. New York & London: The Guilford Press. Yüncü, Z., Kesebır, S., Özbaran, B., Çelık, Y., & Aydin, C. (2009). Madde kullanım bozukluğu olan ergenlerin ebeveynlerinde psikopatoloji ve mizaç: kontrollü bir çalışma. Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 20(1). Zastrow, C., Kirst-Ashman, K. K., & Çiftçi, D. B. (2015). İnsan davranışı ve sosyal çevre I-II. Ankara: Nika Yayınevi.

164 9 “CORONA EPADEMIC - COVID-19 CRISIS MANAGEMENT” (MBR VS.MBO) Bassem H.H. Qushou (Al-Quds Open University)

The most critical questions arise in this global current ordeal (Corona epidemic / COVID-19) are the following:

1. What are the main methodologies, techniques, tools and strategies adopted, followed and applied by the world in managing the most horrible current epidemic (Corona virus-covid-19) crisis, as the most ever threatening and dangerous enemy to human beings’ existence?

2. Did the world succeeded to curb this pandemic of the corona virus-covid-19 epidemic and win victory in its battle so far against it?

The main aim behind writing this article is to find answers to the above mentioned critical questions, in order to reach to the more clear, specific and accurate answers to these critical questions it is very necessary to shed light on the interests and seriousness of this world - all countries- in managing such a serious global crisis through testing, identifying and evaluating the methodologies, tools and strategies adopted and applied by most of those countries of the world - the world of civilization, democracy, humanity and the developer of the most modern administrative, management and economic theories- in managing such kind of dangerous crisis compared with the most modern scientific methodologies and methods of management, in order to distinguish the difference between the methods of management which have been so far adopted and applied so for by those countries and other methods of management which are supposed to be adopted and followed at the global level we have first of all to understand well the definition of management as a concept, it was defined as follows: It is the “science and art, the essence of which is thought and practice”, and it is a tool for

165 “CORONA EPADEMIC - COVID-19 CRISIS MANAGEMENT” (MBR VS.MBO) Bassem H.H. Qushou

change , and a bridge to cross to the desired future. This definition for the concept of management was developed by the development of science of management which led to the development of its methodologies, one of these methods which has been developed was the “Management By Objectives”(MBO) method, which has been replaced by the “Management By Results”(MBR) method on 1980s for the reason that, the MBO method concentrates on the process of establishing strategic goals first, and then defining the intermediate goals that lead to those goals , this method focuses on factors of production and effectiveness in achieving these goals by controlling the largest possible number of factors of production to achieve effectiveness and reduce costs.

In order to get to know the difference between these different management methods, we must return to the previous global studies and experiences, where a study by the World Bank indicated the success of the method of management by objectives (MBO) in the infrastructure management and in some projects that continued to work until the beginning of the (1970s), according to reports issued by the World Bank in 1984, when he evaluated his projects, which amounted to about (12,000) projects at that time, the WB became to the conclusion that 86% of these projects had achieved its goals, but in contrast, the failure rate for these projects had increased from 26% to 26%, from the point of view of the World Bank which attributed this failure to the following reasons:

1- The low impact of these projects on the targeted groups and the targeted community as a whole.

2- The low degree of sensitivity of these projects to changes in the labor market.

3- The absence of community participation in these projects.

As a result of these negative results that have emerged in the World Bank’s evaluation of its projects, a new management method has emerged, which is the (MBR) as an alternative to (MBO) due to the initial differences between the two methods, where the first method (MBO) focuses on achieving Objectives and effectiveness only, while the last method (MBR) focuses on achieving goals and effectiveness in addition to the final results and outputs of programs and projects, and focuses at the same time on their impact on the targeted groups in particular and on the society as a whole in general.

166 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

From the above conclusion reached by the WB we could find that the failure of the WB projects in achieving its overall and specific objectives lied behind the ignorance of the MBO method to the main elements of management; the tool for change and a bridge for the desired future-which has been manifested in neglect- ing the results and outputs when using such a method as it appeared in the experience of the World Bank, where the adoption and the application of this method (MBO) nowadays during the ongoing battle with the epidemic COVID-19 by many countries of the world could be the main problem in managing such a dangerous crises since most of the world countries are still continuing in adopting and following the same methodology (MBO) in controlling and managing the Epidemic Crisis which resulted in the death of more than 250000 people and the cases of infection exceeds mor than 3.5 million people in about 195 countries according to the current statistics published on 5nd May,2020, these statistics reflects that the forecasting and the projection of the covid-19 epidemic consequences which are expected in the next few months as projected by the USA officials for example, were far away from reality on the ground compared to the US govt. expectations as shown in its projection models “A” and “B” - published on April 13,2020- shown below, model “B” shows that the death cases were projected to reach 68,841 by the end of July,2020May,2020, and by 1st August ,2020 the death cases per day were projected to be zero (0-0) as shown in Model “A”, meanwhile the total number of deaths in the USA already came very close to this number (68,841 of three months earlier to the above mentioned projection which reached about more than 67,000 death cases ( 5nd May,2020) as shown in the national COVID-19 Forecasts model (C) below.

Model: (A)

167 “CORONA EPADEMIC - COVID-19 CRISIS MANAGEMENT” (MBR VS.MBO) Bassem H.H. Qushou

Model:(B)

Model:(C)

Source: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/covid-data/forecasting-us.html

The above case study about USA might be applicable to many other countries of the world in general and to the European countries ( Italy, France, Ger- many…act) in particular since all those countries were alike in their methodologies adopted and followed in managing the COVID-19 Epidemic Crisis which

168 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

led to the acceleration of the epidemic spread among the people, resulted in max- imizing the number of infected people and death cases which reached to more than 3.5 million cases and more than 250000 deaths up to date (5th May,2020), this dramatic global daily increase in reported corona virus cases were represented in model(D) as shown below.

Model:(D)

These latest up to date corona virus situation which was reflected in the above shown models which showed the extraordinary number of the infected and death cases which could be considered as the most clear indicators of the failure of the world in controlling and managing such dangerous worldwide crisis successfully, from my point of view, their failure do not refer to their models adopted and followed in forecasting and projection of the epidemic COVID-19 impact on the people’s live and their future, but it refers to the management methods being adopted and applied in controlling such crisis which is still continued to be followed nowadays in challenging the epidemic negative and destructive consequences, these management methods adopted and followed by these countries are not based on a scientific methodologies, techniques and tools which assure the victory over this epidemic crisis, since all the processes of forecasting, projection is nothing more than an uncertain and contradictory expectations on which most of these countries lays on in solving the crisis problem they are facing, this kind of forecasting and projection tools – the most cheapest and

169 “CORONA EPADEMIC - COVID-19 CRISIS MANAGEMENT” (MBR VS.MBO) Bassem H.H. Qushou

easiest tools to use at the individual and state levels - means simply that every country has to wait until the final results appear automatically - as a result of applying such tools- which will be followed by its satisfactory for these results as many of its leaders declared prior to that results appearance, that is to mean that we have to wait until our enemy ( covid-19 epidemic) reach its peak and accomplish its disastrous impact on our societies in the form of human tragedy at the end of the battle, though most of these countries are taking several prevention measures and policies to decrease the infection and death cases among the people, but still those prevention measures and policies still were not been respected and stocked to, not only by the people but by their leaders and governments as the case of USA and some other countries, therefore the lack of commitment to such measures and policies was the main reason for the auto- matic dramatical increase in the death and infection cases around the world, those people’s leaders are the ones whom are responsible for reaching along with their people to the edge of the hill through breaking those measures and policies imposed by showing that it is out of their interests, this fact could be realized and witnessed through their behavioral practices towards such measures and policies which were already imposed very late in their societies and ended it with the reopening orders imposed recently, therefore an alternative and substitute option to these countries lonely mentioned above – forecasting and projection method - should be created to solve this disastrous crisis, this alternative method proposed as a solution is discussed below.

The solution for this epidemic COVID-19 crisis:

This method is based on the achievement of people’s vision, ambitions and their aspirations as human beings represented by all these countries- This could be achieved through adaptation and the application of the method of management by results focusing on the results and final outputs desired to be achieved at the end of this battle with this epidemic COVID-19, these results and final outputs desired to be achieved are supposed to be as following:

The minimum number of people were infected by the epidemic with the least number of death cases, moreover, all the progress made already by mankind through his past history in the fields of science, technology and the economic welfare and prosperity ..act which are reflects the peoples hopes and aspiration around the

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world are preserved in the short-run, and in the long- run, these global aspirations should be very clear and specific in order to be achieved, those aspirations and dreams of the people could be summarized as follows:

All the Societies of the world are free from infectious diseases and deadly ep- idemics such as the Corona epidemic and all of its residents enjoy excellent physical, mental and psychological health, moreover they are enjoying a social, economic and political stability based on cooperation and mutual respect among all nations, at the same time they are preserving what has been accom- plished in All aspects of life - prior to the emergence of the Corona pandemic crisis - in light of a global economic system characterized by justice and equal- ity among all human beings.

In order to achieve such peoples aspirations, it is not possible to bet on the methodology and management methods used in managing this crisis which do not take into account such peoples aspirations, hence the importance of adopting other modern management methodologies is very essential if these countries are really interested and keen to achieve its peoples aspiration’s, such modern management method could be the management by results method, but how and why to adopt and apply such a method of management? The importance of adopting and applying this method in fighting the corona epidemic It is due to the vast differences between the use of this method and other methods in general and the method of management by objectives in particular, these differences could be clarified as were represented in Model (E) shown below, the expected achievement in terms of percentage(%) was represented on the OY axis of the figure, while the seven (7) targeted issues desired to be achieved were represented on the OX axis of the figure.

171 “CORONA EPADEMIC - COVID-19 CRISIS MANAGEMENT” (MBR VS.MBO) Bassem H.H. Qushou

Model (E): MBR Vs. MBO - (COVID-19 Epidemic Crisis Management Solution / Proposed by: Dr. Qushou Bassem, 5th May,2020.

Figure (1) above shows the differences between both methods of management (MBO, MBR) in terms of its achievements, these differences could be summarized as a comparison between both methods as summarized in the table shown below.

# Targeted issues MBO MBR 1 Overall Ob 90% 95% 2 SO 80% 90% 3 FRE 20% 90% 4 FOE 0% 80% 5 CE 10% 100% 6 LMF 50% 90% 7 Impact-BF 30% 90% Max. Total achievements (700%) 295% 620% Average achievements (100%) 42% 89%

From the above table we could summarize these differences between the two methods of management as following: If we assume that both methods of management (MBO,MBR) are adopted and applied on managing a specific given crisis- Epidemic crisis we will find that the method of MBR is more effective and superior to other method of management(MBO) in terms of its achievements (objectives, goals, results…act) which were represented in seven (7) targeted issues which are equals (700%), each issue equals (100%), the aggregate score of

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MBR method was (620%) out of (700%) with an average of (89%), meanwhile the (MBO) method aggregate score was (295%) out of (700%) with an average of (42%) only as shown in the model (E) above.

