Manawatū- Economic Action Plan FOR OUR PEOPLE FOR OUR MOKOPUNA FOR Increasing job opportunities and quality of life in the Manawatū-Whanganui region by connecting people, business, and our environment. Kia maha ake ngā tūmomo mahi, kia pai hoki te noho o te tangata i te rohe o Manawatū-Whanganui mā te tūhono tangata, mā te tūhono pakihi, mā te tūhono iwi me tō tātou taiao.

For a stronger and more prosperous Manawatū-Whanganui by 2025 – for our people, for our mokopuna and for New Zealand. Kia kaha ake, kia whaihua hoki te rohe o Manawatū-Whanganui a mua mai o te tau 2025 mō tātou, mō ā tātou mokopuna, mō Aotearoa hoki. Economic Action Plan

CONTENTS

Foreword...... 5

Executive summary...... 6

Approach...... 8

Building blocks for success...... 9

Opportunities...... 13

Tourism and Visitor Services...... 14

Land Use Optimisation...... 19

Mānuka Honey...... 24

Poultry Meat Production...... 28

Quality Care and Lifestyle for Older People...... 32

Business Process Outsourcing: Call Centres...... 36

Business Process Outsourcing: Food HQ...... 40

Fresh Vegetables...... 44

Te Pae Tata: Realising Māori Potential...... 48

Enablers Overview...... 53

Growing Business Enabler...... 54

Skills and Talent Enabler...... 55

Distribution and Transport Enabler...... 56

Digital Connectivity Enabler...... 58

Creating a balanced portfolio...... 59

Organisational arrangements for moving forward...... 60

Endnotes...... 62

Acronyms...... 63

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The Lead Team. From left to right: Pahia Turia, Michael Eden, Grant Smith, Tim Myers, Malcolm Inglis, Mavis Mullins, Di Grennell, Bruce Gordon, Michael McCartney, Sir Mason Durie.

FOREWORD

Kei ngā maunga whakahī, kei ngā wai tuku kiri, kei ngā iwi o and financial sign-off from all levels of government – local, te rohe whānui, tēnā koutou katoa. regional and central – and we have the active engagement

The publication of this Action Plan marks a significant of businesses and tangata whenua from our region. In other milestone for the Manawatū-Whanganui region. Never before words, what we now have is a well-shaped and action- have we found ourselves in a place like we are in right now. focused package designed specifically for our region, ready This Action Plan marks a clear pathway for us to follow, for implementation. defining the specific activities that we need to undertake to All that remains now is to do it! achieve a new level of prosperity across our great region. We are a resourceful and resource-rich region, full of promise Within this plan is one clear message: we must work together. and hardworking, determined people. We want to take Our opportunities are strengthened considerably when iwi, this region to its next stage of performance and deliver the businesses, and central and local government cooperate and potential of what we have to offer to the nation and the world are backed by our region’s public. Furthermore, the districts – ‘for our people, for our mokopuna and for New Zealand’. within the region will benefit greatly when working to achieve The Lead Team is ready to take this programme forward. these actions together. Opportunities like Mānuka honey, To be successful, what we need is all those who have been will benefit greatly from regional interconnectivity and a involved so far, and many more, to run with us. collective focus. A fragmented, competitive or half-hearted approach is simply not enough. The Lead Team wishes to sincerely thank the many (several

The earlier ‘Growth Study’ enabled us to take an in-depth hundred) people who have given their time in Action Teams look at the economic development opportunities in our to contribute to this Action Plan and to the local and central region. We have now further tested these opportunities government agencies of the area and the commitment they with stakeholders, business leaders and iwi and with local, have made to this programme. regional and central government. The ‘what’ and ‘why’ Nō reira, tēnā koutou, tēnā koutou, tēnā koutou katoa. questions were answered in the Growth Study. This Action Plan goes a long way to answering the ‘how’ and ‘when’ questions. Our task now is to make it happen. Michael McCartney Lead Team Facilitator We couldn’t be in a stronger position. We have a plan. CE Horizons Regional Council We have commitments. In some cases we even have formal 5 Economic Action Plan

Ko te pae tawhiti, whāia kia tata, ko te pae tata, whakamaua kia tīna. Seek out the distant horizons, while cherishing those on the near horizon. Te Pae Tata (the near horizon) focuses on realising potential through building upon the current and desired economic activities possible within the Manawatū-Whanganui region.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY What is this Action Plan? Mānuka Honey – every region needs its ‘hot’ opportunity and This Action Plan is the practical ‘road map’ to accelerate Mānuka honey is that for Manawatū-Whanganui. The problem social and economic growth in the region through to 2025. is managing rampant growth rather than trying to exhort it. The actions centre on resolving the problems of a ‘gold rush’ The 2015 Growth Study, the source document for this Action – poor practice, undeveloped regulation, skill shortfalls and Plan, identified eight opportunities and three enablers. Over uncertainty of information. the last eight months these opportunities and enablers have been investigated in depth with stakeholders, refined Poultry Meat Production – this is a big commercial and further developed. It has been determined that the Hill opportunity. Success centres on establishing a new and Country Sheep and Beef Farming Processing opportunity sustainable Asian market. This opportunity is on the be combined into ‘Land Use Optimisation’ opportunity. The ‘threshold of progress’, however, more work is required to Business Process Outsourcing opportunity has also been split determine the exact nature of the next steps. into two halves – one focussed on Contact Centres, and the Quality Care and Lifestyle for Older People – the proposed other on Food HQ. Furthermore, the Māori land enabler has solution is innovative, by and large using technologies since become the ‘Realising Māori Potential’ opportunity. currently available around the world to enable older people ‘Skills and Talent’ and ‘Digital Connectivity’ have also been to remain within supportive communities and have ready added to the programme as enablers. access to support. This remains more an idea than an action. Action Recommendations The trick will be bringing it together into a prototype, and the Project Teams were formed for each opportunity. Each town of Levin is willing to be the ‘pilot town’ for the future. Project Team comprised a mix of business leaders, local Business Process Outsourcing: Contact Centres – this is authority staff, iwi and community members. Their task was primarily an urban opportunity and targets an under-utilised to convert the opportunities into an action programme. The labour resource in our provincial towns and cities. The actions have been set out in each opportunity and enabler formula is simple – presentation of an attractive package in at three levels: Immediate Priorities (green), Medium-Term what is a highly competitive market. Priorities (amber) and Future Prospects (blue). The timetable Business Process Outsourcing: Food HQ – this is a way of and the organisations or agencies who could take these accessing advanced technical and scientific IP to add value actions forward are listed with each action. to the products of the region. Food HQ is the vehicle. To build This Plan its capacity and capability it needs to attract revenues from This is the Plan of the Lead Team – a team of regional leaders multi-national food company research to the region. Local appointed by the regional mayors. The development work was opportunities can then spin off this asset. undertaken on behalf of the Lead Team by Programme Directors Fresh Vegetables – there is a huge asset of fertile engaged by Horizons Regional Council for the purpose. horticultural land, but there is low grower confidence to Overview of the Recommended Actions expand new export markets. Sour past experiences from fickle Tourism and Visitor Services – an exciting prospect as a markets indicate the need for a robust collective marketing result of the natural and cultural assets of the Tongariro- and logistics effort for the industry to achieve its potential. Whanganui area and the national growth of international Realising Māori Potential – this is a region of high Māori tourism. It requires simultaneous development of population, growing enterprise and active iwi. Māori want destination, market, commissionable product and to participate in regional growth as partners, facilitators, infrastructure – it’s an ‘all or nothing’ opportunity. investors and business people. The Action Plan addresses the Land Use Optimisation – the gains from fine tuning farm fundamentals required to achieve this goal. productivity can be significant when small improvements per Enablers – Action recommendations have also been farm multiply out to large regional impacts. The challenge is prepared for the enablers: Growing Business, Skills and advancing practice further towards precision and ‘intelligent’ Talent, Distribution and Transport and Digital Connectivity. farming by speeding up the adoption of emerging knowledge and technical innovation.

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Overview of Conclusions • Natural and cultural assets – there are substantial Besides the detailed actions outlined in the Action Plan, regional assets which offer continuing potential, new there are a number of other conclusions arrived at by the angles and opportunities.

Lead Team. They are: • Leadership – strong, committed and aligned leadership • Regional identity – this region encompasses a large part within each opportunity and across the whole programme of central New Zealand and is the natural geographic is vital.

centre of it. The future importance of this region to New • Knowledge – access to contemporary knowledge and Zealand and its international identity will be a likely digital connection are particularly critical for Mānuka outcome of this Action Plan. Honey, Quality Care and Lifestyle for Older People and • Marketing – the importance of adequate market several other opportunities.

accessibility and penetration is a feature of many For this Action Plan to be successful, sound organisational opportunities – Fresh Vegetables, Poultry Meat Production, structures or institutional arrangements are vital. To this Tourism and Visitor Services, Food HQ and Contact end, this Action Plan identifies a set of principles and makes Centres. Raising the regional marketing capability and reference to potential operational frameworks that could be profile is critical for success. used to support the next steps in the economic development programme.

Key

IMMEDIATE MEDIUM-TERM FUTURE PRIORITIES PRIORITIES PRIORITIES 2016/17 2017/18 2018 and beyond

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APPROACH

Building this Action Plan has involved a “deep dive” into 5. Lead Team the opportunities identified in the Growth Study, including The Lead Team, that has directed this Action Plan process, commissioning specialised work to help realise the potential received regular reports from the Programme Directors and of Māori.1 Each action area has had a team working on it, provided feedback and guidance throughout this process. with in-depth investigation aiding their work. The result is 6. Māori not only an Action Plan, but also the active involvement of The ‘Realising Māori Potential’ opportunity was, and will be, stakeholders and the harnessing of their commitment to the developed in two parts. The first part, Te Pae Tata (the near identified directions. horizon), focuses on realising Māori potential by building The following features characterise the approach applied to on the economic activities of Māori within the Manawatū- the development of this Action Plan: Whanganui region. To do this, stakeholder engagement work identified Māori-related activities that could be part of the 1. Action Teams other eight opportunities identified in this Action Plan. This Each opportunity had an Action Team comprising engagement process also provided a base for the second stakeholders drawn from the government, business and part of this opportunity. This has focused and will focus on general communities – with specific knowledge and, most the development of Te Pae Tawhiti (the distant horizon). It is, often, “skin in the game”. Some teams met as regularly in effect, the wider Māori economic development strategy as 10 times; others, just a few times. Some teams broke for Manawatū-Whanganui. This will be a separate, but into sub-groups or developed a ‘core’ and a ‘large team’ concurrent strategy to the Action Plan. Both Te Pae Tata and approach. The Teams were vital for providing focus and a Te Pae Tawhiti are being formulated by and with Māori, under mandate for the recommended approach.2 the direction of a Māori Economic Strategy Group.6 Te Pae 2. Workshops Tawhiti will be available before the end of 2016. It will then Workshops were used for generating detail and stakeholder be progressed with the support of the Accelerate25 Lead ownership in opportunity areas. A workshop on Land Team and local and central government. Use Optimisation was attended by 60 people, and two 7. Local and Central Government day-long tourism workshops had in excess of 40 people in The local government mayors met regularly throughout attendance. Other workshops were more specific in their the period during which this Action Plan was developing. focus with a selected group of stakeholders possessing They received regular updates and provided feedback on specific subject knowledge. For example, five workshops Accelerate25. Central government representatives were also were held with between 10 and 20 hill country farmers to involved at every step of the way. The official coordinating discuss productivity. person for central government – Di Grennell – connected 3. Workbooks and Research with representatives from MBIE, MPI, DOC, LINZ, NZTE, Some teams used workbooks with background information NZTA, MSD and others. Special meetings were held with to stimulate discussion, derive feedback and capture detail officials from the region’s EDAs. from stakeholders. Specific research was commissioned – 8. Iteration and Iteration Again including a study commissioned by MPI exploring options The approach the Lead Team adopted was to work the for engagement with and between hill country farmers.3 ideas over and over again, gradually transforming them An economic analysis of the likely upside effect of the into tangible actions and then building up the resource proposed actions on GDP, wages and employment within base around those actions to make them viable, resourced, five of the opportunities, was carried out by NZIER.4 In time-bound, attributed and well-defined. As a result, in one case, the research involved someone from offshore.5 each opportunity there are actions (green) which are largely In other instances Accelerate25 profited from the input of decided and resourced (and generally more immediate). recognised experts in their discipline. There are also actions which are intended, but still require 4. Individual Interviews finalisation or are dependent on the completion of the The Programme Directors undertook extensive discussions ‘green’ actions first (amber). There are also ‘future focused’ with stakeholders on an individual basis, often more than actions that give direction further out (blue). once. As many as 40 interviews were undertaken relating to a single opportunity (Realising Māori Potential).

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BUILDING BLOCKS FOR SUCCESS

To establish priorities for active intervention, this Action Plan assesses each of the opportunities against seven building blocks that have emerged through Accelerate25 as key criteria in progressing development in the region. In broad terms, the more building blocks in place in any one opportunity, the greater the chance of success.

Those building blocks are: 1. Market and demand. An opportunity is only an 5. Connections. Efficient enablers such as Transport and opportunity if there is a market. New or expanded Digital Connectivity are critical. The limitations of the products and services need to be market-led. current digital network are well-known yet inadequately 2. Natural and Cultural Assets. The assets of the people and addressed in many cases. A future-focused understanding the place, range from soil and climate to culture. They of transport and logistics-network needs is also vital for define what the region can offer. The Central the region’s future. is a huge natural and cultural asset offering more potential 6. Leadership and ambition. A region has to want than is currently apparent. development and prosperity and to be prepared to go 3. Knowledge. Access to contemporary knowledge, out and get them. Leadership is required based on a technology, information and innovation is vital. The combination of central, regional and local government, research and university capabilities in the region are a Māori and business. conduit for knowledge generation and sharing. 7. Capital. A region needs to be able to bring projects and 4. Labour capacity. Utilisation and capability are required. businesses to an investment-ready point and thereby There is under-utilised labour in pockets throughout the attract capital – from both within and from outside the region, particularly in rural and remote areas. There are also region. Capital follows enterprise, not the reverse. The region deficits in skills and training. needs the capability to lead enterprise to attract capital.

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MAP OF THE REGION

Ruapehu District

Whanganui Rangitīkei District District

Manawatū District

Palmerston North City Tararua District Horowhenua District

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ABOUT THE OPPORTUNITIES

The 2015 Growth Study described a region with impressive assets and potential, and while prosperous and progressive, The potential is for a super- the Study identified many areas where significant gains can region reaching out beyond its be made when compared against the status quo. boundaries into the Wairarapa, Halfway between a strategy and a work-plan Hawke’s Bay and – tied This Action Plan is not an economic development strategy. together through strong It is a cluster of opportunities and the concrete steps which, if pursued together, will boost the prosperity of the region. leadership and a central New It is halfway between a strategy and a work-plan – enough Zealand locational focus. detail to guide and enough vision and direction to lead.

In for the long game The same applies to the actions. Some are immediate actions (green) which will have an early impact on growth. Others are for early implementation but involve further base work, proving or feasibility confirmation (amber). Others still, are Each sub-region works for itself and for the collective. There just great ideas needing to be nurtured over the medium to is something for all sub-regions within the greater region. long-term (blue). Each opportunity will not only stimulate activity within its This underscores the value of the Action Plan as a multiyear own areas of influence, it will also have an influence which programme requiring on-going support and leadership. flows through into other areas. The opportunities can be With this in mind – there is also scope to add new viewed separately, but they must also be viewed collectively. opportunities as some move through to fruition – thereby The potential is for a super-region reaching out beyond its leaving room for resources and focus to move to new areas boundaries into the Wairarapa, Hawke’s Bay and Taranaki – of attention. By this means, the momentum currently driving tied together through strong leadership and a central New Accelerate25 will be sustained – not allowed to wither Zealand locational focus. simply because the current batch of opportunities have been This involves viewing the region through a somewhat delivered. different lens to that of the past. Its future is not just as a large hinterland dotted with a few towns and fewer cities. The region of the future It is a region where every part of it has a contribution to give This programme of actions has the potential to drive regional and benefits to receive. It is a tight, integrated, productive distinctiveness and common purpose. Manawatū-Whanganui unit, making a tangible and resounding impact on the New is a significant agricultural area and a centre for research and Zealand economy. development. The opportunity is to build on these assets and create new ones. There is an emerging picture of the region From conception to implementation of the future. To do this, the region needs to demonstrate capacity to move Being centrally located and with 700,000 people living from conception to implementation – idea to action. If there within two hours’ drive radius of , the has been a failing in the past, that’s it. The region requires region has the potential for much greater integration – akin strong integrated leadership, a strong vision of its future and to a multiple hubs and spokes model, with ‘spokes’ – long an ambition to achieve it. and short – into surrounding areas.

The agricultural and logistics hub is largely the Manawatū, the tourism hub could be Ruapehu/Whanganui, the ageing and lifestyle hub could be Levin and Whanganui. In this way, leadership is shared.

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SUCCESS

For a stronger and more prosperous Manawatū-Whanganui by 2025: for our people; for our mokopuna; for New Zealand.

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OPPORTUNITIES Success will come, and only come, from action. Despite the huge effort to get to this point, there is still much to do. Our belief is that action will stimulate confidence and confidence will attract people into further active participation. In this way a virtuous cycle of action and achievement will become established and the opportunities will be realised.

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TOURISM AND VISITOR SERVICES

Opportunity The potential of tourism in the Tongariro Whanganui sub- region is impressive. The natural and cultural assets of this Enhanced tourism growth area – including alpine and navigable river landscapes – in the Ruapehu sub-region (above lend themselves to a unique combination of experiences, not able to be replicated anywhere else in the country. “business-as-usual” in 2015) will These experiences are of high international and domestic lead to an increase in Manawatū- interest. The area is within easy striking distance of the Whanganui GDP by 2025 of around international gateway and an easy step from other attractions such as those in Rotorua and Taupō. $66 million and a household spending increase of $32 million. The opportunity is: Unlock the tourism potential within and around the Tongariro and Whanganui National Parks.

Expand the offering of nature, adventure and outdoor sports, activities and experiences – particularly canoeing, biking, skiing and trekking.

Provide a distinctive experience through connection with spiritual and cultural values and the relationship between this land and tangata whenua.

Get better value from the products and services already available in the area, and to use these better to sustain and generate new employment opportunities.

Enhanced tourism growth in the Tongariro Whanganui sub- region (above “business-as-usual” in 2015) as envisaged Market Assessment here, will lead to an increase in Manawatū-Whanganui GDP by 2025 of around $66 million and a household spending increase of $32 million. This is a substantial prize.

Tourism scores well across the building blocks for success. The asset is unique. Local leadership from the Ruapehu Destination Definition District Council and other stakeholders is strong but requires consolidation. There is a potential local workforce. On the other hand, market connections and ‘destination definition’ require strengthening. There are shortfalls in local industry Visitor Experience knowledge, capital and digital infrastructure. These factors, and tourism’s significant contribution to regional GDP and employment, make it a strong opportunity with scale and excellent prospects. Marketing

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The building blocks for success

SUCCESS Committed people and resources working to provide a unique and memorable tourism experience.

Labour Natural and Cultural Leadership and Market Some local labour Assets Ambition Good location, close to available. Training Vibrant, original, Positive and committed. hubs and visitor flows. required. authentic, sustainable and unique.

Knowledge Connection Capital New visitor technologies are Poor digital connection and Insufficient investor confidence and under-developed. poor telecommunications. lack of scale.

Providing strong foundation Requires more development

Challenges The region boasts a growing array of trekking, mountain- Perception. The assets, activities and experiences outside biking and other quality outdoor recreation experiences. of the Tongariro Alpine Crossing area are not well enough This Action Plan recommends incrementally unfolding more known or differentiated. experiences that add dimension and variety to existing experiences, which support the growth of tourism SME Funding. The scale of required development cannot be businesses in the area. funded only by the small rating base of the Ruapehu, Whanganui and Rangitīkei District Councils. DOC also has Nothing short of an integrated experience with strong, constraints. consistent messaging, highly active marketing and relevant product development will cut the mustard. The scenario Iwi. The completion of treaty settlement negotiations will of the future is not rampant development, but managed provide more certainty for iwi about the role they will play expansion (and consolidation) of infrastructure and services in future decision-making. to support tourism and visitor growth. Infrastructure and accommodation. Establishing fit-for- The emphasis would be on the quality of the experience and purpose accommodation and utility services, before pressure the protection of the asset – both physical and cultural. points become evident, will ensure the flow of potential More visitors staying longer because of the diversity of the visitors is not unnecessarily constrained. offering will produce more employment opportunities. Regulation, use and environmental pressure. Neighbouring areas like Whanganui, Rangitīkei and Management agencies need to allow for the full use and Palmerston North will share in these benefits and build enjoyment of the area, while at the same time protecting the related products and services. quality of the assets which make it attractive.

Iwi have indicated they favour this direction of travel, Product. A broader suite of tourism products and services is however, they are not yet in a position to give full support required – particularly those able to be monetised. as they are focused on treaty negotiations related to the Alternatives. Wet weather activities will make the region future management of the Tongariro National Park. Boutique more attractive year-round. and cultural tourism are particular economic opportunities for Māori in the region, including in the area adjacent to the Whanganui River and city.

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Leadership and Investment This opportunity requires a systematic, not a piecemeal approach, to development. Support is required from a wide range of agencies and entities with scale. It also needs a range of public and private investors. Strong multi- agency and totally committed and collaborative leadership INVESTMENT arrangements are required. Anything less runs the risk of Business. More significant private investors are undershooting the opportunity and becoming overwhelmed needed. A total plan is required to attract more by the challenges. investors by giving them confidence in the future. The fundamental challenge is to counter the level of market Central Government. There is recognition of reticence that continues to frustrate development – too often the latent tourism opportunities in the region. innovative business ideas never make the ‘starter’s gate’. Investment and support from central government, particularly through DOC, with feasibility and foundation investigations are required.

Local Government. Ruapehu District Council, in particular, has committed funds to the future of tourism. This is a strong statement of commitment but it needs to be sustained and grown in collaboration with other potential funders.

Māori. Iwi are potential providers and investors in this sector, particularly where this investment responds to the needs of Māori communities.

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ACTIONS IMMEDIATE PRIORITIES

Destination, marketing and value proposition Local infrastructure • Extend the market assessment already undertaken by • Upgrade water, wastewater and related tourism Visit Ruapehu (2016/17). Contributing parties7: Ruapehu infrastructure to a standard which meets growth District Council/Visit Ruapehu, MBIE. expectations (2016/17) Contributing parties: Ruapehu and Whanganui District Councils by way of application to • Prepare a ‘Destination, Marketing and Value Proposition’ MBIE’s ‘Regional mid-sized Tourism Facilities Grant Fund’. to better define the destination (2016/17). Contributing parties: Ruapehu District Council/Visit Ruapehu, Whanganui District Council/Visit Whanganui, DOC, MBIE. Manawatū Gorge Cycle Trail • Develop a business case for constructing the Manawatū • Apply the results of the “Destination, Marketing and Gorge Cycle Trail (2016/17). Contributing parties: Value Proposition’ work carried out in 2016/17 to fill Horizons Regional Council, MBIE. product, service and asset gaps (2017/18 and beyond). Contributing parties: Ruapehu District Council/Visit • Construct the trail (2017/19). Contributing parties: Ruapehu, Whanganui District Council/Visit Whanganui local authorities. and other affected RTOs, MBIE – by way of application to the ‘Tourism Growth Partnership Fund’, ‘National Cycle- Mountains to Sea Cycle Trail way Fund Extension’, ‘Non-commercial Tourism Facilities • Complete the design and regulatory requirements for and Infrastructure Fund’ and/or for consideration as the construction of a mountain bike and walk trail from part of the 2016 ‘Regional Development Initiative’ budget the Tūroa car-park to (2016/17). Contributing appropriation. parties: DOC, Ruapehu District Council, NZTA, Ngāti Rangi. • Prepare and apply a coordinated marketing approach with a focus on both domestic and international visitors • Construct the Trail between Tūroa carpark to Ohakune (2017/18). Contributing parties: Ruapehu District (2016/17). Contributing parties: MBIE, DOC, Ruapehu Council/Visit Ruapehu, Whanganui District Council/ District Council, NZTA, Ngāti Rangi.8 Visit Whanganui and other affected Regional Tourism • Complete the sections of the Trail from Horopito to Organisations, Tourism New Zealand. National Park (2016/17 and 2017/18). Contributing • Further develop the Visit Ruapehu website and parties: Ruapehu District Council – by way of application communication tools to better inform the market and to to the ‘MBIE National Cycle-way Fund Extension’.9 assist to present commissionable product to the market • Upgrade the Whanganui river road (SH4) and build the – particularly to international wholesalers (2016/17). offroad section of this Trail (2016/17). Contributing Contributing parties: Ruapehu District Council/Visit parties: NZTA, MBIE, Whanganui District Council. Ruapehu.

Commissionable Products and Services Tongariro Alpine Crossing • Expand the range of commissionable products in the • Prepare a shared vision for the future of the Tongariro area (such as tourism packages) (2017/18). Contributing Alpine Crossing (2016/17). Contributing parties: parties: Ruapehu and Whanganui District councils DOC, Ngāti Tūwharetoa, Visit Ruapehu/Ruapehu District by way of an application to MBIE’s ‘Tourism Growth Council. Partnership Fund’, DOC. • Apply the decisions made as part of the shared ‘visioning’ exercise to the future management of the Tongariro Alpine Crossing (2017/18). Contributing parties: DOC, Ngāti Tūwharetoa, Ruapehu District Council/Visit Ruapehu.

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MEDIUM-TERM PRIORITIES

Accommodation Extend the use and enjoyment of the • Review the range and adequacy of tourism Conservation Estate accommodation choices in the area (2017-18). • Scope improvements and options for increasing the Contributing parties: Ruapehu and Whanganui range of tracks, huts and other services and facilities in District Councils – applications can be made to the the Tongariro and Whanganui National Parks (2017/18). Government’s ‘Tourism Growth Partnership Fund’ and/ Contributing parties: DOC, iwi, Visit Ruapehu, or for consideration as part of the ‘Regional Growth other agencies.10 Initiative’ appropriation. • Design and upgrade agreed tracks, huts and other services and facilities in the Tongariro and Whanganui Gateways to National Parks National Parks (2018/19). Contributing parties: DOC, • Investigate the feasibility of establishing “Gateways” iwi, Visit Ruapehu and other agencies. to provide identity, access points and interpretation services for visitors (2017/18). Contributing parties: DOC, iwi, District Councils.

FUTURE PROSPECTS

World Heritage Park Whakapapa Village • Develop a marketing campaign around the parallel • Investigate the merit of creating an optimal spatial volcanic features of the Hawaii/Tongariro World Heritage footprint and community development plan for Parks to leverage joint tourism. Contributing parties: Whakapapa Village and thereby help the Village play an DOC, US Embassy, Visit Ruapehu, Tourism New Zealand. expanded role in delivering cultural, heritage, transport and gateway functions. Contributing parties: DOC, Army Museum Ruapehu District Council, Ngāti Tūwharetoa. • Establish a pre-European conflict ‘NZ Warrior’ experience at . Explore the future plans of the Waiouru Defence Area for the possible development of a publicly available outdoor army experience. Contributing parties: Ruapehu District Council, NZ Army Museum, Visit Ruapehu.

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LAND USE OPTIMISATION Research of red meat productivity Opportunity Manawatū-Whanganui is a strong pastoral region with indicates an extra $76.8 million extensive sheep and beef farming – alongside dairy, arable could be generated per annum in farming and other productive uses. export earnings. Research The 120 regional farming leaders involved in the action planning process have added their weight to the drive for undertaken by NZIER suggests that action to unleash the potential of this land for increased if the above goal was indeed to be productivity, profitability and sustainability. achieved, then the additional Critical to unleashing this potential is the encouragement of precision and ‘intelligent’ (as in the extended use of contribution to GDP (over and technology and data) farming techniques leading to more above status quo) from the region’s effective mixed and optimal land uses that are appropriate to the capacity of that land. red meat sector would be $384.8 million by 2025. The opportunity is: Small changes that ‘multiply out’ to major gains. This arises from the sheer scale of the region’s hill country farming (1.2 million hectares – 55% of the region’s total land area). Significant advances have already been made by the region’s farmers, demonstrating that with a concerted effort, further progress will be made.11

The region’s great soils. The region has 18% of New Zealand’s class 1 soils – despite comprising only 8% of New Zealand’s land area. In addition, 14% of New Zealand’s class 2 soils are in the region. On-going success requires the application of sustainable land management practices and access to water for irrigation and to improve soil versatility.

Innovation and practice improvement. The close proximity of the expertise in Massey University – as well as that in other research and enabling institutions like Food HQ – provides the region with ‘first mover’ opportunities in commodity and value-added products.

Optimum use of dairy within environmental constraints. Dairying is already a major contributor to the regional economy. Despite its recent down cycle, it’s a mature land When the building blocks of success, as illustrated in the use in the region, with advanced supply chain arrangements diagram (over page) are considered, farming is in a strong for processing and a stable regulatory environment. position. The capacity of the natural environment (within Comparative farmer performance indicates significant environmental limits) is strong. Capital is not a major issue. value is still ‘left in the paddock’. The market is always a consideration, but the critical areas Shift the performance ‘bell curve’. Research of red meat requiring most attention are leadership, knowledge transfer productivity indicates an extra $76.8 million could be and knowledge application. Cracking open these three ‘nuts’ is generated per annum in export earnings.12 Research the key to success. Nationally-led programmes can only go so undertaken by NZIER13 suggests that if the above goal was far. Regional leadership is vital. Finding it and harnessing it, for indeed to be achieved, then the additional contribution to the benefit of the region, is the challenge. There are also some GDP (over and above status quo) from the region’s red meat labour issues, but they are at the margins in a sector which is sector, would be as much as $384.8 million by 2025. becoming increasingly mechanised and digitised.

19 Land Use Optimisation

The building blocks for success

SUCCESS Small gains across every farm make a significant regional difference.

Capital Market Natural and Cultural Labour Not usually a limiting There will always be ups Assets Skill development factor for farm and downs. Security The region is blessed with required. management. Relevant of market is critical versatile land, a good for infrastructure when considering new climate and adequate development. products. water.

Knowledge Leadership and ambition Connection Providing better ways to share A new multi-interest regional Rural digital connection is vital to information with, and between farmer-centred agency is required. the task of operating ‘intelligent’ farmers, is critical. farming systems.

Providing strong foundation Requires more development

The future pastoral farming story is one of optimisation and The future farming story is wider than pastoral. Other groups diversification. Typical (not exceptional) farmers of the future such as Tararua and Whanganui’s Economic Development will prize good advice, measure, plan and communicate with Agencies have exercised leadership in identifying the optimal peers, make and review decisions and display an openness location for the high margin/low volume specialist crops and to new ideas. They will be profit-focused, confident and will fruits and other products which could be grown in the region. value their time. They will adopt a ‘team approach’ with their Wider integration of these products into land use options partners, spouses and advisors. They will build resilience and would add ‘resilience through diversity’ to farming enterprises sustainability into their farming businesses. Many of these and communities. The ‘market-back’ principle is a precursor prized characteristics need more development. to success in this domain.

There is a new cohort of young farmers coming through who Two other opportunities are subject to application of the are thirsty for knowledge, however, a lack of succession same ‘market back’ principle. The first relates to expansion planning is holding them back. The gate needs to be left open of the area growing grain and related arable crops in the for the new crew. In addition, there are some infrastructure Rangitīkei area. The second relates to developing a better issues, e.g. the absence of high speed broadband, which understanding of the market conditions, farmer interest, need to be addressed. optimum volume and optimum location for suitably-scaled regional processing facilities for goat and sheep milk. These The region needs to think more clearly of itself as a ‘team’ opportunities deserve further attention. with a shared community of interest – this will assist immeasurably. Everyone needs to pull in the same direction The focus of current dairy farm-focused programmes is toward including farmers, processors, local government, MPI, ‘farming to limits’ and reducing input costs by adopting researchers and developers (particularly Massey University) grass-based, low-input farming systems. A dairy-sector and other stakeholders. Primary Growth Partnership (PGP) programme covers these and other growth-generating dairy-focused dimensions. A redoubled effort to share information and help farmers These programmes may not be enough to achieve the desired compare themselves through benchmarking is important. production increases in the desired timeframe. The region A new generation of discussion groups based around sharing would profit from more attention from industry-good agencies. precision farming practices and ‘intelligent’ farming – with a focus on defining and achieving a clear vision of what the ‘future farmer’ looks like – is vital. 20 Economic Action Plan

Within the Land Use Optimisation opportunity, there are Challenges specific Māori advantages that can be summarised as: Access to good information. Getting the right information to

• The Māori asset base is growing – with a focus on fish, farmers in the right form, at the right time and through the farm and forestry. Economies of scale are likely to provide channels which work for them, requires focused attention. a competitive edge for iwi-based enterprise. Skills and training. Amongst the information needs

• Māori have now developed global ‘indigenous-based’ identified by farming leaders, was a priority call for better relationships – with integrated supply chain logistics access to advice and training about core aspects of farm 15 to support them. There is growing market interest in management. products with this provenance. Comparative performance. There is the need to take good

• Māori have an intergenerational perspective on their benchmarking information and use it to help shift the bell resource use – it’s not a bad thing to leave some curve of meat and dairy production so that more of the area’s resources locked up and it is vital that an environmentally farmers are achieving the production and profitability targets sustainable approach is applied when and if resources are currently achieved by the top 25% of farmers. used and developed. Web-based data and discussion groups. Information

• Māori have a history of collaborating with those with sharing is unlikely to happen on its own. The development expertise to help unlock potential – they are open to of systems to enable farmers to have easier access to searching out more of this. information via user-friendly websites is one answer. Access to information via discussion groups is another. Māori are also interested in the opportunities presented by aggregating land blocks. This includes considering buying Succession planning. Information about farm ownership back land and withdrawing from those lease farms able ‘succession-planning’ at a faster pace, allowing more highly to operate as one land block, at scale. Māori also have an motivated and younger farmers to play a stronger role in interest in establishing ‘joint-venture land blocks’ across the driving farm management, is required. region or country. Additionally, it would be advantageous Digital connectivity. The absence of digital connectivity to apply expert skills in a highly integrated way, particularly compounds the information access challenge faced by where current land is either fragmented, or the capability of farmers – particularly in the hill country of the region. This the land owners is not currently sufficient. is seen as not only inhibiting effective farm management,

Māori also have an interest in being involved in sheep dairy in but also contributing to rural isolation and adding to the different parts of the region. They note the advantage in being difficulties faced in attempting to recruit good farm staff. a first mover in an industry that is just starting to gain traction Adding value. Another area to further explore is the in New Zealand and around the world.14 value-add benefits which may be achieved from certified

Further collaboration with the red meat processing sector ‘sustainable production’ systems and/or other system could present opportunities for Māori in the region with changes which reflect the unique images and provenance additional employment opportunities – possibly by means of the region. of joint ventures and the creation of a ‘one farm’ approach as Environmental sustainability. Many parties have concerns part of an integrated supply chain. This approach has been about the flow-on effects of land use intensification. trialled by Māori in the by pursuing the Tūhono For Māori, these are strongly linked to their cultural Whenua – Red Meat Coalition – an approach which lends responsibility to take action in response to environmental itself to inclusion in Te Pae Tawhiti. degradation.

Māori land. While Māori land ownership presents some particular challenges, most issues are held in common with other farmers.16

Water. Water is a limiting factor for production increases in many agricultural enterprises.

21 Land Use Optimisation

Leadership and investment The challenges faced by this sector require focused leadership. A new pan-agency lead or focus group (perhaps called the ‘Manawatū-Whanganui Agricultural Development Group’) made up of leaders from all affected agencies could be formed. The co-leaders of this group could include Federated INVESTMENT Farmers, MPI and Horizons Regional Council. Other agencies Business. There is opportunity for more on-farm with a strong supportive role to play include: Iwi land-focused investment from third-parties and for closer trusts, Beef + Lamb NZ, Red Meat Profit Partnership, Territorial integration between different parts of the product Local Authorities and the EDAs of the region, rural advisors, supply chain, e.g. hill country farmers linked banks and accountants and fertiliser providers. to finishing country farmers, linked to product The key investment need is toward systems to enable more processors, etc. rapid sharing of information to and between farmers. Central Government. There is an on-going strong role to play in establishing regulatory frameworks and securing trade access. Research and skill development programmes also remain critical for farmers.

Local Government. The critical subject for discussion between farmers and local government is about the cost and quality of the road network connecting farms to product and service suppliers, and to those purchasing farm products.

Māori. A strong interest has been expressed in being actively involved in growing land-based assets and in adopting an integrated and scaled-up approach to capitalising on land-based opportunities.

22 Economic Action Plan

ACTIONS IMMEDIATE PRIORITIES

Information sharing to support land use • Undertake a pre-feasibility study on a potential decision making Tutaenui community irrigation and stock water scheme • Develop a pilot information sharing portal to assist (2016 – already underway). Contributing parties: farmer decisions about investment in prosperity- Rangitīkei District Council, MPI, local farmers. generating land use options (2016/17). Contributing Water availability parties: MPI and Horizons Regional Council. • Document the availability of water supply resources in • Establish a pilot benchmark approach to assist the region, farmer demand for additional water and/ farmers to compare their performance in a range of or areas where water resource information is not well localities throughout the region (2016/17 and beyond). understood (2016/17). Contributing parties: Horizons Contributing parties: MPI, Beef + Lamb NZ. Regional Council, MPI.18 • Design and test the effectiveness of the transfer of knowledge and information between members of a small High margin/low volume specialist and number of new style farmer discussion groups (2016/17 innovative crops and products and beyond). Contributing parties: MPI, Beef + Lamb • Prepare project briefs for particular pilot projects, e.g. NZ, Federated Farmers and selected sheep and beef goat and sheep milk processing (2016). Contributing farmers drawn from a geographic spread throughout the parties: MPI, interested land owners. Manawatū-Whanganui region. • Invite interested parties to make applications (under existing contestable funding arrangements) for support Stock water reticulation to implement briefs prepared for particular pilot projects • Commission an economic evaluation of stock-water (2017/18). Contributing parties: MPI, interested land reticulation on a nationally representative case owners.19 study range of eleven farms – of which four are in the Manawatū-Whanganui Region (2016 – already underway). Contributing parties: MPI, Beef + Lamb NZ.17

MEDIUM-TERM PRIORITIES

Farm succession planning Irrigation Fund’), Horizons Regional Council, district • Build on work developed by the Institute of Directors to councils and groups of like-minded farmers.21 provide farmers with more information and case study Shifting the bell curve of dairy farm production examples of successful succession planning (2016/17). • Consider the potential applicability to the region of Contributing parties: Federated Farmers, MPI.20 examples developed in Northland (and others developed Irrigation by DairyNZ as part of the Dairy PGP and elsewhere) to • Research the feasibility or undertake pre-feasibility assist the Manawatū-Whanganui region. Contributing design work on potential community irrigation schemes parties: Federated Farmers, Dairy NZ. (2017/18). Contributing parties: MPI (via the ‘Accelerated

FUTURE PRIORITIES Provenance-aligned, ‘regionally sourced’, value-added food production and branding • Further explore the case for developing branding/quality control systems to better reflect the sustainability credentials and ‘traceability’ image which may be associated with selected products from the region. Contributing parties: Primary sector leaders, EDAs.

23 Mānuka Honey

MĀNUKA HONEY

Opportunity Mānuka honey is one of those opportunities that comes along every now and then and breaks traditional moulds. Almost overnight, an under-used resource – Classes 6 and This planting has the 7 hill country lands – becomes a valuable and productive resource. With very little substitution of other uses – capacity to generate perhaps with the exception of a little area of extensive additional Mānuka honey hill country sheep and beef production – Mānuka honey represents a new and large upside opportunity. production, above business as usual, with a value of The opportunity is: $58 million, by 2025. Diversity and resilience. Adds profitability, sustainability and resilience (via farm enterprise diversity) to hill country sheep and beef farming.

Employment where it is needed. Provides additional employment opportunities.

Foundation to achieve economies of scale. Optimises the benefits which may be secured for the region at every step in the Mānuka honey supply chain – including establishing joint ventures between land owners and others.

Sought after commodity. Helps to meet international market Much of the leadership required is at a national level, but demand for a sought-after medicinal and consumable product. regional leadership is also important. While the industry will attract labour, at present it is being constrained by skilled Current honey production from the region is worth about labour shortages. $15 million. Horizons Regional Council estimates there are 100,000 hectares of land in the region suited to Mānuka The building blocks for success planting and harvesting for honey production. An optimistic About 135,000 of New Zealand’s 700,000 hives are located scenario suggests 40,000 additional hectares of this may be in the Manawatū-Whanganui region. A high percentage of planted in the region by 2025. the region’s wild Mānuka is already harvested for honey This planting has the capacity to generate additional Mānuka production, although there may be areas which could be 23 honey production, above business as usual, with a value of more optimally stocked with hives. 22 $58 million, by 2025. A more conservative scenario suggests The Mānuka Research Partnership (NZ) Limited’s Primary 20,000 hectares would be planted, generating a value to Growth Partnership programme, funded by the sector and MPI, the region of close to $28 million above business as usual by is making good progress on the core task of identifying cultivar 2025. Around 90 new beekeeper and related jobs would be species suited to particular locations. Under ideal conditions, created as part of the optimistic scenario. carefully selected and adjacently located cultivar species may To use our schedule of building blocks for success be able to provide Mānuka nectar suited to Mānuka honey 24 – the challenges faced by the Mānuka honey sector are not production for an 8-12 week season every year. primarily market or demand, natural asset or capital-related. Success would be every land user who has land suited to The key risk areas are knowledge, leadership and labour. Mānuka honey production having immediate access to the With regard to knowledge, landowners don’t know what they reliable information needed to enable them to fully consider don’t know. There is the danger of ill-considered investment, the merits of this land use option.25 Success would be teaming up with dealers who don’t provide a fair return on continued growth in New Zealand’s share of the international asset, missing clear-cut opportunities, unanswered questions honey market and the continued receipt of premium prices about when to invest in cultivars, and so forth. The industry is for New Zealand-sourced honey products – including moving faster than the extension of knowledge.

24 Economic Action Plan

SUCCESS Information and support structures keep up with the sector’s pace of development.

Capital Labour Natural and Cultural Market and demand Sufficient – particularly Sector will provide Assets International demand is for existing owners of good additional Region has large tracts likely to exceed supply land. rural employment of land suited to Mānuka for at least the next five opportunities. honey production. years. Training is required.

Connection Leadership and ambition Knowledge Mobility and connectivity are vital. Current leaders are strong but few More and better information needs These are businesses on the run in and far between. Sector is still to be supplied to land owners and remote areas. immature. More collaboration is others interested in the sector. needed.

Providing strong foundation Requires more development

the further processing of raw honey into health products as ‘Mānuka honey’. No robust definition currently exists for and nutraceuticals within the region. Success would mono-floral Mānuka honey when sold as a food. Mānuka honey also be securing multiple entry points and employment is a sensitive issue in a number of importing countries, due to opportunities for persons with an interest in the Mānuka concerns about authenticity and truth in labelling. honey sector. Mānuka honey domain name. There is limited security around Māori from across the region are already working together the unique domain name, brand and everything associated as a group in this sector. They recognise how Mānuka honey with the provenance of New Zealand-sourced Mānuka. Without commercialisation contains relevance because of: this protection, other countries may undermine New Zealand’s market advantage. In response, Mānuka NZ Ltd is currently • Long-term Māori land ownership. pursuing brand protection measures. • Skill development opportunities. Access to good information about the costs and benefits • General ease of integration into Māori farming. of planting Mānuka for honey production. Land owners • The opportunity provided by Mānuka to be a good use of do not have sufficient information to fully judge the costs land-locked Māori land. and benefits of being part of the Mānuka honey production supply chain. This is making some land owners risk-averse Challenges and is slowing the pace of growth of the sector. There is also a land owner view that Mānuka is a weed and that the The challenges of Mānuka honey are those of growth, rather Mānuka honey sector is a ‘here today and gone tomorrow’ than a lack of growth.26 They are centred on the need to industry. The climate change and sustainable land use/ avoid the poor practices that may have previously damaged erosion control benefits of Mānuka planting and/or the other sectors of this type. These relate to the reputation benefits from the managed reversion of land to wild Mānuka of the industry, lack of product standards, boom/bust may also not be fully understood and consistently supported. practices, false starts and poor decision-making. This is a national, as well as a regional, issue. Regulatory standard to define Mānuka honey. The absence of Collaborative relationships. Land owners, beekeepers, an agreed definition of what constitutes Mānuka honey creates honey extractors and honey exporters do not always have a difficulties in confirming the integrity of products being sold relationship between each other which is fair and equitable.

25 Mānuka Honey

There are also instances of theft of Mānuka nectar and hives. Collaboration would provide strength to the industry.

Skills and training. There is a shortage of persons with the skills and training to meet Mānuka honey supply-chain needs.

Sector status. The sector may currently be described as INVESTMENT ‘immature’. Consolidation is likely to occur over the next few years as larger players more strongly exert their influence. Business. Current hill country farmers are well Under this longer-term scenario, local employment and placed to enter the sector because they will not growth opportunities may best be secured with the incur the capital cost of acquiring land. They can also establishment of joint venture approaches. lease their land to third parties for Mānuka planting. In addition, there may be a particular opportunity Leadership and investment to establish a large and centralised processing and In the longer-term, the recently established ‘Apiculture NZ wholesale marketing centre, possibly in Taihape or Ltd’ national organisation is likely to further develop its Whanganui. capacity to assess and resolve the challenges faced by the Central Government. Will be called upon to provide sector regionally. This could include providing a base for on-going assistance with market access, to develop on-going research and for gaining access to a commodity a regulatory standard defining what constitutes levy mechanism to fund necessary work, including additional Mānuka honey and provide further support for research. In the meantime, a Manawatū-Whanganui ‘Hub research – in the manner of that already provided as Group’ of Apiculture NZ could be established, with the Mānuka part of the current PGP programme. Honey Project Team continuing its leadership, until then. Local Government. Horizons Regional Council Co-leaders of this sector opportunity would likely include: has a role to play in providing land owners with MPI, Iwi, Horizons Regional Council, Tararua District Council, information about some of the benefits of Mānuka Whanganui District Council, Rangitīkei District Council and honey production and in promoting understanding Ruapehu District Council, leading regional apiarists such as about how its other environment, non-regulatory and the Tweeddales from Taihape and researchers from Massey regulatory programmes may link with the Mānuka University. Other agencies to consider involving, include: MBIE, honey sector, e.g. those related to erosion and DOC, Māori Land Incorporations and Māori Trusts, Mānuka climate change management. Research Partners NZ Ltd and Mānuka Farming NZ Ltd. Māori. For Māori, Mānuka honey is seen as a good At the heart of success for the sector will be collaboration co-product from existing land use. Several trusts between Mānuka honey farmers, beekeepers, extractors/ have sought support to investigate the possibility processors, wholesalers and honey marketers. of deriving income from their land in this way. All parties have a role and likely particular interest in sector investment.

26 Economic Action Plan

ACTIONS IMMEDIATE PRIORITIES

Mānuka honey – regulatory standard Other current Government Mānuka honey • Continue with the research required to develop a draft commitments regulatory standard defining what constitutes Mānuka • Work with the sector on the ‘Industry Agreement for honey and promulgate that standard (2016 – for release Biosecurity Readiness and Response’, support the High early in 2017). Contributing party: MPI. Performance Mānuka Plantations PGP programme,28 support the Apiculture Surveillance Programme, support Land suitable for use for Mānuka plants industry-led projects using the Sustainable Farming Fund, • Collate existing information about the extent of in situ support the planting of Mānuka for erosion control and/ Mānuka plants and the extent of land with suitability or carbon sequestration under the Afforestation Grants (economic and environmental) for Mānuka planting. Scheme and the Erosion Control Funding Programme, Make this information available on a suitable website and generally work with science providers to improve (2016/17). Contributing parties: Horizons Regional knowledge of Mānuka’s qualities as a commercial species Council, MPI. and for use as a plantation crop suitable for sustainable management of steep or eroding land (2016 and beyond). Sustainability benefits of Mānuka planting Contributing parties: MPI, MBIE. • Process applications for grants from existing contestable funding sources for further use of Mānuka planting to Regional Plan – treatment of land management assist with erosion management or climate control for Mānuka planting (2016 and beyond). Contributing parties: MPI, Horizons • Examine the extent to which the Horizons One Plan Regional Council.27 (RMA regulatory regional plan) provides for Mānuka planting and examine the need for a change to this Plan if this need is confirmed (2016/17). Contributing party: Horizons Regional Council.

MEDIUM-TERM PRIORITIES

Commodity levy, branding and further research Collaborative approaches to Mānuka honey • Consider developing and implementing a case for production a commodity levy to support further research and • Consider contributing to discussions amongst advocacy (2017 and beyond). Contributing parties: like-minded land owners about opportunities for Apiculture NZ, MPI and others. collaborative catchment approaches to honey production (2017 and beyond). Contributing parties: Horizons Regional Council, interested land owners.

FUTURE PRIORITIES

Centralised Mānuka honey processing: • Consider the merit of assisting the establishment of centralised processing, retailing and a honey tourism centre (2017 and beyond). Contributing parties: Mānuka honey businesses, local EDAs, NZTE, MBIE.

27 Poultry Meat Production

POULTRY MEAT PRODUCTION

Opportunity The poultry meat production opportunity has the potential to become a significant player in the region in what is, and will continue to be, a high growth industry. In so doing, poultry meat production will add further depth to the region’s rural economy. The opportunity is to leverage off domestic growth and existing efficient industry capability and develop an emerging export market for high quality poultry meat production, taking advantage of all the associations with New Zealand as a clean and disease-free environment.

The opportunity is: Volume. An additional 100,000 chickens per day production by 2020 would equal a 25% increase in NZ production.

Employment. An increased workforce, especially in production, despite growing automation.

Export. Establishing a foothold in competitive export markets.

Sustainability. Diminishing environmental pressure.

Spill-over business. Building greater critical mass in related rural industries, e.g. transport and grain production. The building blocks for success There is a high level of confidence and competence in the Iwi. Downstream investment opportunities for local iwi. chicken meat industry in New Zealand. It is experiencing Capital. Attract significant new capital to the region. strong domestic growth and consumer interest. This reflects patterns occurring internationally. Research. Encourage R&D capacity (e.g. Food HQ) to add value to the product. This opportunity is such that an experienced team of commercial operators and regional stakeholders came together as part of Accelerate25 to explore whether a large Poultry meat in New Zealand now makes up over 50% of production and processing operation in the region, with domestic meat consumption compared to sheep (8%), beef a strong focus on developing premium product to Asian (20%) and pork (23%).29 Poultry meat is also a staple for customers, was viable. The team: an emerging wealthy middle-class in Asia. This market is sensitive about food safety and integrity. While international • Noted recent developments in chilled meat access to competition is tough, New Zealand’s unique disease-free China and other parts of Asia. status makes products like chicken meat attractive in • Noted this is a strongly commercial venture requiring other countries which are forced to resort to extensive support to get market assumptions validated and a pharmaceutical treatments. market partner engaged. In considering the building blocks for success, it is the • Noted feasibility work would take about six months and ‘market and demand’ building block that is the key once validated, a company could be formed, capital challenge. Predicated on the potential of export growth, secured and development commenced. poultry meat is a strongly cost-driven market and difficult to break into. Despite that, other building blocks are strong • Noted this could be progressed in a series of go/stop – there is active local leadership, capital and knowledge phases through feasibility assessment to final design. are considered reasonably easy to attract and labour is • Enlisted an expert advisor, who highlighted the considered a challenging but not an unmanageable issue. importance of carefully testing assumptions about the premium margins expected for New Zealand produce

28 Economic Action Plan

SUCCESS A pathway to an export market is established.

Knowledge Capital Leadership and Connection Natural and Mature domestic Capital-intensive. Ambition Not remote – Cultural Assets industry. Confirmed viability Strong local should not be a Well-located for Established will attract capital. interest and problem. distribution and practices. support. input (grain).

Market Labour Establishing a foothold in international markets and There could be a slow start, however, the industry will building a viable share of this market will be a significant attract labour. challenge, complicated by trade issues.

Providing strong foundation Requires more development

and the need to better understand the different demands Challenges of different parts of the Asian market. The advisor also Market access. Access to some key Asian markets (e.g. highlighted the value of initially establishing a strong base China) for poultry meat is currently closed. Market access in the domestic market. generally needs a reciprocal access agreement.

With this advice in mind, the team has developed a straw- Environmental issues. Large-scale intensive chicken meat man for a major investment of a 100,000 per-day bird production facilities need to be located well away from urban production and processing operation. The team noted the environments, with excellent waste management facilities. potential next steps as: Initial funding. Finding initial funding of up to $250k for a 1. Identify market partners: This could come from current comprehensive study, or between $50k and $100k to search NZTE and Food HQ poultry and food company connections out and define the needs of a potential market partner. in Asia and the Middle East. Formation of a vehicle to enable this feasibility work is also 2. Contract market researchers: This could be conducted required. with current NZTE or MFAT staff if they have the capability Market partners. Finding the right market partners and and time. establishing a satisfactory risk-share arrangement is 3. Work with potential partners in the market: This would fundamental. involve the development of scenarios and relationships with potential market partners. 4. Summarise findings and review/adapt scenarios: This would require formation of a project team to progress to the next step of a full feasibility study.

29 Poultry Meat Production

Leadership and Investment ACTIONS This is a strongly commercial opportunity which will likely require early public sector support to get over the initial IMMEDIATE PRIORITIES feasibility ‘hump’. An association with a local economic development agency is considered a possibility. Other Information sharing to support land use, partners would be required for logistics and regional and market focus and partnership local council planning. Iwi, together with private sector • Undertake a market opportunity assessment, investment partners, would be desirable. consolidating the work already undertaken by the Project Team. Formalise an entity to undertake this work. (2016/17). Contributing parties: Members of the original Project Team, a local EDA, NZTE,MPI.

INVESTMENT

Business. The scale of investment is estimated at $100-150 million. Just marshalling investors is a major task.

Central Government. There are significant trade implications for an operation of this scale together with a need to protect ‘Brand NZ’.

Local Government. There are potential regulatory MEDIUM-TERM PRIORITIES issues to be resolved – an ease of doing business Recruitment of a market partner and mindset will be required. development of a complete feasibility Māori. For Iwi, this would be a largely commercial study investment, as Māori have no particular historical • Assuming the above assessment generates involvement in this industry. There are potential positive results, complete a poultry meat downstream opportunities, such as grain production. export feasibility study with a particular focus on exploring capital raising options, scale and processing location options, market entry and trade matters and the structure of the likely final business entity. Contributing parties: Members of the original Project Team, EDA, NZTE, MPI.

30 Economic Action Plan

31 Quality Care and Lifestyle for Older People

QUALITY CARE AND LIFESTYLE FOR OLDER PEOPLE

Opportunity This opportunity is a multi-faceted developmental project to address the growing aged population, and to create an opportunity for the town of Levin and potentially for other towns in the region. It does not involve extension of existing local industries, as might be the case in areas of agriculture, but instead it involves a basic rethinking of how services are delivered to older people in a community setting. It addresses the quality and cost of ageing and how to make it more accessible for New Zealand, for the local community and the individuals involved. It is an idea that has been germinating internationally for some years, especially in Western European countries. Effectively, Horowhenua is putting itself forward to pioneer these developments and from that, to gain first-mover advantage.

The opportunity is: This is a ‘quality of life’ opportunity and that’s its primary Quality of life. To improve the quality of life of older people attraction. It involves integrating older people into by ensuring they participate in relevant communities. communities so they can continue as net contributors to the Transformation. To transform Levin (and Horowhenua) into immediate and wider community, in whatever forms that an inclusive lifestyle centre specialising in innovation for might take, well beyond retirement age. Their physical and living, while embracing an increasing population of ageing mental capacity is maintained through the use of design and residents from within and outside the region. technology to adapt their living environment – the house, shopping areas, and social spaces – to changes in their Improve household income. In so doing, boosting household capacity as they age. By close engagement with a ‘normal’ incomes and employment in and around the town. community, older people can maintain meaning in their Create a prototype. To develop a pilot location from which lives and a positive outlook through contribution to the to prototype the concept and roll it out across other parts of community around them. the region (e.g. Whanganui and Palmerston North). In this way, the public cost of their care is minimised as it is turned from largely ‘a cash draw from Government’ to Initial success for the programme will be in the building of one more characterised by greater cooperative support in a community-based models (prototypes) of care and their community setting and the use of emerging technologies. introduction into the day-to-day living context of an average- The ageing story of Levin is not solely about ageing. It sized rural town – Levin. This, or parts of it, could later be is about building an inclusive community for all ages on extended into the mainstream community throughout the many dimensions – house and shelter, information and region and beyond. communication, sustenance and nutrition, mobility and Ageing in contemporary society provides a challenge and accessibility, personal growth and fulfilment, health and an opportunity. The challenge is the growing pressure on wellbeing and social and cultural. It involves an option a younger generation of taxpayers to meet the health and for older people in the mainstream inter-generational welfare costs of a rapidly ageing population. The opportunity, community, rather than in purpose-built institutions. besides providing a better experience for those ageing, The indicators of success could include: higher disposable is that services for older people represent a significant income, profitable local businesses, meaningful cost savings business development prospect for a town or community for Government, increased life expectancy and increased like Levin. regional happiness. For older people it could mean extended

32 Economic Action Plan

professional services, better services and facilities and either already available or close to being available. There is greater accessibility to services. strong investment into new technologies by multinational companies who recognise the growing need, and those While this opportunity does not lend itself to the analysis spoken to like the idea of developing and refining new applied to others, the building blocks of success tell their technologies in a ‘live environment’. The key to success will own story. Strong leadership is available through the be evolving a public/private partnership that shares as much Horowhenua District Council. Support from related agencies of the cost as possible with the private sector. is also strong. Initial support from private sector innovators is positive and many of the technologies required are

The building blocks for success

SUCCESS A systematic public/private approach and long-term view is established, together with connection to international partners.

Leadership and Natural and Cultural Connection Labour Ambition Assets Levin is well-connected There are indications of Positive and committed Levin is ideally suited. and well-located. Public accessible labour – more support from Horowhenua agency interoperability is required. District Council and will require improvement. government agencies.

Market Capital Knowledge The nature of the market is not yet Public and private investment is New technologies are well understood. required. Availability is, as yet, under-developed. unknown.

Providing strong foundation Requires more development

Challenges Conservatism. This idea is ahead of its time and will require clear articulation to gain support.

Fragmented approach to aged care. There are complex personal and competitive pressures in this field. Greater emphasis on integration will be required.

On-going local government mandate. The idea rests heavily on local government leadership.

Lack of digital connection. This as much about smart homes and connectivity to medical and aged care support as it is about coverage or speed of the internet.

33 Quality Care and Lifestyle for Older People

Leadership and Investment In parallel to this, the Horowhenua District Council would The leadership for this opportunity is presently coming develop a spatial plan – with this, in turn, being incorporated from the Horowhenua District Council. To succeed, many into its District Plan. stakeholders are vital: the Ministry of Health, the District Health Board, the Ministry of Social Development and the aged care industry. ‘In principle’ support will not be enough.

This is clearly a public and private enterprise exercise, as both sectors will benefit. It must have a strong commercial dimension and it must be designed in a way that attracts companies operating in the innovation and lifestyles spaces INVESTMENT to take this opportunity, and to use this ‘shop-window’, to display their wares. It must also have a willing community – Business. The attraction of commercial money will Levin provides that. enable Levin to be the ‘pilot town’ for the future.

It would likely be best led by a multi-party governance Central Government. The attraction for public structure, perhaps a trust or a limited partnership, with investors will be potential care costs averted, public and private members. transferred or substituted.

This project will move through many phases. At present it Local Government. This represents a genuine is at an ‘ideas creation and conception’ phase. It will then opportunity to raise household incomes and build move to a feasibility phase where the viability of ideas can a local business capability. be tested for their operability. From there it will move to a Māori. There are a lot of synergies for Māori in terms ‘planning and delivery’ phase. of values and current care models. The investment spectrum will change through each of these phases. Although, particularly in the early stages, there will be a significant public investment need, commercial providers must be in the picture from the start so that the long-term interest can be built into the solutions. The first investment is to develop a robust Master Plan to guide subsequent action.

If the Master Plan is supported, a further early investment would be in the creation of an ‘Innovation Hub’ – perhaps guided by a ‘Living Innovation Trust’. This would be the centre-point of the programme. It would involve commercial and public partners acting as an overall body to project- manage the programme. The hub would be the milieu from which the project would emerge. The initial funders could be the Horowhenua District Council, central government, innovators, universities and commercial investors.

For the local Whānau Ora providers, this opportunity could provide a model that supports development of cross- generational Papakāinga housing and family units – living together to benefit from the many opportunities that arise from living inter-generationally as whānau. The model could be developed in a way which provides for access to such housing. Māori also have an interest in investing in retirement and kaumātua homes – in a way which aligns with kaupapa Māori.

34 Economic Action Plan

ACTIONS IMMEDIATE PRIORITIES MEDIUM-TERM PRIORITIES

Create a Master Plan Innovation hub • Collaborate to develop a 10 year ‘Master Plan’ • Following confirmation of the viability of the model exploring the suitability of Levin as a Master Plan and noting the need to further location to invest and test new technologies, develop the physical, cultural, service and spatial planning, skills, facilities, shared support infrastructure required to implement funding (public, private individual financial the proposed new model, the next stage is contributors) (2016-18). Contributing parties: development of an ‘Innovation Hub’. This MoH, Horowhenua District Council, MSD, MBIE would be a centrally located ‘workshop’ for innovation companies (local and international). prototyping and developing operational models (2018 – 2020). Contributing parties: Commercial partners, technology companies, MSD, MBIE, MoH, Horowhenua District Council, social and community housing providers.

Delivery • Developing and delivering projects to apply the prototypes developed by the innovation hub to transform Levin and other suitable towns and cities into affordable and enjoyable places for meeting the quality care and lifestyle needs of aged individuals (2020 and beyond). Contributing parties: Commercial partners, technology companies, MSD, MBIE, MoH, Horowhenua District Council.

35 Business Process Outsourcing: Call Centres

BUSINESS PROCESS OUTSOURCING: CALL CENTRES

Opportunity Many of the opportunities identified in this Action Plan rest on natural resources. This opportunity is founded on extended use of human resources. It is also largely urban- based, although it could provide employment for rural people who are prepared to travel.

The foundation is already in place for the contact centre industry in the region – with a number of contact centres of various sizes already operating successfully. The main advantages of the region for this type of activity are the lower costs and the more stable workforce when compared to other regions.30

A concerted effort, with a clearly defined and regionally- unique value proposition, will enable this initial success to be built upon. What will come out of this opportunity will be directly proportional to the effort put in. It is a diversification opportunity which fills employment gaps in the regional economy.

The clearly defined value proposition associated with the promotion at Australasian and European conventions in 2016 region’s contact centres now needs to be further sold with a strong ‘lead generation’ focus. throughout Australasia and to other target countries New collateral is being developed to promote the Central through a robust business development project. New Zealand concept. It is clear from industry trends that contact centres work best in areas with lower overheads The opportunity is: than those experienced in larger cities – particularly when Growth. Double the size of the contact centre industry in the this is accompanied with offers of an available and stable 31 Manawatū-Whanganui region. workforce – hence the ideal strategic growth areas for these Earnings. Attract international operations and grow the are in provincial New Zealand. volume of overseas earnings contributed to the New Zealand The Project Team who explored this opportunity suggested and regional economies. the region will need to have a robust talent development Spill-over. Leverage spill-over business benefits in programme in place to continually grow the numbers and training and skill development and in digital and software quality of the contact centre talent pool, with the longer- developments. term objective of creating a ‘Centre of Excellence’.

Centre of excellence. Develop and add value to the current Considering the building blocks of success, penetration of ‘Manawatū Contact Centre Cluster’ as an internationally the market is the key challenge. Most other building blocks recognised sector ‘Centre of Excellence’ and as the priority are strongly positive. The fact is, this is a highly competitive location for new contact centre investment. industry because of the low cost of entry. Building comparative advantage is difficult. The advantages of the region lie in long- Jobs. Secure new jobs, especially for secondary income, for a term service and security of operation, low staff churn and large base of families in the region. the build-up of skills.

A central New Zealand attraction campaign is underway. , Manawatū and Hawke’s Bay economic development agencies and NZTE are working together well on this. A work plan is in place for this year. This includes

36 Economic Action Plan

The building blocks for success

SUCCESS The size of the contact centre industry is doubled.

Natural and Labour Connection Capital Knowledge Cultural Assets Available, Established Low capital Established Located close competitive cost technical requirements. capability and to main centres. and low churn. infrastructure. business practice English-speaking. in the region.

Leadership and Ambition Market Strong leadership will be a continuing need. A growing market but difficult to penetrate at scale. Active investment in marketing is required.

Providing strong foundation Requires more development

Challenges Competition from other NZ regions. Achieving a critical mass will make the region more competitive. This will require consistent effort and investment in marketing and incentives.

Limits to labour availability. For immediate demand, labour is available. Industry training providers like UCOL and Massey University could help build longer-term capacity once immediately available labour is absorbed.

International currency movements. The closer the ‘Kiwi’ dollar comes to parity with the ‘Aussie’ dollar, the less competitive the NZ product becomes. Quality becomes important as a differentiator.

37 Business Process Outsourcing: Call Centres

Leadership and Investment Institutional arrangements are already in place. The Lead agency is Vision Manawatū. Co-leaders are the Manawatū Contact Centre Cluster, local councils and NZTE. Other parties include industry training and service providers. INVESTMENT

Business. Businesses are looking for incentives to come to the region and that may be what makes the difference, especially at the initial attraction stage. The mindset needs to move toward selecting the region because of its competitive advantage as an investment opportunity.

Central Government. Establishment of market development costs are beyond local capacity and require central government support.

Local Government. The capacity to provide incentives and initial marketing support equity is vital.

Māori. There is already iwi interest in this opportunity.

38 Economic Action Plan

ACTIONS IMMEDIATE PRIORITIES MEDIUM-TERM PRIORITIES

Customer ‘lead generation’ Project execution and expanded reach • Sustain, expand, support and generally • Give further consideration to the employment of contribute to the success of the marketing a Contact Centre Specialist to help lead project efforts of the ‘Lower North Island Contact Centre and attraction activity. Development of a pilot Cluster’– with a particular focus toward the facility for use by potential customers and further Australian and UK markets (2016 and beyond). development of the Lower North Island Contact Contributing parties: Members of the current Centre value proposition – with an emphasis ‘Lower North Island Contact Centre Cluster’, toward quantifying all points of assistance NZTE, EDAs and associated territorial local which would help new contact centre businesses authorities. to get established (2016/17). Contributing parties: Members of the current ‘Lower North Grow talent pool Island Contact Centre Cluster’, NZTE, EDAs and • Allocate 86 training places to beneficiaries associated territorial local authorities. for potential inclusion in call centre and administration training programmes and align these programmes to meet sector demand throughout the year (2016 – being implemented now). Contributing parties: MSD.

39 Business Process Outsourcing: Food HQ

BUSINESS PROCESS OUTSOURCING: FOOD HQ

Opportunity The proposition that New Zealand needs to add (and extract) more value from its agricultural assets and expertise is a mantra frequently expressed, and is much easier to express than to execute. The Food HQ opportunity creates the possibility of developing and applying New Zealand-created IP for the benefit of New Zealand companies. However, New Zealand is a small market which struggles to source sufficient demand and investment to drive the scale of research and science required.

Food HQ, a collaboration of a range of research organisations, considers this is best achieved by operating in both a domestic and international market in parallel, so their first priority is to attract R&D business from multi-national food companies who can see the benefit of outsourcing science and research-based capability. Some of the most important and quantifiable goals within the Food HQ vision are to double its scientists, researchers and students to 4,000 – while attracting significant revenue in international food R&D.

Food HQ wants to be known for world class R&D work. It can see the benefits of using established local capability and capacity as an ‘outsource’ offering to international companies. If this capability can then be turned to driving performance across the opportunities identified in this Action Plan, then everyone wins.

The opportunity is: Early achievements have already been made. Proliant, an Multi-national. Accelerate multi-national food company R&D innovation company out of the US has set up in Manawatū through Food HQ to $20 million by 2020. and connected itself to Food HQ. What is now required for Food HQ is to use its significant scientific ‘heft’ and skills to Investment in R&D. Increase the volume of capital invested grow itself more effectively, and thereby grow businesses into R&D production facilities in the region. and capability in the economy of the region and the nation. Jobs. Increase the number of new R&D jobs in the region.

Spill-over. Create spill-over into other related industries. Challenges Food HQ offers an excellent regional and national growth Innovation. Drive a higher level of innovation regionally. opportunity over the medium to long-term. Its founding goals are ambitious and strategically important, but such an For Accelerate25, Food HQ represents an opportunity expansive ambition faces significant challenges: and an enabler. As an opportunity it has the potential to Addressing a challenging international market. The Project generate internationally-sourced revenue, jobs and business Team proposes the immediate solution of employing a specialist opportunities. As an enabler it can contribute to other marketing person connecting direct to multi-nationals. regional and national businesses with a level of sophistication not currently available. Partner collaboration. The partners are familiar with the contestable funding environment in NZ which pitches The challenge is how to get there in what is a very ambitious organisations against each other. Collaboration is difficult in programme. this climate.

40 Economic Action Plan

The building blocks for success

SUCCESS A clear and compelling strategy, operational integration and governance are secured.

Labour Natural and Cultural Knowledge Connection There is considerable Assets Considerable knowledge Both technical and existing capability. There is a strong culture of resources are available professional connections Further development research and achievement to Food HQ through its are strong. would be beneficial. in the region. partners.

Market Capital Leadership and Ambition Penetration of the outsourcing Establishment capital is an These are new challenges and market requires a major effort. immediate challenge. governance is the key.

Providing strong foundation Requires more development

The apparent complexity of New Zealand’s science system. There is an opportunity to create a convenient and hassle- free single-point-of-entry mechanism for accessing New Zealand’s innovation capability, i.e. to see distinct advantage in using Food HQ as the efficient gateway. INVESTMENT Domestic customers. The lack of scale of New Zealand food companies makes it difficult for Food HQ to operate solely Business. This is the customer sector. with the domestic market. Customers need to understand the value proposition and invest their business with Food HQ. Leadership and investment Central Government. Food HQ does not currently Food HQ will inevitably be a complex organisation with a have the resources to undertake the massive market varied matrix of relationships – both inward and outward. penetration action required, alone. Central government It requires a solid leadership core with a clear mission – and assistance is vital. that is currently emerging. Important national relationships include: NZTE, MBIE, MPI and the Callaghan Foundation. Local Government. The scale of the ambitions Important regional relationships include: local authorities, of Food HQ are well beyond the capacity of local Building Clever Companies, and EDAs. government, but facilitating the ease of doing business for Food HQ and its partners is vital. Beyond those relationships are the private sector relationships – both domestic and especially international – Māori. Maori are significant food producers with which will be the basis of the business of the future. increasing international connections. Indigenous foods are a potential area for R&D. Expansion of the number of regional, national and international Food HQ clients will require investment of extra ‘brain power’ and funding by all parties.

41 Business Process Outsourcing: Food HQ

ACTIONS IMMEDIATE PRIORITIES

Client exemplar • Provide co-funding to accelerate the R&D activity of Proliant in New Zealand. (Food HQ is now engaging with Proliant to determine what the next research project is likely to be). (2016 – Implemented). Contributing parties: Proliant, Food HQ, MBIE.

Improve market penetration • Provide co-funding to identify and secure a specialist multi-national company engagement resource. This will allow Food HQ to achieve better market penetration and build connections with multi-national companies and organisations. Contributing parties: Food HQ, MBIE.

Leadership and specialist resources • Further develop the ‘compelling value proposition’ and related information needed to better target and foster the higher levels of partner collaboration and specialist resources required to ensure an on-going pipeline of large scale Food HQ projects (2016/17). Contributing parties: Food HQ, MBIE.

Refreshed strategic plan • Refresh the current Food HQ Strategic Plan with an emphasis toward assessing and drawing from the comparative success of other models, ensuring higher levels of productive and lasting collaboration between partners and other matters required to support development of a new ‘Strategic Plan’ – including details about how the Strategy would be implemented and supported (2016/17). Contributing parties: MBIE, Programme Director and Board of Food HQ, representatives from Accelerate25.

42 Economic Action Plan

43 Fresh Vegetables

FRESH VEGETABLES

Opportunity “Fresh” is a powerful word when marketing food, closely followed by the word “safe”. These two drivers are ever-more important in markets where fresh and safe are the exception rather than the rule, as is the case in many Asian markets.

New Zealand, because of its location, is challenged in any fresh market, but logistics and technology have revolutionised supply in recent decades.

The potential GDP gains from this opportunity could be significant because of its intensive nature. It would supply eight jobs for every 1% increase in the regional industry’s output.

The region is good at growing vegetables. It has a long history of successful cultivation and has significant areas of high quality class 1 and class 2 soils (over 25,000 hectares and 150,000 hectares respectively).

With a saturated domestic market, the only real further opportunity for vegetable growers in the region is export. International markets are large and growing, and there are opportunities to provide fresh products to them, however, The opportunity is: there are significant barriers, particularly for individuals or Productivity. Use the fertile and versatile land of the region groups of small operators. more productively.

