Potential Environmental Impacts of Quarrying Stone in Karst— A Literature Review
By William H. Langer
Open-File Report OF–01–0484
2001
This report is preliminary and has not been reviewed for conformity with U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) editorial standards nor with the North American Stratigraphic Code. Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the USGS.
U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Department of the Interior Gale A. Norton, Secretary
U.S. Geological Survey Charles G. Groat, Director
Version 1.0 2002
This publication is only available online at: http://geology.cr.usgs.gov/pub/ofrs/OFR-01-0484/
Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government
Layout and cover design by Carol Quesenberry III Contents
Introduction ...... 1 Purpose ...... 2 Previous work...... 2 Natural Formation of Karst...... 2 Quarrying Carbonate Rocks...... 6 Production and Use of Carbonate Rocks...... 7 Potential Environmental Impacts ...... 7 Engineering Impacts ...... 7 Cascading Impacts...... 8 Geomorphic Impacts...... 8 Blasting...... 9 Noise...... 11 Dust ...... 11 Habitat and Biota ...... 12 Water Quality...... 14 Surface water...... 15 Ground water...... 15 Sinkhole Collapse ...... 16 Ground-water withdrawal...... 17 Triggering Mechanisms...... 19 Construction Activities...... 21 Analysis of Triggering Mechanisms ...... 22 Sinkhole Size, Occurrence, and Area Impacted ...... 22 Predicting Collapse Sinkholes...... 24 Reclamation...... 25 Legal Aspects...... 26 Case Studies...... 27 References...... 30 IV
Figures
1. Major outcrops of carbonate rocks that exhibit karstification...... 1 2. Summary of effects and impacts of various human activities on karst terrains ...... 2 3. Typical shallow sinkhole in karst terrain of Cherokee County, Kansas...... 4 4. Weathered outcrop and smooth working face of dimension stone quarry...... 4 5. Cave opening in karst terrain, Škocjan Cave, Slovenia ...... 5 6. Irregular surfaces on karst bedrock ...... 5 7. Working face of dimension stone limestone quarry in Lawrence County, Indiana...... 6 8. Working face of crushed stone operation showing rubble created by blasting ...... 7 9. “Resource snake” graph showing relative values of non-fuel mineral resource production ...... 8 10. Engineering techniques to mitigate impacts of noise and dust...... 9 11. Quarries can occupy a significant part of the visual landscape ...... 9 12. Rock is drilled and blasted for use as crushed stone...... 10 13. Noisy equipment can be located away from populated areas and enclosed in sound-deadening structures ...... 11 14. Dust control techniques include the use of water trucks and sweepers on haul roads...... 12 15. Dust on quarry floors can inhibit recharge ...... 12 16. Karst inhabitants...... 13 17. Fuel oil spills can rapidly contaminate karst...... 15 18. Natural sinkhole near Ste. Genevieve, Missouri...... 16 19. Human-induced sinkholes formed during the development of an irrigation well affected a 20-acre area...... 17 20. Block diagram showing sinkhole development...... 18 21. Diagram showing mechanics of sinkhole development ...... 20 22. A giant sinkhole at a drilling site swallowed a well-drilling rig, a water truck, and a trailer loaded with pipe...... 21 23. The “December giant,” a large sinkhole, developed rapidly in Shelby County, Alabama, in December 1972 ...... 23 24. Face of limestone quarry after restoration blasting and habitat reclamation...... 26 Potential Environmental Impacts of Quarrying Stone in Karst— A Literature Review
By William H. Langer
Introduction manganese and phosphate rock (guano). current standard of living. Quarrying1 have occurred in a wide variety of karst Coal is often found within thick carbon- carbonate rocks for use as crushed stone terrains, under a wide variety of climatic and dimension stone can be accom conditions, where the natural systems Limestone, dolomite, and marble - ate rock sequences. Like other rocks, plished with no significant impacts to have been stressed by a wide variety the carbonate rocks - are the principal karst rocks may host ore deposits contain the environment, if done carefully and of human activities. It should not be karst-forming rocks. Karst is a type of ing lead, zinc, iron, and gold. within the limits set by nature. How- assumed that impacts in one karst terrain topography that is formed on limestone, Much of the resource extraction ever, if proper precautions are not taken under a particular set of natural and man- gypsum, and other rocks by dissolution conducted in areas of karst is for the rock many human activities in karst, includ made conditions will also happen in a that is characterized by sinkholes, caves, itself. Unweathered carbonate rocks pro- ing extraction of carbonate rocks, can different karst terrain with a different set and underground drainage regions. Karst vide crushed stone and dimension stone result in damage to the environment and of natural and man-made conditions. areas constitute about 10 percent of the resources. The term “crushed stone” associated increases in costs for environ land surface of the world (fig. 1) (Drew, refers to the product resulting from mental compliance or liability. 1999), and there is widespread concern the crushing of rocks such that substan for the effects that human activities have tially all faces are created by the crush Previous work ing operation (ASTM, 2000). The term upon the karst environment. Much of the In recent years numerous publica concern is motivated by the adverse envi “dimension stone” is generally applied to Purpose masses of stone, either naturally occur- tions have addressed issues related to ronmental impacts of previous human This report describes the state-of- karst in general, as well as issues spe activities in karst areas and the effects ring or prepared for use in the form of blocks of specified shapes and sizes, the-knowledge regarding the environ cifically related to human impacts on that those impacts have had on the mental impacts from quarrying carbon- karst. Publications addressing human quality of life. Many human activities that may or may not have one or more mechanically dressed surface (Bowles, ate rocks in karst. Documentation of impacts on karst include a special sup can negatively impact karst areas, includ the relationships between carbonate rock plement of the journal Catena entitled ing deforestation, agricultural practices, 1939: ASTM, 1998). Carbonate rocks provide dimension quarries and environmental problems in Karst Terraines: Environmental Changes urbanization, tourism, military activities, karst has existed for nearly fifty years, and Human Impact (Williams, 1993); a water exploitation, mining, and quarrying stone, aggregate resources, and raw materials for cement and other industrial but is scarce. There are numerous arti special issue of Environmental Geology (Drew, 1999) (fig. 2). cles in the literature that describe envi with the theme of addressing Environ Minerals associated with karst have and agricultural uses. Over 70 percent of crushed stone produced in the United ronmental impacts on karst from human mental Change in Karst Areas (Ford, been exploited for many years. Some car activities other than quarrying, but there 1993); a special issue of Engineering bonate rocks contain valuable supplies of States is made from carbonate rock. The products derived from carbonate rocks are relatively few articles that specifi Geology with the theme Sinkholes water, oil, and gas, may weather to form cally refer to impacts from quarrying. and the Engineering and Environmental bauxite deposits, and are associated with provide essential materials for society –materials that we need to maintain our The reported environmental impacts Impacts of Karst (Beck, 1999), and
1 the publication Karst Hydrogeology and impacts on karst from mining resources audiences. The International Geographi formed (fig. 5). Surface streams may Human Activities (Drew and Hötzl, other than carbonate rock. Theories cal Union Commission on Sustainable lose water to the subsurface or flow into 1999). The Florida Sinkholes Research about how extraction of carbonate rock Development and Management of Karst cave entrances, only to reappear many Institute has held symposiums concerned can impact the environment can be Terrains published eight annotated bibli miles away. with sinkholes in karst at approximately extrapolated from some of these reports. ographies of karst research studies (for Unusual bedrock surfaces may be two-year intervals (Beck, 1984, 1989, example, Urushibara-Yoshino, 2000). created as the carbonate rock is dissolved 1993; Beck and Pearson, 1995; Beck Natural karst processes occur grad (fig. 6a and 6b). In temperate climates, and Stephenson, 1997; Beck and Wilson, ually over hundreds to thousands of some of the surfaces resemble abstract 1987; Beck and others, 1999). The Natural Formation years. The formation of karst includes sculptures or contain pointed columns American Geological Institute Environ of Karst interactions between carbonate rocks and called pinnacles. A residual soil forms mental Awareness Series 4, Living With slightly acidic water. (Actually karst over the bedrock because there are Karst, is a non-technical discussion of There is a tremendous variety of can form on other soluble rocks such minerals within limestone that are not environmental issues in karst (Veni and carbonate rocks and these rocks exist as gypsum; however, this report is affected by carbonic acid. As the process DuChene, 2001). Few of the reports in in a broad range of climatic situations. restricted to carbonate rocks.) Carbonic of dissolution continues, these insoluble the publications listed above are primar Weathering of carbonate rocks produces acid is a mild acid formed when rainwa minerals collect on top of the bedrock ily concerned with quarrying in karst; diverse types of karst landscapes (fig. ter and carbon dioxide react. As the surface as clayey residual material. Some however, those publications do illustrate 3), far too many types to be described rainwater passes through the soil, the residual material is carried by water into the complexities of cause and effects of here. Instead, this report gives a simpli water absorbs more carbon dioxide and openings in bedrock where they clog the human activities in karst. fied description of the karst forming pro becomes more acidic. Carbonate rock openings. Other material, such as stream Although a relationship between cesses. Readers interested in learning the contains openings between beds of rock alluvium, may overly the clay. Depend environmental damage and quarrying details of karst formation are encouraged and as fractures or joints created when ing on the climate, topography, and type of carbonate rock has been well doc to consult the numerous textbooks and the rocks were uplifted, uncovered, of parent bedrock, soil on the bedrock umented for over fifty years (Foose, research reports that describe the geo faulted, or folded (fig. 4). The slightly surface can be non-existent or greater 1953), there are only a few reports hydrologic and geomorphic processes acidic water percolates into the rocks than 50 m thick. that include major discussions of the involved with karst development. For through these openings. The openings environmental impacts of quarrying in example, Karst Geomorphology (Sweet are enlarged by solvent action of acidic karst. These reports include Develop ing, 1981) contains benchmark papers water. The dissolution process is self- Quarrying ment of Sinkholes Resulting from Man’s about karst, including excerpts from accelerating: openings that are enlarged Activities in the Eastern United States Das Karstphänomen (Cvijíc, 1893). Pro first will transmit more water, thus Carbonate Rocks (Newton, 1987), Ground Subsidence, cess geomorphology (Ritter and others, increasing the rate that acid is brought which includes a chapter Sinkholes on 1995), a recent textbook, discusses karst into contact with the rock, resulting in The general objective of dimension- Limestones (Waltham, 1989), and Karst from a process / response perspective. additional enlargement of the openings. stone