Therefore, in order to gain our victory over this dangerous Epidemic, all countries of the world should adopt and apply a model which must be based on its people’s aspirations, ambitions and their desired flourished future looking to achieve, through this model we could see a positive clear picture of the end results of the battle with this COVID-19 Epidemic, by determining in advance our final results and outcomes we – Gov. and its people-would like to achieve including the achievement of our goals and objectives we could design an adequate model of projection for the COVID-19 Epidemic current and future consequences on human beings and their societies which helps us to control and manage it through adopting and applying the most effective method of management (MBR) as shown and proven in diagram (1) through managing and achieving the most desired end results of this battle with COVID-19 Epidemic, these desired results were illustrated in the COVID-19 Epidemic Crisis Model(E) as shown above.

173 “CORONA EPADEMIC - COVID-19 CRISIS MANAGEMENT” (MBR VS.MBO) Bassem H.H. Qushou

By the adopting and applying this Model (2) of projection shown above we can determine the most positive desired results we would like to achieve as much as possible - taking into account the worst expected and anticipated results which might be beyond our control and power, excluding the human and economic loses resulted so far caused by this Epidemic crisis – in order to contribute in rescuing the humanity and the world as a whole from the unpredictive and unseen future.

Conclusion We could come to the conclusion that, the epidemic COVID-19 crisis will never successfully be controlled and managed unless we adopt and apply other management methodologies and different methods of management such as the method of (MBR) which could help us to achieve the results and outputs desired by all the people of the world to be achieved which will have a positive impact – Safety, good health, economic and social prosperity and stability…act- on them and on their societies as a whole, in order to achieve such common vision, all countries of the world should acknowledge that it is their responsibility towards managing such crisis which rests primarily on them and on their governments in particular and on the international organizations - World Health Organization and on other organizations and Local international institutions - scientific research centers, universities… act in general, This means that without a wholistic scientific, medical, economic and political cooperation and collaboration among all these countries and its governments the crisis will be deepen more leading to horrible human and economic loses which might lead to an economic disaster and the destruction of humanity.

Note: To view the common strategic plan to combat the Corona epidemic, please visit the link shown below. www.linkedin.com.dr-bassem-qushou-95697945

174 10 THE ROLE OF MACHINE LEARNING ALGORITHMS IN DETERMINING PRODUCT SALES IN E-COMMERCE: A CASE STUDY FOR TURKEY Hilal Yıldız (Sakarya University)

Abstract

Buying things online has become a common practice around the world. The expansion of e-commerce volume has accelerated the empirical studies in this field. Machine learning algorithms facilitate personal analysis for customers in e-commerce. In this study, basic arguments that determine stock difference have been presented by using data from shopping sites operating in the field of e-commerce in Turkey. Basic classifiers that are effective on sales have been identified by using machine learning algorithms such as random forest and gradient boosting. It has been observed that the prediction success of algorithms varies according to product groups. According to the product groups included in the analysis, basic classifiers that affect sales are also changing.

Keywords: E-commerce, machine learning, random forest, gradient boosting, online shopping, big data.

Introduction

Internet usage is very common today. With the increase in internet usage, people spend a lot of time on social networks like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. Today social media users constitutes approximately 75% of the total internet users worldwide. If we look at usage habits, internet users spend an average of 7 hours a day on the internet and about 2 hours 46 minutes on their social media sites in Turkey.

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Big data technologies have started to be widely used in the field of e-commerce. According to the estimates of Gartner, a research company, it is expected that communication with customers will be managed with the support of artificial intelligence at a rate of over 80% in 2020.

The B2C E-commerce index was developed by UNCTAD to measure the compliance of countries to e-commerce. By using 4 indicators, it makes comparisons among countries in the field of e-commerce. In that field, the Netherlands comes first in terms of using e-commerce and the conveniences of e-commerce. European economies dominate the top10 list, which also features Singapore and Australia. On the other hand, the least developed countries (LDCs) take up 18 of the 20 bottom positions in the index. The index values are extremely close to each other for developed countries, with a range of just five points between the first and the tenth rank. But there is a big gap in terms of the range of index values in developing countries. The difference is 23 points between the first (Singa- pore) and the tenth (Turkey) in this group (UNCTAD 2019).

Some of the leading companies in e-commerce such as Amazon, Alibaba, eBay, and Rakuten can detect fake product reviews, page views, and clicks and develop smart assistants, product and content suggestions using big data technologies. Thus, areas such as demand forecasting, sales forecasting, and stock optimization are among the important uses of big data technologies. They use recommenda- tion algorithms that are best known for their use on e-commerce web sites, where they use input about a customer’s interests to generate a list of recommended items. In this way, they can offer a personalized service to their customers about the products they love. Thanks to the algorithms, it is possible for companies to offer more product choices to their customers in line with their interests. Data about customers’ preferences and interests are collected and alternative products are offered to customers (Linden, Smith, and York 2003).

Consumer targeting has an important potential for the e-commerce sector. In parallel with these developments, the way people shop for goods and services is also changing. Shopping online provides several conveniences. Saving time, which is one of the most valuable concepts in today’s living conditions, as well as providing product variety, leads to an increase in the use of online commerce. Companies that have a big share in online shopping like Hepsiburada, Trendyol, GittiGidiyor,

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N11, and Amazon have started using big data techniques to predict customer behavior and create an experience in this direction in Turkey.

The most used areas of e-commerce in Turkey are clothing, electronics, food or- dering, travel, and books categories. The ratio of young people, aged 15-24, in the total population is 16% in Turkey. For this reason, Turkey, with the young- est population in Europe, constitutes a significant potential in terms of local and global companies. The investments recently made by global leaders such as Ali- baba and Amazon also confirm this potential. The usage rate of mobile devices not only changes e-commerce transactions but also the payment method habits. It is estimated that three out of every five people will soon use their mobile phones for online shopping and seven out of every ten people will use their mobile phones to make payments in developed economies.

Mobile payments in Turkey especially continue to increase its market share as a payment method preferred by young people. One out of every three online shop- pers in Turkey prefer mobile shopping. Consumers mostly prefer mobile shopping due to quick shopping, convenience in product research, and campaign opportunities provided by businesses.

The young generation being sensitive about time also affect the development of mobile payment habits. Therefore, the age range in which the speed factor is active and directly related to the ownership of the smartphone is a distinctive factor. Generation Y constitutes 39% of mobile payment users in the world and generation X constitutes 33%. Soon generations Y and Z will enter the period of buying household products. Therefore, it is expected that internet sales will increase. According to the research conducted by Google, half of all purchasers are made up of generation Y and this rate is increasing day by day. Professional purchasing behaviors of Generation Y, also known as digital natives, converge to individual purchasing behavior day by day.

Also, today, consumers’ tolerance has decreased because of crowded and long payment queues in classic retail stores. According to the research carried out by Google, expectations regarding the use of e-commerce platforms by the users have increased because of technologies such as 4G that are widely used in developed countries and have started to be used in developing countries.

177 THE ROLE OF MACHINE LEARNING ALGORITHMS IN DETERMINING PRODUCT SALES IN E-COMMERCE: A CASE STUDY FOR TURKEY Hilal Yıldız

Approximately 98% of the adult population in Turkey has a mobile phone, and 77% of these individuals use smartphones. Moreover, it is possible to say that smartphones they use are quite new and changed frequently. Especially for many leading brands in the field of online retail, over 70% of the consumer visits come from mobile channels, while over 60% of turnover comes from mobile again. On- line shopping focused on electronic products has started to spread to other categories. According to the most common e-commerce platforms and marketplace firms, especially in the clothing and electronics category, the return-to-purchase rate has exceeded the rate of 50% in Turkey.

Some special day applications that are effectively taken into account all over the world have changed consumer preferences and habits. Services such as free ship- ping, same-day or next-day delivery are among the important reasons that trig- ger online shopping. Social media platforms such as Instagram are the channels that affect generations X, Y, and Z in terms of product review and purchase. In 2018, Trendyol, which was invested by Alibaba and transformed its business model from the shopping club structure to the marketplace model, emerged as an important player in this platform. The presence of the marketplace starting with the GittiGidiyor in Turkey’s market has gained strength with big players like Hepsiburada and N11.

According to the research by TUSIAD (2019), 40% of consumers buy a product after seeing the content or the advertisement on social media platforms like Face- book and Instagram. In the research, the clothing and footwear category stands out as the most popular category. Accessories, food and restaurant, home deco- ration, and textiles, mobile applications are the other categories used by a large amount of users.

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Figure 1. E-commerce market size in Turkey (2014-2018) (billion USD) Source: (TUBISAD, 2019).

The size of the e-commerce market size in Turkey has increased on average by 9% between 2014-2018. It can be said that the areas with the biggest increase are vacation and travel and only online retail.

Figure 2. E-commerce comparison (share of online retail in total retail) (2014-2019) Source: (TUBISAD,2019).

First of all, it should be said that online retail share has an increasing trend in all country groups. As can be seen from the graphic, the share of online retail in developing countries is about half of the developed countries. Turkey falls a little behind the developing countries.

179 THE ROLE OF MACHINE LEARNING ALGORITHMS IN DETERMINING PRODUCT SALES IN E-COMMERCE: A CASE STUDY FOR TURKEY Hilal Yıldız

Related Literature

Nowadays, the interest in using machine learning algorithms is increasing in the field of e-commerce. But we have to say that the number of researches using machine learning techniques in the field of e-commerce is relatively small. This section briefly summarizes the literature on the subject.

Wan et al. (2017) investigated eight important e-commerce key performance indicators. They addressed 4 of these important criteria and included them in the analysis. These projected four key performance indicators are visits, transactions, revenue, and media spend. Linear models used for prediction are the Ratio-based model and ARIMA. Random Forest, Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) were used as nonlinear models. Two experiments were carried out. In the first one, the past of the KPIs (the past seven days) and time derived data from Google Analytics were used. In the second experience, the data was expanded with external data and other Google Analytics features. According to the results, the best performance was achieved by random forest in terms of visits and transactions. The other best performance was achieved by MLP in terms of revenue and media spend. However, based on the magnitude of the prediction error, it is emphasized that stronger results can be achieved with a larger and specific data set.

Fan, Lung, and Ajila ( 2018) were analysed an adaptive and diverse hybrid-based ensemble method. In this study, the performance of binary classification was analyzed. Using the non-linear combination of base models, they examined the most suitable model for each data instance. Their results support that these algorithms perform strongly.