At present, the industry in the region is largely focused on Confidence and increased job opportunities. Helping the domestic market. This has driven a farmer mind-set, growers to prosper – more than they are at present – and with notable exceptions, towards producing traditional providing them with a base of business to feel more confident products rather than testing international markets for new about employing more staff. and different products. Despite some consolidation, many Support and unlock. Supporting training programmes growers are supplying individual markets and suffering from producing trained talent for the emerging industry and the problem of small scale – being ‘picked off’. further unlocking the potential of Māori land holdings. The bad experiences that this has produced have resulted in Diversification and stabilisation. Providing the catalyst for a ‘gun-shy’ regional industry. the agri-economy to diversify and stabilise and for spill-over Workshops with growers, convened as part of building the industries to profit as the horticulture industry flourishes. case for this opportunity, noted that success will depend on:

• Establishing committed market partners. To give an indication of the scale of change contemplated, it is envisaged that if this opportunity is fully embraced, • Securing strong supply chain support for vegetable fresh vegetable production in the region will double by 2025. growing. This growth of production will, in the main, be exported. • Incrementally growing the scale of the opportunity at a Being labour intensive, it will attract new jobs, although pace which matches risk appetite, grower interest and production at scale will also attract increased capital market demand. investment in mechanisation to keep costs at a minimum. • Aligning with associated food products, possibly under a Central New Zealand brand.

44 Economic Action Plan

The building blocks for success

SUCCESS A willingness to take on the export challenge at scale is secured.

Natural and Cultural Labour Connection Knowledge Assets Indications are that there While there are some This is a long-established This is a fertile area with is available labour. issues of rural broadband industry with industry a great climate. availability, they are not knowledge. serious.

Market Leadership and Ambition Capital There is latent international There is a lack of confidence and There is limited capital in the demand but limited engagement an unwillingness to take risks. industry for major land use from growers. changes or greater industry scale.

Providing strong foundation Requires more development

Challenges Certainty of supply. Supply is critical for export partners. A planned and sequential approach. There is a logical The commitment and ability of growers to ‘scale up’ sequence of steps the region, central government and production in accord with a clear development plan (or at growers should follow to make this opportunity successful. least having the clear capacity to do so) will be fundamental The first step is to build regional grower appetite for to progressing this opportunity. exporting. This step is fundamental. Without a higher level of local enthusiasm and support, other proposed actions are unlikely to generate meaningful results.

Market scanning. A market scanning exercise will more clearly identify the export potential of the sector. It is possible that the staples of current regional vegetable production need to change, possibly quite significantly, as a result of market information. This will best succeed if all concerned adopt a fundamental paradigm shift from production to a market-driven way of thinking.

Logistics. The highly perishable nature of fresh vegetables makes exporting very challenging – there is a range of difficult logistics and scale issues to overcome. Investments in the supply chain will be required, although existing channels are well developed at this point.

Export market development. It is recognised that the first important step is to have market partners who commit with resources and potential cross-investment. This will enable the business to be developed as the product ‘earns’ market share through a well planned and executed supply programme.

45 Fresh Vegetables

Leadership and investment

The building blocks diagram (previous page) illustrates the importance of clear and committed leadership. This is not obvious at this point from the industry. Perhaps there is a INVESTMENT role here for the Horowhenua District Council’s economic development agency. Obviously, growers should be involved Business. The investment capacity of individual from Horowhenua, Rangitīkei and Ohakune, and should farmers is limited. Whether cooperative or include those from the Māori vegetable growers cooperative. consortium structures would offer more capacity Other agencies that will need to support this initiative needs to be considered. include: Horizons Regional Council, HortNZ, NZTE/MBIE and Ruapehu and Rangitīkei District Councils. Central Government. Market access using NZTE and MFAT is important, but investment in an initial Vegetable growing is a private sector-based initiative. marketing programme is likely to help the local A collaborative approach in partnership with a strong industry over its capital deficit. wholesale/market facing exporter, is required. Local Government. Horowhenua and Ruapehu District Councils will be critical in providing drive and leadership. Māori. This is an opportunity for iwi. With incorporations in the area the potential is significant. There are also employment opportunities.

ACTIONS IMMEDIATE PRIORITIES MEDIUM-TERM PRIORITIES Pilot market development programme Market study tour • Empower a group of leading vegetable growers to • Assuming grower interest is confirmed as being engage with potential market partners, wholesalers ‘ready and willing’, develop a business case for export and other supply chain logistic experts to define assistance for a market study tour covering target a programme of activities – including a market markets for the purpose of developing relationships exploration pilot to identify the vegetable products with potential market partners and to learn more for which there is secure market demand (2016/17). about how to avoid in-market pitfalls (2017/18). Contributing parties: Members of a core vegetable Contributing parties: Core group of leading and growing group, EDAs, NZTE. innovative growers, EDAs, NZTE. Securing an in-market partner • Consider a business case for business assistance to secure an appropriate exporter and or an in-market partner (2017/18). Contributing parties: Core group of leading and innovative growers, EDAs, NZTE.

FUTURE PRIORITIES Brand and provenance • Further develop a brand reflecting the provenance of the region and providing a base for expanding the scale and attractiveness of regional-sourced vegetable produce to market partners (2018/19). Contributing parties: EDA staff, NZTE, and a core group of leading and innovative growers.

46 Economic Action Plan

47 Te Pae Tata: Realising Māori Potential

TE PAE TATA: REALISING MĀORI POTENTIAL

Opportunity The Māori population in the region is 21% compared to the national average of 16%. Māori in Manawatū-Whanganui are a youthful and growing populace (around 50,000 Māori), Ko te pae tawhiti, whāia kia tata, with high rates of education, but lower qualifications when ko te pae tata, whakamaua kia tīna. compared to non-Māori, with around 15,800 Māori employed in the region and 29% of Māori owning their own home. Seek out the distant horizons, while

Within the region there is a wide mixture of Māori enterprise cherishing those on the near horizon. and some notably successful ventures, both by private Dr Whakaari Rangitākuku Metekingi individuals and especially through Māori incorporations.32 Successful incorporations have worked closely with other partners to leverage their success. Māori want to participate in regional growth and Māori development in diverse ways – as partners, facilitators, investors and as business people.

In short, there are clear examples of what success can look like. Māori are actively pursuing economic development among their people, enterprises and lands. They are doing this from an indigenous perspective, with a distinctive resource base and under unique constraints. Building Māori capability to pursue entrepreneurship, innovation and business opportunities. This base will foster collaboration business is important, alongside an equal focus on land and generate development that is integrated and enduring. development. Māori are already networked across the region and skilled Māori view successful business and economic development in creating relationships for purposes of mutual benefit. as reflecting the integration of social, cultural, economic, There are multiple collaborations that various Māori entities environmental and spiritual wellbeing for the purpose of could build sub-regionally, regionally, nationally and realising human potential and environmental sustainability. internationally – across Māori and indigenous networks – to Success for Māori encompasses oranga tangata (human advance their business enterprises. Māori can also bring wellbeing), oranga whenua (wellbeing of the land), oranga these skills to building business networks with non-Māori for wairua (spiritual wellbeing), and oranga whānau (family mutual benefit. wellbeing) and endurance between generations. Success in particular areas will be confirmation of the Māori have many advantages to help secure their business business case for the further development of a number of and economic success. The business model resonates opportunities which do not fall clearly into the opportunities strongly with many target markets nationally and globally, previously identified in this Action Plan. These include: and is intrinsically sustainable. The cultural basis to their • Surf Clams: The particular attributes of the ‘Wild West’ business gives Māori a unique branding position within of the Manawatū-Whanganui contribute to the sectors where they operate. flavour and size of West Coast Surf Clams when compared Te Pae Tata expects that the Māori world view will be central to other clams produced internationally. Surf Clam to Māori businesses. The holistic nature of the business harvesting, processing and export is an opportunity for model being used will contribute to Māori competitive Māori to create sustainable business and employment advantage within sectors. Māori businesses will be known opportunities. Access to quota has already been secured for building capabilities, sustainable use of the environment, by Iwi in the region. being innovative and adaptive, and being reflective of te Ao • Glass Eels: The opportunity associated with Glass Eels Māori. Success – as defined in Te Pae Tata – is founded on involves the farming of New Zealand Short-fin Eels for establishing a critical base for making positive differences to whānau wellbeing by securing increased employment and

48 Economic Action Plan

export to high value consumers in Japan and China. Māori The opportunity is: are currently looking to pursue this opportunity but need Community. Building enterprise on the basis of community is to extensively research, further develop and confirm particularly strong in the tourism industry where community sustainable ways to do this. and cultural values are compelling.

• Māori food, beverage and natural products: Food Partnership. Partnership enterprise is a common and consumption trends are moving towards a preference successful model for Māori. for locally-sourced whole-foods and towards traceability, Assets. There are significant land and cultural assets available. so that people can identify where their kai is from. Producing Māori food and other natural health products Connections. Connection into existing industries provides is an opportunity to leverage local knowledge, capability support and logistics, which in turn creates opportunities for and capacity. Māori have an interest in exploring this scale by integrating different land parcels and supply chain further, possibly in association with Food HQ. elements.

• Harakeke (New Zealand Flax): There is a growing Māori. Building business based upon an integrated awareness of how native plants and remedies have development model creates a competitive advantage, as positive effects on health and wellbeing. There is also a well as having returns to human development and resource growing interest by Māori in using traditional knowledge sustainability. to further commercial opportunities, as well as an adjunct to tourism. This Action Plan connects Māori enterprise into opportunities while also supporting Māori enterprise in its own right where it is feasible and manageable.

49 Te Pae Tata: Realising Māori Potential

The building blocks for success

SUCCESS The ethic of Māori is connected into mainstream economic development opportunities to build Māori businesses, employment, skills and well-being and to support integrated development.

Labour Natural and Cultural Capital Knowledge Local communities Assets With the prospect of In farming generally have capacity and a Both assets are treaty settlements, and cultural areas, iwi willingness to pursue strongly represented capital is becoming knowledge is high. More enterprise. in Māoridom. available for research is needed development. to confirm particular ventures.

Market Connection Leadership and Ambition Many Māori enterprises are not Many Māori communities and Ambition is strong – scale, adequately connected to a market. enterprises are not well digitally courage, integration, research, connected. comparative advantage and talent/skill development require on-going focus.

Providing strong foundation Requires more development

Success can be measured by: Challenges Employment. Proportionate increases in employment of Cultural appropriation. Concerns have been identified about Māori at all levels of the workforce across all sectors in cultural misappropriation, loss of control and misuse of the region. Māori culture and cultural icons. To overcome this concern,

Professional employment roles. Proportionate movement of it is essential that partners in collaborative ventures with Māori workforce from labouring to professional disciplines. Māori understand Māori, and allow Māori to lead the process of determining solutions to issues of cultural appropriation. More SMEs. Proportionate increases in the establishment Cooperation. The involvement of all iwi and hapū is not of new economic opportunities for Māori SMEs and other necessarily assured. To overcome this challenge, all Māori Māori entities. entities should be able to fully engage in the economic Holistic. Sustainability of the environment is an active part development processes across the region and be able to of the brand of Māori business, contributing to its advantage realise the benefits of cooperation. and success. Visibility. Māori are sometimes not as visible as they Tikanga. This influence of tikanga Māori is more closely linked should be in sectors where Māori already work. All actions to business branding. undertaken under Accelerate25 should seek to include Māori Collaboration. Improved number of collaborations between partners. Māori businesses across regions, and more broadly between The special place of marae. While marae have an iwi and central and local government and the private sector. important role to play as a base for sharing understanding Prosperity. Improvement in prosperity for Māori at whānau, of culture, heritage and world views – including use by hapū and iwi levels, e.g. owner-occupied housing is linked to tourists and visitors – there are risks associated with changes in increased employment and business successes. their “commercialised” use. Marae trustees will need to be supported in their decision making about marae use New markets and new products. The reach and impact for with business advice covering both the advantages and Māori businesses is measured by the number of Māori-owned product lines within existing or new markets.

50 Economic Action Plan

disadvantages of the commercial and non-commercialisation Leadership and investment roles they will play. Māori in the region have organisational structures and Capability and capacity. The challenge of realising Māori skilled leadership that are both being leveraged to create the potential often falls on a few individuals. With the current momentum for Māori to realise their potential.34 level of capacity, it will be important to continue to build the capability of people through current programmes The compelling final step to create vision will come with the and potentially to have these delivered through different launch of Te Pae Tawhiti. Although this will operate in parallel models (e.g. whānau ora). Iwi leaders are engaged in treaty to Accelerate25, it will have the benefit of the established settlements, sometimes limiting the time and resources platform of building from Te Pae Tata – that is, the key actions available for economic development. defined here. Te Pae Tawhiti will expect to be given support and resources by central and local government, as well as being Raising capital. Raising capital, especially when utilising supported by Māori in the region. Māori land, is sometimes challenging – although the desire to own land in perpetuity has the advantage of not being solely focused on capital gain. Proposed reforms of Te Ture Whenua may overcome the barriers of raising capital.

51 Te Pae Tata: Realising Māori Potential

ACTIONS IMMEDIATE PRIORITIES

Tourism (boutique) Skills, training and work experience • Assess and assist to develop specific tourism venture • Provide long-term job seekers with the opportunity to business cases in the Whanganui river area (2016/17). gain work experience in a not-for-profit or business Contributing parties: TPK, iwi, RTOs, EDAs and district organisation for six months, and, where possible, support councils. the transition of these placements toward sustainable employment (2016/17). Contributing party: Contributing Land and water use optimisation parties: UCOL, Whanganui District Council, Te Puna • Investigate ways of utilising Māori freehold land Mātauranga o Whanganui and TPK. to optimise sustainable natural resource use and • Support iwi to plan for and apply long-term development development, through the development of business programmes which build financial literacy as a critical cases that provide for the close cooperation of adjacent skill base for whānau. This will help develop SMEs and landholdings to enhance the viability of a commercial the governance of iwi enterprise in partnership with venture, and preparing business cases to attract industry, local and central government and a selection investment for commercialisation of other non-farm of secondary schools. The ‘Master Māori Academy of ventures (e.g. tourism and aquaculture ventures). Science Programme’ will advance Māori capability across (2016/17). Contributing parties: Māori land owners, science disciplines (2016/17). Contributing parties: TPK, tourism and aquaculture venture leaders, TPK, MPI. iwi and others.

Mānuka honey Growing Business • Support business cases that provide for Māori land • Continue to promote the Māori Business Facilitation owners to optimise their involvement in Mānuka honey Service as a means of assisting Māori/iwi to build their ventures (2016/17). Contributing parties: Māori land general capability and business acumen – including owners, TPK, Horizons and MPI. advice on accessing financial support/capital for their enterprises (2016/17). Contributing party: TPK.

• Provide resources to complete the regional Māori Economic Development Strategy – Te Pae Tawhiti (2016/17). Contributing party: TPK.

52 Economic Action Plan

ENABLERS OVERVIEW For the purposes of this discussion, the opportunity sections of this Action Plan should be regarded as leadership statements. They specify where the opportunity could be taken, based on their potential and current circumstances. The enablers, on the other hand, are dependencies — the most critical dependencies. Without enablers operating effectively, leadership and delivery of the opportunities will be significantly compromised.

53 Enablers

GROWING BUSINESS ENABLER ACTIONS IMMEDIATE PRIORITIES This enabler recognises that for all the opportunities identified in this Action Plan, the most basic unit – the Tourism and other start-up businesses atom in the molecule – is ‘small business’. Without people • Seek additional business engagement with the willing and able to initiate and undertake business, many Regional Business Partner Programme39 and of the opportunities identified in this Action Plan would be provide them with support to innovate and grow impossible to achieve.35 (2016/17 and beyond). Contributing parties: NZTE, interested businesses, EDAs.36 Despite all of the current support mechanisms, a number of key requirements remain: Advanced farmer discussion groups Clear governance. This involves providing access to • Design and test the effectiveness of the transfer specialist knowledge and advice within a company. of knowledge and information between members Demonstrable strategic capability. This involves assisting to of a small number of new style farmer discussion provide a strong sense of where a company is going and what groups (2016/17 and beyond). Contributing it is seeking to achieve – often with the help of good external parties: MPI, Beef + Lamb NZ, Federated Farmers advice. and selected sheep and beef farmers drawn from a geographic spread throughout the Manawatū- Comparative data. This is the vital mechanism for a business Whanganui region. owner to compare their performance with other comparable businesses and to learn from the experience.

Knowledge and application of today’s tools. This is the opportunity for businesses to build or refresh their web- based presence and capacity, and to be aware and apply today’s human resources and health and safety and related expectations.

Understanding “market”. This involves focusing on the customer as much as the production. MEDIUM-TERM PRIORITIES

Accelerated support for 25 targeted companies in the region • Draw upon the current ‘Better by Design’ focus-group work to further develop the idea of including a rolling roster of 25 targeted companies in a customised performance improvement programme with the long-term objective being the establishment of a well- developed and strongly supported approach (2016/17 and beyond). Contributing parties: NZTE, regional EDAs, the Chamber of Commerce and other interested regional parties.

54 Economic Action Plan

SKILLS AND TALENT ENABLER ACTIONS IMMEDIATE PRIORITIES The region has an enviable record of labour market growth.37 However, upskilling the workforce is a constant requirement Mānuka honey production and more so with the implementation of the range of • Work with the apiculture industry to develop opportunities in this Action Plan. This enabler lies at the an Apiculture Workforce Strategy (2016/17). heart of many of the opportunities. The real challenge is in Contributing parties: MPI, Apiculture NZ, UCOL/ the delivery. At some point all opportunities that involve WDC/Te Puna Mātauranga o Whanganui. a need for significant skills enhancement may need to undertake some form of “skills formation” analysis. This is an Pathways for students to connect from industry-driven, public-sector engaged process, associated education to employment with defining the skills required for the opportunity sector, • Invite participation in the recently announced relating these to the future opportunities and then making Primary Sector Scholarships programme appropriate links to effective training providers. generated from ‘Talent Central’s Pathways’ There are a number of key characteristics required in skills, led by ‘Mayors Taskforce for Jobs’ (2016/17). training and talent development programmes: Contributing parties: MBIE, MoE, MPI, Mayors Taskforce for Jobs, Manawatū District Council. Flexibility. Classroom training has limited relevance to evolving sectors, particularly in remote areas such as those in the tourism industry or hill country. Instead, more flexible Training programmes suited to Quality on-the-job training is required. Care and Lifestyle for Older People • Work with training providers to tailor training Digital. Online training where individuals can pick up programmes in a way that suits the proposed instructional programmes or resources will be in higher new ‘Quality Care and Lifestyle’ model (2016/17). demand. Contributing parties: MSD in conjunction with Local workforce. A purpose of several of the opportunities MoH, Howowhenua District Council and training such as tourism is to provide employment to local providers. populations in areas where employment is limited. This can often be difficult to achieve because of the incompatibility between skills and requirements.

Multi-tasking. Many emerging industries require people capable of undertaking multiple tasks and able to deal with the changing nature of the work environment. MEDIUM-TERM PRIORITIES

Training programmes suited to sheep and beef farming • Identify gaps, priorities and content for industry training – noting that some of the skills and capability development could be considered under the Tertiary Education Training programme (2017/18). Contributing parties: MPI, regional farming leaders, primary sector service industry and the Primary Sector ITO.

55 Enablers

DISTRIBUTION AND TRANSPORT Palmerston North is a major intersection requiring more ENABLER investment in streamlined transport movement. Palmerston North is at the centre of rail and road networks which go toward all four points of the compass. This intersection of The infrastructure of connection between people, goods, multi modal and large product and traffic volumes must be services and markets is critical to the realisation of all as well designed and efficient as possible. Inefficiency makes opportunities. If this runs smoothly and speedily in a region, the cost of moving goods and services bigger than it should then advantage accrues as the comparative input costs of be and contributes to the safety concerns of everyday users, production are reduced. including school children. As noted in the Growth Study, the region has a mature The revitalisation of the Whanganui Port Area will transport network but with specific future requirements: contribute to the economic, environmental and social Efficient and well-serviced hubbing. The region needs wellbeing of the City. The driver behind these proposals is to have the capacity to efficiently collect, package and the need to identify and secure existing and future uses of redistribute product – and in so doing, reduce costs and the port area – including upgrading Wharf One. Investment increase the speed associated with getting products to will secure the use of this area as a coastal shipping location market, when compared to other international suppliers. and will provide a more extensive area for small boat Scalability of operations. The region needs the capacity to construction, refit services and recreational boat storage. expedite road infrastructure investment decision-making The city has a competitive advantage in providing this type when the contributions to the economy justify this. This of service. To confirm the value of this development, a includes the potential to take advantage of the interest in feasibility study is required to assess the potential, uses, ‘rail tourism’ to convey an increased number of tourists to participants and their requirements, risks, spatial planning, the Tongariro Whanganui area. cost estimates, potential business relationships, priorities and stages. Importance of the primary sector. Access to rural areas for the movement of products such as Mānuka honey, but also for the transport of the more traditional primary sector products such as forestry logs and farm products, is vital. In particular, the transport of the inputs and outputs from sheep and beef farming are a cost with impact on the profitability of hill country farms. In other parts of the region, production opportunities are forsaken because the land in question has no access. Providing access to land-locked land – when economically viable, will open new opportunities.

56 Economic Action Plan

ACTIONS IMMEDIATE PRIORITIES Palmerston North Regional Ring Road • Prepare business case documents as a precursor to Whanganui River Marine Precinct and Port Area giving further consideration to investment in projects Revitalisation Project contributing to the efficiency of the Palmerston North • Generate a ‘Master Plan’ and a parallel ‘Pre-feasibility Ring Road system, including: Kairanga to Bunnythorpe Study: Whanganui Marine Precinct’ (2016/17). Contributing upgrades, Bunnythorpe bypasses, Ashhurst to parties: MBIE will work in partnership with the Whanganui Bunnythorpe upgrades, No 1 Line/Rongotea Road District Council and the Tupoho Whānau Trust. to Longburn upgrades and Manawatū River bridge • Once the ‘Master Plan’ and Pre-feasibility Study is improvements (2016 – 18). Contributing parties: NZTA, satisfactorily concluded, complete a full feasibility Horizons Regional Council Regional Land Transport study and take any other steps which are required to Committee. assist development of this area (2017/18 and beyond). Contributing parties: MBIE will work in partnership with the Rail tourists Whanganui District Council and the Tupoho Whānau Trust. • Undertake a feasibility study to identify the demand for, and marketing opportunities associated with, encouraging more tourism rail access to the Tongariro Whanganui area (2016/17). Contributing parties: Visit Ruapehu, Kiwi Rail, MBIE.

MEDIUM-TERM PRIORITIES

Provide for the transport needs of visitors and Transport hubbing tourists to the Tongariro Whanganui area and • Review the adequacy of transport connectivity to clients of the applied ‘Quality Care and Lifestyle the current range of hubbing locations in Palmerston for Older People’ model North and the Manawatū District and determine what • Give further consideration to the particular transport adjustments may be made to support growth (2016/17). needs associated with tourism. These may be identified Contributing parties: NZTA, EDAs, the Regional Land as other details of the Action Plan are developed, and Transport Committee. clients of the Quality Care and Lifestyle for Older People model, as detailed in the proposed ‘Master Plan’, are developed (2017/18 and beyond). Contributing parties: local government, NZTA.

Study of airfreight volumes from the area • Prepare a proposal to explore options for better satisfying the demand to efficiently transport goods by airfreight from the region (2017/18). Contributing parties: Local authorities from the area.

57 Enablers

DIGITAL CONNECTIVITY ENABLER ACTIONS IMMEDIATE PRIORITIES The digital network is emergent, however, it continues to languish behind what is required to fully support regional Broadband to rural areas opportunities. The key focus areas for digital services in the • Deliver the ‘Rural Broadband Initiative’ to region are: 98 schools and to a further 12 isolated rural schools in the region as part of the ‘Remote Rural connectivity Schools Broadband Initiative’. (2016 -Achieved). Contributing parties: MBIE, local authorities, Land Use Optimisation, Mānuka Honey rural schools. • Cellphone contact is as important as internet contact where operations are taking place in remote areas – such Mobile black spot and broadband coverage as for the production of Mānuka honey and sheep and beef • Roll out the ‘National Rural Broadband’ and farming. ‘Mobile Black Spot Coverage Programme’ (2016/17 • Internet contact is a requirement for hill country farmers to and continuing). Contributing parties: MBIE and participate in productivity discussion groups where they are local authorities. sharing performance information, using farm performance enhancing software and using benchmarking data.

• There is also the need for internet-based training packages for farmers.

Quality Care and Lifestyle for Older People MEDIUM-TERM PRIORITIES • Technology-driven monitoring products for client safety are fundamental to this opportunity. Local authority leadership • Confirm the scale of ‘enablement’ commitment as • Agency inter-operability to supply seamless and timely part of the ‘Ultra-Fast Broadband 2’ process and services will be strongly enabled by digital capability. consider what more can be done to encourage • Social connectivity is also important in this sector, people to use the new and faster broadband such as that achieved through inter-generational family infrastructure and thereby ensure any extra connection. capacity is not wasted (2016/17). Contributing parties: MBIE, local authorities. Tourism and Visitor Industry Connectivity • Many of the outdoor experiences essential to the product offering in the greater Tongariro Whanganui region are in remote areas. Adequate connection is essential for safety, and the efficient marketing and servicing of this business. • Better internet connectivity is likely to encourage FUTURE PRIORITIES more owners of holiday homes in the greater Tongariro Whanganui area to operate their personal businesses while Future investment in rural broadband staying or living in their holiday homes. • Determine how to prioritise investment in the ‘Rural Broadband Initiative ’ Programme While the implementation of digital networks is progressing (2016/17). Contributing parties: MBIE, local at pace around the country, the particular area of deficiency authorities. is in the rural areas. Faster progress in providing better service is vital to achieving the productivity gains that have been identified earlier in this Action Plan.

58 Economic Action Plan

CREATING A BALANCED PORTFOLIO Change in level of Manawatū-Whanganui real GDP ($m) 450 NZIER measured the potential benefits that would arise from 400 384.8 development of five of the opportunities. Those benefits 350 include contribution to regional GDP, regional employment 300 and household income. 250 194.7 The five opportunities were Fresh Vegetables, Poultry Meat 200 Production, Mānuka Honey, Tourism and Visitor Services and 150 100 Sheep and Beef (now part of Land Use Optimisation). 61.3 65.7

Change in real GDP by 2025, GDP by $ millions in real Change 50 23.7 For Mānuka Honey and Sheep and Beef, two calculations 11.8 16.5 0 have been made – one with more ambitious assumptions and Vegetables Poultry Mānuka2 Mānuka Tourism S&B2 S&B the other, less ambitious.

It can be noted that some opportunities, such as tourism, would contribute more to jobs and household incomes, Change in number of jobs in Manawatū-Whanganui (%) whereas Sheep and Beef would contribute more to GDP. 0.50 The Action Plan involves a range of opportunities that 0.45 make different types of contributions, to create a balanced 0.40 portfolio of activity.38 0.30 0.34

0.20 0.16

0.10 0.08 0.04

Change in M-W employment by 2025, by employment % in M-W Change 0.03 0.03 0 Vegetables Poultry Mānuka2 Mānuka Tourism S&B2 S&B

Change in Manawatū-Whanganui household spending ($m)

100 93.7 90 80 70 60 49.3 50

40 32.0 30 20 16.2 10 6.5 8.1 7.0 0 Vegetables Poultry Mānuka2 Mānuka Tourism S&B2 S&B Change in real household spending by 2025, spending by household $ millions in real Change

59 Enablers

ORGANISATIONAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR MOVING FORWARD

The strong common themes emerging in almost all the Plan will not have the necessary foundation to support the opportunities are ‘leadership’ and ‘market’. For some required ‘action’. Connections to the region’s mayors and the opportunities, either or both of these are the vital missing Regional Economic Development (RED) Ministers will be vital. ingredient. For others, they are amongst an important Momentum. Whatever structure is chosen, it must build and cluster of requirements. What is very clear is that this Action sustain the momentum established as part of the process of Plan will only be implemented and successfully concluded developing this Action Plan – for all of the opportunities. if there is strong, aligned leadership from the sub-region to central government and all parts between. Integrity. Respect for the environment, of culture, of communities and of people is critical. The Lead Team has considered the ingredients required for successful organisational arrangements in the relevant Structures sections of each of the opportunities. In this section we In contemplating preferred structural arrangements, look at the broader picture, and raise issues and possible the tasks required need to be specified. Clearly, strong directions for the future, without landing on a final governance is vital. A range of facilitation and management structure. That can be done once the Action Plan is in its tasks will also be required. Integration of the whole implementation phase. operation is another important task. The following organisational elements need to be present: Principles As a first step, we have identified some principles that Programme Leadership. There is a need for a regional should lie behind decisions about future organisational coordinating body of some sort to oversee the whole arrangements. A guiding principle for the whole Action Accelerate25 programme on an on-going basis. This is Plan is a secure public/private connection. A second assumed to be the Lead Team. The Lead Team would need guiding principle is commercialisation – the ability to turn to continue to be the ‘meeting place’ for leadership from opportunity into enterprise. central government, local government, iwi and business.

The principles are presented here, in no particular order Agencies. There is a need for agencies to display an active of priority: willingness to take responsibility for each opportunity. These agencies could be existing entities or purpose-built Commercial. While some opportunities have social and for the task. It is possible, though unlikely, that territorial community dimensions, all are fundamentally commercial local authorities (TLAs) would be the agencies. Examples of in nature and require the involvement of commercial potential agencies could be39: stakeholders from the outset. Within this principle, a focus on ‘market’ is the highest priority. • Economic Development Agencies (EDAs).

Durable. A number of the opportunities identified in the • Trusts. Action Plan will have a horizon of 10 years or longer. Any • Purpose-built entities such as regional hubs. institutional arrangements must have the prospect of • Special entities – such as those identified for potential longevity. future development in the Land Use Optimisation and Connection to local, regional and central government Tourism opportunities. and iwi. The public sector connection is important in all No matter what agency is settled upon, it is vital that it is opportunities, especially in the early stages of development. robust and well-resourced to tackle the challenges involved Gravitas. Several of these opportunities need to have scale and that it combines public and private interests. to truly succeed. Institutional arrangements need to be able Integrator. The Lead Team will require support. It is to support that scale. envisaged that Horizons Regional Council could play the Authority. Any institutional arrangements need to facilitate role of an integrator, working alongside the Lead Team, action and have the power to act, otherwise the Action

60 Economic Action Plan

overseeing the transition of opportunities to agency leadership. Horizons Regional Council may also continue to oversee the monitoring and review of agencies to ensure that they deliver on their commitments. In addition, Horizons Regional Council, together with other local government agencies, would work to identify additional opportunities that may emerge as part of the longer-term roll-out of the Accelerate25 programme.

Action Teams. Action Teams have been a means for the preparation of Action Plans. They are not envisaged as having a life in their current form beyond the completion of the Action Plan, although particular members are likely to become involved in an agency structure to take an opportunity forward.

Mayoral Leadership. It is assumed that the highest regional authority would be what is known locally as the “Regional Chiefs”. The Accelerate25 Programme would be part of the Triennial Agreement which drives regional mayoral leadership.

Transition Arrangements. It is likely at the completion of the Action Plan that not many long-term agency arrangements will be in place. Transitional arrangements may be required.

61 Economic Action Plan

ENDNOTES

1. This has included contributions to work on ‘Realising Māori 22. Ibid. NZIER, 2016. Potential’ led by consultant Dr. Jason Mika from GHA, Rotorua. 23. Wild Mānuka honey is that sourced from in situ indigenous or wild 2. Teams were not used for the enablers. This work was undertaken Mānuka plants. directly by the Programme Directors with engagement with appropriate stakeholders. 24. One of the issues requiring on-going attention is the development of detailed information about the best means to manage Mānuka 3. ‘Hill Country Sheep and Beef Farming –Improving Profitability plants, to maintain long-term flower production as the plant and Productivity in the Manawatū-Whanganui Region – A Report matures. for MPI with a Focus on Exploring the Potential Role of Farmer Discussion Groups,’ HenleyHutchings, 30 April 2016. 25. There is a need to recognise that plantation Mānuka is in its relative infancy as a sector and best practice knowledge will 4. ‘Economic Impact of Manawatū-Whanganui Action Plan Initiatives’, continue to evolve. NZIER, report to HenleyHutchings, May 2016. 26. Growth in New Zealand sourced international honey sales has 5. Grant Davidson, international advisor on new models for the been from about 1% to about 20% of the global market over the delivery of aged care. last five years. Source: UN Comtrade. For further information see page 121 of the Manawatū-Whanganui Growth Study, 2015. 6. The Māori Economic Strategy Group comprises Sir Mason Durie, Pahia Turia and Mavis Mullins, with assistance from Te Puni Kōkiri. 27. Mānuka plantings are already eligible for funding through the Afforestation Grant Scheme, provided they meet defined funding 7. Contributing parties, as referenced in this Plan, are organisations criteria. that are likely to have an important role in implementing an action or actions. Their role is not strictly financial, and could include 28. The goal of this PGP programme is to grow the New Zealand honey contribution of time, support or other resources. industry to $1.2 billion by 2028, by increasing the yield, quality, and reliability of supply of medical-grade and other Mānuka 8. Subject to meeting funding criteria and regulatory requirements honey. The programme aims to shift the industry from wild harvest including any variations which may be required to the Tongariro to science-based farming of Mānuka plantations by combining National Park Management Plan. improved genetics with optimum husbandry practices to enable 9. Provision of funding will be subject to meeting funding criteria and significant productivity gains. regulatory requirements. 29. ‘OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook’, 2015. 10. An example of a track suited to upgrade is that connecting 30. The Growth Study (2015) noted the average cost per seat is around Whakapapa Village and the base of the Tūroa ski-field. 15% lower in New Zealand than Australia. In addition Manawatū- 11. These and the other land use-related numbers used in this Action Whanganui is 35-40% lower than Australia. This is achieved Plan have been provided by Horizons Regional Council. because of lower wage and overhead costs. Staff turnover rates are estimated to be 6-10% in Manawatū-Whanganui when 12. ‘The Secrets of Top-Performing Red Meat Farms’ – a research compared to the 40-50% rate experienced in Auckland and report from ANZ, December 2014 similar rates in large Australian cities. 13. Ibid. NZIER, 2016. 31. This is an extra 1200 seats. This will increase the total number of persons employed in the sector to 2400 by 2020. 14. There are currently no Māori producing sheep dairy in the region, however, there are Māori who own sheep and beef farms that 32. Examples include ‘Prepared Foods’ located in Palmerston North have an interest in diversifying if enough sheep dairy volume was and the highly successful Atihau Whanganui Incorporation based produced to make a processing plant viable. on farming at a number of locations – mostly in the Whanganui River catchment. 15. This information and other needs particularly relate to: feed budgeting, farm infrastructure, fencing, water availability (for 33. There are around 84 Māori authorities employing 330 people in stock and irrigation), optimal fertiliser use, the production the region, as well as a number of other small, medium and large potential of specific soils at a farm level scale of detail and the enterprises. provision of farm employees with a wider range of more advanced skills than those currently available. 34. Those who have led the kaupapa of Te Pae Tata and who will take this forward to Te Pae Tawhiti are Sir Mason Durie and Pahia Turia. 16. Māori are already significant producers of sheep and beef, e.g., They are supported by Mavis Mullins with her business expertise Atihau-Whanganui Incorporation farms 30,000 hectares (21,847 and acumen. hectares effective) and leases another 12,000 hectares. Treaty settlements will bring former Landcorp Farms in the Wairarapa 35. The SME segment makes up 97% of New Zealand businesses – into the hands of iwi. It is therefore viewed by the Lead Team as with a similar percentage in the Manawatū-Whanganui region. imperative that Māori land owners are actively engaged as part of New Zealand is a nation of entrepreneurial thinkers with much the Action Plan information transmission ‘actions’ referenced in action coming from small beginnings. Enterprises with fewer than this report. 20 employees have lower survival rates than larger firms, with roughly a quarter of them dying within three years from 2010. 17. With the assistance of MPI, some water resources investigations A stronger supportive environment for this segment will enable have already been undertaken in the Rangitīkei district. These faster innovation and growth for the wider region. New Zealand investigations identified potential for a rural water supply scheme has 460,000 small-to-medium enterprises (SMEs). Source: for irrigation and stock water in the Tutaenui (north of Marton), ‘Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment’s, 2014 Small utilising the unused water in the existing scheme. Business Sector Report. While perhaps not as clear-cut, similar opportunities are likely to exist in other areas. 36. An additional $8 million was provided to this programme in Budget 2016 for expenditure over the next four years. 18. Provision of funding will be subject to meeting funding criteria and regulatory requirements. 37. 5% growth between 2015 and 2016, MBIE. 19. Provision of funding will be subject to meeting funding criteria and 38. The base year used in the calculations applied by NZIER (2016) to regulatory requirements. generate these graphs is 2015. The performance of the regional economy at 2015 is displayed as ‘0’ in these graphs. 20. This will depend on the level of confirmed farmer interest. 39. Agencies will provide a financial base, commercial expertise 21. Subject to satisfaction of Accelerated Irrigation Fund criteria. and a formal structural format that isn’t currently offered by the Action Teams. 62 ACRONYMS

The following acronyms have been used in this document:

DOC Department of Conservation EDA Economic Development Agency GDP Gross Domestic Product HortNZ Horticulture New Zealand IP Intellectual Property LINZ Land Information New Zealand MBIE Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment

MFAT Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade MoH Ministry of Health MPI Ministry for Primary Industries MSD Ministry of Social Development NZIER New Zealand Institute of Economic Research Inc.

NZP New Zealand Pharmaceuticals NZTA New Zealand Transport Agency NZTE New Zealand Trade and Enterprise PGP Primary Growth Partnership R&D Research and Development RTO Regional Tourism Organisation RED Regional Economic Development SME Small and Medium Sized Enterprise TLA Territorial Local Authority TNZ Tourism New Zealand TPK Te Puni Kōkiri UCOL Universal College of Learning

PHOTO CREDITS

Front cover: Te Puni Kōkiri kapa haka, Te Puni Kōkiri.

Page 9: Craig Robertson, Full Frame Photography, Te Puni Kōkiri.

Page 26: Te Puni Kōkiri and the Māori Business Facilitation Service hosted workshops targeting Māori landowners wanting to learn more about the commercial aspects of the Mānuka honey industry, Erica Sinclair, Te Puni Kōkiri.

Additional imagery: Horizons Regional Council. Horizons Regional Council Private Bag 11025 Manawatū Mail Centre Palmerston North 4442 24hr Freephone: 0508 800 800 Ph: (06) 9522 800 [email protected]

August 2016

Guide to Road Design Part 6A: Paths for Walking and Cycling

Sydney 2017 Guide to Road Design Part 6A: Paths for Walking and Cycling

Second edition prepared by: Peter Aumann and Tony Arnold Publisher Austroads Ltd. Second edition project manager: Gemma Kernich Level 9, 287 Elizabeth Street Sydney NSW 2000 Australia

Abstract Phone: +61 2 8265 3300 The Guide to Road Design Part 6A: Paths for Walking and Cycling provides [email protected] guidance for designers and other practitioners on the design of paths for safe www.austroads.com.au and efficient walking and cycling, both within the road corridor and outside the road corridor. The guide provides information on considerations that should About Austroads be given in providing a path, describes the types of paths and covers the requirements of path users, e.g. operating spaces, factors that influence path Austroads is the peak organisation of Australasian locations, and geometric design criteria for a path and related facilities such road transport and traffic agencies. as intersections between paths, and terminal treatments. Detailed guidance is provided on path location, alignment, width, clearances, crossfall, drainage Austroads’ purpose is to support our member and sight distance requirements. organisations to deliver an improved Australasian road transport network. To succeed in this task, we The location and design of paths may be influenced by a range of aspects undertake leading-edge road and transport that need to be considered and facilities that need to be accommodated within research which underpins our input to policy roadsides. In particular, designers should refer to the Guide to Road Design: development and published guidance on the • Part 6: Roadside Design, Safety and Barriers (Austroads 2010a) design, construction and management of the road • Part 6B: Roadside Environment (Austroads 2015b). network and its associated infrastructure. The design of pedestrian and cyclist paths may also be influenced by design Austroads provides a collective approach that considerations and requirements covered in other parts of the Guide to Road delivers value for money, encourages shared Design. In addition, road designers should also refer to relevant parts of the knowledge and drives consistency for road users. Guide to Traffic Management in relation to traffic management devices and Austroads is governed by a Board consisting of requirements that may need to be accommodated within a roadside or may senior executive representatives from each of its otherwise influence the design. eleven member organisations:

• Roads and Maritime Services New South Wales Keywords • Roads Corporation Victoria Planning, pedestrian paths, bicycle paths, shared paths, separated paths, path user requirements, operating space, location of paths, alignment, • Queensland Department of Transport and Main horizontal curvature, gradient, width, clearance, intersections, fences, terminal Roads treatments, bridges, culverts, bicycle safety audits. • Main Roads Western Australia • Department of Planning, Transport and Published: June 2017 Infrastructure South Australia • Department of State Growth Tasmania ISBN 978-1-925451-75-7 Pages 111 • Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Austroads Project No. TP1848 Logistics Northern Territory Austroads Publication No. AGRD06A-17 • Transport Canberra and City Services Directorate, Australian Capital Territory • Australian Government Department of © Austroads Ltd 2017 Infrastructure and Regional Development This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the • Australian Local Government Association Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without the prior written permission of Austroads. • New Zealand Transport Agency. Second edition published June 2017 First edition published October 2009 The second edition has been restructured and contains editorial and technical changes. The title has been amended to better reflect the information on the functions and types of paths covered in this edition. Updated information and new information have been included with the key changes as follows: • Sections 1 to 4 has been reworded to provide generic information that is relevant for pedestrians and cyclists. • Section 1.1: Universal Access – additional information on providing universal access. • Sections 2.2: Pedestrian Path and 2.3: Bicycle Path – amended to include information on levels of service. • Section 3: Path User Considerations – amended to broaden the range of path user considerations. • Section 3.2.1: Pedestrians – amended to include information on mobility scooters. • Section 5.1: Width of Paths – additional information for path widths based on volumes. • Section 5.7: Sight Distance – additional commentary on pedestrian needs and sight distance and replacement of Figure 7.7 with an equation to determine stopping sight distance. • Section 6.5: Special Treatments for Intersections of Paths with Paths – new section consolidating treatments for special circumstances. • Section 7.3: Treatments for Intersections of Paths with Roads – new information on path terminal treatments. • Section 7.5: Special Treatments for Intersections of Paths with Roads – new section on terminal treatments for special circumstances. • Section 8.3: Culvert Underpasses – new information on principles in providing paths through culverts. • Appendix B: Speed Limiting Treatments – new appendix providing information on speed limiting treatments on paths. • Appendix C.3.1: Bituminous Surface Pavements – additional information on bituminous surfaces. • Appendix C.4: Life Cycle Costing – new section on life cycle costing. • Commentary 1: Planning and Need for a Path – transferred from Section 2 as information relates to network plans and operation.

Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the role and contribution of the Austroads Road Design Task Force in providing guidance and information during the preparation of this Part. The panel comprised the following members: Mr Peter Ellis - Roads and Maritime Services, New South Wales Mr Richard Fanning - Roads Corporation, Victoria Mr Mike Whitehead - Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads Mr Albert Wong - Main Roads Western Australia Mr William Moodie - Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Logistics Northern Territory Mr Ben McHugh - Transport Canberra and City Services Directorate Mr Tony Napoli - Australian Local Government Association Mr James Hughes - NZ Transport Agency Mr Tom Brock - Consult Australia Ms Gemma Kernich - Australian Bicycle Council Mr Michael Tziotis - ARRB Group Ltd The authors would like to acknowledge the support from the City of Sydney and City of Adelaide for providing photographs for this Part.

This Guide is produced by Austroads as a general guide. Its application is discretionary. Road authorities may vary their practice according to local circumstances and policies. Austroads believes this publication to be correct at the time of printing and does not accept responsibility for any consequences arising from the use of information herein. Readers should rely on their own skill and judgement to apply information to particular issues. Guide to Road Design Part 6A: Paths for Walking and Cycling

Contents

1. Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Purpose ...... 1 1.2 Scope of this Part ...... 2 1.3 Safe System Approach ...... 3

2. Types of Path ...... 4 2.1 General ...... 4 2.2 Pedestrian Path ...... 4 2.3 Bicycle Path ...... 5 2.4 Shared Path ...... 6 2.5 Separated Path ...... 8

3. Path User Considerations ...... 12 3.1 General ...... 12 3.2 Operating Space ...... 14 3.2.1 Pedestrians ...... 14 3.2.2 Cyclists ...... 18

4. Design Considerations ...... 20 4.1 Location of Paths ...... 20 4.1.1 General ...... 20 4.2 Factors of Influence – Path Location ...... 20 4.2.1 Factors Influencing Roadside Alignment ...... 21 4.2.2 Paths in Medians ...... 22 4.3 Path Width ...... 23 4.4 Bicycle Paths ...... 24

5. Design Criteria ...... 25 5.1 Width of Paths ...... 25 5.1.1 Clear Width ...... 25 5.1.2 Pedestrian Paths ...... 25 5.1.3 Bicycle Paths ...... 27 5.1.4 Shared Paths ...... 29 5.1.5 Separated Paths ...... 30 5.2 Bicycle Operating Speeds ...... 30 5.3 Horizontal Curvature...... 31 5.4 Path Gradients ...... 32 5.4.1 Universal Access ...... 33 5.4.2 Ease of Uphill Travel ...... 33 5.4.3 Safety and Downhill Travel on Paths ...... 34 5.5 Clearances, Batters and Need for Fences ...... 35 5.5.1 Clearances...... 35 5.5.2 Bicycle paths...... 35 5.5.3 Batters and Fences ...... 38 5.6 Crossfall and Drainage ...... 42 5.6.1 Crossfall ...... 42 5.6.2 Drainage ...... 42 5.7 Sight Distance ...... 44 5.7.1 Bicycle Path Stopping Sight Distance ...... 45 5.8 Changes in Level ...... 47 5.9 Surface Treatments ...... 49 5.10 Surface Tolerances ...... 50 5.11 Lighting ...... 51 5.12 Underground Services ...... 52

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6. Intersections of Paths with Paths ...... 53 6.1 General ...... 53 6.2 Intersection Priority ...... 53 6.3 Intersection Signs ...... 53 6.3.1 Control Devices ...... 53 6.3.2 Wayfinding Signs ...... 53 6.4 Treatments for Intersections of Paths with Paths ...... 54 6.5 Special Treatments for Intersections of Paths with Paths ...... 56

7. Intersections of Paths with Roads...... 57 7.1 General ...... 57 7.2 Intersection Signs ...... 57 7.2.1 Traffic Control Devices ...... 57 7.2.2 Wayfinding Signs ...... 57 7.3 Treatments for Intersections of Paths with Roads ...... 58 7.3.1 Road Crossings where the Path has Priority over the Road ...... 58 7.3.2 Road Crossings in a Shared Environment Intersection ...... 60 7.4 Ancillary Devices for Intersections of Paths with Roads ...... 60 7.4.1 Push Buttons at Signalised Intersections ...... 60 7.4.2 Holding Rails...... 60 7.5 Special Treatments for Intersections of Paths with Roads ...... 61 7.5.1 General ...... 61 7.5.2 Terminal Design Principles ...... 62 7.5.3 Terminal Treatments for Excluding Vehicles ...... 64 7.5.4 Terminal Treatments for High-conflict Locations ...... 68

8. Paths at Structures...... 71 8.1 General ...... 71 8.2 Road Bridges ...... 71 8.2.1 Use of Pedestrian Paths on Narrow Bridges ...... 71 8.2.2 Shared Path Structures ...... 71 8.3 Underpasses ...... 73 8.3.1 General ...... 73 8.3.2 Use of Existing Culverts ...... 74 8.4 Bicycle Wheeling Ramps ...... 75

9. Construction and Maintenance Considerations for Paths ...... 77 9.1 General ...... 77 9.2 Bicycle Safety Audits ...... 77

References ...... 78 Appendix A Application of Envelopes and Clearances to Determine the Widths of Paths ...... 81 Appendix B Speed Limiting Treatments ...... 85 Appendix C Path Construction and Maintenance ...... 86 Appendix D Bicycle Safety Audit Checklist ...... 97

Tables Table 2.1: Zones associated with pedestrian paths ...... 4 Table 4.1: Factors considered in the choice of path alignment in road related areas ...... 21 Table 5.1: Width requirements for pedestrian paths ...... 26 Table 5.2: Bicycle path widths ...... 27 Table 5.3: Shared path widths ...... 30 Table 5.4: Separated two-way path widths ...... 30 Table 5.5: Separated one-way path widths...... 30 Table 5.6: Minimum radius of horizontal curves without superelevation ...... 32

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Table 5.7: Minimum radius of horizontal curves that have superelevation ...... 32 Table 5.8: Considerations relating to changes in level ...... 48 Table 5.9: Suggested surface tolerances – existing surfaces ...... 50

Figures Figure 1.1: Flow chart of the Guide to Road Design ...... 2 Figure 2.1: Examples of pedestrian path zones ...... 5 Figure 2.2: Example of a bicycle path in a road related area ...... 6 Figure 2.3: Example of a shared path in a road related area ...... 7 Figure 2.4: Examples of physical devices to separate bicycle paths and pedestrian paths ...... 9 Figure 2.5: Example of a separated one-way bicycle path in a road related area ...... 10 Figure 3.1: Plan view of pedestrian body ellipse ...... 14 Figure 3.2: Reach dimensions for mobility impaired people ...... 16 Figure 3.3: Wheelchair turning envelope ...... 16 Figure 3.4: Pedestrian path width requirements for people with mobility impairment...... 17 Figure 3.5: Cyclist design envelope ...... 18 Figure 4.1: Example of a median path at a road crossing ...... 23 Figure 5.1: Example of clear width ...... 25 Figure 5.2: Minimum pedestrian path widths ...... 27 Figure 5.3: Example of passing areas in constrained locations ...... 27 Figure 5.4: Path widths for a 50/50 directional split ...... 28 Figure 5.5: Path widths for a 75/25 directional split ...... 29 Figure 5.6: Desirable uphill gradients for ease of cycling ...... 34 Figure 5.7: Clearances between cyclist envelope and potential path hazards ...... 35 Figure 5.8: Location of path in road reserve ...... 37 Figure 5.9: Envelope of height requirements ...... 37 Figure 5.10: Requirement for fence barriers at batters and vertical drops ...... 40 Figure 5.11: Example of a partial barrier fence ...... 41 Figure 5.12: Example of a full barrier fence ...... 41 Figure 5.13: Example of flared bicycle rail terminal ...... 41 Figure 5.14: Drainage and crossfall requirements ...... 44 Figure 5.15: Lateral clearances on horizontal curves ...... 46 Figure 6.1: Intersection of shared paths ...... 54 Figure 6.2: Example of a shared path intersection ...... 55 Figure 6.3: Intersection of bicycle path and pedestrian path where cyclists have priority ...... 55 Figure 6.4: Intersection of a shared path and separated path where pedestrians have priority ...... 56 Figure 6.5: Example of a staggered T-intersection ...... 56 Figure 7.1: Example of a simple path connection at an on-road path ...... 58 Figure 7.2: Example of an intersection where a separated pedestrian path crossing and a separated bicycle path crossing has priority across a local street ...... 59 Figure 7.3: Example of an intersection where a path crossing has priority over a side street ...... 59 Figure 7.4: Example of holding rail ...... 61 Figure 7.5: Separate entry and exit terminal ...... 64 Figure 7.6: Preferred layout for the use of a central bollard ...... 65 Figure 7.7: Example of a bollard treatment ...... 66 Figure 7.8: Example of a bollard treatment with lighting ...... 66 Figure 7.9: Example of U-rail and hazard board treatment ...... 67 Figure 7.10: Details of a bollard and U-rail ...... 68 Figure 7.11: Example of a staggered fence treatment ...... 69 Figure 7.12: Example of an offset path treatment ...... 70 Figure 8.1: Illustration of a shared path crossing under a bridge abutment ...... 72 Figure 8.2: Shared path under a bridge abutment ...... 72 Figure 8.3: Example of a pedestrian/bicycle path underpass ...... 74 Figure 8.4: Example of a bicycle wheeling ramp...... 75 Figure 8.5: Bicycle wheeling ramp key dimensions ...... 76

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1. Introduction

1.1 Purpose

Austroads Guide to Road Design seeks to capture the contemporary road design practice of member organisations; refer to the Guide to Road Design Part 1: Introduction to Road Design (Austroads 2015a). In doing so, it provides valuable guidance to designers in the production of safe, economical and efficient road designs.

Guidance on the design of roadside features and facilities is contained in three parts of the Guide to Road Design: • Part 6: Roadside Design, Safety and Barriers (AGRD Part 6) (Austroads 2010a) • Part 6A: Paths for Walking and Cycling (AGRD Part 6A) • Part 6B: Roadside Environment (AGRD Part 6B) (Austroads 2015b).

AGRD Part 6 provides an introduction to roadside design and also provides detailed guidance on roadside safety (e.g. hazard identification, mitigation and treatment) and the use and design of safety barriers. AGRD Part 6A covers the geometric design of pedestrian and cycling paths and the design of associated facilities, while AGRD Part 6B provides guidance on other roadside features and facilities (Figure 1.1).

Paths are provided to meet the transportation and recreational needs of pedestrians and cyclists. They may be situated in road reserves, through parkland reserves, or beside rivers or coastal areas to provide safe and convenient routes and facilities for pedestrians and cyclists. AGRD Part 6A therefore provides guidelines for the design of paths generally and not only for the integration of paths into road designs.

Figure 1.1 shows that AGRD Part 6A is one of eight guides that comprise the Austroads Guide to Road Design. Collectively these parts provide information on a range of disciplines including geometric design, drainage, roadside design and geotechnical design, all of which may influence the location and design of paths within road related areas.

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Figure 1.1: Flow chart of the Guide to Road Design

Part 4A Unsignalised and Signalised Intersections

1.2 Scope of this Part

AGRD Part 6A describes the types of paths and their location, provides guidance on alignment, width and other geometric requirements, and information on the design of treatments such as path intersections and terminals.

When used in conjunction with other relevant parts of the Guide to Road Design and the Guide to Traffic Management, this Part provides guidelines for the geometric design of paths (pedestrian, bicycle and shared paths). It does not provide information on planning matters including the development of bicycle and/or pedestrian networks as this relates to network planning. Information on planning for a path is contained in Guide to Traffic Management Part 5: Road Management (Austroads 2014) and the Guide to Traffic Management Part 4: Network Management (Austroads 2016a) with some additional information contained in Commentary 1. [see Commentary 1]

In some situations bicycle paths may also interface with bicycle lanes on the road and reference should be made to the Guide to Road Design Part 3: Geometric Design (AGRD Part 3) (Austroads 2016b) and Guide to Road Design Part 4: Intersections and Crossings: General (Austroads 2017a) for further information.

For signing and pavement marking requirements for the purposes of establishing the type of paths described in this guide, designers should refer to AS 1742.9:2000.

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Designers should understand that the design standard adopted for a particular facility should relate to the transportation role it has in the bicycle or pedestrian network. Some bicycle paths and shared paths are designed to perform an arterial function whilst others have an access function. For example, a veloway is a very high standard bicycle path (in terms of width, alignment, clearances, access etc.) that provides a major arterial link for cyclists and this type of facility should be designed for high operating speeds (e.g. the 7 km long Adelaide Southern veloway alongside the Southern Expressway in South Australia).

1.3 Safe System Approach

Adopting a Safe System approach to road safety recognises that humans, as road users are fallible and will continue to make mistakes, and that the design and operation of road infrastructure, including pedestrian paths and bicycle paths should not penalise people with death or serious injury when they do make mistakes. In a Safe System, therefore, paths should be designed in a manner that ensures that the users of the paths are not killed or seriously injured should a crash occur. This requires the designer to appreciate and understand the interactions between the various elements and in particular the likely crashes that may occur.

Paths outside of the road corridors should be design to be forgiving with minimal hazards. Paths within road corridors may involve conflicts with motor vehicles and preferably any conflicts. A Safe System approach ideally removes conflicts between motor vehicles and vulnerable road users, such as cyclists and pedestrians. For example, an underpass provides an alternative crossing of a busy road. Where conflicts cannot be avoided, the conflict between motor vehicles and vulnerable road users needs to be design or managed to reduce the incidence and severity of crashes, should they occur.

Further information on the Safe System approach can be found in the Guide to Road Design Part 1: Introduction to Road Design (Austroads 2015a).

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2. Types of Path

2.1 General

The types of paths are: • pedestrian path • bicycle path or cycle track1 • shared path • separated path.

2.2 Pedestrian Path

A pedestrian path2 is reserved for use by pedestrians, people in wheelchairs, mobility scooters and personal mobility devices, such a walking frame. These paths provide an important part of the transport network either for trips undertaken entirely by walking, or as the first or last link in a trip that utilises other types of transport.

There are distinct zones within the area between of the road and the frontage of adjacent property, and it is important to distinguish between the total width and the width of the zone likely to be used by pedestrians who are walking through this zone (NZ Transport Agency 2009). Table 2.1 describes the zones and Figure 2.1 illustrates them.

The same principles apply in off-road environments, except that one or more of the zones described in Table 2.1 may be absent or duplicated on the opposite side of the path.

Table 2.1: Zones associated with pedestrian paths

Area Purpose • Used for placing features such as signal poles, lighting columns, hatch covers, sandwich boards, seats and parking meters • Can be used for soft landscaping/vegetation Street furniture zone • Creates a psychological buffer between motorised vehicles and pedestrians • Reduces passing vehicles splashing pedestrians • Provides space for driveway gradients Dining zone • The area for the provision of dining facilities • The area where pedestrians normally choose to travel (this should be kept free of Through route obstructions at all times) (or clear width) • In retail precincts, people with vision impairment may utilise the building line to assist their orientation along the path

Note: The zones which are located in the area between the street and boundaries of adjacent properties, and also referred to as urban borders (AGRD Part 3 (Austroads 2016b)). Source: Based on NZ Transport Agency (2009).

1 In some jurisdictions the term cycle track that is a separated bicycle facility in an urban corridor that combines the benefits of a bicycle lane (where bicycles have priority at intersections) and a bicycle path. Refer to Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads (2015b). 2 It should be noted that in some jurisdictions, pedestrian paths are able to be used by cyclists.

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Figure 2.1: Examples of pedestrian path zones

Street Street Through furniture route

Street Street Dining Through furniture/ route landscape Note: In residential areas the pedestrian path may be offset from the property boundary to facilitate the path alignment and safety. Designers should refer to the local road agency for their requirements. Source: Adapted from NZ Transport Agency (2009).

2.3 Bicycle Path

A bicycle path3 or track, which may be one-way or two-way, is for the use of cyclists and is most appropriate where: • there is a significant cycling volume or where an exclusive use path is desirable, and pedestrians are provided with a separate path • there is limited motor vehicle access across the path • it is possible to achieve an alignment that generally allows cyclists uninterrupted and safe travel at a relatively consistent speed.

3 For the purposes of this Part the term bicycle path has been used for a bicycle-only path. Where a path is able to be used by pedestrians the path is indicated to be a shared path.

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Cyclists generally prefer riding on exclusive off-road bicycle paths, rather than along roads and shared paths that provide a similar level of service (for information on levels of service refer to Level of Service Metrics (for Network Operations Planning) Austroads (2015f)). An off-road bicycle path caters for full range of cyclists including inexperienced cyclists or those wanting to avoid travelling alongside motor vehicles and so there may be a broad range of cyclists using the off-road path.

In some locations the provision of suitable off-road bicycle paths may not be able to be achieved due to physical and financial constraints.

Figure 2.2 shows an example of a bicycle path within a road related area. Special attention must be given to the path design in the vicinity of bus and tram stops, and preventative measures may need to be taken to avoid illegal parking of cars and the placement of garbage bins on the paths. It should be noted that a bicycle path for exclusive use by cyclists requires the establishment of signs that indicate its exclusive use as a bicycle path.

Figure 2.2: Example of a bicycle path in a road related area

Source: City of Sydney (personal communication 2016).

2.4 Shared Path

A shared path is where pedestrians and cyclists share the same path space. A shared path may be appropriate where demand exists for both a pedestrian path and a bicycle path but where there is a low number of pedestrians or cyclists and the use is not expected to be sufficiently great enough to provide separate facilities.

Shared paths can be used for a variety of purposes including recreation, local access and providing feeder links between high capacity paths. However, if such a link is provided, it may need to be designed in a manner that moderates cyclist speeds to ensure the safety of pedestrians.

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Shared paths that use existing pedestrian paths may be satisfactory where they provide a: • convenient and safe option for inexperienced cyclists, recreational cyclists and young cyclists Because pedestrian paths usually have narrow widths and driveway crossings or side streets intersecting at frequent intervals they are only suitable for low cycling speeds. • safer option for cyclists at squeeze points such as narrow, heavily trafficked sections of road, roundabouts, bridges, underpasses or railway level crossings In such cases it may be appropriate that the connections between the pedestrian path and the road be properly designed so that cyclists can leave and enter the general traffic stream safely and conveniently. Special ramps that have a flatter gradient and smooth invert can be provided to cater for bicycles.

Figure 2.3 shows an example of a shared path within a road related area.

Figure 2.3: Example of a shared path in a road related area

Source: Roads and Traffic Authority (2005).

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A significant issue associated with shared paths is the variety of users who display various characteristics that can lead to conflict between them, and discomfort for all path users. These characteristics include differences in speed, space requirements, age, user expectation (as some users expect exclusive or priority use) and predictability (e.g. cyclists, pedestrians walking dogs, in-line skaters, and skateboard riders). Austroads (2006) describes the key conflict issues between pedestrians and cyclists on shared paths and pedestrian paths and provides guidance on key conflict minimisation strategies and options.

2.5 Separated Path

A separated path is a path divided into separate sections, one of which is designated for the exclusive use of cyclists and the other for the exclusive use of pedestrians. A separated path may be appropriate where there are safety or conflict issues such as where there are a high number of pedestrians and/or cyclists (Austroads 2006), or the desired level of service on a shared path is not being met (Austroads 2015f).

These situations typically arise in areas that attract high pedestrian and cyclist movements (e.g. foreshore promenades and major inner city bridges). However, separated paths should not be provided in busy shopping centres where large numbers of pedestrians are expected to cross the path and conflict with cyclists.

The use of a separated path may cause some confusion amongst cyclists and pedestrians as to their correct use. To better clarify the use of these paths, visual cues make it intuitive to users which path they should use through the use of an appropriate path surface (e.g. pavement materials, colours and textures), with a clearly defined separation zone supported by signing, linemarking and pavement symbols being used (Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads 2015a). Should linemarking be used to separate cyclists from pedestrians then raised tactile separation lines are suggested to assist those with vision impairment to differentiate the pedestrian and cyclist areas.

In addition, it may be appropriate to have the pedestrian path and bicycle path at different levels, separated by a semi-mountable kerb or a small grass dividing strip. Examples of treatments to separate the paths are shown in Figure 2.4.

Where high standard bicycle and pedestrian paths are provided, such as on foreshore promenades, path users may be given priority at intersecting side streets (Austroads 2017a). Austroads (2017a) contains guidance on treatments that provide priority for cyclists and pedestrians at side roads (e.g. ‘bent-out’ and ‘bent-in’ treatments).

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Figure 2.4: Examples of physical devices to separate bicycle paths and pedestrian paths

Median kerb2

Bicycle path Pedestrian path

Pedestrian path Bicycle path

Bicycle path Pedestrian path

Additional clearance1

1 For guidance on clearances refer to Section 5.5. 2 The separation between the pedestrian path and bicycle path may also be a flush or mountable type kerb or a painted separation line.

Notes: The bicycle paths may be one-way or two-way operation. Different materials may also be used to differentiate and delineate the pedestrian and bicycle treatments. Any kerb used may be an upright or mountable kerb. A deflection rail providing 150 mm clearance should be provided where clearances are not able to be achieved, refer to Section 5.5.3.

Where wide nature strips exist, consideration should be given to the construction of separated one-way paths (see Figure 2.5). These paths enable bicycles to travel on the side of the road, in the verge area, in one direction, with bicycle movement in the opposite direction provided on the other side of the road.

The treatment can be advantageous when: • they are used with other traditional bicycle lane treatments located on roads, in order to maintain continuous access for cyclists past squeeze points • other constraints exist for the construction of bicycle lanes in the carriageway • a safety problem exists for cyclists in the road carriageway • there is a high proportion of inexperienced cyclists.

The treatment is appropriate where: • there is a limited number of driveway crossings (preferably less than one per 100 m) • adequate sight lines exist, to significant road and pedestrian path access points • a separation/barrier exists between the path and the road carriageway.

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Figure 2.5: Example of a separated one-way bicycle path in a road related area

Source: Roads and Traffic Authority (2005).

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A separated one-way path treatment should provide for cyclist travel in the same direction as the adjacent traffic lane, other than in a one-way street. However, designers should confirm the suitability of the treatment with respect to local requirements.

The accommodation of any path in a road related area requires consideration of access for maintenance personnel and equipment and the placement of road furniture (signs, signals, barriers, bus/tram stops) and other items, refer to Section 3.2.2, which may adversely affect operation of the path. This can be problematic with separated paths that require considerable space in order to ensure appropriate use.

The clearances to physical (vertical) separation devices shown in Figure 2.4 are essential. The clearances for kerb and fence separated facilities should be sufficient to ensure cyclists do not catch handle bars in fence components or pedals with upright kerbs. Where fence clearances cannot be met cyclist deflection rails should be installed, refer also to Section 5.5.1 and 5.5.3.

Physical, horizontal or vertical separation of the bicycle path and pedestrian path is preferred to linemarking. Should linemarking be used to separate bicycles from pedestrians then tactile pavement markings are recommended. In assessing the need for physical separation between pedestrian and cyclist areas, factors such as operational width and clearance requirements, speed of cyclists, category of use characteristics, volume of use and the likelihood of pedestrian activity in the cycling space should be considered.

When a barrier is used to separate the bicycle and pedestrian path sections, the desirable minimum width of the pedestrian path section should be 1.5 m, to allow passing manoeuvres on that section of the path, amongst other reasons (e.g. pedestrian volumes). Separated paths should be designed to accommodate the passing of pedestrians by personal mobility devices.

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3. Path User Considerations

3.1 General

In order to develop appropriate and practical design solutions designers should have a sound understanding of what is required to ensure that pedestrian and cycling networks offer an environment that provides a convenient, safe and pleasant journey with direct routes that minimise the length of travel and travel time to destination.

The characteristics that contribute to a path network, that serve the needs of pedestrians and cyclists, includes paths that are safe, connected, legible, comfortable, convenient, universal and pleasant (based on NZ Transport Agency 2009 and de Groot 2007).

Safe

Path networks should: • provide surfaces that provide good surface grip, are free of tripping hazards, smooth, clear of obstructions and are well maintained (e.g. no broken paving) • have well design landscaping that does not encroach sight lines or operating space • have adequate lighting to ensure that pedestrians feel safe when using paths at night • minimise conflicts between path users taking into consideration path widths or the provision of separated paths • have information signs reminding users of appropriate behaviours in using the path.

Connected

Well-connected paths should: • have continuous routes and travel paths as short as possible • integrate with public transport • provide crossings that are appropriate for the traffic volume and traffic speed environment • provide crossing opportunities at locations that are difficult to cross (e.g. major roads, railways) with short waiting times at signalised crossings • provide good access to key destinations • where path volumes are high and consistent (e.g. inner-city routes) consideration should be given to prioritising and wherever practicable coordinating traffic signals to improve the level of service for pedestrians and cyclists.

Legible

To inform path users, a path network should: • provide clear distance and directional signs to destinations, and/or pavement marking information • have clearly visible street name signs and repeater street names • have clearly visible place names • enable local features to be identified that can assist path users to orientate themselves and be aware of their location • be supported with readily available path network information (e.g. published local maps, information boards, tourist information).

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Comfortable

In order to provide an appropriate level of comfort the path or route should: • have path widths that provide the desired level of service (Austroads 2015f) • be set back from carriageways to create a physical separation from motor traffic • provide facilities for path users, such as resting places and drinking fountains • provide adequate and safe storage areas for pedestrians to wait, including at intersections, such that the flow of other path users, including cyclists is not impeded • be well maintained to ensure maintenance intervention levels are met to provide a smooth surface • be substantially free from litter, debris and other deposits • be constructed to prevent ponding of surface water • have places to rest and shelter from inclement weather • be adequately lit to ensure that path users feel safe when using the paths at night.

Convenient

A convenient walking environment for pedestrians should: • be as continuous as practicable • ensure that streets can be crossed easily and safely (e.g. raise road crossings to path level) • minimise delays at road crossings (e.g. keep crossing distances and waiting times at signals short) • include cyclist and pedestrian signals or phases at signalised intersections.

Universal

Paths should cater for all users by: • having gradients that cater for mobility impaired users where practicable • having contrasting coloured pavement surfaces to highlight demarcated areas of path • having tactile treatments and physical features, that may be used to aid wayfinding, including signs to aid in wayfinding by vision impaired persons where required.

Pleasant

A path network can provide a pleasant journey for path users by: • having high quality supporting facilities, such as seating, resign places, drinking water, interpretative information that is located clear of the operating space of the path • being located so that scenic features in the vicinity can be viewed from the path.

The design of a path should also consider the level of service that it is intended to be provided on the path. The level of service includes some of these characteristics. More information on levels of service is contained in Level of Service Metrics (for Network Operations Planning) (Austroads 2015f).

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3.2 Operating Space

3.2.1 Pedestrians

General

While it is not possible to identify all design situations in this Part, basic reach and geometric parameters, and operating envelopes may be established that assist in the appropriate design of all components of the street system and facilities provided for or used by pedestrians. This section provides information regarding maximum limits of reach and minimum dimensions necessary to accommodate most people with disabilities. However, designers should not simply design for these maximum limits and minimum dimensions but should ensure the design provides the highest level of service to pedestrians that is practicable.

As it may be necessary to accommodate a variety of uses in pedestrian areas, design envelopes should include the type of pedestrian activity and local considerations that impact on placement of street furniture or capacity. For example: • proximity to shops – additional area/width required for people carrying shopping bags • climate – sub-tropical locations could incorporate umbrellas and similar furniture that requires greater widths and clearances • the design envelope should allow for backpacks, briefcases and other devices used by pedestrians and which would affect storage capacity generally and on traffic islands in particular • proximity to retirement centres – additional width and storage length to accommodate personal mobility devices.

Pedestrian space

Body depth and shoulder width are the primary human measurements used by designers of pedestrian spaces and facilities, where shoulder breadth is the factor affecting the practical capacity. The plan view of the average adult male human body occupies an area (the body ellipse) of about 0.14 m2. However, a 460 mm by 610 mm body ellipse (Figure 3.1) equivalent to an area of 0.21 m2 is used to determine practical standing capacity, allowing for the fact that many pedestrians carry personal articles, natural psychological preferences to avoid bodily contact with others and body sway.

With respect to normal path operation where pedestrians and cyclists are moving at speed and sharing space it is considered that a one metre width should be used as the basis of the design envelope to allow adequate operating space and clearances for pedestrians.

Figure 3.1: Plan view of pedestrian body ellipse

610 mm Shoulder width

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Reach

While there is a wide variation in the size of people and their reach, basic limits that should be adopted for the purposes of design are shown in Figure 3.2. It can be seen that the overlap between the heights is easily accessible by wheelchair users and people with mobility difficulties. This means that anything that must be reached, e.g. holding rails, audio tactile push buttons, by both groups should lie between approximately 0.6 m and 1.57 m above the ground. Wheelchair users are also constrained in the limits of their horizontal reach, as shown in Figure 3.2.

Wheelchairs and mobility scooters

There are a wide variety of wheelchairs and mobility scooters available for people to use to aid their mobility. These include manual wheelchairs, motorised wheelchairs and mobility scooters. The dimensions of these mobility aids can vary and designers should refer to AS/NZS 3695.1:2011 and AS/NZS 3695.2:2013 for information on manual and powered wheelchairs.

Wheelchair and mobility scooter users generally require more space than other people to move around. An example of the reach limits for an occupant of a wheelchair is shown in Figure 3.2. Designers should consider the size of wheelchair or mobility scooter that should be used in the design of specific facilities or treatments and may have to establish the appropriate design vehicle for particular situations within a jurisdiction. As a guide, the Australian Disability Standards for Accessible Public Transport (2002) requires a manoeuvring space of 2.07 m by 1.54 m for a wheelchair or mobility scooter to turn 180º. Reference may also be made to AS 1428.1:2009. Consultation with local community organisations may also provide information on the wheelchairs and mobility scooters.

In considering the minimum width required for wheelchairs and motorised scooters, designers should also refer to AS 1428.1:2009 regarding minimum widths for accessways, walkways, ramps, landings and doorways.

General spatial requirements

Figure 3.5 shows the radius of turn for a wheelchair when wheels are moved in opposite directions and when pivoting about a locked wheel. The radii represent the swept path of the wheelchair and therefore it is essential for designers to allow sufficient clearance from the swept path to fixed objects to allow for variance in the location at which the rider chooses to commence the turn, and to provide comfortable and safe operating conditions. This clearance is necessary to avoid the risk of damage to the wheelchair, damage to street infrastructure and injury to the wheelchair rider.

Figure 3.4 shows the various widths for path users with mobility impairment. While personal mobility scooters are not included in Figure 3.4 it is considered that most scooter models can be accommodated within the widths shown.

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Figure 3.2: Reach dimensions for mobility impaired people

1 Includes clearance for knuckles of hands.

Figure 3.3: Wheelchair turning envelope

1

1

1 Radius is the swept path of the wheelchair; clearance between path and objects (e.g. walls, poles) must be provided.

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Figure 3.4: Pedestrian path width requirements for people with mobility impairment

(a) A clear width of 1000 mm is adequate for people with ambulant disabilities, just allows passage for 80 per cent of people who use wheelchairs, and is in accordance with AS 1428.1

1000 mm

(b) People who use wheelchairs require a clear width of 1200 mm

1200 mm

(c) A clear width of 1500 mm allows a wheelchair and a pram to pass

1500 mm

(d) To allow two wheelchairs to pass comfortably, a clear width of 1800 mm is required

1800 mm

Source: AS 1428.2:1992.