quarrying is to produce large rect Hydrogeology and Human Activities Karst Geomorphology (Jennings, 1985) As underground flow paths con- angular blocks suitable for cutting into (Drew and Hötzl, 1999), which includes is a technical description of karst written trolled by joints, fractures, and bedding smaller, regularly-shaped products. The a chapter on Extractive Industries Impact for the non-scientific audience. Karst planes continue to enlarge over time, quarrying operation cuts a block of stone (Hess and Slattery, 1999). There are a Lands (White and others, 1995) is a con water movement changes from small free from the bedrock mass by first sep few individual reports scattered through cise article in American Scientist that volumes through many small, scattered arating the block on all four vertical the literature that address the envi describes karst formation and hydrology. openings in the rock to concentrated sides and then undercutting or breaking ronmental impacts of quarrying carbon- Sinkholes in Pennsylvania (Kochanov, flow through a few well-developed con the block away from the bedrock (fig. ate rocks in karst. In addition, there 1999) is a non-technical description duits. As flow paths continue to enlarge, 7). Two of the oldest methods for quar are reports that describe environmental of karst prepared for non-scientific caves, conduits, and sinkholes may be rying are channel cutting and drilling and broaching. A channeling machine cuts a track hoes, and scraper graders. Rock tions where quarries can be located: 1) on amount of explosive, with specific atmo channel in the rock using multiple chisel- quarries that do not penetrate the water flat ground, 2) along or into the side of a spheric conditions, and with proximity edged cutting bars that cut with a chop- table, or where discharge from the water valley, and 3) on the side of a hill (Gunn, to a blast. The area in front of a blast ping action. In drilling and broaching, a table naturally drains from the quarry, 1993; Gunn and Bailey, 1993). In most situ commonly receives more noise than an drilling tool first drills numerous holes in is offset by evaporation, or is otherwise ations, quarries excavated into flat ground area behind a blast. People differ greatly an aligned pattern. The broaching tool insignificant, commonly are mined dry. have a relatively small impact on geomor in their response to blasting (National then chisels and chops the web between Where rock quarries penetrate the phology, which is limited to the removal of Academy of Sciences, 1980). the drill holes, freeing the block. Both water table, the quarries commonly are sinkholes and cave passageways. Quarries The technology of rock blasting is channel cutting and drilling and broach dewatered by collection and pumping of on valley sides can extend laterally along highly developed, and when blasting is ing are slow and the cutting tool requires the ground water. The rock is then mined the valley side causing large geomorphic properly conducted, most environmental frequent sharpening. Both methods have by the procedures used in a dry quarry. impacts, or they can work back into the impacts should be negligible. By fol generally been replaced with other more Some operators may prefer not to dewater valley wall, where the impact is less (Gunn, lowing widely recognized and well-doc efficient methods. the quarry, or the inflow may be too great 1993; Gunn and Bailey, 1993). Quarries umented limits on ground motion and air Line drilling and sawing are more to be pumped. In those operations, the on hills generally have a large geomorphic concussion, direct impacts from ground modern techniques for quarrying. Line quarries are allowed to fill with water. The impact. Gunn (1993) reports that crushed shaking and air concussion can be effec drilling (also called slot drilling) consists rock is drilled and blasted, and the rubble stone quarrying has removed an entire karst tively mitigated. Those limits and meth of drilling a series of overlapping holes is extracted from under the water using hill and large portions of other nearby karst ods to measure them are discussed in using a drill that is mounted on a quarry draglines, clamshells, or other equipment. hills in the Mendip Hills, UK. Moore and Richards (1999), Bell (1992), bar or frame that aligns the holes and The aggregate may be processed wet or Berger and others (1991), and National holds the drill in position. Sawing can may be placed in windrows and allowed Academy of Sciences (1980). be accomplished with a variety of saws to dry before processing. Blasting When an explosive is detonated including wire saws, belt saws, and chain Carbonate rock is extracted from enormous amounts of energy are saws. The introduction of synthetic- about 100 underground mines in the One of the most frequent com released. Most of the energy of a properly diamond tools during the 1960’s revo United States. Most of these mines are plaints the public makes to the crushed designed blast works to displace rock lutionized stone working. A variety of located in the Mid-Continent and pro stone industry situated near population from the quarry face. The remaining explosive techniques may also be used duce crushed stone. centers is about blasting noise (National energy is released as vibrations through to quarry dimension stone, but explo Academy of Sciences, 1980). Blasting and along the surface of the earth and sives generally are used in very small may occur daily or as infrequently as through the air. Most of the energy that amounts, if at all, to avoid fracturing the once or twice a year. The blasting tech goes through the earth comes to the sur stone block. Production and Use of niques used in crushed stone operations face within a few meters of the detonation The general objective of crushed Carbonate Rocks are significantly different than those used and travels as surface waves, which may stone quarrying is to produce relatively in dimension stone quarrying. Whereas cause ground shaking. A small amount large amounts of explosives are used small pieces of rock that are suitable Worldwide production of carbonate of the energy is transmitted through the in crushed stone operations to produce for crushing into gravel-sized particles rocks ranks third in terms of volume rocks as shear waves, which commonly appropriate-sized rubble (fig. 12), the (fig. 8). To produce crushed stone, the and fourth in terms of value for all are insignificant. dimension stone industry uses only small rock is first drilled and blasted. Blasting non-fuel mineral commodities (fig. 9) When a blast is detonated, some amounts of explosives to loosen large commonly breaks the rock into pieces (Lüttig, 1994). Over 70 percent of the energy will escape into the atmosphere blocks of stone. suitable for crushing. When the blasted crushed stone produced in the United causing a disturbance in the air. Part Geology, topography, and weather material is dry, it can be extracted by States comes from carbonate rock, and of this disturbance is subaudible (air con affect the impacts of blasting. Blasting using conventional earth-moving equip about three fourths of that is consumed cussion) and part can be heard (noise). ment, such as bulldozers, front loaders, noise generally increases with the Air concussion is most noticeable within by the construction industry. Crushed states producing dimension limestone ing impacts can be controlled, mitigated, kept Geomorphic Impacts carbonate rock also has numerous agri or dolomite include Alabama, Arkansas, at tolerable levels, and restricted to the imme culture and industrial uses. Agricultural California, Ohio, and Vermont. Marble diate vicinity of the aggregate operation by Quarrying has an associated, often uses include fertilizers and insecticides. was extracted from 11 quarries in 5 employing responsible operational practices dramatic, visual impact. Karst terrain Industrial uses include the manufacture states. Production was 40,300 metric that use available engineering techniques and is commonly considered to be of high of cement, pharmaceuticals, processed tons valued at $9.5 million. Vermont was technology (fig. 10). Some reports that gen scenic value, thus compounding the food, glass, plastics, floor coverings, the leading producing State, followed erally describe engineering impacts include effects of visual impacts of quarrying. paper, rubber, leather, synthetic fabrics, by Tennessee, Georgia, Colorado, and Barksdale (1991), Kelk (1992), Smith and The principal geomorphic impact of glue, ink, crayons, shoe polish, cosmet Arkansas (Dolley, 1999). Collis (2001), Lüttig (1994), Bobrowsky quarrying is the removal of stone, which ics, chewing gum, toothpaste, and antac (1998), Primel and Tourenq, (2000) and results in the destruction of habitat ids. During 1999, over one billion tons of Langer (2001). including relict and active caves and nat crushed limestone, dolomite, and marble ural sinkholes (Gunn and Gagen, 1987). valued at over $5.5 billion were pro Potential The extent of the geomorphic impact duced from about 2,200 quarries oper Environmental Impacts Cascading Impacts is a function of the size of the quarry, ating in 48 states. The top 10 states the number of quarries, and the location In karst environments, aggregate (in decreasing order of production) each Modern technology and scientific inves of the quarry, especially with respect to mining may alter sensitive parts of produced over 45 millions tons of tigation methods have made it possible to the overall landscape and the local land- the natural system at or near the site crushed carbonate rocks – Texas, Flor reduce environmental impacts associated with forms (fig. 11). The influence of quarry thus creating cascading environmental ida, Illinois, Ohio, Missouri, Pennsylva extraction of carbonate rocks and manage size on environmental impact is obvious: impacts (Langer and Kolm, 2001). Cas nia, Tennessee, Kentucky, Indiana, and impacts at acceptable levels that do not cause all other things being equal, the larger the cading impacts are initiated by an engi Alabama (Tepordei, 1999). All of these significant harm to the environment. Never quarry, the larger the geomorphic impact. neering activity, such as the removal of states contain areas of karst. theless, carbonate rock resources cannot be The size of quarries has increased over rock, which alters the natural system. Dimension stone has a large obtained from the landscape without causing time, and so has their impact. The natural system responds, which number of uses ranging from rustic walls some environmental impacts. Great numbers of quarries in a karst and roughly-shaped paving stones to causes another impact, which causes yet region amplifies the geomorphic impact highly polished floor tile, counter tops, another response by the system, and on (Sauro, 1993). Stanton (1966) suggested and building facades. The final use of Engineering Impacts and on. For example, aggregate mining that the disturbance created by numerous the stone, as well as the methods to in some karst might lower the water smaller quarries is greater than that quarry and mill the stone, depend on Some of the environmental disturbance table, which will remove the buoyant created by one large quarry and rec the properties of the source rock. Today, created by quarrying is caused directly support of rock that overlies water-filled ommended that geomorphic disturbance stone is considered by many to be the by engineering activities during aggregate caverns or other solution features, which be minimized by maximizing reserves premier building material and is expe extraction and processing. The most obvious might result in land collapse, which will through deep quarrying. (See section riencing resurgence in use for commer engineering impact of quarrying is a change create a sinkhole. Cascading impacts on ground water regarding the impacts cial and residential construction. During in geomorphology and conversion of land may be severe and affect areas well of deep quarrying.) Stanton (1990) later 1999, dimension limestone or dolomite use, with the associated change in visual beyond the limits of the aggregate opera suggested