Another study examined customer trends and customer behavior on a large e-commerce website (Vieira 2015). Using machine learning algorithms like deep neural networks, the author makes predictions about the purchasing decisions of the customers. According to the empirical findings, boosting-type algorithms such as random forest give stronger predictive results than linear regression techniques such as logistic regression. However, the author also points out that larger data structures are needed to obtain stronger predictions. Making a comparison, the author states that there are improvements in using deep neural networks with existing algorithms.

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The increase in the use of credit cards, which is the main tool of online shopping, has also led to an increase in fraud in this area. Vulnerability and fraud have started to appear with the increasing speed of online shopping day by day (Fang, Zhang, and Huang 2019). To this end, the authors discussed machine learning algorithms to investigate fraud in credit card usage in online shopping. The algorithm they recommend is a light gradient boosted algorithm. They also pointed out that the Light Gradient Boosted algorithm performs better than the machine learning algorithms such as gradient boosted and random forest. First, they used the feature category as original data. In the second step, they used one-hot en- coding to handle some features so that the data is numeric and continuous. Us- ing the smote algorithm to tackle the imbalance of the data, they also pointed out that the suggested model has a good performance.

Another study on credit card fraud in online shopping was conducted by Kolli and Devi (2019). The purpose of the article is to predict fraudulent transactions with high accuracy using the Isolation forest and the Local Outlier Factor. For this purpose, they analyzed Logistic Regression, SVM, Random Forest with Ex- treme Gradient (XG) Boosting algorithms comparatively. According to the results of the study, the proposed model XG Boosting showed better performance and secured high accuracy.

Tugay and Ogutucu (2017), in their study, focused on demand forecasting on a widely used e-commerce website. The data set consisted of data from sellers selling the same product at different prices during the same period. Using a data set of an e-commerce company, they analyzed to predict demand with stacked generalization. The authors also emphasize that when the data set increases, machine learning algorithms will yield better results than other single classifier techniques.

In another study, authors used Tree Boosting Methods that exploit non-linearity and cross-series information on the real data set. The results of the analysis indi- cate that XgBoost reduces the Mean Absolute Error (MAE) by approximately 5% and the Rooted Mean Squared Error (RMSE) by 10 % on the whole data-sets and it outperforms the Benchmark for all categories (Garnier and Belletoile 2019).

Mostakim (2016) emphasizes that the performance of the XGBoost algorithm is higher than traditional algorithms. Additionally, this research indicates that the XG-Boost algorithm not only outperforms concerning prediction accuracy but also uncovers new knowledge that is hidden in data. It is also emphasized in this

181 THE ROLE OF MACHINE LEARNING ALGORITHMS IN DETERMINING PRODUCT SALES IN E-COMMERCE: A CASE STUDY FOR TURKEY Hilal Yıldız

study that hidden data helps to build a more robust feature set and strengthen the sales prediction model In the analysis, the Extreme Gradient Boosting algorithm is used to estimate probable sales of a major European Pharmacy retailing company for its retail stores.

In another study (Catal et al. 2019), both time series techniques and machine learning algorithms were applied to Walmart’s sales data on the Microsoft Az- ure Machine Learning Studio platform. The authors analyzed a lot of techniques such as regression and machine learning technics. Additionally, the same data was analyzed by using some time series techniques. The empirical results of this article show that Boosted Decision Tree Regression provides the best performance for used sales data.

In another study, authors compared the XGBoost based algorithm with other techniques such as C-A-XGBoost. The two-step clustering algorithm is applied to partitioning data series into different clusters based on selected features, which are used as the influencing factors for forecasting (Ji et al. 2019).

Another study is aimed at developing a machine-learning algorithm for e-commerce offers and coupons and a coupon recommender system with content-based filtering. The study has compared two popularity based baselines and tree classification models like random forest and gradient boosting. According to the results of this study, random forests and XGBoost classifiers has better performance than the two baselines except for the NDCG10 metric (Xia et al. 2017).

Theoretical Framework Machine Learning

When estimating with a machine learning technique, two main factors that reduce success are bias and variance. Thus, machine learning has two important fundamentals as bias and variance. The method uses the community of estima- tors instead of a single estimator while trying to get close to the predicted variable with minimum error. This path, called the ensemble technique, is a kind of collection of predictions. Ensemble techniques are mostly classified as Bagging and Boosting. Random forest works with the bagging algorithm, but gradient boosting, another machine learning technique, works with the boosting algorithm.

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Random Forest As machine learning techniques, the random forest algorithm is a combination of bagging methods developed by (Breiman 1996, Breiman 2001), and the random subspace algorithm, also called attribute bagging or feature bagging, is an ensemble learning method developed by (Ho 1998). In essence, random forest is an ensemble learning technique with techniques such as classification and regression. It is based on bagging, also known as a bootstrap aggregating algorithm. Bagging (Bootstrap Aggregation) is an approach to an ensemble learning algorithm, in which we aggregate the predictions from multiple models to get a final prediction.

The bootstrap data set consists of the same size as the original data set and data randomly selected from this set. In the bootstrap data set, some samples can be included more than once, while some are not included at all. In this way, approximately 2/3 of the data is reserved for training while the remaining 1/3 of the training instances, which are called out-of-bag instances, are not sampled. A bootstrap data set is recreated for each additional tree created in the random forest. Ideally, this process is repeated 100 times. In this way, getting ideas from the community of trees instead of a single tree increases the success of the forecast. Sub-samples are taken from the training data set, and the average of each sample is calculated. Then, the mean of the average of all samples is found. The aim is to find the nearest prediction to the target variable. If the value of the target variable in the out-of bag data set is estimated correctly by random trees, out-of-date instances are correctly labeled by the random forest. The said state is reviewed for the entire out of data set. In this way, it is revealed how accurately the out-of-dataset can be determined by the random forests. The part where the out-of-dataset cannot be captured gives the prediction error. If sub-samples are ideally uncorre- lated, bootstrapping quantities better represent the mean of the target variable. This also shows how accurately the random forest is running.

The proximity matrix, which is created by the similarity between samples, is used to replace the missing value in the original data set. Missing data is put in place according to the weighted frequencies of each option determined in the proximity matrix. Thus, by reaching the distance matrix, the distance between the samples is determined.

In the decision trees technique, the training set has a high variance as it is affected by small changes in the training data set. But using the bagging algorithm

183 THE ROLE OF MACHINE LEARNING ALGORITHMS IN DETERMINING PRODUCT SALES IN E-COMMERCE: A CASE STUDY FOR TURKEY Hilal Yıldız

gives lower variance because of dividing the training set into several sub training sets, and each training set is used to train a decision tree. To get the average prediction of all decision trees causes lower variance. In this way, a lower estimation error can be achieved. The probability of the re-selection of each randomly selected sample is equal because the method works by sampling replacement. In this way, out –of- bag instances not included in the training set can be evaluated as a prediction success. The random forest algorithm uses independent classifiers and handles overfitting.

The steps of Random Forest are presented as follows:

Figure 3. Th e process of random forest.

Step 1: Given an ensemble of classifiers h1 (x), h2 (x),… hn (x), an average of regression results of n decision trees is calculated as follows:

(1) where H(x) denotes the result of combined regression models.

Step 2: To obtain n classification results, the result of the combined classification model is calculated as follows:

184 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

where h(x) denotes the result of the single decision tree and denotes the result of the combined classification models.

Step 3:With the training set drawn at random from the distribution of the random vector Y, X, define the margin function as

where I(·) is the indicator function. The margin measures the extent to which the average number of votes at X, Y for the right class exceeds the average vote for any other class. The larger the margin, the more confidence in the classification.

Step 4: As the number of trees increases, for almost surely all sequences Θ1,... PE* converges to

0. (4)

In the random forest algorithm, the data set is determined randomly. Trees are developed and these trees are not pruned. The CART (Classification and Re- gression Tree) algorithm is used. Variables that determine each tree node are determined. It is recommended that the number of trees is equal to the square of the number of variables.

Gradient Boosting Boosting was first introduced by (Schapire 1999, Freund and Schapire 1996, Fre- und and Schapire 1995). It is an ensemble method that provides an accurate estimation of characteristic statistics such as mean and variance. The method provides a strong estimation by combining different determinants from the data sets allocated for training and thus decreases bias and variance.

Gradient boosting, known as a regression and classification technique, is a machine learning technique which was originated by (Friedman 2001). In the algorithm, initially, the average of the target variable is taken as the starting point. Another tree is based on the error term of the previous one. The scales of trees are the same for all trees. The average value of the target variable is considered as the initial value and assumed to be the same for all observations. The error of

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the first predicted tree is determined by subtracting all observations from the average. In the algorithm, the error terms of the next tree provide lower results due to the training of the errors obtained in the previous tree with a certain learning rate. Each added tree in the prediction makes the error term smaller. In summary, the first leaf is taken as the average of the target variable and the process continues with learning at every step.

In this algorithm, the aim is to minimize the expected value of some specified Loss Function L(y, F(x)) over the joint distribution of all (y,x)-values. The steps of Gradient Boosting are presented as follows:

Step 1: Initially, the average target variable is taken as the starting point.

Step 2:

where x is the predicted variable, y is the predicted label. After repeating this process M (M is times of iteration) times, the residuals of regression are calculated.

Step 3: The loss function includes squared-error(y-F)2 and absolute error │y-F │ for regression and negative binomial likelihood, log(1+e-2yF ), when yϵ{-1,1} (classification).

Thus, loss function refers to those squared residuals (observed-predicted)2. By getting the differentiation in terms of predicted one,

(7) and having the sum of the derivatives equal to zero, the loss function can be solved. After repeating this process M times, pseudo-residuals can be held for each leaf and minimized.

Step 4:

A new step size of the model is calculated.

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The important thing here is to estimate the data set with multiple iterations to minimize the error term (Friedman 2001,Rao et al. 2019,Friedman 1999;https:// scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/ensemble.html#gradient-boosting).

Results Dataset and Definitions The data used in the experiments was provided from Hepsiburada, which is one of the most popular online e-commerce companies in Turkey.

The analysis is based on the dataset of three different case scenarios. In case 1, the dataset included in the analysis consists of data related to the products that are interfered with manually. The products in the second scenario are those in which stocks are not manipulated but stock entries are very high in a certain period. These high stock entries can be caused due to stock replenishment by mer- chants. In the third case scenario, there are certain products in which stocks are not manipulated but a big increase in sales speed during the campaign periods. There are 3 products in all three cases. The variables include stock, stock difference, page and order. The analysis period consists of daily data between 9/27/2019 and 5/3/2020. The products are selected from different categories.

Evaluation Criteria The criteria used to evaluate the success of the analysis is given below:

Root mean square error (RMSE)

This criterion is one of the strongest criteria used in this area to evaluate forecast success.

Findings and Discussion In this section, the estimation results of some of the products will be summarized. The algorithms used in the prediction are random forest and gradient boosting

187 THE ROLE OF MACHINE LEARNING ALGORITHMS IN DETERMINING PRODUCT SALES IN E-COMMERCE: A CASE STUDY FOR TURKEY Hilal Yıldız

algorithms. In the evaluations made on estimation algorithms based on tree communities, variables that best explain the stock difference will be interpreted. It has been observed that price is the main determinant of the stock difference of many products examined.