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3.2.2 Cyclists

The cyclist design envelope (Figure 3.5) and clearances to obstructions or hazards (see Section 5.5.1) may be used to construct the appropriate width of facility required for cyclists under various conditions. The envelope is assumed to be consistent over the range of operating conditions and allowance for higher speeds is provided through larger clearances to both other cyclists and fixed objects beside the path. Appendix A provides guidance on how the envelope and clearances are applied to particular situations in order to determine satisfactory operating widths.

Figure 3.5: Cyclist design envelope

Eye height

2.2 m 0.1 m 0.1 m EssentialEssential manoevring / manoeuvring space 1.4 m clearancespace

Bicycle length can be taken 1.0 m Bicycle length can be taken as 1.75as 1.80m m

Note: The path width may vary on uphill sections of path, refer to Section 5.4.

The 1.0 m width of the envelope shown in Figure 3.5 allows for the width of a bicycle and for variations in tracking. Not all bicycle riders can steer a straight line and when riding uphill experienced riders work the bicycle from side to side while inexperienced riders may wobble. To allow for this operating characteristic the 1.0 m envelope width should be increased to 1.5 m for uphill travel, refer also to Section 5.1.3 for guidance on path widths. Further guidance on uphill travel is contained in Section 5.4.

Bicycle riders also need adequate clearances to fixed objects and to passing vehicles in addition to the 1.0 m envelope; refer to Section 5.5.1 for guidance on clearances.

Space to ride

Where data is available (e.g. census information and jurisdictional surveys) the space required for new major bicycle paths should be based on an estimation of the likely demand for cycling on the proposed facility.

However, where such information is not available the bicycle design envelope and clearances shown in Figure 5.6 provide the basis for the design of the bicycle facilities described in this part. It is important for designers to understand the basis of the design, including clearance requirements, so that they can make appropriate judgements in constrained situations where knowledge of minimum cyclist space requirements is needed. The envelope is relevant to the design of lanes on roads, off-road paths and bicycle parking facilities (AS 2890.3:2015).

In some situations it may be appropriate to provide for alternative forms of pedal cycles in the design of facilities. For example, it may be appropriate on heavily used recreational paths to allow for the space (e.g. width, length, swept path) required by a bicycle trailer that is commonly used by parents to tow young children.

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Smooth surface

A smooth, skid resistant, surface is desirable for bicycles to be used effectively, comfortably and safely. Surfaces used for cycling should desirably be smoother than those acceptable for motor vehicles and persons responsible for path construction and maintenance should be made aware of this requirement. Guidance on surface tolerances is provided in Section 5.10.

It is also important that the design restricts debris from accumulating on paths. Surface water should not flow across the path in situations where soil, mulch or other debris could be carried onto the path. It is generally preferable that water is collected and piped under the path. Similarly, a maintenance regime should be in place to enable the removal of any debris that could inconvenience cyclists or create hazardous conditions by placing a solid object in the path of cyclists or causing the surface to become slippery (e.g. broken glass, rocks, mud after inundation, loose leaves or berries etc.).

Speed maintenance

For bicycles to be most effective as a means of transport, cyclists must be able to maintain speed without having to slow or stop often. While many cyclists typically travel at speeds between 20 km/h and 30 km/h, a significant number of cyclists travel at speeds in excess of 35 km/h to 40 km/h on the flat and may reach speeds in excess of 50 km/h on downhill gradients. Once slowed or stopped it takes considerable time and effort to regain the desired operating speed.

In some locations, such as in commercial precincts or urban residential neighbourhoods, maintaining path speeds may be less important and higher speeds may be counter-productive to encouraging inexperienced cyclists to use the path and may also result in safety concerns involving pedestrians. The higher speeds may also be a deterrent in attracting or encouraging new cyclists. In these areas, the operating speed on the path may need to be moderated to take into consideration the experience levels and the number of the cyclists using the path.

Bicycle routes, especially off-road, should be designed for continuous riding, minimising the need to slow or stop for any reason including steep gradients, rough surfaces, sharp corners, obscured sight lines, intersections, or to give way to other people because the width available is too narrow.

Sight lines

It is important that appropriate sight lines are provided between a cyclist’s eye height and pedestrians to assist in minimising conflict, and between a cyclist’s eye height and the path surface so that cyclists can stop in the event that a hazard exists on the path (e.g. mud deposited during inundation, potholes due to washouts, broken glass, and fallen tree limbs).

Designers should therefore resist the temptation to provide curves that are smaller than necessary (e.g. to create an artificially winding path for aesthetics or urban design reasons). It is much better for the safety of path users if larger curves with greater sight distance are provided. Refer to Section 5.7 for information on sight distance.

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4. Design Considerations

4.1 Location of Paths

4.1.1 General

Paths have a safe functional design requirement to provide a high level of amenity for people, either walking and/or cycling. Paths may be used by the full range of cyclist categories and to achieve this objective a designer should have: • an understanding of the objectives for the proposed path • an understanding of the expected numbers of path users • a recognition of the needs of all pedestrians and cyclists • an appreciation of the need for appropriate path geometry e.g. width and alignment, to cater for the path users • an appreciation of the location, available space and destinations.

Paths may be located: • in road related areas which have direct access to abutting properties • in reservations of major new or existing access-controlled arterial roads or freeways • along river frontages and foreshores • through parkland • along railway reservations • leading to and across bridges.

4.2 Factors of Influence – Path Location

Factors that influence the location of paths include the need to: • recognise the existing desire lines being followed by pedestrians and/or cyclists • achieve the best alignment possible to provide comfortable, convenient and safe travel, within the available resources. It is acknowledged that cost may be a factor in determining the location and elements of a path. • identify locations of local features that may be of interest to path users • avoid sharp horizontal curves, particularly at intersections or at the bottom of steep downgrades, where cyclists use the path • achieve adequate sight distance along the path to observe other path users • optimise the personal security of users of paths located in relatively isolated areas • provide access for emergency service vehicles and maintenance vehicles at path entrances or other strategic points • landscaping and planting considerations including vegetation removal (especially vegetation that has thorns that may puncture tyres), planting sizes at maturity and maintaining adequate sight distances and accumulation of debris • owners of private property abutting the reservation, who may be concerned that provision of a path will adversely affect privacy or the security of their property • the possible advantages that can be derived from incidental lighting from fixed sources or motor vehicles • the choice of aesthetically pleasing locations (to encourage use) • constraints such as geographical features, environmentally sensitive areas, areas of significance for Indigenous Australians etc.

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4.2.1 Factors Influencing Roadside Alignment

Where a path is located in a road reserve and abutting development results in driveways at frequent intervals, a choice may exist between locating the path: • adjacent to the kerb • adjacent to the property boundary • at an intermediate point, say 1.0 m behind the kerb.

However, in many cases the road related area will be too narrow to allow a choice in the location of a path.

It may be necessary for a path alignment to shift between the road reserve boundary and the kerb in order to retain vegetation, avoid obstacles, utilise bridges or connect to path crossings of the road. The alignment should be easy to follow, continuous and avoid sharp changes in direction.

Factors that influence the choice of alignment are summarised in Table 4.1.

Where there is an issue of vehicles failing to give way as they enter or leave the abutting properties or blocking the path, it may be necessary to reinforce the priority to the path users. Methods to reinforce the priority include continuing the path surface material across driveways to provide a contrast with the driveway surface, or alternatively through the use of appropriate signs or pavement markings.

Where a path crosses the minor road of a T-intersection or major access point and priority is given to the path users, consideration should be given locating the path at an appropriate distance from the main road. This will ensure vehicles are able to store and give way to path users so to not interrupt traffic flow on the adjoining main road. Where this is not possible consideration should be given to reversing the priority at the crossing, refer also to AGRD Part 4 (Austroads 2017a).

Table 4.1: Factors considered in the choice of path alignment in road related areas

Path location Factors for consideration • In many cases is the only option because of the road reserve width available. • Offers the best visibility of path users to drivers reversing out of their properties, particularly where high screen walls exist at the boundaries. • Will be used in two directions and allows cyclists to run off the path and ride against the flow of motor traffic on the road pavement. Overseas experience has shown wrong-way movements to be a major problem (Cross & Fisher 1977). • May result in parked cars being a hazard to pedestrians and cyclists due to the opening of vehicle doors into the path (refer also to Section 5.5.1). • May result in persons entering and exiting parked cars being put at risk due to the proximity of bicycle movements to the cars (refer also to Section 5.5.1). Adjacent to a • Follows the longitudinal profile of the kerb and is therefore generally cheaper to construct kerb because of reduced earthworks. • May be preferred by abutting landowners in terms of privacy and nature strip disruption. • May result in the effective path width being reduced by kerb returns (however, the use of AS 1428.1:2009 style side ramps would be of some assistance at driveways or the path profile being adversely affected at the cross over. • If wide, may be viewed as detracting from the appearance of the streetscape and may imply a higher speed environment. • Is less pleasant because of traffic noise, fumes and speed, and perhaps the splashing of water from gutters. • May be relatively unaffected by the presence of fences varying in height and type, or having sharp or exposed edges or protrusions.

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Path location Factors for consideration • Provides a more pleasant environment and is perceived to be safer. • May limit visibility of path users to drivers reversing out of driveways, or to drivers turning left from the abutting carriageway, where path users are beyond the driver’s peripheral vision. • Does not necessarily follow the kerb profile and may result in steeper gradients or be more costly to construct. Adjacent to a • May be viewed as having a lower negative visual impact on the street than a kerbside path. property • May be unacceptable to abutting land owners. boundary • Is more efficient for the mail service, if the nature strip is very wide. • Should preferably be deviated to a location at least one car length back from road intersections, adjacent to which the path crosses, to facilitate passage behind a queued car. • Allows space for garbage bins to be accommodated clear of the path and for pit lids for utilities to be located outside of the path surface. Locating pits within paths should be avoided as the lids can create an uncomfortable ride and constitute a trip hazard for pedestrians.

4.2.2 Paths in Medians

Paths are not usually located in central medians, however, they may be acceptable where: • the median is wide and the outer verges narrow • the spacing of intersections is large • the speed environment of the road is low • motor vehicles are required to give way or stop for path users • safe crossings of the carriageways and intersections can be made (e.g. traffic volumes low to moderate, major intersections controlled by traffic signals).

Similarly, it may also be acceptable to locate a path in an outer separator of a major road, depending on site conditions and traffic conditions. However, this should only be done where there are few entries and exits from the service road, and crossings at these locations can be designed to ensure that they are safe by: • physically controlling vehicle ingress and egress speeds • providing good sight distance • making the priority clear to motorists and path users.

Disadvantages of providing paths in medians include providing access to the path across a carriageway, the median needs to be wide to provide some separation to motor vehicles and motorists do not expect pedestrians or cyclists at median openings and therefore they may be put at risk at these crossings.

Where paths are provided along wide central medians, sufficient distance should be provided between the path crossing points of the road between the carriageways of the main road, to provide adequate storage of vehicles to prevent interruption to traffic flow on the main road.

An example of a path located in a median at a road crossing is shown in Figure 4.1.

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Figure 4.1: Example of a median path at a road crossing

Source: Google Maps (2016), ‘Victoria’, Map data, Google, California, USA.

4.3 Path Width

The path width required depends on the envelope (i.e. space) occupied by pedestrians and/or cyclists using the path together with appropriate clearances. The clearances are required between path users travelling in the same direction or opposite directions, and also between path users and the edge of the path. Some allowance for the ability of cyclists to ride in a consistent wheel path (i.e. tracking of the bicycle within the envelope) is provided. Pedestrian and cyclist envelopes and examples of their application to determine the widths presented in Section 5.1 are contained in Appendix A.

While path width can be developed from cyclist and pedestrian envelopes and required clearances, the choice of a width in many situations is subjective because data is not usually available on the level and type of use that could be expected. Some jurisdictions systematically collect traffic data on existing path networks and some investigation has been done on the development of models to estimate the traffic flow on proposed paths (Land Transport New Zealand 2008). However, in the absence of a relationship between path width and parameters such as cyclist operating speed, volumes of pedestrians and cyclists, mix of pedestrians and bicycles, practitioners should consider a number of factors, such as the: • level of pedestrian and cyclist use • types of use expected e.g. where pedestrians may travel in large groups • types of cyclists likely to be attracted to the path • objectives of the path (e.g. provide a major link for cyclists including school children) • speed of cyclists • traffic regime • available clearances • user envelopes.

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In many cases there will be more than one type of user to be accommodated and their requirements may differ. For example, where a path follows a scenic route but also is intended to attract cyclists from an alternative high speed road environment, it will be necessary to provide a good experience for cyclists and these cyclists wanting to minimise their travel time should be provided with an alignment and other conditions to minimise the travel time.

With many jurisdictions now allowing cycling on pedestrian paths, the increasing use of personal mobility devices and encouragement to increase cycling and walking, there is growing need to ensure path widths are provided that accommodate safe movements of path users, including passing or overtaking movements. This is particularly the case for separated paths where legislation may restrict the use of the path to only the designated use.

4.4 Bicycle Paths

The principles of designing a path for bicycles are similar to those used in designing roads and it is essential that the path has an alignment and cross-section to suit the function of the path and the speed and volume of traffic, drainage that prevents inundation and debris from washing onto the surface, and adjacent areas that are forgiving to cyclists that leave the path.

The vertical and horizontal alignment (and combinations of these), width of path and clearances adopted, are important to the safe operation of a path. Paths attract a variety of users from experienced cyclists to young children and inexperienced cyclists (Table C1 3) and hence it is desirable to consider the characteristics of all likely users and to design the path to suit the needs of the type of user for which it is intended.

The geometric standard adopted for a path will depend on its role within the bicycle network. Paths may perform an arterial function for a specific user group (e.g. veloway), have a mixed-use function for cyclists, pedestrians and other types of use (e.g. in-line skaters) or have a local access function.

A veloway is a high-standard exclusive bicycle path catering for high-volume and/or high-speed arterial movement. There are few veloways in Australia. This Part does not provide guidelines that are specific to the design of veloways. While the information in this section may assist in the design of veloways the values adopted for design elements will depend on local circumstances and should be determined by the responsible agency.

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5. Design Criteria

Paths attract a variety of users as (example outlined in Table C1 3) and the needs of all likely users should be considered in the design of a path (see also Commentary 1). [see Commentary 1]

5.1 Width of Paths

5.1.1 Clear Width

The widths provided in this Part are for a clear width on a path (Figure 5.1). Intrusions in or over a path, such as vegetation, signs, poles, fences or seats may become obstacles or hazards to path users, reducing the width of the clear path and should be removed wherever practicable. In locations where the intrusion is unable to be removed, path users need to be alerted to the presence of the intrusion with sufficient time to enable the obstacle or hazard to be avoided.

For guidance on the clearances to obstructions or hazards, refer to Section 5.5.

Figure 5.1: Example of clear width

5.1.2 Pedestrian Paths

The suggested width requirements for pedestrian paths are shown in Table 5.1. The operating space required for mobility impaired pedestrians is illustrated in Figure 3.4 and while personal mobility devices (e.g. scooters) are not included in the figure it is considered that most scooters could be accommodated within the widths shown (refer to product suppliers for further information). As a guide, the desirable minimum width of a pedestrian path that has a very low volume is 1.2 m with an absolute minimum of 1.0 m at constrained locations and with agreement by the relevant road agency. These widths should be increased at locations where: • high pedestrian volumes are anticipated • a pedestrian path is adjacent to a traffic or parking lane • a pedestrian path is combined with bicycle facilities • the pedestrian path is to cater for people with disabilities • overtaking of path users is expected.

The roadside often has to accommodate many features including paths. It is therefore important that enough space is provided to ensure that all features can be accommodated and pedestrians have a clear space in which to operate. In some cases the relevant road agency may desire to implement an urban design solution within the roadside.

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The crossfall of a paved pedestrian path may vary from flat (but achieving an adequately drained surface) to 2.5%. Provided that drainage is satisfactory, a lower crossfall is preferred (i.e. 1.0%) as a higher crossfall may cause problems for some people.

Table 5.1: Width requirements for pedestrian paths

Situation Suggested minimum width (m) Comments 1.2(1) • General minimum is 1.2 m for most roads and streets. General low volume • Clear width required for one wheelchair. • Not adequate for commercial or shopping environments. High pedestrian volumes 2.4 (or higher based on volume) • Generally commercial and shopping areas. For wheelchairs to pass 1.8 • Refer also to AS 1428.1:2009. For people with other 1.0 disabilities

1 In constrained locations an absolute minimum of 1.0 m should be provided. In these situations, path users should be able to detect other path users with sufficient time to respond and take appropriate actions.

Notes: While the minimum width may be used where volume is low it is generally desirable to provide a path that will accommodate two pedestrians side by side. Wider than the minimum width (e.g. up to 5 m) may also be necessary at locations where pedestrian flows are high or where pedestrians gather such as in the vicinity of schools and associated road crossings, at recreation facilities and at important bus stops. Where volume is significant it may be necessary to provide adequate congregation areas clear of the path required for through movement of pedestrians. Where a path is < 1500 mm wide, the path should be widened at regular intervals to provide opportunities for wheelchair users to pass. Refer also to the Pedestrian Planning and Design Guide (NZ Transport Agency 2009).

In some instances pedestrian volumes will be very high and a path width corresponding to or greater than those suggested in Table 5.1 for high pedestrian volumes will be required. This may depend on the level of service the path is to provide and designers should also refer to any local planning requirements. Refer to Level of Service Metrics (for Network Operations Planning) (Austroads 2015f) for guidance on levels of service.

Constrained widths should be avoided or treated (e.g. by removal of obstacles) wherever practicable. However, where it is not possible to remove the obstacle an absolute minimum width can be used over a very short length at an obstruction (Figure 5.2), and if a narrow pedestrian path cannot be avoided over a greater length passing areas should be provided wherever possible (Figure 5.3).

It is also important that the edges of paths do not have a drop-off that may cause a pedestrian to slip or trip, or cause a wheelchair to overturn, such as along the back of a kerb. This consideration is critical where minimum path widths are used. In addition, any obstruction within the path should be highlighted (e.g. bright contrasting colour) to reduce the likelihood that pedestrians will collide with it, and have any aspects removed that could cause path users to be ‘snagged’ by it.

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Figure 5.2: Minimum pedestrian path widths

Kerb

Object e.g. Continuous object e.g. pedestrian fence concrete column 1800 mm (desirable minimum) for two wheelchairs 1500 mm (absolute minimum) for 1000 mm absolute one wheelchair and a pedestrian minimum over a short distance

Building line

Figure 5.3: Example of passing areas in constrained locations

2000 mm

300 mm 1800 mm 1000 mm (minimum) mm 1000 300 mm

Notes: The passing area could also be provided by widening by 600 mm to one side of the path. Refer to AS 1428.1:2009 for alternative design. Source: Based on AS 1428.1:2009.

5.1.3 Bicycle Paths

When the volumes of cyclists are not able to be determined, it is suggested that the widths shown in Table 5.2 provide acceptable ranges for bicycle paths. The upper limit of the acceptable range in the table should not discourage designers from providing a greater width where it is needed (e.g. very high demand that may also result in overtaking in both directions).

Table 5.2: Bicycle path widths

Suggested path width (m)

Local access path Regional path Desirable minimum width 2.5 3.0 Minimum width – typical maximum 2.0(1) – 3.0(2) 2.5(1) – 4.0(2)

1 A lesser width should only to be adopted where cyclist volumes and operational speeds will remain low. 2 A greater width may be required where the number of cyclists is very high.

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In general, a width less than lowest value of the acceptable range shown in the tables should not be adopted. An exception is the local access path that is provided to connect a local area to a community facility (e.g. shopping centre) and it is expected that the volume of cyclists and operating speeds will remain low throughout the life of the path. In such cases a width less than 2.0 m may be considered. A width greater than the upper value of the acceptable range may be required where a very high number of cyclists are expected to use the path.

When a bicycle path is primarily for high volumes and there is an emphasis on capacity, it is suggested that the path widths shown in Figure 5.4 and Figure 5.5 be used.

Figure 5.4: Path widths for a 50/50 directional split

* Indicates that the 1.5 m footpath width is the low use minimum only and is not appropriate at higher pedestrian volumes. Notes: The chart is not to be used for pedestrian paths only. In this guide, the term pedestrian path is used for a footpath. Where the path widths are shown for a bicycle path and a pedestrian (footpath) path together, these are separated paths. A 50/50 directional split is typical for most recreational paths which have high use in both directions. The directional split refers to the proportion of the total number of path users travelling in each direction, e.g. a 50/50 directional split means that 50% of the total volume of path users travel in each direction. Source: Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads (2015a).

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Figure 5.5: Path widths for a 75/25 directional split

* Indicates that the 1.5 m footpath width is the low use minimum only and is not appropriate at higher pedestrian volumes. Notes: This chart is not to be used for pedestrian paths only. In this guide, the term pedestrian path is used for a footpath. Where the path widths are shown for a bicycle path and a pedestrian (footpath) path together, these are separated paths. A 75/25 directional split (i.e. there is a greater volume of path users in one direction) is typical for most commuter paths which have high peak directional volumes. The directional split refers to the proportion of the total number of path users travelling in each direction, e.g. a 75/25 directional split means that 75% of the total volume of path users travel in one direction and 25% travel in the opposite direction. Source: Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads (2015a).

5.1.4 Shared Paths

Table 5.3 shows suggested widths and acceptable ranges of width for shared paths. The upper limit of the acceptable range in the table should not discourage designers from providing a greater width where it is needed (e.g. very high volumes that may also result in overtaking in both directions).

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Alternatively, where there is an emphasis on the capacity of the shared path, it is suggested that the path widths shown in Figure 5.4 and Figure 5.5 can be used.

Table 5.3: Shared path widths

Suggested path width (m)

Local access path Regional path(3) Recreational path Desirable minimum width 2.5 3.0 3.5 Minimum width – typical 2.0(1) – 3.0(2) 2.5(1) – 4.0(2) 3.0(1) – 4.0(2) maximum

1 A lesser width should only to be adopted where cyclist volumes and operational speeds will remain low. 2 A greater width may be required where the numbers of cyclists and pedestrians are very high or there is a high probability of conflict between users (e.g. people walking dogs, in-line skaters etc.). 3 May be part of a principal bicycle network in some jurisdictions.

5.1.5 Separated Paths

Table 5.4 and Table 5.5 show suggested widths and acceptable ranges of width for two-way and one-way separated paths respectively. However, where it is appropriate designers may provide a greater width than the typical maximum shown in the tables and Figure 5.4 and Figure 5.5 can be used.

Table 5.4: Separated two-way path widths

Suggested path width (m)

Bicycle path Pedestrian path Total Desirable minimum width 2.5 2.0 4.5 Minimum width – typical 2.0– 3.0 ≥ 1.5 ≥ 4.5 maximum

Table 5.5: Separated one-way path widths

Path width (m)

Bicycle path Pedestrian path Total Desirable minimum width 1.5 1.5 3.0 Absolute minimum width 1.2(1) ≥ 1.2 ≥ 2.4

1 A minimum width of 2.0 m is required where passing within the cyclists’ path section occurs or where it is desirable that passing manoeuvres by cyclists occur outside of the pedestrian path section of the facility.

5.2 Bicycle Operating Speeds

Bicycle operating speeds on paths are influenced by a combination of human and other factors, including: • the type of bicycle • purpose of the trip (e.g. commuting, riding to gain fitness including group riding) • age, confidence and level of fitness of the cyclist • condition of surface • alignment standard of the facility • gradients • widths • path user volumes • prevailing weather conditions.

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It is important to recognise that under appropriate conditions many fit cyclists can maintain relatively high speeds. Speeds in excess of 35 km/h can be maintained on the flat while speeds of over 50 km/h can be attained on moderate gradients.

It is recommended that paths be designed for a speed of at least 30 km/h (Shepherd 1994) wherever possible and desirable given the purpose of the path, and in other cases for the anticipated operating speeds4. However, it should be recognised that it may be necessary to adopt higher or lower design speeds in specific circumstances. For example, it is desirable to provide a high standard curve at the bottom of a steep downgrade but designers may be forced to adopt tight curves in providing a path down the face of an escarpment. In such circumstances the potential hazard should be appropriately highlighted (e.g. adequate sight distance, delineation and warning signs).

Where it is considered necessary to moderate the speeds of cyclists, such as at entry points and areas shared with pedestrians, physical treatments may be necessary to moderate cyclist speeds, refer to Appendix B.

There may also be locations where high bicycle speeds cannot be moderated and in these locations consideration should be given to providing a separate pedestrian path.

5.3 Horizontal Curvature

Where a path location or alignment is not constrained by topography or other physical features, a generous alignment consisting of straights and large radius curves is desirable. Such an alignment will provide good sight lines that are essential for safety as well as a pleasant riding experience for cyclists.

While the anticipated type of use is a factor for consideration, the fact that a path is provided primarily for recreational use does not remove the need for a good alignment; nor should it encourage designers to provide tight curves to achieve what they consider to be a visually pleasing alignment. Many recreational cyclists travel at relatively high speeds and the radii of curves should be chosen to cater for the expected operating speed on the particular section of path. In addition, tight curves should not be provided to improve visual amenity because: • Pedestrians and cyclists are likely to cut across to the opposite side of the path, increasing the likelihood of path user conflict. • There will be a subsequent requirement to treat the area on the inside of curves at additional cost in order to constrain cyclists and pedestrians to travel along the inadequate alignment.

The minimum horizontal radii shown in Table 5.65 should be used where a flat surface is used and it is not possible or desirable to provide superelevation. Table 5.7 shows the minimum radii that should be used in combination with superelevation. However, AS 1428.1:2009 requires that the crossfall on a path used by pedestrians should not exceed 2.5% (i.e. 1 in 40). Therefore, it follows that the minimum radii used on shared paths should be no less than those shown in Table 5.7, corresponding to a superelevation of 2.5%. It also follows that the values from Table 5.7 for a superelevation greater than or equal to 3% should only be used on exclusive bicycle paths. From a cyclist’s perspective curves should generally have positive superelevation so that they can be comfortably negotiated.

Where practicable designers should not design for the minimum radius as tight curves can result in sight distance restrictions, a poor level of service and some cyclists choosing an informal alternative path to avoid the restriction. Exceptions include locations where the alignment is severely constrained (e.g. steeply sloping land) and smaller radii cannot be avoided. However, isolated tight bends that do not have preparatory approach geometry should be avoided as at night, in an unlit environment, curve warning signage may not be visible with bicycle lights.

4 The operating speed should not be confused with the design speed. The design speed is the speed adopted for the design of the path. The operating speed is the speed at which cyclists adopt in travelling along the path. 5 The radius of the horizontal curves shown in Table 5.6 and Table 5.7 have been determined using the horizontal curve equation that can be found in Guide to Road Design Part 3: Geometric Design (Austroads 2016b).

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It is acknowledged that a curvilinear alignment is often preferred to achieve a visually pleasing path for cyclists. However, minimum radius or sharp curves should not be used to achieve landscaping objectives to the detriment of the level of service and social safety for cyclists on any path that has a commuter, major recreational or utility function.

Table 5.6: Minimum radius of horizontal curves without superelevation

Design speed (km/h) Minimum radius (m) 20 10 30 25 40 50 50 94

Note: Based on zero superelevation and friction factors of 0.31, 0.28, 0.25 and 0.21 for speeds of 20, 30, 40 and 50 km/h respectively.

Table 5.7: Minimum radius of horizontal curves that have superelevation

Superelevation (%)

2 3 4 5 6 Speed (km/h) Minimum radius (m) 20 10 9 9 9 9 30 24 23 22 21 21 40 47 45 43 42 41 50 86 82 79 76 73

Notes: Based on friction factors of 0.31, 0.28, 0.25 and 0.21 for speeds of 20, 30, 40 and 50 km/h respectively. For intermediate values of superelevation the horizontal curve equation found in Guide to Road Design Part 3: Geometric Design (Austroads 2016b) can be used.

Table 5.6 and Table 5.7 apply to bicycle paths and shared paths, however the application of superelevation on a shared path needs to consider the suitability of the crossfall for pedestrians, refer to Section 5.6.1.

5.4 Path Gradients

As a general principle longitudinal gradients on paths for cycling should be as flat as possible. The potential hazard for cyclists due to high speeds on steep downgrades is as important as the difficulty of riding up the grade when determining maximum gradients on two-way paths.

AS 1428.1:2009 and AS 1428.2:1992 have specific requirements for pedestrians, including wheelchair users, and require level rest areas at a specific spacing (see Table 5.8). While these standards were developed for pedestrian and wheelchair access to buildings and premises there is a need to consider their requirements with respect to the design of pedestrian inclusive paths. Where it is considered appropriate to provide compliant path gradients and flat landings the requirements of AS 1428.1 – 2000 should be incorporated into the path design.

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Designers should consult any jurisdictional guidelines; however, in the absence of such guides the following approach is suggested: • Where a path is proposed for a relatively short transverse pedestrian/cyclist overpass (e.g. across a road, creek or railway), it may be appropriate for it to be a shared path. For a shared path, the ramps should be provided with landings at a spacing that complies with AS 1428.1:2009. However, because these landings result in a reduction in cyclist comfort and convenience they may only be acceptable to cyclists if used over a relatively short length. • Where a gradient that requires landings under AS 1428.1:2009 is proposed on a path (including a longitudinal path on a road bridge) that has to provide for ramps greater than 200 m in length, the provision of standard landings may present an inconvenience or hazard for cyclists, particularly those travelling downhill. If there is a need for pedestrian landings in this situation they should be provided on a separated facility or outside the shared path, on both sides.

5.4.1 Universal Access

Where the topography of the road or area where a path is to be located does not allow path grades to meet the requirements of AS 1428.1:2009, designers, in Australia, may refer to the Australian Human Rights Commission’s Advisory note on streetscape, public outdoor areas, fixtures, fittings and furniture (Australian Human Rights Commission 2013).

5.4.2 Ease of Uphill Travel

Figure 5.6 shows the maximum lengths of uphill gradient acceptable to cyclists. The figure is based on a review of the ease of uphill travel (Andrew O’Brien & Associates 1996).

In using the figure designers should understand that: • Above 3% the acceptable length reduces rapidly and it is considered this is the desirable maximum gradient for use on paths. However, in practice there are cases where it is not feasible to achieve a 3% maximum and the designer has no choice but to adopt a steeper gradient. • In cases where 3% cannot be achieved consideration should be given to limiting gradient to a maximum of about 5% and providing short flatter sections (say 20 m long) at regular intervals to give cyclists travelling both uphill and downhill some relief from the gradient.

It is sometimes difficult to achieve these gradients where a path follows streets with driveways or a creek or river and a connection between paths must be achieved in the vicinity of a steep escarpment. It should also be noted that a long, uphill grade preceded by a downgrade is more acceptable than one preceded by a flat or slightly rising grade.

For uphill gradients consideration should also be given to: • cyclist speeds on approach to an uphill section • exposure to wind • width of path – where the recommended gradient cannot be achieved it may be desirable to widen the path to cater for slower cyclists to be passed, the sideways displacement of bicycles being ridden uphill, or to allow for cyclists walking side by side.

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Figure 5.6: Desirable uphill gradients for ease of cycling Length of gradient (m)

Gradient (%)

Notes: Gradients and the associated length would normally be based on the distance between the tangent points for an isolated steep section. However, where there are consecutive grades of varying steepness (all uphill) or large radius vertical curves, these should be calculated based on the intersection points of the respective vertical curves. In general, the ‘acceptable’ line in the figure would be satisfactory for paths with a high proportion of regular or physically fit cyclists, which in most instances would include commuter and sporting cyclists. Otherwise, the ‘desirable’ line in the figure is recommended. Source: Based on a review by Andrew O’Brien and Associates (1996).

5.4.3 Safety and Downhill Travel on Paths

Gradients steeper than 5% should not be provided unless it is unavoidable. It is most important that sharp horizontal curves or fixed objects do not exist near the bottom of hills, particularly where the approach gradient is steep (greater than 5%) and relatively straight. If a curve must be provided at the bottom of a steep grade then consideration should be given to providing additional path width, and a clear escape route or recovery area adjacent to the outside of the curve.

Many cases where gradients are in excess of 5% occur on the approaches to grade-separated facilities (e.g. underpasses) and in these situations the provision of widened paths or clear escape routes is not practicable. In these cases adequate sight distance should be provided together with appropriate delineation and warning signs.

There may be existing bicycle facilities that have gradients which require riding skills beyond inexperienced and young cyclists when they are riding down the grade. As a guide, a gradient greater than 10% over 50 m with horizontal curves or a gradient of 12% over 50 m on a straight path should be avoided. Steep grades must not be combined with sharp horizontal curvature (i.e. curves < 20 m radius).

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Intersecting paths, underpass access points and other circumstances that may result in conflict for cyclists should not be provided at the bottom of steep grades, except where there is no alternative. If an intersection must be provided then it is important that adequate sight distances are provided on all approaches.

5.5 Clearances, Batters and Need for Fences

5.5.1 Clearances

The clearances (Figure 5.7) may be used to construct the appropriate width of the facility required for paths that cyclists use. The envelope based on Figure 3.5, is assumed to be consistent over the range of operating conditions and allowance for higher speeds is provided through larger clearances to other cyclists and fixed objects beside the path.

Figure 5.7: Clearances between cyclist envelope and potential path hazards

Overhead clearance minimum 0.3 m

BicycleBicycle design design envelopes envelopes2 2.2 m

Side clearance required Wall/fence/barrier for path1 or fixed object

Batter / fall32 1.0 m Batter / fall (0.5 m 1.0 m 1.0 m absolute minimum)1 ClearPath path width width

1 This may be reduced to 0.3 m where a fence or obstacle has smooth features. 2 Refer to Section 3.2.2 for guidance on bicycle design envelopes. 3 Refer to Section 5.5.3 for guidance on batters and need for a fence.

5.5.2 Bicycle paths

It is important for safe operation that adequate clearance is provided between bicycle operating spaces for cyclists travelling in opposite directions and between the cyclist operating spaces, and potential hazards beside paths (e.g. fixed objects, vertical drops, steep batters).

The clearance between cyclist operating spaces varies according to the type of use and operating speeds as follows:

A minimum lateral clearance of 1.0 m is required between opposing bicycle operating spaces where the path caters for higher speeds e.g. 30 km/h, because of the high relative speed which exists when cyclists approach one another from opposite directions (e.g. closing speed of 60 km/h).

On paths where the speeds of cyclists are not likely to exceed 20 km/h a minimum lateral clearance of 0.5 m is necessary between opposing bicycle operating spaces.

Consideration should be given to the provision of a centreline on all two-way paths that have a minimal clearance between opposing flows in order to provide guidance and certainty regarding the opposing travel path.

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The following guidelines should be applied for clearances between the cyclist operating spaces and potential hazards beside paths: • Where the areas beside the path and the path alignment are both relatively flat a lateral clearance of at least 1.0 m (0.5 m absolute minimum) should be provided between the edge of any path for cycling and any obstacle, which if struck may result in cyclists losing control or being injured. However, on high-speed paths it is most desirable to have a clearance considerably greater than 1.0 m. This is particularly important on small radius horizontal curves where cyclists may lean in when travelling around the curve. • Where it is considered that an obstacle or hazard beside the path has attributes that could cause serious injury to cyclists (e.g. sharp surfaces such as the rear side of the posts and rails of steel W-beam road safety barrier), designers should assess the risk of cyclists losing control on the particular section of path, and consider either increasing the lateral clearance or shielding cyclists from the hazard. Depending on the situation a rub rail behind the posts or a cyclist fence near the edge of the path could be provided. • Where a vertical drop or a steep batter exists or must be provided adjacent to the path the guidance in Section 5.5.2 should be applied.

Obstacles beside paths include bushes, culvert end walls, trees and large rocks used in landscaping. Provided the design and end treatments are appropriate, or where extenuating circumstances exist, a lesser clearance may be acceptable for fences and other obstacles that have smooth features and are aligned parallel to the path (0.3 m absolute minimum).

These horizontal clearances are partially illustrated in Appendix A.

In urban arterial road related areas it is recommended that where practicable paths are to be located with adequate clearance from both road traffic and the property line so that adequate sight distance is achieved for vehicles and pedestrians leaving driveways and gateways (Figure 5.8). A related consideration is that a path too far from the adjacent carriageway may decrease the likelihood of path users being seen because they are outside the peripheral vision of turning drivers. Wider clearances or physical barriers, including low profile landscaping, may be appropriate where: • the kerbside lane is heavily trafficked • high speed limits exist (e.g. 80 km/h and above) • children on bicycles or inexperienced cyclists regularly use the path.

For this reason it is recommended that where practicable, paths in urban arterial road related areas be located with adequate clearance from both road traffic and the property line so that adequate sight distance is achieved for vehicles and pedestrians leaving driveways (Figure 5.8).

In addition, it is necessary for the path to be located with sufficient distance from the kerb that it enables driveways to be formed without adversely affecting the profile of the path, necessary road furniture to be located near the kerb and errant cyclists to recover without encroaching onto the road. However, where the only option is for the path to be located close to the kerb, consideration should be given to extending the path to the roadside as a sealed shoulder in order to avoid maintenance where it is difficult to access with machinery.

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Figure 5.8: Location of path in road reserve

Note: Further information on path locations in road related areas is contained in Section 4.2.1.

Pedestrian path vertical clearance

An adequate vertical clearance should be provided over the full width of the pedestrian path, completely free of overhanging projections and obstructions (Figure 5.9). Clause D2.3.5 of AS 1742.2:2009 requires that the vertical clearance to a sign that overhangs a footway or bicycle path is no less than 2.5 m.

For urban areas AS 1742.2:2009 (Clause D2.3.5) requires a minimum vertical clearance to a sign of 2.0 m above the top of the kerb to prevent obstruction to an occasional pedestrian. It is considered that this should be interpreted to mean a sign that is located outside of the limits of the path and recommended clearances. It should be noted that AS 1428.2:1992 also requires a minimum vertical clearance of 2.0 m to fixtures and fittings to buildings (e.g. lights, awnings, opening windows) and that this is a minimum provision. Some municipalities require trees overhanging pedestrian paths to be trimmed to a clearance of 3.0 m.

Figure 5.9: Envelope of height requirements

Adequate vertical clearance Obstruction - free space should be provided

Shop awnings and signs should not encroach on the obstruction - free space 2500 mm minimum

* At locations that have high pedestrian flows, the 1500 mm (Absolute minimum) footpath width should provide for the appropriate 1800 mm* (Desirable minimum) level of service. Note: The vertical clearance to an obstruction (e.g. sign), shown as 2500 mm, is required by AS 1742.2:2009.

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Bicycle path vertical clearance

The minimum vertical clearance required by cyclists is 2.5 m, (i.e. 0.3 m above the cyclist design envelope) measured above the riding surface (Figure 5.7). This applies to tree branches, underpasses, doorways, sign structures and any other overhead structure. Where it is absolutely necessary to use the minimum clearance (e.g. at sites where space is constrained and the achievement of a greater clearance would have significant implications regarding the cost of a facility or impacts on other infrastructure) the designer should obtain the agreement of the relevant authority/agency.

5.5.3 Batters and Fences

General

The installation of a fence at the side of a path used by cyclists is desirable where: • there is a steep batter or large vertical drop located in close proximity to the path • the path is adjacent to an arterial road and it is necessary to restrict cyclist access to the road • a bridge or culvert exists on a path • a hazard exists adjacent to a particular bicycle facility • cyclists are likely to be ‘blazing a separate trail’ at an intersection between paths or around a path terminal.

Fences may also be needed where the path geometry, e.g. a downhill grade followed by a sharp curve in the path may be a location where cyclists misjudge the speed the curve can accommodate and run off the path. In these locations a recovery area is needed for the cyclists if they travel off the path and the criteria in Figure 5.10 may not be appropriate. Treatments in these situations should be guided by a risk assessment.

There may be some locations where a treatment such as a vegetation fence could be used. Depending on the severity of the hazard (as determined from a risk assessment) the provision of dense shrubbery that prevents cyclists from reaching a hazard may be suitable.

Steep batter or vertical drop

Figure 5.10 provides a specific recommendation for the provision of a fence on a path in close proximity to a steep batter or vertical drop. In addition to those referred to in the figure, other circumstances may exist where it may be desirable to erect fences even if provision is not required by the figure (e.g. a curving path alignment, located in the vicinity of batters or a drop-off, bridges).

Figure 5.10 highlights the circumstances in which either a partial barrier fence (Figure 5.11), or a full barrier fence (Figure 5.12) or equivalent form of protection should be used. These barriers are intended to prevent access to a slope or to a fall away from a path or other riding surface, where injury might otherwise be expected in the event of a cyclist riding inadvertently off the line of a path. Examples of these fences are provided in the Guide to Road Design Part 6B: Roadside Environment (Austroads 2015b).

The minimum height of a fence should be 1.2 m (Figure 5.11 and Figure 5.12) and should be used only where the severity of the hazard is considered to be low. A higher fence ≥ 1.4 m, should be considered where the fence is protecting path users from a very severe hazard (e.g. high vertical drop from a structure to a body of water or rocks) or at a location where there is a risk of cyclists being vaulted off their bicycle if they collide with the fence, such as on a sharp curve following a steep downhill grade. The fence heights suggested should be verified by a risk assessment for each location that considers the type of hazard and its location near the path.

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After determining what type of barrier fence is required, care must be taken in selecting the form of either partial or full barrier fencing so to not cause a hazard to cyclists. Where barrier fencing is provided directly adjacent a path with vertical components or balusters, consideration should be given to including a cyclist deflection rail (Figure 5.12). Cyclists deflection rails are design to enable a cyclist to deflect off the smooth horizontal rail striking the rail between the cyclists shoulder and elbow (i.e. between 1.2 m and 1.4 m from path surface) so that handlebars (typically 1.0 m from surface level) do not get caught in the vertical components of the fence. Infill panels as show in Figure 5.12 may also be considered as an alternative to deflection rails so to remove the hazard of vertical components of a barrier fencing however care must be taken to not restrict sight lines (Section 5.7). The infill panels of a fence should also have a fine weave mesh or similar to prevent bicycle wheels from being trapped or catching in the fence panel.

The terminal treatment of the fence also needs to be considered to avoid it being a hazard to cyclists. An example of a terminal treatment which has been flared away from the line of the rail to reduce the likelihood of a cyclist colliding into the end of the rail is shown in Figure 5.13.

Similar or even more stringent measures may be required adjacent to roads. Where a batter or fall is located in close proximity to a road, designers should have regard for the requirements of Figure 5.10, particularly where no kerb exists at the edge of a road. However, the measures required should be decided upon with consideration of all road users and of the particular circumstances

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Figure 5.10: Requirement for fence barriers at batters and vertical drops

Barrier fence

Path

A. Vertical fall

X Y

(m) (m) Fence not required* <2 <0.25 Partial barrier fence required <5 0.25 to 2 Full barrier fence required <5 >2 * Batter off the surface where fall is within 1 m of path.

Path

B. Batter slope without obstacles

X Z

(m) (m) <1 >8 Fence not required 1 to 5 >3 Partial barrier fence required <5 1 to 3 Full barrier fence required <5 <1

Path

C. Batter slope with obstacles

X Z

(m) (m) <1 >8 Fence not required 1 to 5 >4 Partial barrier fence required <5 3 to 4 Full barrier fence required <5 <3 ** Barrier fence required if obstacle within 1 m of path.

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Figure 5.11: Example of a partial barrier fence

Smooth rail

1.21.4 mm ((1.2minimum) m min.)

Path

Section A –A

Elevation Notes: Any fence placed in road-related area should also be assessed for roadside suitability.

Figure 5.12: Example of a full barrier fence

Smooth deflectionrail rail

115050 m mmm handlebar pedal clearance clearance

1.21.4 m m (1.2(minimum m min.)) 0.3 m (minimum) Path width Path

Section A –A Elevation

1 This may be reduced to 0.3 m where a fence has smooth features. Notes: Cyclist deflection rails should be placed between 1.2 m and 1.4 m above path surface so that cyclists are able to use the part of the arm between the shoulder and elbow to glance against the smooth longitudinal rail. This prevents the cyclist handle bar located approximately 1.0 m above the path surface from being caught in the vertical components of the fence. Any fence placed in road related area should also be assessed for roadside suitability.

Figure 5.13: Example of flared bicycle rail terminal

Source: Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads (2015a).

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5.6 Crossfall and Drainage

5.6.1 Crossfall

Water ponding on paths has a significant impact on the level of service provided to cyclists as spray leads to grit on both bicycle and rider and pedestrians, who may have to travel off the path to avoid the ponded water. On straight sections crowning of the pavement is preferable as it results in less accumulation of debris. On sealed surfaces a crossfall of 2–4% should be adequate to effectively dispose of surface water whereas unsealed surfaces may require 5% to prevent puddles of water from developing.

The crossfall of a paved pedestrian path may vary from flat (but achieving an adequately drained surface) to 2.5%. Provided that drainage is satisfactory, a lower crossfall is preferred (i.e. 1.0%) as a higher crossfall may cause problems for some people. Where paths are for pedestrian use or shared use, the needs of other path users (e.g. mobility impaired pedestrians) should be considered. In particular, AS 1428.1:2009 specifies that a path crossfall should not exceed 2.5% (1 in 40) or 3.3% (1 in 33) if the path has an asphalt surface.

A two-way crossfall on a path with a central crown, may provide an opportunity for wheelchair users to obtain relief from one-way crossfalls.

Section 5.3 provides information on the horizontal radius of curves and the corresponding superelevation that is required. With reference to Table 5.7 there is limited value in using higher rates of superelevation, and as such it is generally preferable to use a low path crossfall and thereby accommodate the needs of a range of path users.

5.6.2 Drainage

Paths should be constructed so that water does not pond on the surface and debris does not wash onto the path during heavy rain. The path should therefore have adequate crossfall and catch drains to collect water and prevent water and litter from flowing onto the path. In flat terrain it may be adequate to simply elevate the path above the adjacent land, but designers should ensure that the path shoulders are matched to the path surface level and graded with a suitable crossfall (preferably on a slope flatter than 1 in 8).

Catch drains will often be required on the inside of curves and pipes will often be needed to carry water under the path. On large radius curves (e.g. 100 m) an adverse superelevation of 2% may be provided to avoid the need for the catch drain and pipes. However, this should only be done where the catchment area above the path is relatively small and has a surface stable enough that debris is unlikely to wash over the path. Figure 5.14 shows typical cross-sections and drainage requirements of paths for cycling.

Regional paths should be designed for an equivalent flood immunity as that adopted for local roads unless suitable safe alternative routes can be easily accessed from the path. Regional paths that follow watercourses will have to satisfy the requirements of the responsible drainage authority. For most regional paths adjacent to freeways and arterial roads, an average recurrence interval of at least five years should be adopted whereas a two-year average recurrence interval should be satisfactory for paths that have a lesser function and/or have readily accessible alternative routes. In addition, for safety of path users, the water flow depth and velocity need to be assessed, refer to Australian rainfall and runoff: revision project 10: appropriate safety criteria for people: stage 1 report, (Engineers Australia 2010).

Where sections of a path are likely to be subjected to inundation (e.g. along a linear trail adjacent to a watercourse, less important routes) it is important that signs should be erected to warn users of any risk (e.g. flooding, slippery surface after inundation, accumulation of debris on the path) and that maintenance measures are in place to assist cyclists and pedestrians (e.g. well-signed detours, barricades). In such situations the drains should be designed to minimise the likelihood of blockages and the consequent ponding of water at low points in the alignment.

Where paths have to pass under the abutments of structures and headroom is limited, necessitating the level of the path being below the flood level, it may be possible to construct a flood wall between the path and the river to hold back water during minor flood events. In extreme conditions the water can overtop the wall and flow along the path.

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Designers should also: • check to ensure that water follows minimal flow-path distances on the path surface • consider potential problems of water flowing either from the path or other sources, through landscaped areas, to deposit debris over the path surface • consider the use of fencing or other treatment details that trap debris so that it accumulates clear of the path edge • ensure that drains are of an adequate size to avoid them being blocked by roadside litter.

The same principles that are applied in the design of road cross-sections should be used in the design of path cross-sections, namely the need to prevent water from flowing across the path, flooding the path or causing damage to the pavement. Figure 5.14 shows four typical cross-sections that are used on regional paths and that illustrate these principles: • Example a shows a path in flat terrain where the pavement is elevated above the natural surface and water is shed into the flat areas beside the path where it can flow to an outlet. • Example b shows a case where a path is located on a cross-slope with the pavement cut into the high side so that the surface is coincident with the natural surface. This approach is not generally satisfactory as water and possibly debris would be shed across the path and water could seep into and cause damage to a flexible pavement on the high side. Consequently, this option should only be used where the upper ‘non-eroding surface’ has a porous, free-draining sub-surface such that run-off (regardless of the extent of debris) does not encroach onto the path; otherwise Example c should be used. • Example c illustrates the provision of an open drain on the high side of the path to cut off water and carry it to a discharge point, possibly via pits and lateral pipes. In this case water from the path is shed to the low side. • Example d again shows a path on a cross-slope but with the path on a curve and superelevated toward the high side. In this case the open drain collects water from the path and the high side of the path.

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Figure 5.14: Drainage and crossfall requirements

Sound shoulder 0.5 m 0.5 m Sound shoulder

a. Elevated path in flat terrain

Non-eroding surface

Swale and catch drain to b. Path where existing terrain exceeds path crossfall collect water and debris

Discharge to suit

c. Path where existing terrain exceeds path crossfall (with swale)

Path superelevated to inside curve

Swale and catch drain to Discharge to suit collect water and debris

d. Path on a curve

Note: For guidance on swales and catch drains, refer to Guide to Road Design Part 5B: Drainage: Open Channels, Culverts and Floodways (Austroads 2013b).

5.7 Sight Distance

For safe travel pedestrians and cyclists must be able to see other approaching path users. Locations where the available sight distance is needed to be assessed are at structures, such as: • at intersections of paths • across the inside of horizontal curves • at the top and bottom of stairways • under overhead obstructions • culvert entries and exits • in sag curves (e.g. where a path passes under a road) and over vertical crest curves.

The available sight distance needs to enable path users to stop or take evasive action if necessary in order to avoid another cyclist, pedestrian, or an obstacle in their path.

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5.7.1 Bicycle Path Stopping Sight Distance

The stopping sight distances that should be provided to enable a cyclist to stop for various combinations of bicycle design speeds and gradients can be determined using Equation 1. Equation 1 is based on a perception/reaction time of 2.5 seconds, an eye height of the cyclist is assumed to be 1.4 m and the object height is assumed to be zero to recognise that impediments to bicycle travel exist at pavement level (e.g. potholes or stones). The coefficient of friction varies and typically is 0.32 for dry conditions and 0.16 for wet conditions (AASHTO 2012).

V2 V 1 S = + 254 x (f ± G) 1.4

where

S = stopping sight distance (m)

V = speed (km/h)

f = coefficient of friction (typically 0.16 for a bicycle in wet conditions)

G = grade of path (+ for uphill and – for downhill)

Paths should be designed and constructed to provide the greatest sight distance possible at any given location.

The stopping sight distance to be used in the geometric design of paths should be at least equal to that determined from Equation 1, and should be used: • for intersection design • in setting out the alignment of paths • in relation to the positioning of terminals and handrails • at entries to underpasses • to locate landscaping in the field • otherwise as required to ensure the safety of path users.

All two-way bicycle paths should be designed to provide a sight distance between opposing cyclists (i.e as shown across a horizontal curve in Figure 5.15) at least equivalent to twice the stopping sight distance determined from Equation 1. This is to ensure that cyclists who are overtaking can avoid a head-on collision.

Path sight distances can be drastically reduced by the growth of vegetation and hence the location and maintenance of vegetation is critical to safe path operation.

Figure 5.15 illustrates the relationship between stopping sight distance, radius of the curve and the lateral clearance to enable clear visibility of obstructions such as extensive vegetation or an earth embankment. Isolated features including trees do not necessarily constitute a significant obstruction if cyclists can see most of the curve beyond them.

While the graph is provided for use by designers, it is suggested that it, or a simple tabular representation, should be supplied to works staff to be used in construction and routine maintenance operations.

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Where an existing path is narrow, the level of use of the path is high, such that cyclists may be expected to travel in both directions at the same time (i.e. ‘non-tidal’ flow), and widening is not feasible, because of physical or financial constraints, it is recommended vegetation should be set back as shown in Figure 5.15. This set back is to prevent the possibility of head-on crashes. If such a setback is not possible then consideration should be given to any one or a combination of: • local widening of the path around the curve • warning signs • tactile lines.

Figure 5.15: Lateral clearances on horizontal curves

Stopping distance

Note: Line of sight is 600 mm above centre line of inside lane, at point of obstruction Lateral clearance M,(metres)

Stopping sight distance (metres)

Source: AASHTO (1991).

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Where a path has a change in grade, a vertical curve should be incorporated to provide a smooth transition between the grades. Crest vertical curves must be of sufficient length to give the cyclist the stopping sight distance as determined from Equation 2 (AASHTO 2012). Where practicable, sag curves should be the same length as equivalent crest curves to ensure comfort and an aesthetically pleasing path alignment.

2 200 x h + h 2 For S > L, L = 2S - 1 2 A �� � � A x S2 For S < L, L = 2 100 x 2 h1+ 2 h2

�� � � where

L = minimum length of vertical curve (m)

A = algebraic grade difference (%)

S = stopping sight distance (m)

h1 = eye height (m) (1.4 m typical for a cyclist)

h2 = object height (m)

5.8 Changes in Level

Changes in level, such as at kerbs, have to be designed to allow pedestrians and cyclists to move safely and efficiently along the road or path network. Factors relating to changes in level for pedestrians and treatments are summarised in Table 5.8.

Wherever practicable, a high level of service should be provided for pedestrians with respect to convenience and safety. As a general principle the dominant flow should claim priority and maintain a level surface. In situations where the volume of pedestrians and vehicles is high and the speed environment is relatively low it may be appropriate to allow pedestrians to have priority and cross the road without a change in level (i.e. not have to use ramps). This will not only reduce trip hazards for pedestrians but will also reduce vehicular speeds at the conflict points. However, where this type of treatment is installed it will require the use of formal crossings (e.g. pedestrian crossing with regulatory signs, pedestrian signalised crossing), to establish priority for pedestrians.

In locations where there is a low volume of vehicles on the side street and very few heavy vehicles, a continuous pedestrian path treatment could be used to provide priority to pedestrians. This treatment extends the pedestrian path across the road pavement on the same grade and without any colour or texture change. Further information on this type of treatment can be found in Roads and Maritime Services (2013).

Where a path crosses a property access driveway, the path should have a continuous grade across the driveway and preferably, the same crossfall as the path. Where property access cannot be achieved without altering the level or crossfall of the path, such as at a constrained site, the longitudinal grade on the path should provide a smooth change in level with relatively small changes in grade or if this is not able to be achieved ramps, similar to kerb ramps leading onto the driveway section of the path should be provided.

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Table 5.8: Considerations relating to changes in level

Facility Considerations • Level differences between a roadway and an adjacent pedestrian path pose difficulties for pedestrians, particularly those with mobility or vision impairments. • Provide kerb ramps with a smooth change in the level between the pedestrian path and road pavement to allow safe and easy access for pedestrians including people in personal mobility devices and those with a mobility impairment. • Align kerb ramps in the direction of travel to guide pedestrians who are blind or have vision impairment directly across the road and not out into the intersection. • A typical kerb ramp is illustrated in AGRD Part 4 (Austroads 2017a). • A minimum pedestrian path width of 1330 mm should be provided beyond the top of the ramp. Kerbing and • A gradient of maximum of 1:8 quoted in AS 1428.1:2009, should be considered as an absolute kerb ramps maximum ramp gradient and only be used in extenuating circumstances. Providing a flatter kerb ramp grade, e.g. 1:10 with tactile ground surface indicators (TGSIs) may provide a smoother transition between the road pavement and the path. Designers should also consult with disability groups on the design of the kerb ramp. • A vertical lip should not be provided at the edge of the drainage channel as it inhibits the free movement of wheelchairs. • Design surface drainage to avoid low points and the accumulation of water where pedestrian crosswalks are to be located. For example, on-road drainage inlets should be placed immediately upstream of ramps to minimise the water that passes through the channel at ramp crossings. • Refer also to AS 1428.1:2009 for guidance regarding the design of kerb ramps. • An abrupt change in level can be a problem for pedestrians particularly for those who have vision impairments and need to be warned of the presence of a kerb, a flight of stairs or a ramp. • Ramps should be provided where possible as an alternative or in addition to steps or stairs that are a barrier to people with disabilities and necessary for people in wheelchairs or with prams. On the other hand some people with impaired mobility cannot use ramps and need shallow steps (AS 1428.2:1992). • Rest areas (i.e. flat sections) should be provided at each change in direction and at intermediate points along ramps to break up long flights. AS 1428.2:1992 suggests that the spacing of rest areas range from 9 m for ramp grades of 1:14 to 15 m for grades of 1:20. This is a most important consideration in the design of overpasses and underpasses. • Provide handrails to assist pedestrians, including those in wheelchairs - on both sides of a set of stairs, or steps, or a ramp - wherever people may need support (e.g. continuously around rest areas and changes of Steps, stairs direction). and ramps • Generally, two rails at different levels will be required to meet the need of both wheelchair users and other groups. • Ensure inter-visibility between the end of stairs or ramps and intersecting pedestrian paths (e.g. sight distance not obscured by a wall) and an area at the foot of the stairs to minimise the risk of collision. • Provide in all areas used by pedestrians (i.e. above stairs or ramps) a vertical clearance (i.e. headroom) no less than 2.5 m unless significant constraints exist. • Ramp surfaces and treads of stairs should be stable, even and slip resistant. • Tactile ground surface indicators (TGSIs) should be provided at the top of stairs and foot of stairs to indicate these hazards. • The provision of seating clear of the walking space should be considered on long ramps. Other features such as observation decks should be considered if the path provides tourist/social opportunities. • Recommended maximum crossfall is 1:40 (AS 1428.1:2009).

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Facility Considerations • Australian Standard AS 1428.1:2009 lists requirements for the design of sloped pedestrian paths. • Where the gradient is 1:33 level rest areas 1.2 m long should be provided at not greater than 25 m intervals whereas at 1:20 the interval should not exceed 15 m. Between gradients of 1:33 and 1:20 the interval should be interpolated. Landings are not required on gradients less than 1:33. Paths with a gradient steeper than 1:20 are to be considered as ramps for design purposes. • Adjacent ground for all pedestrian paths should be within 25 mm of the level of the pedestrian Gradients path. • If the adjacent ground has a steep slope, a kerb between 65 mm and 75 mm high should be provided to protect prams and wheelchairs and to guide those people with impaired vision. Handrails may also be provided. • The provision of seating clear of the walking space should be considered on long gradients. Other features such as observation decks should be considered if the path provides tourist/social opportunities. • Consideration should be given to the provision of an alternative shorter route via a staircase if such an alternative can be identified. • Crossfall on pedestrian paths should be as flat as practicable consistent with achieving an adequately drained surface. Excessive crossfall causes problems for some people. • Crowning of the pedestrian path can benefit people using personal mobility devices as they can Crossfall travel along the middle of the path, experiencing no crossfall. • AS 1428.1:2009 specifies that any crossfall should not exceed 1:40 (2.5%). A flatter crossfall may be adopted provided that drainage is facilitated to avoid any ponding of water within the path.

5.9 Surface Treatments

Surface treatments should be stable, firm, even, relatively smooth but slip resistant. The choice of surface treatment depends on: • the grade of the surface and the coefficient of friction required • whether the surface is also to provide guidance regarding use of the path or priority (i.e. maintaining contrast with the intersecting road surface) • the physical environment, climate and demands placed on the surface.

It is important for many people that surfaces be flat. This is particularly so for people in wheelchairs, on crutches or who are unsteady on their feet as small ridges and protrusions as small as 6 mm can cause these people to stumble and fall.

Wherever possible pits for utilities or other purposes should not be located in paths as the covers can be hazardous for pedestrians (e.g. misaligned or broken covers form a trip hazard), particularly for physically impaired persons, people on crutches or using other walking aids. Additionally, metal manhole covers can become slippery, particularly when wet.

Another significant disadvantage of locating pit covers in paths is that the path is unable to be used when works are required to maintain the underground service that passes through the pit.

The use of some common paving materials is discussed in Appendix C.

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5.10 Surface Tolerances

The surface of a new path pavement should be shaped to match existing features such as pit covers, edgings or driveways, to within 5 mm. It is desirable that the finished surface of a new path does not deviate from a 3 m straight edge by more than 5 mm at any point.

Existing paths often develop surface imperfections over their operational life such as: • pavement deformation that results in undulating pavements with relatively smooth bumps • tree roots creating sharp bumps • service trenches that subside to create grooves or steps.

In addition, the hazards associated with such surface imperfections can be compounded by other features beside the path, such as an edge drop-off or fixed objects (e.g. trees, poles, rocks).

The surface of an existing path should not exceed the tolerances nominated in Table 5.9, however, conditions and requirements vary between agencies and so when assessing a path, the requirements of the relevant local agency should be obtained. The figures in the table are applicable to discontinuities in the surface of concrete and other sealed pavements, at the pavement/gutter interface, at interfaces between the pavement surface and service covers, at failures and at subsidence and the like. However, the values in the table may be used as a guide for the other surface imperfections described previously.

The table requirements may be difficult to achieve where a pavement abuts an unsealed surface. However, agencies should make every effort to limit the height of steps in these locations as the effect on pedestrians and cyclists travelling along or across a step can be severe.

While no dimension is provided in relation to a groove perpendicular to the direction of travel, this circumstance should be treated as two steps if greater than 100 mm wide.

Table 5.9: Suggested surface tolerances – existing surfaces

Not to exceed (mm)

Width of groove(1) Height of step(2) Parallel to direction of travel 12 10 Perpendicular to direction of travel – 20

1 A narrow slot in the surface that could catch a bicycle wheel, such as a gap between two concrete slabs. 2 A ridge in the pavement, such as that which might exist between the pavement and a concrete gutter or manhole cover; or that might exist between two sections of pavement when the top level does not extend to the edge of the roadway.

Note: It is suggested that a height of 20 mm, may be excessive for many bicycles. This value should be considered as a maximum intervention level for an existing facility rather than a design or construction tolerance. It is suggested that individual jurisdictions should consider a lower intervention level (e.g. 10 mm for perpendicular to direction of travel) depending on local circumstances and the importance of the path within the bicycle path network. Designs and specifications should require smooth flat surfaces.

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5.11 Lighting

The objectives of providing lighting of paths are to: • enable cyclists and pedestrians to perceive hazards such as unusual or uneven surfaces or obstacles such as steps or street furniture, and to enable them to orientate themselves and find their way about • enhance personal security by enabling potential threats from other people to be recognised in time to take appropriate action.

These objectives are particularly important for elderly people and people with impaired vision who may be more vulnerable to trip hazards or feel insecure or uncomfortable in poorly lit environments.

Where a path is located adjacent to a carriageway, the road lighting should also cater for the path (Austroads 2015b, AS/NZS 1158.1.1:2005, AS/NZS 1158.1.2:2010). Designers should consider all aspects of the design that may influence the effectiveness of the lighting, such as the presence of overhanging trees and low- profile hedges that may create significant shadowing which, when combined with adjacent headlights (from the roadway), could make the silhouettes of path users extremely difficult to see.

Areas associated with pedestrian paths that may require a relatively high level of lighting are at-grade road crossings, because of the potential for conflict with motor vehicles and pedestrian underpasses that are often perceived to be unsafe in terms of personal security.

Paths away from roads

Where paths are heavily used during periods of darkness (i.e. dawn, dusk and at night) consideration should be given to the provision of path lighting. The decision to provide lighting is a matter for the relevant agency.

A path considered for lighting will usually form part of a principal path network. Key issues to be considered are that: • Cyclists require greater sight distance in order to avoid conflict with other cyclists or pedestrians and the outcome of such a crash is often severe. • Bicycle head lamps may enable a cyclist to be seen but some may not illuminate the path surface sufficiently to enable cyclists to avoid hazards (e.g. rough surface, debris, obstacles).

Lighting assists in delineating the alignment of the path.

A level of lighting higher than that provided generally along a path should be considered for locations where conflict occurs with other path users or motor vehicles, or where there is greater concern for personal security, for example: • path/path intersections on regional paths • path/road intersections • road crossings and refuges • path terminal treatments • cyclist/pedestrian underpasses • tight curves.

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If it is decided to light a path the lighting should be designed in accordance with relevant standards, which include: • AS/NZS 1158.1.1:2005: Lighting for Roads and Public Spaces: Vehicular Traffic (Category V) lighting: Performance and Design Requirements • AS/NZS 1158.1.2:2010: Lighting for Roads and Public Spaces: Vehicular Traffic (Category V) lighting: Guide to Design, Installation, Operation and Maintenance • AS/NZS 1158.3.1:2005: Lighting for Roads and Public Spaces: Pedestrian Area (Category P) Lighting: Performance and Design Requirements.

Designers should also refer to the relevant jurisdiction for the local lighting requirements.

5.12 Underground Services

The location and design of paths should be coordinated with the many other features and infrastructure that need to be accommodated within road related areas and which are covered in the Guide to Road Design Part 6B: Roadside Environment (Austroads 2015b).

Above ground utility services that have to be located near paths should be placed so that they do not constitute a hazard for pedestrians and cyclists using the path. However, aside from the permanent fixtures located near the path it is important to ensure that underground services do adversely influence the design of the path or the future operation of the path. For example, future operation could be significantly impeded if: • Utility pits are located within the path as maintenance staff and vehicles would be required to work on the path. • The path is ripped up to access services. • Maintenance vehicles associated with the utility provider drive or park along the path.

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6. Intersections of Paths with Paths

6.1 General

In general, the intersections of paths with paths should be constructed and controlled in accordance with the established principles of codes of practice for roads. For instance, at path junctions, the controls and layout should favour the predominant flow on the major through route and meet geometric requirements such as sight distance and gradients. Also, designers must ensure that the construction and controls are consistent with any local requirements.

6.2 Intersection Priority

The designer or path manager should nominate which path is to have priority at intersections between paths. Priority should normally be given to the path that has the highest daily volume of cyclists and pedestrians. Where path volumes are low or similar on both paths the choice should be made on the basis of its function within the network, or by providing priority to the traffic stream that will be most disadvantaged through having to stop and accelerate to speed (e.g. one path may have a steep upgrade on the departure).

A similar approach can be applied to the determination of priority where a bicycle path or shared path intersects with a pedestrian path, which cyclists are not allowed to use, or infrequently use. In considering which path has priority, the path users which are impacted to a greater extent by having to give way should be given priority.

As a general rule, where volumes are low to moderate, cyclists will be disadvantaged more than pedestrians because of the effort required to brake and accelerate up to operating speed and cyclists would benefit in having priority. At higher volumes some pedestrians (e.g. elderly or mobility impaired) may have difficulty in crossing a shared path or bicycle path due to the speed of cyclists in which case priority may be given to the pedestrian path.

To ensure that priority requirements are clear, consideration should be given to the construction of additional controls (see Section 6.3.1) at the intersections of exclusive paths or separated paths with pedestrian paths, where either: • paths are well used • the pedestrian path is used regularly by people who have a vision impairment • sight distance constraints exist.

6.3 Intersection Signs

6.3.1 Control Devices

On the intersections of paths where bicycles are permitted, give-way markings, which are preferred, and/or give- way signs can be used to establish priority. The use of give-way markings avoid the use of a pole which may become a hazard to cyclists. Give way signs should only be used where a particular safety issue is identified or where the intersection has a history of near misses or crashes. Stop signs should never be required.

6.3.2 Wayfinding Signs

Wayfinding signs should be provided at path intersections. Guidance on bicycle wayfinding signs can be found in: • Bicycle Wayfinding (Austroads 2015c) • Guide to Traffic Management Part 10: Traffic Control and Communication Devices (Austroads 2016d).

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A further source for information on methods of providing wayfinding information can be found in the Pavement Marking Manual (Department of Planning, Transport and Infrastructure 2015).

Information relating to standard elements of signs can be found in: • Manual of Traffic Signs and Markings (MOTSAM) Part 1: Traffic Signs (NZ Transport Agency 2010a) and Part 2: Markings (NZ Transport Agency 2010b) • AS 1742.9:2000, Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices Part 9: Bicycle Facilities • AS 1743:2001, Road Signs: Specifications.

6.4 Treatments for Intersections of Paths with Paths

Factors that should be considered in relation to intersections where bicycles are permitted are that: • Pavement markings should include centre lines and give-way holding lines. • Pavement splays in the corners should have a minimum radius of 2.5 m. The path intersection should also assist a cyclist undertaking a turn on a radius of ≥ 5 m to maintain their upright position through the turn. • T-junctions, at busy locations, should be widened to allow for through cyclists to pass a turning cyclist as the extra space reduces the number and intensity of conflicts. Where hold rails are used in the side path the width should cater for turning cyclist envelopes plus an additional lean allowance. • The area around path intersections should be kept clear of hazardous obstacles, such as log barriers, to provide cyclists with a recovery zone. However, it should be noted that landscaping is useful in deterring cyclists who may attempt to travel the shortest path between path junctions or at sharp curves, which, if it occurs, inevitably results in maintenance problems. Any landscaping should be soft and of low height. • Care should also be exercised in the location of intersections on paths adjacent to watercourses so that water holes and steep embankments do not present a hazard to cyclists. The treatment at the sides of paths should provide a forgiving environment in terms of cyclist safety.

The treatment at the intersections of shared paths, establishing priority is shown in Figure 6.1 and Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.1: Intersection of shared paths

(a) Shared path with a shared path (b) Shared path with a separated path

Note: Give way signs are optional and should only be used where there is a demonstrated need.

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Figure 6.2: Example of a shared path intersection

Source: City of Adelaide (n.d.).

Figure 6.3 and Figure 6.4 show four arrangements where a bicycle path or shared path intersects with a pedestrian path and priority is reinforced through delineation and traffic control devices. Figure 6.3 illustrates cases where cyclists have priority and demonstrates how pedestrian ramps can be provided Figure 6.3a) or a contrasting surface material (Figure 6.3b) on the pedestrian path can be used to provide an interface between the paths.

Figure 6.3: Intersection of bicycle path and pedestrian path where cyclists have priority

Pedestrian path

Pedestrian path

Contrasting surface Kerb ramp desirable

(a) Bicycle path and pedestrian path (b) Shared path and pedestrian path

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Figure 6.4 shows cases where pedestrians have priority at an intersection with a shared path (Figure 6.4a) and a separated path (Figure 6.4b) and shows the use of give-way signs to control cyclists and contrasting surfaces to emphasise that pedestrians have priority.

Figure 6.4: Intersection of a shared path and separated path where pedestrians have priority

Pedestrian path

(a) Shared path and pedestrian path (b) Separated path and pedestrian path Note: Give way signs are optional and should only be used where there is a demonstrated need.

6.5 Special Treatments for Intersections of Paths with Paths

At locations where there is a proven record of conflict or where there are other specific safety challenges such as short sight distances, the use of cross intersections between intersecting bicycle paths or shared paths may not be appropriate. At these intersections, a staggered T arrangement should be adopted to prevent high crossing speeds as shown in Figure 6.5.

Figure 6.5: Example of a staggered T-intersection

Note: Consider provision of holding rails on side of paths where main path volumes are high.

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7. Intersections of Paths with Roads

7.1 General

Off-road paths must be readily accessible in order to be well utilised by the community. Access should always be provided where paths cross local streets and arterial roads. Accessibility should be improved further by providing regular connections to local roads or cul-de-sacs.

Where a path is located on one side of a road, kerb ramps should be provided opposite every intersecting street to enable access for local users. The path design should aim to provide an attractive appearance that enhances the streetscape. All connections and crossings should be designed and constructed so as to encourage safe and correct use by pedestrians and cyclists.

It is important that cyclists travelling along off-road paths are provided with sufficient visual and/or physical cues, such as warning signs or pavement markings, to advise them that they are approaching a road crossing. Cyclists will then be able to assess the situation and slow to an appropriate speed or stop if necessary.

Cycling at a consistent speed is significantly easier than cycling with frequent changes in speed. Therefore, cyclists prefer to keep moving and maintaining their momentum, unless there is a good reason for them to stop.

Treatments that allow cyclists to regulate their own speed and that are fairly direct are preferred because they do not unduly inconvenience cyclists. Therefore, treatments discussed in Section 7.5.4 which aim to slow cyclists down should only be used where there is a proven safety issue (e.g. history of ride-out incidents, near misses or crashes), and where the device itself does not pose a greater risk than the dangers it is designed to ameliorate.

The intersection of paths with roads and crossing of roads by paths is generally covered in the Guide to Traffic Management Part 6: Intersections, Interchanges and Crossings (Austroads 2013a) and Parts 4, 4A, 4B and 4C of the Guide to Road Design (Austroads 2017a, 2017b, 2015d and 2015e respectively).

7.2 Intersection Signs

7.2.1 Traffic Control Devices

The use of traffic control devices such as give-way signs and give-way holding lines will depend on the priority of the path with respect to the road. Section 7.3 provides guidance on the use of traffic control devices under various situations.

7.2.2 Wayfinding Signs

Wayfinding signs should be provided at the intersection of paths with roads. For guidance on bicycle wayfinding signs, refer to Guide to Traffic Management Part 10: Traffic Control and Communication Devices (Austroads 2016d) and Bicycle Wayfinding (Austroads 2015c). For standard elements of bicycle wayfinding signs, refer to AS 1742.9:2000 and AS 1743:2001 or in New Zealand the Land Transport Rule: Traffic Control Devices 2004 (Land Transport New Zealand 2005).