that limestone has more value were extracted from 33 quarries in 10 scene. This major impact may be accompa tion. Cascading impacts may manifest in situ as a source of water and for its States. Production was 446,000 metric nied by loss of habitat, noise, dust, vibrations, themselves some time after mining activ scenic value than as a source of crushed tons valued at $74.9 million. The top five chemical spills, erosion, sedimentation, and ities have begun and continue well after stone and recommended avoiding extrac producing states, in descending order dereliction of the mined site. Some of the mining has ceased. Many of the impacts tion of limestone altogether when alter- by tonnage, were Indiana, Wisconsin, impacts are short-lived and most are easy to described below are cascading impacts. natives are available. Texas, Minnesota, and Kansas. Other predict and easy to observe. Most engineer In broad terms there are three situa- a structure, particularly when windows with ground-water availability and qual of noise probably will be great. For example, (Howard and Cameron, 1998). Dust may and doors are closed. The air concussion ity (discussed below). the noise from a single backup alarm can occur as fugitive dust from excavation, creates a pressure differential between often be picked out from an equally loud from haul roads, and from blasting, or can the outside and inside the structure caus engine noise. be from point sources, such as drilling, ing it to vibrate. Noise Crushed stone operators and dimen crushing and screening (Langer, 2001). Poorly designed or poorly con- sion stone quarriers are responsible for Site conditions that affect the impact of trolled blasts may cause rocks to be pro The primary source of noise from assuring that the noise emitted from the dust generated during extraction of aggre jected long distances from the blast site extraction of aggregate and dimension quarry does not exceed levels set by gate and dimension stone include rock (flyrock), which can be a serious hazard. stone is from earth-moving equipment, regulations. The impacts of noise can properties, moisture, ambient air quality, Flyrock is not commonly a problem with processing equipment, and blasting (see be mitigated through various engineering air currents and prevailing winds, the size carefully designed and executed blasting above). The truck traffic that often techniques. Landscaping, berms, and of the operation, proximity to population plans, but is a situation that deserves accompanies aggregate mining can be a stockpiles can be constructed to form centers, and other nearby sources of dust. careful attention. The pinnacled bedrock significant noise source. The impacts of sound barriers. Noisy equipment (such Dust concentrations, deposition rates, and in karst can complicate blasting, increas noise are highly dependent on the sound as crushers) can be located away from potential impacts tend to decrease rapidly ing the risks for flyrock. source, the topography, land use, ground populated areas and can be enclosed away from the source (Howard and Cam Blast-induced vibrations and shock cover of the surrounding site, and cli in sound-deadening structures (fig. 13). eron, 1998). waves can cause stalagmites and sta matic conditions. The beat, rhythm, pitch Conveyors can be used instead of trucks A carefully prepared and imple lactites to break off and cause cave of noise, and distance from the noise for in-pit movement of materials. Noisy mented dust control plan commonly roofs to crack or collapse. Blasting may source affect the impact of the noise on operations can be scheduled or limited to can reduce impacts from dust (Kestner, cause fracturing of quarry walls, increas the receiver (Langer, 2001). Topographic certain times of the day. The proper loca 1994). Federal, state, and local regula ing permeability and increasing drainage barriers or vegetated areas can shield or tion of access roads, the use of accel tions put strict limits on the amount of towards quarry face (Gagen and Gunn, absorb noise. Sound travels farther in eration and deceleration lanes, and care airborne material that may be emitted 1987, Gunn and Bailey, 1993). The blast cold, dense air than in warm air and trav ful routing of trucks can help reduce during site preparation and operation. zone beneath the quarry floor in sub- els farther when it is focused by atmo truck noise. Workers can be protected Controlling fugitive emissions com water table quarries may be considered spheric inversions than when inversions from noise through the use of enclosed, monly depends on good housekeeping as a separate aquifer with high fracture are not present. air-conditioned cabs on equipment and, practices rather than control systems. density, low primary porosity, and neg An important factor in determining where necessary, the use of hearing pro Techniques include the use of water ligible conduit development (Smart and a person’s tolerance to a new noise is the tectors. Worker safety may include regu trucks, sweepers, and chemical applica others, 1991). ambient (background) noise to which one lar health screening. tions on haul roads, control of vehicle Blasting-induced fracturing or aper has adjusted. In general, the more a new Noise can negatively impact karst speed, and construction of windbreaks ture widening may play a role in initiat noise exceeds the existing background noise biota (discussed below). and plantings (fig. 14). The impacts from ing flooding events. level, the less acceptable the new noise will plant-generated dust commonly can be Lolcama and others (1999) describe be. In an urban or industrial environment, mitigated by use of dry or wet control a situation where blasting opened a con background noise may mask noise from a Dust systems. Dry techniques include covers duit under the floor of a quarry. The con quarry operation, whereas the same level on conveyors, vacuum systems, and bag duit was connected to a nearby river and of noise in a rural area or quiet, residential Dust is one of the most visible, houses, which remove dust before the air to a local water storage basin. Extensive neighborhood may be more noticeable to invasive, and potentially irritating impacts stream is released to the atmosphere. Wet grouting was required to stop the inflow people. Furthermore, ambient noise gener associated with quarrying, and its vis suppression systems consist of pressur of water from those sources. ally is an accumulation of noises and does ibility often raises concerns that are ized water (or surfactant treated water) Blasting can negatively impact not have a single, identifiable source. If the not directly proportional to its impact sprays located at dust generating sites karst biota and may cause problems mining noise is identifiable, the perception on human health and the environment throughout the plant. Fugitive dust from blasting can be controlled by proper ity, where there is little air exchange southern Romania. Thirty of the 47 just one new crack. Light may enter design and execution of blasts. Workers and carbon dioxide concentrations may species were previously unknown and an otherwise dark cave or passage, or are protected from dust through the become high. appear to be endemic to the system streams and ponds may suddenly drain use of enclosed, air-conditioned cabs Many species of bats, including (White and others, 1995). into a new crack in the floor. Either situ on equipment and, where necessary, the nectar-feeding bats and insectivorous As rock is removed by quarrying, ation can result in the death or displace use of respirators. Worker safety may bats, roost in the twilight zone or tran any cave passage is destroyed, along ment of cave communities (Vermeulen include regular health screening. sition zone of caves. Insectivorous bats with any sediments it may have con and Whitten, 1999). In some situations, dust on quarry make up the largest known colonies of tained. The habitat provided by the caves Noise and air concussion may dis floors and nearby areas can clog pores mammals in the world (Veni and DuCh and passages will cease to exist. Ani turb colonies of bats and swiftlets, caus in the ground (fig. 15), thus altering ene, 2001). Birds, other animals, and mals that inhabit the twilight or transi ing them to leave their roosting sites. recharge rates. In other situations, dust plants also inhabit these zones. tion zone, and are mobile and able to find This type of disturbance can occur as far can enter conduits and smaller openings, To cope with the permanent dark new homes, might survive; the rest will away as 1,500 meters from the quarry if and can be transported and deposited ness, extreme scarcity of food, and rel die. Creatures that have adapted to the the opening of the roosting cave happens into caves (Gunn and Hobbs, 1999). atively constant climate of the under- deep and stagnant zones will perish. to be facing in the direction of the blast Dust can negatively impact karst ground voids in the deep and stagnant Quarrying may intersect active (Vermeulen and Whitten, 1999). Noise biota (discussed below). zones, animals have developed physi ground-water conduits, or cause their can adversely affect wildlife by inter ological, behavioral, and morphological blockage, with adverse consequences fering with communication and masking adaptations (fig. 16), losing many of for aquatic communities. Ground-water the sounds of predators and prey, and Habitat and Biota the essential functions of aboveground withdrawal and diversion of surface in the extreme, result in temporary or species. Eyes are reduced or absent, water may cause aboveground and permanent hearing loss (Fletcher and Caves develop one of the most and they have little or no pigment. underground hydrologic systems to dry Busnel, 1978). peculiar terrestrial ecosystems. One These animals are able to cope with the up. Water bodies, which may be inhab Dust, if uncontrolled, may spread determining factor for life in karst solu highly alkaline environment created by ited by small, site-endemic fish and snail over the surroundings during dry tion features is the lack of light. The the abundance of soluble calcium car species, will disappear and with them, weather, leach into the soil during karst environment can be divided into bonate. They have developed means of the species. Alterations of flow volumes storms, and create harmful conditions four zones based on the degree of dark expelling water in 100 percent humidity and patterns and the availability of nutri for the flora and fauna (Vermeulen and ness (Vermeulen and Whitten, 1999): without losing body salts. If their ances ents can profoundly change the lime- Whitten, 1999). When dust smothers 1) The twilight zone, near the entrance tors had wings, cave animals have lost stone environment and may lead to the leaf surfaces, vegetation can be damaged where light intensity, humidity, and tem them. Diurnal rhythms are lost. Their extinction of whole communities (Ver through the blocking of leaf stomata, perature vary and a large and varied life span increases and their fertility meulen and Whitten, 1999). Lowering thus inhibiting gas exchange and reduc fauna are found, 2) The transition zone decreases dramatically. These adapta the water table will increase the thick ing photosynthesis (Howard and Cam of complete darkness, variable humidity tions have confined cave species to their ness of the unsaturated zone, which can eron, 1998). and temperature where a number of habitat; they cannot survive elsewhere change the pH of the water in the unsatu Changes in the humidity of karst common species live, some of which (Vermeulen and Whitten, 1999). rated zone, which will change the biotic openings, presence of water, and quality make sorties to the outside world, 3) The The biodiversity of karst ecosys environment in small voids in the rock, of water (see below) can all impact karst deep zone of complete darkness, almost tems is highly restrictive. Some species which will kill species that live there. biota. The impacts of quarrying on sur 100 percent humidity, and constant tem are restricted to single cave systems and Blasting can negatively affect karst face water and ground