Empirical Evidence on AILECEV4007 (Sudocrem Baby Care Cream):

Figure 4. Classification results of random forest.

According to the results of random forest, the basic root node that determines the stock change is the order variable. If the order variable is greater than the threshold value, the second sub-node is observed again as the order variable and the leaves are accessed with the page variable. On the other hand, if the basic root node is less than the threshold value, the sub-nodes are price and order, then the leaves are reached with page and order.

188 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Figure 5. Classification results of gradient boosting.

According to the results of gradient boosting, orders are the basic determinant of stock difference. If the order variable is less than the threshold value, the sub- nodes are the order variable and the leaves are also reached by order.

Empirical Evidence on QWERTY Apple Lightning Quick Charge and Data Ca- ble IPhone IPad

Figure 6. Classification results of random forest.

The results of the random forest algorithm can be summarized as follows. It can be said that the basic root node is the p variable for this product. The sub-nodes are order and page, and then the minimum error is reached with order and page.

189 THE ROLE OF MACHINE LEARNING ALGORITHMS IN DETERMINING PRODUCT SALES IN E-COMMERCE: A CASE STUDY FOR TURKEY Hilal Yıldız

Figure 7. Classification results of gradient boosting

It is observed that the key determinant of the stock change of the product is the order variable. There is only one sub-node if the order is more than the threshold of orders. This sub-node is the page.

Estimation performance of all products used in the analysis is given in the following table.

Table 1. Performance of Machine Learning Algorithms.

Products/Machine Learning Algorithms Random Forest Gradient Boosting Samsung EVO Plus 64GB 100MB 0.574 0.872 Sudocrem Baby Care Cream 125 gr 0.115 1.187 Philips MG3720 Male Grooming Kit 7 in 1 0.322 1.159 Uni Baby Sensitive Wet Towel 12 1.131 0.979 Domestos Ultra Bleach Snow White 0.295 0.389 Sinbo Seb-5803 Egg Cooking Boiling Device 0.853 1.106 QWERTY Apple Lightning Quick Charge 0.115 1.187 Boiled 36w Led Tape Luminaire 0.676 Evnalia Metal Hairpin Leg Table Coffee Table 0.176 0.168 Note: The numerical values inside the table show the RMSE (Root mean square error) value.

The success of the algorithms varies from product to product in terms of RMSE. For some products, Random Forest provides a better prediction success, while for some others, Gradient Boosting is more advantageous.

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Conclusion

In this study, we tried to predict the classification of the stock difference of some products sold by an e-commerce company by using machine learning algorithms. Firstly, literature research was conducted on the subject. With the help of the data obtained from Hepsiburada, the determinants of the difference in stocks of products selected from various categories were analyzed. Our experiments indi- cate that the basic classifier of stock difference for some products is price, while it is page and order for others. The root mean squared error used as the main criterion was lower in the random forest algorithm for most of the products. How- ever, it should be emphasized that the size of the dataset should be increased to get more prediction success. It should also be pointed out that using different variables in the algorithm could lead to better predictive performance. The result of the study could give some information to those who are interested in the subject. In the future, the dataset of the products will be further increased and the subject will continue to be examined with different combinations.

Acknowledgments

While examining the subject, the basic restriction was to have access to healthy data. I would like to thank Yiğit Tuna, who provided the data used in the study via Hepsiburada.

References

Breiman L (1996) Bagging Predictors. URL:” Machine Learning ePub ahead of print May 15, Https://Link.Springer.Com/Article/10.1007%2F- BF00058655. Breiman, L (2001) Random Forests. Machine learning, 45,1: 5–32. Catal, C, Kaan E, Arslan B, Akbulut A(2019) Benchmarking of Regression Algorithms and Time Series Analysis Techniques for Sales Fore- casting. Balkan Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering 7 (1): 20–26. Fan X, Lung CH, Samuel AA (2018) Using Hybrid and Diversity-Based Adap- tive Ensemble Method for Binary Classification. International Jour- nal of Intelligence Science 08 (03): 43–74.

191 THE ROLE OF MACHINE LEARNING ALGORITHMS IN DETERMINING PRODUCT SALES IN E-COMMERCE: A CASE STUDY FOR TURKEY Hilal Yıldız

Fang Y, Zhang Y, Huang C (2019) Credit Card Fraud Detection Based on Machine Learning. Computers, Materials and Continua 61 (1): 185–195. Freund Y, Schapire RE (1996) Experiments with a New Boosting Algorithm. Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Machine Learn- ing, 148–156. Freund Y, Schapire RE (1995) A Decision-Theoretic Generalization of on-Line Learning and an Application to Boosting. Lecture Notes in Comput- er Science (Including Subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics 904: 23–37. doi:10.1007/3- 540-59119-2_166. Friedman JH (1999) Stochastic Gradient Boosting. https://statweb.stanford. edu/~jhf/ftp/stobst.pdf. Friedman JH (2001) Greedy Function Approximation: A Gradient Boosting Machine. Annals of Statistics 29 (5): 1189–1232. Rémy G, Belletoile A (2019) A Multi-Series Framework for Demand Forecasts in E-Commerce.” http://arxiv.org/abs/1905.13614. Ho TK (1998) The Random subspace method for constructing decision. IEEE Pub. 20 (8): 832–844. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/709601 Shouwen J, Wang X, Zhao W, Guo D (2019) An Application of a Three-Stage XGboost-Based Model to Sales Forecasting of a Cross-Border e-Commerce Enterprise. Mathematical Problems in Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/8503252. Kolli CS, Devi TU (2019) Isolation Forest and Xg Boosting for Classifying Credit Card Fraudulent Transactions. International Journal of Inno- vative Technology and Exploring Engineering 8 (8): 41–47. Linden G, Smith B, York J (2003) Industry Report:Amazon.com Recommen- dations Item-to-Item Collaborative Filtering. https://www.cs.umd. edu/~samir/498/Amazon-Recommendations.pdf Mostakim M (2016) Prediction on Large Scale Data Using Extreme Gradient Boosting. Unpublished dissertation, BRAC University, Bangla- desh.

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Rao H, Shi X, Rodrigue AK, Feng J, Xia Y, Elhoseny M, Yuan X, Gu L (2019) Feature Selection Based on Artificial Bee Colony and Gradient Boosting Decision Tree. Applied Soft Computing Journal 74. Else- vier B.V.: 634–642. Schapire RE (1999) A Brief Introduction to Boosting. IJCAI Pub. IJCAI In- ternational Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence 2: 1401–1406. Tugay R, Ögüdücü ŞG (2017) Demand Prediction Using Machine Learning Methods and Stacked Generalization. DATA 2017. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Data Science, Technology and Applications, 216–222. Turkish Industry and Business Association (2019) Development of E-Com- merce, Transcending Borders and New Norms. Report, TUSIAD, İstanbul, Turkey. Turkey IT Industrialists Association (2019) E-commerce 2018 Market Size in Turkey. Report, TUBISAD, Istanbul, Turkey. United Nations Conference on Trade and Cevelopment (2019) The UNCTAD B2C E-Commerce Index 2019. Report, UNCTAD, New York, 1–23. Vieira A (2015) Predicting Online User Behaviour Using Deep Learning Algo- rithms.Computer Science, Mathematics,ArXiv: 1–20. http://arxiv. org/abs/1511.06247. Wan CC (2017) Master Project Business Analytics Forecasting E-Commerce Key Performance Indicators. Supervisor: Hoogendoorn M, Muho- nen V, Master Project Business Analytics. Yandi X, Fabbrizio GD, Vaibhav S, Datta A (2017) A Content-Based Rec- ommender System for E-Commerce Offers and Coupons. CEUR Workshop Proceedings 2311, SIGIR eCom, Tokyo, Japan.

Verification Letter Yiğit Tuna, CEO, nesatılır.com, Oren Street, no:48/234, Kadıköy/Istanbul, Turkey, writes,

193

11 GREEN MARKETING Resul Öztürk (Necmettin Erbakan University)

Introduction

The future circumstances of both the world and human population are closely related to economic issues, and also to social problems in general (Chaffey & El- lis-Chadwick, 2016, p. 165). As economic units, enterprises have to fulfil their functions as institutions that produce goods and services by interacting with the environment in which they operate. Such environments are heavily influenced by social, political, and cultural factors, and at the same time respond to the needs of the society and help solve social problems. Problems such as rapid population growth, scarcity, hunger, conflict, and urbanization damage the environment, caus- ing its rapid deterioration and the destruction of environmental values. It has become necessary for enterprises to contribute to finding solutions to the above in the face of the social danger caused by the environmental and ecological problems that are constantly emerging (Eser, Korkmaz, & Öztürk, 2011, p. 72). This environmental and ecological view, within the scope of the functionalist approach, as well as the marketing purposes developed by effectively matching the goods and services offered by enterprises with the demands of households, forms the basis to the various approaches to marketing activities, including the managerial approach that evaluates the most appropriate activities to enable enterprises to successfully adapt to their environments. Therefore, macro-marketing, which is carried out by focusing on the macro-environment and the problems developing in this environment, reveals the marketing activities that will require enterprises to adopt a new and more harmonious relationship with the environment. There- fore, in line with this view and approach, the effect and importance of green marketing activities for enterprises is paramount (Stone & Desmond, 2007, p. 3).

In this section, after giving general information about green marketing, the emergence and development of the concept of green marketing, its definition and

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importance, the components of the green marketing mix, and issues related to the typical green consumer will be discussed.

1. The Emergence and Development Process of Green Marketing

The concept of green, which has created a vast change in today’s marketing activities and is used worldwide, is considered an extreme phenomenon in terms of the attempt to maintain an environmentally sensitive lifestyle in the 1960s and included the concept of green in particular, in the shopping habits of consumers (Ottman, 2011, p. 1). The relationship between the environment and marketing activities was first evaluated in the early 1970s. Its main purpose was, and indeed remains, to include environmental principles in marketing processes, to identify environmentally friendly consumers who want to buy environmentally friendly products, and to make best efforts to create an ethos of recycling in order to direct industrial societies towards adopting modes of behaviour that do not ultimately result in any harm to the environment. In the 1980s, with the emergence of the idea of protecting the environment becoming a necessary mode of consumption-related behaviour, changes in the associated marketing tenden- cies began. After it was accepted for the first time that the volume of consumption would pose a bigger problem than its quality, the concept of green products began to be elucidated along with strategies for the development, use, transportation, and end-of-life treatment of products (Kilbourne, 2010, pp. 360-361).