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7.3 Treatments for Intersections of Paths with Roads

Where a path intersects or crosses a road mid-block, in general, the intersection should allow pedestrians and cyclists to freely access the roadway. In most instances it is unnecessary to use restrictive devices to slow cyclists down before they cross a road. If the slowing of cyclists is needed treatments such as path curves in advance of the intersection could be implemented.

Where a path connects to a path on a road, the preferred treatment is just a connection without the use of other devices (Figure 7.1). Where there is a safety issue identified, it may be necessary to add give-way holding lines and give-way signs at the path termination to emphasise priority. If this proves to be insufficient to overcome the safety issue, it may be necessary to add special termination treatments designed to slow cyclists (Section 7.5).

Figure 7.1: Example of a simple path connection at an on-road path

Source: Tony Arnold (personal communication 2016).

7.3.1 Road Crossings where the Path has Priority over the Road

It may be appropriate to provide a path with priority across a road where the path carries higher traffic volumes than the road it crosses and where either: • the path crosses a low-speed street, or • the path runs adjacent to a road that has priority over a minor intersecting street.

Designers should refer to AGRD Part 4 (Austroads 2017a) and Guide to Traffic Management Part 8: Local Area Traffic Management (Austroads 2016c) for more information on appropriate treatments such as wombat crossings.

Examples of these types of crossings are shown in Figure 7.2 and Figure 7.3.

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Figure 7.2: Example of an intersection where a separated pedestrian path crossing and a separated bicycle path crossing has priority across a local street

Source: Tony Arnold (personal communication 2016).

Figure 7.3: Example of an intersection where a path crossing has priority over a side street

Source: Tony Arnold (personal communication 2016).

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7.3.2 Road Crossings in a Shared Environment Intersection

Where a path crosses a minor side street or other low-speed, low-volume street, it may be appropriate to provide a shared environment intersection. Shared environment intersections are recommended where the traffic volume of pedestrians, cyclists and motor vehicles are all fairly similar and traffic speed, including bicycle speeds, are low. See the AGRD Part 4 (Austroads 2017a) and Guide to Traffic Management Part 8: Local Area Traffic Management (Austroads 2016c) for more information on appropriate treatments.

7.4 Ancillary Devices for Intersections of Paths with Roads

7.4.1 Push Buttons at Signalised Intersections

A push button may be required where a path meets a road at a signalised intersection and where the users of the path are required to activate a dedicated signal phase.

Push buttons should be located to the left of the path, where practical, in a location that is easily accessible for path users who are waiting to cross in alignment with the kerb ramp. For shared paths, where pedestrian and bicycle lanterns operate together, only one push button is required. For separated paths, where pedestrian and bicycle lanterns operate independently, a push button is required for each phase, pedestrian and bicycle.

Push buttons should be placed on existing traffic signal pedestals, to reduce the number of poles on and near the path. Where traffic signal pedestals are not available or appropriately positioned, a separate post should be installed such that the height of the push button is between 1.0 and 1.2 m. This height provides reasonable access for a range of users including pedestrians, wheelchair users and cyclists.

7.4.2 Holding Rails

A holding rail is a U-shaped rail that is similar to a U-rail but placed in close proximity to both the edge of a path on the approach to an intersection with a road or another path. Its purpose is to provide a support for cyclists to hold onto whilst they await an acceptable gap in the conflicting traffic stream. Holding rails may also be provided in central refuges and medians. An example of a holding rail is shown in Figure 7.4.

Holding rails should only be provided where there is a likelihood that cyclists will have to stop at intersections with roadways. For example, they should not be provided at the intersections of paths with other paths or at the intersection of a path with a local street where it is unlikely cyclists will have to stop and wait. In some jurisdictions holding rails also serve as a support for pedestrians who have a mobility impairment and use the rails to rest upon while waiting to cross roads.

Holding rails must be placed within easy reach of cyclists, on the left side of the path, to ensure that they: • enable cyclists to stop without having to dismount or move their feet off the pedals (which can require cyclists to unclip or disengage from pedal retention devices such as toe clips) • encourage cyclists to stop when appropriate • assist the cyclists as they move off, reducing the time spent travelling through an intersection and aiding balance, thus improving safety • in addition to other clues, provide a useful warning of the existence of an intersection.

Holding rails should be placed so that the cyclists using them can easily see approaching traffic and safely cross or enter the intersecting carriageway. If possible, holding rails should be located about 600 mm from the kerb line or edge of the intersecting roadway, and 300 mm from paths.

A sign-post extension on a holding rail has benefit in that it helps to minimise the number of posts near terminals. The sign should be located with a sufficient clearance to the intersecting road and high enough that it is not hazardous for cyclists.

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Figure 7.4: Example of holding rail

100 mm Reflective white tape*

275 mm Reflective red tape*

Optional sign extension (generally 100 mm Reflective white tape* on road side of rail)

Reflective tape detail 250 mm radius

1 m Reflective tape (see detail)

50 mm diameter pipe

200 mm diameter concrete footing

Rail may be supported in metal sleeve or bolted to concrete slab 1.5 m (desirable) 0.6 m (min)

To avoid the unnecessary proliferation of holding rails, they should not be installed at the traffic islands or approaches to signalised intersections unless specifically sought by users. Furthermore, holding rails should not be placed centrally on paths due to the narrow section tubing used for holding rails making them less conspicuous. In addition, holding rails should not be installed where cyclists are required to dismount.

7.5 Special Treatments for Intersections of Paths with Roads

7.5.1 General

A path terminal treatment may be required where a shared path or bicycle path intersects with a road, e.g. when a path crosses a road from a road related area or parkland.

Path terminal treatments are provided to restrict illegal access by drivers of motor vehicles to road reserves and parkland to prevent damage to path structures (such as lightweight bridges) that have been designed only for bicycle and pedestrian use.

These devices can be hazardous to cyclists and as such they generally should not be installed unless: • unauthorised motor vehicle access may result in damage to path structures • there is clear evidence of unauthorised and undesirable motor vehicle access • the device is effective at excluding such vehicles and not readily circumvented.

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Where installed, terminal treatments should be designed and installed in such a way that they serve their intended purpose and do not cause an unacceptable hazard to cyclists. Cyclists must be able to: • negotiate path entrances with ease • concentrate on other traffic, pedestrians, pavements and ramps • not be distracted by overly restrictive barriers.

It should be noted that not every jurisdiction permits the use of physical barriers to slow or advise cyclists of an approaching road. Physical barriers may be a hazard to other road users and any treatment should have a risk assessment undertaken.

7.5.2 Terminal Design Principles

The design of terminal treatments should meet certain criteria as outlined below. If local authorities choose to use or develop terminal devices that are not illustrated or described in this Part, the designs should consider the requirements outlined below.

Clearance

The design should: • provide an opening width between 1.4 m and 1.6 m where restriction of motor vehicle access is warranted Terminal devices should have sufficient width to accommodate the anticipated path traffic. • be located with at least 1.4 m clearance to adjacent fixtures and so that cyclists can pass conveniently.

Access

The terminal treatment should: • seek to enhance the safety of cyclists accounting for factors such as gradients, the proximity of roads and the approach alignment of the path • be accessible to a range of path users including pedestrians and people with disabilities In relation to bicycles, they should accommodate the common bicycle types as well as tandem bicycles, bicycles with trailers, and other human-powered vehicles. • be constructed so that small passenger cars cannot pass easily through or under horizontal rail sections where a primary objective of the terminal is to restrict access for motor vehicles It should be noted that it is generally impractical to restrict motorcycles and to do so may result in a hazard for cyclists. • not be easily circumvented by unauthorised vehicles, such that either the device is rendered ineffective, or that alternative paths of access are created in adjacent reserve areas resulting in higher maintenance demands • accommodate emergency or maintenance vehicle access where this is not available elsewhere in the vicinity of the terminal (in the event that the path will be relied upon by such vehicles). Note that wherever terminal device elements are removable the connections (or sockets) should be flush at the connecting surface and not present a hazard to path users.

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Geometry

The terminal treatment should: • be located with consideration for other design features in the immediate section of the path e.g. in general it would be inappropriate to locate terminals at or near curves, within a distance of less than 5 m of kerb ramps or within a manoeuvring zone of cyclists • not be located too close to an intersection (e.g. 5–10 m) to enable storage and final braking to occur beyond the device where cyclists may wait for other path users to pass through the terminal device • have clearances at the terminal device and parallel roads that are sufficient in the event of cyclists failing to properly negotiate the device • if consisting of a frame be – at least 1.0 m high above the riding surface – shaped so that on the approach side of the frame, the minimum radius of the frame is 250 mm – constructed of individual frame elements that are rounded, without sharp edges, and having a minimum diameter of 100 mm • if consisting of isolated vertical poles (e.g. bollards) – be at least 1.0 m high above the riding surface – have a minimum diameter of 300 mm.

Safety

The terminal treatment should: • not present a hazardous feature for any pedestrian group (e.g. visually impaired pedestrians) • include adequate protection where the sides grade away from the path at a steep angle or where obstructions exist • have regard for other (conflicting) paths, other paths of access and for sight lines Terminals should be located in such a way that existing paths are not obstructed in any way. Similarly sight lines should not be restricted due to the terminal device or to users (as a result of the terminal device). • not be located at mid-block locations where speeds are likely to exceed 20 km/h.

Delineation

In order to operate safely under all light conditions it is important that terminal treatments and devices should: • be painted in a contrasting colour (white or yellow) and be fitted with quality reflective tape on horizontal and vertical elements to ensure they are visible from all directions Barriers etc., on both sides of paths should be painted and delineated in this manner. Similarly, reflective tape should be fully wrapped around the elements to which it is attached to ensure that it is clearly visible from all directions. • be illuminated in accordance with AS/NZS 1158 (Set):2010, or with the lighting requirements of this Part, as appropriate • where necessary include signs or pavement markings, generally on the path approach to the device, warning of the presence of devices • be preceded by tactile linemarking, or a tactile path surface and a painted unbroken line, where cyclists need to deviate from their line of approach. Similarly, as a further means of warning to approaching cyclists, it is desirable for the device to be visible to one cyclist whilst following immediately behind another.

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There are numerous reports of collisions of cyclists on group rides with isolated vertical poles (e.g. bollards) located within paths. Therefore, it may be appropriate to consider the use of poles that are not less than 1.8 m high where narrow poles (minimum 100 mm diameter) are used, to increase the likelihood of observation of poles above the form of a leading cyclist.

7.5.3 Terminal Treatments for Excluding Vehicles

Separate entry and exit treatment

The preferred terminal treatment to restrict access and warn cyclists to slow down is shown in Figure 7.5. This treatment is the bicycle path equivalent of providing a median island at a road intersection with similar benefits with respect to warning cyclists and channelising traffic movements. It provides sufficient guidance to cyclists that they are approaching a road and does not place an obstacle (such as a bollard) in the path of cyclists.

In order to restrict unauthorised access it is critical that the fence extends to the edge of the path. If access is required for authorised vehicles removable posts may be placed within the fence line.

Figure 7.5: Separate entry and exit terminal

Off-road path

5 m

Unbroken/tactile line where path deviates at terminals

Landscaping etc. suitable to prevent entry by motor traffic

Holding rail

Fence line

1.4 m 1.4 m

Ramp Kerb

Road

Source: Based on VicRoads (2005).

Bollard terminal treatments

A common method of restricting access to paths is to install a bollard in the centre of the path. This type of treatment can create an unacceptable risk to cyclists and should only be used where provision of the preferred treatments is not practicable. While opinions vary, there is considerable concern (and growing evidence in the form of injury compensation claims by cyclists) that the construction of these devices in the centre of paths is hazardous to cyclists.

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If bollards are to be used on paths they must be used in conjunction with a feature on the sides of the path to provide openings of no more than 1.6 m wide. They should also be conspicuous to cyclists and include linemarking to direct cyclists away from the bollard. Figure 7.6 illustrates the layout of a bollard treatment while Figure 7.7 shows an installation without lighting, and Figure 7.8 shows an installation with lighting.

Figure 7.6: Preferred layout for the use of a central bollard

5 m

Unbroken/tactile line

Tactile surface (or consider diagonal marking where tactile line used)

5 m Central bollard

1.4 m Fence / bollards

0.2 m 0.2 m

5 – 10 m

Source: VicRoads (2005).

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Figure 7.7: Example of a bollard treatment

Source: Roads and Traffic Authority (2005).

Figure 7.8: Example of a bollard treatment with lighting

Note: The light should and fitting should be located outside of the clear height requirements, refer to Section 5.5.1. Source: Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads (n.d.).

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U-rail terminal treatments

For paths that are 4 m wide or more, consideration could be given to the installation of a U-rail instead of a bollard. This arrangement shown in Figure 7.9 includes a hazard marker that provides a larger surface area and hence greater conspicuity for the treatment.

Figure 7.9: Example of U-rail and hazard board treatment

Source: Roads and Traffic Authority (2005).

Details of bollards and U-rails

Many instances exist where bollards are located in the centre of paths and no feature exists at the sides of the paths that would prevent access by motor vehicles and as such the devices serve no particular purpose. Where agencies are determined to maintain or construct central fixtures in the centre of paths the need must be justified in every instance; they should be effective in meeting their purpose, and should be provided with a high level of delineation. In particular, the locating of bollards and other fixtures centrally on paths is considered to be inappropriate at or near curves, or at intersections in the manoeuvring area of cyclists.

An example of the details of a bollard and U-rail used in New South Wales is shown in Figure 7.10.

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Figure 7.10: Details of a bollard and U-rail

Notes: 1 Length of U-rail can be varied to suit path width. A minimum of 600mm and a maximum of 1500mm should be adopted. Detail shown above has used 1200mm. 2 Bollards and U-rails can be fixed to path by using either a bolt system or pipe sleeve and concrete as shown. If a pipe sleeve is used, a metal wedge is to be used to secure the U-rail in the sleeve. 3 Where a U-rail is mounted at right angles to a path a ‘target board’ shall be fitted. If the U-rail is mounted longitudinally along the path a target board is not used. See inset for ‘target board’ detail. Source: Roads and Traffic Authority (2005).

7.5.4 Terminal Treatments for High-conflict Locations

Where there is a history of conflict (i.e. ride-out incidents, near misses or crashes), it may be necessary to install terminal treatments that are designed to enforce a reduction in cycling speed at the approach to a roadway. This should only be considered where it has been clearly demonstrated that other treatments have not worked and the device itself does not pose a greater risk than the dangers it is designed to ameliorate.

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Where this is the case, designers should ensure that: • the device is no more restrictive than is necessary and allows easy access for wheeled devices such as wheelchairs, motorised mobility scooters, standard bicycles, cargo bicycles, tandem bicycles etc. • the device is light in colour and fitted with retro-reflective material to increase its conspicuity at night • street lighting is adequate • the fencing has no sharp protrusions.

Some road agencies do not favour these devices as they may: • distract cyclists from concentrating on the task of processing more important information relating to surrounding traffic conditions • create unnecessary conflict points and hazards for path users.

Staggered fence treatment

A staggered fence treatment should only be used where there is a very good reason to slow cyclists down (e.g. history of ride-out incidents, near misses or crashes). This type of treatment involves the installation of two U-rails or two sections of mesh fence as shown in Figure 7.11. It is important that the treatment has adequate lighting and is constructed of materials that are inherently conspicuous (i.e. all posts and mesh colours should contrast with the surrounding environment as viewed by the approaching cyclists) as total reliance on fitted delineation devices poses a risk to safety if the device is vandalised or poorly maintained.

The staggered fence should be designed so that the: • left barrier fence is closest to approaching path users • left barrier fence does not overlap the right barrier (reduces required deviation) • distance between the two barrier fences is at least 3 m to provide an adequate clearance and turning path for larger bicycles such as cargo bicycles.

The materials that are suitable for mesh fence treatments are generally not retroreflective and hence the treatment should be delineated, for example, with a hazard board on each fence section facing approaching cyclists as shown in Figure 7.11.

Figure 7.11: Example of a staggered fence treatment

Source: G. Veith (n.d.).

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Offset path treatment

An alternative to the staggered fence treatment, which is based on a similar principle, is to provide an offset path treatment as shown in Figure 7.12. This treatment has similar issues as those relating to the staggered fence treatment.

Figure 7.12: Example of an offset path treatment

Source: VicRoads (2005).

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8. Paths at Structures

8.1 General

The design of structures is very important to pedestrians and cyclists. Existing road bridges are often narrower than the road on the approaches thus creating a squeeze point for pedestrians and cyclists. Because of the high relative cost of new bridges there can be a tendency for designers to be as economical as possible in the widths provided for the various users. It is important, however, that road managers look for ways to better cater for pedestrians and cyclists at all existing structures and that designers and planners ensure that adequate provision is made for them in the design of all new structures.

The primary requirements for using bridges and underpasses are that: • adequate path width and horizontal clearances to objects (walls, safety barriers, kerbs, fences, poles, street furniture etc.) is provided • adequate vertical clearance is provided, particularly in underpasses • good sight lines are provided into and through structures • the surface is smooth and not slippery under any conditions; a particular issue can arise with expansion joints that can provide a rough ride and be slippery when wet and designers should seek better methods and materials to address this issue.

8.2 Road Bridges

Where a bicycle or pedestrian facility is provided on the approach to a road bridge it is important that a similar facility be continued across (or under) the structure. This should always be possible in the case of new structures. In the case of existing structures it will not always be possible but in brownfield locations consideration should be given to implementing measures that will improve the facility e.g. reduce the width of motor traffic lanes to make space available for pedestrians and cyclists; utilise pedestrian paths as shared paths.

The characteristics of pedestrians and cyclists at a site may require that an on-road bicycle lane is provided for experienced cyclists and a shared path is provided for other cyclists and pedestrians.

For information relating to on-road facilities designers should refer to Guide to Road Design Part 3: Geometric Design (Austroads 2016b).

8.2.1 Use of Pedestrian Paths on Narrow Bridges

If the width between kerbs on a two-lane two-way bridge is less than 7.4 m and pedestrian paths exist on both sides of the bridge then ramps should be provided on both sides of the bridge so that cyclists can also use the pedestrian path to avoid the squeeze point. Where a pedestrian path exists on only one side of the bridge it may be possible to utilise the path for one direction and provide a wide kerbside lane in the opposite direction.

8.2.2 Shared Path Structures

Where a shared path is to be provided on only one side of a road, safe access to the path should be provided via appropriate at-grade crossings or by providing paths beneath any bridges near the abutments as illustrated in Figure 8.1. An example of a similar crossing is shown in Figure 8.2.

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Figure 8.1: Illustration of a shared path crossing under a bridge abutment

Figure 8.2: Shared path under a bridge abutment

Source: Gary Veith (personal communication 2009).

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It is desirable that the width of shared path where it is located on one side of a bridge only accord with Section 5.1.4. If a width of less than 2.0 m is available then it may be necessary to erect warning signs advising cyclists not to overtake or pass on the pedestrian path.

If a path for cycling is provided on a road structure the path on the approaches should be at least 1.2 m from the edge of the traffic lane and concrete kerb installed along the length of the structure and on the immediate approach. Pedestrian fencing having a height of 1.4 m (Figure 5.12), preferably set back at least 450 mm from the line of kerb, should be considered for installation on the pedestrian path of the bridge to separate the cyclists from the motor vehicles in the adjacent traffic lane. The same treatment should be installed where for network reasons two-way shared paths, (which are of adequate width and used by young cyclists), are installed on structures along very busy roads. However, such fences should not be installed where they are located on the inside of horizontal curves and would impede the required stopping sight distance for motorists.

Where it is considered that cyclists and pedestrians would be at an unacceptable level of risk due to the speed of traffic, alignment of the road and any other contributing factors, consideration should be given to the installation of a safety barrier to shield path users.

Further information on the design of bridges is contained in Guide to Bridge Technology (Austroads 2009– 2012).

8.3 Underpasses

8.3.1 General

Grade separated crossings such as bicycle bridges, underpasses and overpasses may be provided to achieve a safe crossing of roads (Figure 8.3), rivers or railways. General guidance on the use of grade separations for use by pedestrians and cyclists is provided in the Guide to Traffic Management Part 6: Intersections, Interchanges and Crossings (Austroads 2013a).

Although often provided as part of a shared path network grade separations may be provided as a safe alternative adjacent to narrow road bridges or through the fill behind a bridge abutment. In difficult terrain a structure, such as a box culvert, may be used to continue a shared path along the bank of a river.

When using culverts as part of a path network, the following principles in the design and operation of the culvert and the approaches should be applied (based on de Groot 2007): • Culvert length – keep the length of the culvert as short as possible to minimise the distance a path user is in the closed space. • Visible entry – approaching path users are able to observe the path enters a culvert well before entering the culvert. • Vegetation – at the entry and exit, vegetation is managed to ensure that it does not create any hiding places. • Approach embankments – are not too steep, e.g. 1:1 embankment slope, to reduce the perception of being closed in, also assists with casual surveillance of the section of path. • Culvert dimensions – a height to width ratio of 1:1.5 is preferable to reduce the perception of entering a narrow space. • Drainage – the floor of the culvert drains quickly and is shaped to reduce the build-up of debris. • Maintenance – the culvert size facilitate the maintenance operations to enable the culvert to be readily cleaned.

These principles also support the crime prevention through environmental design principles, which assist in creating comfortable spaces for people to use.

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Figure 8.3: Example of a pedestrian/bicycle path underpass

Source: Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads (n.d.).

8.3.2 Use of Existing Culverts

The desirable vertical clearance within an underpass is 2.5 m. However, this height is problematic in that a standard height of 2.4 m has been used in many existing drainage culverts constructed with crown units and is adequate. In relation to severely constrained sites, culverts with a vertical clearance of only 2.0 m have been successfully utilised to accommodate paths for cycling under roads and this is considered to be acceptable when utilising existing structures.

The relative advantages and disadvantages of using a culvert with limited clearance rather than an at-grade crossing should be evaluated. If it is decided to use a culvert of limited height, signs should be erected to warn cyclists of the reduced headroom. Other steps should also be considered including some form of external (to the culvert) roof transition (from a height of 2.5 m to the height of the culvert roof) to negate the chance of a cyclist colliding with the abrupt low roof face of a culvert. Where a square corner cannot be avoided on the culvert ceiling at the entrance to the culvert some form of cushioning should be provided on the headwall to minimise injury to cyclists who may impact their head against it.

A drainage culvert should not cater for cyclist or pedestrian use unless it satisfies the recommendations in Section 5.6 for drainage, whilst providing adequate vertical clearance. Appropriate warning signs should be installed advising of alternative crossing points for use during higher water flows. A connecting path between the recreational path and the road is always provided to facilitate access to the path and is generally suitable for use as a bypass during high water flows. It is essential that good sight distance is provided to the culvert entrances so that cyclists have adequate warning and can see any debris, silt, etc. that may have built up around and in the culvert during and after these conditions.

If an underpass is used the alignment of the path on the approach should be designed such that users can see through the culvert. Vandal-proof lighting should also be provided in underpasses for shared paths.

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Underpasses of roads should be constructed with minimal cover between the top of the underpass and the road. Whilst this may necessitate the relocation of services it has the advantage that shorter approach ramps can be used requiring less overall space. Also better opportunities for the provision of adequate sight lines may be possible in order to enhance personal security.

The gradients on approach ramps to shared path overpasses and underpasses should be in accordance with the requirements of AS 1428.1:2009, which are summarised in Section 5.4 and Table 5.8. Where the facility is an exclusive bicycle path a steeper gradient is permissible in accordance with Figure 5.6.

On existing structures that incorporate right angle landings in the alignment of the approach ramps, or where adequate sight distance cannot be provided, warning signs advising cyclists and other users of the hazards should be erected.

8.4 Bicycle Wheeling Ramps

Where it is not possible to locate a path for cycling so that an acceptable gradient is achieved a bicycle wheeling ramp (Figure 8.4) may be provided to accommodate a significant change in level over a short distance.

Figure 8.4: Example of a bicycle wheeling ramp

Source: ARRB Group (2009).

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Wheeling ramps should be used as a last resort and should not necessarily be regarded as a treatment that serves the needs of cyclists well. They can be as unsatisfactory to cyclists (i.e. carrying children) as for pedestrians (due to inconvenience). They are generally regarded as inappropriate where used in association with new path facilities if alternative path access is possible.

Existing stairs can often be readily modified to provide for cyclists by the addition of a ramp formed by concrete infill or steel plate. Ramps may be either on the sides or within a median of the stairs.

Also: • Wheeling ramps should be provided on both sides of stairways where significant bicycle volumes exist. • The gradient of ramps should not exceed about 25º. • Narrow channels (75 mm to 150 mm wide) or channels that are rounded at the base should be used to improve the ease of wheeling for cyclists. A channel designed to accommodate what is on average the widest bicycle tyre (i.e. that of a mountain bicycle) would be ideal. • The channel should be constructed approximately 0.4 m from a fence or wall, or so as to avoid the catching of pedals or handle bars. • Handrails should be constructed as close as practical to the fence or wall, when erected adjacent to a wheeling ramp. • Wheeling ramps should be constructed with a smooth transition onto and off of the ramp. • It may be desirable to construct the ramp with a kerb (Figure 8.5) to limit the possibility of pedestrians inadvertently stepping onto the ramp section. • It would be prudent to construct the ramp so as to minimise the possibility that it may be cycled on.

Figure 8.5: Bicycle wheeling ramp key dimensions

Fence/wall

75 – 100 mm kerb height

75 – 150 mm half round wheel channel

400 mm

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9. Construction and Maintenance Considerations for Paths

9.1 General

If paths are not adequately constructed and maintained, pedestrians and cyclists are not likely to use them, or may deviate to avoid surface irregularities thus creating a hazardous situation. Smooth, debris free surfaces are a fundamental requirement for providing safe paths.

On a path used by cyclists, the cyclist may reach speeds up to 50 km/h on downhill grades, a rough surface or pothole can cause a cyclist to fall, leave the path and crash or come into conflict with other path users. Most bicycles have no suspension or shock absorbers and many bicycles have relatively thin tyres inflated to high pressures. Consequently, when a cyclist hits a pothole at speed it is most uncomfortable, difficult to maintain control and potentially hazardous for the cyclist.

In order to gain an appreciation of the problems faced by pedestrians and cyclists it is suggested that maintenance supervisors should walk or ride over the path. This enables a more detailed examination of the surface to be made and defects detected.

A substantial capital investment is often made in providing paths and agencies should also have an effective management regime to define responsibilities and to ensure that these facilities are adequately maintained.

Reference should also be made to Appendix C regarding construction and maintenance considerations.

9.2 Bicycle Safety Audits

Appendix D presents the concept of a bicycle safety audit as part of a quality system. Bicycle safety audits are as important as safety audits that relate to other road users and should also comply with guidelines presented in the Guide to Road Safety Part 6: Road Safety Audit (Austroads 2009).

Bicycle safety audits should be applied to both on-road and off-road facilities, existing and proposed facilities, and all stages of the development of proposals from feasibility studies to pre-opening of the facility. An example of a bicycle safety checklist is provided in Appendix D. Such lists should be used in conjunction with Austroads lists that relate to road design, transportation and traffic in general.

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References

AASHTO 1991, Guide for the development of bicycle facilities, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington DC. AASHTO 2012, Guide for the development of bicycle facilities, 4th edn, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, USA. Andrew O’Brien & Associates 1996, ‘Review of guide to traffic engineering practice: part 14: bicycles’, State Bicycle Committee of Victoria & Ministry of Transport, Melbourne, Vic. Australian Asphalt Pavement Association 1990, A guide to asphalt for lightly trafficked streets, Advisory Note 5, AAPA, Kew, Vic, viewed 8 April 2016, . Australian Human Rights Commission 2013, Advisory note on streetscape, public outdoor areas, fixtures, fittings and furniture, Australian Human Rights Commission, Sydney, NSW. Austroads 2006, Pedestrian-cyclist conflict minimisation on shared paths and footpaths, AP-R287-06, Austroads, Sydney, NSW. Austroads 2009-2012, Guide to bridge technology – set, Austroads, Sydney, NSW. Austroads 2009, Guide to road safety part 6: road safety audit, 3rd edn, AGRS06-09, Austroads, Sydney, NSW. Austroads 2010a, Guide to road design part 6: roadside design, safety and barriers, 2nd edn, AGRD06-10, Austroads, Sydney, NSW. Austroads 2010b, Australian national cycling strategy 2011-2016: gearing up for active and sustainable communities: national cycling strategy: 2011-2016, AP-C85-10, Austroads, Sydney, NSW. Austroads 2013a, Guide to traffic management part 6: intersections, interchanges and crossings, 2nd edn, AGTM06-13, Austroads, Sydney, NSW. Austroads 2013b, Guide to road design part 5B: drainage: open channels, culverts and floodways, AGRD05B-13, Austroads, Sydney, NSW. Austroads 2014, Guide to traffic management part 5: road management, 2nd edn, AGTM05-14, Austroads, Sydney, NSW. Austroads 2015a, Guide to road design part 1: introduction to road design, 4th edn, AGRD01-15, Austroads, Sydney, NSW. Austroads 2015b, Guide to road design part 6B: roadside environment, 2nd edn, AGRD06B-15, Austroads, Sydney, NSW. Austroads 2015c, Bicycle wayfinding, AP-R492-15, Austroads, Sydney, NSW. Austroads 2015d, Guide to road design part 4B: roundabouts, 3rd edn, AGRD04B-15, Austroads, Sydney, NSW. Austroads 2015e, Guide to road design part 4C: interchanges, 2nd edn, AGRD04C-15, Austroads, Sydney, NSW. Austroads 2015f, Level of service metrics (for network operations planning), AP-R475-15, Austroads, Sydney, NSW. Austroads 2016a, Guide to traffic management part 4: network management, 4th edn, AGTM04-16, Austroads, Sydney, NSW. Austroads 2016b, Guide to road design part 3: geometric design, 3rd edn, AGRD03-16, Austroads, Sydney, NSW. Austroads 2016c, Guide to traffic management part 8: local area traffic management, 2nd edn, AGTM08-16, Austroads, Sydney, NSW. Austroads 2016d, Guide to traffic management part 10: traffic control and communication devices, 2nd edn, AGTM10-16, Austroads, Sydney, NSW.

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Austroads 2017a, Guide to road design part 4: intersections and crossings: general, AGRD04-07, Austroads, Sydney, NSW. Austroads 2017b, Guide to road design part 4A: unsignalised and signalised intersections, 2nd edn, AGRD04A-17, Austroads, Sydney, NSW. Austroads 2017c, Cycling aspects of Austroads guides, 3rd edn, AP-G88-17, Austroads, Sydney, NSW. Cairney, P & King, K 2003, Development of a performance based specification for a major bicycle facility, ARR 358, ARRB Transport Research, Vermont South, Vic. Cement and Concrete Association of Australia 2004, Guide to residential streets and paths, Cement and Concrete Association of Australia, Sydney, NSW. Cross, KD & Fisher, GA 1977, A study of bicycle/motor-vehicle accidents: identification of problem types and countermeasure approaches, DOT-HS-4-00982, National Highway Transport Safety Administration, Washington, DC, USA. de Groot, R 2007, Design manual for bicycle traffic, CROW, Ede, The Netherlands. Department of Planning, Transport and Infrastructure, 2015, Pavement marking manual, DPTI, Adelaide, SA. Engineers Australia 2010, Australian rainfall and runoff: revision project 10: appropriate safety criteria for people: stage 1 report, Engineers Australia, Barton, ACT. Land Transport New Zealand 2005, Land transport rule: traffic control devices 2004, Wellington NZ. Land Transport New Zealand 2008, Estimating demand for new cycling facilities in New Zealand, report 340, Land Transport New Zealand, Wellington, NZ, viewed 30 May 2016, . Ministry of Transport 2005, Getting there: on foot, by cycle: a strategy to advance walking and cycling in New Zealand transport, Ministry of Transport, Wellington, NZ. NZ Transport Agency 2009, Pedestrian planning and design guide, NZTA, Wellington, New Zealand, viewed 12 January 2016, . NZ Transport Agency 2010a, Manual of traffic signs and markings (MOTSAM): part 1: traffic signs, NZTA, Wellington, New Zealand. NZ Transport Agency 2010b, Manual of traffic signs and markings (MOTSAM): part 2: markings, NZTA, Wellington, New Zealand. Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads 2015a, Road planning and design manual: edition 2: volume 3: supplement to Austroads Guide to Road Design Part 6A: Pedestrian and Cyclist Paths, TMR, Brisbane, Qld. Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads 2015b, Technical note 128: selection and design of cycle tracks, TMR, Brisbane, Qld. Queensland Transport 2005, Easy steps: a tool kit for planning, designing and promoting safe walking, Queensland Transport, Brisbane, Qld, viewed 18 January 2016, . Roads and Traffic Authority 2002, How to prepare a pedestrian access and mobility plan: an easy three stage guide, RTA/PUB.02.024, RTA, Sydney, NSW. Roads and Traffic Authority 2005, NSW bicycle guidelines, version 1.2, RTA, Sydney, NSW. Roads and Maritime Services 2013, Continuous footpath treatments, technical direction TDT 2013-05, RMS, Sydney, NSW. Shepherd, R 1994, ‘Road and path quality for cyclists’, Australian Road Research Board (ARRB) conference, 17th, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australian Road Research Board, Vermont South, Vic, vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 133-47. VicRoads 2005, Terminal treatments for off-road paths, cycle note no. 17, VicRoads, Kew, Vic.

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Australian and New Zealand Standards AS/NZS1158 (Set):2010, Lighting for roads and public spaces, set. AS/NZS 1158.1.1:2005, Lighting for roads and public spaces: vehicular traffic (category V) lighting: performance and design requirements. AS/NZS 1158.1.2:2010, Lighting for roads and public spaces: vehicular traffic (category V) lighting: guide to design, installation, operation and maintenance. AS/NZS 1158.3.1:2005, Lighting for roads and public spaces: pedestrian area (category P) lighting: performance and design requirements. AS/NZS 3695.1:2011, Wheelchairs: requirements and test methods for manual wheelchairs. AS/NZS 3695.2:2013, Wheelchairs: requirements and test methods for electrically powered wheelchairs (including mobility scooters). Australian Standards AS 1428.1:2009, Design for access and mobility: part 1: general requirements for access: new building work. AS 1428.2:1992 (R2015), Design for access and mobility: part 2: enhanced and additional requirements: buildings and facilities. AS 1742.2:2009, Manual of uniform traffic control devices: part2: traffic control devices for general use. AS 1742.3:2009, Manual of uniform traffic control devices: part 3: traffic control for works on roads. AS 1742.9:2000, Manual of uniform traffic control devices: part 9: bicycle facilities. AS 1743:2001, Road signs: specifications. AS 2890.3:2015, Parking facilities: part 3: bicycle parking.

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Appendix A Application of Envelopes and Clearances to Determine the Widths of Paths

Various common path operational scenarios are shown in Figure A 1, Figure A 2 and Figure A 3. These form the basis of the widths provided for paths in Section 5 of the guide. Designers should review the likely operational characteristics of paths during the design process to determine the appropriate path width.

A.1 Bicycle Paths

For a bicycle path (Figure A 1): • 3.0 m is the desirable width for a path where high speeds are possible. • 2.5 m is the acceptable minimum path width for paths with a predominant purpose of commuting, during periods of peak use. • 2.0 m is the absolute minimum path width where paths experience very low use at all times and on all days or where significant constraints exist limiting the construction of a wider path, and may be acceptable for a commuting path where the path user flows are tidal in nature.

Whilst unlikely, it is technically possible that situations exist where wider paths may be justified i.e. where there are high speeds, and where high ‘concurrent’ bicycle volumes exist for both directions, such that passing within the lane in each direction is necessary.

Figure A 1: Bicycle path operation

Scenario Overall width of path Predominant path purpose

Typical• Typical circumstances circumstances of of use use

A 2.0 m Local aaccessccess •Constrained Constrained conditions conditions ••‘ Tidal‘T idalflow’’ flow • •Low L useow use

B 2.5 m Commuting and and local local access access •Regular Regular use use •20 km/h20 km/h

C 3.0 m CommutingCommuting •• FrequentFreque andnt andconcurrent concurrent use in bothuse directions in both directions •• 30 km/h+30 km/h+

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A.2 Shared Paths

For a shared path (Figure A 2): • Regional paths should be 4.0 m wide to permit the cyclist groups/couples to pass pedestrian couples or other cyclist groups, or to permit cyclists travelling in opposite directions to pass pedestrians with convenience and safety. However, it should be noted that in some jurisdictions cyclists may be prohibited from riding side-by-side on shared paths. • 2.5 m and 3.0 m are the absolute minimum widths for paths having a predominant purpose of commuting and recreation respectively, during periods of peak use. • 2.0 m is an acceptable path width where the path has a very low use at all times and on all days, where significant constraints exist limiting the construction of a wider path. • 3.0 m is the minimum path width for a path where high speeds occur.

A.3 Separated Paths

Figure A 3 illustrates the operation of a one-way separated path.

The width for this path is: • 1.5 m desirable width (overall path width of 3.0 m) and is appropriate for paths used by experienced cyclists, and where there are relatively high cyclist speeds. • 1.2 m absolute minimum width (overall path width ≥ 2.4 m) and should only be used for local access paths (where higher speed cyclists are a small proportion of all users), where cyclist speeds are relatively low, and where the path abuts an adjoining pedestrian path not less than 1.2 m wide. • 2.0 m is the width of the bicycle path (overall width of 3.5 m) required where passing within the cyclists’ path section occurs or where it is desirable that passing manoeuvres by cyclists occur outside of the pedestrian path section of the facility.

A barrier separating the bicycle and pedestrian path sections is not usually required for separated one-way paths. However, physical separation should be considered in situations such as where path conditions are congested or where there are unsafe conditions due to path users.

In the event that a barrier is used to separate the bicycle and pedestrian path sections, then a wider pedestrian path section may be required to allow passing manoeuvres on that section of the path, amongst other reasons (e.g. pedestrian volumes).

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Figure A 2: Shared path operation

Scenario Overall width of path Predominant path purpose

•TypicalTypical circumstances circumstances ofof use use

A 2.0 m Local accessaccess •Constrained constrained conditions conditions ••‘ Tidal‘tidal flow’’ flow •Low l owuse use

B 2.5 m •CommutingCommuting and and local local access access ••Regular Regular use use ••20 km/h20 km/h

C 3.0 m CommutingCommuting •• FrequentFreque andnt andconcurrent concurrent use in bothuse directions in both directions •• 30 km/h+30 km/h+

Recreation D 3.0 m Recreation •Regular Regular use use •20 km/h20 km/h

•Commuting and recreation E 3.5 m Commuting and recreation (concurrent)(concurrent) •Frequent and concurrent use in both Frequentdirections and concurrent use in both directions •30 km/h+ • 30 km/h+

F 4.0 m Major recreational recreation path •20 km/hHigh and concurrent use •Heavyin bothand concurrent directions use in both directions• 20 km/h

MajorMajor recreationalrecreation path G 4.0 m ••Regular Regular group group rides rides ••Heavy High and and concurrent concurrent use usein both directionsin both directions ••Generally Generally low speedlow speed due to due congestionto congestion

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Figure A 3: Separated one-way path operation

Scenario Overall width of path Predominant path purpose

Typical• Typical circumstances circumstances ofof use

A 2.5 m CCommutingommuting andand local local access access •• ConstrainedConstrained conditions conditions ••‘ 20 20km/h km/h’

B 3.0 m CommutingCommuting •Frequent Frequent and concurrent and concurrent use in both usepath in sections both path sections •30 km/h+30 km/h+

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Appendix B Speed Limiting Treatments

The use of speed limiting treatments on paths, either a bicycle path or a shared path, should follow the same principles as used when speed reducing treatments are placed on roads. The devices must provide a clear unambiguous direction to the path user, must not add a hazard and must be supported by necessary regulatory signage and linemarking.

Table B 1 sets out speed limiting treatments for bicycle path and shared path terminations.

Table B 1: Suggested path speed limiting treatments

Treatment Use Comments Can destabilise riders and increase hazards if poorly sited or inadequately Speed humps Appropriate marked. Warning signs and linemarking similar to road humps. Minimum one-way width of 1.4 m. Warning signage and linemarking Path narrowing Appropriate required. Maximum deflection angle 10° for high-speed path and 20° for low-speed Path deflection Appropriate path. Used to warn of an approaching hazard and to advise of a need to reduce Warning signs Appropriate speed. Used in conjunction with other methods. Alternative paving Appropriate Use different materials and colours. Can destabilise cyclists and increase hazards if used as a speed limiting Path terminal Not appropriate treatment. Used only to prevent unauthorised vehicle entry when other deflection rails methods have not succeeded. Holding rails Not appropriate Only used at intersections to provide a temporary support for a cyclist. Bollards Not appropriate Not considered an appropriate speed control treatment.

Source: Adapted from Roads and Traffic Authority (2005) and Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads (2015a).

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Appendix C Path Construction and Maintenance

C.1 General Requirements

Careful location, design and construction of paths for cycling can reduce future maintenance requirements. Careful attention to drainage, the location of vegetation and the type of vegetation planted can assist in minimising maintenance. A large amount of maintenance can be prevented if debris is not washed onto paths, and if appropriate plant species are selected so they do not cause pavement damage and trimming of overhead branches is not required.

The path alignment and cross-section should be designed to minimise the amount of debris, which can wash onto the path surface. Paths adjacent to watercourses should be located so that the likelihood of inundation and the resulting slippery surface is reduced.

Bushes that will not grow tall enough to obstruct sight distance should be planted on the inside of curves. Trees should be chosen and planted away from the edge of paths so as to minimise the likelihood of roots causing deformation and cracking of the path surface.

Paths for bicycles should be included in asset management programs in a similar manner to roads, to ensure a safe and useable riding surface and also to avoid the increasing cost of maintenance or reconstruction as a result of the asset degradation.

It is essential for effective maintenance operations that all aspects of the design allow for ease of access for all necessary maintenance plant (i.e. truck, backhoe, and mowers), not only to the path but abutting reservations that do not have alternate access. As the construction may not be performed by the agency performing the maintenance, consultation should be undertaken throughout the design process in order to determine maintenance requirements.

C.2 Path Maintenance Requirements

Regular maintenance activities on paths should include: • filling of cracks (Figure C 1) • trimming or removal of grass so that it does not intrude into the path (Figure C 2) • sweeping of paths to remove debris such as broken glass and fine gravel (including that arising from construction and maintenance activities such as crack sealing) • re-painting of pavement markings • cleaning of signs • trimming of trees and shrubs to maintain safe clearances and sight distances.

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Figure C 1: Maintenance operations on asphalt path

Figure C 2: Asphalt path requiring maintenance

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C.3 Pavements

C.3.1 Pavements for Bicycle Paths

The pavement of paths for cycling must be designed and constructed to a standard that ensures a satisfactory level of service for cyclists throughout the life of the facility.

The maintenance activities discussed previously require the use of a truck and other substantial machinery. If paths are not designed to carry the live loads imparted by this equipment then pavements will suffer structural damage, which will affect use of the facility, and be expensive to repair. All paths should therefore be designed to withstand at least a fully laden small truck.

Most paths should have a hard weatherproof surface. Primarily they can be constructed as a flexible pavement of crushed rock surfaced with asphalt or a bituminous seal, or as a rigid concrete pavement.

It is important that the sub-grades of both flexible and rigid pavements are compacted to a satisfactory standard and soft areas are treated. It may be necessary in some cases to assess sub-grade conditions along the line of the proposed path.

Typical cross-sections of flexible and rigid pavements are shown in Figure C 3. Individual road agencies will have a preference for particular types of pavement based on experience using local materials that should result in economical pavements. Appropriate pavement design advice should be sought in every instance.

Figure C 3: Typical pavements for paths

Bituminous concrete

Geofabric used in some instances

Fine crushed rock

Gravel sub-base (CBR <4) Geotextile membrane may be required for weak/saturated subgrades (a) Flexible bituminous concrete pavement

Spray seal layer(s) Geofabric Fine crushed rock (b) Flexible spray seal pavement

Concrete Fine crushed rock (c) Unreinforced concrete pavement

Reinforced concrete Fine crushed rock

(d) Reinforced concrete pavement

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Where paths are located on river banks and likely to become inundated they should be constructed of concrete to provide greater resistance to scour by flood water.

Coloured pavement surfaces are used in some instances (refer to the Guide to Traffic Management Part 10: Traffic Control and Communication Devices (Austroads 2016d)).

Some road agencies have detailed specifications for the construction of bicycle path and shared path pavements. Figure C 4 shows examples of different pavement types and transverse joint types for concrete pavements.

Skid resistance

The surface of a path needs to provide a skid resistant surface to minimise the occurrence of cyclists and pedestrians slipping or uncontrolled skidding on the path. As a guide information on the performance of various types of path surfaces is available in Development of a performance based specification for a major bicycle facility (Cairney & King 2003).

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Figure C 4: Examples of bicycle path pavements

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Source: Adapted from Roads and Traffic Authority (2005).

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C.3.2 Bituminous Surface Pavements

Flexible pavements have in the past been favoured in some jurisdictions because they are usually cheaper to construct than concrete and have in general provided superior riding qualities.

Asphalt mixes should be similar to those used for lightly trafficked streets. For a path a 5 mm aggregate size is commonly used. The asphalt aggregate size should not exceed 10 mm nominal size and when a sprayed seal is used, the aggregate size should not exceed 7 mm as larger aggregates may result in an unacceptably rough surface.

More information on asphalt surfaces is contained in A Guide to Asphalt for Lightly Trafficked Streets, (Australian Asphalt Pavement Association 1990) available at .

Due to the high pressure in many bicycle tyres it is desirable that sprayed sealed surfaces have a stone size less than 14 mm in order to provide a comfortable ride for cyclists.

C.3.3 Concrete Pavements

The use of concrete paths can be beneficial on the basis of whole-of-life costs, but only where appropriate construction methods are employed. In general, concrete paths have a longer life and are relatively unaffected by: • inundation and should therefore be preferred for paths close to watercourses • the deleterious effects of vegetation either at cracks or along the path edges • low levels of maintenance • the absence of motor traffic (important to the condition of bituminous pavements) • poor sub-grade conditions in some instances • occasional heavy traffic (in the case of reinforced paths).

Concrete paths should be of sufficient strength to resist cracking and differential vertical movement. A skid- resistant surface finish should be provided by transverse brooming of the wet concrete. Similar attention should be given to the smoothness of path sections both at joints and in between.

The development of concrete path construction techniques and products has resulted in significant improvements in rider comfort. It is critical that such techniques (Cement and Concrete Association of Australia 2004) are employed. They include: • preformed or saw-cut contraction joints As a consequence bull floating, trowelling and broom finishing can be extended right up to the joints resulting in a considerably improved riding surface. In particular, wet formed contraction joints made using a grooving tool, should be avoided. The sealing of contraction joints may be important to minimise the ingress of dirt and to limit weed growth amongst other benefits. • the use of extended bull floats (up to 4 m wide) to avoid long wave corrugations that affect cyclists travelling at speed • narrower and fewer joints.

It is sometimes perceived that the contrast between the colour of lines and concrete surfaces is insufficient. Conversely, concrete paths are thought to offer a higher standard of delineation for cycling in dark conditions. As for other path surface types, it is important that pavement markings are maintained on concrete paths to a high standard.

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C.3.4 Unsealed Paths

Consideration may be given to the provision of a stabilised unsealed surface as the first stage of development where: • it is necessary to reduce construction costs • the path is unlikely to flood to the extent that excessive damage to an unsealed path or excessive maintenance costs will result • the volume of cyclists initially using the path is expected to be low • flat gradients exist (e.g. less than 3%) • costs need to be reduced • the environmental amenity of an area will be reduced by a sealed path.

The second stage would be the provision of an asphalt, or bituminous surface, or possibly a concrete surface.

Care should be taken in the selection of the (unsealed) surface material to ensure that the riding surface is smooth and well bound, as cyclists will not be attracted to a path that has a poor surface. Well graded river gravels are most suitable. Materials that result in loose surfacing should not be used under any circumstances. Good drainage is also an important factor in the success of gravel paths.

C.3.5 Timber Surfaces

Gaps between longitudinal planks in timber decks can trap bicycle wheels and cause serious injuries to cyclists. Consideration should therefore be given to remedial treatment of existing timber bridges such as through an asphalt overlay of the outer 1.0 m sections of deck to provide a smooth, safe ride for cyclists. At the very least warning signs should be provided on the approaches to bridges that have longitudinal gaps in the deck.

On new timber bridges the planks should be placed perpendicular to the direction of travel of cyclists. In constructing and maintaining bridges it is important to ensure that the deck joints at abutments and piers provide a smooth and hence safe passage for cyclists.

Drainage should not be a problem when one considers the number of gaps in the decks of timber bridges. However, individual planks have the potential to warp and collect small, localised pools of water. Timber surfaces can be slippery in wet or shady conditions. Where these circumstances are common the application of a non-slip finish is also desirable, regardless of the alignment of planks.

Further information on pavement materials is contained in Commentary 3. [see Commentary 3]

C.4 Life Cycle Costing

When selecting a pavement for a path, consideration should be given to the costs, the initial capital cost, annual maintenance costs and renewal costs so that the constructing agency is able to determine a pavement with the knowledge of the financial, initial and future requirements for the path. An example of a life cycle costing for path surfaces is shown in Table C 1.

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Table C 1: Example of life cycle costs

Material Construction cost(1) ($) Annual maintenance cost(2) ($) Life cycle cost ($) Decomposed granite 105 000 27 000 391 000 Asphalt 120 000 3000 152 000 Concrete 195 000 1500 210 000 Boardwalk 1 200 000 2000 1 221 000

1 Assumes a 20 year period. 2 Assumes regular rain and flooding, requiring 30% replacement of surface annually. Note: The construction costs and annual maintenance costs are indicative only for the nominated section of path and have been provided to show the development of the life cycle costs. For other paths, these costs should be determined using jurisdiction information. Source: Adapted from Road and Traffic Authority (2005).

C.5 Provision at Works

C.5.1 General

When construction and maintenance work is carried out involving trenching or other construction work across roads and paths, access for cyclists and pedestrians should be maintained to a satisfactory quality to avoid the use of alternative routes which may be hazardous or inconvenient.

Construction and maintenance works should be undertaken in such a way that these activities do not place cyclists and pedestrians at risk during the works period. This is particularly important, for instance, where a sealed shoulder is closed for maintenance on freeways or other high speed roads where cyclists may be permitted.

C.5.2 Signing and Delineation at Work Sites on or Adjacent to Paths

The signing and delineation of construction and maintenance works on roads and paths should be performed in accordance with AS 1742.3:2009 and any relevant local codes of practice and regulations. In general, provision for works on paths should be made in accordance with the principles of these standards.

A principal objective of providing for cyclists and pedestrians adjacent to works site, the surface should be maintained in a clean and smooth state.

Figure C 5, Figure C 6 and Figure C 7 highlight the desired level of provision required in the vicinity of works, depending on the circumstances. The actual provisions to be made are dependent on the conditions that exist, including: • presence of a traffic controller • existing level of bicycle use, and also of pedestrian use in the case of shared path diversions • available opportunities to provide for cyclists • road or path alignment • traffic speeds and volumes • duration of work • surface material and condition • environmental impacts.

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Provision for cyclists on roads should be made in the following circumstances: • where bicycle lanes exist • arterial roads • collector roads, with an AADT in excess of 3000 vehicles per day • strategic and other significant bicycle routes.

Safety barriers should be provided where required by AS 1742.3:2009, and are generally appropriate where cyclists or pedestrians are detoured onto roads. Temporary (lower) speed limits may also be appropriate in this circumstance.

Figure C 5 provides guidance where adequate provision for cyclists is not possible on a road, access along a path in the area of the roadside verge may be appropriate. Provided adequate separation from the work area can be maintained, it is generally acceptable to initiate and terminate the roadside verge bicycle access within the road lane transition zones either side of the work area.

For paths, reference should be made to Section 2 and Section 3 for guidance relating to paths located away from road reserves where temporary roadside verge access is required. The controls highlighted in these sections are applicable to temporary paths.

Containment fences should be provided in accordance with the requirements of AS 1742.3:2009, and otherwise as required by the Guide to Road Design Part 6B: Roadside Environment (Austroads 2015b). These may be appropriate to separate pedestrians and cyclists where a pedestrian path is to be used for access by cyclists, and where: • significant pedestrian or bicycle volumes exist • safety issues may arise due to the unexpected use of a pedestrian path by cyclists.

Examples of provisions for paths located adjacent to roads and in reserves are shown in Figure C 6 and Figure C 7.

Temporary paths should be sealed. Whilst dependent on circumstances, such as bicycle volumes, safety and the extent of inconvenience to cyclists, this may be unnecessary where: • the works are carried out over a short period (e.g. less than two or three weeks duration) • the temporary path surface is firm, smooth and free of thorns • the works are carried out during dry weather conditions • path traffic is minimal.

However, it is very desirable that temporary paths are sealed and delineated where works are carried out over longer periods. Separated paths should be suitably delineated regardless of the period of construction.

Where works on paths are carried out for a period exceeding one day, the works should be made sufficiently visible for night-time path travel, so that path users are able to observe conditions under low ambient light conditions including temporary access paths, and take appropriate action. In addition, as a general principle, lighting on temporary access paths should not be less than the existing level on the original path.

Specific consideration may need to be given to the intersections of paths and roads. The measures taken to protect traffic should be balanced with consideration to all of the potential users and movements at such locations.

Where containment fences are used, to avoid catching the pedals of cyclists the fence should be set back from paths by at least 0.3 m and fine weave mesh should be used to prevent bicycle handlebars or pedals from catching on the fence.

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Surface tolerances for bicycle riding surfaces are provided in Section 5.10. Where steel road plates are used to cover excavated or damaged pavement surfaces, appropriate steps should be taken to ensure that any steps and grooves are within the permissible tolerances.

Figure C 5: Works on roads – exclusive bicycle path diversion

Temporary path access where suitable on ForRefer path widthsection 6.2.1 referfor to width note 1 road provision not possible Suitable kerb ramp Containment fence (at least 2 m long) Kerb

Cyclists’ route Works site

Refer AS 1742.3 for road For lane width signing and delineation provision refer to note 2

1 For path width refer to Section 5.1.3 . 2 For lane width refer to AGRD Part 3 (Austroads 2016b).

Figure C 6: Works on paths adjacent roads – shared path diversion

Path geometry to be suitable for cyclists speeds Works site

Line marking for longer duration works Path Ramp/path extension Kerb

Road

Refer AS 1742.3 for road signing and delineation provisions Safety barrier Containment fence Traffic lane(s) ReferFor path to sectionwidth refer 6.2.1 to for note width 1

1 For path width refer to Section 5.1.4.

Figure C 7: Works on paths – shared path diversion

Works site Containment fence

Width to match connecting path

Temporary path Path geometry to be Line marking for longer duration works suitable for cyclists speeds

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Appendix D Bicycle Safety Audit Checklist

D.1 Introduction

The implementation of a system of auditing of the infrastructure, which includes cycling facilities, either integrated with a similar process for roads, or otherwise, is recognised as the most appropriate means of undertaking these assessments.

In accordance with the Austroads road safety audit process (Austroads 2009a), it is appropriate that audits of bicycle routes and other facilities are conducted at various stages from planning through to construction, and in relation to existing infrastructure.

The lists of items in the sections below represent the possible contents of a checklist to assist the identification of relevant safety issues or concerns associated with bicycle facilities. It is unlikely that they include all of the issues that are of relevance or concern to cyclists, particularly given the wide variation in construction and design practice, and the conditions that exist.

It is therefore essential that personnel conducting audits of bicycle facilities are experienced in and knowledgeable about the provision of bicycle facilities.

Individual items provided in the lists may be applicable during several audit stages or may only relate to existing infrastructure.

Where existing infrastructure is to be audited, it is important that to some degree the audit is performed on a bicycle and on foot. The type of bicycle used should be representative of the most common type in the region of the audit, but should not have a suspension system or tyres wider than 32 mm.

Similarly, it is important that safety audit personnel ride at speeds typical of most users – which may be in excess of 25 km/h. Riding at slower speeds may not reveal potential problems such as geometric limitations or pavement surface defects.

Section D.2 is generally applicable to roads, paths and intersections. The requirements that relate mainly to either paths or roads are provided in Section D.9 and Section D.10 respectively.

In so far as roads are concerned, it is assumed that general road safety auditing processes exist, and hence the lists below represent additional considerations for bicycles.

D.2 General Requirements for Roads and Paths • Are the designated crossing points and routes appropriate and acceptable to meet the required cyclist volumes? • Are the characteristic bicycle use patterns accommodated (i.e. categories of cyclists, volumes, times of travel)? • Do the proposals account for surrounding bicycle network deficiencies and opportunities? • Do consistent and suitable provisions exist for the respective categories of cyclists anticipated along the route, or can they be achieved; for instance, is a path required for children and inexperienced cyclists? • Are grade separated or controlled crossings required? • Are traffic calming or local area traffic management measures required? (refer to the Guide to Traffic Management Part 8: Local Area Traffic Management) (Austroads 2016c). • Are the requirements of local codes of practice met?

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D.3 Alignment and Cross-section • Does the cross-section of the lane/path facility safely accommodate the anticipated cyclists? • Are stopping sight distances adequate for all traffic, accounting for paths, roads, driveways, railways etc.? • Are sight lines applicable to the operation of cyclists obscured by obstacles such as signs, trees, pedestrian fences and parked cars? • Is the horizontal and vertical alignment suitable? If not, are warning signs installed? • Are there any sections of riding surface which may cause confusion for users, e.g. – Is alignment of the riding surface clearly defined, particularly at unexpected bends or for dark conditions? – Have disused pavement sections been removed or treated? • Is sufficient route information or guidance provided? • Does the design avoid or minimise the need for cyclists to slow or stop? • Do hazardous conditions (e.g. concealed intersecting paths, curves) exist at the bottom of steep gradients?

D.4 Signs, Delineation and Lighting • Are all necessary pavement markings provided? • Are there any redundant pavement markings? Have redundant pavement markings been properly removed? • Are all necessary regulatory, warning and direction signs provided and located appropriately? Are they conspicuous and clear in their intent? Are they at a safe distance/height with respect to the riding surface? • Are signs in good condition and of an appropriate standard? • Are there any redundant signs? • Are fixed objects close to or on the path (trees, fences, holding rails, etc.) treated to ensure visibility at night (e.g. painted white and fitted with reflectors or reflective tape)? • Are pavement markings clearly visible and effective for all likely conditions (e.g. day, night, rain, fog, rising or setting sun, oncoming headlights, light coloured pavement surface, poor lighting)? • Are user movements obvious or delineated through intersections? • Is public lighting of facilities required? Is the lighting design satisfactory, particularly at tunnels, underpasses and areas of high pedestrian activity? Is it operating satisfactorily? • Are raised pavement markers recessed flush with the surface or located outside of the paths of travel of cyclists, or outside of bicycle lanes? • Are thermoplastic markings chamfered?

D.5 Riding Surface • Is the riding surface suitable for cycling? • Are the riding surface and edges smooth and free of defects (e.g. grooves, ruts or steps) which could affect the stability of cyclists or cause wheel damage? • Is the pavement design/construction of a satisfactory standard? • Can utility service covers, grates, drainage pits etc. be safely negotiated by cyclists?

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• Are smooth and flat gutters/channels provided at stormwater drainage pit inlets? • Is the riding surface free of loose materials (e.g. sand, gravel, broken glass, concrete spills)? • Is there suitable protection to prevent sand or other debris from depositing on the riding surface? • Does the riding surface have adequate skid resistance, particularly at curves, intersections, bridge expansion joints and railway crossings? • Is the riding surface generally free of areas where ponding or flow of water may occur? • Is special protection required to prevent cyclists from running off the riding surface?

D.6 Vegetation, Maintenance and Construction • Is suitable access for cycling available during maintenance and construction activities? (Appendix C). • Are all locations free of construction or maintenance equipment? • In the absence of an appropriate and regular maintenance program – Is there a possibility of the encroachment of grasses into bituminous riding surfaces (e.g. kikuyu) or similar circumstances that could result in poor edge conditions or pavement degradation? – Do thorn-bearing grasses (e.g. caltrop) exist, or are they likely to be introduced adjacent to the riding surface? – Are channels, kerb slots or similar treatments over which cyclists ride, located under deciduous trees etc. or otherwise likely to experience a build-up of debris due to poor drainage conditions? • Will crack sealing processes or the application of spray seals result in the presence of loose/granular material/sand on the riding surface? • Does landscaping allow adequate clearances, sight distance etc. and will these be maintained given mature plant growth? • Could personal security of path users be adversely affected due to the position of bushes and other landscape features? • Is landscaping required as a wind break? • Will the positioning of trees and the species used contribute to the degradation of the pavement (e.g. through undermining or moisture variation)?

D.7 Traffic Signals • Are separate pedestrian and/or bicycle phases provided where necessary? • Do traffic signals operate correctly? Are signal displays located appropriately for all users? • Does the design of the signals prevent conflicting motor vehicle movements during crossing phases for pedestrians and cyclists? • Where a permanent demand for individual phases does not exist, have suitable detection facilities been provided for cyclists? Are these operating satisfactorily? • Are inductive detector loops provided for bicycle users, are they located appropriately, of a suitable design and do they operate correctly for bicycles in the various stopping positions? • If push-button actuators have been provided, are they located to allow convenient and legal operation from the normal stopping position (e.g. on the left of the riding surface or kerb ramp, behind the stop line)? Do they operate correctly? • Are phasing and phase times acceptable? Are suitable warning signs or guidance for cyclists erected where intersection crossing times are insufficient?

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D.8 Physical Objects • Are fences, safety barrier or other objects located within 1.0 m of the path(s) of cyclists – free of sharp edges, exposed elements or corners so as to minimise the risk of injury to cyclists in the event of the feature/object being struck by a bicycle? – designed to minimise the potential for bicycle handle bars or pedals to become caught in the feature should an errant bicycle collide with it? • If there are any obstructions located adjacent to the paths of cyclists, are they adequately delineated? • Are clearances to the operating space of cyclists acceptable?

D.9 Paths

This section should be read in conjunction with Section D.2.

D.9.1 General • Are automatic reticulation systems timed to avoid periods of significant path use? Do sprinklers spray away from the path (rather than across it)? • Do irrigation hoses need to be placed across path surfaces? • Are provisions for car parking in the vicinity of the path satisfactory in relation to the operation and safety of path users? • Are there any potential problems of conflict between the various path users (e.g. pedestrians and cyclists)? • Is the path subject to flooding? If so, are warning signs provided and located appropriately?

D.9.2 Alignment and Cross-section • Where paths are located adjacent to roads, is there sufficient separation and/or protection from the carriageway? • Are adequate overtaking opportunities provided? • Is the path width, at structures or otherwise, adequate for the likely usage levels of pedestrians and cyclists? • Is the geometric alignment and gradient satisfactory? • Is the design speed appropriate? • Is path crossfall suitable for the anticipated path users? • Is the crossfall steep enough to adequately drain the path and prevent ponding on the surface, while being flat enough to be comfortable for pedestrians?

D.9.3 Intersections • If justified, is path priority assigned to path users at road crossings? • At intersections with busy roads, are appropriate facilities provided, e.g. traffic signals, underpass, overpass or median refuge, to allow path users to safely cross? Are the intersection controls satisfactory? • Is the location of road/path or path/path intersections satisfactory and obvious with respect to horizontal and vertical alignment? • Is the presence of intersections obvious to road/path users? • Is a refuge required at road crossings? Would it adversely affect (e.g. squeeze) cyclists travelling along the road?

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• In relation to path entry controls – Are terminal devices required? If so, does the device design meet the requirements of this Part? – If central holding rails or bollards exist, is there a legitimate reason why they are needed, and if so is there sufficient pavement width either side? • Are kerb ramps adequate and suitable for all users (width, slope, flush surface)? Are turning radii adequate? • Are holding rails provided? Are they positioned so as to not unduly interfere with access for cyclists and other users (consider tandem bicycles, bicycles with trailers etc.)? • Are the controls associated with path/path intersections satisfactory?

D.10 Roads

Whilst this Part relates to paths it is often the case that road and path treatments interface therefore this section contains some information relating to roads that may impact on path users.

D.10.1 General • Are bicycle lanes required? • Are bicycle lane widths or the left traffic lane widths adequate to accommodate cyclists? • Can sufficient space be obtained? Are there any squeeze points for cyclists? • Does the construction of the lane facility conform to this Part and other relevant standards? • Are special provisions required along curving roads? • Are road markings for cyclists suitable and adequate, and do they meet relevant standards? • On controlled access roads, is a path for experienced riders required within the reservation? • Are local area traffic management treatments appropriate for bicycles? • Are drainage pit covers flush with the surface or are there level differences that could be hazardous to cyclists and pedestrians? • Is the positioning of bicycle pavement symbols potentially hazardous to motorcyclists? • Are sealed shoulders at least as smooth as traffic lanes?

D.10.2 Intersections • Are the intersection treatments appropriate? • Are there any common cyclist movements (legal or otherwise) that differ from typical traffic movements? Are these likely to be anticipated by other traffic? Can these movements be made safely and if not what remedial measures are required? • Are ‘head start’ storage areas required due to conflicting manoeuvres of bicycles and other traffic, or due to high cyclist volumes? • Are special provisions for cyclists required at roundabouts? • Are there continuity lines marked where appropriate? • Are grated drainage pits that are potentially hazardous to cyclists and pedestrians located within the road/path intersection or within the turning path of cyclists (i.e. radii in the corners of the intersection)? • Are grated pits on paths or in close proximity to paths properly designed so that they cannot trap bicycle wheels?

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C1.1 Planning and Need for a Path

C1.1.1 Planning

Cycling and walking have significant roles in transport systems throughout Australia and New Zealand and are expected to make an important contribution to the well-being and transportation of people in future.

The Australian National Cycling Strategy 2011–2016 (Austroads 2010b) recognises that more and more people are cycling in Australia and whilst there have been many initiatives undertaken there is a need to provide greater progress. To support and encourage this progress the Strategy has the following priorities and objectives, in part: • Cycling promotion: promote cycling both as a viable and safe mode of transport and an enjoyable recreational activity. • Infrastructure and Facilities: create a comprehensive network of safe and attractive routes to cycle and end-of-trip facilities. • Integrated Planning: consider and address cycling needs in all relevant transport and land use planning activities. • Safety: enable people to cycle safely. • Monitoring and Evaluation: improve monitoring and evaluation of cycling programs and develop decision-making processes for investment in cycling. • Guidance and Best Practice: develop nationally consistent technical guidance for stakeholders to use and share best practice across jurisdictions.

The type of on-road bicycle facility should also align with the functional road hierarchy. An example of the alignment of a bicycle facility and road function, for urban roads, has been developed by Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads (2015b) and is shown in Table C1 1.

Table C1 1: Example of an urban road bicycle facility selection depending on road function

Vehicle operating Cycle tracks Road function Explanation speed (km/h) appropriate?

Mixed traffic is appropriate. Cycle track with limited No Local access road vehicle access may be appropriate (refer 3.2.1). with or without Up to 30 km/h parking Bicycle lanes/cycle tracks may be appropriate on primary bicycle route. No Maybe Bicycle lanes with no kerbside parking are most kerbside appropriate. Up to 50 parking Collector/distributor km/h With Bicycle lanes not preferred due to door zone conflicts road kerbside Yes (refer 3.3.1). parking

Bicycle lanes not preferred due to high speed More than 50 km/h Yes Arterial road difference. High quality parallel off-road bicycle path with grade Urban motorway More than 70 km/h No separated, signalised or priority crossings at intersections is appropriate.

Source: Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads (2015b).

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Guide to Road Design Part 6A: Paths for Walking and Cycling

The national strategy in New Zealand is Getting there – on foot, by bicycle: A strategy to advance walking and cycling in New Zealand transport (Ministry of Transport 2005). This strategy aims to ensure that supportive walking and cycling environments are provided in New Zealand communities, that safety is improved for pedestrians and cyclists, and that people walk and cycle more as part of their day-to-day transport mix. The development of walking and cycling is integral to achieving the five key objectives of this strategy: • improving access and mobility • protecting and promoting public health • ensuring environmental sustainability • assisting economic development • assisting safety and personal security.

When planning or designing a path in a road, rail, river or coastal reservation it is important that designers have a broad view of the transport network and identify connections to other paths and facilities that should be provided as part of the design or accommodated in plans for the future.

It is important also to recognise the broad range of performance and skill that exists among pedestrians and cyclists due to factors such as age, experience, physical ability, cognitive skill and vision, and the need to provide paths to satisfy the needs of various users and demands.

Bicycle paths and facilities are generally designed for a normal bicycle. However, it is important to understand that there are other forms of human-powered vehicles that have a broad range of performance characteristics that may have to be considered. For example, tandem bicycles are generally the least manoeuvrable human-powered vehicle, which may have implications for path terminal design.

Planners and designers should establish early in the process whether the path is likely to carry a significant number of human powered vehicles other than bicycles so that paths and facilities are designed to safely accommodate the appropriate design vehicle. Commentary 2 provides operational characteristics for examples of human-powered vehicles and this information may assist designers in providing for them where necessary. [see Commentary 2]

Designers should be aware of local pedestrian or cycling planning and design guides. These guides generally provide the policy and network planning context in which pedestrian facilities are provided within a jurisdiction. With respect to pedestrians examples of these guides include: • How to Prepare a Pedestrian Access and Mobility Plan: An easy three stage guide (Roads and Traffic Authority 2002) • Easy Steps: a toolkit for planning, designing and promoting safe walking (Queensland Transport 2005) • Pedestrian Planning and Design Guide (NZ Transport Agency 2009).

Traffic management aspects and road user considerations in relation to pedestrian and cycling paths are provided in Austroads (2013a) and Austroads (2014a).

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C1.2 Need for a Path

C1.2.1 General

The provision of coherent networks of pedestrian and bicycle paths is important because they • encourage exercise which improves public health and reduces the strain on health services and hospital systems • can assist in causing a shift from car to other forms of transport (walking, cycling and public transport) thereby reducing air pollution, greenhouse emissions and other forms of environmental pollution, as well as assisting in the management of traffic congestion • benefit businesses through healthier employees who enjoy a better quality of life.

Designers have a role in achieving these important outcomes by ensuring that paths and associated facilities are appropriately located and designed.

Traffic management aspects and road user considerations in relation to pedestrian and cycling paths are provided in Austroads (2017c) and Austroads (2013a).

C1.2.2 Pedestrian Paths

The most common type of pedestrian path is used by pedestrians and young cyclists (depending on local road rules). The general principles relating to provision of pedestrian paths include: • In general, all roads should have some type of walking facility out of the vehicle path. An exception may be categories of road that have a very low volume and low operating speed such as minor access roads. • Pedestrian path installation warrants based solely on pedestrian volumes are not practical, except in the central business districts of cities and at event locations.

The need for pedestrian paths should also be related to the pedestrian network functional requirements. For example, the presence of pedestrians on many rural roads is a rare event and the provision of paths is not economically justified. In this situation the provision of shoulders will provide space for a pedestrian who happens to use the road.

On all roads that have a moderate to high speed and significant pedestrian activity should be provided with pedestrian paths because of the high risk of serious injury should a pedestrian be struck by a vehicle.

A higher road functional classification in urban areas generally means higher traffic speeds and volumes, and hence a need to provide for pedestrian mobility and safety. However, some roads classified as local streets also function as traffic routes and have similar needs.

Collector and arterial roads in the vicinity of schools should be provided with pedestrian paths and desirably off-road cycle paths, shared or segregated pedestrian paths, to increase safety for children travelling to and from school. Safe routes to school can also reduce reliance on car travel for school trips and have health and environmental benefits.

Many people with disabilities undertake much of their travel either on foot, in wheelchairs or on personal mobility devices (e.g. scooters) and so the development of a network of adequate pedestrian paths is important for their mobility. The provision of pedestrian paths that meet recommended dimensions, surface requirements, and which are free of obstructions is important to ensure that they do not represent a hazard for people who have difficulty in detecting or manoeuvring around obstacles.

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The use of mobility scooters has emerged as an alternative means of transport for people with mobility impairment or other health issues and is likely to grow as the population ages. It is therefore important that paths and associated facilities can accommodate this type of use. The characteristics of these vehicles can be obtained from specifications on suppliers web sites. Dimensions for width, length and turning radii vary depending on model (e.g. length is often in the range 1.2 m to 1.6 m). Designers should source typical dimensions for products used in Australia and New Zealand and ensure that they can be accommodated within path and facility designs. For example mobility scooters should be able to: • use kerb ramps and cross-channels without the device becoming unstable or the undercarriage impacting the path or road pavement • turn within intersections and pass through chicanes and other devices in a continuous forward motion • store safely within refuges without overhanging into the adjacent traffic lane.

Table C1 2 is an example of when pedestrian paths may be required based on the general abutting land use, and illustrates the way in which the principles are applied in New Zealand.

Table C1 2: New Zealand example of when to provide urban and rural pedestrian paths

Pedestrian path provision Land use New roads Existing roads Preferred Minimum Preferred Minimum Commercial and industrial Residential (on arterial roads) Both sides Both sides Residential (on collector roads) Residential (on local streets) Both sides One side Three to ten dwellings per hectare Both sides One side Shoulders on Fewer than three dwellings per Shoulders on both One side One side both sides hectare sides

Source: NZ Transport Agency (2009).

C1.2.3 Paths for Cycling

The flow chart in Figure C1 1 is a basic guide to assist designers to choose an appropriate type of path treatment. The flow chart only considers the primary factors needed to determine the type of treatment required. Prior to this chart being applied a decision will have been taken as to whether an on-road lane or an off-road path, or both, are required. Also, there may be other issues, constraints and practices that will have a bearing on the decision-making process.