water (see below) perature where fully cave-adapted spe are little known. For example, about habitat and biota. Blast-induced vibra can impact wetland riparian, and aquatic cies that never venture outside the cave 47 species of aquatic and terrestrial tions and shock waves can cause cave habitat which, in turn, can impact biota. live, and 4) The stagnant zone of invertebrates have been collected from roofs to crack or collapse, and karst envi complete darkness, 100 percent humid the Movile Cave and nearby springs in ronmental conditions can be altered by Water Quality the target limestone, if unsaturated, may may increase if the direction of ground- cept surface water flow. Conversely, also act as a protective cover for the water flow is modified. New source ground water being pumped from quar Karst systems have very low self- underlying aquifer. If the protective soil areas of recharge may be introduced, and ries changes streams from gaining purification capabilities (Kresic and cover or unsaturated rock is removed, those sources may contain contaminated streams to loosing streams and can drain others, 1992), which makes karst water the hole created by the mining may water. This situation can arise because other nearby surface water features such very susceptible to pollution. A major focus surface water to the ground-water of ground-water pumping (Adamczyk as ponds and wetlands. Similarly, blast concern is that polluted materials, system. If the surface water is contam and others, 1988; Sedam and others, ing (see above) can modify ground- including pathogens, can be carried long inated, the ground water can quickly 1988) or can occur if old choked pas- water flow, which ultimately can modify distances without being filtered because become polluted (Hobbs and Gunn, sages are flushed and become opera surface water flow. Discharging quarry of high flow velocities (several hundreds 1998; Ekmekçi, 1993). tional again. Ekmekçi (1993) reported water into nearby streams can increase of thousands of meters per day) (Assad Quarrying can cause sinkhole col that blasting associated with quarrying flood recurrence intervals. and Jordan, 1994). lapse, which can result in capture of may close existing karst ground-water The sources of pollutants do not surface water. In the Tournaisis area, passages, or may open up new passage, necessarily have to be man-made; there southern Belgium, about thirty sinkholes resulting in a change in direction of Ground Water also are natural sources of pollution opened up along the Escaut River down- ground-water flow. (Kresic and others, 1992). Generally, Large amounts of silt and other stream from the city of Tournai. As a Overall, quarrying in the unsat karst occurs in areas that contain large effluents from quarries (waste, fuel, oil) consequence, the ground water was pol- urated zone is likely to result in rela amounts of organic material and bacte may pollute rivers as well as under- luted by an extensive loss of contami tively local impacts such as increased ria, which can naturally degrade water ground water bodies within and far nated river water into the karst aquifer runoff, reduced water quality, rerouting quality. Erosion, especially at boundary beyond the boundaries of the limestone (Kaufmann and Quinif, 1999). of recharge water through the aquifer, areas between karst and nonkarst areas, area (fig. 17a and b). Rivers in Indo- Dust can enter conduits and smaller and localized reduction in ground-water and washout of terra rossa and clay resi China, for example, host hundreds of openings and can be transported by storage. In karst areas, the unsaturated due from fissures can cause increased species of large freshwater clams and ground water (Gunn and Hobbs, 1999). zone commonly contains only a small turbidity at karstic springs. Ground- snails, many of which are site endemic The fine debris produced by the cutting percentage of storage, and where the water drainage from ore deposits act as to a section of one stream. Development of marble can be worked through unsaturated zone is thin, impact on natural pollutants. puts great pressure on these animals, the ground-water system during storm ground-water quantity generally is mini Quarrying can substantially modify which are very vulnerable because they events (Drysdale and others, 2001). mal (Hobbs and Gunn, 1998). However, the routing of recharge and water qual are easily smothered in mud or killed by Blasting may cause problems with Smart and Friederich (1986), Dodge ity may be degraded (Gunn and Hobbs, chemical pollution when silt is allowed ground-water quality, but may also be (1984), and Gunn (1986) all describe 1999). Commonly the first impact of to seep into a river. Fish communities erroneously identified as a cause of prob areas where a thick, well-developed quarrying is to remove the overlying are equally vulnerable (Vermeulen and lems. Spigner (1978) reported that shock unsaturated zone is present. In those vegetation and soil. In temperate areas Whitten, 1999). waves from blasting operations loosened areas, the unsaturated zone may store removing vegetation and soil reduces clay particles from solution cavities significant quantities of water. Follow evapotranspiration and increases the causing “muddying” of the ground water. ing rainfall, water may be collected and effective rainfall. Unless measures are Elsewhere, Moore and Hughes (1979) temporarily stored in the unsaturated taken to control runoff and sedimenta Surface Water investigated the impact of quarry blast zone, until it subsequently joins the tion, deterioration of ground water is ing on ground-water quality and deter- Engineering activities associated ground-water system. likely. In some karst areas the soil over- mined there was no relationship between with quarrying can directly change the The major impact of quarrying in lying the rock normally is a zone of blasting and quality of water in wells in course of surface water. Sinkholes cre the karst saturated zone relates to quarry filtration and water purification (Gunn the situation that they studied. ated by quarrying (see below) can inter dewatering and the associated decline of and Hobbs, 1999). In aggregate mining, The risk of ground-water pollution the water table. It should be noted that others (1999) reported a flow of about cones of depression can be almost as sinkhole). The formation of both of there are many human activities other 2,525 L/s when a surface quarry inter small as the quarry itself, or can be as these types of sinkholes occur over peri than quarrying that can affect ground- sected a conduit that was in hydraulic large as 25 km2. ods of geologic time, not within a human water levels, including municipal, indus connection to a nearby river. In some situ Water pumped from a quarry is lifetime. The solution of rock has little trial, and private ground-water with ations, it may be necessary to drain or likely to be lost from the local ground- to do with the final cause of sinkhole drawals, irrigation, use of ground water pump the water from the quarry to protect water system. Within the cone of depres collapse, however, it can set the stage for freeze protection, and mine drainage people, quarry workings, and equipment. sion, wells, springs, and streams can for some human-induced event in the from other mineral resource extraction Pumping from a quarry will reduce go dry or have their flows significantly future (Thorpe and Brook, 1984; White activities. Drought is a natural cause for hydraulic head and, thus, draw down reduced, and the overall direction of and White, 1995). Of an estimated 4,000 water table declines. Many of the reports water levels in the rock draining into the ground-water flow may be changed sinkholes formed in Alabama between of dramatic declines of the water table quarry. In the simplest case, the part (Hobbs and Gunn, 1998). It is within 1900 and 1976, only 50 were natural col refer to underground mines, rather than of the water table impacted by quarry this cone of depression that many human- lapses (Newton, 1976). surface quarries. dewatering would look like a downward- induced sinkholes are formed. Human-induced sinkholes are those If quarrying intersects a phreatic pointing cone that has been depressed Karst aquifers are often separate caused or accelerated by human activi conduit (a conduit in the saturated zone), into the water table, thus its name – cone from overlying shallow surficial aquifers. ties and commonly are characterized by the water-transporting function of that of depression. If the quarry were the Fraser and Grapes (1998) determined that catastrophic subsidence (Newton, 1976; conduit will be severely impacted. Dye only major source of ground-water draw a shallow aquifer in drift and the under- LaMoreaux and Newton, 1986; LaMor studies have demonstrated that, even down in the area, it would be located lying karstic limestone aquifer in South eaux, 1997). If human activities had not without intersecting conduits, quarry over the apex of the cone of depression. Wales are separate hydraulic systems with taken place, these sinkholes would not dewatering can affect the function of a The actual shape of a cone of distinct water chemistries and distinct have occurred, would not have occurred conduit by inducing leakage into diffuse depression depends on many factors responses to hydraulic stress. They deter- when they did, or, under natural condi flow zones (Edwards and others, 1991; including the direction, volume, and mined that dewatering the deep aquifer tions, would have occurred as subsid Sedam and others, 1988). In cross sec velocity of water moving past the site; would not affect plant communities sup- ence, not rapid collapse (Newton, 1987). tion, the path of a conduit often has a rock properties, including permeability ported by the shallow aquifer. Human-induced sinkholes (fig. 19) com wave shape. If the water table is lowered of rock layers, attitude of rock layers, monly form as a result of ground-water to where at least the crests of the waves amount of fractures in the rock, size withdrawal, construction activities, or a no longer contain water, water will be of fractures, fracture orientation, conti Sinkhole Collapse combination of both. trapped in the troughs of the waves and nuity of fractures, and regional stresses the conduits will no longer be able to keeping fractures open or closed; other Sinkholes are depressions formed transmit water. sources of ground-water withdrawals, in karst by either slow, downward If a quarry intersects the water natural or manmade discharge points, solution or rapid collapse of the land sur Ground-Water Withdrawal table, ground water commonly will flow recharge points, conduits, whether con face. Sinkholes in carbonate rocks occur out of the rock into the quarry. Water duits recharge or drain aquifer, and world wide, with notable concentrations Human-induced sinkholes in karst may just trickle into the quarry or it may so forth. Homogeneous rocks yield in the eastern USA, southeast Asia, and commonly are caused by human activ flow into the quarry at a rate of hundreds a classic circular cone of depression, parts of Europe. Sinkholes can occur nat ities that lower the water table below or thousands of liters per second (L/s), but the anisotropic nature of most lime- urally or can be induced by activities of the rock/soil interface (fig. 20). Many especially if quarrying intercepts a phre stones produces an irregular zone of man (Newton, 1976). human activities, in addition to quarry atic conduit. Foose (1953) reported an depression, with preferential develop Natural sinkholes (fig. 18) can form ing, can lower the ground-water table. inrush of 500 to 630 L/s that occurred ment along zones of highest permeability through the dissolution of rock (solution While quarrying commonly is restricted when an underground limestone quarry (Gunn and Hobbs, 1999). Depending on sinkhole) or through the failure of a bed- to relatively small areas, other activities intersected a conduit, and Lolcama and local conditions and quarrying practices, rock roof overlying a cavern (collapse tcan be spread out, which may increase their relative impacts on the environ with quarrying. A number of sinkhole include: 1) water level fluctuations, 2) In some karst areas residual clay ment. Regardless, in some situations collapses near Calera, Alabama, occurred loss of buoyant support by the water, 3) soil spans or fills space between bedrock quarrying includes ground-water with in an area dewatered by wells, quarries, volume shrinkage, 4) piping or induced pinnacles. If the soil is saturated, about drawals and should be carefully and an underground mine (Warren, recharge, and 5) increased gradient and 40% of the weight of the residual clay addressed. 