Environmental problems were examined in depth by the marketing literature in the 1970s and 1980s, but the interests of both consumers and enterprises with regard to these issues remained minimal. The report published in 1987 by the Brundtland Commission, previously known as the World Environmental Protec- tion and Development Commission, led to the discussion of sustainability termi- nology as well as green marketing and environmental marketing terms in terms of the marketing literature to meet today’s needs without compromising the ability to meet the needs of future generations by themselves (Murphy, 2010, p. 91). The report failed to achieve the desired results in the 1990s, despite the work carried out by marketers and academics, where it was determined that there were five ways, namely green spinning, green selling, green harvesting, enviropreneur marketing, and compliance marketing, that were among the reasons for leading to businesses to failure. On the other hand, it was stated that four basic features, namely it starts with the customer, it has a long-run perspective, it involves full

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use of all the company’s resources, and it is innovative, were vital to green marketing activities. In addition, it was stated that a number of elements in marketing understanding and practices should be reshaped in order to achieve improved development in green marketing (Peattie & Crane, 2005): • Redefining products within the scope of green marketing, • The desire to make changes in the markets, • Specifying the benefits to be gained from the use of the product, • Providing marketing communication that aims not only to influence but to inform, • Establishing a focal point beyond current consumer needs, • Willing to manage demands and expectations, • Emphasizing cost instead of price, • Taking more responsibility.

Marketing literature are clearly stated and enterprises are affected by global and ecological approaches are today defined as “green marketing” (Saren, 2010, p. 35). While enterprises try to control, change, affect and adapt their inputs despite external environmental factors, they can only shape, manage and create the elements in this environment with environmental management practices up to a point (Mathur & Mathur, 2000, p. 193). Marketing performers have an obligation to integrate corporate environmentalism with environmental problems with the strategic plans of enterprises. Green marketing practices, which failed in the past, have now become successful by convincing consumers that they are acting in line with the long-term well-being of both themselves and their communities, for reasons such as environmentally friendly products being less costly, healthier and safer. Green marketing myopia has been eliminated thanks to expert opinions on positioning consumer value, adjusting products to consumer information, and focussing on the reliability of product claims. Thanks to this, sustainability and green marketing practices that provide better environmental solutions and awareness of the increasing concerns of consumers about the future of the environment, especially with the scarcity of raw materials such as water, increasing energy costs and pollution levels, there are issues that marketing practitioners should take into consideration (Kotler & Keller, 2012, pp. 81-92): • Although raw materials are one of three types, infinite, limited renewable and limited non-renewable, the costs of limited non-renewable products (petrol, coal, etc.) increase significantly.

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• As the price of petrol, which is a limited non-renewable resource, increases, businesses are looking for ways to benefit from alternative energy sources, such as solar and wind. • As a result of certain industrial activities harming the environment, while developing pollution control solutions such as recycling centres and waste storage systems, markets are also emerging that seek alternative ways of producing and packaging goods. • The countries which economically underdeveloped do not take any precau- tions due to the lack of political will and funds for environmental pollution, additionally rich countries do not have the necessary funds too.

Today, the concept of sustainability is being implemented as a corporate strategy, and it increases the need to switch to environmentally friendly products for both marketing practitioners and consumers. Although there is an extensive body of the literature that examines the interrelationships between customer attitudes and environmental strategies with regard to green marketing, environmental issues are addressed within the scope of green marketing efforts (Cherian & Jacob, 2012, pp. 117-119). In recent years, an increasing number of enterprises have been adopting environmental sustainability policies by accepting their share of the responsibility for not harming the environment. Environmental sustainability is defined as a management approach that includes both continuing to protect the environment and developing profit-generating strategies for business. It is thought that it is more appropriate to take steps to ensure the environmental future of consumers, enterprises, society, and the world rather than making short- term gain (Kotler & Armstrong, 2016, p. 637). Strategies related to environmental sustainability and sustainable values are shown in Figure 1.

Today: Tomorrow: Greening Beyond Greening

Pollution Prevention New Clean Technology Internal Eliminating or reducing waste before it is Developing new sets of environmental This framework addresses more than just natural created skills and capabilities environmental challenges. It also points to opportunities for creating sustainable value for Product Stewardship Sustainability Vision markets and the firm through environmentally External Minimizing environmental impact Developing a strategic framework for sustainable strategies and practices. throughout the entire product life cycle creating sustainable value

Figure 1. Environmental Sustainability and Sustainable Value Resource: Kotler & Armstrong, 2016, p. 637.

In Figure 1, which shows a network that enterprises can use to measure their progress towards achieving environmental sustainability, there are greening activities

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for both internal and external elements that will pay for themselves in the long run for the business and the environment in the short term. At the most basic level, enterprises may choose to implement pollution prevention, involving more than controlling their processes and cleaning up waste after it has been created. Essen- tially, preventing pollution means removing or minimizing waste before it occurs. Enterprises that choose this strategy conduct their green marketing programmes according to more efficient energy operations by ensuring pollution control with the help of ecologically more reliable products, and recyclable and biodegradable packaging (Kotler & Armstrong, 2016, p. 637), for instance.

2. Green Marketing Concept and Its Importance

The concept of green marketing, which requires the inclusion of environmental aspects in marketing activities, is used as a term that includes concepts such as ecological marketing, sustainable marketing, and green consumerism in the literature (Crane, 2000, p. 278). In addition to these concepts, green marketing, also known as environmental marketing and responsible marketing, is the integration of value-creating change into the natural environment as well as consumers and society (Polonsky, 2011, p. 1311). The term green marketing describes attempts by marketers to develop strategies that target environmental consumers (McDan- iel & Rylander, 1993, p. 4). The concept of green marketing, which aims to reduce the social and environmental impacts of existing products and production systems and is used to describe the marketing activities carried out to promote products that are less harmful to the environment, has evolved since first appear- ing and is examined according to three different stages (Peattie, 2001):

• Ecological green marketing: This is related to marketing activities for environmental problems that can be encountered in positive and negative qualities. • Environmental green marketing: Where concepts such as clean technology, green consumers, eco-performance, sustainability and environmental quality emerge, and the vulnerability of the environment and the people in it and the danger of extinction are emphasized. • Sustainable green marketing: Green markets and products, which have become effective with the development of the environmental marketing approach, offer opportunities to green consumers, and activities have been carried out for the continuity of efforts to change the behaviour of communities.

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Green marketing, which is considered to stem from social responsibility, is the development and marketing of products designed to minimize or even eliminate negative effects on the physical environment or, indeed, to improve it (Lamb, Hair, & McDaniel, 2011, p. 94). Although social marketing adopts a different perspective, green marketing is defined as the development and marketing of products designed to minimize negative effects to the physical environment. Green marketing management, on the other hand, is defined as the process of planning and executing the marketing mix in order to facilitate consumption, production, distribution, promotion, packaging and product improvement in a manner that is sensitive to ecological concerns (Dahlstrom, 2011, pp. 5-6). The concept of green marketing, as a concept that includes ecological and social marketing concepts and integrates and expands these ideas, is defined as a holistic management process responsible for determining, predicting and satisfying the needs of consumers and communities in a profitable and sustainable way. The main differences between the concept of green marketing and social marketing are (Peattie & Charter, 2003, p. 727): • Emphasis on the physical sustainability and social acceptability of the marketing process, • Developing a more holistic and interdependent perspective on the relationship between economy, society, and environment, • Developing an open-ended perspective with the possibility of realization of expectations over a longer period of time, • To be considered as a concept that has an inherent value beyond its usefulness to the environment and society, • Focussing on global concerns rather than problems that arise in particular societies.

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Organization

Traditional Traditional Traditional Traditional Traditional Procurement Production Marketing Human Research & Strategies Strategies Strategies Resources Development Strategies Strategies

Macro Environment Concern T oday Individual Environment * Depletion of Natural Resources * Water Pollution * Air Pollution * Deforestation * Global Warming * Hazardous Waste * Land Pollut ion

Green Marketing Strategies

* Green Product Strategies * Green Pricing Strategies * Green Dist ribut ion (Logist ics) Strategies * Green Promotion Strategies * Green Packaging Strategies * Green Consumption Strategies

Organizational Performance Result ed Physical Environment * Compet itive Advantage * Reduced Air, Water, & Land Pollution * Differentiating Offerings * Differentiating Offerings * Profit & Developing Image * Profit & Developing Image

Sustainable Development

Figure 2. Conceptual Framework of Green Marketing and Sustainable Development Resource: Patel, 2016, p. 140.

The main idea behind green marketing is to raise awareness about environmental problems and the help they will provide to the environment if consumers choose green products. Therefore, while green marketing activities aim to provide people with more information, at the same time, more options are offered to people to consume green products and make it part of their lifestyle (Cherian & Jacob, 2012, p. 119). Green marketing focusses on undertaking all marketing activities as well as protecting the environment. As a result of the protection and improvement of the environment, with sustainable development, the natural environment

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will be transferred to future generations in its current or better form. Therefore, sustainable development appears to be a dependent variable of green marketing as independent factors and other factors. In Figure 2, the conceptual framework underlying green marketing and sustainable development in which this relationship takes place is illustrated. Through traditional purchasing strategies, opportunities such as environmentally friendly behaviour, social responsibility, competitive advantage and the cost reduction offered by green marketing contribute to the elimination of the environmental concerns faced by the world today, not only with the marketing function of the enterprises but also within the scope of other functions (Patel, 2016, pp. 141-142).

Although the idea of green marketing and sustainability takes a holistic view, it emphasizes that green marketing should take into account all activities that enterprises are involved in (Dief & Font, 2010, p. 159). The purpose of green marketing is to ensure the inclusion of environmental issues in traditional marketing efforts (Rex & Baumann, 2007, p. 568). Green marketing is more closely associated with the greening of different aspects of traditional marketing. This generally includes the production of green products for green consumers whose associated waste can be recycled subsequent to their consumption (Kilbourne, 1998, p. 642).

Global enterprises contribute to economic development by finding creative ways to conserve natural resources while creating economic opportunities for local consumers with green marketing activities (Keegan & Green, 2013, p.50). Multina- tional enterprises may face a variety of legislation designed to address environmental issues. The global concern for the environment is assessed beyond industrial pollution, hazardous waste disposal and deforestation to encompass a direct focus on consumer products. The focus in this sense is on green marketing laws, environmentally friendly products, and product packaging and their impact on solid waste management (Cateora, Gilly, & Graham, 2011, p. 207).

A marketing strategy that does not have the financial incentives to adopt green activities is perceived as a challenging task for enterprises, but enterprises will not choose such a strategy in the absence of superior profits. Enterprise and marketing management must adapt to social pressures and demands in order to maxi- mize the current market value of the enterprise to its stakeholders. There are three types of green strategies, green innovation, greening the enterprise, and green alliances, that meet the needs of different stakeholder groups while trying to achieve

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the goals of an enterprise (Cronin, Smith, Gleim, Ramirez, & Martinez, 2011, pp. 162-163). There are various external pressures (meeting consumer demand, reacting to competitors’ environmentally sensitive activities, requesting channel/ supplier entries) and internal pressures (cost and philosophy/management understanding) that businesses may face as a result of adopting green activities (Polon- sky & Rosenberger III, 2001, p. 22).