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Figure C1 1: Guide to the choice of path treatment for cyclists

Strategic bicycle route path Is the bicycle Yes Is the pedestrian Yes or demand low 1, 2? demand low 1, 2? Path to suit local conditions e.g.: No No • for connections to strategic routes • for connectivity in general • as an option for cyclists at ‘squeeze points’ • to achieve a shorter route for Is there an Yes cyclists alternative path or Exclusive • to avoid one or several road route available? bicycle path intersections No • for recreation (e.g. a connection in a reservation • to achieve safe access to schools • as an alternative route for child, recreational or inexperienced cyclists, where no satisfactory on- Is the pedestrian Yes Are bicycle speeds low Yes Shared use path road solution exists demand low 1, 2? (e.g. <20 km/h)? • to achieve convenient access to community facilities such as No No sporting centres and shopping centres • where no viable on-road solution exists Separated path • to assist cyclists to avoid steep or lengthy grades

1 The level of demand can be assessed generally on the basis of the peak periods of a typical day as follows: a. Low volume: Infrequent use of path (say less than 10 users per hour) b. High volume: Regular use in both directions of travel (say more than 50 users per hour). 2 These path volumes are suggested in order to limit the incidence of conflict between users, and are significantly lower than the capacity of the principal path types.

C1.2.4 Operation Characteristics

Where sufficient volumes exists, separate paths should be provided for the exclusive use of cyclists and pedestrians. Separated paths may reduce the potential for conflict and allow the bicycle path section to operate at a reasonable speed.

An indication of the extent of other users normally found on shared paths is shown in Table C1 3.

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Table C1 3: Categories of users of shared paths

Category of user Specific users within category Children Elderly People pushing prams & strollers Pedestrians Family groups Dog walkers Joggers Children Families Cyclists Adults Individuals & groups Power assisted bicycles Pedestrians Users with disabilities (vision, hearing mobility, & Sporting users cognitively impaired users) Manual wheelchair users Electric wheelchair/scooter users Children’s pedal/motorised/electric cars In-line skaters Small-wheeled vehicle users Skate boarders Foot scooters Organised events Maintenance workers Others Horse riders Anglers

If the facility is intended for use by experienced cyclists then it should follow a direct route to a popular destination, be wide and have a horizontal and vertical alignment which allows safe, high speed bicycle travel. Rail reserves and river banks can offer an opportunity to provide a high quality path. Provision of an exclusive bicycle path can often, but not always, mean that a separate parallel facility has to be provided to meet the volume of pedestrians and other potential users.

Because cyclist volumes are often relatively low, the cost of paths significant and many paths provide useful and attractive links for pedestrians, there has been a tendency for shared-use paths to be provided rather than exclusive bicycle paths. Whilst this enables the maximum benefit to be derived from these facilities, conflict does occur between cyclists and other users, particularly pedestrians, and this has become an issue on some busy paths. For this reason a separated path which divides the operating space for each use, or where completely separate facilities are provided, may be appropriate where both cyclist and pedestrian (or other user) volumes are heavy.

In some jurisdictions cyclists are permitted to ride on pedestrian paths whereas in others pedestrian paths must be signed as shared paths before cyclists are able to use them legally. The issue of cycling on pedestrian paths is one that must be addressed by the authorities responsible for traffic regulation.

Although they can be designed for high speeds, many paths are not used by inter-suburb distance cyclists. This is mainly due to cyclists inability to travel constantly at the relatively high speed attainable on the road system, and because paths often do not lead to useful destinations. Indirect paths bring cyclists into conflict with other users, and cause them to have to yield at side streets.

These factors can result in speeds being low and overall travel times being relatively long, and unattractive to cyclists. Thus paths should not be regarded as a substitute for adequately designing roads for travel by bicycle.

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In designing an off-carriageway facility for bicycles, the designer should first determine the purpose of the cycling path. The purpose of a path is best assessed through consideration of the potential, likely and desired use of the path amongst the various categories of cyclists. Predominantly, a path for cycling may either lead to specific destinations or offer a pleasant ride. Therefore the detailed designs of commuter and recreational paths can be quite different.

Crashes and even fatalities occur on paths and may be the result of high-density use or as a result of mixed use which results in a large differential in speeds. Careful consideration of separated paths for differing user needs may be required to minimise risk within limited budgets. [Back to body text]

Although the bicycle is the standard vehicle for the design of facilities, the use of other human-powered vehicles (HPVs) such as tandem bicycles, tricycles and other ‘pedal powered vehicles’ may be popular in some areas and an allowance for these vehicles may be appropriate in the design of some facilities.

There is limited information available on the needs and operating characteristics of these vehicles, and in particular on their performance from the perspective of road and path design, or in relation to traffic management and safety. Therefore, designers should make their own assessment of the required measures that need to be taken to account for the use of these vehicles.

Consideration of the issues in Table C2 1 relating to HPVs and elderly or impaired cyclists may be relevant to the design of bicycle facilities that have significant use by these vehicles and path users.

Table C2 1: Human powered vehicles – facility design considerations

Issue Details Sight distance Consider low cyclist eye height (as low as 0.7 m above riding surface in some instances Due to factors such as the low centre of gravity and braking system, performance of a Braking performance recumbent tricycle can be significantly more effective than a standard bicycle. Conversely, a tandem bicycle may have a lesser performance Medians or refuge width The additional length of some HPVs may necessitate special consideration Turning paths Refer to Table C2 2 Use a vehicle design envelope equal to the difference in inner and outer turning path Width of road and path radii, plus 0.3 m (0.4 m for tandem bicycle). If this is greater than the standard bicycle facilities envelope width then increase path space in road or path treatments accordingly Give due consideration and allowance for lesser turning capabilities and in particular Path terminals avoid chicanes May be relatively high for tandem bicycles. May be lower for elderly cyclists or cyclists Speed who have impairments Gradients Path gradients may have to be flatter for elderly cyclists, or cyclists who have impairments Education Make relevant advice available (e.g. conspicuity of low HPVs)

Operating dimensions of specific HPVs that may be of assistance to designers are shown in Table C2 2. Photographic examples of HPVs are shown in Figure C2 1, Figure C2 2 and Figure C2 3.

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Table C2 2: Examples of HPV dimensions

Examples of human powered vehicles Overall vehicle Inner turning Outer turning Length (m) (HPVs) width (m) path radius (m) path radius (m) Recumbent touring tricycle (Greenspeed) 0.9 1.4 2.3 1.95 Tandem recumbent touring tricycle 1.0 3.1 4.1 3.5 (Greenspeed) Tandem bicycle (Cannondale) 0.56 1.85 2.55 2.45 Bicycle with two wheel trailer (Coolstop) 0.82 0.7 1.85 2.67 Bicycle with BOB trailer (i.e. baby on 0.56 0.9 1.6 2.8 board) Bicycle with hitch-bicycle (Thorogood) 0.56 1.7 2.55 1.7

Figure C2 1: Examples of recumbent tricycles

Source: ICE Trikes (personal communication 2017)

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Figure C2 2: Example of tandem bicycle

Figure C2 3: Example of bicycle with a hitch-bicycle attached

[Back to body text]

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Guide to Road Design Part 6A: Paths for Walking and Cycling

C3.1 Concrete and Asphalt

Hard surfaces, such as concrete and asphalt, are generally the most functionally appropriate. They are preferred where the pedestrian path is on a gradient, especially where it can become wet. Concrete and other light coloured surfaces are preferred in hot climates as they radiate less heat. However, a disadvantage of concrete surfaces can be increased glare for pedestrians who may congregate adjacent to the path (e.g. cafes, general seating, and bus stops).

In order to provide a safer facility for cyclists and pedestrians, expansion/contraction joints should be no wider than 13 mm and the concrete surfaces should be finished to provide a non-slip surface (e.g. wooden floated or sponged finish may be satisfactory). Brushed or broomed finishes can have a disadvantage in that they cause increased abrasions for cyclists in the event of a fall, but may be necessary to enhance traction on steep grades. In some jurisdictions, there is a preference for saw-cut expansion joints. C3.2 Pavers and Bricks

Glazed surfaces can become very slippery when wet and so pavers and bricks used on pedestrian paths in external areas should not be glazed. Joints should be as flush as possible and should not be wider than 13 mm. Unless they are laid on a firm base, small paving units tend to move independently and form an uneven surface. The provision of a firm, well-compacted base, or preferably a concrete base is essential where this type of paving is to be used for pedestrian paths.

Bluestone pitchers are sometimes used as pavers in threshold local area traffic management treatments. They often fail the flatness test noted above and are difficult to negotiate for people in wheelchairs and some others. Bluestone pitchers should therefore not be used on pedestrian routes or pedestrian paths. People with sight impairments frequently use differences in pavement colour as a means of guidance. They can find the variation of colour that occurs in surfaces composed of pavers confusing. C3.3 Loose Surface Materials

Avoid the use of exposed aggregate, gravel, soil, sand, grass and tanbark surfacing on pedestrian routes, other than recreational routes. Even though they can be less expensive, and more aesthetic, some people find them difficult to walk on and they can impose severe difficulties for people in wheelchairs.

Where unsealed surfaces are used adequate crossfall should be provided to ensure that good drainage occurs. Unsealed surfaces may require an increase in crossfall (up to 5%) to prevent puddles of water from developing, though AS 1428.1:2009 specifies that a path crossfall should not exceed 2.5% to cater for people who have a disability. [Back to body text]

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Track Construction and Maintenance Guidelines

Guidelines – VC 1672

Track Construction and Maintenance Guidelines – July 2008

CONTENTS

I. Purpose vi

II. About this Document vi

Section One: PLANNING FOR TRACKS 1

1. Introduction 1

2. Scope 1

3. Visitor Experience 3 3.1 Visitor setting characteristics 5 3.2 Historic setting characteristics 6

4. Guiding Principles for Track Construction 7

5. Landscape 8 5.1 Aesthetics 8 5.2 Landforms 9

6. Landscape Features 15 6.1 Landscape anchors 15 6.2 Edges 15 6.3 Gateways 15 6.4 Historic features 16

7. Soil Types 17 7.1 Gravel and sand 18 7.2 Silt 18 7.3 Clay 18 7.4 Organic soil 18 7.5 Plasticity 19 7.6 Field tests 19

8. Track Destruction 23 8.1 Erosion 23 8.2 Displacement 24 8.3 Compaction 25

9. Water, Water, Water 27 9.1 Catchment watershed 27 9.2 Track surface watershed 27 9.3 Factors that influence water impact on tracks 27

Section Two: TRACK CONSTRUCTION 32

10. Track Construction 32 10.1 Guiding principles of track construction 32

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11. Planning for Track Construction 37 11.1 Office based planning 37 11.2 Initial field survey 45 11.3 Final alignment 46 11.4 Setting out the alignment 46 11.5 Computer programmes 48 11.6 Track prescription recording sheet 48

12. Track Gradient 50 12.1 Calculating the length of track 52

13. Track Formation 54 13.1 Cut construction 56 13.2 Cut and fill construction 57 13.3 Fill construction 58 13.4 Cut and fill material 59 13.5 Checking fill compaction 59 13.6 Batter stabilisation 60 13.7 Use of local materials 62 13.8 Formation construction 63

14. Water Management 65 14.1 Drainage system 65 14.2 Site survey 67 14.3 Water control methods 68 14.4 Catch drains 72 14.5 Side drains 73 14.6 Catch pit 77 14.7 Pipe culverts 77 14.8 Culvert headwall and outlet protection 80 14.9 Culvert outlet velocity 81 14.10 Stormwater overflow 83 14.11 Stone fords 83

15. Track Pavement 85 15.1 Track surface standards 85 15.2 Track surfacing 86 15.3 Track pavement 89 15.4 Track compaction 94 15.5 Aggregate behavior 95 15.6 Layer thickness 103 15.7 How much material for a job? 103 15.8 Compaction technique 104 15.9 Frost heave 106

16. Geotextiles 108 16.1 Filter fabrics 108 16.2 Geocells 109

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17. Transportation of Track Surface Materials 115 17.1 Calculating material volumes for power carriers 115 17.2 Calculating material volume for a fadge 116 17.3 Calculating material volumes for hopper 117

18. Determining Track Distance Surface Cover 120

19. Additional Construction Techniques 123 19.1 Steps 123 19.2 Stringer step survey 127 19.3 Determining tread riser height 127 19.4 Stringer step construction 130 19.5 Boxed steps 134 19.6 Boxed step construction 134 19.7 Rock steps 136 19.8 Rock step construction 136

20. Switchbacks 138 20.1 Switchback construction 138

21. Climbing Turns 141

22. Inslope Turns 142

23. Retaining Walls 143 23.1 Specifications for rock retaining wall 143

24. Timber Retaining Walls 145 24.1 Specifications for timber retaining wall 145

Section Three: MAINTENANCE 149

25. Track Maintenance 149 25.1 Sustainable maintenance 149

26. Track Marking 152 26.1 Orange triangle markers 154 26.2 Alpine poles 156 26.3 Open grass valleys 157 26.4 Farmland 158

27. Vegetation Maintenance 159 27.1 Minor vegetation clearance 159 27.2 Vista maintenance 163

28. Drainage System Maintenance 164 28.1 Catch pits and side drains 164 28.2 Culverts 165 28.3 Ford crossings 166

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29. Geotextiles 167

30. Stone Pitching 167

31. Track Surface 168 31.1 Surface scouring and trenching 170

32. Slough and Berm 172

33. Steps 173

34. Switchbacks 176

Appendices 177 Appendix 1 - Glossary 177 Appendix 2 - Guidelines for Walking Track upgrade- Track Width 182 Appendix 3 - Guidelines for Walking Track upgrade – Gradient 183 Appendix 4 - Guidelines for Walking Track upgrade – Wet/Rough 184 Appendix 5 - Guidelines for Great Walk/Easy Tramping Track upgrade- Track Width 185 Appendix 6 - Guidelines for Great Walk/Easy Tramping Track upgrade –Wet/Rough 186 Appendix 7 - How to Check Accuracy of a Slope Inclinometer. 187 Appendix 8 - How to Use a Slope Inclinometer 188 • Appendix 9 - Checklist of Survey Equipment 189 Appendix 10 - Track Prescription Template 190 Appendix 11 - How to Calculate Surface Material Volumes 191 Appendix 12 - Track Construction Drawings 192 Appendix 13 - How to Find Out More About Historic Values and Sites 204

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I. Purpose

These guidelines provide advice and technical information on the construction and maintenance of recreation tracks for walkers and off road mountain bikers. The aim is to provide best practice information that is useful to Programme Managers, Rangers, and contractors in planning and carrying out work on tracks.

Standards for tracks are set out in the Department’s Track Service Standards (SNZ HB 8630:2004). While these state what a track should be like to meet the needs of different visitors, they do not describe how that can be achieved. That is the objective of this document. It is the “how to” guide for staff involved in planning for, constructing and maintaining tracks to meet the track service standards.

The guidelines are accompanied by a much shorter, waterproof and pocket-sized field guide. This contains all parts of this document likely to be useful to staff in the field.

II. About this Document

Published by: Department of Conservation, Head Office, Wellington

Coordinator Peter Devlin

Owner Brian Dobbie

Approved for use Signed Kevin O’Connor Date 1 July 2008

Signed Barbara Browne Date 1 July 2008

Signed John Cumberpatch Date 1 July 2008

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Amendments Amendment Amendment DOCDM version Amended by date details

Glossary See Appendix 1 for all the major terms used in these guidelines.

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1. Introduction

Tracks provide users with a unique experience. This will involve exposure to a rich combination of components including landscape, visual and sensory experiences, intellectual stimulation, and produce emotions and feelings that continually make tracks enjoyable to use time and time again.

Contemporary tracks should not just happen. They need to be planned and designed in such a way that visitors interact with the environment; well designed and constructed tracks look as though they have been there for some time.

Many Conservation Management Strategies and Management Plans refer to visitor impacts and the need to manage these impacts. Hence, there is an expectation from the public for the ongoing repair and maintenance of our walking tracks and a requirement to meet the standards contained within NZS HB 8630:2004.

2. Scope

This document provides guidelines on ways to manage the construction and maintenance of tracks. It covers a number of principles that can be applied, but best practice will often be dependent upon local materials, climate, equipment and costs.

Backcountry user groups consulted to get a user perspective on what should be in the manual expressed concern over what they consider to be “over-engineering” and “over- enthusiastic cutting” of some tracks, particularly the Great Walks and easy tramping tracks, but also some tramping tracks. They want to see construction and benching of tramping tracks, in particular, limited to where it is absolutely necessary. This is, in fact, what the standard (NZS HB 8630:2004) requires. While much of this manual is devoted to management of formed, benched tracks, it has to be borne in mind that most tracks managed by the Department are not constructed and benched and do not have to be.

The guidelines will not provide information on archaeological sites, organic wetlands, sand dunes or areas of sensitive tree root plates. Many of these locations require specific solutions for which suitable advice should be sought. Nor will it cover the scheduling and monitoring of track work. These aspects of work are covered through the Standard Operating Procedure for Track Ongoing Inspections and the scheduling of work through the Asset Management Information System. The design and construction of signs, track standards and visitor structures are covered comprehensively in other documents.

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Many tracks will have historic value and often follow historic routes. Constructing and maintaining these tracks requires specialist historic advice and is not covered in these guidelines. For more information, refer to Appendix 13.

There are approximately 12,900 kilometres of track network in New Zealand on land managed by the Department, traversing a range of geological landforms and subject to diverse weather conditions. They play an important role in providing a range of outdoor recreation opportunities for a diverse and growing number of people. The type and extent of tracks provided by DOC in New Zealand is outlined in Table 1.

Conservancy Short Short Walking Great Easy Tramping Routes Total Walks Walks - Tracks Walks Tramping track disabled tracks

Northland 16 2 263 15 0 313 0 609

Auckland 6 0 148 0 12 137 0 303

Waikato 18 1 164 0 0 547 27 757

Bay of Plenty 8 1 161 40 0 362 32 604

Tongariro / 5 2 113 48 0 319 23 510 Taupo

East Coast 11 1 125 46 10 1193 199 1585

Wanganui 10 2 77 56 25 576 59 805

Wellington 0 0.4 143 0 72 534 19 768

Nelson / 16 2 188 93 150 1208 316 1973 Marlborough

West Coast 33 6 186 42 38 581 232 1118

Canterbury 16 4 217 0 95 760 215 1307

Otago 21 0 440 7 125 718 122 1433

Southland 3 1 83 155 61 672 207 1182

Total 163 22 2308 502 588 7920 1451 12,954

Table 1 - Location and length of tracks provided by the Department of Conservation, as at June 2008

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3. Visitor Experience

The primary tool for managing visitor experience used by the Department of Conservation is the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS).

The ROS is a tool for describing, managing and maintaining a range of recreation opportunities provided by the Department.

The recreation experience is central to the ROS concept. A combination of the environmental setting and specific activity or a group of activities, provided in a setting will determine the type of experience a visitor will have.

One of the goals for recreation managers is to maintain a range of recreation opportunities and facilities that provide fulfilling and satisfying recreation experiences. To achieve this, outdoor recreation opportunities can be identified and classified along a continuum, from urban to wilderness.

ROS provides an inventory of the recreation opportunities provided. Not only should we aim to provide a spectrum of recreation opportunity across the country, but a spectrum within each ROS setting. In the case of tracks, a spectrum should exist for users from short walks through to routes. Within some settings a range of track categories can be applied to ensure there is transition from one visitor group to the next. For example, across the country, tracks defined in the category walking tracks need to be available from 2.0 metres wide down to 0.75 metres wide. Providing this continuum within the standard caters for a greater range of people and provides visitors a range of experiences and the opportunity to progress onto more difficult and challenging opportunities. .

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A C T I E V X I P T Accessibility E Y R I E Size N S Human alterations C E PHYSICAL E T T Modification I Scale of modification

N SOCIAL G

Service and facilities

MANAGERIAL Maintenance or construction operations

Figure 1 - ROS factors influenced by track upgrade work Extract from - Factors that make up each ROS Opportunity

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3.1 VISITOR SETTING CHARACTERISTICS

As managers, an understanding of the setting characteristics will determine whether track upgrade work will have a potentially positive or detrimental influence on the visitor’s experience. In particular, the level of modification to the natural environment can have a profound effect on how visitors enjoy their experience.

In the example below, both pictures have been taken on the same Easy Tramping Track. The upgraded track has disengaged users from the environment. Furthermore, with the creation of long straight sections of track, the secrets of what might be revealed around the corner no longer exist and users can now only engage with the visual corridor which has been opened in front of them.

In contrast to the upgraded section of track, the older track offers the visitor engagement with the environment and is significantly more in tune with the topography through which they are travelling. The visitor has more opportunity to experience the natural environment and around every corner a new visual panorama unfolds.

Ironically, both these tracks meet the Easy Tramping Track standards. When making significant modifications to the physical setting, the experience had by visitors will be very different.

Figure 2 – Upgraded track Figure 3 – Track prior to upgrade (Photos Mick Abbott)

While SNZ HB 8630:2004 sets the parameters for track classifications it is also linked to the ROS. Therefore any track upgrade work needs to fit the ROS for that location and maintain a continuum of opportunities across the spectrum.

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3.2 HISTORIC SETTING CHARACTERISTICS

Historic characteristics are another identifier for managers. Where possible retain an historic track’s original profile, line and grade and minimise the loss of original material/fabric. This maintains authenticity and significantly enhances the heritage experience of visitors.

Figure 4- 1890’s gold mining tramway at Wilsons River

in Fiordland, its 100 year old rails covered in moss

Figure 5 - This logging frame on Great Barrier Island is

right beside a key walking track. It is the last one left standing in NZ

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4. Guiding Principles for Track Construction

KEEP WATER AWAY FROM THE TRACK SURFACE Maintain a cross fall of between 1-2º (3-4%) and maintain track shape. Remove water from the side of the track as soon as possible using a suitable water drainage system. Maintain natural waterways.

CONSTRUCT SUSTAINABLE GRADES Generally speaking, the lower the grade the more sustainable the track will be over the long term.

MAKE THE TRACK FLOW Avoid straight lines, follow the natural contour, make the track flow through the land.

PROVIDE A SUITABLE WALKING SURFACE Apply metal aggregate only where necessary. Where engineering techniques are required build on a firm foundation, ensure adequate pavement depth. Make use of suitable local materials and compact at the correct moisture content.

MAINTAIN A GOOD SURFACE Where necessary, establish a good track surface that binds together, replace lost material and maintain track shape.

MAINTAIN WHEN REQUIRED Maintain to the correct standard.

BE ENVIRONMENTALLY ASTUTE Take into account any environmental impacts caused by track work. Prepare an Assessment of Environmental Effects for all significant track construction work. Pay attention to poor maintenance practices and inadequate drainage which could cause sediment and erosion issues.

PROTECT YOUR INVESTMENT Follow the track ongoing inspection regime. It is there to help protect your tracks.

TRAIN STAFF Ensure staff are well trained and kept up to date with current best practice.

RESPECT AND KEEP HISTORIC VALUES Where the track has distinctive historic values, maintain that character.

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5. Landscape

A landscape is comprised of the visible features of an area of land, including physical elements such as landforms, living elements of flora and created human elements, for instance human activity in the creation of huts, tracks and structures. In every natural landscape there are natural shapes. Depending on the landscape, size, scale, texture and complexity will vary. The natural shape of a long sweeping shoreline contrasts significantly with a rugged mountainous landscape. To “fit”, tracks need to reflect the natural shape of the landscape. Build this into your track alignment; take into consideration the type of landscape and where the track should be located within that landscape and you are well on the way to making the track “fit”.

5.1 AESTHETICS

Aesthetics simply means how good the track looks. A well designed and executed track should look pleasing to the eye and “fit” with “the place”. People should get a sense of being part of the place not removed from it.

How tracks are designed has a significant influence on how people feel about a place and influences the way people experience that place. A landscape that is characterised by its remoteness and feeling of isolation makes it a special place. The introduction of tracks into what is largely an unmodified landscape has a visual impact. At a simple level, tracks introduce lines into a landscape where naturally occurring straight lines are rare.

The scale of this impact can be influenced by the track’s location within the landscape. Very old pack horse tracks usually followed the natural contour of the land and hugged the topography of the landscape. The advent of machinery has meant that we can now ignore many of the restraints that the old track builders had to contend with and we can put tracks up ridges, go through hillsides and tackle cuttings with relative ease.

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Figure 6 -This track does not “fit” the landscape and is out of context with the

environment within which it is located

Our unique and diverse landscapes are one of our biggest assets and as builders of tracks within these landscapes we need to undertake our work in a practical but sensitive way. Landscapes can be mountainous with numerous glacial valleys, or much flatter covered in low growing tussock or flax. Alternatively, they can be heavily forested. There are few places in the world where such a diverse range of landscapes can be seen in such a small geographic area. For many, the “undeveloped” feel of our landscape makes it special. The character of these landscapes and the value placed on them by people is reflected in the vast amount of recreational use they receive.

5.2 LANDFORMS

A landform is largely defined by its surface form and location in the landscape. Landforms are categorised by features such as elevation, slope, orientation, rock exposure, and soil type. They include mounds, hills, cliffs, valleys, rivers and numerous other elements.

5.2.1 Flat landforms The experience of the visitor when travelling through a flat landform is generally one of scale, of being out in the open and quite exposed. The sense of size and openness is very dominant.

The simplicity of the flat landform means;

• There are few straight lines or other natural features

• Any visible features are generally low and close to the contour of the ground

• Drainage is generally poor and views tend to be generally quite long in wide open spaces

These features give us a clue as to the type of track and alignment of the track that would be appropriate in this landscape.

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• A track with large and sweeping curves

• Aligned to avoid poor drainage areas where possible

The boardwalk shown in Figure 7 has introduced a strong linear element and divided the landscape. This has introduced a sense of scale to the place. Alternatively, a track that is overly intricate with numerous curves would not fit either, as this alignment would conflict with the scale and form of the landscape. Poor drainage usually leads to the solution of raising the track surface above the surrounding ground. This imposes the track upon the landscape rather than it fitting in with the landscape.

Figure 7 - While

relatively simple to construct, the impact of this boardwalk on the landscape is

considerable

5.2.2 Undulating landforms Overlapping slopes create the impression of an undulating landform.

• Slopes help to give a sense of enclosure

• Lack of features makes it difficult to determine a sense of scale

• Landscape is generally open in character

An appropriate approach would be to;

• Align the track around the lie of the land, sticking to the higher ground where possible

• The inclination here would be to build a relatively straight track. However this will not fit as cut and fill areas would contrast with the convex nature of the landscape

• Avoid the lowest and wettest ground, but also avoid the prominent high areas, unless these provide the best views. This will result in a track that “fits” into the undulating landscape. While the track may be slightly longer, it will reduce the amount of cut and fill required with the overlapping nature of the landform providing some screening

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5.2.3 Hummocky landforms This landform is generally associated with glacial deposits.

• The landform is made up of quite distinctive hump-like random deposits

• Hummocks are generally quite irregular and small in size

• Tops of the hummocks often provide good lookout points to view the surrounding landscape from

When preparing to construct a track in such a landform;

• Determine whether the track can be aligned through the terrain to avoid the hummocks

• Identify an alignment that avoids an overly complex route. Alignment should not be simple or complex; it should reflect the repetitive nature of the hummocks

• A straight track through a hummocky landform would have a significant visual impact

• Follow the natural geometry of the hummocks where possible

PITFALL!

• A track that snakes too much is just as obtrusive as a straight line track

5.2.4 Rocky landforms This is a very common landform in New Zealand. Rocky landforms are characterised by steep rocky outcrops.

• Exposed rocks are in direct contrast to the surrounding vegetation both in texture and colour

• Rock outcrops will be random in both size and shape

When building a track through rocky landforms it is necessary to:

• Identify a track alignment that maximises the use of easier and flatter country

• Be aware that moving rocks or disturbing rock bluffs will be in direct contrast to the undisturbed and weathered rocks that remain

• Make the maximum use of the undisturbed ground between outcrops where this exists

5.2.5 Narrow V shaped valley Views in a narrow V shaped valley are generally confined to within the valley.

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• The eye tends to be drawn down the slopes to the floor, and up toward the head of the valley

• Rivers are dominant in the valley floor and provide a focus of attention and movement. They act as a “landscape anchor” and we are naturally drawn to them

When constructing a track through a V shaped valley landform it is necessary to:

• Locate the track as close to the valley floor or the river terraces as possible

• Stay away from the river itself as the dynamic nature of river systems and their constantly changing course can cause problems in the future. Construct the track close enough to the river so the user gets a sense of enjoyment from the river, but not so close that floods will have a major impact

• Locate the track between one-third and one-quarter of the way up the valley slope

5.2.6 Broad U shaped valley Wide open U shaped valleys were formed during periods of glaciation. These have large valley floors and sweeping valley slopes. There will generally be some form of river system or wetland present.

When constructing a track through a Broad U shaped valley it is necessary to:

• Create a simple alignment that reflects the river’s course will help reinforce the landscape

• Aligning the track for the best fit between the sideslope and the valley floor

HOT TIP

• As a general rule, tracks should be located at the junction of the valley slope with the valley floor

Be aware that the sides of U shaped glaciated valleys are usually quite weathered and can be prone to slips and erosion.

5.2.7 Hills Hills are very common in the landscape and we encounter them time and time again.

• Steeper hills tend to draw the eye down or up the hill slopes

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• The steepness of the slope has a bearing on the way people interpret the landscape

When constructing a track through hills it is necessary to:

• Reducing interference with the natural characteristics

• Take advantage of as many of the naturally occurring features as possible

HOT TIP

• Avoid putting a track half way up the hillside as this interrupts the visual flow of the slope

5.2.8 Ridgelines Ridgelines are common in almost all landscapes and are generally very prominent features. Being so prominent, it is almost inevitable that locating any track on a ridgeline will cause significant visual impacts. When constructing a track on a ridgeline it is necessary to:

• Evaluate the location of the track, a track on a major ridge backbone, where the gradient is usually flatter will have a lower visual impact than a track descending a ridge to the bushline

• Keep any cut and fill work to the minimum as this will add to the visual impacts

5.2.9 Saddlebacks Saddlebacks are more commonly known as passes or saddles and are areas of lower ground between two mountains or hills.

• They are well utilised by tracks to pass from one catchment system into another and the skyline is often very prominent

• The eye is naturally drawn to the low saddle and this becomes the focal point

The alignment of a track going over a saddle should reflect the symmetry of the landform.

HOT TIP

• Ideally any track going over the pass should approach at an angle and cross over the lowest part of the pass

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5.2.10 Water – lake edge The coming together of land and water is one of the most prominent associations in the landscape. The convergence ranges from relatively complex with lots of indents to simple with long smooth shoreline.

There are two approaches that can be taken depending upon the configuration of the shoreline.

• For simple shorelines, the track alignment should reflect the simple and relatively straightforward nature of the shore

• A more complicated shoreline needs to be treated differently. The track alignment will need to have a balance between a very simple and an overly complicated alignment that mirrors the shoreline

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6. Landscape Features

In every natural landscape there are natural features and these features are present in certain shapes. Depending on the landscape, size, scale, texture and complexity will vary.

6.1 LANDSCAPE ANCHORS

There are many natural features in the landscape, vertical features such as trees and large boulders, long natural edges where valley slopes meet the valley floor or where a lake or coastline meets with the land. All of these features are particularly strong at holding our attention and are referred to as landscape anchors.

• Trees and large rock outcrops are good examples of vertical features that we are drawn towards. Utilise natural features that people are drawn to as much as possible

• People are naturally drawn to landscape anchors. People have a desire to go to that particular place or go that particular way. By not incorporating these features into the track design there will be additional problems to contend with in the future

• Many landscape anchors can be utilised, even small rocks that a track “hugs” helps to anchor the track

• The more features you can “hug” the better “feel” the track will have for its users

6.2 EDGES

Edges play an extremely important role in both making a track “fit” and hold people’s attention. There are many, many different natural edges in nature. Being on the edge gives us the contrast between two sides. The greater the contrast between the two edges the greater the experience of the visitor in the setting.

6.3 GATEWAYS

A gateway is simply a place where your sense of enclosure is increased.

• Usually achieved via a pinch point on a track; it can be a track squeezing between two trees or boulders

• An edge influence can also be possible with a tree on one side of the track and the track edge on the other

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• Gateways located at the junction of a car park and a bush walk introduce a much stronger sense of transition between the formal and structured shape of the car park and the natural shapes of a bush walk

6.4 HISTORIC FEATURES

Historic features are often found in natural landscapes. They provide a visible and tangible sense of history to the landscape.

Track design needs to consider the landscape holistically, taking into account the natural environment and the needs of the visitors without compromising any of its historic or cultural values.

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7. Soil Types

Why is this important? Because soil particle size is the most important factor to indicate the likely behaviour and performance of your track. Within each landform the soil type also determines where a track is best located. The long-term performance of any construction project depends on the soundness of the underlying soils. Unstable soils can create significant problems for tracks.

Soil types vary hugely throughout the country, so much so that you may encounter different soil types on the same track. Soil is characterised by its structure which in turn is determined by particle size.

There are four basic generic soil types based on particle size: clay, silt, sand, and gravels. Each one is different in size and shape and affects how your track will perform under certain conditions. The proportions of clay, silt, sand and gravel will determine the track's ability to resist deformation and erosion. Being able to determine which one you are dealing with will aid you with your track construction. The key issue for design and construction purposes is whether the soil will act as a cohesive or granular material.

Organic material (peat, topsoil) should be removed when constructing or upgrading a short walk or walking track. Avoid building a track on this material as its organic content makes it unsuitable where a high number of visitors are expected. However, it has a valuable place when landscaping and should not be discarded.

Soil types are classified as shown in Table 2.

COARSE SOILS FINE SOILS OTHER SOIL (granular soils or (cohesive soils) non-cohesive soils)

Gravel Sand Silt Clay Organic soils

Table 2 - Soil Groups

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7.1 GRAVEL AND SAND

Gravel and sand may be either rock fragments or single materials of various sizes and shapes. If there is a narrow range of particle sizes present, the material is described as uniform. Where a broad range of particle sizes are present the material is described as well graded.

7.2 SILT

Silt particle size is between clay and very fine sand (Table 3). Silt is less plastic (unable to maintain its shape) and more permeable (allows water to pass through) than clay. It displays quick and dilatant behaviour. Quick behaviour refers to the tendency of silt to liquefy when shaken or vibrated, and dilatancy refers to the tendency to undergo volume increase when deformed.

7.3 CLAY

Clay consists of very small particles and exhibits the properties of cohesion and plasticity, which are not found in sand or gravel. Cohesion refers to the fact that the material sticks together, while plasticity is the property that allows the material to be moulded and deformed without volume change or rebound, and without cracking or crumbling.

7.4 ORGANIC SOIL

Organic soil should only be identified as such if the organic content is high and the material no longer behaves like a silt or clay. Soils containing small to moderate amounts of organic material still retain the properties of silts or clays and should be described within those categories.

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Fine Earth Rock Earth Type Fragments Fragments

Boulders > 200 mm C

Cobbles 200-60.0 mm O A Gravel 60 mm-2.0 mm R Coarse sand 2.0-0.6 mm S Medium sand 0.6-0.2 mm E

Fine sand 0.2-0.06 mm

Silt 0.06-0.002 mm F I

Clay < 0.002 mm N E

Table 3 – Soil Categories

A granular soil is where all the particles are larger than silt size and a cohesive soil is where all the particles are smaller than sand. Soils containing a full range of particle sizes from clays to gravel will act cohesively if only 15% to 25% of the particles are clay or silt sized.

7.5 PLASTICITY

Plasticity is the most important property of a clay or silt. A highly plastic soil can be moulded or deformed over a wide moisture content range. It will not crack or show a tendency to reduce in volume. Highly plastic clays will become rock hard when dry while low plasticity clays will crumble quite easily.

7.6 FIELD TESTS

There are some simple tests you can carry out that will determine which soil type you are dealing with:

7.6.1 Clay soil To determine the plasticity of clay in the field it is necessary to mould the shape of the sample over a range of moisture contents.

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• Moist clay sticks, easily forms into a ball and leaves a stain in the palm of your hand

• Dry clay is very hard and almost impossible to break with your hand (if it is highly plastic)

7.6.2 Silty soil To distinguish between silts and clay soils, place a handful of soil (sufficiently wet to be almost sticky) in the open palm of the hand. Tap the bottom of the hand with the other hand. If the sample is a silt, quick behaviour appears (water will appear on the surface, giving it a shiny appearance), and will then disappear if the sample is squeezed or manipulated. When it is manipulated the sample tends to dilate and draw water back into it. With clay, these characteristics are not present.

• Moist silt feels smooth and sticky but falls apart. Does not leave much of a stain on your hand

• Dry silt feels like flour, smooth and powdery

7.6.3 Sandy soil

• Moist sand when squeezed together in the palm of your hand will form a ball which will break apart easily and not leave a stain on your hand

• Dry sand feels rough and will not hold together. You can see individual particles of sand

7.6.4 Loam soil Loam soils are a combination of all three particle types in which no particle type is dominant. As a general rule these soils are good to work with, having reasonable drainage and holding together well.

• Wet loam forms a ball when squeezed together in the palm of your hand. It is neither too gritty nor sticky

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Property Silt Sand Clay

Water holding Low Medium to high High capacity

Drainage High Slow to medium Very Slow

Compaction Low Medium High

Susceptible to water Low High Low (if aggregated) erosion High ( if not)

Table 4 - Soil Properties and Behaviour Relevant to Track construction

Some soils are unsuitable as a walking surface. Table 5 outlines suitable and unsuitable types.

Not suitable as Suitable with the use of Suitable foundation track foundation a geotextile separator

Organic humus Peat Firm clay/ silt soils

Soft clay/ silt soils Sands / gravels

Rocks

Table 5 – Suitability of soil types as a track foundation

All leaf litter and organic matter should be removed from the cut and fill zone. The material can be used later to rehabilitate borrow pits and the impact of construction work.

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Field Test for Determining Whether Soil is Clay, Silt, Sand or Loam

Place a small amount of soil in your hand. Add small droplets of water

and knead until plastic and

moldable like putty

Yes

Place ball of soil between thumb and forefinger, gently rub soil between Does it No Yes Is soil too dry? thumb and forefinger in an upward remain in a motion, This should form a ribbon ball when No of uniform width and thickness. squeezed? Yes Add dry soil Does soil form a ribbon that extends Is soil too wet? to get over forefinger? No correct i No Yes SAND

LOAMY Make soil very wet. Place soil in palm of hand

SAND and make into a ribbon.

Does soil make a weak No Does soil make a medium No Does soil make a medium

ribbon < 25mm long length ribbon 25-50mm length ribbon >50mm long

before breaking? long before breaking? before breaking?

Yes Yes Yes

Does soil Yes SANDY Does soil Does soil feel very CLAY feel very Yes SANDY Yes feel very SANDY gritty? LOAM gritty? CLAY gritty? LOAM

No No No

Does soil Does soil

Does soil feel neither Yes feel neither Yes feel neither gritty nor CLAY gritty nor Yes LOAM CLAY gritty nor LOAM overly overly overly

No No No

SILTY

Does the soil Does the soil Yes CLAY Does the soil Yes Yes feel very SILTY feel very LOAM feel very SILTY smooth? CLAY smooth? smooth? CLAY

(Natural Surface Trails by Design)

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8. Track Destruction

Why is this important? Because understanding the forces that destroy a track and the interaction of these forces will help you build a better track. The most important thing for you to understand is how water and gravity work together to move dirt. There are three key forces at work on the surface of your track; erosion, displacement and compaction.

8.1 EROSION

Water wears away the track surface by picking up soil particles and with gravity carries them over the side of your track, or into side drains and culvert heads. The greater the volume and speed of water, the larger the particle size it will move. Faster water will carry more dirt at a greater speed. The damage caused will depend on how much water is involved and how fast it is moving.

Soil, water and gravity are three important elements of track work. We move soil to achieve what we want, a certain type of track at a certain gradient. Once we have moved the soil we then need to keep it there. Water is a powerful substance and a major aspect of track work is to slow down the rate at which we lose soil through water erosion. Soil is picked up and moved every time it rains or the wind blows strongly, and particles of soil are either washed or blown away. Soil particles are taken from one place and put in another with the help of gravity. The steeper the track section the greater the influence of gravity. Gravity will speed up the rate of soil being moved or slow it down.

Figure 8 -Discoloured

water is a clear indication that soil particles have been “picked up” by the water

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Figure 9 - Water flowing directly down a walking track.

Sections of this track have been eroded to depths of 1.5 metres.

This track is now effectively the side

drain with water flowing down onto the track from the sideslope

Water will also build up soil in other places when it slows down and runs out of energy to carry the soil particles. It lets them go and deposits them. Small erosion events tend to drop particles around narrow points such as culvert inlets. Repeated small events can block culverts that have been incorrectly installed. Knowing that water drops particles can be used to your advantage when building tracks, always think about slowing the water down. You will find a lot of the particles are “let go” in side drains and catch pits.

By now you should understand how important it is to get water off the track surface and stop it from removing the soil particles. Water also causes problems when it is absorbed by soil particles. Clay is a good example of when too much water is absorbed by the clay particles we get a very boggy, wet track surface.

8.2 DISPLACEMENT

Displacement is the movement of surface material (soil, gravel, stones etc) as a result of use. Displacement of naturally occurring soils generally takes place on weak cohesive soils (soil where the particle size is smaller than sand). On stone aggregate tracks, moving feet kick stones from the track surface. Mountain bike tyres dislodge and move soil particles, gravel and even small rocks. Over time, the constant moving of particles starts to wear away the track surface causing it to change shape.

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Figure 10 - Note the horizontal displacement of the track surface material down to the

geocells.

Sixty thousand people walk down this track annually and have displaced the track surface material when

coming off the last step onto the track

On muddy surfaces, displacement is particularly evident when the surface is unable to sustain the weight of the user.

8.3 COMPACTION

This is the process by which soil particles are pressed together, forcing air out from between the particles and creating a dense compacted surface. Compaction is caused by a number of different mechanisms. We can compact a track surface using a mechanical compactor or compaction may occur through visitor use of the track. Mechanical compactors are either vibratory or static and typically come in the form of a roller or plate compactor.

Don’t underestimate the compaction effect of visitors, it is very significant. The downward force of a visitor’s physical weight plus the weight of their pack can be considerable. An 80 kg visitor with a 20 kg backpack exerts a considerable force over a small surface area. The 100 kg weight is further

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concentrated on the track surface when not all of the tread on the hiking boot comes into contact with the surface; lets say in the vicinity of 50%. So we have a 100 kg of downward force being applied on a small surface area of around 350 mm x 100 mm and this intensifies the compaction pressure. Continual compaction caused by thousands of visitors takes its toll on our tracks and as more and more air is squeezed out and the soil particles get closer together your track surface is now concave in shape and generally below the surrounding ground, and you now have the start of a rut and some track water management issues.

Figure 11 - Use of a vibrating plate compactor

helps to harden the track surface and reduce erosion and displacement of material

To understand why tracks tend to get compacted in the middle of the track or the inside of corners it is useful to have an understanding of load distribution. The extent to which a load is distributed will depend on the soil type. Generally speaking, the load is distributed in relation to the thickness and quality of the soil/ pavement.

• Nearly all track surfaces sink from compaction, including well constructed and compacted surfaces. A number of factors will determine how far a track surface will compact

• The centre and inside of corners will become the most compacted part of the track as this is where most activity takes place. Outer edges will generally be less compacted

• Non-compacted side slope tracks will often fail as a result of the centre of the track being compacted. The more susceptible your surface to compaction the faster the rate of compaction and the sooner outslope failure will occur

• Compaction makes the surface more resistant to erosion and displacement

• A compacted track surface causes more water to be shed off the track – water finds it difficult to go through the track surface, so water management becomes even more important

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9. Water, Water, Water

Predicting the volume and flow of water is a vital aspect of track construction. Water arrives in various forms, including, rain, fog and snow. It will then flow through and/or across the land depending upon the circumstances. The location of your track in the landscape and the design of your track will determine how it is influenced by water.

9.1 CATCHMENT WATERSHED

The catchment watershed is the land that drains down onto your track. There are a number of variables that come into play but generally speaking the steeper the side slope the greater the water runoff.

Figure 12 - The filtration ability of the soil will also influence how much water runs off.

Exceedingly steep side slopes and the rocky nature of this landscape produce a

high degree of runoff

9.2 TRACK SURFACE WATERSHED

Track surface watershed is the area of track surface that water falls directly onto before flowing off the track surface. How much water remains on the track surface is affected by the condition of the track surface and track design has a major influence.

9.3 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE WATER IMPACT ON TRACKS

If you can manage the factors that influence water impacts, then you are creating a more sustainable track which will require minimum maintenance.

9.3.1 Watershed slope

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The steeper the slope the more water will run off at a greater speed, so the position of your track on the side slope plays an important role. Whenever feasible locate your track as far up the slope as possible without having an influence on how the track “fits” the landscape.

Figure 13 - A high watershed slope and impervious rock creates significant

challenges for track constructors

Tracks on flat, or very close to flat, gradients present a slightly different challenge. Because of compaction and displacement, inevitably the track becomes a point where water collects as the lowest lying area of ground. This becomes an extremely difficult area to drain. In many ways these locations are more difficult than tracks on hillsides.

9.3.2 Track surface watershed size The smaller the track watershed’s size the less rain and snow melt it collects. The length of the track surface watershed is highly influenced by track design. Track surface watershed is from the top of a high point on the track to a low point where the water leaves the track. It can be as little as one metre or as much as fifty metres. It depends on the track design.

9.3.3 Surface runoff potential Surface runoff is the water that flows over the land. It generally occurs when the soil is saturated and cannot hold any more water and all water depressions in the ground are full.

9.3.4 Tree splash erosion While the presence of trees helps protect the track surface in certain circumstances it also facilitates erosion through splash erosion. Splash erosion is where a tree branch extends out over the track surface. Rain gathers on the tree leaves and drips to the ground. Often the size of the drip from the tree is greater than the size of the rain droplet. When the tree drops hit the track surface they literally explode on impact and force small soil particles (fines) to be washed away.

9.3.5 Track surface width

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This is hugely important and has a profound influence on the erosion of your track and the volume of ongoing maintenance required. The wider the track surface, the more water it has falling on it. The greater the volume of water collected the more potential it has for erosion. One of the simplest ways to reduce erosion is to reduce width within the limits of the track service standards.

9.3.6 Weather While some parts of the country receive less rain than others, most areas receive periods of heavy rain. No matter where you are in the country you need to design the track for these intense rain periods.

9.3.7 Water sources There are a lot of water sources that need to be accommodated in your track design and maintenance. Water will affect the track surface through the following sources:

• Rain, snow or fog in the catchment watershed

• Rain or snow directly onto the track surface

• Springs

• Seeps (usually seasonal)

• Perched watertable. This is where there is a hard pan a short distance below the surface. Tracks cutting across the slope may cut into the water level

• Flooding from a local floodplain or similar

• Streams

• Seasonal drainage patterns

• Human e.g. District Council road cut outs, farm or other culvert outlets located above the track

9.3.8 Track surface Some naturally occurring soil surfaces are more resistant to erosion and maintaining their shape than others. We can also manufacture aggregate mixes and import the material to certain locations when required. These manufactured mixes are very erosion resistant.

9.3.9 Visitor numbers and type of use As we have already discussed, compaction and displacement change the shape of your track allowing water where you do not want it. The number and types of recreational use can have a dramatic impact.

9.3.10 Grade and length

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Small increases in the grade of your track tend to significantly increase erosion. The important thing to remember is the steeper your track the more erosion it will be subject to.

Figure 14 - This

newly constructed track has a long point to point track surface. It starts at the top of the hill

and finishes at the bottom.

Maintaining track shape is critical for the sustainability of

this track

Point to point track surface length is also important. A short steep section will not erode as rapidly as a long section of the same gradient. How long a section of track should be depends upon a lot of inter-related variables: grade, length, soil type, visitor numbers, type of use and the volume of water likely to fall on the track surface. These influences will vary according to your local conditions.

9.3.11 Sustainable grade dips Grade dips remove water from the track surface and allow water to drain freely off the side of the track. A grade dip is a location on the track where there is a very subtle change in direction and elevation, dropping down very gently before rising again. Sustainable grade dips have six characteristics;

• Minimal sediment flow: The volume of sediment flowing into the dip needs to be minimised. This is achieved by ensuring that the track surface watersheds are kept to the minimum. If the track surface wears quickly or scours easily then the track watershed is too large

• Correct gradients: We already know that the track surface is going to erode and the fines are going to get washed away. As discussed earlier, if the sediment being carried in the water flowing down the track and into the dip loses speed it will drop the sediment in the dip. Water needs to flow into and out of the dip faster than it enters, otherwise it will drop the fines. So the grade of the dip outflow needs to exceed the grade of the track inflow. If the outflow grade is not sufficient a build- up of sediment will occur eventually blocking the dip and making it ineffective. If you are unable to change the track watershed then consider hardening the track surface

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• Large outflow points: Make the outflow channels wide as this help to prevent clogging and grade dip failure

• Resistant to compaction and displacement: Compaction and displacement within the dip can cause the formation of a berm on the downhill side of the track. The formation of the berm will allow water to sit and form a puddle. This will further weaken the track surface and make it more vulnerable to further displacement

• Dips are large: Make large dips. They need to be wide and deep enough to function even if some eroded or displaced material ends up in the dip. There should be a gentle transition into and out of the dip

• Large crests: The crest (where you enter and exit the dip) needs to be sufficiently strong to resist displacement

A dip constructed with all six characteristics will require the least amount of maintenance. The fewer characteristics a dip has the more maintenance it will require.

Figure 15 - This very subtle grade dip produces a very short point to point track

surface

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Section Two: TRACK CONSTRUCTION

10. Track Construction

Any track construction work needs to be well planned and organised. Tracks are an expensive asset and good project management skills are required. Take time to plan the project well, particularly given the isolated nature of track work.

10.1 GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF TRACK CONSTRUCTION

To build or upgrade a track you need to adopt and implement a number of key construction principles. Adopting only some will not give you a truly great track. Adopt and implement all these principles and your track will last.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF TRACKS

Build on a sideslope Generally speaking, build your track on the side slope of a hill, avoid the flat. There are two distinct advantages to building on a sideslope, water management is significantly easier and users keep to the track.

Use the half rule For sustainability purposes your track grade should avoid exceeding half the grade of the sideslope it is located on. If the grade does goes over half then you are dealing with the fall line and you will encounter erosion problems earlier. As an example if you are designing a track on a hill with a sideslope of 10º (18%) then the track should not exceed a gradient of 5º (9%). It is important to apply this rule even on gentle sideslopes.

There is a maximum sustainable grade for every site, regardless of the sideslope grade and application of the half rule. Except in very rare situations where tracks may consist of rocks, the track grade should not exceed 10º (17%) even if a steeper track would still comply with the half rule. Some tracks on particularly erosion

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prone soils may be as low as 3-4º (5-7%).

Avoid the fall line Fall line tracks are tracks that exceed half the gradient of the sideslope and water particularly likes them. The issue with tracks following the fall line is that they focus the flow of water down the length of the track as opposed to across the track. Fall lines are generally steeper and allow water to gather speed and collect soil particles as discussed in section 8.1.

Once a small erosion scour has formed on a track, it is almost impossible to get the water to flow off the track. There is a fall line for every slope no matter how steep or gentle the sideslope. Benched tracks should traverse the slope not descend them.

Follow the six degree (ten percent) average guideline Generally speaking, a track with an average grade of 6º (10% or less) creates the most sustainable tracks. However, this does not mean that the entire track, or indeed all tracks need to be kept under six degrees. The six degree average rule is a very good guide for designing a sustainable track. It is applicable to most soil types and minimises user erosion.

Don’t always build to the maximum track grade Many tracks will need to have sections over six degrees. These should be kept as short as possible. Surface hardening, or other techniques such as the use of steps (where gradient exceeds 18º), can be implemented in these circumstances.

Determining the maximum grade for your location will take into account a number of factors including:

• Track service standards

• Track alignment

• Half rule

• Soil type

• Rainfall – very wet and very dry climates present their own unique issues

• Vegetation cover or lack of it

• Grade dips (see below)

• Type of user – walker, mountain biker, tramper

• Number of users- will influence track shape, displacement etc

Water management Water management is the number one priority when designing and constructing tracks. If you have determined your alignment and followed the principles outlined so far you will have gone a long way to minimising the amount of water that can affect your track. No matter how well the

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track has been designed water management is still required and water will need to be removed from the track surface. Grade dips, culverts and the track shape are methods of removing water and protecting the track.

A grade dip forces water to the lowest point where the track is shaped to allow water to drain away freely to the side. The change in grade must be subtle, not allowing the water to pick up momentum and create erosion problems. Implementing frequent grade dips effectively gives the water no opportunity to increase in volume or speed. Effectively, this breaks the track up into a number of small units, so the water that lands on the track surface at the top of the hill does not have an impact at the bottom of the hill. Creation of frequent grade dips, (section 14.3.1) and installation of culverts (section 14.7) is recommended depending on soil type and rainfall. It is easier to build these into the design of your track than to come back later and try to retrofit them.

Plan your track shape (crown, in-slope and out-slope) Crown tracks are where the highest point of the track is in the middle with both the inside and outside edges of the track lower. The slope from centre to the side of the track should only be 2º (3-4%).

In some circumstances, the provision of an outslope or inslope track is appropriate. An outslope track is a track where the outer edge is slightly lower than the inner edge. Usually there are no side drains and water is allowed to flow freely across the track instead of travelling along it. The difference between the inside and outside of the track should only be 2º (3- 4%). Outslope tracks are not perfect and can be difficult to maintain, particularly in poor soil types or where there is high rainfall, or where there is extensive use of the track. Compaction and displacement of the centre of the track through tyres and feet can create a concave or dish shape in the tread (section 13.0).

Choosing the correct track shape to construct is important and will have a significant influence on the future maintenance requirements of the track. A single track can have a combination of track shapes.

Design track according to soil type There are many different types and combinations of soil (see section 7.0). The ability to determine the soil type you are dealing with and design your track accordingly will reduce future maintenance. A mix of sand, clay and silt particles in which none is dominant makes a good track surface. It drains well, holds together and is easy to work with. Adding rock and gravel can improve its strength and durability. Soils that are dominated by one soil type are the most vulnerable to erosion.

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Design to minimise soil displacement Poor design can significantly contribute to track erosion by increasing displacement of soil. In the case of mountain bikes displacement is evident where hills and abrupt corners cause bikers to brake.

Correct track design with respect to grade will minimise the displacement of materials. However, sometimes this is either not achievable or not enough. An additional tactic needs to be implemented such as designing inslope turns or hardening the track surface.

Mountain bikers particularly like inslope turns with a built up outside edge, otherwise known as super-elevation. Bikers will naturally take this alignment as the forces at work literally fling them around and out of the corner. As a result of these forces bikers are able to negotiate the corners at higher speeds. Furthermore, they are less likely to brake before entering the corner. It is therefore essential to provide a good line of sight and create gateways to slow bikers down to minimise displacement.

When designing or undertaking an upgrade of a track, where mountain biking use is permitted, think about how they might enter the turn. If upgrading an existing turn, get on a bike and see what you do when riding the turn. Is the entry speed to the turn too fast requiring you to brake heavily? Is the camber too steep or not steep enough? Think about the turn and whether any material is likely to get pushed sideways.

Consider user desire lines There are situations where users decide they do not want to walk on the track provided and decide they want to take a “short cut”. This generally occurs where the user can see where the track goes and decides it is easier to take an alternative route or can see a desirable landscape anchor they want to look at more closely. To help minimise desire lines, track design needs to take into account the following:

• Take your track to appealing destinations and viewpoints

• Maintain a good walking surface

• Make sure users get a better experience by staying on track rather than going off track

Maintenance, maintenance, maintenance The number one priority for track maintenance is drainage, drainage, drainage. You must keep water off the track in order to keep users on it.

HOT TIPS

• If using benched tracks cut across the face of a hill

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• Stick to the half rule as much as possible

• Avoid the fall line

• Follow the 6º (10%) average guideline

• Keep below the maximum sustainable grade

• Install regular grade dips

• Plan your track shape

• Design according to soil type

• Minimise soil displacement caused by users

• Prevent shortcuts/include appealing destinations

• Maintenance, maintenance, maintenance

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11. Planning for Track Construction

Recreation tracks are for people who have widely varying perspectives and expectations. A well planned, designed and constructed track will meet the needs of the users, look unobtrusive, and be environmentally sensitive.

11.1 OFFICE BASED PLANNING

These days we just don’t go out and build a track, we have learnt from past mistakes that there is a considerable amount of planning required.

• Identify where the track fits within NZS HB 8630:2004 for the user group

• Determine the track width, grade, percentage of wet and muddy or rough and uneven for the new track or upgrade (see Figures 16 to 20)

• Utilise the Geographic Information System (GIS). A lot of useful information for track teams is now easily available. A good GIS map will identify topography, soil types, vegetation, slope gradients, archaeological sites and much more. Add these to a Global Positioning System (GPS) as waypoints; these become a useful reference when out in the field

• Identify “ideal” and “avoid” places on the map, where the track has to go and places to stay away from (Table 6)

Once you have completed this exercise you can then work out approximate grades (section 12.1). This will tell you the length of track required to achieve a gain in altitude. You can then see if this will work with the locations identified as ideal to take the track to.

Considerations Ideal Avoid Topography Good start and end points Large flat areas Passes the track needs to Steep slopes go through Stream crossings, lakes or Wetlands tarns Scenic vistas (lookouts ) Poor views Swimming holes Good slope aspect-North facing slopes are drier Gentle sideslopes Visitor For walkers keep the grade Steep track grades experience within the maximum as and aesthetics specified in NZS HB

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8630:2004 For dual use tracks where Long consistent grades mountain bikers are present keep the grade at 4° (7%) or less Use natural shapes Straight lines, uniform grades, zig zags and curves Natural features e.g. large Minimise the visual impact of trees, rock outcrops the track when viewed from a distance Locations for interpretation Short side tracks to points of interest/views Cultural values Consult and involve Known sites of cultural tangata whenua as early as importance e.g. urupa possible. Biodiversity Unique or unusual features Areas of sensitive and historic if robust biodiversity value unless there is a reason to visit these locations Archaeological sites Safety Natural hazards such as cliffs and loose rocks Steep grades

Table 6 – Essential aspects of planning your track

If you do not build “ideals” into your track, users will make their own track to the swimming hole or lookout generally realigning the track in a way you would not want.

11.1.1 Determining track width, gradient, wet and muddy and/or rough and uneven . There are four variables within NZS HB 8630:2004 that need to be considered, track width, track gradient, proportion of wet and muddy or rough and uneven as a percentage of the overall track length.

The examples shown for Taranaki Falls walking track, Figures 16-18, give a visual guide with marks placed in the appropriate locations for each individual question. The median, which is the middle value of observations where half of the values are larger and half are smaller, indicates that the preferred track width should be in the vicinity of 1.0 – 1.2 metres (Figure 16).

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Likewise, the median cluster of marks in Figures 17 and 18 suggests that an acceptable length of walking track that may be above 15º (and less than 20º) is around 6% of total track length and approximately 10% wet and muddy or rough and uneven. An additional example has been provided for a Great Walk (Figure 19 and 20). Blank forms are available in Appendices 2-6 and provide a guideline for determining where a track should be placed within the standard.

As part of conservancy capital works programmes, Programme Managers and Technical Support Officers should work together on any track upgrade work to determine the most appropriate solution, ensuring a range of experiences is provided within SNZ HB 8630:2004.

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Figure 16 - Guidelines for Walking Track upgrade- Track Width Track name: Taranaki Falls

What is the ROS classification? Wilderness Remote Backcountry Rural Urban fringe Urban

What is the proportion of large groups to individuals using the track? More individuals/couples (1-2 Small families/groups (3-5 Medium size groups (6-10 Moderately sized groups (11-19 More large groups (20+ people) people people) people) people)

What is the percentage of short stop travellers on the site? 0% 10% 11% 20% 21% 30% 31% 40% 41% 50%

What is the accumulated percentage of Backcountry Comfort Seekers, Backcountry Adventurers and Remoteness Seekers on the site? 50% 41% 40% 31% 30% 21% 20% 11% 10% 0%

Are there patterns of seasonal use? Extremely Seasonal High seasonality Seasonal Some seasonality Year round use

What is the visual impact of increasing the track width according to the ROS classification? Very high High Medium Low Very low

What is the visual impact of increasing the track width on non users? (eg can it be seen from the highway or from the sea?) Very high High Medium Low Very low

What are the visitor numbers to the site? Very low Low Medium High Very high

What is the projected growth in visitor numbers? Very low Low Medium High Very high

What type of track is it? One way, loop, etc Linear / loop one way Maze Stacked loop Linear two way

0.75m 1.0m 1.2m 1.5m 2.0m

Preferred track width

Note: SNZ HB 8630:2004 states that the minimum width of a walking track shall be 0.75m (reduced to 0.6m in specific circumstances) and the maximum width shall be 2.0m.

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Figure 17 - Guidelines for Walking Track upgrade – Percentage of track gradient between 15-20º (must not be more than 10% of total track length) Track name: Taranaki Falls

How sensitive to erosion is the soil type? Highly sensitive Very sensitive Sensitive Not very sensitive Not sensitive

What is the proportion of large groups to individuals using the track? More large groups (20+ Moderate to large sized Medium size groups (6-10 Small families/groups (3-5 More individuals/couples (1-2 people) groups (11-19 people) people) people) people)

What is the percentage of short stop travellers on the site? 50% 41% 40% 31% 30% 21% 20% 11% 10% 0%

What is the accumulated percentage of Backcountry Comfort Seekers, Backcountry Adventurers and Remoteness Seekers on the site? 0% 10% 11% 20% 21% ,30% 31% 40% 41% 50%

Is it a dual use site with the activity promoting lower grades (e.g. mountain biking, buggies)? If the activity does not take place, do not mark. 50% 41% 40% 31% 30% 21% 20% 11% 10% 0%

In the type of landscape, what is the visual impact on the ROS classification? Very high High Medium Low Very low

In the type of landscape, what is the visual impact on non users? (eg can it be seen from the highway or from the sea?) Very high High Medium Low Very low

What are the visitor numbers to the site? Very high High Medium Low Very low

What is the projected growth in visitor numbers? Very High High Medium Low Very low

0% track length 5% track length 10% Acceptable track length between 15-20º

Note: SNZ HB 8630:2004 states that up to 10% of the total track length (for a walking track) may be between 15º and 20º, as long as these steeper sections provide reasonably firm footing in wet weather conditions.

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Figure 18 -Guidelines for Walking Track upgrade – Percentage of track wet and muddy/or rough and uneven (below 20% of track length) Track name: Taranaki Falls

How sensitive is the soil to failing? Highly sensitive Very sensitive Sensitive Not very sensitive Not sensitive

What is the percentage of short stop travellers on the site? 50% 41% 40% 31% 30% 21% 20% 11% 10% 0%

What is the accumulated percentage of Backcountry Comfort Seekers, Backcountry Adventurers and Remoteness Seekers on the site? 0% <10% 11% 20% 21% ,30% 31% 40% 41% 50%

What is the proportion of large groups to individuals using the track? More large groups (20+ Moderate to large sized groups Medium size groups (6-10 Small families/groups (3-5 More individuals/couples (1-2 people) (11-19 people) people) people people)

What are the visitor numbers to the site? Very high High Medium Low Very low

What is the projected growth in visitor numbers? Very high High Medium Low Very low

0% 5% 10% 15% 20%

Acceptable % of track wet and muddy

Note: SNZ HB 8630:2004 states that up to 20% of the total length of a walking track may have short wet and muddy sections (below the top of footwear) and/or rough and uneven sections.

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Figure 19 - Guidelines for Great Walk and Easy Tramping Track upgrade- Track Width Track name: Tongariro Northern Circuit-Waihohonu to Tama Lakes

What is the ROS classification? Wilderness Remote Backcountry Rural Urban fringe

What is the proportion of large groups to individuals using the track? More individuals/couples (1-2 Small families/groups (3-5 people Medium size groups (6-10 people) Moderate to large sized groups More large groups (20+ people) people) (11-19 people)

What is the accumulated percentage of short stop and day visitors on the site? 0% 10% 11% 20% 21% 30% 31% 40% 41% 50%

What is the accumulated percentage of Backcountry Adventurers and Remoteness Seekers on the site? 50% 41% 40% 31% 30% 21% 20% 11% 10% 0%

Are there patterns of seasonal use? Extremely seasonal High seasonality Seasonal Some seasonality Year round use

What is the visual impact of increasing the track width according to the ROS classification? Very high High Medium Low Very low

What is the visual impact of increasing the track width on non users? (eg can it be seen from the highway or from the sea?) Very high High Medium Low Very low

What are the visitor numbers to the site? Very low Low Medium High Very high

What is the projected growth in visitor numbers? Very low Low Medium High Very high

What type of track is it? One way, loop, etc Linear / loop one way Maze Stacked loop Linear two way

0.3m 0.45m 0.7m 0.85m 1.0m

Preferred width Note-: SNZ HB 8630:2004 states that the minimum track surface width for a Great Walk or Easy Tramping Track is 0.3m, except on steep slopes where room is required for passing, when it is 0.6m. The maximum width is 1.0m.

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Figure 20 - Guidelines for Great Walk and Easy Tramping Track upgrade – Percentage of track wet and muddy/or rough and uneven (between 30%-50% of track length) Track name: Tongariro Northern Circuit- Waihohonu to Tama Lakes

How sensitive is the soil type to failing under a load? Highly sensitive Very sensitive Sensitive Not very sensitive Not sensitive

What is the accumulated percentage of Short-stop Travellers and Day Visitors on the site? 50% 41% 40% 31% 30% 21% 20% 11% 10% 0%

What is the accumulated percentage of Backcountry Adventurers and Remoteness Seekers on the site? 0% 10% 11% 20% 21% 30% 31% 40% 41% 50%

What is the proportion of large groups to individuals using the track? More large groups (20+ Moderate sized groups (11-19 Medium size groups (6-10 Small families/groups (3-5 More individuals/couples (1-2 people) people) people) people people)

What are the visitor numbers to the site? Very high High Medium Low Very low

What is the projected growth in visitor numbers? Very high High Medium Low Very low

Great Walk 0% 7% 15% 23% 30%

Acceptable wet and muddy/rough and uneven Easy Tramping Track

0% 12% 25% 38% 50%

Note: SNZ HB 8630:2004 states that up to 30% (Great Walks) or 50 % (Easy Tramping Track) of total length may have wet or muddy sections (below footwear) and/or rough and uneven sections.

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11.2 INITIAL FIELD SURVEY

Time spent in the field is essential. But before doing this you need to check your slope inclinometer is working correctly (Appendix 7) and you know how to use it (Appendix 8) and that you have all the necessary equipment (Appendix 9).

There are a number of good reasons to undertake initial reconnaissance including:

• Determine whether it is physically possible to construct and maintain the track

• Spend time getting to know the terrain so you don’t miss the best alignment

• Verify the strategic locations and identify any further points the track should visit that were not apparent on the map e.g. good lookout points, small flat areas for switchbacks, areas of interest

• Identify areas that will need to be avoided - grade could be too steep or there may be erosion prone soils

• Peg out the proposed alignment

Your initial field survey will not get into details. You are primarily going through the area and roughly marking the alignment and gradient using pegs, flags, flagging tape or other suitable markers. Whether you use pegs, flags or flagging tape will depend on the location of your track. In a forest environment flagging tape tied to trees at eye level is recommended while in an open alpine environment wire flags work well.

HOT TIP

• Spray the top of the peg and the first 50 mm on each side of your pegs with blue dazzle prior to using them in the field. A bright blue colour will stand out and be easily visible

Based on your knowledge of the initial line;

• Survey the routes again this time using a different colour flagging tape or wire flag to mark the alignment

• Deviate from the initial alignment when a change in grade will result in a better track

• Avoid the tendency to put in straight lines as this will look “out of place” when the track is constructed

• Keep at this until you have the best alignment possible

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In rugged country this might take some doing and three or more alignments may be required. As you survey, adjust the grade to get around difficult terrain. Further refinements will come in the final survey where you will collect more details.

11.3 FINAL ALIGNMENT

Getting your final alignment is going to require a bit of “tweaking”. Don’t think you can flag the alignment once and get the best result.

• Walk the alignment in both directions. What works going one way may not work going the other

• Take someone who has not been involved in the initial alignment work. A new set of eyes often picks up additional improvements

• Place your flagging tape/flags at about three - five metre intervals. The more flags you use the better, this will give you a better idea of what the finished alignment will look like and alleviate the tendency for straight line construction between pegs

Figure 21 - Take the time and effort to mark your track well. It will help to

avoid poor alignment by those constructing the track

11.4 SETTING OUT THE ALIGNMENT

One person is required to operate the slope inclinometer and measuring instrument (can be a wheel or GPS); the second person, who is the Marker, works with the pole and pegs.

• Prior to going into the field the Marker requires a surveyor’s pole marked at the Operator's eye level

• In the field the Marker goes forward and places the pole vertically onto the ground

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• Operator reads the grade through the slope inclinometer. Both eyes need to be open (Appendix 8)

• Marker is directed by Operator to move the pole up or down the side slope until the preferred gradient is reached. If it is less than the steepness of the desired grade the marker will step up the slope. If the grade is steeper than the desired grade then the marker will step down the slope

• When the correct gradient has been determined the Marker hits a peg into the ground in the exact place the pole was

• The Operator measures the distance between the pegs using the measuring instrument where there is a change in the track such as gradient or step junction

• Operator writes the distance on the plastic marker/peg and the track prescription recording sheet (Appendix 10)

• Operator also records locations of proposed culverts, steps and formation details on the track prescription recording sheet

• The Marker then proceeds upslope or downslope and places the pole on the slope

• The Operator reads the grade and records this on the recording sheet

• While the Operator is undertaking the above tasks the marker has proceeded to the next peg location. This distance will vary depending on the vegetation cover and terrain. When proceeding through gullies keep the distance short

• During this phase you need to consider the location of grade dips, culverts and switchbacks

HOT TIPS

• Survey the whole track and be sure you have the best possible alignment before any construction work starts

• Bring in a person who has not been there before to look at the alignment with a “fresh set of eyes”

• Mark the area within which construction is permitted. This minimises impacts on the landscape and helps with the “fit” look

• Visit the site either during or shortly after extended periods of rain. This will identify required drainage

• Cross streams at an angle rather than going straight down into the stream and up the other side

• Look for natural platforms for switchbacks. Not only will this save on construction costs but more importantly will “fit” better with the landscape

• Identify locations for grade dips and/or culverts

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• If you are a person who must guess the grade using your eyeball make sure you check it with your slope inclinometer

• Keep in mind the type of visitor you are building the track for and try to put yourself in their shoes as you plan the track

11.5 COMPUTER PROGRAMMES

There is a number of terrain modelling programmes available and all require two essential ingredients, elevation data and computer software. Essentially they are able to provide information on a terrain surface. Once this model is available it can be analysed to provide information such as;

• Steepness of the slope; this can be estimated for each face

• Aspect of the slope face

• Volume and surface area of the terrain model

• Information can then be individually analysed and compared to understand specific details on alignment, grades and different combinations to achieve different results

• With a before and after comparison, surface cut and fill volumes can be calculated

• Location of steps

• Plans and profile drawings to aid construction

• Plans can be produced showing information such as gradient

11.6 TRACK PRESCRIPTION RECORDING SHEET

As you progressed along the final track alignment you will have recorded quite a lot of information; essentially a prescription of work has been produced. This will be valuable information for staff or contractors constructing the track, or staff supervising contractors. It gives track construction personnel enough information to work out quantities and time to complete a job. Appendix 10 is a blank version of the sheet.

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Date: 10/04/08 TRACK PRESCRIPTION Track Name: Ridge Track Surveyed by: Joe Track Standard: Walking Track Bloggs Track Components Side Widt Shape Peg Grade Grade Construction Distance Bearing slope Standard h / Culvert Steps Number (degrees) (percentage) comments (degrees) (mm) Surface Stringer Diameter Length Rise Run 1 0 length (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) 2 10 2 3.5 183 15 Walking Tk 1000 CR/NS 225 1400 ½ cut / ½ fill 3 20 1 2 192 15 Walking Tk 1000 CR/NS ½ cut / ½ fill 4 30 1 2 200 15 Walking Tk 1000 CR/NS ½ cut / ½ fill 5 35 1 2 200 15 Walking Tk 1000 CR/NS 225 1500 6 40 7 12 184 18 Walking Tk 1000 CR/M ¾ cut /¼fill 7 60 9 16 141 19 Walking Tk 1000 CR/M 300 1400 ¾ cut /¼fill 8 70 6 10.5 62 23 Walking Tk 1000 CR/M ¾ cut /¼fill 9 75 6 10.5 62 23 Walking Tk 1000 CR/M 225 1400 10 85 10 21 50 25 Walking Tk 1000 CR/M full bench cut 11 95 10 34 50 27 Walking Tk 1000 CR/M 225 1400 full bench cut 12 105 9 21 209 24 Walking Tk 1000 CR/M full bench cut 13 115 12 21 187 22 Walking Tk 1000 CR/M 162 396 21.8 Start of box steps 14 125 22 40 190 18 Walking Tk 1000 CR/M 15 135 23 42 191 18 Walking Tk 1000 CR/M Finish of box steps

16 145 10 18 152 Tramping Tk 300 NS Apply orange track markers 17 155 12 21 195 Tramping Tk 300 NS Apply orange track markers 18 165 9 16 195 Tramping Tk 300 NS Apply orange track markers 19 175 16 29 175 Tramping Tk 300 NS Apply orange track markers Figure 22 – Completed example of a track prescription CR= Crowned OS= Outslope IS= Inslope NS= Natural Surface M= Metalled

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12. Track Gradient

Understanding track gradient is critical and one of the most significant aspects of track design. One of the biggest mistakes made when constructing tracks is creating tracks that are too steep. Essentially, gradient refers to the longitudinal steepness of the track and slope refers to the steepness of the ground on the fall line. Gradient and slope are expressed as degrees (6º) or percentages (10%) or a ratio of vertical to horizontal distance expressed as single ratios (1:10). The tool most commonly used to measure grade today is the slope inclinometer. Appendix 8 explains how to use one.