1976). Intense pumping for domestic water velocity (fig. 21) (Newton and soil overlying a bedrock opening is sup- A classic case of sinkhole devel and industrial water supply, combined Hyde, 1971; Newton, 1987). ported by ground water (Newton and opment caused by dewatering an under- with dewatering of deep limestone quar Subsidence or collapse of soil over- Hyde, 1971; Newton, 1987). When the ground limestone quarry occurred in the ries, has caused sinkhole development burden into the fissures and caves of ground-water level is lowered, buoyant Hershey Valley, Pennsylvania (Foose, in the Tournaisis area, Belgium, since an underlying limestone creates subsid support is lost (fig. 21, block B). The 1953, 1969; Foose and Humphreville, the beginning of the 20th century ence sinkholes without involving failure loss of buoyant support can trigger sink- 1979). In 1949, increased pumping (Kaufmann and Quinif, 1999). of the rock (Waltham, 1989). Bedrock hole collapse (fig. 21, block D) or cause from the quarry created a cone of depres Quarrying begins at the top of caves do exist beneath some sinkholes, spalling that ultimately trigger collapse. sion covering 600 hectares. Nearly bedrock and deepening occurs over a but their role is merely to swallow (Newton, 1984a, 1984b, 1984c, 1987). 100 subsidence sinkholes formed above period of years. Sinkhole development the debris. Almost all sinkholes occur In artesian areas, hydrostatic pres the cone of depression within three may begin after quarrying penetrates where cavities develop in unconsolidated sure provides support to the confining months of the increased pumping. Sink- the water table (fig. 20). When the deposits overlying solution openings bed and to overlying material (Newton, hole development ceased after quarrying depth below the water table is shallow, in carbonate rocks (LaMoreaux and 1987). Weakening of buoyant support in dewatering stopped and the water table sinkhole development generally is con- Newton, 1986), and given sufficient artesian carbonate rocks may be caused returned to normal. fined to the vicinity of the quarry. time, sinkholes can develop above bed- by a decline of piezometric levels of the LaMoreaux and Newton (1986) As the quarry is deepened, the cone rock containing only narrow rock fis confined aquifer system. A one meter document a similar occurrence in the of depression enlarges and sinkholes sures (Waltham, 1989). decline in piezometric level corresponds Dry Valley area of Alabama where sev occur further away (Newton, 1987). to a 1 ton/m2 increase of effective load eral thousand sinkholes formed above a Sinkhole development following dewa Water Level Fluctuations ing of overburden. Local or distant with cone of depression in the period 1967 – tering associated with subsurface drawals of karst aquifer could cause such 1984. Ground-water withdrawals from mining commonly occurs more rapidly Pumping of ground water, partic a decline (Prokopovich, 1985). two quarries in the Jamestown, South than that resulting from surface quarry ularly in seasonally-operated quarries, Carolina, area resulted in the formation ing because the depth of dewatering and may result in ground-water fluctuations Volume Shrinkage of 42 sites of subsidence and collapse cones of depression are relatively large that are of greater magnitude than fluc from 1976 – 1978 (Spigner, 1978; (Newton, 1987). tuations that occur under natural condi As ground water is lowered in areas Newton, 1987). Ground-water with tions. The magnitude of fluctuation prin of pinnacle weathering, volume shrink- drawal caused by limestone quarrying cipally depends on the amount and dura age due to compaction of the unconsoli appears to be the cause of sinkhole Triggering Mechanisms tion of pumping and on the transmissiv dated debris takes place. If two pin collapse at Railtown in northwestern The act of lowering the water ity and storage coefficient of the aquifer. nacles are less than 10 – 15 m apart, Tasmania (Kiernan, 1989). Other table commonly does not by itself The unconsolidated material bridging the weight of the sediment load between areas of sinkhole collapse related to create a sinkhole. Most often land bedrock pinnacles can be weakened by the pinnacles can be carried as an quarry dewatering have been described subsidence will occur only if support the alternate wetting and drying, lubrica arch (Foose, 1967). As spalling occurs, by Newton (1976, 1986, 1987), and to overlying unconsolidated material tion, and addition or subtraction of buoy- the cavity grows upward, enlarging the Newton and Hyde (1971). is removed (Foose, 1967) and some ant support brought about by fluctuating vaulted roof. There is a limit to the weight that the arch can hold, and when Sinkhole collapse related to ground- other activity commonly “triggers” sink- water levels (Newton and others, 1973). the ability of the arch to hold the load water pumping can also result from some hole formation. Triggering mechanisms other dewatering activity in combination Loss of Buoyancy Support is exceeded, rapid upward propagation of the arch by continuous spalling results in tions of the pumping of “muddy water” major significance because they directly In Pennsylvania, 7 km of highway sudden collapse of the surface. during quarry dewatering (Foose, 1953, affect the site being developed, either induced 184 sinkholes along its associ Soils with low cohesive strength, 1967). Piping is most active during peri immediately or some years later. Con ated drainage channels within 12 years such as dry sands, tend not to form a ods of heavy or prolonged rainfall. struction activities that can trigger sink- (Meyers and Perlow, 1984). stable arch. There is a continuous flow holes include 1) diversion or impound of soil down the drain (raveling) and Increased Velocity of Ground Water ment of drainage, 2) removing overbur Removing Overburden instead of an abrupt collapse, the sink- den, 3) drilling, augering, or coring 4) hole forms by a process of continuous Surface structures, such as storm blasting, 5) loading, and 6) removal Excavation of part of a soil cover subsidence. Human influences, partic drains, parking lots, and roof drains, con of vegetation. A lowered water table may thin the roof of a soil cavity to a ularly dewatering, can greatly modify centrate recharge into a single inlet point may leave sections of ground in a criti point of failure. Removal of a clay soil the rate of soil transport (Newton and in the carbonate rock, thus encouraging cal state awaiting construction activity may permit drainage through previously others, 1973). piping. Construction activities of various to triggers their failure; however, even sealed sands. Some Missouri railroads kinds can also raise hydraulic heads, without a water-table decline, the same stand on banks made from soil excavated Piping or Induced Recharge increase velocities in the drain, and activity may prompt failure, but statisti adjacent to them, and the marginal hol thus also enhance the rate of sediment cally less often. lows frequently develop sinkholes (Aley When cavities in the soil or bedrock transport leading to accelerated sinkhole and others, 1972). are filled with ground water (fig. 21, development (Newton, 1986). Diversion or Impoundment block A), surface water cannot flow into Ground-water withdrawal creates of Drainage Drilling, Augering, or Coring the cavities. When the water table is low an increased hydraulic gradient, which ered, the cavities drain, thus allowing results in an increased velocity of A major influence from construc These activities cause erosion of the inflow of surface water. Surface ground-water movement. Increased tion is the diversion of natural drainage. overburden into underlying openings. water passes through the residual soil, water velocity results in flushing of sed Concentration of drainage at the surface, Unsealed boreholes can allow surface eroding it and carrying it downward into iments filling openings in cavity sys such as leaking pools, impoundments, water to gain new access to the subsur the air-filled cavities by a process called tems. In turn, downward movement of pipes, canals, and ditches, can all create face or may allow a perched soil aquifer piping or subsurface mechanical erosion overburden sediments into newly created point discharge into the soil, inducing to drain into a bedrock cavity. Drilling (LaMoreaux, 1997) (fig. 21, block C). bedrock openings, results in a sinkhole ground water to move through overbur has resulted in collapses at or near work Soil is piped down into the bedrock cre (Newton, 1976, 1984a, 1984b, 1984c). den into bedrock. This can result in ing drill rigs (fig. 22) or the holes created ating a void within the soil mantle. As A decline in potentiometric surface an increased velocity of ground water, (LaMoreaux, 1997). During 1960 an time passes, more and more soil is piped under artesian conditions produces piping, saturation of overburden, and USGS driller was killed when a sinkhole down the drain and the void grows with increased head differential, which results loss of cohesiveness of unconsolidated formed around a test hole in Florida an arched roof held up only by the cohe in increased velocity of recharge through deposits (LaMoreaux, 1997). These (Newton, 1987). Installation of wells sive strength of the soil. Eventually, the the confining bed. The energy of this effects can result in collapse of the over- at Westminster, Maryland, in 1940 and void becomes too large for the soil arch movement is diffuse, and unless the burden into openings below. 1948 was associated with nearby sink- to support its own weight and there is confining bed is breached, will not be Runoff from roads or buildings hole collapse (Newton, 1987). A sink- a collapse (fig. 21 block D). The fallen expected to contribute to sinkhole devel commonly is disposed of into ditches, hole collapsed next to a USGS test well roof may obscure the bedrock surface opment (Newton, 1987). soakaway drains, or dry wells in soil near Dickson, Tennessee, in May 1981 and the drain. The freshly-formed sink- over carbonate rock. Ditches and drain- (Newton, 1987). hole is usually roughly circular in outline Construction Activities age wells cased into the limestone and has near vertical walls (Lolcama and should perform safely, but, if poorly Blasting others, 1999; White and White, 1995). installed, leakage may cause adjacent Some sinkhole failures are induced Explosives create vibrations that Piping is well-documented by observa by construction activities and are of or nearby failures (Crawford, 1986). can disturb the overburden and trigger altered drainage is the triggering mech soil (Waltham, 1989). Geometry dictates Maryland (Martin, 1995) was approxi its downward movement into solution anism responsible for over half of the that thick soils develop sinkholes with mately 9 m in diameter and 6-7 m deep. openings in bedrock (Stringfield and sinkhole collapses. Williams and Vine- greater diameters than thin soils (White Collapse sinkholes resulting from quarry Rapp, 1976; Ekmekçi, 1993; LaMor yard (1976) conducted a study of 46 and White, 1995). Cohesive clayey dewatering in North Carolina are up to eaux, 1997). The village of Liangwu, reported sinkhole collapses in Missouri soils maintain steeper slopes that sandy 5 m in diameter and 3 m deep (Strum, in southern China, was abandoned when and determined the cause of collapse soils with low cohesiveness and, conse 1999). Sinkholes in Pennsylvania (Koch nearby blasting triggered 40 sinkholes, to be; altered drainage (52 percent, quently, maintain wider sinkholes. anov, 