While the environmental problems of humanity create the necessity for transfor- mational green marketing, they require the incorporation of macro-level problems into the micro-level behaviour of consumers, businesses and governments, where the behaviour of these elements needs to change and environmental problems be better integrated into this system. Marketers need to expand their activities, look for alternative ways to present value and cost to society, change the way people interact with the environment, and rediscover ways to achieve sustainable satisfaction with consumption (Polonsky, 2011, pp. 1317-1318). Businesses should develop new and alternative ways to meet unlimited demands with limited natural resources. At this point, while green marketing examines the use of limited resources in marketing activities, it enables businesses that sell to reach their goals to satisfy the demands of both individuals and businesses in the sector (Polonsky, 2008, p. 4).

3. Green Marketing Mix

In terms of green marketing components, it is necessary to understand public policy processes as well as traditional marketing mix elements. Due to its close connection with industrial ecology and environmental sustainability issues such as expanded producer responsibility, life cycle analysis, material use, and eco-ef- ficiency, the issue of green marketing is quite extensive and has important im- plications for business strategy and public policy (Prakash, 2002, p. 285). Due to the fact that the markets of ecological products are not homogeneous (Gurău & Ranchhod, 2005, p.549), an analysis of the potential of green markets, actions to meet green market needs and an analysis of the environmentalist behaviour of competitors are actions that fall within the scope of strategic marketing management in the implementation of the green marketing concept. In terms of marketing management, the marketing mix of the concept of green marketing is activated by using green product design policy, distribution with green criteria, pricing of environmentally friendly products, green promotion, and green

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sponsorship (Rivera-Camino, 2007, p. 1333). Apart from these actions, there are green marketing tools such as eco-labels, eco-brands, and environmental advertisement. These tools will make it easier to perceive and be aware of the attrib- utes and properties of green products, and as a result they will direct consumers to buy environmentally friendly products (Rahbar & Wahid, 2011, p. 73).

Green products are renewable, reusable, and recyclable and are designed to meet the needs of people, do not harm them or, indeed, the environment, and are considered green in terms of their lifecycles (Charter, Peattie, Ottman, & Polosky, 2002, 20). In the green product strategy, although they are defined as recyclable and preservable products that do not harm living things or the environment, do not pollute the earth, and ensure less consumption of natural resources, they are described with the 4S Formula (Erbaşlar, 2012, p. 6): • Satisfaction: This is evaluated as meeting the needs and desires of the consumers. • Sustainability: This is defined as ensuring the continuity of products, energy, and natural resources in the natural environment. • Social Acceptability: This is the societal acceptance in terms of not harming living things and the natural environment as a result of the activities of the enterprises. • Safety: This refers to the necessity to arrange the products in such a way that does not endanger the health of the people in society.

As a result of the extra costs incurred in the production and control processes of green products, consumers have the perception that green products are more ex- pensive (Ayazlar & Arslan Ayazlar, 2015, p. 355). In consumer markets, product groups have emerged in varying categories, where environmentally sensitive consumers are prepared to pay high prices to protect the environment and reap the associated benefits. Therefore, most consumers around the world are likely to compromise more between product quality and performance advantages due to the green advantages that can be achieved in terms of purchasing decisions (Kot- ler, Wong, Saunders, & Armstrong, 2005, p. 105). In the green pricing strategy, internal restrictions, customer demand, legal restrictions, and competitive actions affect the price planning process (Dahlstrom, 2011, p. 208).

In terms of green promotion, enterprises use promotion tools to convey to their target audience that they are interested in environmental issues and to give the

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impression that the enterprise’s image to the target audience is sensitive to environmental issues. For this reason, the promotional tools used by enterprises aim- ing to operate in green markets should not harm the environment (Varinli, 2012, p.39). In order to create consumer demand for more environmentally sensitive products, sales can be increased, business image can be strengthened, and support can be provided to increase the morale of employees who operate in line with this goal, thanks to opportunities to offer new products that can provide profitability by introducing greener products (Ottman, 2011, p. 9).

As a result of climate change and the global climate emergency, businesses need to reduce their impact in terms of supply, production, distribution, raw material, energy use and so on, otherwise, they may encounter regulations and decreasing customer demand (Grant, 2008, p. 25). In addition to being a fundamental problem of distribution activities for businesses, it is one of the functions that can minimize environmental costs. Enterprises have started to reduce the use of raw materials by changing their packages that can reduce direct or indirect distribution costs. Although green logistics is seen as an integrated strategic activity for businesses; it is the implementation of activities that are less harmful to the environment. Again, it includes reverse logistics activities, which are considered one of the more complex developments in distribution activities, and the stages of taking back packaging and used goods from consumers and collecting them in enterprises through distribution channels. This process includes the process referred to as 6R (Polonsky & Rosenberger III, 2001, p. 25):

• Recognition: Monitoring the flow of products in the reverse logistics process. • Recovery: Collection of products for reprocessing. • Review: Testing materials for compliance with reprocessing standards. • Renewal: Demanding suitable parts for reproduction and reuse of products according to original standards. • Removal: disposal of non-remanufactured materials and marketing of remanufactured products to new or existing customers. • Re-engineering: Evaluation of existing products for a better design.

4. Green Consumer Behavior

Most people think that steps are taken to promote and advertise only environmentally friendly products through green marketing activities (Polonsky, 2008,

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p. 2). The reason for this is that, in the past, some enterprises exploited consumers’ increasing environmental awareness and carried out marketing activities to take advantage of this without actually changing their products and production processes (Mendleson & Polonsky, 1995, pp. 4-5). Marketers will be able to help enterprises create appropriate market offers and gain competitive advantage by trying to identify green consumers in case societies face increasing environmental concerns and by looking for the motivations for purchasing products that will address their such concerns (Peattie & Charter, 2003, p. 736).

Environmentally conscious consumers are willing to pay more by choosing green or environmentally friendly products. The main problem here is that only a small group of consumers compared to the general consumer give serious consideration to the environmental aspects of the products in their purchasing decisions. At this point, it would be appropriate for marketers to inform consumers about green products (Lamb et al., 2011, p. 94). Although it is seen in public opinion surveys that consumers prefer to choose green products under the assumption that all conditions are equal, it is thought that some consumers exhibit irregular green feelings in terms of their habits and purchasing behaviours. Marketers need to do research whether the emphasis on green and environmentally friendly is an appropriate sales technique to understand target consumers and how they should be included in the marketing mix. In order to determine the varying degrees of consumers’ environmental concerns, the consumers in the markets were divided into different shades of green and subjected to a fivefold distinction (Gingsberg & Bloom, 2004, pp. 79-80):

• True Blue Greens: This group feel responsible for creating positive change in society and the environment due to their strong environmental values. It has been observed that non-environmentally conscious businesses are four times more likely to avoid the products they produce. • Greenback Greens: Their difference with True Blues is that they do not ac- tively participate the in political activities. But they are more eager to buy environmentally friendly products than an average consumer at the point of purchase. • Sprouts: Although theoretically they believe in environmental causes, they do not in practice. They rarely buy green products if it leads to higher spending, but can be persuaded to buy green if approached properly.

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• Grousers: In addition to being uneducated in environmental issues, they also display a cynical approach to affecting the changes that may occur in society. Although the prices of green products are very high, they think that their performance is not as good as the substitute products. • Basic Browns: They are concerned with daily worries rather than prolonged worries. Therefore, they do not care about environmental and social issues.

As a result, consumers’ awareness of environmental issues is increasing day by day (Kalafatis, Pollard, East, & Tsogas, 1999, p. 441). Enterprises, on the other hand, have redesigned their products and production methods to minimize environmental impacts by including environmental management in their enterprise culture. In this sense, steps have been taken to protect the environment by reducing packaging as well as using recyclable and environmentally friendly materials (Başaran Alagöz, 2007, p. 6). With the effect of increasing awareness and sensitivity towards environmental and social issues, it is seen that green marketing is inevitably the approach that should be implemented with sustainable development in the twenty-first century (Lee, 2008, p. 575).

References

Ayazlar, G., & Arslan Ayazlar, R. (2015). Yeşil Pazarlama. In B. Kılıç & Z. Öter (Eds.), Turizm Pazarlamasında Güncel Yaklaşımlar (pp. 327-378). İstanbul: Beta. Başaran Alagöz, S. (2007). Yeşil pazarlama ve eko etiketleme. Akademik Bakış Dergisi, 11, 1-13. Cateora, P. R., Gilly, M. C., & Graham, J. L. (2011). International Marketing. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Chaffey, D., & Ellis-Chadwick, F. (2016). Digital Marketing. Harlow: Pearson. Charter, M., Peattie, K., Ottman, J., & Polonsky, M. J. (2002). Marketing and sustainability. Centre for Business Relationships, Accountability, Sustainability and Society (BRASS) in association with The Centre for Sustainable Design, April. Cherian, J., & Jacob, J. (2012). Green marketing: A study of consumers’ attitude towards environment friendly products. Asían Social Science, 8(12), 117-126.

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Crane, A. (2000). Facing the backlash: Green marketing and strategic reorien- tation in the 1990s. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 8(3), 277-296. Cronin, J. J., Smith, J. S., Gleim, M. R., Ramirez, E., & Martinez, J. D. (2011). Green marketing strategies: An examination of stakeholders and the opportunities they present. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 39(1), 158-174. Dahlstrom, R. (2011). Green Marketing Management. Ohio: South-Western Cengage Learning. Dief, M. E., & Font, X. (2010). The determinants of hotels’ marketing managers’ green marketing behaviour. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18(2), 157-174. Erbaşlar, G. (2012). Yeşil pazarlama/Green marketing. Mesleki Bilimler Der- gisi, 1(2), 95. Eser, Z., Korkmaz, S., & Öztürk, S. A. (2011). Pazarlama: Kavramlar – İlkeler – Kararlar. Ankara: Siyasal. Ginsberg, J. M., & Bloom, P. N. (2004). Choosing the right green marketing strategy. MIT Sloan Management Review, 46(1), 79-84. Grant, J. (2008). Green marketing. Strategic Direction, 24(6), 25-27. Gurău, C., & Ranchhod, A. (2005). International green marketing: A comparative study of British and Romanian firms. International Market- ing Review, 22(5), 547-561. Kalafatis, S. P., Pollard, M., East, R., & Tsogas, M. H. (1999). Green marketing and Ajzen’s theory of planned behaviour: A cross-market examination. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 16(5), 441-460. Keegan, W. J., & Green, M. C. (2013). Global Marketing. New Jersey: Pearson. Kilbourne, W. E. (1998). Green marketing: A theoretical perspective. Journal of Marketing Management, 14(6), 641-655. Kilbourne, W. E. (2010). An Institutional Approach To Sustainable Marketing. In M. J. Baker & M. Saren (Eds.), Marketing Theory: A Student Text (pp. 360-378). London: Sage. Kotler, P., Wong, V., Saunders, J., & Armstrong, G. (2005). Principles of Mar- keting. Essex: Pearson.