HOT TIPS

• Keep track gradient to the minimum practical for the site

• Lower track gradients will require less maintenance. Gravity and water will move fewer soil particles and visitors will displace less material

Figure 23 - Gradient Chart

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DEGREES PERCENTAGE RISE TO RUN

1 1.7 1 in 57.3

2 3.5 1 in 28.6

3 5.3 1 in 19.1

4 7.0 1 in 14.3

5 8.7 1 in 11.4

6 10.5 1 in 10.5

7 12.3 1 in 8.2

8 14.0 1 in 7.1

9 15.8 1 in 6.3

10 17.6 1 in 5.7

11 19.4 1 in 5.1

12 21.3 1 in 4.7

13 23.1 1 in 4.3

14 25.0 1 in 4

15 26.8 1 in 3.7

16 28.7 1 in 3.5

17 30.6 1 in 3.3

18 32.5 1 in 3.1

19 34.4 1 in 2.9

20 36.4 1 in 2.7

21 38.4 1 in 2.6

22 40.4 1 in 2.5

23 42.5 1 in 2.4

24 44.5 1 in 2.2

25 46.6 1 in 2.1

Table 7 –Approximate Gradient Comparisons

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NZS HB 8630:2004 specifies gradients for different track classifications as outlined in Table 8 below.

Track Gradient Comment Classification

Short Walk Maximum of 10° For step gradient refer to section 19.1.

Grade may increase to 15° for 50 metres as long as firm footing in wet conditions is provided.

Length of track between 10° and 15° shall not exceed 5% of track length.

Walking Track Maximum 15° For step gradient refer to section 19.1.

Grade may increase to 20° for 100 metres as long as reasonably firm footing is provided in wet conditions.

Length of track between 15° and 20° shall not exceed 10% of track length.

Great Walks/Easy No maximum grade Tramping Track

Tramping Track No maximum grade

Route No maximum grade

Table 8- Maximum Track Gradients as specified in NZS HB 8630:2004

12.1 CALCULATING THE LENGTH OF TRACK

This is an important aspect of track planning (section 11.0). Determining the approximate length of track required will assist you with;

• Selecting the most appropriate grade

• Determining approximate cost for draft capital business cases

• Determining whether other construction details ( switchbacks, steps) are required

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Enter angle of a= 8 Enter value here in inclination (degrees) the orange box

Enter height to be h= 200.00 Enter value here in gained (metres) the orange box

Length of track on I= 1436.87 This is your answer slope (metres) in the yellow box

Length of track on m= 1422.89 This is your answer map (metres) in the yellow box

Table 9- Track Length Calculator

NB: This is the minimum length of track as it assumes a constant grade. To calculate the approximate length of track required for your upgrade or construction work refer to the Track Length Calculator in the attached document “Track length, water speed and material volumes calculators”.

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13. Track Formation

SNZ HB 8630:2004 outlines track classifications and appropriate formation as outlined in Table 10.

Track Classification Formation

Short Walk Benched formation may be used on all or part of the track with a crossfall of 2° (3-4%). Crossfall may drain to one or both sides depending on the preferred track shape

Walking Track Benched formation may be used with a crossfall of 2° (3-4%). Crossfall may drain to one or both sides depending on the preferred track shape

Great Walk/Easy Tramping Track Benched formation may be used with a crossfall of 2° (3-4%). Crossfall may drain to one or both sides depending on the preferred track shape

Tramping Track Bench formation is limited to where; impacts need to be mitigated or there are no other options and there is high use

Route Generally unformed

Table 10- Appropriate Track Formation According to Track Classification

Track formation is the shape of the ground. Excavation to form a bench may be required as outlined in Table 10. The degree of construction required is influenced by the steepness of the sideslope. On ground that is level, little formation work will be necessary while on ground with a steep sideslope considerably more formation work is required.

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There are three recognised track construction shapes; crown, outslope and inslope. In deciding which track shape to adopt you need to think about the long term sustainability of the track. It needs to “fit” the landscape, be designed to minimise erosion, be relatively easy to construct and maintain, and not have a significant environmental impact. Some soil types are more erosion prone than others and alignment, grade and drainage will have a significant impact on levels of track erosion.

Figure 24 – Crown Track Formation

A crowned track will have a side drain on the upslope side of the track. This catches water and helps protect the track pavement. The pavement is the collective term for the layers that combine to form protection of the sub- grade. Crowned tracks are most suitable where the track gradient exceeds 3º-4º (5%-7%) and water runoff is medium to high.

Figure 25 – Outslope Track Formation

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Figure 26 - Inslope Track Formation

An inslope or outslope track allows water to flow across the track surface. Inslope or outslope tracks are best suited to locations where the track gradient is 4º (7%) or less and there is low water runoff. The maximum gradient recommended for a sideslope track is 6° (10%). Depending on how erosion prone the soil is, application of stone aggregate may also be required.

Whichever track shape you decide to construct it will need to have a crossfall of approximately 2º (3-4%).

13.1 CUT CONSTRUCTION

Cut construction involves excavation, cutting into the ground to remove soil and relocating it where you want it. This results in the formation of a bench or flat surface that forms the walking track. A full cut bench track involves cutting to the full width required to construct the track surface. Full bench cuts:

• Are necessary when sideslopes are over 25º (50%)

• Will require less maintenance on this slope

• The batter is the excavated exposed face above the track surface and should have the top rounded, 200 mm either side of the high point, as close as possible to the original slope

• Will generally provide surplus material. This can be relocated and used as fill elsewhere on the track to even out gradients

• Should have exposed roots on the cut batter neatly trimmed flush with the batter face

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13.2 CUT AND FILL CONSTRUCTION

Cut and fill construction involves cutting into the uphill sideslope and placing fill on the downhill slope. Cut and fill formation results in a bench finish. An advantage of implementing the cut and fill technique is that the volume of material moved is less and the size of the inside batter is lower in height creating a lower visual impact. Cut and fill:

When used on sideslopes between 17º - 25º (31- 47%)

• Construction only works where the sideslope is less than the maximum fill batter slope for the soil as specified in Table 13

• Fill placed on the downslope needs to be placed on a small bench measuring 300 mm that is sloped into the hill slightly and compacted in layers to form a stable surface

• All fill material needs to be compacted in layers no greater than 250 mm prior to compaction

• Should be constructed with a ¾ bench and ¼ fill as the track walking surface

• Needs the organic material saved, leaf litter or any topsoil, this can be used to spread over the fill and make it look as though the track has been there for some time

• Should have the top of the batter rounded, 200 mm either side of the high point, as close as possible to the original slope

• Should have exposed roots on the cut batter neatly trimmed flush with the batter face

When used on sideslopes between 6º-17º (10 – 31%)

• ½ bench and ½ fill

• Save the organic material, leaf litter or any topsoil, this can be used to spread over the fill and make it look as though the track has been there for some time

• A small bench measuring 300 mm will need to be cut downslope to provide a flat platform for the fill material

• Fill slope shall be a maximum as specified in Table 13

• All fill material needs to be compacted in layers no greater than 250 mm prior to compaction

• Should have the top of the batter rounded, 200 mm either side of the high point, as close as possible to the original slope

• Should have exposed roots on the cut batter neatly trimmed flush with the batter face

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13.3 FILL CONSTRUCTION

Fill construction involves the use of material placed on site to form a walking track. There is no bench associated with this construction. Refer to Table 13 for maximum fill batter slopes.

Figure 27 - Not all tracks require

formation work. This tramping track has significant lengths of unbenched track in

excellent condition

fff

! PITFALL

• If you do not compact the fill you will get regular slumps on the track over an extended period

Figure 28 - This is a good example of a full bench cut

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13.4 CUT AND FILL MATERIAL

The following table indicates soil types that in practical terms are suitable for track construction.

Suitable for use as fill material Not suitable for use as fill material

Firm clay/silt soils* Peat/ organic humus

Sands/gravels Topsoil

Boulder clay Soft clay/silt soils

Weathered rock

Table 11 – Soil types for track construction (A Technical Guide to the Design and Construction of Lowland Recreation Routes)

*Highly plastic soils as discussed in section 7.5 can be used as fill material if permitted to dry out as they become very hard.

Appendix 12 (track cross sections) drawing 1-1, shows pictorially the typical cross section of formation as specified above.

HOT TIPS

• Excavated rock fill will occupy 1.2 to 1.5 times more space than solid rock

• Excavated soil will expand when loaded for transport by 1.2 to 1.7 times

• Excavated soil when compacted can shrink by 0.6 to 0.8 times the original volume depending on the soil type

13.5 CHECKING FILL COMPACTION

Compaction may be checked when undertaking fill formation work. The Dynamic Cone Penetrometre can be used to indicate the compaction of soil and/or fill materials. The theory is that the resistance to penetration is an indication of the degree of compaction of the fill, and in simple applications it seems to work well. The cone is on the end of a long rod, approximately a metre long. This means a considerable depth of soil/fill can be tested, not just the surface layer.

• If you need a large number of blows to cause the cone to penetrate a short distance the soil/material is well compacted

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• If the cone penetrates easily with few blows the soil/material is poorly compacted or unsuitable

• Can indicate where soil/fill has been placed in layers which are too thick, with only the surface being compacted

• The results can be expressed as the number of blows for a measured length of penetration, or alternatively, the length of penetration for a single blow, and it is normal to plot results on a graph. This way it is possible to distinguish between different layers of fill.

! PITFALL

• Taking only one measurement and assuming this applies everywhere. Use a number of plots to get an “overall picture”. Sometimes a stone or rock can give a false impression

13.6 BATTER STABILISATION

The batter is the excavated exposed face above the track surface. Table 12 offers a guide to maximum slopes for varying soil types. Adjustments may need to be made based on local examples. Depending on the nature of the soil a geotechnical assessment may be required.

MATERIAL PERCENTAGE DEGREES HORIZONTAL VS VERTICAL

Rock 90° vertical

Firm Clay 400% 76° 0.25 : 1

Soft Clay 100% 45° 1 : 1

Pumice 90° vertical

Ash 100% 45° 1: 1

Table 12 – Maximum Cut Batter Slope

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Figure 29 - This pumice batter is very close to the

maximum recommended batter of 90º

MATERIAL PERCENTAGE DEGREES HORIZONTAL VS VERTICAL

Quarry Rock 67% 34° 1.5 : 1

Clay 50% 26° 2.0 : 1

Pumice 33% 18° 3.0 : 1

Ash 33% 18° 3.0 : 1

Table 13 – Maximum Fill Batter Slope

From a landscaping perspective the objective is to make the work look as natural and unobtrusive as possible so the batter should be cut at the same angle as the surrounding sideslopes. This is particularly important where batters are visible from a considerable distance. The organic matter removed from the track surface and from the cut and fill operation can be spread over the embankment or the cut if the angle is not excessively steep.

HOT TIPS

• Look at the surrounding landscape and observe the slope angle. A handy rule of thumb is to create a slightly gentler slope than you think is necessary. Although this will expose more soil the chance of it staying put is higher. It will potentially also revegetate more readily than one that constantly keeps slumping

• Retain all leaf litter, organic material and top soil for spreading over exposed earthworks. It will reduce sediment runoff and contains an enormous amount of seed that will enhance

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revegetation of the site

• Topsoil will generally not hold on slopes steeper than 27º (47%) and cannot be normally placed by machinery on slopes greater than 19º (34%)

• Where stabilisation of the batter slope is required seek advice on options such as hydroseeding, planting, mulching, and matting application

Figure 30 - The batter on this track is formed at an angle

close to the sideslope angle giving the track a “softer” visual

appearance

13.7 USE OF LOCAL MATERIALS

Sometimes you will need extra fill material and this is often sourced on site. Borrow pits are generally a hole dug in the ground from which material is removed and used on the track. Even on a minor scale moving material from one location can cause changes to the environment and these changes need to be managed.

Many of the potential adverse effects of borrow pits can be reduced or avoided by choosing the site carefully (Figure 31). Good planning and work on site will help to minimise any potential adverse effects. There are a few guidelines that need to be followed if using a borrow pit:

• Locate pit so as to minimise visual exposure to users

• Ensure the site is made safe

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• Save all the vegetation and top soil layer removed for rehabilitation of the site. Place it in the shade and keep it moist. Cover with burlap (type of sacking) to help keep moist if necessary

• Ensure the material is suitable for the intended use

• A long shallow pit is better than a deep one

• Reinstate natural drainage patterns

• Contour the ground to look as natural as possible when finished removing material and ensure it is stable

• Replace plants and top soil layer. If necessary transplant some additional plants onto the site

• Camouflage any entrance track and transfer some plants if necessary. Be particularly diligent where the entrance track meets the main walking track

Figure 31 – Acceptable Borrow Pit Location

13.8 FORMATION CONSTRUCTION

• Ensure all alignment work has been completed and pegs are clearly marked at the level of formation

• Ensure the work site area is clearly marked. Disturbance can only take place within the marked area

• Remove all leaf litter and organic material as required and store in a suitable location for later use

• Where it is not practical to remove all organic material, use of a geotextile separator may be required, (section 16.1). Some settlement may occur as the organic material underneath the track decomposes

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• Excavate and relocate material as required to achieve the formation and gradient specified. Relocation of material can help even out some grades, be used as cover over tree roots, or fill steps and retaining walls. Surplus material should not be sidecast

• All fill material needs to be compacted in layers no greater than 250 mm (prior to compaction)

• Install water management including side drains and drainage dips etc as formation takes place or at the end of each day. Never leave a new formation without water management in place

• Shape and compact the formation surface (crown, outslope or inslope). This is necessary even if the completed formation is the finished track surface. An un-compacted surface will quickly become concave. Strengthening of the sub-grade, the soil on which the pavement structure is constructed, is good practice as it will help maintain track shape. Track pavement is the collective term for the layers that combine to form protection of the sub-grade.

• Mark the formed surface at the correct distance in preparation for aggregate

• Shape and compact aggregate (sections 15.3 to 15.7)

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14. Water Management

Why is this important? Because keeping water off and getting it away from the track is the single most important factor that will maximise the longevity of your track. By keeping water away we protect the pavement and decrease the rate of erosion and displacement on the track surface. Section 8 covered track destruction and discussed how water picks up soil particles and relocates them.

Do take the presence of water in places as indicative of the need to have water management. Don’t take the volume of water observed as the volume that needs to be managed; you need to allow for 10 year flood peaks.

14.1 DRAINAGE SYSTEM

No factor is more important than good drainage; your track must have effective water management in place.

• Track surface shape (crowned, outslope or inslope) must be maintained with the correct crossfall

• Track surface material will influence how long a track maintains shape e.g. Pumice versus well graded aggregate

Know where your water comes from. Generally speaking there are four main sources of water that affect your track:

• Rain or snow falling directly onto the track

• Surface water from the surrounding land flowing onto the track

• Intermittent underground water in the form of seepages or springs. These are generally seasonal so you need to be particularly alert for these

• Continuously flowing streams or channels

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Figure 32 - Your drainage system needs to be capable of

handling ten year flood peaks

You need to design an appropriate water management system to protect the track. Surface and sub-surface drainage are generally dependent on four factors:

• The catchment’s size above the track. The larger the catchment the more water that can be expected

• Topography will determine the location, direction and the rate of water flow

• The watertable is the upper surface of groundwater. Watertable depth will determine the amount of surface drainage. With a shallow watertable, increased surface drainage can be expected

• Soil types determine the rate of subsurface drainage and subsequently the amount of surface drainage: ƒ cohesive soils (high in clay/silt) will result in poor drainage ƒ granular soils (high in sand/gravel) will result in good drainage

!PITFALLS There are four main reasons why your drainage system may fail to work successfully

• Locating the drainage in the wrong place

• Wrong size – generally too small and not able to cope with water flows

• Poor design

• Poor construction – not able to withstand the pressure of water and climate over time

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Figure 33 - High rainfall locations with large water

catchments and poor drainage create challenging conditions for track construction crews

14.2 SITE SURVEY

The site must be visited to make decisions on drainage, including how many culverts to install and where they will be located on the track. You will also need to consider the impact of the track changing the natural drainage system and this should be covered in the Assessment of Environmental Effects (AEE).

Visiting the site after an extended wet period is best. The soils will have reached maximum water holding capacity and runoff patterns should be more evident. Walk the full length of the track in both directions; sometimes a water issue near the top can be causing additional problems further down the track.

LOOK FOR THE CLUES

• Small gullies and erosion channels in the track surface (water flowing down or across the track)

• Puddles, boggy areas (water lying on the track)

• Water flowing onto the track from sideslope (where has this come from?)

• Build up of fines (clay, silt and very fine sand) either on the track or just to the side (shows where the water has gone)

• Some vegetation types can indicate wet ground conditions

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14.3 WATER CONTROL METHODS

There are a number of methods used either individually or combined together to manage water; grade dips (rolling dips, drainage dips, grade reversals) catch drains, side drains, catch pits, pipe culverts and drainage channels.

14.3.1 Grade dips Grade dip locations are determined as part of the setting out stage (section 11.4) and built during the track formation. Grade dips are used to remove the track surface water at intervals along tracks of a minor to moderate grade located on a sideslope. Dips are built into the track at intervals dictated by the erodibility of the track surface and the track gradient.

Grade dips are a very cost effective method of managing water. They require less maintenance than a culvert and are much more effective at removing water than a waterbar and require less maintenance. (A waterbar is an obstruction to the flow of water installed across the track at an angle).

14.3.2 Rolling grade dip A rolling grade dip is where you reverse the gradient of the track over a short distance. For example, if the track is ascending a hill at 4º (7%) a short descent of between 3 -5 metres at 2º (3.5%), followed by returning to the ascent of 4º (7%) would form a rolling grade dip. A drawing is available in Appendix 12, 2-2.

A track that lies lightly on the land will have a number of rolling grade dips and a well designed track will take advantage of the natural drainage patterns. Tracks designed in this way look good, feel right and “fit” the landscape.

14.3.3 Drainage grade dip A drainage grade dip is a relatively large dip constructed into the track surface to shed water from the track. Drainage grade dips are very unobtrusive and constructed properly are barely noticeable but very effective at water management. In the majority of circumstances they can be constructed on existing tracks.

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Figure 34 – Drainage Grade Dip for Outslope Track

Figure 35 – Drainage Grade Dip for Crowned Track

Recommended drainage grade dip spacings are outlined in Table 14. However, this is not always going to be practical and will be influenced by the alignment of the track.

Critical points to locate a drainage dip are:

• Prior to a flight of steps

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• Prior to retaining walls

• Just above the point where the track changes grade and becomes steeper

• Actual site conditions will determine exact placement. The important point is not to exceed the spacing outlined in Table 14. Where the recommended distance does not fit with the track alignment add an extra dip rather than take one away.

Track Grade Track Grade Rise to Run ratio Distance Degrees Percent between Drainage Grade Dips (metres) 1° 1.7% 1:57 27 2° 3.5% 1:28 17 3° 5.3% 1;19 14 4° 7.0% 1:14 13 5° 8.7% 1:11 12 6° 10.5% 1:10 11 7° 12.3% 1:8 11 8° 14% 1:7 10 9° 15.8% 1:6 10 10° 17.5% 1:6 10

Table 14 - Recommended Drainage Grade Dip Spacing

NB: The distance between drainage grade dips is from the end of the backwall to the beginning of the ramp on the next dip.

Track Track Length of Length of Depth of Length of Total grade grade backing backwall dip* ramp length (degrees) (%) for (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) backwall (mm) 1% N/A 1575 75 1950 3525 1º 2% 200 1525 75 2300 4025 2º 3% 300 1500 100 2600 4400 4% 400 1425 100 2900 4725 3º 5% 500 1375 100 3250 5125 6% 600 1325 100 3500 5425 7% 650 1300 125 3900 6150 4º 8% 725 1250 125 4200 6175

Table 15 – Drainage Dip Grade Dimensions

* Depth of the dip is measured from the top of the finished backwall to the bottom of the dip.

A drawing is available in Appendix 12, 2-1.

Drainage grade dip construction for outslope track

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• On the track surface, mark the start and end points of the drainage dip. This will vary depending on the track grade as specified in Table 15

• From each mark, at the top edge of the track scuff a line on the track surface. This line should be down the gradient and across the track at an angle of between 15°-20°

• From the top of the ramp measure the distance to the dip low point and mark the track surface

• Scuff a line on the track surface. This line should be down the gradient and across the track at an angle of between 15°-20°

• Dig the dip low point line down to the depth specified in Table 15

• Excavate the material from the start of the ramp and backwall to the dip low point

• Create an even and nicely contoured finish

• Make sure the outflow point is clear and water can flow down the sideslope

• Compact dip if compactor is available. This will strengthen the dip and reduce potential scour

14.3.4 Grade break Grade breaks can be used in place of drainage dips on tracks of 2°(3.5%) or less.

• Grade breaks cannot handle much water and are better suited to low use, low runoff locations

• Grade breaks need to be installed every six metres

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Figure 36 – Grade Break Profile

14.3.5 Grade break construction

• On the track surface, mark the location of the shelf and low point of the grade break

• The distance from the shelf to the bottom of the dip is 1.5 metres

• From each mark, at the top edge of the track scuff a line on the track surface directly across the track

• Dig the dip low point line down to the depth of 25 mm

• Excavate the material between the shelf and low point

• Create an even and nicely contoured finish

• Make sure the outflow point is clear and water can flow down the sideslope

• Compact grade break if compactor is available. This will strengthen the break and reduce potential scour

14.4 CATCH DRAINS

A catch drain is simply a drain located some distance away from the track that catches water before it reaches your track and redirects it elsewhere. It can be;

• A swale; wide and shallow depression in the ground designed to channel drainage of rainwater

• A bund; an embankment formed from natural material

• A ditch; long narrow open channel dug into the ground

14.4.1 Catch drain construction

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The position of the catch drain is essential to the success of the drainage system.

• Maintain a low visual impact on the landscape

• Ensure there are no significant adverse effects on the natural land drainage

• Keep the gradient low so the ditch does not scour. It can be at a much flatter gradient than the track

• Excavate the catch drain to a depth of 300 mm x 300 mm wide

• Excavated material can be placed on the downhill side of the ditch, this will act as a bund if the catch drain overflows and will prevent water from flowing down onto the track

Figure 37 - This catch

drain is not visible from the walking track and collects water from the

sideslope before it reaches the track

HOT TIPS • Follow the lie of the land • Avoid steep gradients • Avoid sharp corners or changes in direction that will erode the drain • Maintain catch drain effectively • Start construction at the bottom end and work uphill as this makes it easier to keep the depth consistent

14.5 SIDE DRAINS

Side drains are constructed along the side of the track on slopes or on low wet ground where drainage is a problem.

• Side drains intercept water from the side slope and from the track surface watershed

• They carry the water down to a discharge point (short cut-out, swale or excavated trench) or culvert that directs the water to the downslope side of the track

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• Table 16 provides recommended side drain armouring in relation to soil type and track gradient

Side Drain Recommendations Soil Type High Rainfall Areas Medium Rainfall Areas Discharge Spacing Armouring Discharge Spacing Armouring Soft clay, - For gradient Provide - For gradient Provide ash < 6° (10%), 15 rock or < 6° (10%), 20 rock or m maximum gravel m maximum gravel spacing where spacing where gradient gradient - For gradient exceeds - For gradient exceeds 11° up to 10° 17% or up to 10° (20%) or (17%), 10 m where (17%), 15 m where spacing discharge spacing discharge spacing is spacing is - Gradients more than - Gradients more than over 10° 15 m over 11° 20 m (17%) not (20%) not recommended recommended Firm clay - For gradient Provide - For gradient Provide < 6° (10%), 20 rock or <6° (10%), 25 rock or m maximum coarse m maximum coarse spacing gravel spacing gravel where where - For gradient gradient - For gradient gradient up to 11° exceeds 11° up to 11° exceeds 11° (20%), 15 m (20%) or (20%), 20 m (20%) or spacing where spacing where discharge discharge - Gradients spacing is - Gradients spacing is over 11° more than over 11° more than (20%) not 20 m (20%) not 25 m recommended recommended Pumice, - For gradient Provide - For gradient Provide weathered <3° (5%), 20 rock, coarse <3° (5%), 20 rock, coarse granite m maximum gravel or m maximum gravel or spacing timber spacing timber check dams check dams - For gradient where - For gradient where up to 6° gradient up to 6°(10%), gradient (10%), 15 m exceeds 6° 15 m spacing exceeds 6° spacing (10%) or (10%) or where - Gradients where - Gradients discharge over 6° (10%) discharge over 6° (10%) spacing is should be spacing is should be more than avoided if more than avoided if 20 m possible 20 m possible Fine - For gradient Provide - For gradient Provide gravels <6° (10%), 25 rock or <6° (10%), 30 rock or m maximum coarse m maximum coarse spacing gravel spacing gravel where where - For gradient gradient - For gradient gradient up to 11° exceeds 11° up to 11° exceeds 11° (20%), 20m (20%) or (20%), 25 m (20%) or spacing where spacing where - Gradients discharge - Gradients discharge over 11° spacing is over 11° spacing is (20%) not more than (20%) not more than recommended 20 m recommended 30 m

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Coarse - For gradient - For gradient gravel and <11° (20%), <11° (20%), weathered 25 m 30 m rock maximum maximum spacing spacing

- Gradients - Gradients over 11° over 11° (20%) not (20%) not recommended recommended General Notes: 1. Discharge of side drains may be via culvert, cut-out, swale or soakage pit 2. Side drains are best discharged immediately above steeper sections of track 3. Side drains with steep gradients will require increased maintenance

Table 16 - Side Drain Guidelines

14.5.1 Side drain construction Install side drains as follows:

• Discharge water whenever a location is available where the ground discharges to a lower point away from the track. Short cut-outs, swales or a small excavated trench, may be required to discharge the water

• Install culverts to take water under the track and discharge to a lower point. See section 14 .7.2 on recommended culvert frequency

• If it is not possible to discharge water via a cut-out or a culvert the distance between discharge points will increase. To reduce scour due to the increased volume of water, increase the size of the side drains and provide rock armouring. Rocks should be angular to lock together and minimise the likelihood of movement

• Side drains should be a minimum of 200 mm wide x 150 mm deep, chamfered to 250 mm wide at the top

• For aesthetic purposes, side drains should have the square edges rounded

• Excavated material can be placed on the track and used to form the desired track shape. It will need to be compacted. Surplus material should not be discarded. It can be used to even out grades or stored for maintenance purposes

In erosion prone country side drains should be;

• Constructed considerably deeper

• Lined with geotextile filter fabric

• Have loose local rocks (50 mm-100 mm in size) or gravel placed in them to slow down the speed of the water

HOT TIPS

• During construction install water management options before

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proceeding to the next section. This reduces the risk of water damage over the newly formed track and newly formed batters

• Ensure side drain edges are rounded to produce a softer look rather than a sharp cut look

Figure 38 - Side

drains can easily collect a large amount of leaf litter in a short period of time, compromising their effectiveness. Side drains need to

be maintained regularly

Figure 39 - This track has large side drains on either side of the walking track.

The drop at the end of these timber chutes and culvert can cause water to

erode the soil. Some form of soil erosion protect would be required

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of the side drain. Furthermore, beech forest drops an excessive

amount of leaf litter (accumulation of material is evident in the side drain) and this will further block the

outlet

14.6 CATCH PIT

A catch pit (sometimes also referred to as a sump) is an excavated hole into which water from the side drain flows. Catch pits are located at the head of a culvert. Their purpose is to slow down the velocity of water and provide a point for sediment to be deposited. Reducing the speed of water that flows through the culvert also helps prevent erosion at the culvert outlet.

14.6.1 Catch pit construction

• Excavate material at the culvert inlet

• Excavate to a minimum depth of 475 mm (150 mm culvert cover, 225 mm pipe and 100 mm invert). Larger culvert pipes will require a deeper catch pit

• Excavate to a minimum width of 300 mm; the catch pit should be made wider rather than deeper

• For aesthetic purposes, catch pits should have the square edges rounded

• Excavated material can be placed on the track and used to form the desired track shape. It will need to be compacted. Surplus material should not be discarded. It can be used to even out grades or stored for maintenance purposes

• The backwall, the down grade wall of the catch pit, shall be 425 mm high (as opposed to 475 mm for the other walls). This will act as an over flow into the next side drain. The surplus water can be discharged via a drainage grade dip for crowned tracks as shown in Figure 35 or via a larger culvert every third culvert

• Protect the culvert headwall with rocks or timber. Rocks are the preferred option if available. They should be embedded around the culvert mouth

14.7 PIPE CULVERTS

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A pipe culvert is a closed pipe used to move water underneath impediments. This manual does not deal with the installation of culverts in intermittent or permanent water courses. There are specific requirements that may be necessary including consents and specific designs e.g. installation of a fish passage. Refer to your planner and an engineer if you need to install a culvert in an intermittent or permanently flowing steam.

14.7.1 Culvert size For our purposes a culvert pipe takes water from one side of the track to the other. With the exception of culverts that are required for permanent or intermittent water flows, culverts should meet the following requirements;

• Recommended minimum culvert internal diameter is 225 mm

• Internal walls must be of a smooth finish. This allows material such as leaves, small stones and twigs to pass through the culvert and reduce the likelihood of blockages within the culvert wall

• Black in colour. Bright coloured culverts create a visual impact

14.7.2 Culvert frequency The frequency with which culverts are installed depends upon the circumstances. In general, the flatter the sideslope the greater the distance between the culverts. Obviously the frequency of the culverts will be influenced by the soil, sideslope, local weather and track design. However, Table 17 provides recommendations on maximum culvert spacing.

(Degrees) (Percentage) (Rise to run Maximum ratio) distance between culverts (metres)

3º 5.3% 1:19 50

6° 10% 1 :10 25

8.5° 15% 1 : 7 18

10° 17% 1:6 16

11° 20% 1 : 5 14

17° 30% 1 : 3.3 10

Table 17 – Recommended spacing between culverts

14.7.3 Culvert specifications

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Specifications for installing a 250 mm external diameter culvert pipe.

Culvert Min. Min. Compacted Compacted Compacted external trench cover pipe pipe depth of diameter width bedding overlay fill / surface

250 mm 560 mm 150 mm 100 mm 75 mm 75 mm

14.7.4 Culvert installation Drawings are available in Appendix 12, 4-1 and 4-3

• Work out how deep you need to dig the trench. It consists of the compacted bedding layer (100 mm) + external diameter of pipe (250 mm) + minimum cover (150 mm) = 500 mm

• Excavate across the track at the required angle

• Excavate the trench to the minimum width (560 mm) and depth (500 mm) required

• Cut the pipe to the correct length, measure twice and cut once

• Allow for enough length (of the culvert) to extend beyond the track formation without risk of material blocking the drainage channel

• Level and compact the bedding material in the trench base with a minimum fall of 1.7º (3.0%) to the outlet, working from the outfall end to the inlet. This will help to maintain the required fall

• Install the headwall base stones

• Position the pipe and check alignment

• Place a smart level on the top of the culvert to ensure the fall is correct; adjust the fall if necessary. Getting the fall absolutely right is important. Too flat and the culvert is likely to block, too steep and the outlet is likely to scour with the increased speed of water exiting the culvert, (section 14.9)

• Set base of culvert at the outlet at ground level. Avoid vertical drops at the outlet as a small waterfall may accelerate erosion

• Pack around the sides of the culvert with the bedding material and compact in layers not exceeding 150 mm

• Continue to compact bedding material until culvert pipe is covered by 75 mm

• Compact additional pipe backfill (75 mm). This 75 mm may be comprised of the walking surface material, shape and compact to the required finish. This will give a total cover over the pipe of 150 mm

• Set headwall side stones on the base stones, ensuring they extend beyond the end of the culvert by 150 mm

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• If possible use one top stone to span across to the side stones

• Wedge stones together by using smaller stones packed tightly between larger stones to prevent movement. Use a rubber mallet to hammer these into position

• Set splash stones in place. At the inlet set these above the base stone and below the base stone at the outflow

• Restore the site to as natural a condition as possible. For the visitor a well constructed culvert will not be visible

HOT TIPS

• Etch culvert all the way around before cutting

• Cut culvert at least 300 mm wider than the width of your track (buried at 300 mm as per specifications this will allow for a batter of 1:1)

• Cut from the male end not the female end

• Cut with a handsaw

• Sandpaper or rasp every cut. This will help those maintaining the culverts to avoid getting cuts from the unfinished sharp edges

• Dazzle the ground or mark in some way the angle at which the culvert will cross the track

• Use a smart level to check culvert fall

• Outlet should discharge at ground level

• Do not use culvert socks unless they cannot be seen by the user

! PITFALLS

• Insufficient fill over the top of the culvert

• Poor headwall rock/timber work

14.8 CULVERT HEADWALL AND OUTLET PROTECTION

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Determining soil scour potential and channel erodibility should be a standard component of track design.

• Design the outfall on the basis that erosion at the outlet and downstream channel is to be expected. Provide at least minimum protection, and then inspect the outlet channel after major storms to determine if the protection must be increased or extended

• Line headwall with rocks, particularly around the culvert mouth

• Rocks lower excessive flow velocities from pipes and culverts, prevent scour, and dissipate energy. Good outlet protection will significantly reduce erosion and sedimentation by reducing flow velocities

HOT TIPS • Minimum fall of culvert pipe 1.7° (3%) • To hide the pipe and ensure it is not visible to users the outer edge of the stone should extend 150 mm in front of the pipe, with the edge and side stones retaining the backfill • Use base stones 200 mm deep if you have them available • Ensure there is at least 100 mm of backfill or bedding material between the inside faces of the headwall stones and the pipe • Base stones should extend 150 mm under the pipe and 300 mm in front of the pipe (this provides a splash plate for water both entering and exiting the culvert) • Use only weathered stones so it looks as though the culvert has been there forever • Side stones need to be large enough to support the top stones

14.9 CULVERT OUTLET VELOCITY

When considering culvert outlet velocities, there is value in considering what velocities natural channels can tolerate prior to eroding. Collodial means particle size is even.

Material Mean Velocity (m/sec)

Fine Sand, colloidal 0.4

Sandy loam, noncolloidal 0.5

Silt loam, noncolloidal 0.6

Alluvial silts, noncolloidal 0.6

Ordinary firm loam 0.8

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Volcanic ash 0.8

Stiff clay, very colloidal 1.1

Alluvial silts, colloidal 1.1

Shales and hardpans 1.8

Fine gravel 0.8

Graded loam to cobbles, noncolloidal 1.1

Graded silts to cobbles, colloidal 1.2

Coarse gravel, noncolloidal 1.2

Cobbles and shingles 1.5

Table 18 - Maximum permissible velocities for unlined channels

Calculating outfall velocities during peak floods is complicated. Below are some simple options for you to consider:

1. All outlets with a value of < 1.1 from Table 18 shall have outlet protection installed. All other outlets can be determined on a case by case basis 2. Perform a basic calculation from the “Water Speed Calculator” in the attached document “Track length, water speed and material volumes calculators”. It will provide you with an estimation of the exit velocity of water from a culvert. It assumes a start speed of zero from the culvert entrance. The speed of water exiting the culvert should be considered the minimum. 3. Observe effects after storm events 4. Have an engineer do the calculations

Length of culvert I= 1.5 Enter value in orange box (metres) Inclination of culvert A= 1.7 Enter value in orange box (degrees) Speed of water (metres V= 0.94 Your answer per second)

Table 19 - Estimated Speed of Water at Culvert Outlet

In reality the actual speed of water exiting the culvert is likely to be higher than that indicated, particularly during flood events when water will enter the culvert pipe travelling at some speed.

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14.10 STORMWATER OVERFLOW

In extreme flood events catch pits and culverts may not handle the volume of water. It is necessary to build stormwater overflows into the design of your track. Critical points for locating stormwater overflows are;

• The backwall construction of catch pits should be constructed as per section 14.6.1. This allows excess water (when the culvert is at full capacity) to spill over the backwall and into the next side drain

• Grade drainage dips for a crowned track built into the track formation as per Figure 35. These should be located no more than five metres downhill from a culvert

• Consider installing a larger culvert every third culvert to remove excess water

14.11 STONE FORDS

Stone fords provide a hard wearing surface through small streams or seasonal watercourses where a bridge is not required or a culvert is overkill for the situation. A well constructed ford will withstand fast flowing water and can help prevent erosion of the stream banks and track approach. The best place for a ford is at a wide stretch of slower flowing river where the force of the water is least.

14.11.1 Stone ford specifications

Width Length Edge stones Bank edge Stones

Extend Extend a Minimum Stones to All stones 300 mm minimum of submerged finish flush to have a wider than one course of depth of all edge with the level the stones past stones 300 mm. track surface formed the visual Upslope edge surface suitable for track on peak must be level walking. the waterflow with the upslope streambed. and Downslope level downslope a maximum of edges 150 mm above the streambed. All downslope edge stones must be embedded at least 2/3 of their

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depth

HOT TIP If sourcing stones from the local stream do not gather all of the stones from the one location, rather gather stones randomly over a large area

14.11.2 Stone ford construction

• Divert or block up to 50% of the water flow for a good work space

• If necessary place a large boulder upstream to reduce the force of the water

• Remove any stones that may cause an obstruction in the area the ford is to be constructed and save other suitable stones

• Start construction in the centre course of stones at the downstream edge in the lowest point of the stream bed. Work upstream and parallel to the stream bank

• Set the stones to the correct depth (section 14.11.1) to achieve the required crossing

• Stones should be offset so that joins overlap, with the top walking surface flush

• Lock all stones together by using smaller wedge stones to fill the gaps

• Re-grade and shape 3-4 metres of the walking track surface to the level of the ford on each side of the ford crossing

Where mountain bikes are not expected the design can change slightly by constructing a step where the track ends and the ford begins. Large stones fitted tightly together would need to be used.

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15. Track Pavement

The pavement is the collective term for the layers that combine to form protection of the sub-grade.

15.1 TRACK SURFACE STANDARDS

The track walking surface plays an important role in meeting the track service standards and influences the type and frequency of ongoing maintenance.

Track Classification Track Surface

Short Walk • Well formed and even

• Can be walked on comfortably without getting footwear wet and muddy (in dry weather)

• Up to 10% of track may have short sections of wet and muddy (not more than 10 m in every 50 m)

Walking Track • Mostly well formed and even

• Can be walked on comfortably without getting footwear wet and muddy (in dry weather)

• Up to 20% of track may have short sections of wet and muddy and/or rough and uneven (wet and muddy should not exceed 20m in every 80 m)

Great Walk / Easy • Over 70% (Great Walks) and over 50% ( Easy Tramping Track Tramping Track) will have wet areas drained and provide firm and even footing

• Up to 30% (Great Walks) and up to 50% ( Easy Tramping Tracks) may have: i) Uneven steep or rough sections ii) Deep muddy or wet sections (not over the top of the boot) iii) Length of wet and muddy should not exceed 400 m in every 1000 m ( Great Walks) and should not exceed 600 m in every 1000 m ( Easy Tramping

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Track)

Tramping Track • Generally natural surface

• May include mud, tree roots, rocks and water

Route • Surface is natural and may be rough

Table 20 - Track Surface Standards

15.2 TRACK SURFACING

Track walking surfaces consist of the naturally occurring soil type or material that has been imported from another location. The use of imported material is generally as a result of soil erosion, displacement or wet and muddy track conditions. These three factors are the primary drivers behind the use of metal aggregate as a track walking surface.

Soil erosion (section 8.1) There are a number of factors that determine the significance of erosion. Soil type, track gradient and weather are all important contributors. Table 17 shows the velocity of water in a natural channel a certain soil type can tolerate before it begins to erode. The combination of gradient and soil type are significant contributors to erosion

Wet and muddy Tracks become muddy when the load applied on the surface exceeds the bearing capacity of the soil. How wet the soil is has an influence on how much load it can sustain

Displacement (section 8.2) If the soil type is unable to withstand the visitor numbers then an alternative solution is required

Table 21 – Factors Contributing to the use of Metal Aggregate as a Track Walking Surface

For archaeological sites it is better to build on top of the ground surface than it is to excavate. Consult with your Technical Support Officer - Historic if undertaking work on archaeological sites.

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HOT TIP

• Good sources of suitable local material for track construction and maintenance may be found where large trees have been uprooted, on dry ridges, river terraces and in stream/creek/river beds. River gravel is NOT suitable as a track surface

! RED ALERT

• Resource consent is required to remove gravel from the bed of a lake or river. Gravel extracted from other sources may require consent. CHECK THE DETAILS FOR YOUR LOCATION WITH A PLANNER

Figure 41 -This raised formation on the Milford Track works well having raised the

walking surface above the surrounding ground surface. Raising the track means the

pressure now applied to the natural ground surface is very low; this prevents failure of the natural ground surface

15.2.1 Stone pitching The basic technique involves setting large to medium sized stones with their long axis into the ground, packed together as closely as possible and wedged with smaller stones to construct a walking surface. Use of the smaller stones helps lock everything together. The size of stone used depends on what's available, the only requirement being that the stone should have a reasonably level face to use as the walking surface.

Constructing a pitched track is very labour intensive and expensive. The effective use of pitched tracks is confined to certain locations. Some of the triggers that will determine whether you construct such a track are gradient and highly erodible soils. Constructed correctly this is a surface that will stand the test of time.

• Stone pitching is most suitable for slopes between 15º and 22º

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• Below 12º pitching is generally not required because the use of stone aggregates is more cost effective

• Steeper than 22º and the track becomes less comfortable for users to walk on and the installation of steps is the better option

• Stone pitching is a good alternative solution where maintaining a durable walking surface is difficult

• There is more rock held in the ground than exposed on the surface, this helps to create a stronger track

• The stones are fitted as tightly together as possible with smaller stones used to fill the gaps. This helps to tighten the overall construction of the track

• Stone pitching is a good option where the gradient is too steep to use an aggregate or the erosion pressures of displacement and weather are significant

Figure 42 - Stone pitching, while very

labour intensive to construct, will last an exceedingly long time

15.2.2 Stone pitching construction

• If required remove soil from the track alignment and to the required depth

• Anchor stones at the start of the pitching must be flush with the track surface. They must be immovable as they are the key to holding the remainder of your track in place

• Stones must be embedded no less than half the depth of the stone with the longest side into the ground

• The walking surface should be of an even gradient

• Use large deep stones at the track edge

• Join all stones tightly together on all side faces

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• Overlap joins

• Use wedge stones to lock everything in place as each line is laid across the track and to prevent water getting down underneath the stones. This is essential to stop stones from loosening and minimise the effect of frost heave

• Use the excavated material to landscape the edges to give a softened appearance

• Work from the bottom up

• For a truly great finish ram gravel into all the remaining gaps

HOT TIPS

• Use tie stones – these are large stones that span a large width of the track

• Use local materials

• Face weather side of rock to the track surface

• Fill the gaps

• Design for flow

15.3 TRACK PAVEMENT

Track pavement is the combination of a base and wearing surface placed on a sub-grade to support loads and distribute it to the sub-grade. It generally comprises of a sub-base and surface.

The strength of the sub-grade is measured by the California Bearing Ratio (CBR). The CBR is a penetration test for evaluation of the mechanical strength of sub-grades. The test is performed by measuring the pressure required to penetrate a soil sample with a plunger of standard area. The measured strength of the sub-grade determines the pavement solution. Options for different soil types and CBR values are recommended in Table 23.

Sub-base This raises the track above the surrounding land. It also provides a load bearing foundation, used when constructing a track over very wet or rough ground.

Surface Final layer over the base

Table 22 – Components of the Track Pavement

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Figure 43- This raised track has a pavement consisting of a base

of moraine boulders sub- base of AP65mm and surface of AP20mm

An aggregate is graded stone that can be used to form the sub-base and surface of a track. Depending on the circumstances a track may consist only of a sub-base and surface.

Each layer should have a range of stone sizes that interlock when compacted. Constructing a track in several layers using different graded material produces a significantly stronger track than using uniformly sized material.

The purpose of the surfacing, or wearing course is to:

• Provide an even, stable and more durable walking surface

• Resist erosion when correctly applied

• Resist displacement when correctly applied

• Protect the underlying pavement from water infiltration

The sub-base supports the track by spreading the load applied on the surface to prevent the natural ground surface from deforming. The sub-base is designed to spread the load without itself deforming. A well constructed, well compacted aggregate mix will spread the loads at an angle of between 45º and 60º.

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Figure 44 – Load Distribution

Where a sub-base and finished walking surface are required, due to the nature of the ground conditions, the following are the specified minimum compacted depths based on different soil types:

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Track Pavement and Surface Options

Soil Low use back High use front Very high use Comments Description country sites country sites sites and/or (typically (typically SST, intensive MTB BCC, BCA, RS) DV) and/or use occasional MTB use

Wet, soft Install timber or similar raft type foundation; or Where possible, organic soil; Drain the area and provide suitable imported fill to these areas Soft marine form sub-base layer and then provide track should be sediment pavement to match the sub-base material from avoided by choosing an (CBR<3) corresponding category below; or alternative track Provide a boardwalk route

Soft clay, silts Provide deep Provide deep Provide deep Drainage of and ash side drainage side drainage side drainage these soils and (CBR 3 to 5) and frequent and provide and 150 mm or allowing them grade dips; or 100 mm to 150 more of to dry in Provide 75 mm mm compacted compacted suitable to 100 mm aggregate aggregate conditions is compacted pavement on pavement on likely to result aggregate geotextile over geotextile over in them pavement on the sub-grade the sub-grade becoming firmer geotextile over the sub-grade

Firm clay, silt, Compact the Compact the Compact the A bare or grass or ash soils sub-grade and sub-grade and sub-grade and surface may be (CBR 5 to 7) provide provide 75 mm provide 100 adequate on adequate compacted mm compacted these soils in drainage aggregate aggregate low use sites; pavement pavement Adequate compaction of this category when dry may increase the CBR to 7 or more.

Well None; or Provide 50 mm Provide 75 mm A bare or grass compacted Provide 50 mm layer of layer of surface may be clay, pumice layer of compacted compacted adequate on or brown ash compacted aggregate aggregate these soils in soils aggregate low use sites (CBR 7 or more)

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Loose gravel; None Compact the Compact the Addition of silt Beach or river sub-grade and sub-grade and and clay fines to gravel; provide 50 mm provide 75 mm these soils, Scoria compacted compacted mixing and aggregate aggregate compacting may Sand pavement pavement provide a suitable surface in some sites

Compact None None; or None; or Aggregate gravel; Provide 50 mm Provide 50 mm surfacing Weathered compacted compacted provided to rock surfacing surfacing level out un- aggregate layer aggregate layer evenness in the sub-grade

General Notes: CBR = Californian Bearing Ratio (can be measured using Table 23, a Scala penetrometer, Clegg Hammer or other approximate means) Pavement aggregate maximum stone size should be not more that 40% of the intended compacted layer thickness (ie 20 mm maximum stone for 50 mm thick pavement layer, 40mm maximum stone for 100 mm thick pavement layer. Where the recommended total pavement layer is 150 mm or more, there may be benefit in applying this as two layers (ie one 100mm thick layer of GAP40 aggregate and a surface layer of GAP20 at 50 mm thickness)

Table 23 – Track Pavement Options

It is imperative that the finished surface is higher than the surrounding ground for water management purposes. This will allow water to drain away freely to the side of the track and prevent water from pooling and running down the side of your track.

! RED ALERT

• River gravels have the potential to carry weed seeds a considerable distance from their source

• Managed quarries may also be a source of weed infestation. Check the quarry for potential weeds

• Machinery transported from one location to another is a good taxi for seed

• Clothing, particularly boots is another source worth checking

• Check Conservation Management Sratagies or Management Plans to ensure the importation of aggregate is permitted

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15.4 TRACK COMPACTION

Compaction is the process by which we squeeze air out of the material to form a dense track surface.

• This increases the density of the material by applying a force. It brings the soil particles into contact with one another

• An increase in density equals an increase in strength. As a general rule a 1% increase in density equates to an increase in strength of 10-15%. Of course this will only happen if you have suitable material

• Increased strength means the material is more stable and less likely to be as affected by displacement, foot compaction and weather than unmodified material; hence the likely maintenance is decreased. What we are endeavouring to do is maximise the performance of the material

• Compaction is the cheapest and simplest method for increasing strength and shearing resistance

15.4.1 Compaction of cohesive soils Cohesive soils are typically clays and silts.

• Compacting this type of soil is best achieved using a deadweight compactor as we are after the kneading and pressure action

• Vibrating compactors do not work as well on these types of soils as they may cause a displacement phenomenon to occur

• If a vibrating compactor is the only one available, allow the moisture content to become quite low and reduce the revolutions on the compactor

A relatively simple field test can be carried out to determine the strength of cohesive soils.

Term Undrained Approximate Field test shear CBR rating (kPa) (%)

Very soft <12 <1 Exudes between fingers when squeezed in hand

Soft 12-25 1-2 Easily penetrated with thumb. Moulded by light finger pressure

Firm 25-50 2-4 Penetrated by thumb with effort. Moulded by strong finger pressure

Stiff 50-100 4-7 Indented by thumb. Cannot be moulded by fingers.

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Very stiff 100-200 7-10 Indented by thumbnail. Penetrated by knife to about 15mm

Hard >200 >10 Can be indented with difficulty by thumbnail

Table 24 - Strength of cohesive soils (Source: after AS1726-1993)

15.4.2 Compaction of granular soils Non-cohesive materials require a vibration action to “lock” the particles in place.

• This shaking is delivered with the use of a vibrating compactor. The vibrating compactor should only be used to lock the particles

• Ideally, the granular material is finished off with a deadweight roller. However, the size of most deadweight rollers and the nature of the terrain often makes them difficult to use

• Compact until the field test as outlined in Table 27 gives a good result

HOT TIPS

• On cohesive soil good compaction can be achieved by allowing the soil to dry out so the moisture content is low

• When you are unable to use a static compactor for track compaction, use a vibrating plate compactor but reduce the revs down to the minimum

15.5 AGGREGATE BEHAVIOR

When purchasing aggregate from a quarry it is highly recommended that prior to the purchase and application, the product is tested to determine its likely behaviour.

• Due to the volume of material being produced most quarries will have an aggregate grading analysis. This will demonstrate where the aggregate falls in relation to the required grading envelope as specified in 15.5.3. It is likely that the aggregate will lack the necessary fines. It may be necessary to have additional material added.

Some locations across the country may have access to stone that is suitable for track surfacing and get the material crushed to size.

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• Minimum quantity should be no less than 2000 cubic metres. Any less than this and the establishment costs make it very expensive aggregate

• River metal should have 70% broken face to lock the material suitably and perform well

• When producing quantities of 2000 cubic metres have an aggregate grading analysis done. This should be carried out at a registered TELARC laboratory

Use of the appropriate material may result in higher initial material location and construction costs, however substantial savings in the overall life cycle costs can be expected.

550 500 450 D-Slippery when wet 400 350 300 E –Performs well but is susceptible to wind 250 erosion C- Generally has lots of A- Erodible-lots of fines , 200 fines, displaces and forms avoid using this material 150 GOOD loose material 100 50 B – Lacks cohesion and is easily displaced, forms lots of loose material 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46

Figure 45 - Relationship between shrinkage and grading coefficient (Source: Jones and Paige – Green 1996)

15.5.1 Poorly graded materials Poorly graded material contains only a small proportion of the range of particle sizes. An excess of large stones means the material will not “lock” together very well and will soon get displaced.

Figure 46- Stockpile

of poorly graded material ready to be used as a track surface

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Figure 47 - When transported to site and compacted,

poorly graded material is easily displaced

Figure 48a - Larger stones have been pushed to the side of

the track when compacted as the material lacks angular stone

structure (section 15.5.2)

15.5.2 Well graded materials Well graded means having a particle size distribution that conforms to certain envelope limits when the aggregate is tested in accordance with NZS 4407:1991 (Table 25). If the grading curve (as shown in the graph in Figure 49) is within the upper and lower limits the aggregate can be expected to compact and bind well.

In the majority of situations you are going to have to make do with the type of material available to work with. However, in many of our front country sites with relatively high visitor numbers, applying a well graded metal to the track surface is appropriate.

• Material needs to be angular in shape, not rounded, as this allows the material to lock together

• Material should contain a proportion of clay fines. This helps to bind the other particles

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• Maximum stone size is 20 mm. This will be suitable for almost all track work

• Rounded stones move easily and will be displaced from your track very quickly. Visitors walking on rounded material will quickly move the material off the track surface and either off the side of the track or into the side drain

• A well graded material has a range of particle sizes and this is the product we should aim to use on some of our tracks. The reason for this is that when a load is applied (static or vibrating plate compactor) the particles are able to lock together, voids are filled in by the smaller sized particles. This produces a track surface that is dense and significantly stronger than poorly graded material

Figure 48b - A well graded metal track surface. Note the stones are angular and

there is a good distribution of particle sizes. The presence of fines

“locks the material together”. Particle sizes vary from 20 mm to 0.002 mm

15.5.3 Particle size distribution Samples of your product sent to a registered TELARC laboratory will be tested against NZS 4407:199. The results from your product will be compared to the grading envelope outlined below and recommendations made to achieve the required aggregate mix.

Maximum and minimum allowable percentage weight passing

Test sieve aperture AP20 (max size 20mm)

37.5mm -

19mm 100

9.5mm 55-75*

4.75mm 33-55

2.36mm 22-42

1.18mm 14-31

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600μm 8-23

300μm 5-16

150μm 0-12

75μm 0-8

Table 25 - Particle Size Distribution Envelope Limits * means that using a 9.5 mm sieve no less than 55% and no more than 75% of the sample will pass through the sieve

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Figure 49 – Results of a sample sent to a TELARC laboratory for analysis

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Interpreting this information can be quite difficult if you are not familiar with it so let’s take it step by step.

Step 1 – Our sample is analysed according to NZS 4407:1991

Sieve size % Passing Figure 50-The sample sent to the laboratory produced 37.5 100 the following results when 26.5 100 passed through the various sieve sizes. 19 99

9.5 74 E.g.: For the sieve size of 4.75 49 9.5 mm, 74% of the material passed through 2.36 35 the sieve

1.18 26

0.60 21

0.425 19

0.30 17

0.075 11

Linear shrinkage 6.70 (%)

Plasticity index 13.10

Shrinkage 127.30 product

Grading 31.85 coefficient

Plasticity 249 product

Step 2 – Plot the sieve analysis results

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Plot the actual results from the sample against the maximum and minimum allowable percentage as contained in NZS 4407:1991. This will produce a graph similar to that shown in Figure 49. You are able to see the particle sizes that need to be added to comply with the standard. Make sure you ask the laboratory to provide recommendations.

15.5.4 Optimum moisture content The term used to describe the moisture content we are seeking is Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) and this is the key to effective compaction. Another term that relates to OMC is Maximum Dry Density (MDD). When the material at OMC is compacted it yields MDD. This is the highest density a material can achieve under a specific loading.

• A material that is ideal for compaction will reach a point of maximum strength at certain moisture content

• If the material is compacted when too dry the overall density will be less and therefore the strength of the material will be less. More effort is required to compact the material and the final density is likely to be less than if compacted at OMC

• If the material is compacted with moisture content higher than OMC then compaction will have little effect

HOT TIP

• Stockpiled aggregate is likely to be at roadends or close to rivers. Ensure material is at OMC prior to transporting. It is easier to apply water at these locations than when the material is spread on the track surface

15.5.5 Field test for optimum moisture content A simple and reliable method of testing the OMC of material in the field is the squeeze test and this will work for the majority of material we deal with.

• Remove as many of the particles over 5 mm in diameter as possible, we just want the fines as the squeeze test will not work with large particles

• Squeeze a handful of material as hard as you possibly can in the palm of your hand

When you open your hand the material will fall into one of three categories:

• Falls apart and looks dry – material is too dry and needs water added

• Falls apart and looks shiny – material is too wet and needs to dry out

• Stays together in shape and has a dullish appearance – OMC

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! PITFALL

• Make sure you test four to five random locations from your pile of material. Testing from one spot may give you an incorrect result for the overall OMC of the pile

15.6 LAYER THICKNESS

There is a simple minimum rule for working out the thickness of your finished (compacted) layer.

• If you want a finished compacted layer of 50 mm an aggregate of 20 mm particle size is needed (20 mm X 2.5 = 50 mm)

• It should be 2.5 times the thickness of the largest stone in your material

15.7 HOW MUCH MATERIAL FOR A JOB?

Calculating the volume of material you will need for a job is relatively straightforward and is calculated with a simple formula. However, there are one or two potential pitfalls.

• Un-compacted volume = length x width x depth x compaction factor

• Compaction factor is the reduction in volume due to compaction. As the material gets squeezed together air is removed. The material reduces in volume by approximately 30%

Therefore the volume of material required for a track 685 metres long (length) that is 800 mm wide (width) using 20 mm aggregate (20 x 2.5=50 mm depth) x 1.3 (compaction factor) is calculated as follows:

Length Distance over which 685 metres aggregate is to be applied

Width Width of track 0.8 metres

Depth Stone size times 2.5 0.05 metres

Compaction 1.3 factor

Total 35.6 cubic metres volume

Table 26 – Calculating the un-compacted volume of material required

• Un-compacted volume = 685 x 0.8 x 0.05 x 1.3 = 35.6 cubic metres

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! PITFALL

• Getting the decimal point in the wrong place when converting width and stone depth

15.8 COMPACTION TECHNIQUE

We have already mentioned that compaction is the cheapest and simplest method for increasing strength. It is therefore important to follow a procedure so as to achieve satisfactory compaction uniformly across the entire track surface, while maintaining the shape and evenness of the surface.

• Pavement material should not be compacted in layers exceeding 150 mm

• Compaction should commence on the outer (lower) edge of the pavement and progress towards the centreline. Compacting from the inside to the outside will cause material to be pushed downslope resulting in a loss of shape

• A forward and reverse pass is made over the same section of pavement before moving to the adjacent section. It is important to ensure this is done. When changing direction, the compactor should be on the previously compacted section

• Each pass of the compactor should overlap the previous one by 1/3rd to ensure complete coverage

• Vibrating compactors should have the vibrator turned off when the machine is stopping or turning

• All compactors should be reversed without any jolting. Sharp turns or sudden changes in direction should be avoided

• The best speed is usually a slow walking pace

• When using a vibrating compactor, a sequence consisting of a non vibrating pass, followed by several high amplitude passes, and finishing with low amplitude passes, has been found to achieve good compaction and surface thickness

• Depending on the weather a light sprinkling of water will be necessary to maintain OMC

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Figure 51 – Good compaction technique. Compaction

commenced on the outside edge and each pass of the vibrating plate compactor is

overlapping the previous pass

Figure 52 - Working in tandem is the vibrating plate

compactor, bottom left, followed by the static roller. Note the track has been

compacted from the outside edges to the centre

! PITFALL

• Running the compactor down the centre of a crowned track. This effectively flattens the top

15.8.1 Field test of surface compaction The field technique used to check compaction of the track surface involves the scuff test and/or golf ball test.

POOR GOOD

Scuff test Stand on ball of Material is Little difference foot on one leg and easily displaced made in track twist surface

Golf Ball Drop a golf ball Bounces back Bounces back to from waist height to a height knee height or lower than the higher knee

Table 27 – Field test to determine walking surface compaction

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Before going to the time and effort of placing material on your track it is worth taking the time and effort to test the hardness of the material being used. This will give you some idea of how the track will perform when compared to the three key forces we have already discussed; erosion, displacement and compaction.

Term Point load index (MPa) Field Test

Extremely low <0.03 Easily broken by hand to a material with soil particles

Very low 0.03-0.1 Broken by leaning on sample with hammer. Crumbles under firm blows with a pick. Can be peeled with a knife

Low 0.1-0.3 Broken in hand by hitting with hammer. Easily scored with a knife; sharp edges may be friable

Medium 0.3-1.0 Easily scored with a knife. Broken against solid object with a hammer

High 1-3 Difficult to break against solid object with hammer; rock rings under hammer

Very high 3-10 Requires more than one blow of the hammer to fracture sample; rock rings under hammer

Extremely high >10 Sample requires many blows with the hammer

Table 28 - Strength of fragments of rock and hardened materials (Source: after AS1726-1993 and Geological Society Engineering Group 1990)

15.9 FROST HEAVE

Frost heave is the disturbance or uplift of soil, pavement or plants caused by moisture in the soil freezing and expanding.

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Heaving occurs when the right combination of fine grained soil, soil moisture and soil temperature exists.

• As the mean air temperature drops, the surface of the ground will freeze

• With the lower air temperatures, the freezing plane slowly penetrates the soil. In a fine grained moist soil the water in the soil turns to ice. This is, in effect, a drying action and water in the unfrozen soil beneath moves toward the ice in the same way that water will move from moist soil to dry soil. This water, on reaching the freezing plane, is able to flow through and around the soil particles there and to join the ice crystals above, thus adding to the growth of a layer of ice

• Pressure is developed so that the ice and soil above it are lifted

• As thawing proceeds downward from the surface, the ice crystals thaw and add water to the soil. The subsequent melting is sufficient to cause the soil to lose strength, and may cause the surface to become wet and muddy through loss of support

15.9.1 Minimising frost heave

Drainage The presence of water in the soil is a major factor in the development of frost heave. Install drainage to help remove water

Soils containing silt and fine • Ideally the soil will be removed at sands are very susceptible to least down to the typical frost depth. frost heave. Removing frost-susceptible soils removes frost action

• As a minimum remove 10% of the typical frost depth

• Replace the fine grained soil with a coarse granular material. Soils are susceptible to frost heave if 10 percent or more of the soil passes a 0.075 mm sieve or 3 percent or more passes a 0.02 mm sieve

Table 29 – Options for minimising frost heave

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16. Geotextiles

The purpose of using geotextiles under the track formation is to prevent the mixing of materials. There are generally only two geotextiles used in the construction of walking tracks; filter fabrics and geocells.

16.1 FILTER FABRICS

• Use when there is a need to separate material and stop fines (clay or silt) from contaminating the track pavement material

• Is semi- permeable and allows water to seep through and drain

Figure 53 – Correct application of geotextile cloth

16.1.1 Construction using filter fabric

• Excavate material for track foundation as you would for the construction of an aggregate track

• Form an even and level base, remove materials that may puncture or distort the matting

• If the surface is very wet form the sides by using good size soil turves, these are laid over the top of the filter fabric edge

• To prevent the mixing of material where applicable the filter fabric may extend halfway up the formed sides

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• Line the formation with the filter fabric and cut it to the required width if you have not already done so

• To navigate bends either fold or cut the filter fabric. If you cut the filter fabric then overlap the material by a minimum of 300 mm

• When encountering a culvert pipe proceed as per the installation of the culvert. When the culvert trench has been formed lay the filter fabric across the entire length of the trench

• Take care not to puncture the filter fabric when compacting the material around the culvert

• Secure all edges using ground staples and place at intervals not exceeding one metre

• Make sure no filter fabric is exposed, it should be well covered with material

16.2 GEOCELLS

HISTORY TRIVIA In the late 1970’s The US Army Corps of Engineers began research and development on a product to confine beach sand during amphibious assault. They welded strips of plastic into a rectangular, expandable honeycomb structure that when filled with sand supported the heavy loads applied by military vehicles and resisted erosion by wave action. In 1984 the military demonstrated the effectiveness of cellular confinement in an exercise at Fort Story, Virginia involving thousands of passes by military vehicles over roads constructed of sand and cellular confinement. In 1990, 6,400,000 square feet of cellular confinement were successfully utilised during Operation Desert Storm. http://www.usfabricsinc.com/products/cellularconfinement.shtml

Geocells are very effective at holding material in place.

• Use in very high use sites, with extreme weather conditions and erodible soils

• The objective of using geocells is to stop any erosion of soil when the track surface has lost shape or disappeared

16.2.1 Construction using geocells

• Look at the existing alignment and determine if you want to reroute the track or stay with the current alignment

• If using the existing track alignment and it is badly eroded, the track can become the side drain and a new track formed alongside

• If required, excavate to the required gradient and width removing all vegetation material

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• Taking the grade out may mean the installation of short sections of steps

• Install side drains and culverts

• Ensure the sub-grade has a smooth finish with no protrusions (rocks, tree roots)

• Side edges are not necessary but if it is being installed get timber at correct level. Allow for thickness of the track surface and geocells

• Form sub-grade to required shape, crossfall and compact

• Add material to obtain required level, correct crossfall of 2° (3%-4%)

• Cut geocells and locate in place

• Complete one single pass of the compactor

• Secure geocells using 12 mm reinforcing rod and mortar

• Add suitable fill to the geocells

• Complete one single pass with the compactor

• Apply track surface material

• Shape to the correct crossfall of 2° (3%-4%) and compact

Figure 54 – Removal of organic material is required. If a track was built on top of the vegetation, movement of the track surface would take place as this decomposed

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Figure 55 – Timber edging is bent to ensure the track flows and reflects the landscape

Figure 56 – Geocells are easily cut to any shape to fit the “flow” of the track

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Figure 57 – To hold the cells in place a 12 mm reinforcing rod is driven into the soil. The individual cells containing the rods are then filled with a hardener to secure the geocells in place.

The local material on the side of this track can be used to fill the cells

Figure 58 – With the geocells filled the walking surface can be applied and compacted

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Figure 59 – Completed section of track showing geocells and compacted walking surface.

As the track surface wears down to the geocells they will stop the loss of any further material. It is then a case of applying new surface material as opposed to considerable track reconstruction as has been the case on this track in the past

Figure 60 – While this section of track could be significantly improved aesthetically, it demonstrates that the geocells are effective in holding material. The gradient on this section of track is 13°

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Figure 61 – Edging is not always necessary and these geocells will be covered with an acceptable walking surface

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17. Transportation of Track Surface Materials

There are essentially three recognised methods of moving track surface material and which method is chosen depends on a number of variables. The three methods are; power carriers, fadges and hoppers.

When transporting material it is important to know “how much” so we know “how far” the material should be spread on the track. To work out the volume (how much) we need to apply a few mathematical formulas.

17.1 CALCULATING MATERIAL VOLUMES FOR POWER CARRIERS

Power carriers are in effect a motorised wheelbarrow and there are a number of makes and models available on the market, including self loading models. Their containment bin is essentially a rectangle and the formula for working out the volume of a rectangle is;

• Volume = length(m) x width(m) x depth(m)

Length Distance from front of carrier 1.3 metres bin to back of the bin

Width Width of bin 0.9 metres

Depth Distance from top of bin to 0.6 metres bottom of bin

Total 0.7 cubic metres volume

Table 30 – Power carrier volume

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Figure 62 – Modern power carriers have a hydraulic tilt function making the spreading of material significantly easier

17.2 CALCULATING MATERIAL VOLUME FOR A FADGE

A fadge is a large bag with reinforced webbing for additional support and handles. Use the formula;

• Volume = length (m) x width (m) x depth (m)

Figures 63 – Fadges are cheap and available in a number of different sizes. They can be pre- filled with material several days prior to flying

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Figure 64 – Loading frame designed to be loaded by either a tractor or digger

Figure 65 – Knowing the volume of material in each fadge and the distance this will cover on the track allows fadges to be placed in the correct location

17.3 CALCULATING MATERIAL VOLUMES FOR HOPPER

Basically a hopper consists of a cylinder shape and a cone shape. The cylinder shape is at the top of the hopper and the cone shape at the bottom. These hoppers are truncated but for our purposes we will use the formula for a cone and cylinder.

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Figure 66 – Hoppers are available in a few different shapes and sizes. This hopper consists of a cylinder on the top and a truncated cone on the lower portion

To calculate the volume of this cylinder.

Use the following formula: V= π r² h which can be expressed as V = π x (r x r) x h

V = Volume of cylinder π=3.14 r=radius of circle h= height of cylinder

Perform the calculations like this: V= π x (r x r) x h V= 3.14 x (0.5m x 0.5m) x 1m

V=0.78m³

The final formula we need to know is for the volume of a cone. The lower portion of the hopper is actually a truncated cone but for simplicity we will use the cone formula.

To find the volume of this cone:

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Use the following formula: V= 1/3 π r² h which can be expressed as V = 1/3 x π x (r x r) x h V = Volume of cone π = 3.14 r = radius of circle h = height of cone

V = 1/3 x π x (r x r) x h V = 1/3 x 3.14 x (0.5 m x 0.5 m) x 0.6 m V = 0.16 m³ (rounded! your calculator will say 0.156 but two decimal places is close enough!)

Volume of cylinder = 0.78 m³ Volume of cone = 0.16 m³ Total Volume = 0.78 m³ + 0.16 m³ = 0.94 m³

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18. Determining Track Distance Surface Cover

Now that you know the volumes, you can determine how far 20 mm aggregate should be spread on the track to achieve the finished compacted surface of 50 mm thick (uncompacted depth equals 65mm). Table 31 is an example of how this can assist with planning. The same volume and distance has been used to demonstrate the difference in the number of loads as the track width increases. Appendix 11 contains a spreadsheet with formulas that will determine the volume of material required based on the figures entered.

Track Uncompacted Volume Distance Total No. of Width Depth of Applied Covered Distance Loads Material

0.3 0.065 0.94 48 680 14 680 0.4 0.065 0.94 36 19 680 0.5 0.065 0.94 29 24 680 0.6 0.065 0.94 24 28 680 0.7 0.065 0.94 21 33 680 0.8 0.065 0.94 18 38 680 0.9 0.065 0.94 18 38 680 1 0.065 0.94 14 47 680 1.1 0.065 0.94 13 52 680 1.2 0.065 0.94 12 56 680 1.3 0.065 0.94 11 61 680 1.5 0.065 0.94 10 71 680 1.6 0.065 0.94 9 75 680 1.7 0.065 0.94 9 80 680 1.8 0.065 0.94 8 85 680 1.9 0.065 0.94 8 89 680 2 0.065 0.94 7 94

Table 31 - Track material required for different track widths

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Figure 67 – By this stage you know the volume of material to be moved and the number of loads.

Using two hoppers is significantly more efficient as the digger operator can load one hopper while the other is being transported by helicopter

Figure 68 – Loading with the correct size digger makes an efficient operation.

If fines have started to separate in the pile the digger can re- mix the material

Figure 69 -Use of a hopper is a very efficient method of spreading stone aggregate. By calculating the volume of the hopper you can determine how far one load should be spread to achieve a finished compacted surface 50mm thick

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HOT TIPS

• If stockpiling un-bagged material, lay material on top of a tarpaulin. This minimises impacts and maximises the use of material

• When transporting, storing or spreading metal aggregate be very careful NOT TO SEPARATE the fines. At all times you want to keep the mix well graded

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19. Additional Construction Techniques

During your office based planning (section 11.1), you may have discovered that additional techniques are required to achieve the height gain required within the available topography. There are a number of solutions available; steps, switchbacks, climbing turns and inslope turns.

19.1 STEPS

Refer to the SNZ HB 8630:2004 for step standards. Table 32 is a summarised version of the standards.

Track Classification

Short Walk • Minimum gradient 18°**

• Maximum gradient 37°

• Maximum vertical rise between landings is 2.5 m

• Maximum tread riser height of 190 mm and a minimum tread going of 250 mm

• Must have an even surface and not be muddy or rough

Walking Track • Minimum gradient 18°**

• Maximum gradient is 41°

• Maximum vertical rise between landings is 4.0 m

• Maximum tread riser height of 225 mm and a minimum tread going of 300 mm

Great Walk / Easy Tramping • Minimum gradient 18°** Track • Steps may be used

• Maximum vertical rise between landings is 4.0 m

• Maximum tread riser height of 200 mm and a minimum tread going of 250 mm

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Tramping Track • Steps generally not used except where they will prevent erosion or significant visitor impacts

• Maximum gradient 45°

• Maximum vertical rise between landings 8.0 m

• New steps shall have a maximum tread riser height of 250 mm and a minimum tread going of 250 mm

Route • Steps shall not be used

Table 32 –Summarised Step Standards ** Not specified within SNZ HB 8630:2004. This is the minimum comfortable gradient for step construction

Steps are relatively expensive to construct but are fantastic for gaining a lot of elevation over a very short distance. However try to avoid using steps wherever possible, consider all your options before deciding to construct steps.

Users generally do not like steps whether they are walkers, trampers or mountain bikers. Any steps you decide to install will need to be well thought out and planned before any work is commenced.

• Avoid constructing long straight flights of steps

• Consider the landscape into which you are introducing straight lines. Stringer steps should be broken up with landings and bends

• By installing the appropriate number of steps at the appropriate time you are able to decrease the track gradient between flights of steps

• Go to the maximum rise where you install steps to achieve a good track gradient while balancing “how the steps fit visually within the landscape”

• View where steps will be located from above. This will give you a good idea where people may be enticed to take short cuts

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Figure 70 - Steps introduce straight lines into the natural landscape, where there are few perfectly

straight lines, and look out of place. When selecting the location of steps look

at the site from above and below

Figure 71 - Change the angle of steps to alleviate long visual lines

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19.1.1 Step terminology The terminology used to describe steps is:

• The tread rise, this is the vertical distance gained for the face of each step

• The tread going, this is the horizontal distance from the top front edge of one step to the bottom of the next step’s face

• The landing, this is an area used to break a long flight and provide a short flat rest location

• Stringer is the inclined boards in which the tread risers are attached

Figure 72 – Step terminology

STEP HISTORICAL TRIVIA

• Rules of thumb for determining satisfactory rise/tread ratios have existed since Classical times. In De Architectura, Vitruvius suggests a unit rise of between 23 cm and 25 cm, and a unit tread between 46 and 61 cm. To modern tastes, this proportion would create a very stately stair. Sir Henry Wooten (1568–1639) suggested that the unit rise not exceed 15 cm and that the unit tread be between 30 and 45cm. Both authors, however, are describing public buildings in urban areas

• Jacques-Francois Blondel (1705–1774) argued in his Cours d’Architecture that the rise/tread ratio should be based on the length of the human pace, which he took to be 65cm. Since in one step on a staircase a foot travels by two risers and a tread, Blondel arrived at the formula two times the unit rise, plus the unit tread = 65 cm, or unit rise = (65 cm – unit run) over 2. This formula works well only for moderate values for unit rise (or unit tread)

• In modern times, stair researchers have gone beyond observing which existing stairs cause the most accidents. They have been able to

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experiment with many combinations of unit rise and unit tread, and to capture in stroboscopic photography how missteps occur. The results largely confirm the rules of thumb, but some interesting results emerge, such as that the optimal rise/tread ratio for descent is not the same as the one for ascent. Several researchers feel that for descent the unit tread should be at least 28 cm.