1999) generally range from 1.2 m and another 100 followed soon after in water impoundments (22 percent), to 6.1 m in diameter and have approxi an area 1800m long (Yuan, 1987). dewatering (15 percent), highway con Size mately the same range in depth. In Her struction (7 percent), and blasting (4 per- shey Valley, Pennsylvania, (Foose, 1953) Loading cent). The Florida Department of Trans Data relating to the size of sink- 100 new sinkholes were reported to be portation analyzed 96 roadway-related holes resulting from ground-water with 0.3 to 6.1 m in diameter and 0.6 to Heavy construction equipment and collapses and determined the triggering drawals are limited and not all the fig 3 m deep. The largest of 42 sinkhole other traffic can disturb the overburden mechanisms to be related to; heavy rain- ures below refer to sinkholes related to collapses described in South Carolina and trigger its downward movement fall (58 % percent), construction (11 per- quarrying. Sinkhole collapses in general (Spigner, 1978) was over 8 m in diam into solution openings in bedrock cent), lowering of the water table (8 per- range from 1 m to 145 m in their longest eter and the greatest depth exceeded 3 (LaMoreaux, 1997). The weight of con cent), blasting (5 percent), drilling (5 dimension. One of the largest sinkholes m. The largest of 64 sinkhole collapses struction alone can trigger sinkholes percent), and other (11 percent). (Num resulting from the withdrawal of ground near Tampa, Florida, also has these same (Newton, 1976). bers do not add to 100 due to rounding.) water from carbonate rocks in Alabama dimensions (Sinclair, 1982). Runoff collected during heavy rainfall is is about 145 m long, 115 m wide, and 50 Removal of Vegetation concentrated by highway drainage, thus m deep (LaMoreaux and Warren, 1973) supporting the findings of Williams and (fig. 23). A study of an area in the Bir Occurrence The removal of vegetation permits Vineyard (1976) that altered drainage is mingham, Alabama, containing over 200 increased infiltration and also deprives the dominant triggering mechanism for sinkhole collapses (Newton and Hyde, The numbers of collapse sinkholes the soil of its root mat. In Alabama, collapse (Thorpe and Brook, 1984). 1971) reported that the average sinkhole that occur in an area and the size of sinkholes are more common in the parts was 3.7 m long, 3 m wide, and 2.4 m the effected area varies from a single of Dry Valley where timber has been deep. A similar study of an area near sinkhole in (about 1 m) to about 1,000 cut (LaMoreaux and Newton, 1986) Sinkhole Size, Occurrence, and Greenwood, Alabama, containing over sinkholes in area of about 45 km2. and failures occurred on a Birmingham, Area Impacted 150 sinkholes (Newton and others, 1973) Seven sinkholes developed at a distance Alabama, construction site when foun reported that the average elongated sink- of 600 m from a quarry in North Caro Collapse sinkholes in fissured bed- dation trenches stripped areas of topsoil hole was about 6.1 m long, 4 m lina (Strum, 1999). Newton (1986) simi rock occur in the soil overlying cavern (Newton and Hyde, 1971). Modern sink- wide, and 2.1 m deep. Some sinkholes larly reports that most induced sinkholes ous bedrock, and the depth, therefore, hole development in Tasmania has been near Sylacauga, Alabama, (Newton, in Alabama related to quarry operations is limited to the thickness of the soil. attributed to timber cutting and pasture 1986) had surface diameters of 9 to were found within 600 m of the point of In cavernous bedrock the depth of col development (Kiernan, 1989). 30 m. In Shelby County, Alabama, withdrawal. In contrast, Sowers (1976) lapse sinkholes is limited to the com (Newton, 1986) six collapses had diam reports that quarries less than 60 m deep bined depth of the soil and the cavern. eters approaching or exceeding 30 m. near Birmingham, Alabama, have been Analysis of The width of a collapse sinkhole near the Collapse sinkholes near Orlando, Flor related to sinkhole development as far surface depends on the thickness of the Triggering Mechanisms ida, have a mean diameter of 9.4 m and a away as 1.6 km. Sinclair (1982) also soil and on the slope stability, which, in mean depth of 4.7 m (Wilson and Beck, reports that 64 collapses occurred within Two independent studies, one in turn, relates to the cohesiveness of the Missouri and one in Florida, indicate that 1992). A collapse sinkhole in central a 1.6 km radius of a well field near Tampa, Florida. In one area in Alabama, ries, and an underground mine west of tremendous number of variables among nal water table was below the bedrock/ an estimated 1,700 collapses or related Calera, Alabama, exceeded 883 L/s, cre various karst terrains and the various soil contact as a consequence of flushing features have occurred in five areas with ating a cone of depression of about climatic conditions in those terrains. out underlying bedrock openings during a combined area of 36 km2 (Newton, 26 km2 (Newton, 1976, 1987; Warren, While this report is not intended to ground-water lowering. 1976). In another area of Alabama, it 1976). Ground-water withdrawal from challenge the significance of the indica Wilson and Beck (1992) relate sink- was estimated that 1,000 collapses or two quarries with a combined rate in tors, it is important to remember that hole occurrence in Florida to declines other related features formed in an area excess of 1,575 L/s has lowered water the physical properties of karst are the in the potentiometric surface. When the of about 41.5 km2 (Warren and Wielcho levels in wells over 2.4 km from the result of local conditions. surface declines 3 m below its mode, wsky, 1973). Near Jamestown, South quarries (Spigner, 1978). Near Hershey, Guidelines that repeatedly emerge more than 10 times as many collapse Carolina, 42 collapses occurred within Pennsylvania, an average of 347 L/s of from case studies is that sinkhole devel sinkholes as expected per unit of time a cone of depression (Spigner, 1978). water was pumped from the underground opment most commonly occurs where begin to occur. In Pennsylvania, about 100 collapses quarry, impacting areas 2.4 km away four conditions exist: 1) residual soil Many authors also pointed out occurred in a cone of depression near (Foose, 1953, 1969). In Craven County, overlies pre-existing fractures or cavities that sinkholes occur where the bedrock Hershey where the ground-water surface North Carolina, a quarry pumped at a in pinnacled carbonate bedrock; 2) a solu weathering is irregular, where the bed- had been lowered in an area greater rate of about 440 L/s, which resulted in tionally widened fracture or shaft leading rock is pinnacled, or where there are than 25.9 km2. Impacts were observes sinkholes 600 m away (Strum, 1999). down into bedrock can act as a drain to extensive cavernous openings and major 2.4 km from the point of dewatering transport sediment; 3) there is some pro- structural elements in the underlying (Foose, 1969; Foose and Humphreville, vision to store or remove soil from the bedrock (Foose, 1968; Newton, 1984a, 1979). At Friedensville, Pennsylvania, Predicting Collapse Sinkholes drain; and 4) the water table has declined 1984b, 1984c; Waltham, 1989). 128 sinkholes formed from 1953-57 in past the bedrock/soil contact (Waltham, The thickness of the residual soil It is only possible to predict sink- an area around the point of withdrawal 1989; White and White, 1995). has some control on the likelihood of col hole subsidence events in the broadest of at a zinc mine, and 25 new sinkholes Collapse sinkholes form most often lapse sinkholes, although the actual values terms. However, it is possible to identify were recorded during a four-month where and when the water table first appear to be site and soil-type dependent. zones where sinkhole risk is increased. period ending January 1971 (Newton, declines past the bedrock/soil contact. Williams and Vineyard (1976) pointed out A number of researchers have identified 1987; Metsger, 1979). Sites of similar This condition occurs where the water that sinkhole collapses are more likely to specific karst features that are diagnostic intense development, in addition to those level, previously above the bedrock/soil occur in residual soil ranging in thickness in pinpointing areas having a likelihood described above, were identified in Ala contact during all or most of the from 12 to 30 m. Foose (1969) observed of collapse and subsidence. Williams and bama, Georgia, Maryland, North Caro year, is maintained below the contact that few sinkholes occur where the over- Vineyard (1976) cited nine features that lina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and by ground-water withdrawal (Waltham, burden is less than 10 m thick. Waltham can foretell of collapse or subsidence in Tennessee (Newton, 1986). 1989; Newton, 1987; LaMoreaux and (1989) states that the most hazardous zone karst terrain. Foose (1969) lists seven Newton, 1986; Foose, 1969). All the is where the soil is 2 to 20 m thick. Sinclair conditions that are common in areas Area Impacted mechanisms that trigger sinkhole devel and Stewart (1985) state sinkhole collapses of karst topography subject to collapse. opment in unconsolidated deposits can are rare where limestone is at surface or the Aley and others (1972) described seven The size of the impacted areas be activated by the decline in water table ground is thinly covered with soil; sinkhole features of karst terrain where cata varies with the amount of ground-water (LaMoreaux and Newton, 1986). collapse is common where overlying mate- strophic collapse had occurred, although withdrawal. Rates of withdrawal at the LaMoreaux and Newton (1986) rial is 5-50 m thick, especially between they were primarily concerned with Friedensville zinc mine were between state that sinkholes will not occur in 5 and 25 m thick; sinkhole collapses are collapses induced by construction of 440 and 1,310 liters per second (L/s), areas where the water table was below found but are rare in areas of soil cover impoundments. and the cone of depression covered an the bedrock/soil contact prior to dewater over 50 m thick. Williams and Vineyard The indicators cited may have lim area exceeding 10.3 km2 (Newton, 1987; ing. However, Foose (1969), states that (1976) pointed out that sinkhole collapses ited regional usefulness because of the Metsger, 1979). Pumping by wells, quar sinkholes have formed where the origi are more likely to occur in residual soil that retains the fabric of the parent material on storage, type of flow, and type of base flow. The potential to improve the quality of human life. and in soil where the clay fraction has recharge. Storage ranges from high to impact can easily be predicted Equally important, properly reclaimed low plasticity common to kaolinitic and low; flow ranges from conduit to diffuse, by treating them as land can also improve the quality of life. halloysitic clays. and recharge ranges from concentrated to homogenous aquifers. Wisely shaping mined out land requires a Geomorphology influences collapse dispersed. A holistic systems analysis tech design plan and product that responds to • sinkhole formation. Newton (1984a) Group 1 represents aquifers nique to investigate impacts of aggregate a site’s physiography, ecology, function, reports induced sinkhole formation is with high storage, conduit flow, extraction on the environment is artistic form, and public perception. most common in terrain that is geomor and variable recharge. described by Langer and Kolm (2001). There are numerous examples of phically youthful, exhibits little karsti Predicting the impact of quarry The method requires analyzes of various successfully reclaimed aggregate quar fication, is usually a lowland area, has dewatering is very difficult and systems making up the environment, ries, including residential, commercial, a water table above or near the top of is dependent on the likelihood including land surface, geomorphic, recreational, and natural uses (Arbogast bedrock, and contains perennial or near- of the workings intersecting an subsurface, and ground-water systems and others, 2000). Many of the exam perennial streams. Williams and