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Polonsky, M. J. (2011). Transformative green marketing: Impediments and opportunities. Journal of Business Research, 64(12), 1311-1319. Prakash, A. (2002). Green marketing, public policy and managerial strategies. Business strategy and the environment, 11(5), 285-297. Rahbar, E., & Wahid, N. A. (2011). Investigation of green marketing tools’ effect on consumers’ purchase behavior. Business Strategy Series, 12(2), 73-83. Rex, E., & Baumann, H. (2007). Beyond ecolabels: What green marketing can learn from conventional marketing. Journal of Cleaner Pro- duction, 15(6), 567-576. Rivera-Camino, J. (2007). Re-evaluating green marketing strategy: A stakeholder perspective. European Journal of Marketing, 41(11/12), 1328-1358. Saren, M. (2010). Marketing Theory. In M. J. Baker & M. Saren (Eds.), Mar- keting Theory: A Student Text (pp. 26-50). London: Sage. Stone, M. A., & Desmond, J. (2007). Fundamentals of Marketing. New York: Routledge. Varinli, İ. (2012). Pazarlamada Yeni Yaklaşımlar. Ankara: Detay.

210 12 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TESTING HETEROSCEDASTICITY IN NONLINEAR REGRESSION Sakina I. Babashova (Azerbaijan State University of Economics)

Abstract This study aims to analyze the methods of determining nonlinear behavior in financial time series and specifically testing volatility using heteroscedasticity tests that are divided into three different groups - linearity tests, tests for autocorrelation, and tests for the presence of ARCH and GARCH effects. The simulation study has been conducted in order to compare Park, Glejser, Breusch-Godfrey LM, White and ARCH LM tests results by virtue of power of test. Using simulation methodology, different numbers of data sets with different sizes were generated in accordance with nonlinear models with different parameter values combinations. Each of heteroscedasticity tests was applied to each of simulated non-linear time series data resulting in test statistics calculation. For comparison, the power of tests was calculated and the advantages and disadvantages of the tests were shown. The simulation results were verified using the comparison of heteroscedasticity tests applied to 11 real different nonlinear data including volatility via the P-Value Method. As a result, the simulation study showed the strongest tests, while the real data study showed them to have low p-values. This shows that the actual data study has proven the accuracy of the results of the simulation study.

Keywords: ARCH, GARCH, Volatility, Test for Heteroscedasticity, Simulation, Power of Test.

Introduction

The constancy of heteroscedasticity of estimation errors in classical linear time series is assumed, but in most cases, fluctuation periods are observed in economic linear time series. Recent studies show that nonlinear time series’ models are more

211 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TESTING HETEROSCEDASTICITY IN NONLINEAR REGRESSION Sakina I. Babashova

successful to explain real life estimations. Developments about nonlinear models contribute a lot to the expansion of the areas that are used in the literature of economy each passing day.

Choosing the comparative analysis of heteroscedasticity tests that are used to model nonlinear time series data as the subject of the investigation carries importance from point view of its actuality. The main differences of the investigation with existing studies are: • The classification of heteroscedasticity tests; • Comparison of five tests chosen from different classification groups basing on different distributions; first on the base of simulation data in terms of Power of Test, then on the base of real data in terms of P Value Method.

The aim of the study is; to classify heteroscedasticity tests used in nonlinear time series; to apply various heteroscedasticity test by studying simulation data and to compare their performances. Then, identifying advantages and disadvantages of the test over one another within the comparison period making comments about the usage places basing on the information obtained from graphical and numeral assessments. In addition to above mentioned aims, as a special application it is intended to make comparison of heteroscedasticity tests on real data studied and to verify the obtained results with those obtained from simulation studies.

Data and Methodology ARCH (p) model method, simulation and hypothesis testing methods have been used within the study. First of all, simulation data were obtained via simulation method by employing ARCH(1) and ARCH(2) models for the application of heteroscedasticity tests. By working on the data obtained via simulation method, hypotheses were made about different tests and test statistics were calculated. Com- parison of heteroscedasticity test was carried out by Power of Test and P value.

Description of the Heteroscedasticity Problem One of the most important assumptions of the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) techniques in classic linear model analysis is homoscedasticity assumption. OLS technique assumes that, when unit values of independent variables are changed, dependent variables’ unit value variables remain constant and in statistical

212 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

literature it is called homoscedasticity (Gujarati, 1995:73; Orhunbilge, 2000:69; Tarı, 2006:101). In other words, the variance of error term, remains the same not being affected from the changes in independent variables. Homoscedastic- ity can be shown as follows:

(1) The homoscedasticity is shown in Figure 1 below. It is seen that for two variable simple liner regression model, the conditioned variance of Yi remains constant.

Figure 1. The Situation When Error Term ui is Homoscedastic

Source: Gujarati, 1999:68

Despite the afore mentioned facts, in Figure 2 the values of X increase from left to right (X1, X2,...,Xi) and it is observed that mass variance of Y increases and curves are gradually spread and disperse in a wider area. This situation is called heteroscedasticity.

213 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TESTING HETEROSCEDASTICITY IN NONLINEAR REGRESSION Sakina I. Babashova

Figure 2. The Situation When Error Term ui is Heteroscedastic

Source: Gujarati, 1999:69

The difference of error term variance shows the undesirable situation in the analysis of regression. In this situation, the variance of regression model error does not remain constant and can change by increasing, decreasing or fluctuating:

(2)

The Comparison of Heteroscedasticity Tests

To compare the heteroscedasticity tests such as Park test, Glejser test, Breusch-God- frey LM test, White test and ARCH LM test which are all used in the determi- nation of nonlinear behaviors in financial time series and especially in testing for heteroscedasticity, statistical studies have been made based on the simulation data.

Procedure for Deriving Simulation Data

In order to derive the simulation data, especially to obtain nonlinear time series, full stationary ARCH(1) and ARCH(2) processes were taken into consideration:

(3)

214 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

The constant term of the models was used as c0 = 1,5 and in order to make it valid throughout the ranges of b1 and b2 parameters, three different values such as 0.1;

0.5; 0.9 were taken for b1 in ARCH(1) and five different combinations of these three values were used for b1 and b2 in ARCH(2):

(4)

For the error parametrs in models, with the help of MathLab program, random numbers in 1000, 10000, 50000 and 100000 sets (with 0 mean and 1 variance) were produced in compliance with Normal Distribution and were used in the above mentioned models. Then by using equations in models, consecutive 2 series for X t were obtained in accordance with ARCH(1) and ARCH (2) models in line with the following formules:

(5)

2 As a result, on the base of initial value of X t and with the help of computer program, for each different parameter values, 1000, 10000, 50000 and 100000 vol- umes 12 (three parameter value * 4 different sample volume numbers) ARCH(1) and 20 (5 parameter values combination * 4 different sample volume numbers)

ARCH(2) X t data sets were derived.

Empirical Results

Park, Glejser, Breusch-Godfrey LM, White and ARCH LM tests were chosen among heteroscedasticity tests groups for application. The tests were applied by working on each of nonlinear time series obtained via simulation ways. First of all, AR(q) original model was built within the application for each derived series, parameters in models were estimated and related error terms were found and used in the auxiliary regression models. After the parameters of auxiliary models had been estimated, the hypotheses were tested and statistics for each test were calculated.

215 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TESTING HETEROSCEDASTICITY IN NONLINEAR REGRESSION Sakina I. Babashova

The powers of mentioned tests were calculated with the purpose of comparing Park, Glejser, BG LM, White and ARCH LM tests.

The Comparison of Tests in Different Ways in Terms of Power of the Test

To determine the advantage and disadvantages of tests over one another comparisons were made in different ways. During these comparisons, different graphical and numerical assessments were made in accordance with model parameters and sample sizes and results were obtained. The changes of the test powers in relative with one another were observed in different tables in one of which the sample size was fixed, parameter values were changed and in the other, the parameter values were fixed and sample size increased. After that, in different tables and figures the changes in test powers were shown when parameter values and sample size are increased.

Figures 3: Power Functions of the Tests for Different Values of Model Parameters When Sample Size is Fixed (ARCH(1))

• When parameter value is small (0, 1) ARCH LM test is the strongest test; • When parameter values are medium (0, 5) and high (0, 9) White test is the strongest test; • The power functions of Park and Glejser test are very close to each other; • In comparison with other tests, Park test is the weakest test.

216 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Figure 4: Power Functions of the Tests for Different Values of Sample Size When Model Parameters are Fixed (ARCH(1)

Park, Glejser, Breusch-Godfrey LM, White and ARCH LM test powers are observed to be independent from sample size.

Figure 5: Power Functions of the Tests for Different Values Of Sample Size and Model Parameters (ARCH(1))

217 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TESTING HETEROSCEDASTICITY IN NONLINEAR REGRESSION Sakina I. Babashova

The Results Obtained From the Comparison of Heteroscedasticity Tests (ARCH(1))

According to Park test’s performance, independent from sample size, power function increases when model parameter value increases. Although power functions of Park and Glejser tests are very close to each other when sample and parameter values change, Park test is the weakest test in all situations among other tests. The power of Glejser test decreases when parameter value increases regardless of the sample size. As the power functions of Park and Glejser tests are very close it can be said that Glejser test is weaker than ARCH LM, BG LM and White tests. The power of BG LM tests increases more in comparison with other tests when parameter values increase in the situation when sample size is small (N=1000). When the sample size equals to 10000, the power of test decreases as parameter values increase. In other situations, when sample size is high, BG LM test power is affected less than parameter value and sample size. Compared to other four tests it can be seen that BG LM test is very close to strong tests group. The power of White test increases when model parameter values increase regardless of sample size. White tests is observed to be the strongest test among other tests when model parameter values equal to medium (0, 5) and high (0, 9) values in all different situations of sample size. Regardless of sample size ARCH LM test power decreases when parameter value increases. ARCH LM test is observed to be the strongest test among other tests when model parameter values are equal to low (0, 1) value in all different situations of sample size.

The results obtained from the comparison of heteroscedasticity tests are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: The Results Obtained From the Comparison of Heteroscedasticity Tests (ARCH(1))

The order of the tests (the first one is the strongest) 1 ARCH LM Test White Test 2 White Test ARCH LM Test 3 BG LM Test BG LM Test 4 Glejser Test Glejser Test 5 Park Test Park Test

218 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

In conclusion, regardless of the sample size, when ARCH(1) model parameters have low (nearly zero) values, ARCH LM test is the strongest. However, when model parameters have medium and high values (0.5; 1) White is considered the strongest test.