There are essentially three step formations; stringer steps, in-ground boxed steps and natural rock steps. There is likely to be some variation on each of these throughout the country and a number of designs are available.

19.2 STRINGER STEP SURVEY

• Survey the slope, this will allow you to design the flights and landings

• Place a person, the Marker, at the top of the slope with a pole marked at the Observer’s eye level

• Place the pole at the top of the slope

• Attach a tape to the bottom of the pole, the Observer walks to the bottom of the slope unreeling the tape

• Observer notes the slope angle with the inclinometer

• or Abney and records the slope length

• Complex slopes are measured by repeating the process at each change in the slope angle

19.3 DETERMINING TREAD RISER HEIGHT

Tables 33 and 34 provide information on tread riser and tread going for specific slope angles. Both tables work well but provide slightly different options.

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INCLINATION TREAD TREAD INTERSTEP POSSIBLE STRINGER LENGTH ANGLE RISER GOING STRINGER DEGREES LENGTH A H L S 2 step 3 step 4 step 5 step 6 step 7 step 8 step 9 step 10 step 11 step 12 step 18-20 150 420 446 892 1338 1784 2230 2676 3122 3568 4014 4460 4906 5352 21-23 160 400 431 862 1292 1723 2154 2585 3016 3447 3877 4308 4739 5170 23-25 170 380 416 833 1249 1665 2081 2498 2914 3330 3747 4163 4579 4996 26-28 180 360 402 805 1207 1610 2012 2415 2817 3220 3622 4025 4427 4830 28-30 190 340 389 779 1168 1558 1947 2337 2726 3116 3505 3895 4284 4674 31-33 200 320 377 755 1132 1509 1887 2264 2642 3019 3396 3774 4151 4528 34-36 210 300 366 732 1099 1465 1831 2197 2563 2930 3296 3662 4028 4394 37-39 220 280 356 712 1068 1424 1780 2137 2493 2849 3205 3561 3917 4273 40-43 230 260 347 694 1041 1389 1736 2083 2430 2777 3124 3471 3818 4166 43-45 240 240 339 679 1018 1358 1697 2036 2376 2715 3055 3394 3734 4073

INCLINATION TREAD TREAD INTERSTEP POSSIBLE STRINGER LENGTH ANGLE RISER GOING STRINGER DEGREES LENGTH 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 A H L S step step step step step step step step step step step step 18-20 150 420 446 5798 6244 6690 14271 22745 32111 42368 53518 62437 71357 80277 89196 21-23 160 400 431 5601 6031 6462 13786 21971 31019 40927 51698 60314 68930 77546 86163 23-25 170 380 416 5412 5828 6244 13321 21231 29973 39548 49955 58281 66607 74933 83259 26-28 180 360 402 5232 5635 6037 12880 20527 28979 38237 48299 56349 64399 72449 80498 28-30 190 340 389 5063 5453 5842 12464 19864 28043 37001 46738 54528 62318 70108 77897 31-33 200 320 377 4906 5283 5660 12075 19245 27170 35849 45283 52830 60377 67925 75472 34-36 210 300 366 4761 5127 5493 11718 18676 26366 34789 43944 51268 58591 65915 73239 37-39 220 280 356 4629 4985 5341 11395 18161 25638 33829 42731 49853 56974 64096 71218 40-43 230 260 347 4513 4860 5207 11108 17704 24993 32977 41656 48598 55541 62484 69426 43-45 240 240 339 4412 4752 5091 10861 17310 24438 32244 40729 47518 54306 61094 67882

Table 33 - Stringer steps options for a range of inclination angles

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Stringer Step Options Step angle Slope % Tread going (mm) for given tread rise Slope length (m) for given rise between landings (degrees) 250mm rise 200mm rise 190mm rise 150mm rise 1.0 m 1.5 m 2.0 m 2.5 m 3.0 m 3.5 m 4.0 m rise rise rise rise rise rise rise 18 32% 769 616 585 462 3.2 4.9 6.5 8.1 9.7 11.3 12.9 19 34% 726 581 552 436 3.1 4.6 6.1 7.7 9.2 10.8 12.3 20 36% 687 549 522 412 2.9 4.4 5.8 7.3 8.8 10.2 11.7 21 38% 651 521 495 391 2.8 4.2 5.6 7.0 8.4 9.8 11.2 22 40% 619 495 470 371 2.7 4.0 5.3 6.7 8.0 9.3 10.7 23 42% 589 471 448 353 2.6 3.8 5.1 6.4 7.7 9.0 10.2 24 45% 562 449 427 337 2.5 3.7 4.9 6.1 7.4 8.6 9.8 25 47% 536 429 407 322 2.5 3.5 4.7 5.9 7.1 8.3 9.5 26 49% 513 410 390 308 2.3 3.4 4.6 5.7 6.8 8.0 9.1 27 51% 491 393 373 294 2.2 3.3 4.4 5.5 6.6 7.7 8.8 28 53% 470 376 357 282 2.1 3.2 4.3 5.3 6.4 7.5 8.5 29 55% 451 361 343 271 2.1 3.1 4.1 5.2 6.2 7.2 8.3 30 58% 433 346 329 260 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 31 60% 416 333 316 250 1.9 2.9 3.9 4.9 5.8 6.8 7.8 32 62% 400 320 304 240 1.9 2.8 3.8 4.7 5.7 6.6 7.5 33 65% 385 308 293 231 1.8 2.8 3.7 4.6 5.5 6.4 7.3 34 67% 371 297 282 222 1.8 2.7 3.6 4.5 5.4 6.3 7.2 35 70% 357 286 271 214 1.7 2.6 3.5 4.4 5.2 6.1 7.0 36 73% 344 275 262 206 1.7 2.6 3.4 4.3 5.1 6.0 6.8 37 75% 332 265 252 199 1.7 2.5 3.3 4.2 5.0 5.8 6.6 38 78% 320 256 243 192 1.6 2.4 3.2 4.1 4.9 5.7 6.5 39 81% 309 247 235 185 1.6 2.4 3.2 4.0 4.8 5.6 6.4 40 84% 298 238 226 179 1.6 2.3 3.1 3.9 4.7 5.4 6.2 41 87% 288 230 219 173 1.5 2.3 3.0 3.8 4.6 5.3 6.1 42 90% 278 222 211 167 1.5 2.2 3.0 3.7 4.5 5.2 6.0 43 93% 268 214 204 161 1.5 2.2 2.9 3.7 4.4 5.1 5.9 44 97% 259 207 197 155 1.4 2.2 2.9 3.6 4.3 5.0 5.8 45 100% 250 200 190 150 1.4 2.1 2.8 3.5 4.2 4.9 5.7

Number of steps 250mm 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 200mm 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 190mm 5.3 7.9 10.5 13.2 15.8 18.4 21.1 150mm 6.7 10.0 13.3 16.7 20.0 23.3 26.7

Table 34 – Stringer step options for specific slope angle

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19.4 STRINGER STEP CONSTRUCTION

• Use the correct geometric design

• Construct steps the same width as the track

• Steps are either pre-cut in the workshop and assembled on site or prefabricated and transported to site assembled

• Prepare the location by knocking off and removing humps or other obstacles to establish the required gradient

• Sit the steps in place and install at the correct gradient

• Stand back and line up with the track

• Check the steps are level

• Secure with 50 mm x 50 mm x 750 mm pegs at a minimum of 600 mm centres

• Place geocells under the first riser to prevent soil erosion

• Backfill steps with suitable local material (will not heave with frost, turn boggy when wet etc) or if this is not available use a granular fill

• Compact in layers not exceeding 150 mm. If it is not possible to compact with a suitable compactor, compact manually with a rammer

• If the local material is not suitable and granular fill is not available cover local material with filter fabric and apply well graded aggregate mix

• If enough material is available backfill the entire external length of the stringer allowing for drainage and compact if possible

• In erosion prone soil install filter fabric and secure the fabric in place. Position locally sourced rocks (minimum size 50 mm) down the entire external length of the stringer

• Surface should be suitable local material or aggregate

• Shape finished surface to 1% outward crossfall

• Compact. If it is not possible to compact with a suitable compactor, compact manually with a rammer

• Make the track flat at the top and bottom of the step. This helps with water management and the displacement of material

• Construct either a drainage dip or grade reversal no less than one metre from the top of a flight of steps

• Re-visit steps two months after installation to check for any water management problems and refill treads if necessary

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Figure 73 - During the track survey information on step

construction is obtained. This allows prefabrication of stringer steps before

being transported to the site

Figure 74 - Use a level

with a digital display to get the steps at the correct gradient

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Figure 75- Site is prepared and steps

located in position ready for levelling, pegging and backfilling

Figure 76 - Backfill each tread going and the entire external

length of the stringer. Compact tread goings

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Figure 77 - The side drains have been lined with rocks to slow down

the water in this very erosion prone volcanic ash.

Temporary water management has been

put in place to protect the lower section of track (yet to be upgraded) while this section of track was

under construction

Figure 78 – Geocells have been placed under the first riser to prevent track erosion. In extreme wet weather

water will cascade over the riser lip and down onto the track surface

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Figure 79 – Completed set of stringer box steps. These will require very little maintenance for a

considerable period of time

19.5 BOXED STEPS

Boxed steps are constructed square boxes made from timber stacked one on top of the other.

19.6 BOXED STEP CONSTRUCTION

Boxed step construction is appropriate where you need to construct the step across slope and/or a visually softer appearance is preferred. Large risers to the maximum allowable in the standard look better when constructed as a box step. The gentle segmented curve fits the place better than stringer steps when a number of steps or flights are required.

• Use the correct geometric design

• Construct steps the same width as the track with a minimum depth of 750 mm

• Steps are either pre-cut in the workshop and assembled on site or prefabricated and transported to site assembled

• Start construction work from the bottom and progress up the slope

• Prepare the location by knocking off and removing humps or other obstacles to establish the required gradient

• Lay out a hose or stringline on the desire curve. This will act as a guide during construction

• Each box section should sit square and level when installed. Apart from the last step each box will sit partly on the previous step

• Place geocells under the first riser to prevent soil erosion

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• In soft ground a 200 mm x 100 mm bearer plate may be installed. The plate should be wider than the constructed step width and be fixed to the first box step

• Excavate and install the first box section

• Install two internal 50 mm x 50 mm x 750 mm pegs and fix pegs to the internal corner of each box section. Pegs need to be installed 30 mm below tread riser height

• Sit the steps in place and install at the correct angle to achieve the desired segmented curve

• Stand back and view from a distance. This will help determine if the alignment is not quite correct

• From the top of the installed step excavate the bank ready for the next step. Material can be placed in the previously constructed step for fill. Place the next box section on top of the previous step and check it is square and level. Repeat the process until complete

• Backfill with suitable local material or if this is not available a granular fill

• If enough fill material is available backfill the entire external length of the step construction works allowing for drainage. In erosion prone soil install filter fabric and secure the fabric in place. Position locally sourced rocks down the entire external length of the construction

• Compact in layers not exceeding 150 mm. If it is not possible to compact with a suitable compactor, compact manually with a rammer

• Step surface should be suitable local material (will not heave with frost, turn boggy when wet etc) or aggregate

• Shape finished surface to 1% outward crossfall

• Construct either a drainage dip or grade reversal no less than one metre from the top of a flight of steps

• Make the track flat at the top and bottom of the step. This helps with water management and the displacement of material

• Re-visit steps two months after installation to check for any water management problems and refill treads if necessary

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Figure 80 – Aesthetically boxed steps are a good option for large rises. As

you are able to produce a segmented curve they are more visually acceptable within the landscape

19.7 ROCK STEPS

In a natural environment we should aim to keep things as natural as possible, even when this is not necessarily the easiest or cheapest option. Using natural rock steps as opposed to wooden steps has considerably less visual impact and when well constructed will last almost indefinitely with virtually no maintenance. There are a number of guidelines that should be followed when using stone:

• stones need to be compatible with the environment the track passes through

• stones should be taken over a large area and not “mined” from one site

• Do not take stones that are providing shelter for alpine vegetation

19.8 ROCK STEP CONSTRUCTION

Work from the bottom of the slope upwards

• Build in a cross fall or crown to shed water

• Place weathered stone face to the surface

• Dig in a very stable anchor stone at the base of the flight of steps. Needs to be large as it is supporting the weight of additional stones

• Ensure there is stone to stone contact

• Overlap stones, stagger joins

• On steep grades embed the stone vertically with the longest end in the ground

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• Use large stones on the outer edge, they are less likely to move

• Use wedge stones to lock into place

• Side drains may be required on some slopes

• Construct either a drainage dip or grade reversal no less than one metre from the top of a flight of steps

• Make the track flat at the top and bottom of the step. This helps with water management and the displacement of material

HOT TIPS

• Be consistent, keep the tread rise and tread going the same in each flight of steps

• Where possible build above the ground. Occasionally some minor excavation may be required depending on the slope gradient

• Minimum slope when installing steps is 18º

• Allow for water drainage down the side of the steps

• Avoid long runs of stringer steps, they don’t fit aesthetically

• Each individual step needs to be compacted. Compact loose fill in layers not exceeding 150 mm

• Stringer steps greater than three metres in length become difficult to handle

• Construct landings with a maximum slope (<2º or 3.0%) to stop water from sitting

• The junction at the bottom of the steps and the track should be flat. This helps to minimise user displacement of the track surface at the bottom of the step

• Use H5 treated timber

• Use suitable fill material. Allow for water drainage down the side of the stairs

• Construct a drainage dip or grade reversal at the top of each flight of steps; this prevents surface water from running down the steps

• Fill should be free from organic matter

• Fill step to the top of the tread riser and create a very slight outward slope to help water management

• Insert geocells underneath the first riser to prevent erosion at the base of the flight of steps

• If building stone steps construct the diagonals on an angle, this helps to counteract the structural, staircase effect. Stick to the correct tread rise and tread going design

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20. Switchbacks

A switchback reverses the direction of travel utilising a relatively level constructed landing.

20.1 SWITCHBACK CONSTRUCTION

• Utilise the flattest location you can find for the switchback platform

• Excavate adequately. The first step in building a switchback is to construct the turning area. The turning area on a dual purpose track should have a radius of no less than three metres. The turning area on a walking track can be significantly smaller. To facilitate water management build a small crown in the middle of the turn to help stop the creation of a fall line in the turn

• Fill construction only works where the sideslope is less than the maximum fill batter slope for the soil (refer Table 13)

• If it is not possible to construct with fill then a well constructed retaining wall using appropriate landscape anchors to stop people from shortcutting is required

• Remove all organic matter. This can be utilised in locations around the switchback to minimise the construction impact

• Smooth the grade out to 3°(5%) seven metres before and after the switchback

• After the smooth grade entering and exiting the switchback make the next 20 metres of track on the upslope and downslope side of the switchback as steep as possible for the preferred users and the terrain in which you are working. This increases the distance between the track coming into the switchback and the track going out of the switchback

• Push the corner out, don’t be tempted to make the turn too soon

• The upper section of the track should have an inslope of 2º (3%) and should have a drain extending beyond the turning platform. Begin forming the inslope ten metres before the platform and ensure there is a grade dip prior to entering and just after exiting the switchback. This is critical for managing water impact of the switchback

• When completing the lower section of the switchback ensure the retaining wall tapers on an angle down to the track surface. Construction of a drainage dip or other technique for water management is required upon exiting the switchback

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• Avoid stacking switchbacks one above the other. Stacking switchbacks can cause water management issues, water runs down the sideslope from one swichback to the next

• Create long legs between turn, this will help alleviate the temptation to take shortcuts

• Compact all fill material

Figure 81 – Poor switchback locations leads to both user and water management issues

Figure 82 – Variable length between switchbacks provides for better water management, creates greater user interest and discourages shortcuts

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Drawings are available in Appendix 12- 3-3, 3-4 and 3-5.

Figure 83 - By pushing the track toward the ridge in the background

considerable earthwork excavation may have been avoided. A framed view through the vegetation may also

have been possible providing a better experience for users

Figure 84 – This photo was taken standing on the switchback. The

section of track in the foreground when completed should be insloped to a side drain that extends and

discharges well past the switchback

Figure 85 - Over clearing of vegetation has enhanced the risk

of users cutting the corner on this switchback. It is now easier for them not to stay on the track

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21. Climbing Turns

Climbing turns are built on the slope face and when it turns it climbs at the same rate as the slope.

• Climbing turns do not have a platform. They have a wide radius. For mountain bikes make the radius six metres or more where the track gradient is between 3° - 4° (6%)

• Ideally, climbing turns should be on a relatively shallow sideslope of approximately 3º (5%)

• All climbing turns have a short section on the fall line. Consequently building a climbing turn on natural surfaces in excess of 3º (5%) makes it prone to erosion. In this instance you should consider constructing a switchback or hardening the surface through the turn

• It is almost impossible to stop a climbing turn from eroding where the gradient exceeds 11º (20%)

• It is important to provide either a grade reversal or culvert just prior to entering the turn. Ideally this is just before entering the short section of fall line. If the climbing turn is located on a dual purpose track consider a gateway prior to entering the turn to slow bikes down.

Drawings are available in Appendix 12 - 3-1 and 3-2.

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22. Inslope Turns

Switchbacks with a crown constructed on the platform are difficult for mountain bikers to negotiate. Inslope turns are another option where dual purpose use is provided (walking and mountain biking). The key to sustainable inslope turns is providing for the management of water and the ability to withstand the impact of users.

Correctly constructed inslope turns can reduce bikes skidding prior to entering the turn, reduce track widening and minimise soil displacement.

• Construct an inslope turn where you anticipate any potential side displacement of material

• Locate the turn around natural landscape anchors. This will help prevent people from shortcutting the corners

• Slow bikes down prior to entering an inslope curve as the forces working will fling the rider out of the corner

• Construction on a gentle sideslope is the best. Build inslope turns where the sideslope does not exceed 14º (25%)

• When approaching and exiting the turn the track should run at right angles to the sideslope

• Build the inslope section on the turn through the fall line. Correct placement of the inslope turn is critical, this means water is not trapped and is permitted to flow freely down the hill

• Create a gateway on the uphill section prior to the turn

• Create a grade dip on the uphill section prior to the turn

• Turns should have a radius of between three and five metres. Any turn tighter than this for bikes needs to be negotiated at slower speed so these tight turns do not require a built up bank. A radius any bigger than this results in increasing the length of the fall line (more potential problems), and bikes travelling at higher speeds results in greater lateral displacement of track surface material

• The steeper the sideslope, the higher and steeper you will want the bank to be. You will only need a very gentle inslope to make your turn work effectively. A slope as low as 3º (5%) from the outside to the inside of the turn will generally work well

• Cohesive soils should be used and you may need to consider importing some clay to add to your material

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23. Retaining Walls

A retaining wall is a wall that is constructed to hold soil in place. A retaining wall over 1.2 metres should be designed by an engineer and 1.5 metres or more in height will require a building consent.

PITFALL Make sure you check the effective fall height from the track. If the fall height exceeds 1.5 metres a barrier may be required

The purpose of a retaining wall is to withstand horizontal pressure from the soil / material it is holding. These pressures can range from zero at the top of the wall to a maximum at the bottom of the wall; there is also some vertical pressure acting near the top of the wall.

Although time consuming, where materials are available locally a stone retaining wall should be constructed. This “fits” the landscape and allows for the creation of visually nice curves. Rock walls are rustic in appearance and given the isolated location of many walls drywall construction is ideal.

23.1 SPECIFICATIONS FOR ROCK RETAINING WALL

BASE JOINTS OUTER FACE HEADERS 1/3 to ½ wall staggered a Inward slope of Minimum 25% of height minimum of 150 at least 3:1 the wall and have a mm horizontally length of 2.5 times from the adjacent their thickness (at joint in the last corners alternate row headers should cross)

23.1.1 Stone retaining wall construction

• Establish a solid foundation on firm soil or rock

• Inslope the foundation to match the desired batter of the wall, excavating the shelf slightly wider than the average width of the rocks being used

• Work from the low end of the foundation and build towards the high end; use the largest rocks you have available

• Dig the foundation stones fully into the ground where possible. Foundation stones are usually the largest stones used in the construction of the retaining wall.

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• At least 50% of the stones should weigh 60 kg

• Ideally the remainder of stones should weigh 20 kg

• Ideal stone is rectangular with flat surfaces on four sides. The worst rocks to use are rounded river rocks

• Each tier’s facestone overlaps the gaps between the stones on the next tier down

• Each tier includes header stones

• Each successive tier should be set back slightly to achieve the desired batter

• Stones in each tier should have three points of contact with the stones below. There should be no “wobble”

• Place wedges only on the inside of the wall, not the outside face. This makes them less visible and when backfilled they won’t fall out, unlike placing them on the front face of the wall

• Backfill and compact as you build

• Place a final layer of capstones of a suitable size so they will not be easily dislodged on the top

A drawing is available in Appendix 12, 5-1

HOT TIPS • Save some large rocks for the top capping stones • You are more likely to break where you want to when you place it on dirt to break as opposed to on another rock

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24. Timber Retaining Walls

There are a number of good internet sites that provide good technical information and specifications for the construction of timber retaining walls. Check out the following sites, www.pinepac.co.nz and www.unilog.co.nz

24.1 SPECIFICATIONS FOR TIMBER RETAINING WALL

Below is an example of just some of the information that is available on these sites. There is a whole raft of technical information available and the wooden retaining wall you build will depend on the soil type and slope.

Retaining on level ground with no traffic loading Height Depth Post Small H5 Posts B (hole Rails maximum minimum length End diameter Diameter ) H5 Post metres metres metres Diameter Diameter metre (mm) (mm) s 1.2 1.1 2.4 150 155 350 150 x 1.4 1.3 2.7 175 180 350 50 mm RS H5

(http://www.unilog.co.nz) Table 35 - Specifications for timber retaining wall with concrete encased timber posts at 1.2 m centres

Retaining on sloping ground at 20º maximum Height Depth Post Small H5 B (hole Rails maximu minimu lengt End Posts diameter m m h Diamete ) r H5 Post metres metre metres Diamete Diamete metres s r (mm) r (mm) 1.0 1.0 2.1 150 155 350 150x50m 1.2 1.2 2.4 175 180 350 m H5RS 1.4 1.4 2.7 200 200 400

(http://www.unilog.co.nz) Table 36 - Specifications for timber retaining wall, with concrete encased timber posts at 1.2m centres on sloping ground

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24.1.1 Timber retaining wall construction

• Determine the soil type. A firm clay soil is required. For sand, gravel, soft or organic soils or compacted fill refer to a consulting engineer for specific design

• Determine the dimensions of the wall, so that quantities of materials can be calculated

• Excavate and cut earth face no steeper than 60° to horizontal

• To prevent slips fresh excavations should not be left exposed to wet weather

• Cut bank back a minimum of 400 mm to allow access for nailing. This will provide working space

• Ensure ground behind wall line slopes towards drainage. Follow natural fall

• Dig the specified diameter holes at the specified centres, without disturbing surrounding soil

• Use of an Auger or powered posthole borer is recommended

• Prior to setting posts, remove or compact loose soil in holes

• Set posts by adding or removing base metal. Set end posts in holes with specified lean-back. A post slope of 1 in 10 will improve the appearance and strength of the wall

• Place concrete around posts at each end of the wall first. Erect a string line

HOT TIP Brace posts: Using hex-head TEK screws is easier on the construction than hammering in nails. If using nails, leave the heads proud and partly bent over for easy removal

• Check you have exactly the same lean on both posts. Use level and hold plumb, measure back to post 100 mm

• Set two string lines between two end posts, first at 100 mm from top of post, second 100 mm from ground level. Pack string lines off the posts to give an offset line

• Use string line to assist in lining up intermediate posts

• Place concrete around all intermediate posts, ensuring maximum spacings are not exceeded. Concrete in posts, using one part cement to six parts building mix or use pre-bagged concrete mix. Concrete should be placed around posts and well compacted by tamping. Use temporary bracing to protect posts against disturbance for at least two days after placement of concrete

• Use ground treated H5 rails as specified in Tables 35 and 36

• Fix with 150 mm galvanised nails to back of posts

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• Fix horizontal retaining wall timber to poles with galvanised nails. Joints in the timber will need to be made at the centre of the post or poles. Stagger the joints at different posts

• Ensure that preservative is applied to the end of every length of retaining wall timber that has been cut on site. The cut ends of posts will require preservative as well

• Use 50 mm bed of drainage metal, slope it in the direction of the water flow outlet and leave the ends protruding a little to enable cleaning

• Install 100 mm perforated drain pipe with a filtersok installed over it at the base of the retaining wall below adjacent ground level, and surround with AP20 scoria or other free draining material

• Lay drain/coil, behind wall, so it slightly falls in direction of water flow outlet

• Cover coil with 250 mm of drainage metal

Now you can either

• Position sheets of hardboard, cardboard or plasterboard 250 mm behind the wall

• Ensure sheets are positioned at same level

• Fill between the sheets and wall with drainage metal to within 300 mm of ground level at top of wall, at the same time filling behind the sheets with soil or clay

Or you can

• Cut the POLYFLOW® polystyrene sheets to shape with a handsaw or other cutting device. Position the POLYFLOW® sheets directly against the retaining wall with the POLYFLOW® sheet edge sitting on the drain. Cover the entire wall with up to 150 mm from the top of the wall

• EPS contact adhesive may be used to temporarily hold POLYFLOW® in place before backfilling

• Backfill initially with a 200 mm layer of scoria or gravel, followed by free draining material. If excavated material from the site is to be used, ensure that it has the necessary free-draining characteristics

• Top with free draining gravel and cover with weedmat. Place topsoil on surface

HOT TIPS

• Check with local Council for retaining wall requirements

• Generally a retaining wall less than 1.5 m high does not require consent

• If wall is 1.2 m or higher consult an engineer

• Soft ground may require advice from an engineer

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• Ground must be firm and compact (virgin ground) e.g. not filled ground or loose

• Determine where you are going to drain seepage water to

• Decide how many posts and rails are required, and the amount of backfill required

• It is essential that the backfill allows water to soak through to drain

• Cut ends and notches must be kept clear of ground, cut faces must be coated with a suitable preservative

• Only embed uncut end in the ground

• All bolts and nails must be hot dipped galvanised

• Recess bolts and punch nails below surface; use preservative in recesses

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Section Three: MAINTENANCE

25. Track Maintenance

Maintenance is defined as the tasks required to maintain the sustainability of the walking track, due to its deterioration caused by climate and use from its original condition.

Effective maintenance relies on sound technical knowledge and good management practices

25.1 SUSTAINABLE MAINTENANCE

A change of thinking is taking place when we talk about track maintenance. There is a change taking place from simply repairing tracks at regular intervals to making tracks more sustainable. The notion that a bit more effort today will save considerable time and money in the future has significant merit. An example of this is a high maintenance wooden waterbar may be replaced with a well constructed grade dip or culvert.

The most challenging and most significant aspect of track work is ongoing maintenance. However, many of our current tracks are not sustainable in the long term. Many started as minor tracks walked by a few individuals and often the most direct route was chosen. There was little or no consideration given to design or sustainability. Today these tracks are popular destinations for thousands of individuals and maintenance of these walking tracks is a significant challenge.

It is therefore important to recognise that the amount and severity of our maintenance problems may be an outcome of the components that make up a track.

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Figure 86 below shows the factors contributing to maintenance. As the individual key actions listed improve, the amount of maintenance will reduce. To demonstrate the importance of this approach, take the example of a culvert that has been incorrectly installed and constantly gets blocked. Traditionally, we would have simply cleared the culvert and this would have worked for a short period of time before the culvert became blocked once again. A significantly better approach would be to find out why the culvert continually gets blocked (usually insufficient fall and angle) and to correct the cause of the problem, rather than spending time constantly unblocking the culvert. This approach may cost more to fix, but in the longer term is the best solution.

Water Surface Management (pavement) design

Track design Available materials

MAINTENANCE

Cost Construction standards

Environmental considerations

Figure 86 – Factors contributing to maintenance

Each of the factors identified in Figure 86 if well addressed will slow down the rate of track deterioration. In particular, walking tracks are most susceptible to deterioration as a result of losing the track shape and damage from water.

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KEY POINTS FOR EFFECTIVE MAINTENANCE OF WALKING TRACKS

• Walking tracks DO NOT remain the same

• Deterioration of walking tracks should be expected

• Causes of deterioration include amount of use, weather conditions, standards and quality of construction, availability of suitable materials and the absence of adequate maintenance

• Good maintenance practices are there to protect the investment and meet the standards

• Restoration of the correct crossfall during periods of maintenance and resurfacing is critical

• Correct diagnosis of the problem is essential for effective treatment. The wrong diagnosis is costly in both labour and materials

• Where installed, maintain a good drainage system that protects the pavement

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26. Track Marking

SNZ HB-8630: 2004 contains specifications for track marking:

Track Category Specification

Short Walk Markers not usually required

Walking track Clearly marked where necessary so inexperienced users can find their way in either direction in all weather conditions

Great Walk / Easy Tramping Marking to be poles or markers Track

Tramping track Markers, poles or cairns must be clearly seen from one to the next, in either direction, in all but the worst weather conditions

Route Must be clearly visible from one to the next, in either direction, in all weather conditions except moderate to heavy mist

Table 37 – Specifications for track marking

Tracks can be marked in a number of different ways depending upon the environment in which it is located. Table 38 specifies options for different environments.

Environment Type of marker Size Colour Forest Orange triangle Refer SNZ HB-8630 Refer SNZ markers HB-8630 Pole 19 mm x 19 mm x 3 Orica mm boxed aluminium (brand) 58613 Alpine Post Deer post Blue/Yellow Warratah with cap 300 mm cap Orange sleeve Large orange Refer SNZ HB-8630 Refer SNZ Open grass triangle HB-8630 valleys Pole 19 mmx19 mmx3 mm Orica(brand) boxed aluminium Sky 58613 Farmland Alkathene water 300 mm cap Orange pipe with cap sleeve

Table 38 – Track marker options for different environments

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Figure 87 - A case of

over-marking. Even in view of the road three orange markers are visible and one old

marker is clearly visible

A figure 88 - Placing a marker on narrow trees makes both markers visible. This approach is not

recommended as it effectively doubles the number of markers required

Figure 89 - Two nails should be used when securing markers onto

trees. It is easy for people or animals to move the direction in which they are

pointing if not secured properly

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26.1 ORANGE TRIANGLE MARKERS

Marker Nails Maximum Minimum Height specifications clearance clearance above between between track tree trunk the tree surface and trunk and marker marker

Refer SNZ HB- Galvanised 75 50 mm 15 mm 1500-1800 8630 for mm x 3.15 mm or to specification mm the on track galvanised flat comfortable markers head. sight level on steep ground

Table 39 – Specifications for application of orange track marker

• Remove all non-standard track markers and nails from tree carefully and remove them from the site

• Replace with orange plastic triangle markers as per specifications

• Use at least two nails in each marker

• Markers must be affixed so that at any point on the track the next marker is clearly visible and is within the comfortable sight line

• Markers should be fixed with the apex pointing in the direction of travel

HOT TIP

• Don’t drive nails flush with the tree, allow for tree growth. Markers will pop off in a few years and need replacing if fixed flush with tree

Track markers have a textured side and a smooth side. You need to decide which surface should be visible to the user. In certain light situations, particularly when the sun hits the marker, markers with the smooth side placed out are very difficult to see.

HOT TIPS

• Existing markers with less than 5 mm clearance between the marker and tree trunk can have the nails pulled out to 30mm without undue damage to the tree, marker or nail

• Pay particular attention to track junctions and points of entry into the bush from tops, rivers and slips etc

• Large orange markers are to be used where points of entry to

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bush are confusing or could prove so in extreme weather conditions

• Don’t attach markers to Department of Conservation signs, bridges or other structures. It looks unprofessional and is unnecessary

26.1.1 Track marker orientation

Fix with the apex, pointed tip upright. Markers shall be used with the apex pointing in the correct direction whenever there is a significant change in track direction that may cause people to walk off the track.

As a general rule place markers as follows:

If the track is straight, uphill or downhill place markers like so

If the track has a slight change in direction to the left place the markers like so:

If the track has a slight change in direction to the right place the markers like so:

If the track takes a major turn to the left place two markers like so. The addition of an extra marker will act as an alert for visitors.

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If the track takes a major turn to the right place two markers like so:

26.2 ALPINE POLES

Marker Length (metres) Maximum Minimum specifications clearance clearance between between ground and top ground and of marker top of (metres) marker (metres) Refer Table 38 2.4 1.8 1.6

Table 40- Specification for application of alpine poles

Figure 90 - Figure 91 - Powdercoated Modified

boxed warratah aluminium. rammer. Blue is used In the for alpine majority of environments locations and orange poles are

for large open easily valleys driven in with a maul

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HOT TIP

• Where there are a number of leading ridges and no clearly defined prominent track heading to the bushline, erect two large markers, one on the bushline and a second 100 metres up from the bushline. This ensures people get on the correct ridge

Figure 92 – In wide landscapes placement of large poles on the bushline can help trampers identify the correct ridge to descend

In addition to the specifications outlined in SNZ HB-8630: 2004 locate markers in locations where navigation is difficult, there is a change in direction or there are a number of leading ridges. Prominent tracks on ridgelines may not require markers and we don’t want the place visually polluted with markers.

26.3 OPEN GRASS VALLEYS

Marker Length (metres) Maximum Minimum specifications clearance clearance between between ground and ground and top of marker top of marker (metres) (metres)

Refer Table 38 2.4 1.8 1.6

Table 41 – Marker specifications for open grass valleys

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Figure 93 - Warratah with orange sleeve attached

26.4 FARMLAND

Marker Length (metres) Maximum Minimum specifications clearance clearance between between ground and ground and top of marker top of marker (metres) (metres)

Refer Table 38 1.8 1.2 0.9

Table 42 – Specifications for marker poles on farmland

Figure 94 – Poles through farmland can be particularly troublesome where cattle are present. A good alternative is alkathene pipe with an orange cap attached. These bend when cattle us them as a rubbing post

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27. Vegetation Maintenance

Vegetation maintenance can be broken down into a number of groups, each requiring different skills and tasks including vegetation clearance, windfall removal, vista maintenance and the felling and removal of hazardous trees.

27.1 MINOR VEGETATION CLEARANCE

Cutting back the biomass is a never ending battle. However, we should not fall into the trap of over cutting vegetation as this can have an immediate impact for the visitor; they want to interact with the environment, not be removed from it. Over-cutting can have a profound effect on this interaction and should be avoided. There are a few guiding principles that should be followed:

GUIDING PRINCIPLES

Consider the kind of experience the track is offering and cut 1 accordingly

2 Observe and understand the nature of the vegetation on the track

3 Don’t prune if you don’t have to

4 If you have to prune make sure it is not obvious

5 Sometimes it may be better to remove the tree

Refer to the NZSHB 8630:2004 for standards on vegetation clearance. Below is a summary of the vegetation clearance maximum limits.

MAXIMUM WIDTH HEIGHT

Short Walk Maximum of one metre 2.5 metres either side of the track centre line

Walking Track Maximum of one metre 2.5 metres either side of the track centre line

Great Walk/ Maximum of 0.5 metres Easy either side of the track Tramping centre line. Ensure clear Track passage and clear view of markers

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Tramping Ensure clear passage and Track clear view of markers

Route Adequate vision of markers or route

Table 43 – Track vegetation clearance maximum limits

Figure 95 – This track is cut over the maximum allowable limit contained within SNZ HB 8630: 2004 and outlined in Table 43

HOT TIP The intent of the track clearance standards is to reduce the width of cut vegetation progressing from short walk to route. While the tramping track standard does not specify a maximum width, common sense dictates it should be no greater than a Great Walk / Easy Tramping Track

27.1.1 Minor vegetation cutting

• Use a nylon flail cord on the scrub cutter for clearing grass and vegetation up to approximately 8-10 mm (thickness of a pencil)

• All cut vegetation should be removed from the track surface and side drains

• Cut vegetation can be removed from the track surface on easily accessible tracks, short walks and walking tracks, with a motorised blower. Tracks that are difficult to access can have the vegetation removed from the track surface using a rake

• Difficult vegetation to cut with the scrubcutter such as flax should be cut with a knife, or some other sharp bladed tool, as close to the ground as possible

• Scenic vista maintenance can be achieved by hand pulling seedlings

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Figure 96 – Motorised scrub cutters are an effective method for vegetation maintenance

27.1.2 Pruning Trees and shrubs should be cut as close to the ground as possible using pruners, pruning saw or some other similar cutting tool.

Figure 97 - For the same effort this “hanger” could have been cut at ground level giving a considerably neater appearance to the finished track

Use the three cut method (B in Figure 98) to remove large limbs from trees. This minimises the risk of damage to the tree and reduces the likelihood of disease. A – Undesirable technique B – Best Practice

1 Undercut the branch approximately 20-30 cm from the trunk

2 Second cut should be 30-40 cm back from the trunk of the tree on the upper surface of the limb

3 Final cut is as close as possible to the trunk

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Figure 98 – Incorrect and correct tree branch pruning technique

27.1.3 Windfalls Large trees or limbs that fall across the track should be:

• Cut back 300 mm from each side of the track edge and be cut parallel to the track

• Large trees with trunks should have the cut made at a sloping angle; this helps to reduce the visual impact of clearing fallen trees

• When large trees require pruning on scenic vista points a professional arborist should be employed to undertake this specialist work

• Large limbs should be removed so they are out of sight from the track. The cut end should face away from track so it is not visible by users

HOT TIP

• If possible, time vegetation cutting to allow for optimal flowering of plants e.g. alpine plants should be cut at the end of the season

• Slower growing vegetation does not need to be cut to the maximum width allowable in the track standards

27.1.4 Minor vegetation spraying Chemical sprays should only be used when absolutely necessary. Some examples of when the use of chemicals is appropriate include:

• When grass and plants start to emerge through the track surface

• Where plants such as stinging nettle, hook grass and toe toe are prolific on short walks or walking tracks

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• Where the control of introduced exotic plants such as gorse and broom is required

!! RED ALERT

• Resource consent may be required when removing vegetation and undertaking earthworks

Vegetation spraying should only be used where manual methods of control are impractical.

• Where vegetation is emerging through the track surface spray only the gravel surface in accordance with the track standard. The exception to this is where a non grass killing herbicide is used to kill weeds on or adjacent to the track

• Tall vegetation should first be cut and removed from sight. This avoids large amounts of dying and dead vegetation along the track. Leave enough foliage to kill the vegetation when sprayed

• Spray the minimum area for good control

27.2 VISTA MAINTENANCE

In the planning for track construction (section 11.0) we cover the very important “ideals” when planning tracks. One of these was taking people to scenic vistas. There are many viewing platforms and scenic lookouts constructed throughout the country. An important and often overlooked aspect of this is the long term management of the scenic view. There are a number of important aspects to consider;

• All plant species must be in character with the site

• Plants must be capable of growing in an often exposed location

• Rather than maintaining a clear view consider framing the view

• Plant species that grow to their maximum height and will not obstruct the view

• Remove a percentage of self-germinating seedlings annually that will eventually obstruct the view

• For particularly difficult terrain and/or vegetation get in a professional arborist

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28. Drainage System Maintenance

Maintenance of the drainage system is the single most important maintenance function to protect the investment made in the track asset.

28.1 CATCH PITS AND SIDE DRAINS

Catch pits and side drains require regular maintenance. Keeping them free of sediment reduces the likelihood of culverts getting blocked. How they are maintained and how often will be determined by a number of local factors including forest type, rainfall and track gradient.

• The ideal time to undertake maintenance is during wet weather

• Remove debris; it is likely to contain vegetative material, in which case it should be disposed of

• Check for scouring and protect if evident

• Where scouring of the side drains is evident line with filter fabric and install local rocks (50 - 100 mm). You will need to make the side drains larger to accommodate the extra volume taken up by the rocks

• Reform shape and re-establish to the specified width and depth

• Repair catch pit walls where there is evidence of material collapse. Protect the walls by lining with rock

• Re-establish the culvert invert. The bottom of the catch pit should be a minimum of 100 mm below the bottom of the culvert

• Remove vegetation that may have established on the shoulder between track surface and side drain

• Start from the culvert catch pit and work up towards the next culvert. This gives you the correct starting level

• A motorised blower is an effective tool for removing leaves and light twigs from side drains. Material is simply blown out of the drain and off to the downslope side of the track. However, this does not remove fine soil particles that may have built up in some locations in the side drain. This material needs to be removed to allow the free flow of water and not act like a dam to facilitate the build up of additional material

HOT TIPS

• Maintain side drains when it is raining

• Discard material removed from the catch pit as it contains organic debris

• Get the drainage levels right with no small rises that will act as a

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dam. Use a long profile and check cleared depths for consistency

!PITFALL

• Making the side drains deeper each time the drains are maintained. Maintain to the correct depth

In extreme situations, such as Fiordland, with large and deep side drains a small mechanised digger is the most appropriate method for maintenance purposes. However, the majority of side drains can be cleared manually with shovels and rakes.

Figure 99 – In extreme rain events this side drain has been almost full

HOT TIP

• Clear catch pits after significant rain events of 100 mm or more

28.2 CULVERTS

• Add additional culverts where evidence indicates they are required

• Repair or replace culverts that are in poor repair

• Clean out all debris at the culvert entrance and exit

• Dispose of vegetation out of sight

• Extend or widen culvert discharge if there is evidence of inadequate discharge. Landscape the area to create a low area for the water to flow

• Check culvert has 150 mm of cover over the pipe. Add additional material when 100 mm minimum cover remains

• Check culverts are not visible when walking the track. Check from both directions

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• Check the culvert before proceeding to the next that there are no blockages at the inlet and outlet

28.3 FORD CROSSINGS

Well constructed ford crossings should require little maintenance if constructed soundly and properly.

• Check for loose stones and re-pack

• Check all wedge stones and re-pack

• Check the stream level has not exceeded the level of the constructed ford. If it has, extend the construction of the ford

• Maintain the track leading onto the ford

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29. Geotextiles

If filter fabric becomes exposed make sure it gets covered. It is not UV stabilised and exposed matting looks awful.

30. Stone Pitching

Stone pitching should require minimal maintenance due to the hardened nature of the materials. The main maintenance tasks are:

• Check the stonework for any loose stones

• Re-set and repack any loose stones

• Check anchor stone is flush with track surface. If not place additional material in place until anchor stone and track surface are flush

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31. Track Surface

Your track surface may develop a number of surface conditions and unless completely hardened, is going to wear and will need some maintenance. If well constructed the surface should not require as much maintenance as your drainage system. You will need to:

• Replace material where it has been displaced, eroded or compacted, getting the track back to its original shape

• Pull back material that has worked its way to the outer edge of your track and reshape the walking surface

• Look for locations on the downslope side of the track where water is having trouble getting away and modifying drainage system

• Scarify the existing metal surface before adding new material (use the teeth on a digger rock bucket, rotary hoe etc), this will allow the product to lock together when compacted. If you just place the material on top of the existing metal surface and compact the material will not lock together very well and you can expect the new material to disappear more rapidly

Table 44 offers a number of possible solutions for numerous track surface conditions.

Surface Condition Likely Reasons Possible Improvement Observations Option

Loose aggregate surface; Poor grading of aggregate; Add a uniform sprinkling Full depth of aggregate or of sand/silt/clay fines to layer can be scuffed Lack of fines in the the surface (one shovel per through by rubbing boot aggregate; or square metre) and then provide vibrating plate on surface Aggregate stones are compaction after rain has Surface is easily scoured rounded washed the fines into the by water running over aggregate surface

Loose stones on the Poor placement and Sweep loose stones from surface over compact compaction of original surface to expose pavement layer which pavement layer, or compacted surface; or cause a slipping hazard Poor grading of aggregate Add 25 mm layer of well layer; or graded surface aggregate Surface has been scuffed by (GAP10), rake into loose high use material and then compact with vibrating plate

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compactor

Rutted uneven surface; Poorly bound pavement Add fines and compact Cycle wheel ruts aggregate; or aggregate pavement with vibrating plate compactor

Soft Sub-grade Deepen side drains; and/or Add additional pavement depth and compact.

Surface is soft to walk on; Wet/soft sub-grade; or Deepen side drains; and/or Water can be brought to Inadequate pavement depth; Provide geotextile the surface by pumping or separation layer on your feet at the same spot Pavement surface thickness existing surface and add Clay is appearing through has been lost through wear additional pavement depth and compact the aggregate

Rough surface with large Pavement aggregate has stones protruding from the stone that is too large for surface; the layer depth; Provide a new surfacing Tripping hazards on the Poor pavement aggregate layer, typically 50 mm track surface; placement and compaction layer of GAP20 aggregate. Very bumpy surface for Loss of fines from aggregate wheelchair use due to wear

Sub-grade soil showing Original pavement layer too Provide a new surfacing though aggregate surface thin; or layer, typically 50 mm and surface is soft in wet Pavement layer has worn layer of GAP20 aggregate conditions out from pedestrian use, or wind/water/frost erosion

Table 44 - Track surfacing evaluation and improvement options

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Figure 100 - This poorly graded material has been transported to the side of the track through displacement and erosion. The aggregate was applied one year prior to this photo being taken

HOT TIPS

• Where a large proportion of fines have disappeared and the surface is looking “boney” apply a mix of sand and clay and compact the surface to form the desired seal

• If the track is a crown shape it is important, when finishing compacting, that a final pass down the centre of the track is not made as this will remove the crown and accelerate deterioration

• Maintaining super-elevation on curves for mountain bikes is as important as maintaining the crown

31.1 SURFACE SCOURING AND TRENCHING

Scour is the loss of surface material caused by the flow of water along and/or over the track surface eventually forming a trench. This can be a serious problem on steep tracks and tracks of a constant gradient that have not had the necessary maintenance input. Scouring can be minimised by:

• Increasing the strength of the pavement

• Decreasing the shear force caused by the flow of water. This can be minimised through good design

Walking surfaces with a high content of fines and small aggregates are more inclined to scour than those with well graded material.

PITFALLS ! Scouring is caused by:

• Erosion prone soil

• Steep track gradients

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• Lack of compaction; the surface has little strength and therefore material is picked up and moved by visitors and water

• Excessive long consistent gradients

• Debris or berm on track shoulder preventing surface water from flowing off to the side

Scouring of the surface leads to further deterioration of the track through exposure to the environment. Scouring can become very pronounced when combined with material that is susceptible to movement.

Begin maintenance of a track that has scoured by dealing with the cause of the erosion by slowing down or diverting water from the track.

• Look for locations where you are able to install an effective grade dip (rolling dip, drainage dip, grade break)

• When the track is too steep and goes straight down the fall line, install steps (gradient must be over 18º)

• Sometimes re-routing a section of track is the best long term solution

HOT TIP The most cost effective precaution against scouring is to pay attention to drainage, material grading and track shape

Figure 101 - Several factors are contributing to the scouring evident on this track. A seepage spring has surfaced in the middle of the track, the track is poorly shaped and erodible track surface material has been used

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32. Slough and Berm

On tracks that traverse hillsides, slough is the term used for rock, soil and organic debris that accumulates in the side drain or on the inside of the track if there is no side drain. Berm is material that has accumulated on the outside or downslope side of the track forming a dam that prevents water from shedding off the track.

• Removal of slough and berm is one of the most unglamorous but critical tasks for maintenance and must be repeated again and again

• Slough forces people to the outside of the track (potentially the weakest part of the track)

• The amount of slough will depend on the soil type, weather and the batter slope. For tracks with side drains slough can be a real problem blocking the flow of water down the drain and forcing it across the track

As discussed previously, over time the track will change shape, material will get displaced and the track surface will compact further. This forms a berm on the outside edge of the track.

• Berm formation is one of the biggest factors contributing to scouring and trenching of the walking surface

• Once the berm is formed water is unable to get off the track, it increases in volume and runs down the track gathering soil as it goes causing surface scouring and trenching

• Loosen compacted slough and berm with a grubber or McLeod tool

• Remove slough and berm and reshape the track back to its original formation so water will run off

• If you have a surplus of material, consider storing this for the future. It will be required at some point in time to re-establish your track shape

Not all slough is going to be suitable to use a track surface material, some of it will contain organic material and should be scattered some distance from the edge of the track.

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33. Steps

Well constructed steps (stringer, boxed and rock) should be almost maintenance free.

• Check drainage down the side of the steps

• If there is evidence of scouring, increase width of drainage channel, line with filter fabric and fill with rocks (minimum 50 mm)

• Refill steps if material is sitting below the top of the tread riser

Figure 102 - These boxed steps have been nicely constructed. All fixings have been “hidden” and they have a segmented curved appearance. Ongoing maintenance will be minimal due to the confined nature of construction. Material is effectively contained within each constructed step. There are examples of this type of construction made 25 years ago that are still in very good condition

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Figure 103 - In stark contrast to boxed steps the board and peg method is not effective in the long term.

Over 400 mm of soil has been eroded from beneath this step as water has cascaded over the riser.

Effectively this track is a drain

Figure 104 - Natural steps also have a place on tramping tracks. With the placement of some additional stones a series of steps could be constructed suitable for the user

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Figure 105 - It is difficult to determine whether these were built primarily as steps or as dams to try and ease the erosion taking place.

Clearly they are not effective steps, users are skirting around the edge as this is perceived as an easier option. Over time this will erode and there will be a second erosion ditch alongside the first

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34. Switchbacks

Switchbacks require a high degree of maintenance, even more than a standard section of track. Maintaining the shape of a switchback is absolutely critical to its effectiveness and durability.

• Remove slough and berm to restore original construction size

• Regrade the outslope of the lower track section and the inslope on the upper track section

• Remove all debris to ensure effective drainage

• Check retaining wall

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Appendices

APPENDIX 1 - GLOSSARY

Aggregate Graded stone used to form the sub-base, base and surface of a track. Imported materials available in a variety of grades.

Archaeological site A place containing relics and ruins of our past. Be aware that if an archaeological site is dated pre-1900, it will require an authorisation from the Historic Places Trust before it can be modified, damaged or destroyed. It is best to avoid archaeological sites where possible.

Backfill Mixed spoil - stone, minerals and soil, used to infill gap or space behind, or between stone work after pinning; also use to infill a borrow pit prior to turfing over.

Batter An artificial, uniform, steep slope or its inclination, expressed as one horizontal to so many vertical units

Benching Excavation to build a track traversing a steep slope; maintains a flat surface (bench) by digging into the slope or building up lower edge.

Borrow pit Small scale excavation, mini quarry, for winning materials (aggregate and surfacing), for track construction.

Camber Track surfaced with middle slightly higher than the sides; allows surface water to flow off to both sides.

Catchment Area of ground around track where water collects in the form of bogs, surface water, springs, streams; affects track drainage.

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Catchment watershed The land area that drains into a stream. An area of land that contributes runoff to one specific delivery point; large watersheds may be composed of several smaller "subsheds", each of which contributes runoff to different locations that ultimately combine at a common delivery point.

Catch pit An excavated hole into which water flows.

Chamfer Cut back or bevel the sides of ditching and embankments, to give sloping surface (batter) and avoid unstable vertical sides.

Crossfall Track surfaced with one edge higher than the other; allows surface water to flow off to the naturally draining slope or side drain.

Cross-slope Slope across which the track traverses; land slopes up on one side of the track, and down on the other side.

Culvert Drainage channel taking water from one side of the track to the other.

Desire line Preferred, or easiest line taken by walkers, often to landscape feature; not necessarily following the main track line.

Ditch/drain Open channel used to catch, direct and disperse water flow.

Drainage grade dip A relatively large dip constructed into the track surface to shed water from the track

Fall-line Most direct line from the top of a slope downwards.

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Fines Smallest size of stone in graded aggregate; helps in compaction and used alone for binding the top surface of track.

Ford Raised bed of watercourse taking track line through; often pitched to provide a good walking surface and to dissipate power of water flow.

Frost heave Freeze effect of water under and through the track pavement; lifts and breaks up the surface or drainage features.

Geotextiles Synthetic, or man-made materials used in track construction and landscaping; meshes and matting adapted to float tracks over areas of deep peat; biodegradable meshes used in site restoration.

Grade dip A grade dip is a location on the track where there is a very subtle change in direction and elevation, dropping down very gently before rising again which acts to remove water from the track side

Gradient Angle or slope of the ground or track; long gradient refers to the slope along the track line.

Inclinometer Small instrument for measuring gradients (calibrated spirit level).

In-fill See back-fill.

In-flow/out-flow Water channelled into and out of a track drainage feature by ditching.

Keystone Final, or first stone, that is used to lock together a section of stonework, or provide a firm base stone e.g. in pitching or revetments.

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Maintenance Minor repair of tracks on a regular basis; includes clearing out drains, surface repair, site restoration.

Outslope The outside edge of a track being lower than the inside edge to promote drainage

Pavement The durable surface for an area intended to sustain traffic, which can be either vehicular traffic or foot traffic.

Piped culvert Drain channelling water across and under the track by means of a pipe; comes in a variety of materials, most commonly plastic.

Retaining wall Wall built to hold up unstable banks and steeply sloping ground; may be single or multiple course and above or below the track edge.

Scour Water erosion of the track surface; forms small channels which may lead to severe gullying.

Splash plate Stone placed at the outflow end of a culvert, waterbar or cross-drain; prevents water eroding the track edge at the end of the drain.

Stone pitching The setting of large stones with their long axis into the ground, packed together as close as possible and wedged with smaller stones to construct a walking surface.

Sub-grade The soil on which the pavement structure is constructed upon.

Superelevation Banking of a track on curves.

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Traverse Track alignment which crosses a side slope, avoiding the straight down route of the fall-line.

Tray Excavation for the new track surface along its length and width, prior to filling with aggregate or pitching.

Tread going Top surface of a step riser, which is used by walkers as a foothold to “tread” on.

μm Symbol for micron. One micrometre; one millionth of a metre; one thousandth of a millimetre

Waterbar An obstruction to the flow of water across a track at an angle to prevent excessive flow down the track surface and erosion of track surface materials

Watertable The watertable is the upper surface of groundwater

Weathered stone Stone with a natural appearance caused by exposure to the elements for many years; may have lichens growing on its surface.

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APPENDIX 2 - GUIDELINES FOR WALKING TRACK UPGRADE- TRACK WIDTH

What is the ROS classification? Wilderness Remote Backcountry Rural Urban fringe Urban

What is the proportion of large groups to individuals using the track? More individuals/couples (1-2 Small families/groups (3-5 Medium size groups (6-10 Moderate sized groups (11-19 More large groups (20+ people) people people) people) people)

What is the percentage of Short Stop Travellers on the site? 0% 10% 11% 20% 21% 30% 31% 40% 41% 50%

What is the accumulated percentage of Backcountry Comfort Seekers, Backcountry Adventurers and Remoteness Seekers on the site? 50% 41% 40% 31% 30% 21% 20% 11% 10% 0%

Are there patterns of seasonal use? Extremely Seasonal High seasonality Seasonal Some seasonality Year round use

What is the visual impact of increasing the track width according to the ROS classification? Very high High Medium Low Very low

What is the visual impact of increasing the track width on non users? (eg can it be seen from the highway or from the sea?) Very high High Medium Low Very low

What are the visitor numbers to the site? Very low Low Medium High Very high

What is the projected growth in visitor numbers? Very low Low Medium High Very high

What type of track is it? One way, loop, etc Linear / loop one way Maze Stacked loop Linear two way

0.75m 1.0m 1.2m 1.5m 2.0m

Note: SNZ HB 8630:2004 states the minimum width of a walking track shall be 0.75m (reduced to 0.6m in specific circumstances) and the maximum shall be 2.0m.

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APPENDIX 3 - GUIDELINES FOR WALKING TRACK UPGRADE – GRADIENT

Percentage of track gradient between 15 – 20 degrees (must not be more than 10% of total track length)

How sensitive to erosion is the soil type? Highly sensitive Very sensitive Sensitive Not very sensitive Not sensitive

What is the proportion of large groups to individuals using the track? More large groups (20+ Moderate to large sized Medium size groups (6-10 Small families/groups (3-5 More individuals/couples (1-2 people) groups (11-19 people) people) people) people)

What is the percentage of short stop travellers on the site? 50% 41% 40% 31% 30% 21% 20% 11% 10% 0%

What is the accumulated percentage of Backcountry Comfort Seekers, Backcountry Adventurers and Remoteness Seekers on the site? 0% 10% 11% 20% 21% 30% 31% 40% 41% 50%

Is it a dual use site with the activity promoting lower grades (e.g. mountain biking, buggies)? If the activity does not take place, do not mark. 50% 41% 40% 31% 30% 21% 20% 11% 10% 0%

In the type of landscape, what is the visual impact on the ROS classification? Very high High Medium Low Very low

In the type of landscape, what is the visual impact on non users? (eg can it be seen from the highway or from the sea?) Very high High Medium Low Very low

What are the visitor numbers to the site? Very high High Medium Low Very low

What is the projected growth in visitor numbers? Very High High Medium Low Very low

0% track length 5% track length 10%

Note: SNZ HB 8630:2004 states that up to 10% of the total track length (for a walking track) may be between 15º and 20º, as long as these steeper sections provide reasonably firm footing in wet weather conditions.

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APPENDIX 4 - GUIDELINES FOR WALKING TRACK UPGRADE – WET/ROUGH

Percentage of track wet and muddy and/or rough and uneven (below 20% of total track length)

How sensitive is the soil to failing? Highly sensitive Very sensitive Sensitive Not very sensitive Not sensitive

What is the percentage of Short Stop Travellers on the site? 50% 41% 40% 31% 30% 21% 20% 11% 10% 0%

What is the accumulated percentage of Backcountry Comfort Seekers, Backcountry Adventurers and Remoteness Seekers on the site? 0% <10% 11% 20% 21% 30% 31% 40% 41% 50%

What is the proportion of large groups to individuals using the track? More large groups (20+ Moderate to large sized Medium size groups (6-10 Small families/groups (3-5 More individuals/couples (1- people) groups (11-19 people) people) people 2 people)

What are the visitor numbers to the site? Very high High Medium Low Very low

What is the projected growth in visitor numbers? Very high High Medium Low Very low

0% 5% 10% 15% 20%

Note: SNZ HB 8630:2004 states that up to 20% of the total length of a walking track may have short wet and muddy sections (below the top of footwear) and/or rough and uneven sections.

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APPENDIX 5 - GUIDELINES FOR GREAT WALK/EASY TRAMPING TRACK UPGRADE- TRACK WIDTH

What is the ROS classification? Wilderness Remote Backcountry Rural Urban fringe

What is the proportion of large groups to individuals using the track? More individuals/couples (1-2 Small families/groups (3-5 Medium size groups(6-10 Moderate to large sized groups More large groups (20+ people) people people) (11-19 people) people)

What is the accumulated percentage of Short Stop Travellers and Day Visitors on the site? 0% 10% 11% 20% 21% 30% 31% 40% 41% 50%

What is the accumulated percentage of Backcountry Adventurers and Remoteness Seekers on the site? 50% 41% 40% 31% 30% 21% 20% 11% 10% 0%

Are there patterns of seasonal use? Extremely seasonal High seasonality Seasonal Some seasonality Year round use

What is the visual impact of increasing the track width according to the ROS classification? Very high High Medium Low Very low

What is the visual impact of increasing the track width on non users? (eg Can it be seen from the highway or from the sea?) Very high High Medium Low Very low

What are the visitor numbers to the site? Very low Low Medium High Very high

What is the projected growth in visitor numbers? Very low Low Medium High Very high

What type of track is it? One way, loop, etc Linear / loop one way Maze Stacked loop Linear two way

0.3m 0.45m 0.7m 0.85m 1.0m

Note-: SNZ HB 8630:2004 states that the minimum track surface width for a Great Walk or Easy Tramping Track is 0.3m, except on steep slopes where room is required for passing, when it is 0.6m. The maximum width is 1.0m.

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APPENDIX 6 - GUIDELINES FOR GREAT WALK/EASY TRAMPING TRACK UPGRADE – WET/ROUGH

Percentage of track wet and muddy and/or rough and uneven (between 30 and 50% of total track length)

How sensitive is the soil type to failing under a load? Highly sensitive Very sensitive Sensitive Not very sensitive Not sensitive

What is the accumulated percentage of Short Stop Travellers and Day Visitors on the site? 50% 41% 40% 31% 30% 21% 20% 11% 10% 0%

What is the accumulated percentage of Backcountry Adventurers and Remoteness Seekers on the site? 0% 10% 11% 20% 21% 30% 31% 40% 41% 50%

What is the proportion of large groups to individuals using the track? More large groups (20+ Moderate sized groups (11- Medium size groups(6-10 Small families/groups (3-5 More individuals/couples (1- people) 19 people) people) people 2 people)

What are the visitor numbers to the site? Very high High Medium Low Very low

What is the projected growth in visitor numbers? Very high High Medium Low Very low

Great Walk 0% 7% 15% 23% 30%

Easy Tramping Track

0% 12% 25% 38% 50%

Note: SNZ HB 8630:2004 states that up to 30% (Great Walks) or 50 % (Easy Tramping Track) of total length may have wet or muddy sections (below footwear) and/or rough and uneven sections

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APPENDIX 7 - HOW TO CHECK ACCURACY OF A SLOPE INCLINOMETER.

A slope inclinometer is unlikely to fall out of adjustment unless it has sustained a knock of some sort. Dropping it on the ground is enough to knock it out of adjustment. • To check for accuracy select two objects approximately 10 metres apart • Mark one of the objects at your eye level • Walk to the second object and mark it at eye level • Hold the inclinometer next to the mark and shoot the grade back to the mark on the first object. Take note of the reading. • Return to the first object and take a reading back to the second object, shooting the inclinometer at the mark you made. Take note of the reading

The two readings should be the same except one will have a positive reading and the second a negative reading (both may be zero if the ground was flat). A small difference of 1º (1-2%) may be a small matter of handling technique rather than the instrument. However, if the difference is greater, or you do the exercise again with greater accuracy and cannot erase the deviation, then you should suspect that the inclinometer is out of adjustment. The bad news is there is no way of adjusting the inclinometer and it will need to be returned to the manufacturer for repair or replacement.

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APPENDIX 8 - HOW TO USE A SLOPE INCLINOMETER

Slope inclinometers have both percentage and degrees marked on them. Make sure you use the scale you are working with or you will get quite a different result from what you may have anticipated.

• Hold the inclinometer in your hand with the eyehole facing toward you and the lanyard ring hanging down toward the ground • Ensure you do not block any of the natural light with your hand, as the natural light illuminates the internal disc • Raise the inclinometer and look through it with your right eye, keep your left eye open • As you look through the inclinometer with both eyes open you will see that a line extends out across and into the landscape • Choose something on the horizon and line up with the horizontal mark in the inclinometer with the target • Move the inclinometer up and down and see the grade change • The plus or minus sign tells you whether the grade is rising or falling • Read grade where the horizontal line crosses the scale

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APPENDIX 9 - CHECKLIST OF SURVEY EQUIPMENT

X Track survey equipment check list:

Equipment Comments

Slope inclinometer /or Abney level

Compass Pole or a roll up pocket surveyor’s pole clearly marked at the eye level of the or a folding aluminium tent pole person using the slope inclinometer Pegs 50 x 25mm

Wire flags Of numerous colours

Flagging tape Numerous colours

Maul Plastic tags

Global Positioning System

GPS Batteries

Measuring wheel

Hammer

Nails

Permanent marker pen

Recording sheet

Crayons For writing on pegs and markers

Pen For recording details on track

prescription sheet Track prescription sheets Take lots

Dazzle spray only for marking the wooden stakes so they can be easily seen, not for anything else

Camera

Camera batteries

Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (or similar

probe)

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APPENDIX 10 - TRACK PRESCRIPTION TEMPLATE

TRACK PRESCRIPTION Date: Surveyed by: Track Name: Track Components

Side Shape Peg Grade Grade Width Distance Bearing slope Standard / Culvert Steps Construction comments Number (degrees) (percentage) (mm) (degrees) Surface Stringer Diameter Length Rise Run 0 length (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

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APPENDIX 11 - HOW TO CALCULATE SURFACE MATERIAL VOLUMES

Go to the “Calculating material volumes” worksheet in the attached Excel document “Track length, water speed and calculating material volumes”.

Simply enter the volume figure you have worked out for your machinery, place that figure in the correct cell according to the width of the track being constructed, hit enter and it will show you the distance of track it will cover. Next enter the total distance of track that needs surfacing and hit enter. You now have the total number of loads required to complete the track.

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APPENDIX 12 - TRACK CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS

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APPENDIX 13 - HOW TO FIND OUT MORE ABOUT HISTORIC VALUES AND SITES

Historic values When planning and undertaking work on your track it is important to consider, and take into account, historic values.

Historic tracks Some existing tracks have historic values themselves. Upgrading and maintaining these types of tracks requires specialist historic advice. They are mainly the routes of railways, tramways, roads, graded horse tracks and water races.

Find historic sites Find the location of historic and archaeological sites on the route of the track so that they can be protected from harm during work.

Consult your Historic Your conservancy Historic TSO can tell you: TSO • The location of historic and archaeological sites in your area • How to avoid any threats or issues related to these • Historic Places Act legal requirements • How to prepare the historic heritage section of an “Assessment of Environmental Effects” document when planning work

Find out more Find out more about historic using the DOC Intranet: Î Go to Search and type in “Historic Heritage”. The pages contain information that will help you with planning, managing and working with historic heritage and historic tracks.

Retain the character Where possible retain an historic track’s original profile, line and grade and minimise loss of and minimise the loss of original material/fabric. This maintains material authenticity and significantly enhances the heritage experience of visitors. See SNZ HB 8630:2004, sections 2.5.7, 2.6.7, 2.7.8 and 2.8.7.

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TRANSFORMING TE APITI INTO A MAJOR TOURISM DESTINATION

Draft report compiled by Fresh Information Limited and Central Economic Development Agency (CEDA) September 2018

Background Te Apiti (The Narrow Passage) is the Maori name for the Manawatū Gorge. It runs for around 9km between the Ruahine and Tararua Ranges, linking Palmerston North, Manawatū and Tararua districts. Its western end is near the small town of Ashhurst and its eastern end is close to the town of Woodville.

The Manawatū Gorge is geographically significant because, unlike most gorges, the Manawatū River is a water gap. This means that it runs directly through the surrounding ranges from one side to the other. This was caused by the ranges moving upwards at the same time as the gorge was eroded by the river, instead of the more usual erosion of an already existing range. The Manawatū River is the only river in New Zealand that starts its journey on one side of the main divide and finishes it on the other side. The road through the Manawatū Gorge was the primary link between the two sides of the lower North Island until 2017, when NZTA decided to close it permanently following a major slip.

In the 12 months to July 2018, tourism spend in the Manawatū-Whanganui Region topped $1,029 million – a 6.2% increase on the previous year, with the bulk of it spent in Palmerston North district at $413 million. Tararua and Manawatū Districts sit at or below the $50 million mark - Te Apiti becoming a key destination would benefit both districts and their communities and help bring life back to Woodville following Te Apiti SH3 closure.

Te Apiti – Manawatū Gorge has several walking tracks which Department of Conservation monitor and count users. The growth over the last several years in people walking the tracks has been significant, although a slight decline has been seen with the SH3 road closure, this is thought to be due to people’s perception that the walking tracks are also closed, which they are not. It is said that with the road closure, the bird life through Te Apiti is even more prolific due to less road noise.

Calendar year Approximate total track walkers (Jan – Dec) 2012 29,888 2013 59,520 2014 66,063 2015 82,982 2016 83,605 2017 76,611

History

Te Apiti is a place of cultural significance for the lower North Island and is surrounded by several Iwi. The name Te Apiti, meaning the narrow passage, was bestowed upon the Manawatū Gorge by Rangitāne, the tangata whenua, as it was recognised as one of the main routes connecting the eastern and western parts of their 700- year-old rohe. The passage was crucial as it connected eastern and western parts of their 700-year old border. Before the road was built, local Maori would haul their canoes upstream through the rapids of the Manawatu River, which they named Te Au-Rere-a-Te Tonga, meaning ‘the rushing current of the south’.

By 1872 the 'road' existed but remained a perilous journey for coaches. The railway line was completed in 1891 and the first train over it carried 1500 passengers in 18 double carriages.

One of its key features today is the 6-metre sculpture of Whatonga along one of the main walking tracks. Whatonga was one of three recognised Chiefs on board the Kurahaupo Waka, which journeyed across the Pacific Ocean to Aotearoa, New Zealand possibly as early as the 12th Century. The Ngai Tara and Rangitāne people trace their descent from Whatonga. Whatonga is the father of Tara who is the eponymous ancestor of the Ngai Tara people and grandfather to Rangitāne (also known as Tanenuiarangi) from whom all Rangitāne

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descend. The lower reach of Kapiti Island was the boundary line between the two tribes, giving rise to the full name for Kapiti Island, Te waewae Kapiti o Tara raua ko R Rangitāne.

FIGURE 1 LOCATION OF TE APITI

FIGURE 1A LOCATION OF TE APITI AT THE CENTRE OF RUAHINE AND TARARUA RANGES

The opportunity There is an opportunity to transform Te Apiti into a major tourism destination targeting mass market domestic and international tourism audiences. This will be achieved by developing a cluster/critical mass of high-quality tourism experiences in the area, aggregated and promoted under the Te Apiti brand. Potential tourism experiences include:

• Walking & biking (mix of existing and new trails) • Cultural experiences and sites of significance • Educational Experiences – Te Apiti is home to Department of Conservation and Toyota Kiwi Guardians project, and work is underway to on more interpretation signage of flora and fauna. Horizons Region Councils environmental education programme also runs sessions here, along with other community groups. • On-water experiences e.g. rafting, kayaking, jet boating, fishing – pending river safety • Over-water experiences e.g. flying foxes, adrenalin rides

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• Land-based experiences e.g. canopy walks, ziplining, ecotourism • Built environment experiences e.g. new SH3 bridge, windfarm attractions, Woodville walkway • Hybrid experiences e.g. using the river to access experiences within the gorge • Developments on the adjacent Shannon Family property e.g. wedding and function venue, amphitheatre, visitor/cultural centre, commercial accommodation • Unique biodiversity experiences, including educational opportunities about the protection and management of native plants and animals that call Te Apiti home

The increase in tourism activity caused by Te Apiti will extend well beyond the adjacent communities of Palmerston North, Ashhurst, Woodville and Bunnythorpe, in the same way that major attractions elsewhere in New Zealand do, for example:

• Hobbiton  entire and Bay of Plenty regions • Waitangi  entire Northland region • Queenstown  Queenstown-Lakes District, Central District and parts of Canterbury

There is sufficient accommodation capacity within the region to absorb a material increase in tourism demand, and Palmerston North Airport provides good levels of domestic air connectivity to Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch.

Potential benefits Transforming Te Apiti into a major tourism destination will deliver a range of national and regional benefits, including:

• Greater regional dispersion. An expanded tourism offering at Te Apiti will deliver greater regional dispersion which is one of government’s key tourism objectives. The surrounding area has enough accommodation capacity to absorb a significant increase in demand during peak tourism periods, enabling growth in both regional and national tourism activity. • Enhancing the national tourism network. The target area is located around halfway between the popular tourism destinations of Tongariro National Park and Wellington which are ~340km apart (at least 4 hrs drive time with no breaks). At present there is very little international tourism activity between these two destinations, as shown in the heat map below. Transforming Te Apiti into an iconic tourism destination will add another significant point of interest for travellers in the central/lower North Island, while breaking a 4-5 hour travel sector between Tongariro National Park and Wellington into two ~2 hour travel sectors, and Hawkes’ Bay through to Wairarapa and Wellington. It is a central location joining Manawatū and Tararua, and has significant potential to change visitor behaviour, pulling them in to Te Apiti and surrounding towns.

FIGURE 2 INTERNATIONAL TOURISM SPEND BY LOCAL AUTHORITY AREA, YE JUNE 2018

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Rotorua

Taupo New Plymouth

Napier

Te Apiti

1 hour 2 hour drive drive Wellington

• Enhancing productivity in the Manawatū -Whanganui region. The additional tourism expenditure in the region will increase demand for local goods and services. This will lead to greater utilisation of regional assets and an increase in regional income per capita, both of which are productivity enhancing outcomes.

• Increasing employment in the Manawatū -Whanganui region. The establishment of new tourism businesses within Te Apiti will create new jobs within the businesses themselves, and also within other businesses that tourists interact with while they’re in the region e.g. accommodation, transport, food & beverage, retail, entertainment, etc. More new jobs will be created through supply-chain effects.