Vine- active conduit. (Kolm, 1996). After system characteriza ples are independent of rock type. How- • yard (1976) found that collapses are Group 2 represents aquifers tion is complete, the method focuses on ever, there are a few studies that relate more likely to take place in valleys with with low storage, conduit flow, risk analysis techniques for identifying specifically to reclamation of carbonate losing streams and watersheds than in and variable recharge. and evaluating potential environmental rock quarries to near natural conditions. gaining ones. Waltham (1989) states that Predicting the impact of quarry impacts to determine acceptable mining The oldest design approach around the most hazardous zone is a valley dewatering is very difficult, but strategies (Langer, in press). is nature itself. Given enough geologic floor. Many collapse sinkholes occur with low storage, the number There may be warning signs of time, a suitable small site scale, and where concentrations of surface water of water supplies and size of impending sinkhole collapse. There stable adjacent ecosystems, disturbed are greatest, such as streambeds, natural springs supported by the aquifer may be slow localized subsidence and, areas may recover without mankind’s drains, or poorly drained areas. Wilson is likely to be small. although new depressions may be hard input. Ursic and others (1997) studied • and Beck (1992) report that near Group 3 represents aquifers to identify, the depressions may be the Niagara Escarpment and recognized Orlando, Florida, 85 percent of new with low storage, diffuse flow, enhanced by the ponding of water. Cir natural cliffs as special places that pro- sinkholes occur over high recharge areas and dispersed recharge. These cular cracks may appear in the soil or vide refuge for rare species of plants and on slightly elevated, sandy ridges. Few are thin limestones with pavement. Fence posts or other objects animals. They also inventoried vegeta or no sinkholes occur in discharge areas seasonal springs and typically may be tilted from the vertical. Vegeta tion on the walls of 18 carbonate rock where net downward erosion of surficial are minor or non-aquifers. tion may be distressed due to lowering of quarries abandoned from 20 to 100 years sediment is very unlikely. Kaufmann and These aquifers present no the water table. Muddy water in wells ago and discovered that many of the Quinif, (1999) related sinkhole orienta problem from a geohydrologic may indicate the early stages of a nearby older quarry walls naturally revegetated tion in southern Belgium to structure, point of view, and the potential developing sinkhole. in such a way as to replicate the biodi and reported that almost every sinkhole impact can easily be predicted versity of natural landforms. they investigated lies in three parallel by treating them as In other areas, long-term natural linear zones that reflect the orientation of homogenous aquifers. recovery alone may not bring about a shear fault about 1 km away. • Group 4 represents aquifers Reclamation the specific changes people find desir Hobbs and Gunn (1998) outline a with high storage, diffuse flow, able. The natural reclamation process method to characterize the nature of a and variable recharge. These Reclamation commonly is consid of abandoned quarries can be accelerated karst aquifer in terms of the likelihood of aquifers provide a useful ered to be the start of the end of envi through a process called landform repli impacts from carbonate rock extraction resource and may support ronmental impacts from mining. The cation. Through carefully designed blast on the ground water. They classify car moderately large springs that development of mining provides an eco ing, referred to as restoration blasting, bonate aquifers into four groups based may, in turn, provide stream nomic base and use of a natural resource talus slopes, buttresses, and headwalls of carbonate rock quarries can be created and local laws. aquifer. The drainage may have led to that can be revegetated to produce land- An example of the difficulties in Blasting - A sinkhole collapse enlargement of subsurface voids, creating form and plant assemblages similar to determining the proximate cause of a occurred in 1983 while blasting for a continuous connection between the river those that occur on natural valley sides sinkhole is demonstrated by the inves new highway construction near Erwin in and the quarry. Subsequent river inflow to (fig. 24) (Gunn and Bailey, 1993; Gunn tigation of a catastrophic sinkhole that Unicoi County, Tennessee (Newton and the pit further eroded fill material from the and others, 1997). occurred near Westminster, Maryland Tanner, 1987). conduit and the rate of inflow increased Gillieson and Houshold (1999) (Gary, 1999). On March 31, 1994, a over the next several months to over 40,000 describe reclamation projects in Austra sinkhole opened up in the middle of Blasting - A number of rural res gpm (Lolcama and others, 1999). lia that are specifically designed to return a State road. The sinkhole measured idents near Oxford, Alabama, reported carbonate rock quarries to as close as approximately 8 m by 6 m, and was 4.5 recurring problems in turbidity of water Drilling - Collapse at a U.S. Geo possible to their original state. The key m deep. A man drove into the sinkhole from their individual water-supply wells logical Survey test well near Keystone issues were the integrity of the under- and was killed. An active quarry opera and, occasionally, decreases in yield. Heights, Florida, in 1959-60 buried a drill ground drainage, its water quality, and tion was located about 600 m away, and Many residents associated the problems er’s helper to a depth of 30 feet and par the cave invertebrate populations. two municipal water supply wells were with blasting operations in a local rock tially buried the geologist at the site. Drill within 1.6 km of the sinkhole. An iso quarry. Research identified no relation- ing was at a depth of about 80 feet lated pinnacle of limestone occurred in ship between blasting events and the near the contact between the unconsoli Legal Aspects the center of the roadway alignment. A quality of water in wells. Most turbidity dated surficial material and the underlying dye trace was conducted to determine problems occurred during the dry period limestone aquifers. Water level in the shal if there was a hydraulic connection of the year (October—December) when low aquifer was reportedly higher than in The legal situation concerning between the sinkhole and the quarry water levels in some wells are as much induced sinkholes and other environ underlying aquifer. The well being drilled or other pumping locations. Sampling as 40 feet lower than during summer was a replacement for another recently mental impacts in karst is reviewed by stations were placed throughout the months. Turbid or muddy water in some Quinlan (1986), LaMoreaux (1997), and completed and abandoned well about 12 surrounding valley and in the nearby wells resulting from heavy rainfall and feet away. Blasting in the abandoned well LaMoreaux and others (1997). quarry. There was no dye recovered in heavy use of ground water, particularly Quinlan (1986) summarizes case to increase yield had damaged the bottom the sample sites, therefore, there was no during extended dry periods, contributes of the casing set at depth of about 80 feet. law, legal concepts of ground water and conclusive evidence that quarry dewater significantly to the problem (Moore and surface water, liability, and law review The casing was removed prior to drilling ing was the cause for the sinkhole. Hughes, 1979). the new well (Newton, 1987). articles. He reviews the rationales of Blasting - Collapse sinkholes formed plaintiffs and defendants, including the Drilling - Installation of wells at at a quarry (location not given) in Paleozoic Westminster, Maryland, in 1940 was allegations that serve as the basis of dolomitic limestone following a routine liability for damages and the defenses Case Studies associated with nearby sinkhole collapse. blasting event. Ground water entered In 1948, the well was replaced by two against those allegations. through the floor of the quarry from an LaMoreaux (1997), and LaMoreaux There are numerous causes of envi new wells. During a 72-hour test, the unsuspected conduit. The conduit con two wells were pumped at a combined and others (1997) primarily discuss reg ronmental damage in karst, many that do nected the quarry with a karst cavern net- ulatory standards and the geologic and not relate to quarrying. These case stud rate of 950 to 1050 gpm. A sinkhole work that extended to a nearby river. Imme formed near the wells and cracks report hydrologic conditions that lead to legal ies are primarily those directly related to diately following the blasting event, water disputes. The authors point out that quarrying or engineering activities, such edly formed in two nearby buildings flowed into the quarry at a rate of about (Newton, 1987). nearly every State in the United States as drilling and blasting, that are used by a 15,000 gpm, carrying with it eroded karst- has implemented legislation, rules, and number of activities, including quarrying. fill from the cavern. For the first few weeks, regulations that apply in part or totally to Units of measurements in case studies are Drought - As many as 40 collapses the inflow decreased in response to a rapid sinkholes formed in downtown Syl- karst terrain and give examples of State as reported by the original authors. decline of the water table within the karst acauga, Alabama, during a prolonged Eight large sinkholes formed after ground reactivation of paleokarstic systems ton, Missouri. Collapses were recorded drought in 1953-56. The largest sinkhole water was lowered to 160 m or more. resulting in sinkhole collapse (Kaufmann at least 30 years prior to quarrying and was as much as 30 to 40 feet in Smaller sinkholes formed in the outer and Quinif, 1999). mining and have continued for 10 years diameter and 30 to 40 feet in depth. Col part of the cone of depression where Multiple Causes – An estimated subsequent to the completion of mining lapses occurred under streets, water lines, the drawdown was between 60 and 160 1,000 collapses west of Calera, Alabama activities. Although deep mines exist in drains, and other structures including a m. Several sinkholes formed where rapid include sites of subsidence, fracturing, areas subject to catastrophic collapse in church and football field. Sinkhole activ seepage of water from the surface has and significant piping. One collapse, the Missouri, and continuous dewatering is ity ceased with recovery of the water table tened the process of roof spalling and “December Giant” (fig. 23), measures required for mining, only minor surface at the end of the drought. Limited activity cavern enlargement. The largest of the 145 m long, 115 m wide, and 50 m effects have been noted (Williams and occurred briefly in 1981 during similar sinkholes formed after a few days of tor deep (LaMoreaux and Warren, 1973). Vineyard, 1976). decline in water table. Some water with rential rainfall (Foose, 1967). The area was dewatered by wells, quar drawals contributed to declines during Mine - Dewatering a zinc mine near ries, and an underground mine. The cone Quarry and underground quarry, both periods (Newton, 1987) Friedensville, Pennsylvania began in of depression in October 1973 was about Hershey, Pa. – A series events in sur 1953. Active sinkhole collapse occurred 10 mi2 (26 km2) in area. Pumpage at that face and underground quarrying near Freeze Protection – Collapse sink- in an area of large ground-water with time exceeded 14,000 gallons per minute Hershey, Pennsylvania, between 1946 holes formed near Pierson, Florida, drawals. Records indicate that 128 sink- (883 liters per second). Significant sink- and 1953 altered ground-water levels during the period 1973-1979 in the cone holes formed around the dewatering site hole development began about 1964. The over an area of 10 mi. About 100 new of depression created by ground-water during period 1953-57. Twenty-five new greatest hazards in this ural area were sinkholes formed within the area where withdrawals. Most of the sinkholes are sinkholes occurred from October 1970 collapses beneath highways and major there was a drastic lowering of the known to have occurred during periods to January 1971. The number of sink- gas pipelines. Sinkholes in part of the water table. Recovery of water levels to of drawdown caused by irrigation for holes occurring during the intervening area were still active in 1981 (Newton, nearly normal conditions in 1950 was freeze protection. The remainder formed 13 years was not inventoried. The water 1976, 1987; Warren, 1976). accompanied by a cessation of sinkhole in secluded locations, but were discov table in lowland areas prior to withdraw development (Foose, 1953, 1969). ered soon after periods of freeze protec als was generally at a depth of less than Multiple Causes - More than 150 A blast of August 1946, Hershey, tion pumping (Rutledge, 1982). 