Figure 6: Test Power Functions for the Combinations of Different Values of Model Parameters With Fixed Sample Size (ARCH(2))

• BG LM test is the strongest when parameter values are low. When parameter values increase, the power of BG LM test decreases; • ARCH LM test is the strongest when parameter values are medium and high; • Park test is the weakest when parameter values are medium and low; • Glejser test is the weakest when parameter values are around 1; • The power of White test is less affected from model parameter values in comparison with other tests.

219 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TESTING HETEROSCEDASTICITY IN NONLINEAR REGRESSION Sakina I. Babashova

Figure 7: The Power Functions for Different Values of N Sample Size With Fixed Parameter Values (ARCH(2))

Figure 8: Power Functions of the Tests for Different Values Of Sample Size and Model Parameters (ARCH(1))

220 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

The Results Obtained From the Comparison of Heteroscedasticity Tests (ARCH(2)) Regardless of sample size, when model parameter values increase, the power of Park test also increases. Compared with other tests, Park test is the weakest when model parameters have low and medium values. Only when model parameter values approaches 1 (b1=0.9, b2=0.9,) power functions of Park test are higher than power functions of Glejser and BG LM tests. Regardless of sample size, when model parameter values increase, the power of Glejser test decreases. When model parameter values approach 1 (b1=0.9, b2=0.9), power functions of Glejser test are the weakest. In many other cases, when model parameter values have low and medium values, Glejser test is the only more stronger than Park and BG LM test. Breusch-Godfrey LM test is affected most from model parameters and sample sizes among other tests. When model parameter values are low (b1=0.1, b2=0.1) BG LM test power is high and in comparison with other tests BG LM test is the strongest one. Compared to other tests, the power of White test is affected less as a result of model parameter value. Analysing the comparisons, when parameter values are b1=0.1, b2 = 0.9, White test is the strongest among the others. In all other cases White test is considered to be the strongest test next to ARCH LM test among analysed heteroscedasticity tests. The power of ARCH LM test is not affected from sample size and model parameter and remains in the high level. Regardless of the sample volume when model parameter size have low values, (below 0.5) ARCH LM test is the second strongest test after BG LM and White tests. When model parameters have medium and high values (above 0.5) ARCH LM is the strongest among all other tests.

In conclusion, Breusch-Godfrey LM test must be preferred when ARCH(2) model parameter have low (approaching the zero) values; but when ARCH(2) model parameters have high and medium values ([0.5;1)) ARCH LM test and White test as an alternative must be preferred (Table 2).

221 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TESTING HETEROSCEDASTICITY IN NONLINEAR REGRESSION Sakina I. Babashova

Table 2: The Results Obtained From The Comparison of Park, Glejser, BG LM, White and ARCH LM Tests (ARCH(2))

The order of the tests (the first one is the strongest 1 BG LM Test ARCH LM Test ARCH LM Test 2 ARCH LM Test White Test White Test 3 White Test BG LM Test Park Test 4 Glejser Test Glejser Test BG LM Test 5 Park Test Park Test Glejser Test

In order to verify the conclusions, the aforementioned simulation procedure were carried out several times and it was decided that the results were not random.

The Comparison of Heteroscedasticity Tests Based On Real Data This section of the study has been prepared: • To verify the results obtained from the comparison of heteroscedasticity tests based on the simulation data with real data; • To check whether the results obtained from the tests and applied on 11 nonlinear real data set that had volatility are in consistency with the simulation results obtained in the previous sections.

Internatıonal A Type Stock Certificate Mutual Fund Categories In this section of the study, numerous international A typed numerical data were used taking into consideration the increase in the net assets. While analyzing these funds, special attention was given to developing countries from America, Europe, Asia and other continents and among them 11 A type stock funds were given attention in the study. Selected 11 funds consist of five different categories. Three of them are Diversified Emerging Markets whereas five are from Latin America. One of these 11 funds is from Pacific-Asia countries outside Japan. The nest two are from Turkey market and Europe (Table 3).

222 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Table 3: International A typed Mutual Funds

FUND # FUND NAME FUND CATEGORİES CODE 1 DPCAX Dreyfus Greater China A Pacific-Asia countries outside Japan 2 FAF Finansbank A.Ş. A Turkey 3 FLATX Fidelity Latin America Latin America 4 FLTAX Fidelity Advisor Latin America A Latin America 5 GTDDX Invesco Developing Markets A Diversified Emerging Markets 6 LETRX ING Russia A Europe 7 MDLTX BlackRock Latin America A Latin America 8 PRLAX T.Rowe Price Latin America Latin America 9 PTEMX Forward Emerging Markets Instl Diversified Emerging Markets 10 QFFOX Quant Emerging Markets Ord Diversified Emerging Markets 11 SLAFX DWS Latin Amerika Equity S Latin America

For the international funds that have been mentioned in the study, 1510 observations covering the period between 01.01.2004 – 31.12.2009 were used. 1510 observation values are the price funds announce daily. The International funds’ series are shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Series for International Funds (2004-2010)

DPCAX FLATX FLTAX GTDDX 70 80 70 40

60 60 35 60 50 50 30

40 40 40 25

30 30 20 20 20 20 15

10 0 10 10 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

LETRX MDLTX PRLAX PTEMX 100 100 80 36

32 80 80 60 28

60 60 24 40 40 40 20 16 20 20 20 12

0 0 0 8 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

QFFOX SLAFX FAF 36 100 .1 0

32 .0 8 80 28

24 .0 6 60 20 .0 4 16 40 .0 2 12

8 20 .0 0 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

223 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TESTING HETEROSCEDASTICITY IN NONLINEAR REGRESSION Sakina I. Babashova

With the purpose of getting the chance for the return series, first-degree logarith- mic differences of the prices of the funds announced daily between 01.01.2004- 31.12.2009 were taken.

(6)

As it is clear from Figure 10, in all international funds there was increase in volatility in the 2008s. The increases were for short term in 2006 but in 2008 they were for a long period. Especially in 2004-2009 period the wild fluctuation was observed in FAF fund being different than other funds.

Figure 10. International Funds Return Series (2004-20010)

RDPCAX RFLATX RFLTAX RGTDDX .10 .3 .3 .10

.05 .2 .2 .05

.00 .1 .1 .00 -.05 .0 .0

-.05 -.10 -.1 -.1

-.15 -.2 -.2 -.10 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

RLETRX RMDLTX RPRLAX RPTEMX .2 .3 .3 .15

.1 .10 .2 .2

.0 .05 .1 .1 -.1 .00 .0 .0 -.2 -.05

-.1 -.1 -.3 -.10

-.4 -.2 -.2 -.15 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

RQFFOX RSLAFX RFAF .12 .3 .10

.08 .2 .05 .04 .1 .00 .00 .0 -.04 -.05 -.1 -.08

-.12 -.2 -.10 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

The Application and Comparison of Heteroscedasticity Tests on International Mutual Fund Data The results of stationary test show that return series of international funds are not stationary and they comprise asymmetric effects. As the financial asset return series lose normal distribution feature with the impact of shocks, the model should take into account volatility. In the application section, normality test was made with the purpose of determining the conditional heteroscedasticity. Then working on each return series correlograms were examined and the information about autoregressive structure (AR) was obtained. Several AR structures were tested for the return series and it was decided to choose models that suggest the lowest AIC and Schwarz criterion values. Then, main model’s errors were studied, and Park,

224 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

Glejser, BG LM, White and ARCH LM tests being examined as in previous sections were applied and test statistics were obtained.

The comparison of Park, Glejser, BG LM, White and ARCH LM heteroscedasticity tests that were applied on the international funds were made in terms of p value.

Here, the lowest probability value is given and H0 hypothesis for each observed test statistics is accepted and as a result of comparison of this probability value with α significance level it is decided whether to accept or reject H0 hypothesis.

As p < 0.01 is found for the Park and Glejser tests that are applied for the international return fund series, H0 hypothesis (H0: absence of heteroscedasticity) is strongly rejected; very strong decision can be made about the correctness of alternative hypothesis (Ha: presence of heteroscedasticity). As the BG LM test statis- tic is p < 0.05 for eight series), H0 hypothesis is strongly rejected and it became clear that series have variable variance.

When the probability of p rejecting values for White and ARCH LM test statistics are examined, for 11 international investment fund series p < 0.01 was found.

As it was in the results of Park and Glejser tests, H0 hypothesis is strongly rejected because of application of White and ARCH LM tests. In this case, decisions can be made about the correctness of alternative hypothesis. However, compared to Park and Glejser heteroscedasticity tests, p values of White and ARCH LM test statistics equal to lower values. For this reason White and ARCH LM tests seem more advantageous than the others.

In the application section of the study, the results obtained from the comparison of heteroscedasticity tests used on the real data turned out to be in relative with the results based on simulation data. White and ARCH LM heteroscedasticity tests, which are the strongest tests in terms of the result of simulation study, have the lowest p values in the application section.

Conclusion and Suggestions

The results obtained from the comparison of heteroscedasticity tests applied on the real series are in consistent with the results obtained from simulation. White and ARCH LM heteroscedasticity tests were the strongest tests as a result of simulation work, at the same time they had the lowest p value in the application section.

225 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TESTING HETEROSCEDASTICITY IN NONLINEAR REGRESSION Sakina I. Babashova

These results show that analysis results are in consistent with one another and two different works (results for simulation and real data sets) confirm one another.

Taking into consideration the problems being encountered during the study and the results, I am of the opinion that if the following subjects are examined care- fully, they will be very useful for the future investigator in this topic:

• The same methodology can be used for the other nonlinear models except the comparison of variable variances that have been investigated in this study; • With the purpose of obtaining of nonlinear time series, full stationary nonlinear time series ARCH(1) and full stationary nonlinear time series ARCH(2) process’ were taken into consideration. This study can also be repeated for high-level nonlinear models; • The same methodology can be used for other heteroscedasticity tests.

References

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226 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES: FIELD STUDIES AND ANALYSIS Emrah Doğan

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228 CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES Field Studies and Analysis

Historical and current debates in social sciences mirror the reality of human existence. However, the reality and facts of human existence are also different from each other. At the same time, these phenomena in social sciences are multidimensional. In this sense, some of the human cases were included in this study. Besides, historical and current analyses in this study have been examined in other social science studies. The multidimensional perspective of the field of social science encourages re-examining the topics covered and revealing different trends. In this context, this study aimed to clarify light on the dark points in the field of social science by reconsidering the discussed or not discussed issues. CURRENT AND HISTORICAL DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES Field Studies and Analysis Edited by EMRAH DOĞAN CURRENT AND HISTORICAL Edited by EMRAH DOĞAN DEBATES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES Field Studies and Analysis