30 feet. Depth to top of bedrock exceeds sinkholes, depressions, and related fea Pa. - Blast in the hanging wall of the 30 feet in numerous areas. Rates of with tures formed in and adjacent to the pro- underground quarry near Hershey, Pa. Mine - Many sinkholes developed drawal between 1953 and 1977 varied posed right-of-way of Interstate Highway exposed a 6-inch-wide solution channel coincidently with major dewatering between 10 and 30 million gallons per 459 near the community of Greenwood about 275 or 375 feet below the surface. (started 1960) of a portion of the Far day. The cone of depression in 1967 in Bessemer, Alabama. Sinkhole collapse Water flowed at 8,000 to 10,000 gpm, West Rand mining district near Johannes exceeded 4 mi2 in area (Metsger, 1979). began about 1950 and continued through flooding the quarry in one day. Near-by burg, South Africa. Between December March 1972. A general lowering of the wells dried up, ground-water seepage 1962 and February 1966, eight sinkholes Multiple Causes - Collapse sink- water table occurred during the early into a nearby quarry ceased, Derry greater than 50 m in diameter and 30 m in holes have been reported since the begin 1950’s, or the preceding decade de to Spring 1½ miles to the southwest dried depth formed. The area is characterized ning of the 20th century in the Tournaisis large withdrawals of ground water from up on second day, and water in two by deep weathering and a thick mantel of area, southern Belgium. The sinkholes more than 1,070 wells (1,500 gpm) and nearby wells at the Hershey Chocolate surficial material. The depth to bedrock developed from reactivated paleokarsts. deep mines (9,500 gpm), compounded Corporation (1½ miles northeast) rapidly is as much as 400 m and commonly Intensive pumping for domestic and with a prolonged drought during the declined. After many months the open is about 100 m. Ground water was low industrial water supply, combined with 1950’s (Newton and others, 1973). ing was sealed. Adjacent wells had ered from about 100 m below surface to the dewatering due to deep limestone Quarry and underground mining - water in them again, and flow at spring 550 m below surface in July of 1966. quarries, resulted in the lowering of Quarry and mine dewatering extended and water levels in corporate wells were ground-water levels. This triggered the to within 1.5 miles (2 km) of Farming- restored (Foose, 1953, 1969). Sinkhole formation ceased after dewatering in hydraulic head were observed in year. A few years after the expansion, Pumping Test of August 1948, stopped and the water table had recovered monitoring wells at the quarry as the quarry operations ceased and the quarry Hershey, Pa. - From August 30 to Sep (Foose, 1969). active pit was developed across the naturally filled with water. The writers tember 4, 1948, an average of 5,500 quarry site. The collapse of the sink- did not document any further sinkhole or gpm was pumped from the underground Quarry - In 1950, a quarry at holes concurrent with large changes in subsidence activity since that time (Kath quarry near Hershey, Pa. as a test prelim Pelham, Alabama, was in its early stages water levels at the quarry suggests that and others, 1995). inary to permanent installation of pumps of development and sinkholes were not head changes in the limestone aquifer for deeper quarry operations. The water actively occurring. As the excavation may have been a triggering mechanism Quarry - Artificial drawdown is the level was maintained at about 200 feet progressed, it became necessary to dewa for sinkhole collapse (Strum, 1999). probable cause of a sinkhole problem at below the quarry floor. On September ter. In 1959, 11 open collapses were Railton in northwestern Tasmania where 2 the newly drilled Derry Spring well observable on aerial photographs and Quarry - In about 1986, a limestone limestone is excavated from a deep 1½ miles southwest (yield of 2100 gpm) by 1967 34 open collapses were observ quarry in the Valley and Ridge Province quarry on the floor of a broad valley dried up; water level fell from an ele able. The total distance of sinkhole in the southeastern United States began beneath about 20m of overburden. Prior vation of 355 ft to 313 ft, which was migration was about 0.4 mile. At some expansion by deepening the quarry to a to quarrying there was little evidence below the pump intake. On September time prior to October 1967, the quarry new level about 60 m (200 ft) below of sinkholes. Local anecdotes suggest 8, water level began to rise, and within was abandoned and ground-water pump the original water table. Extensive dewa minor sinkhole problems arose during a couple of days normal pumping opera ing stopped, along with sinkhole forma tering triggered sinkhole development the early years of the operation. A tions resumed (Foose, 1953, 1969). tion (Newton, 1976). in a nearby town and along a local new bench was developed in the Increased pumping during May 1949, Quarry - More than 18 sinkhole col railroad track. The ground-water surface quarry during the early-mid 1980’s, Hershey, Pa. - The quarry operation near lapses occurred along a planned highway was depressed in and around the quarry deepening the quarry by 15-20m, and Hershey, Pa. inaugurated its new pumping corridor near Castle Hayne, North Caro and appeared to affect the ground-water sinkhole collapses increased. The sink- program at about 6,500 gpm normal dis lina in 1980-81. These sinkholes were flow regime in and around the quarry and holes appeared to occur within a cone charge from pumps with the intake at 340 under the pavement of an existing road town. Ground-water levels were lowered of ground-water depression around the ft. below the land surface. Derry Spring and in or adjacent to its right-of-way 18 to 24 m (60 to 80 ft) at a distance quarry. The town sewage main was rup well dried up. Spring Creek dried up. near a dewatered quarry. Four sinkholes of about 0.8 km (one half mile) from tured by one sinkhole. A nearby aban Many wells throughout the valley went dry. were triggered by torrential rains in the quarry. Collapse sinkholes began doned water-filled quarry drained rap- During the second month of the new pump August 1981 (Newton, 1987). to develop around the quarry, occurring idly. Other sinkholes appeared in pasture ing program, sinkholes began to form in the as much as 1.6 km (one mile) from close to the quarry and in the backyards valley of Spring Creek. The size of the Quarry - In August and September the quarry. A perennial stream was cap of at least two village dwellings. Expo sinkholes ranged from 1 to 20 ft in diameter 1994, seven sinkholes up to 5 m in tured by a sinkhole, a sinkhole drained sures in the quarry reveal that the lime- and 2 to 10 ft deep. Nearly 100 sinkholes diameter and 3 m deep developed at a a local wastewater treatment pond, and stone surface beneath the overburden formed. More new sinkholes formed during residential property adjacent to a lime- sinkholes and ground subsidence began consists of pinnacles with a relief of 10 – the late summer of 1949 than had pre stone quarry in Craven County, North to threaten the local railroad track. The 15 m. At least two small caves and one viously existed in the areas. During Feb Carolina. The quarry operates about summer of 1987 was a drought year major spring were encountered at depth ruary and March of 1950, grouting in 600m southeast of the sinkholes and for the region, and the likely impact of in the quarry. Artificial lowering of the the underground quarry reduced flow into pumps water at a rate of 38 million the drought on sinkhole development in ground-water table due to the quarrying the quarry (flow had reached 8,000 gpm). liters per day. Water levels in wells on the area was investigated. The investi together with differential settlement of Springs began to flow again, wells could the perimeter of the quarry site have gation concluded that quarry dewatering the overburden between the limestone be pumped, and Spring Creek began to declined by as much as 5 meters below related to quarry expansion was the pri pinnacles was reported as the most likely flow. In 1953, the quarry was allowed to pre-pumping conditions. Large changes mary cause of the sinkholes and subsid cause of the problem. Inadequate drain- flood and became a water storage reservoir. ence that occurred around the town that age of runoff from the roofs of houses and outbuildings contributed to at least “muddying” of water (Spigner, 1978). Assad, F.A., and Jordan, H., 1994, Karst Beck, B.F., and Pearson, F.M., eds., 1995, one collapse (Kiernan, 1989). terranes and environmental aspects: Karst geohazards – Engineering and Environmental Geology, v. 23, pp. 228 – 237. environmental problems in karst terrane: Quarry - Numerous sinkholes and Quarries – Ground-water with Proceedings of the Fifth Multidisciplinary ASTM, 1998, Standard terminology relating sites of subsidence developed in a drawal from two deep quarries in Bir Conference on Sinkholes and the borrow pit area near Andrew Johnson to dimension stone, American Society Environmental Impacts of Karst, A.A. mingham, Alabama, resulted in two of Testing and Materials Designation Highway west of Morristown, Tennes overlapping cones of depressions, with Balkema, 581 p. see. The borrow pit was active as early C 119-98: American Society of Testing apexes being at quarries. More than 200 Beck, B.F., and Stephenson, J.B., eds., as April 1976. Most sinkholes occurred and Materials Annual Book of ASTM sinkholes formed in an area of less than Standards, v. 04.07, pp. 6-9. 1997, The engineering geology and between 1983 and 1986. The site exhib 0.5 mi2 during a period of about 8 years. hydrogeology of karst terranes: ASTM, 2000, Standard terminology relating its three distinct levels of excavating The formation of many of the sinkholes Proceedings of the Sixth Multidisciplinary with sinkholes occurring on all levels. to concrete and concrete aggregates, Conference on Sinkholes and the coincided with periods of heavy rain. American Society of Testing and Materials Ten sinkholes occurred on the lower Movement of water to one quarry Engineering and Environmental Impacts of Designation C 125-00: American Society Karst, A.A. Balkema, 516 p. level, two sinkholes on the middle level, was verified by dye tests. Estimated and one sinkhole on the upper level. The of Testing and Materials Annual Book of total average discharge from both quar ASTM Standards, v. 04.02, pp. 60-63. Beck, B.F., and Wilson, W.L., eds., 1987, Karst number of sinkholes occurring on each ries exceeds 1.0 mgd. Withdrawals hydrology: Engineering and environmental Barksdale, R.D., ed., 1991, The aggregate level was correlative with amounts of from other sources were not identified applications: Proceedings of the Second handbook: National Stone Association, 717 p. drainage received by each. Three addi (Newton and Hyde, 1971). Multidisciplinary Conference on Sinkholes tional sinkholes occurred across a road Bates, R.L., and Jackson, J.A., eds., 1987, and the Environmental Impacts of Karst, adjacent to the borrow pit, and collapses Glossary of Geology: American Geological A.A. Balkema, 467 p. in the road have reportedly occurred on Institute, 788 p. 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