What’s already there, or planned? Te Apiti is already actively promoted through www.teapiti.com, albeit currently on a small scale with significant investment through Te Apiti – Manawatū Gorge dedicated to enhancing the site through 2018-19. Existing activities include:

• Walking trails ▪ Manawatū Gorge Track (11km one way) ▪ Tawa Loop (4km loop) ▪ Manawatū Gorge Loop Track (1km loop) ▪ Upper Gorge Bridge Track (4km one way) • Biking trails ▪ Te Ara O Mahurangi Mountain Bike Trail (3.6km loop, grade 3 & 4) ▪ Windfarm ride (41km one way, grade 3) • Heritage and cultural interpretation boards, including whare’s along the river • Horse trekking • Parahaki Island Site of Significance • Heli tours • Fly fishing • Kayaking • Cultural interpretation boards and key sites of significance

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• Tararua District Council’s application to PGF for the development of a tourism strategy for Tararua District which includes, but is not focused on, Te Apiti, and will include collaboration with all parties involved in plans for the Te Apiti area. • Wildbase Recovery Centre - A new attraction connected to River via location at Victoria Esplanade, and is a national centre for vet treated endangered NZ wildlife from Massey’s Wildbase hospital. • Ruahine Ranges ▪ Wharite Peak ▪ Oroua Blue Duck (Whio)Protection Project ▪ More than 30 walks and hikes listed on DOC website for Ruahine Forest Park including Rangiwahia Hut Track, and Sunrise Hut Track • Tararua Ranges ▪ 20 walks and hikes listed on DOC website for Taraua Forest Park ▪ Connects Te Apiti to Arapuke Mountain Bike Park and the popular Sledge Track trail ▪ Pukaha Mt Bruce National Wildlife Centre

Palmerston North City Council (PNCC) is leading the preparation of a masterplan for the Gorge on behalf of Te Apiti - Manawatū Gorge Governance Group which focusses on cultural, education, recreation, biodiversity and leadership initiatives to protect and enhance the area. Key recreation projects in the masterplan include:

• A new shared path (walk/cycle) around the northern side of Te Apiti to provide a 35km loop around both sides as well as connections into Ashhurst and Woodville at either end (with possible delivery as part of the NZTA’s replacement Gorge Road project known as Te Ahu a Turanga) • Connecting the Ruahine Ranges with the Tararua Ranges across and around Te Apiti to provide a 45km ‘Skyline’ walk linking into the Te Araroa Trail • Creating a new walking loop at the eastern end of Te Apiti which utilises a 2km section of the old Gorge Road • Creating a new purpose built 11km mountain bike track across the southern side of Te Apiti that can also connect into the new north side shared path

Public/private coordination Public investment in Te Apiti walking and cycling trails will enhance social amenity, but we do not expect it to have a material impact on tourism activity by itself. In our view the transformation of Te Apiti into a major tourism destination will need to be driven by commercial investment in high quality tourism experiences.

Public and private sector investment in Te Apiti will need to be carefully coordinated to deliver optimal tourism outcomes for the region. In practice this requires the public sector taking the lead by investing in initiatives that will make Te Apiti a more attractive proposition for private sector investment.

Key Stakeholders/Partners in Te Apiti

• Department of Conservation • Te Apiti – Manawatū Gorge Governance Group • Rangitāne o Manawatū • Ngāti Kahungunu • Ngāti Raukawa • Rangitane o Tamaki nui a Rua • Palmerston North City Council • Manawatū District Council • Horizons Regional Council • Tararua District Council • Manawatū River Leaders’ Accord

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• Source to Sea Project • New Zealand Transport Agency

The project aligns with several key local and central government initiatives including:

• Te Apiti Master Plan, which is primarily focussed on the development of new walking and cycling trails in Te Apiti. Delivered by PNCC on behalf with Te Apiti – Manawatū Gorge Governance Group plans • Manawatū -Whanganui Economic Action Plan - Accelerate 25, which specifically targets tourism as a growth driver for the Manawatū -Whanganui region • CEDA’s mandate to materially grow tourism expenditure in the Manawatu region • NZTA’s Replacement route for SH3 - Te Ahu a Turanga: Manawatū Gorge Replacement Route Project • Tū te Manawa project - an indigenous revitalisation project erecting eight Educational Kiosks along the length of the Manawatū River, already well underway. • Palmerston North City Council’s Manawatū River Plan and Framework has objectives to:

- Increase use of the Manawatū River environment by the public for active and passive recreation - Significantly boost visitor numbers to the area result in increased recognition of the special character of Te Apiti. - Establish Te Apiti as the gateway to the Manawatū River Park and is the leading area for the appreciation of biodiversity and provision of an outstanding recreation and cultural experience. • Manawatū District Council’s Economic Development Strategy – Growing and Diversifying Priority Sectors; Visitor and Tourism:

- Attract more visitors to enjoy the outstanding rural landscape and The Country Road - Encourage development of additional visitor/tourism infrastructure

• Manawatū River Leaders’ Accord Action Plan, which aims to ensure:

- The River becomes a source of regional pride and mana, - Waterways in the Manawatū Catchment are safe, accessible, swimmable, and provide good recreation and food resources. - The Manawatū Catchment and waterways are returned to a healthy condition. - To ensure sustainable use of the land and water resources of the Manawatū Catchment continues to underpin the economic prosperity of the Region

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Into the Gorge

Photo courtesy of Kathryn Dennis

Venture only 20 minutes from Palmerston North and you will discover the beautiful natural landscape of the Manawatu Gorge.

We are restoring native forest and enhancing biodiversity in the Gorge.

Take a peek inside and you’ll be surprised at what the Gorge has to offer… Our goal Preserve, sustain and enhance the biodiversity, scenic and recreational values of this unique site.

How are we going to achieve this? Partners and the community will work together with a focus on...

Getting rid of pests We are controlling pest animals (e.g possums and stoats) and plants (e.g old man’s beard) that are Photo courtesy of Tourism NZ threatening the native habitats in the Gorge.

Planting We will be planting beautiful native species. People used to travel to see the red rata flowers... they will again soon.

Recreation area The track is being upgraded to make The project team a superior walking experience, and the Gorge carpark (at the Ashhurst The Manawatu Gorge project is end) will be developed into a great proudly supported by Horizons place to stop for a picnic or visit. Regional Council, the Department of There will be better access to the Conservation, Palmerston North City river with parking and new picnic and Tararua District Councils, Transit tables. There will be a walking link NZ, ONTRACK, the Rangitaane Iwi and to the Ashhurst Domain and the local landowners. wetlands area.

Ten Year Vision t #JPEJWFSTJUZUISFBUTBSFBTTFTTFEBOEBSF appropriately and sustainably managed. t 5IFTJUFJTNBOBHFEBTBTBODUVBSZBOEBTB ‘Mainland Island’ with high visitor use and strong community support. t 5IFQSPKFDUSFDFJWFTOBUJPOBMSFDPHOJUJPO Things to do Flora and fauna t Manawatu Gorge Track The Gorge Scenic Reserve contains an interesting Walk the beautiful Gorge Track (10 km) mix of forest species. Tawa and podocarp species dominate while nikau palms give the forest a tropical t Totara Loop walking track This walk at the Northern end of the Gorge track is feel. Flowers of the once common northern rata can an easy grade walk (approx 1 km) be seen in December. This tree is being reintroduced to the reserve by local conservation groups and t Take a walk through our Wetland area by the Ashhurst Domain schools. Regional and national rare plant species found in the t Kayaking reserve include the giant maidenhair fern, (Adiantum t Bird watching formosum) which is found nowhere else in New Photography Zealand. t A large rare beetle (Megadromus turgidiceps) also t Nature watches NBLFTJUTIPNFJOUIFSFTFSWFBOE(PSHF#JSET Please refer to your DOC leaflet include the tui, miromiro (tomtit), kahu (harrier hawk) and riroriro (grey warbler). Kaka have also been seen flying over the bush.

The Geography of the Gorge The Manawatu Gorge is a magnificent geographical Gorge history structure formed over thousands of years by the Long before the formation of the dividing ranges about 1.5 Manawatu River. million years ago, the Manawatu River flowed along its path to the west. As the land rose around the river it continued The Gorge itself is unique, as it is the only place in to cut its way through the mountains, creating the New Zealand where a river begins its journey on the steep-sided Gorge. opposite side of the main divide to where it joins Known as Te Apiti, the Gorge was later travelled by Maori the sea. At that time the area would have existed as who would haul their canoes upstream through the rapids. a series of islands, when the Gorge was part of a sea strait. #ZUIFASPBEFYJTUFECVUSFNBJOFEBQFSJMPVTKPVSOFZ for coaches. Get Involved 5IFSBJMXBZMJOFXBTDPNQMFUFEJOBOEUIFGJSTUUSBJO PWFSJUDBSSJFEQBTTFOHFSTJOEPVCMFDBSSJBHFT To find out how you can get involved in the Manawatu Today the road is a busy transport link between Hawke’s Gorge Restoration Project contact #BZBOEUIF.BOBXBUVBOE8FMMJOHUPOBSFBT t )PSJ[POT3FHJPOBM$PVODJMPS t %0$1BMNFSTUPO/PSUI0óDF Te Apiti - Rangitaane spiritual story The name Te Apiti, meaning the narrow passage, was bestowed upon the Manawatu Gorge by Rangitaane, the tangata whenua, as it was recognised as one of the main routes connecting UIFFBTUFSOBOEXFTUFSOQBSUTPGUIFJSZFBS old rohe. In Rangitaane history, Okatia, a spirit who possessed a giant totara tree on the Puketoi Ranges, gouged out the Gorge. For more information have a look at www.doc.govt.nz or www.horizons.govt.nz

Want to know more? )PSJ[POT3FHJPOBM$PVODJMt1SJWBUF#BHt.BOBXBUV.BJM$FOUSF Palmerston North

24hr Freephone 0508 800 800

F

www.horizons.govt.nz  

Ngā Haerenga NZ Cycle Trail Evaluation Report 2016

Research and Evaluation Unit, Evidence, Monitoring and Governance

Photo courtesy of NZCT Inc.

Acknowledgments Matilde Tayawa Figuracion is acknowledged as the author of this report.

This report would not have been possible without the insights from key cycle trail stakeholders including trail managers, Boards of Trustees, regional, district and city council representatives, officials from the Department of Conservation (DOC), business operators and cycle trails users from the Otago Central Rail Trails, Queenstown Trails, Hawke’s Bay Trails, Motu Trails, Te Ara Ahi and Hauraki Rail Trails.

The expert advice and insights of the Project Team is appreciated: Jonathan Kennett, Roger Wigglesworth, Mark Walter (MBIE Tourism Policy); Evan Freshwater and Richard Leggat (New Zealand Cycle Trail Inc.); Dr Antony Kennedy, Dr Alice Cleland, Cath Taylor, Chris Barnett (MBIE Research and Evaluation Team); and input from representatives of the New Zealand Transport Authority (NZTA) and Tourism New Zealand.

Thanks to Michele Morris for her pilot study in the use of the ’s Longitudinal Business Database (LBD) to try to establish the regional economic contribution of the trails.

Finally, thanks to Dr Antong Victorio for producing the Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) study of the NZ Cycle Trails. This study, together with qualitative information from stakeholders, has enabled the social and economic impacts of the cycle trails to be understood.

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Table of Contents

Page Executive Summary Infographic 4 Key Findings 5 Detailed Findings and Recommendations 7 1. Ngā Haerenga, New Zealand Cycle Trail 12

2. The Evaluation 14

3. The estimated NZ Cycle Trail users is approximately 1.3 million, mostly domestic visitors 17

4. The cycle trail designs, activities and experiences make user experience more enjoyable, but some issues need to be addressed to maximise their full potential 21

5. The economic contribution of the NZ Cycle Trails is estimated at $37.4 million for one year 25

6. The social contribution of the NZ Cycle Trails is estimated at $12 million 30

7. NZCT Inc. overall leadership was found to be vital but could add value to the management and operation at trail level 33

Appendix 1: The Case Studies 43 Appendix 2: Methodology 61 Appendix 3: NZCT Intervention Logic 64 Appendix 4: Start Date and Official Opening of the Great Rides 65 Appendix 5: Case Study Selection Criteria 66 Appendix 6: NZ Cycle Trail Evaluation Consent Form 68 Appendix 7: NZ Cycle Trail Evaluation Case Study Interview Guide 70 Appendix 8: NZ Cycle Trails Evaluation Case Study Information Sheet 73 Appendix 9: Formula Used in Estimating Visitor Number from 2015 NZCT Raw Data 75 Appendix 10: Trail Governance and Management Structures 80

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Summary of Key Findings

Trail users • An estimated 1.3 million users visited the 22 Great Rides including cyclists and walkers (estimated at 83 per cent) and commuter cyclists (estimated at 17 per cent) during 2015.

• The majority of the users were domestic visitors, with international visitors estimated at 13.5 per cent (114,351).

Overall cost to benefit ratio • For every dollar spent on the trails, it was estimated that there was approximately $3.55 of annual benefits generated (see separate CBA full report).

• The estimated overall economic and social benefits for one year were valued at $49.4 million while the estimated total cost was $13.9 million. The result was an estimated total net benefit of $35.5 million in 2015 (see separate CBA full report).

Economic benefits • The economic contribution of the cycle trails in 2015 was estimated at $37.4 million. These benefits were derived from projections of annual revenues from international visitors, and producer and consumer surpluses from annual domestic visitor spending.

• The evaluation further showed that the cycle trails helped revitalise small communities including historic hubs, increased and expanded the number of local businesses, and created jobs close to the locality of the trails.

Social benefits • The social contribution of the NZ Cycle Trails was estimated to be $12.0 million. These benefits were derived from reduced mortality benefits, commuting benefits and cost savings from diseases associated with physical inactivity.

• Qualitative evidence further identified that the cycle trails increased community identity and road safety for commuters.

NZCT governance and management

• The New Zealand Cycle Trail Incorporated (NZCT Inc.), the national body that provides overall leadership, direction, guidance and support to the 22 Great Rides, was important to stakeholders.

• Stakeholders further considered NZCT Inc. to be under-resourced to perform its mandated leadership and support role.

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Key lessons learned about governance and management of the NZ Cycle Trails

• There is no one-size-fits-all governance and management structure at the trail level. This has given rise to variations of governance and management structures.

• The evaluation found the following key factors of success which can be used by NZCT and governance organisations to inform overall governance and management of the Great Rides.

These include: o a governance body at trail level that has a clear strategy, leadership and direction; o appointment of board members with relevant skills and experience, and the inclusion of local executives in the governance body; o clarity around the roles and responsibilities of the governance body, including the separation of their governance and management duties; o having a dedicated resource to maintain and develop the cycle trails; o involvement of the local or central government in the management structures; o clear roles and responsibilities of trail partners, and clarity about partners’ commitment to long-term funding; and o existence of a dedicated and specialist team at the regional level that helps with marketing and promotion of the cycle trails.

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Detailed Findings and Recommendations Recommendations in regard to national and local governance of the Great Rides and trail data collection as well as some risks to sustainability of the NZCT project are discussed below.

Recommendations related to governance and management role of NZCT Inc. NZCT Inc. as a national body was found to be vital in providing leadership, direction, guidance and support to the 22 Great Rides.

NZCT Inc. is a standalone entity that “sits” with the Tourism Industry Aotearoa. Some stakeholders have expressed the view that NZCT Inc. does not currently “sit” in a logical space. There was a suggestion that a logical location and “home” would be within the NZTA given that most of central government’s cycling operations and funding sits with the Agency. The cycle plans and strategies of some regional councils were closely aligned with NZTA’s policies and strategies.

Others suggested looking at how it could “sit” alongside Tourism New Zealand given their branding and promotions role.

What was evident from the evaluation was that a standalone entity is needed to provide that leadership role and that NZCT Inc.’s “location” was not critical to the performance of its mandated role, particularly its capacity and capability to deliver on key initiatives and activities that support the trails to succeed. However, it should review its mandated role and/or deliver on some key functions where it could add value strategically and at trail level.

With the continued funding support for its operation announced in the 2016 Budget in May, we recommend that NZCT Inc. consider the following:

a) Invest time and resources into generating quality and useful trail data in order to provide insights and knowledge useful for operational and policy work.

b) Deliver on the activity areas identified in its original business plan especially in assisting cycle trails in re-building relationships like reviving dormant governance body to function once again. Some cycle trails’ governance bodies have not met for a number of years while others had failed to meet their obligations agreed during the construction phase of the cycle trails. NZCT Inc. could assist in getting clarity around those roles, responsibilities and obligations as earlier agreed by trail partners. Engagement with trail partners at the cycle trail level via regular meetings could be undertaken.

c) In regard to its branding, marketing and communication role, NZCT Inc. to investigate the possibility of a centralised contract of services in order to generate efficiency gains as a result of better terms with service contracts and purchases. Any such savings

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generated could be passed on to the individual cycle trails. This could apply to activities such as printing of brochures and website development in order to achieve a more consistent ‘look and feel’ of the marketing collaterals.

Recommendations related to trail data collection

This evaluation and the 2013 evaluation highlighted the need for having access to quality data for analysis. There are two areas to improve in terms of data collection: 1) trail counts and 2) survey data for economic research. In the new budget support for the NZ Cycle Trails announced in the May 2016 budget, there is a requirement to undertake another evaluation in three years’ time. It is critical that the issue with trail counts and survey data to be used for future evaluation is being addressed.

Trail counts improvement

Basic information such as having correct counts of trail users is important to management decision-making and operation of the cycle trails. This information is also important to any study of the economic and social impact to communities.

We recommend that trail management: a) Invest in trail counters, review correct counter placement, and do regular maintenance. There were different technologies used by the different trails to electronically count their respective number of users or visits. An internal review of the cycle trail counter technologies and counter placement options was undertaken by MBIE Research and Evaluation team (2015). The review showed that the biggest constraints to accuracy were correct counter placement and lack of regular maintenance. While the review found out that there was no ‘one-size-fits-all’ best counter technology, it, however, noted that of the six counter technologies reviewed and compared, the eco multi-counter technology provided a more accurate data and that the data reports produced from the software was easier to understand.

b) Develop and share a common method in cleaning trail users data. Until a technology is available to provide trail user electronic counts (that are devoid of errors and multiple counts), NZCT Inc. may need to develop a common method of cleaning trail user data. The best place to start is the method used in the Cost Benefit Analysis (see Appendix 9, pp 75-79). Guidance on this should be shared to all trail managers.

c) Consider developing a mobile app for all the cycle trails. The mobile app could be configured to: • provide improved information about the users of the cycle trails (ie data on who, how, what, when, how many visitors are using the trails and where are they going and insights on visitor numbers, trail demographics, international versus domestic counts and their length of their stay); • give out civil defence information, and for health and safety information (ie, ability to track location of injured cyclists);

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• track economic activity along the trail as users stop at businesses along the trail; and • advertise any business promotion ie 2-for-1 coffee voucher.

However, consideration should be made to ensure that some of the economic benefits filter down to the individual cycle trails.

Survey data needed for economic research

Trail counts are not sufficient data for use in any economic research on the cycle trails. The experience with the cost benefit analysis undertaken as part of this evaluation highlighted the need for more data than what is currently being collected. Different survey data were used such as that of Angus and Associates, Hauraki Rail Trail, Otago Central Rail Trail, Clutha Gold Trail and Roxburgh Gorge Trail, the International Visitor Survey (IVS) and NZCT Inc. survey. This highlighted the need to design a single survey that could be used by all trails with bespoke modules that could be used by different stakeholders. Currently, there is an existing NZCT Survey but the scope of the current questionnaire should be expanded to capture the data needed. There is also a need to improve overall engagement in the survey collection and the quality and quantity of data captured by trail participants.

We recommend that NZCT Inc., in discussion with appropriate stakeholders, consider the following: a) Design a single trail user survey that could be used by all cycle trails and their survey partners (ie District Councils, Regional Tourism Organisations, Universities). This could involve reviewing different trail user surveys currently being used such as the Otago Central Rail Trail, Clutha Gold, , Roxburgh Gorge, the Hauraki Rail Trail Surveys and the NZCT Survey to ensure that the data collected is consistent and useful for future evaluation activity ie trail demographics, trail spending, walkers vs. cyclists, and the like).

b) Provide individual trail support to and consultation with each individual trail to identify the mix of active and passive data collection methods that will deliver the best possible outcome in terms of data quality and sample size.

c) Deploy experienced field staff at designated times (ie peak season) to collect data and/or supervise trail staff/volunteers collecting contact data.

Best practice governance and management at trail level This evaluation report has identified key areas that worked well and the challenges faced by cycle trails in terms of trail governance, management, maintenance and marketing and promotion. While this evaluation does not advocate for a specific governance and management structure, we recommend that the lessons learnt, especially those that work, be considered in assessing what works best for the cycle trails under the conditions they operate.

The case studies have shown that governance bodies that had a clear mandate and strategy, and were able to provide leadership and direction to the cycle trails had a greater chance of

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maximising the economic and social contribution of the cycle trails. The process of setting clear strategies and goals enabled organisations to gain a better understanding of their environment, to prioritise their work programmes, and provided direction to the management team to achieve set goals.

Here is a summary table of what worked and the challenges at trail level in terms of trail governance, management, maintenance, and marketing and promotion.

Governance and What worked What were the challenges management area

Trail governance A governance body that has a clear Where there were multiple agencies strategy, leadership and direction included, it is sometimes difficult to work on a shared common goal Appointment of board members with relevant skills and experience, and Sustainability of a trust structure (ie lack of inclusion of local executives in the succession planning and the risk of governance body volunteer fatigue) especially in a small, rural area Clarity around the roles and responsibilities of the governance Difficulty with recruiting volunteer trustees body including the separation of with necessary skills especially in small, governance and management duties rural areas.

Trail A dedicated resource to maintain Sustainability of a trust structure (ie, lack of management and develop the cycle trails succession planning and risk of volunteer fatigue) Involvement of the local government or central government in the Management processes and systems still management structure lacking

Trail Clear roles and responsibilities of Lack of clarity around roles and maintenance trail partners’ long term responsibilities amongst trail partners commitment to funding. Non-delivery of commitment of some trail partners to maintain the trails

Failure to embed trail maintenance arrangement during the build phase of the cycle trails

No established maintenance standards and different concepts of what level is acceptable

Trail marketing Existence of a dedicated and Lack of support to trails in developing and promotion specialist team at the regional level mature products ready for international that helps with marketing and market promotion by Tourism New Zealand promoting the cycle trails

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Risks to sustainability of the NZCT project

The intervention logic identifies some short, medium and long term outcomes at the national and local levels which are predominantly economic. In order for these outcomes to be achieved in an on-going fashion, the trails need to be sustainable over the longer term.

This evaluation has identified a number of findings about threats to sustainability of the NZCT project, such as:

• the lack of trustees for trail trusts especially in small rural areas; • NZCT Inc. is under resourced to do the tasks expected of them; • trail managers are working more than the hours they are paid for; • volunteer burn out; • competing funding priorities at the regional and district council levels; • insufficient funding for track maintenance; • development of new and mature tourism products and market them internationally; • businesses who are benefiting from the trail but who are not joining the partnership programme; and • non-delivery of commitment of some trail partners to maintain the trails.

With the new funding support to NZCT initiative announced in the 2016 Budget in May, there is an opportunity to review and clarify the roles and responsibilities of different stakeholders in the national, local and trail levels to sustain these outcomes and maximise the full potential of the trails.

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1. Ngā Haerenga, New Zealand Cycle Trail

1.1. Ngā Haerenga, New Zealand Cycle Trail (NZCT) is a national initiative to develop a network of world class cycling trails around the country

Ngā Haerenga, the New Zealand Cycle Trail (NZCT) is a national initiative to develop a connected network of cycle trails throughout New Zealand. The network consists of Great Rides, Heartland Rides and Urban Cycle Trails.

The NZCT was conceived out of the New Zealand Government’s 2009 Employment Summit, with the support from the Green Party of Aoetearoa New Zealand. The NZCT was one of a number of initiatives established to stimulate jobs to cushion the effects of the global financial crisis in 2009, and to create conditions for businesses to prosper.

The intention of NZCT was that the predominantly off-road trails, referred to as the Great Rides1,would showcase the environment, landscape, heritage and , while generating economic, social and environmental benefits for communities. On-road cycle touring routes linking the Great Rides, urban centres, transport hubs and other key tourist attractions were added to the network under the Network Expansion Project. These on-road routes, known as Heartland Rides, identified existing roads that meet minimum safety criteria and aimed to encourage cyclists away from busy state highways and arterial routes and onto scenic, quiet backcountry roads where they would experience heartland New Zealand. More recently, the New Zealand Transport Agency has provided significant co-funding through the Urban Cycleway Programme to help construct a number of on-and-off-road cycleways in our urban centres. The focus of this evaluation is on the 22 Great Rides located throughout New Zealand.

In 2009, the Government invested $50 million over three years into the NZCT project. Additional funding of $30 million was committed by regional stakeholders through sponsorship and grants from local governments and charitable trusts towards the construction of the inaugural Great Rides. Eighteen trails were originally provided with government funding to construct the Great Rides. One trail, the Nelson Tasman Trail, split into two separate trails, taking the total to 19 Great Rides. Three existing cycle trails (Otago Central Rail Trail, Queen Charlotte Trails and Rimutaka Trails) were subsequently granted Great Ride status, and one further trail (Little River Trail) was granted Great Ride status conditional on completion to NZCT design standards. As the Little River Trail does not yet meet the required design standards of a Great Ride, the study focused on the 22 cycle trails2 listed in Appendix 4, page 65.

1 Great Ride is a status accorded to a cycle trail that meets the required standards set by the New Zealand Cycle Trail, Inc.

2 Cycle trails is used interchangeably with Great Rides in this report.

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In February 2014, additional funding of $8 million was approved by Cabinet to help maintain and enhance the quality of the Great Rides over four years.

Originally meant to be constructed over three years, a number of the trails were not completed as originally envisaged, due mainly to land access issues.

Additional funding of $25 million over four years was announced in 2016 Budget to support extending and connecting some Great Rides. The additional support aimed to benefit communities by enabling visitors to spend more time on trails, and link visitors to regional tourist destinations. This new funding, however, was outside the scope of the evaluation.

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2. The Evaluation

2.1. The evaluation assessed the economic and social benefits of the cycle trail, and the lessons learnt from their governance and management

This is a follow-up to the 2013 evaluation of the NZ Cycle Trails (NZCT) as required by Cabinet. The key objectives of this evaluation are to:

• assess the regional economic contribution of the NZCT; • assess the economic, social, health, environmental , cultural and other related benefits to affected communities; and • identify key success factors concerning best practice that could be used as guidelines for effective management of the NZCT programme.

The following key evaluation questions were developed to address the above objectives:

• To what extent has the NZCT contributed to regional economic development and growth particularly in terms of employment, business and revenue? • To what extent has the NZCT contributed to economic outcomes as well as social, health and cultural outcomes among the community? • What works best for whom, under what conditions, and why? • What lessons can be learnt about the establishment and governance of the project at different levels? What could have been done differently?

2.2. Mixed method evaluation approach

A mixed method approach was used to address the objectives and evaluation questions as follows.

• Scoping was done using the Longitudinal Business Database (LBD) of Statistics New Zealand to determine if these data could estimate the regional economic contribution of the cycle trails in terms of growth in employment, number of businesses created and revenue/sales generated in the regions. The data was subsequently determined to be not appropriate due to data limitations and timing issues (see section 2.3.1. on page 13). • A cost benefit analysis (CBA) was also used to estimate the economic contribution of the trails to New Zealand society, as well as the health and other social impacts of the trails. • Case studies of six trails were undertaken to: o provide qualitative evidence of the economic and social impacts of the trails; o understand what works well in terms of trail governance and management; and o identify key success factors for effective management of the NZCT programme. The case studies included face-to-face interviews with a range of local stakeholders including trail managers, Boards of Trustees, regional, district and city councils representatives, officials

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from the Department of Conservation (DOC), business operators and cycle trail users from the Otago Central Rail Trails, Queenstown Trails, Hawke’s Bay Trails, Motu Trails, Te Ara Ahi and Hauraki Rail Trails. During our visits to the six trails, we also talked informally to available visitors about their trail experience.

Discussion of the full methodology can be found in Appendix 2, page 60.

2.3. Caveats and limitations of the study

The caveats and limitations of this evaluation are discussed below, for each of the methods used.

2.3.1. The Longitudinal Business Database (LBD) could not be used

It was initially envisaged that the LBD would be used to assess the extent to which NZ Cycle Trails had contributed to regional economic development and growth in employment, business and revenue. However, the study was cut short due to unavailability of data. Usable data was only available up to 31 March 2013. Since most cycle trails were completed in 2013 and beyond, the impact of the cycle trails would only have been visible from 2014 and beyond. Due to this timing issue, the LBD analysis was unable to generate meaningful analyses of the regional contribution of the cycle trails. A refresh of the analysis could be undertaken at a later date when the database has been updated to 2015 and beyond.

2.3.2. The Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) was done for a period of one year only

The CBA (Victorio, 2016) included data over a one year period. Extending the CBA coverage to more than one year would be ideal (which is customary for a CBA) but was not possible given the scope of work.

The findings are therefore estimates only, and are based on (corrected) electronic counts of visitor numbers. The data was corrected for mechanical failures of electronic counters, unwanted counts from animal activities, and a doubling of some counts because of backtracking along trails (see Appendix 9, pages 75-79).

All CBA figures are in annual 2015 dollars. Annual infrastructure costs were assumed to serve a useful life of ten years based on engineering opinions with annual maintenance being estimated for the year 2015.

2.3.3. Case studies may not be representative of all cycle trails but rather those trails deemed most (and least) successful according to key criteria

Only six trails were visited. While effort was made to choose a mix of rural and urban cycle trails, the selection criteria was based on an initial assessment of trails that were exhibiting some indicators of ‘success’ or ‘failure’ to support learning. We selected these cases according to the following criteria: trail use, trail experience, trail ownership and governance, partnership and on-going funding and social and economic impact. The data should not be interpreted as representative of all cycle trails in New Zealand but rather as indications of those trails deemed most (and least) successful according to the established criteria.

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THE FINDINGS

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3. The estimated number of NZ cycle trail users is approximately 1.3 million per annum, mostly domestic visitors

3.1. Section Summary: Key Findings

The key findings presented throughout this section are summarised below:

• There were around 1.283 million visits to the 223 Great Rides, including cyclists and walkers (estimated to account for 83 per cent of visitors) and commuter cyclist (estimated to account for around 17 per cent of visitors) for the 2015 year. • The majority of users were domestic visitors, with international visitors making up around 13.5 per cent of these users. • Users were of all ages: from families with children, middle-aged individuals to retirees. There was no dominant age group using the trails although there is anecdotal evidence that retirees were using the easy and accessible trails or sections.

3.2. Trail users

3.2.1. In 2015, there were approximately 1.283 million visits to the 22 Great Rides

Counts reported from electronic counters showed that there were 1.283 million visits to the 22 Great Rides. This total is made up cyclists and walkers (about 83 per cent) and commuter cyclists (about 17 per cent).These counts were adjusted to remove possible inaccuracies arising from unavoidable contaminations, such as from mechanical failures, unwanted animal activities, and from occasional double-count from backtracking. Visits also encompassed those undertaken by non-cyclists, defined as anyone not using the trails with a bicycle, for example: runners, walkers, sightseers and passers-by. One “visit” was defined as a single instance of use by someone on any given day while allowing for that same person to visit on other days. The term is used interchangeably with “visitor”. The graphic (see overleaf) shows the location of the 22 Great Rides around New Zealand, along with the estimated trail user numbers and estimated revenue from domestic and international spending per trail.

3 The Little River Trail was granted Great Ride status but has yet to meet the NZCT design standards, hence, only 22 Great Rides have been included in the CBA study.

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Source: 2016 CBA study by Dr Antong Victorio

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3.2.2. Cycle trails were used mostly by locals and domestic visitors of all ages, and international visitor numbers were increasing

The cycle trails were being used by locals, domestic and international visitors of all ages who used them in a variety of ways – as cyclists, commuters, dog walkers, runners and walkers. In the absence of a system and technology that could distinguish the type of users of the cycle trails, trail experts believed that the ratio of cyclists to walkers/runners is 70:30 per cent in favour of cyclists. Case study participants believed that a wide spectrum of users was evident, from half-day and one-day visitors who brought their own gear to multi-day users who required food, bike hire, accommodation and guides. Experienced cyclists tended to be self-sufficient and required less support from local businesses, while overnight visitors preferred fully-serviced accommodation or help with transporting equipment between campsites so they could travel light while on the trails.

Cruise ship passengers are a new and emerging market for half-day or full-day tours. Guided cycling tours are being provided in the Hawke’s Bay for cruise ship passengers. Stakeholders expect this trend to increase.

The majority of trail users were reported to be domestic visitors but stakeholders saw international numbers increasing. Stakeholders from the Otago Central Rail Trail (OCRT) have observed an increase in international tourists (mostly Australians) from about 20 to 40 per cent in 2015. Stakeholders from the Motu Trails also identified Australian visitors as the largest group of international visitors. This could be the result of the Tourism New Zealand’s cycling tourism campaign, delivered in Australia.

In contrast, stakeholders in Queenstown believed that international user numbers were higher than domestic visitors, made up of around 60 per cent international visitors and 40 per cent domestic visitors. This is an expected finding, given that Queenstown is an established international tourism destination. One business owner mentioned that more than 90 per cent of their current clientele were international visitors.

Summer time and the Easter break was usually the peak season for visitors. Stakeholders from the Otago Central Rail Trail (OCRT) observed that autumn was their high season although this time of the year is generally considered the shoulder season for tourism more broadly.

Below were some insights from case study participants about users of the different cycle trails.

OCRT users were mostly from Auckland Over the last five years, users of the OCRT have been mostly from Auckland. Prior to the Canterbury earthquakes, a large proportion of visitors were from Christchurch. Most users were multi-day users, staying four to five days on pre-arranged trips. Some stakeholders observed that there was growth in visitors who were prepared to spend over $250 per night. Such visitors were more likely to be aged 50-60 years and have disposable incomes. The trails were also used frequently by local residents.

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Stakeholders said there was no dominant trail user group, and they were of all ages. The introduction of electric bikes (referred to as ‘e-bikes’) made it possible for three generations of families to bike together.

Hawke’s Bay Trail users were mostly domestic visitors with one business tapping into the cruise ship passengers Stakeholders estimated that 80 per cent of trail users were domestic visitors and 20 per cent were international visitors. One business is further engaging with the cruise ship market by organising day trips for passengers.

Queenstown Trail users were mostly casual users Given that Queenstown is a significant tourist destination, the majority of trail users were casual users. They travelled to Queenstown and then plan their activities when they got there. A bike tour operator noted that while most of the visitors were “reactive”, they were starting to get more pre-planned trips. There were no specific demographic characteristics of Queenstown Trail users. Case study participants noted that they sometimes get ie visitors spending $360 or more a day, which aligned with spending made by golf tourists.

Te Ara Ahi users were mostly local residents In Te Ara Ahi, there was a high use between Rotorua and the Waipa Valley, from town to the Mountain Bike Park. Local residents going to the park accounted for about 50 per cent of users, and walkers accounted for about 10 per cent of visitors. A peak activity period centred around the Cranworx event.

Motu Trails users were diverse depending on which section of the trail they used In the Dunes section of the trail, domestic and local users were the dominant user groups, with less than 10 per cent of visitors from overseas. In the Pakihi trail, users were mostly international visitors.

Hauraki Rail Trail users were predominantly domestic visitors with international visitor numbers increasing Given the proximity of the Hauraki Rail Trails to Auckland and Tauranga, most visitors were from these two cities on day trips. The visitors were mostly families or younger people in the weekends, and older ‘baby boomers’ during the week. However, the number of international visitors was reported as increasing.

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4. The cycle trail designs, activities and experiences make user experience more enjoyable, but some issues need to be addressed to maximise their full potential

4.1. Section Summary: Key Findings

The key findings presented throughout this section are summarised below:

• The two main trail designs (hub and spoke, and point-to-point) suit different user needs. • Great Rides need to be networked with the heartland rides. • There is an opportunity to leverage Māori culture and Māori story in promoting the unique points of difference of relevant trails. • Trail activities and experiences wrapped around the trails could make the user experience more enjoyable. • Trail management issues such as data collection on trail users and limited funding for trail maintenance, marketing and promotion and trail development were identified by stakeholders as limiting the full potential of the trails.

4.2. Two main trail designs suit different users’ needs

The NZCT has two main designs which attracted different types of users – hub and spoke, and point-to-point single journey. A hub and spoke designed trail has no defined terminal. A point- to-point single journey, as the term suggests, starts at one end and finishes at the other.

A hub and spoke designed trail that is easy and accessible attracted a number of casual users, domestic or international visitors (ie, those who visit the place for other reasons and do the trails as an added activity to their visit). Tourists were oftentimes time poor and often looking for a one full-day or half-a-day activity. The most popular sections of the trails for tourists were those with easy access, are easy to navigate, well sign-posted and can be used by different age groups.

Point-to-point single journey usually attracts multiple-day riders. However, there are some sections of point-to-point trails that are very popular as a short ride eg, Karangahake Gorge on the Hauraki Rail Trail, Old Coach Road on the Mountains to Sea Trail, the Rimutaka incline on the Rimutaka Cycle Trail, and the Greymouth section on the West Coast Wilderness Trail.

The trails tend to be used in sections rather than from start to finish or a whole loop. Trail users could choose the sections they will do based on factors such as time available, ability of the group and convenience in terms of facilities required such as accommodation, meals and parking. People also look for activities to do on the trails, so that they can ride, then stop to see something or do an activity and carry on.

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“Some trails do not lend themselves to one group because of its current design and the nature of the trail such as Grade 1 to Grade 4 within one trail.” (Motu Trails)

4.3. Great Rides to be networked with the heartland rides

Stakeholders also voiced the need to review the original plan of getting the Great Rides to be networked together with the heartland rides. The heartland rides are on-road cycle trails under the jurisdiction of the NZTA. It was also suggested that marketing and promotion should make explicit which of the trails are cycle rides and which ones are mountain bike rides.

4.4. There is an opportunity to leverage Māori culture and Māori story in promoting the unique points of difference of relevant trails

Māori culture is one of the reasons why international tourists visit New Zealand. There are a number of trails that are located in, or can be accessed through, Māori land. This could add value to a visitor’s experience. Opportunity to leverage Māori culture and Māori stories in promoting the unique points of difference of relevant trails could be explored more.

In Opotiki, there is a high number of Te Reo speakers. There are eight different iwi groups, four of whom have reached a settlement and are starting to look for opportunities including tourism. Stakeholders noted that incorporating the Māori story as part of the Eastern Bay of Plenty story is something that could be considered.

Similarly, Rotorua is steeped in Māori culture and Māori stories. A stakeholder reported that Te Ara Ahi has yet to maximise this potential to add value to trail visitor experience.

“Māori component is used in some areas but underutilised and un-tapped in other areas. There is a strong capacity to grow and be grown. It is definitely an added point of difference that should be leveraged off”. (Te Ara Ahi Trails)

Hawke’s Bay Regional Council is looking to incorporate Māori culture and Māori stories at the cycle trail section at Waitangi Regional Park through interpretative signs and displays.

There is a strong potential to leverage the Māori culture and story in promoting this unique point of difference in Hauraki Rail Trails. Some sections of the trails pass through Māori land and iwi are represented on the Hauraki Rail Trail Charitable Trust.

4.5. Trail activities and experiences wrapped around the trails made the user experience more enjoyable

Activities and experiences wrapped around the trails made the user experience more enjoyable for certain groups. For example, some trails provided seamless shuttle services and luggage transfers through to all-inclusive packages (eg, bike hire, experienced guides, accommodation and meals along the trail journey).

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“We have wineries and cafes along the route and it is very hard to go very far and not find somewhere to spend money.” (Hawke’s Bay Trails)

But a cycling couple from The Netherlands, however, didn’t mind the lack of these amenities. For them, relevant information on what was expected and available for each of the trails was much more important so they came prepared.

“We rode the Timber Trail. There is nothing in there but it was ok as we knew that beforehand. We got the information from Jonathan Kenneth’s book and AA Travel. So we have come prepared”. (International Visitor, Te Ara Ahi)

4.6. Trail management issues

4.6.1. Collecting visitor data is problematic

Accounting for the number of unique users as well as the number of journeys or visits was problematic for all trails. Given the nature of the trails, some of the counters doubled up on counts if users left and returned via the same trail section. Within many trails, more than one counter was present. In these situations, there was a possibility of double counting users if counts were taken in aggregate. Other issues included spiders gaining access to counters. A range of different types of counters (thermal, photo, sensor and magnetic) were used within each trail and across all six trails. Different counters were designed to count different types of users; for example, some only measured bikes whereas others measured people only or All- Terrain Vehicles (ATVs). There was no one technology that could provide error-free data for this evaluation.

All stakeholders agreed on the importance of trail user and spending data to inform decision- making, resource allocation and to help to target marketing. For some local government bodies that saw the immediate value and importance of data for decision-making, resources were allocated for trail user surveys or studies, or invested in counter technology. Other trails co-opted local universities to undertake trail user surveys and studies. Regional and district councils with limited resources (for example, Opotiki) struggled. While local bodies recognised the value and potential of its cycle trails and provided support for maintenance and management, insufficient resources meant competing with equally important local government priorities. No additional support was available for them.

Below are some examples of how some local governments had tried to monitor or collect trail user information.

The Queenstown District Council had invested in market research and data collection. The survey done on Queenstown Trails needs to be continued to build an understanding of the market they want to target. In the Hawke’s Bay, operators were happy to provide continuous improvement feedback on an on-going basis. In Central Otago, the District Council conducted regular surveys to gain better understanding of trail usage and on its economic contribution to the region. In the Motu Trails, collecting data is a big job. However, despite their limited

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resources, the Opotiki District Council still paid someone to do this. Hauraki Rail Trail Trust commissioned Waikato University in 2012 and 2013 to do a study of cycling users and expenditures on the trails. They also used high school students to conduct related studies.

All respondents agreed on the need for guidance on what data should be collected, and the need for nationally consistent data collection methods. NZCT Inc. is aware of these needs, and identified it as a priority activity in its current business plan.

4.6.2. Accessing on-going funding for trail maintenance and management is stretched

The ability to fund on-going trail maintenance, development, marketing and promotion was an issue identified by all respondents.

The cycle trails had existing partnership programmes where local businesses were encouraged to join a business collective for a fee. In return, the businesses were provided with exposure through the marketing and promotion of the trail. However, membership to the official partnership programme was mostly by the businesses that were within or on the trails. These were mostly trail-related businesses like bike hires, shuttle buses, guided tours, cafés, and farm stays and other accommodation providers. Stakeholders believed that more businesses (eg, restaurants, cafes, hotels and other accommodations beyond the immediate vicinity of the trails) are benefitting from the positive spill-over effects to these businesses, although they do not contribute back to the collective through membership fees.

Access issues and land tenure issues, especially in trails with multiple owners, caused not only delays in completing the cycle trails and/or non-adherence to the original design but it has impacted on the desirability and attractiveness of the cycle trail to users.

In Te Ara Ahi, for example, the original design was not followed because of access and land tenure issues. There were infrastructure issues around the Rainbow Mountain where the trail becomes very difficult before going on to remote rural road. The original idea was that the trail would link into the Waikato River Trail. The trail currently ends at Waikite Springs.

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5. Economic contribution of NZ Cycle Trails is estimated at $37.4 million for one year

5.1. Section Summary:Key Findings

The key findings presented throughout this section are summarised here:

• For every dollar spent on the trails, it was estimated that there is approximately $3.55 of annual benefits generated. A CBA (Victorio, 2016) showed a 1:3.55 cost to benefit ratio. This is equivalent to $13.923 million in annual cost and $49.420 million in annual benefits or an estimated net annual benefits of $35.496 million.

• The economic contribution of the cycle trails was estimated at $37.4 million for 2015. These benefits were made up of (annual terms):

Trail revenue from international visitors $8.009 million Producer surpluses $16.210 million Consumer surpluses $13.155 million

Further findings from the case studies suggested that:

• cycling activity has generated business and job opportunities close to the locality of the trails;

• cycling activity has increased/expanded the number of businesses within the locaility of the trails;

• the Great Rides had helped revitalise small communities including historic hubs;

• cycling is a new product offering for visitors in established tourism destination places; and

• the Great Rides have generated economic spillover effects such as the use of ski fields for downhill and mountain biking in the summer, new bike shops opening, and increased demand of accommodation outside the locality of the trails.

5.2. Discussion of the Key Findings

5.2.1. For every dollar spent on the cycle trails, there is an estimated $3.55 dollars of benefits generated

The CBA (to be read in conjunction with this full report) showed that the overall economic and social benefits of the cycle trails for 2015 was $49.420 million while the estimated total costs were $13.923 million. The estimated net benefits were $35.496 million. The overall CBA ratio is

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1:3.55, which translated to an estimated $3.55 dollars of benefits generated for every dollar spent on the cycle trails. Note, however, that this estimate reflects one year of data (2015). Discussion on how the costs were computed is covered on pages 2-4 of the CBA. Essentially, the annual equivalent for trail infrastructure costs was calculated for 2015 as one-tenth of overall costs. Other costs were factored in: losses from taxation, inflation and maintenance related costs, the latter which included costs relating to volunteer work.

5.2.2. The economic contribution of the cycle trails was estimated at $37.4 million

The CBA estimated the economic contribution of the cycle trails at $37.374 million for 2015. These benefits were made up of trail revenues from international visitors, which were estimated at $8.009 million, as well as the producer and consumer surpluses from domestic spending, estimated at $29.365 million.

The CBA made a distinction between visits by NZ residents (domestics) and visits by non- residents (international). The spending of internationals is almost wholly beneficial to New Zealanders without the opportunity cost for servicing the international visitors because they are drawn from incomes that are external to the NZ economy. The table below shows the average annual revenues from international spending for each trail.

Estimated Annual Revenues from International Visitors, Year 2015 Annual visits by internation Internationa Annual Annual al visitors l spending Revenues Internatio Annual Trail Visits by (at 13.5% Per visit, per from nal Revenues from Average of Distance non- Overall day (Pvpd), International spending International Annual Trail Location (kms) commuters Average) Survey Visits, Surveys Pvpd, MBIE Visits, MBIE Revenues North Island Twin Coast Cycle Trail Northland 84 13400 900$ 153.60 $ 142,100 98.52$ 91,200 $ 116,700 Hauraki/ Hauraki Rail Trail Coromandel 80 77800 2100$ 146.28 $ 313,700 98.52$ 211,200 $ 262,500 Motu Trails Bay of Plenty 91 17200 1300$ 166.40 $ 216,700 98.52$ 128,300 $ 172,500 Waikato River Trails Waikato 103 24800 1700$ 188.34 $ 321,800 98.52$ 168,400 $ 245,000 Te Ara Ahi Rotorua 48 22000 800$ 87.77 $ 66,500 98.52$ 74,600 $ 70,600 Hawke's Bay Trails Hawke's Bay 200 145600 10000$ 280.00 $ 2,808,900 98.52$ 988,300 $ 1,898,600 Great Lake Trails Taupo 71 24000 1700$ 129.83 $ 214,400 98.52$ 162,700 $ 188,500 Mountains to Sea Trail Ruapehu 317 24600 2200$ 331.50 $ 731,500 98.52$ 217,400 $ 474,500 The Timber Trail Waitomo 87 6000 400$ 159.08 $ 65,800 98.52$ 40,700 $ 53,200 Rimutaka Trails Wellington 115 64300 4400$ 210.28 $ 930,700 98.52$ 436,000 $ 683,300 Dun Mountain Trail Nelson 38 2400 200$ 69.48 $ 11,300 98.52$ 16,100 $ 13,700 Tasman's Great Taste Trail Nelson Tasman 175 79200 8200$ 280.00 $ 2,292,600 98.52$ 806,700 $ 1,549,700 The Old Ghost Road West Coast 85 4700 400$ 155.42 $ 60,700 98.52$ 38,500 $ 49,600 Marlborough Queen Charlotte Track Sounds 70 10200 1400$ 128.00 $ 179,700 98.52$ 138,300 $ 159,000 West Coast Wilderness Trail West Coast 139 16700 2300$ 254.16 $ 584,600 98.52$ 226,600 $ 405,600 St James Cycle Trail Hanmer Springs 64 2100 70$ 117.03 $ 8,400 98.52$ 7,100 $ 7,800 Alps to Ocean Cycle Trail North Otago 301 17300 2400$ 280.00 $ 665,800 98.52$ 234,300 $ 450,000 The Queenstown Trails Queenstown 120 180200 57100$ 219.42 $ 12,532,100 98.52$ 5,626,900 $ 9,079,500 Otago Central Rail Trail Central Otago 150 16500 4500$ 274.28 $ 1,245,600 98.52$ 447,400 $ 846,500 Clutha Gold Trails Central Otago 73 7600 500$ 133.48 $ 70,200 98.52$ 51,800 $ 61,000 Roxburgh Gorge Trails Central Otago 34 14100 1000$ 62.12 $ 60,200 98.52$ 95,400 $ 77,800 Around the Mountains Queenstown 180 11400 2000$ 280.00 $ 549,900 98.52$ 193,500 $ 371,700 Uncounted Non-commuters 65000 8800$ 50.00 $ 438,800 98.52$ 864,500 $ 651,600

Average spending pvpd, Count-Weighted $207.23 $98.52 Total Annual Revenue from International Visits $ 24,512,000 $ 11,265,900 $ 17,888,900

Note 1: Adapted from the original Table 6.1 in the CBA study, p.7 Note 2: Visits/visitor numbers and revenues were rounded-off to the nearest 100 hence the overall counts is different from the original numbers in Table 6.1 of the CBA study

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By comparison, the spending of domestic visitors is drawn from internal sources of income rather than external ones. Being internal, the spending would have implied some forgone spending on other parts of the NZ economy were it not for the existence of the trails. This is called ‘economic displacement’; the domestic spending displaces some of the revenues of external businesses since they are foregone in favour of trail-located ones.

From the annual trail revenues from domestic visitors of around $36.2 million, producer and consumer surpluses were extracted. These were considered the ‘true’ benefits in a cost benefit analysis. Detailed discussion of producer surplus can be found on pages 9-11 of the CBA and consumer surplus on pages 11-13 of the CBA.

5.2.3. An increased number of businesses established or expanded because of the trails, and cycling brought businesses and jobs close to the locality of the trails

Most of the successful businesses that we spoke to indicated an increase in the number of staff that they employed year-on-year since the trails started. The businesses were cycle shops, cafes, accommodations, guided tours, bike hire companies, shuttle providers and other small businesses from the six Great Rides included in this evaluation.

“I have started with one staff, now six and eight next year.” (Queenstown Trails)

“Business is operating 7 days a week during the peak season. We now employ three cleaners who rotate.”(Otago Central Rail Trail)

“Our employee numbers have increased from five to 10 drivers, guides on casual basis, bike shop, mechanic, marketing team selling to different groups.”(Queenstown Trails)

There were a number of businesses associated with cycling including e-bikes companies, guided tours, bike hire companies, shuttle providers and cafes along the trails. Some of the businesses included Around the Basin in Queenstown, Tatoa Farm Stay in Opotiki, Coffee shop on Gorge, Motivation Café in Motu.

Anecdotal evidence indicated that existing businesses have expanded their operations. Rental cars were now hiring out bike racks and water taxis were now transporting bikes. Some businesses had established a bike hire on site, while restaurants had increased their restaurant operating hours to accommodate more visitors. Consent for the construction of a hotel in Gibbston Valley was underway.

The number of Bed and Breakfasts (B&Bs) and holiday homes had increased in Clyde. Stakeholders reported local business owners feeling more confident as a result of visitor flows from the trail. For example, the cinema was being restored, eating places were expanding and new holiday homes were being built.

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In Opotiki, the local council foresaw a shortage in accommodation for both workers in the new harbour development project as well as for tourists who will be visiting. An increased demand for restaurants and café services was expected.

In Hawke’s Bay, cafés expanded their business and more businesses were fitted with bike racks.

Below are some of the comments made by key participants on how businesses near or along the cycle trails were benefiting:

“We now have a bike store on site. Conservative estimate of turnover from bike and bike related activities is $100k a year. A hotel is to come.” (Queenstown Trails)

“In Opotiki, there are five businesses established because of the trail. There are two shuttle providers, a couple of builders now offer bike hires, a bunk house and a vehicle. Several others increased in size or altered their business because of the trail.” (Motu Trails)

“New businesses are on bikes – hirage and bike shops. In Havelock North, there is a new one. In Hastings, a new bike barn was established.” (Hawke’s Bay Trails)

“As soon as the trail opened, our business opened too. It is growing all the time. Our clients are mostly 50+ in age. We get repeat clients and get referral, even from overseas, through word of mouth.” (Motu Trails)

“One business was in the brink of folding up. The cycling trail has breathed life into the business”. (Hauraki Rail Trails)

Stakeholders reported that some businesses established as lifestyle choices had difficulty adapting to increased business growth. Inability to adapt to these changes, such as a necessary increase in operating hours/days, impacted on tour operators’ ability to market their products and services to domestic and international visitors.

Stakeholders highlighted the importance of business owners adapting their businesses to meet demand and expectations of trail users. This involved, for example, changing business plans, and providing new product offerings and approaches based on market needs.

“Because of the number of cycling visitors, we had to look at the restaurant menu and operating hours. The restaurant is now open 7 days a week. It used to be just what was required for liquor licensing. Now we cater for cyclists, on what they want and when they want it”. (Queenstown Trails)

“Many turn up on our shops who have not ridden a bike so we are thinking what to do with this”. (Queenstown Trails)

Stakeholders said that people were moving to Central Otago to establish businesses. Some did it as a lifestyle choice. Two businesses (Bike It Now and HeBikesSheBikes) moved to Clyde.

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5.2.4. The cycle trails helped revitalise small communities including historic hubs

A BERL study (2011) noted that the Central Otago economy was in recession in 2010, contracting by 1.3 per cent. Local stakeholders corroborated this finding and noted that the Otago Central Rail Trail helped revitalise the economy and ‘plugged the gap’.

The cycle trails also helped revitalise heritage accommodation and sites such as Oliver’s Hotel, Hayes Engineering Heritage Works and Homestead, and the Taieri Gorge Railway. Cycling now attracted people who booked high-end ($250 per night) accommodation. Hayes Engineering Museum was open seven days a week. In the past, the museum only opened when it received phone bookings.

“More than 30 per cent of motel users are cyclists, increasing to about 70 percent during the January/February month” (Queenstown Trails)

“30 to 70 per cent of users of accommodation are cyclists. They are mostly for one night stays and mostly domestic visitors.” (Motu Trails)

“The Hayes Engineering Museum has increased its business by 70 per cent from the previous year” (Otago Central Rail Trail)

5.2.5. Cycling was a new product offering for visitors in established tourist destinations

For established destinations like Queenstown and Hawke’s Bay, cycling was a new product offering for visitors. For example, the trails have provided a value-add to conferences held in Hawke’s Bay. Stakeholders noted that there was a wider range of activities for visitors in comparison to previous years. A bike centre, an old railway bridge bike trail and 40km of single track trail have also been developed.

“It has changed what people do in Hawke’s Bay. For instance, conference delegates will visit winery on a bike rather than a bus.” (Hawke’s Bay Trails)

5.2.6. Unintended positive economic flow-on effects were reported

A number of economic flow-on effects were reported in Queenstown, for example: the Skyline Gondola was now selling packages for downhill biking; the Cardona ski field was now offering mountain biking during the summer. A new gondola was also proposed to take skiers, bikers and walkers up to the Remarkables skifield base.

Other indirect benefits included new bike shops and bike hire services being established because of the increased number of locals who bike now. Similarly, existing bike businesses have also expanded their operations.

The spill over effects also provided benefits to towns not directly connected to the trails. For example, Whakatane was said to be benefitting from a shortage of accommodation in Opotiki. Motu Trail users were said to have booked their accommodation and shuttle services in Whakatane due to a shortage of these services in Opotiki.

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6. The social contribution of the trail is estimated at $12 million

6.1. Section Summary: Key Findings

The key findings presented throughout this section are summarised here:

• The social contribution of domestic users of the cycle trails was estimated at $12.045 million. These benefits were derived from the following:

Reduced mortality benefits from physical inactivity $9.280 million Commuting benefits, including reduced mortality and $2.183 million health cost savings to commuters Health cost saved from diseases associated with $582,000 physical inactivity by non-commuters

• There was anecdotal evidence from case study participants that the cycle trails have contributed to the following social benefits for local communities: o Increased use of the trails by local communities to bond, socialise or raise funds for community purposes o Increased road safety for the community o Increased sense of pride, belonging and place o Increased volunteerism in different aspects of trail management and operation.

6.2. Discussion of key findings

6.2.1. The social contribution of the cycle trail is estimated at $12.45 million

The CBA undertaken as part of this study (see pages 13-22 of the CBA) showed that an annual savings of $9.280 million made from reduced mortality risks due to physical activity, $2.183 million made from commuting benefits and $582,000 made from health costs saved from diseases with physical inactivity by non-commuters. The social benefits considered only the domestic users. Health benefits were estimated by combining some known exercise intensities on the trails with international studies concerning cost savings, such as from reduced mortality risks. Counts for unique individuals were used, which were extracted from the estimated 1.3 million trail users. The savings in health costs were also taken into account. These were obtained by making an assumption that exercising on the trails would have averted health costs from diseases associated with physical inactivity. Benefits and costs of commuting by bikes were also considered. Some obvious advantages to commuting by bike include prevention of costs associated with air and noise pollution, climate

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change, road deterioration and congestion. It is well known that commuting by bicycle typically takes longer than some alternatives, such as by car, which is one of its main disadvantages. The cost advantages of commuting by bike versus by car was calculated where cycling was treated as a leisure activity rather than the traditional economic view that cycling is a dangerous experience due to traffic accidents and road rage. In the opinion of Managing Experts4, commuter cycling was intended to be an experience of leisure given that the cycle trails were built to experience the scenic beauty of New Zealand. 6.2.2. Increased use of the trails by the local communities to bond, socialise or raise funds

Stakeholders reported an increased use of the trails by local communities to bond, socialise or raise funds. Examples of these community events5 held on the six trails visited included walking events, music events, marathon, fundraiser events and school activities.

In Queenstown, the cycling trail was used by local schools as part of their outdoor education programme. Large numbers of both organised and casual groups in the Queenstown Basin cycled and walked regularly. Tourism students of Waiaraki Bay of Plenty Polytechnic used Te Ara Ahi for their tourism guiding courses.

In Opotiki, a fitness group named ‘the Puku Busters’ walked the trails every Thursday.

“The Big Easy Ride started to raise the profile of trails (in Hawke’s Bay) and outside the region. The premise is that it is easy to do and anyone can do it. It starts and finishes in a winery. You can get food and drink along the way. Transport is then provided back to the start.” (Hawke’s Bay Trails)

“I saw family events not based on alcohol that finished up with a concert.” (Otago Central Rail Trails)

“Lions donated some money for a bike trailer and now 180 kids use the trail as part of their school activities.” (Hawke’s Bay Trails)

4 The CBA study relied on insights of trail experts Jonathan Kennett and Evan Freshwater who were referred to as ‘Managing Experts’. The same term was used in this report for consistency.

5Some of the events held along the trails included: iD Fashion, Curling International, Big Easy, Small Easy, Puku Busters, Country to Coast by Rotary, marathon, winery event in early November in Hawke’s Bay, Arts on the Trail’, Open Day at Hayes Engineering, Cancer Society doing fundraisers along trails, music nights, duathlon, kids use the trail as part of their school activities, ‘Bike It Now’ competition, Fashion on the trail, Lions group getting together to do Roxburgh George for their outing, local community using it for walking dogs, Dune Dash, annual fun run and community planting days. Events such as the iconic Motatapu, Queenstown Marathon, Women Triathlon series also use the trails or sections of it.

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6.2.3. Increased road safety for some communities

Cyclists, students and walkers used the trail to commute. The construction of a bypass in Clyde increased the number of children using the trail to walk or bike to school safely. In Queenstown, the trail provided a safe non-motorised access to Frankton Primary School for families living along the trail route, particularly in Quail Rise, Lake Hayes Estate and Kelvin Peninsula where the only other non-motorised options were to walk along State Highway 6 - a 70km per hour road without any footpaths - for those at Kelvin Peninsula.

6.2.4. Increased sense of pride, place and identity

Most respondents agreed that the cycle trails provided a sense of place and pride for local residents, and a sense of identity for the region or location. This was particularly the case in smaller and rural towns such as Opotiki, Paeora, Clyde and Middlemarch.

“The OCRT trails gave us a sense of place and pride and a sense of belonging to the region. People outside of the region started to hear about the area and knew the names of the towns that the trail passes through.” (Otago Central Rail Trails)

“The Motu trails have increased regional identity especially for Opotiki. Visitors from Wellington, Palmerston North, Napier and some from Auckland [users] come solely for the trails“ (Motu Trails)

“Hawke’s Bay used to be known only for its art deco buildings. Cycling is now a new reason for people to come. Cycling has also been a new way to link and access the traditional reasons for coming to New Zealand such as winery, scenic and coastal landscapes”. (Hawke’s Bay Trails)

6.2.5. High number of volunteers and volunteer time involved in different aspects of the trail management and operation

Sports New Zealand 2013/14 Active New Zealand Survey (2014)noted that about one million adults a year volunteered in sport and recreation. Evidence of volunteering was high in the cycle trails regions. The Board of Trustees of Trail Trusts were volunteers. Volunteers were utilised for trail inspections, trail user intelligence, at trail events, erecting signage and track maintenance. Paid part-time trail managers commonly reported working more than the hours they were paid for.

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7. NZCT Inc.’s overall leadership role was still found to be vital but could add value to the management and operation at the trail level

7.1. Section Summary: Key findings

The key findings presented throughout this section are summarised here:

• A national body that provided overall leadership, direction, guidance and support to the 22 Great Rides was identified by stakeholders as being important and necessary.

• Stakeholders believed that the current national governance and management body for the cycle trails was not adequately resourced to perform its mandated leadership and support role.

• There was no one-size-fits-all governance and management structure at the trail level. This had given rise to variations of governance and management structures.

• The case study of six selected cycle trails found the following key factors of success which could be used by NZCT Inc. and trail level management to inform overall governance and management of the NZCT moving forward. These included:

o a trail level governance body that had a clear strategy, leadership and direction;

o appointment of board members with relevant skills and experience, and inclusion of local executives in the governance body;

o clarity around the roles and responsibilities of the governance body including the separation of their governance and management duties;

o dedicated resource to maintain and develop the cycle trails; o involvement of the local or central government in the governance and management of the great rides;

o clear roles and responsibilities of trail partners , and clarity about partners’ commitment to long term funding;

o existence of a dedicated and specialist team at the regional level that helped with marketing and promotion of the cycle trails.

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7.2. Discussion of key findings

7.2.1. A standalone entity at the national level to lead, direct, guide and support the trails was found to be vital

The Great Rides are governed at two levels: national and trail level. In September 2012, Cabinet agreed to the establishment of the New Zealand Cycle Trail Incorporated (NZCT Inc.), an incorporated society to deliver the objectives of the NZCT and provide governance and management of the NZCT at the national level. The NZCT Inc. Business Plan 2014-2016 sets out its primary responsibilities and focus as: branding, marketing and communications; quality assurance and data collection; advocacy; trail relationship management and capability building; and fundraising.

The NZCT Inc. Board consists of six directors, five of whom were elected by members representing the Great Rides and the Chair who was appointed by the Crown. All of the directors except for the Chair were volunteers.

NZCT Inc. is a standalone entity that currently “sits” with the Tourism Industry Aotearoa. Some stakeholders expressed the view that NZCT Inc. does not currently “sit” in a logical space. There was a suggestion that a logical location and “home” would be within the NZTA given that most of central government’s cycling operations and funding sits with the Agency. In addition, the cycle plans and strategies of some regional councils were closely aligned with NZTA’s policies and strategies. Other stakeholders felt that NZCT Inc.’s “location” was not critical to the performance of its mandated role, particularly its capacity and capability to deliver on key initiatives and activities that support the trails to succeed.

Overall, stakeholders felt that governance and support from NZCT Inc. had been minimal. Stakeholders said that NZCT Inc. was focused on auditing and assessing what asset holders had done and what needs fixing, instead of providing organisational leadership and direction. Trail managers said that they would have liked to see clear guidance on what their obligations were in terms of physical development of the trails. “The level of support has probably been lighter than what we would have liked. Initially, we were not clear on our obligations under the funding that we have been given.” (Te Ara Ahi Thermal by Bike)

Given the resourcing constraints, NZCT Inc. had only been able to focus on a few of the activities identified in the Business Plan, namely: branding, marketing and communications and to some extent, quality assurance and data collection and advocacy work. NZCT Inc.. has one full-time staff member, a part-time marketing expert and another part-time governance and trail expert. There were a number of areas where stakeholders believed NZCT could add value. These included:

• providing consistent standards of operation and guidelines to all trails; • assisting with data collection and standardised reporting; • providing overall thought leadership and direction; • assisting with product development at the trail level;

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• negotiating better terms with service contracts and purchases where the benefits could be passed onto the trails; • engaging with different stakeholders at the trail level via regular meetings; • sharing of best practice and guidelines around trail management and governance; • helping with fund raising efforts of the trails by leveraging off their national contacts; and • capability building.

Below were some of the thoughts from interview participants in regard to the role NZCT Inc. should play moving forward. “A consistent standard of operation that is centrally driven is a role that NZCT could play.” (Otago Central Rail Trail)

“Organising a get together of cycle trail managers to share learning and best practice around trail management and governance was valuable … the workshop in Wellington was good.” (Te Ara Ahi by Thermal Bike)

“NZCT could be structured like the MTA. They could negotiate discounts for services (printing of brochures, maps, etc.) that could then be passed on to trails. This also helps in standardisation of the look and feel of marketing collaterals of the trails.”(Motu Trails)

“NZCT should be resourced appropriately by central government. Capacity is an issue at present. They should have six or so positions that are funded.” (Hawke’s Bay Trails)

“NZCT could help with raising money as they have more credibility. Another way that NZCT could help is to initiate business contacts in the regions and pass this on to the relevant cycle trails.” (Motu Trails)

Stakeholders also suggested that NZCT could help clarify the roles and responsibilities of the original stakeholders who had signed up to help implement the project. Instances were cited, whereby some of the original trail partners had reneged on their promises to help and contribute. It was suggested that NZCT Inc. could encourage these stakeholders to clarify and review their respective roles and responsibilities, and renew their interest going forward.

“NZCT Inc. could require governance partners to meet regularly such as five times a year. There are instances when the governance partners have not met together for two years. NZCT Inc. as an exterior body does have the stature and capability to do this.” (Motu Rail Trails)

7.2.2. No prescribed trail level governance and management

There is no prescribed governance and management structure at the trail level. Different trails have different trail governance and management structures. Eleven of the trails followed the incorporated society structure of NZCT Inc. although their board composition varied. Some Trusts had the local mayor as a trustee, others had representatives from the local district

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council, but the majority were run by volunteers from the community. Other cycle trails were governed and managed by the regional council or territorial authority. Others lacked governance or management structure, or such structures were unclear. The different types of trail governance and management structures are listed in Appendix 10, page 80.

7.2.3. What works and what are the challenges in terms of governance and management of the cycle trails

The findings in this section have been informed by the case studies of six trails – Otago Central Rail Trail, Queenstown Trails, Hawke’s Bay Trails, Motu Trails, Te Ara Ahi and Hauraki Rail Trails. Information about each trail is provided in Appendix 1 (pages 43-59). These case studies were used to examine the trails’ governance and management arrangements, trail maintenance, and marketing and promotion to better understand ‘what works’ and any challenges.

This study did not intend to prescribe a specific trail governance or management structure for the cycle trails. There was no one-size-fits-all formula. The six trails visited had different governance structures ranging from a charitable trust, council-controlled organisation, a team within the regional or city council, and a Steering Committee. Similarly, the management structures were also different. The cycle trails operated in different political, environmental, economic and social settings which affected the way the trails were being managed. Instead, this study identified key themes on what worked well, and those challenges in governance and management structures. These themes emerged from the experiences of those respondents around these six trails. Cycle trail management may like to consider what works for stakeholders around other trails and adopt governance and management structures appropriate for them.

7.2.3.1. Trail governance

What worked What were the challenges

A governance body that has a clear mandate and Where there were multiple agencies included in strategy, and provides leadership and direction to the governance body, it is sometimes difficult to the organisation work on a shared common goal

Appointment of board members with relevant Sustainability of a trust structure (ie, lack of skills and experience, and inclusion of local succession planning and risk of volunteer fatigue) executives in the governance body especially in a small, rural area

Clarity around the roles and responsibilities of the Difficulty with recruiting volunteer trustees with governance body including the separation of their necessary skills especially in small, rural areas governance and management duties especially those with relevant skills and suitable experience required

a) What worked We believe that key to the success of any organisation, be it private or public, is the existence of a governance body that has a clear mandate and strategy and is able to provide

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organisational leadership and direction. The strategy, leadership and direction are key to unravelling social and economic opportunities for the cycle trails.

We observed that the cycle trails’ governance personnel were generally passionate about what they did and knew where they wanted to go, but many were operating without clear, documented strategic plans. Strategic plans, if they existed, had not been formally adopted or used to provide direction, or to measure performance of organisations.

Where the process of setting clear strategy and goals occurred, it had enabled the boards to:

o gain a better understanding of their environment; o prioritise work programmes; and o provide direction to the management team to achieve the set goals. Stakeholders noted that a strategy without proper execution would be ineffective. A balance between strategy and execution is needed. Of the six trails we visited for the case study, only three cycle trails provided evidence of the existence of a strategy or strategic plan. They were the Queenstown Trails, Motu Trails and Hawke’s Bay Trails. These trails were identifying opportunities and maximising the potential of the cycle trails.

A governance body comprising members with the relevant governance skills and experience is another key success factor. In general, the boards or governance bodies that were operating most effectively were those that had highly skilled members and had active levels of participation by all board members.

One innovative idea was the inclusion of the local or central government chief executive as a board member. Having first-hand knowledge of the cycle trail needs by the local government executive helped to identify how best to support the cycle trails to achieve their full potential. While it may not be the only way to get the local government support, it helped align the local or central government priorities with limited resourcing. Of the six trails visited, only the Queenstown Trails currently had the local Mayor included as a member of its governance body.

Better decision making and a more committed board was evident where there was a clear separation of governance and management and greater understanding of governance roles. Clarity of expectations and boundaries of governance roles helped board members to prioritise strategic issues over operational matters.

b) What were the challenges There were additional challenges when there were multiple partner agencies on the governance board (especially when the cycle trail passed through different local authority jurisdictions). Working together towards a shared common goal was sometimes difficult to achieve. For example, with the governance arrangement of Motu Trails and Hauraki Rail Trails, partner councils had different levels of engagement and support to the cycle trails.

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Trails that were governed via a trust structure were often run by passionate and highly motivated volunteers. However, volunteer fatigue was a problem, and a risk to future operations that needed to be mitigated. Governance and management succession planning needed to be in place.

Another challenge, evident in smaller rural areas, was the difficulty in recruiting volunteer trustees with relevant skills, experience and networks. As these individuals were highly sought after, they were oftentimes already members of other governance boards. In these instances, their expertise were spread too thinly thus preventing them from performing their governance roles and portfolio effectively.

7.2.3.2. Trail management

What worked What were the challenges

Having a dedicated resource to maintain and Sustainability of a trust structure (ie, lack of coordinate development of the trails succession planning and risk of volunteer fatigue)

Involvement of the local government or central Management processes and systems still lacking government in the management structure

a) What worked Most of the cycle trails visited were led by committed, highly competent and experienced individuals. It was clear that these leaders were the driving force of the cycle trails. Their leadership, vision and excellent relationship management made a difference to the trails. Some of these managers were being paid to work part-time but worked full time, while others provided their services entirely for free. In some cases, there were staff members who were paid by their respective district or city councils. Trails that had a dedicated paid resource to manage the trail appeared to be more successful than those who didn’t have one.

b) What were the challenges A cycle trail being managed entirely by volunteers was not sustainable. Where trail management was run entirely by a volunteer or volunteers, there was a high risk of the organisation failing if the key figure such as the manager or the chairperson became unavailable.

Management succession planning was a significant risk for some cycle trails. Other mitigating factors could be introduced such as appointment of a second tier management support or operations manager. However, most cycle trails did not have the resources to pay the manager or the chairperson of the Trust, thus making second-tier management hard to implement.

Good management practices like: operating policies, systems and procedures; financial management; risk management; board management; and quality management procedures were still at their infancy for most of the trails visited. In most cases, the management role was being carried out by a part-time paid staff or by volunteers. In addition to the management role, responsibilities also included operational matters such as fundraising, data collection and

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reporting. There were very limited resources to carry out the range of tasks required of a successful trail management organisation.

7.2.3.3. Trail maintenance

What worked What were the challenges

Clear roles and responsibilities of trail partners, Lack of clarity around roles and responsibilities especially a long term commitment to funding. amongst trail partners

Failure to embed trail maintenance arrangement during the built phase of the cycle trails

Non-delivery of commitment to maintain the trails by some trail partners

a) What worked Where there was a clear long term commitment to funding as well as clear obligations of all partners from day one, trail maintenance was not an issue for cycle trails. The commitment could be in terms of budget for trail maintenance included as business-as-usual (BAU), and that the source of funding was identified, agreed and implemented at the start of the construction phase. A memorandum of understanding identifying the responsibilities of each partner aided stakeholders understanding and subsequent fulfilment of their obligations.

b) What were the challenges Clarity around roles and responsibilities were needed to be re-established for some of the trails. Some trail partners had agreed to provide resources, financial or otherwise, during the feasibility phase of the cycle trails. Organisational and structural changes within some trail partner organisations meant commitments could not be honoured. Either the trail champion left or there was a substantial change in the role and responsibility which hindered their ability to support the trail. A case in point is Te Ara Ahi. Originally, Destination Rotorua was the asset holder of Te Ara Ahi cycle trails but a major reorganisation resulted in a substantial change in its role and responsibility, ultimately affecting its ability to support the trails. The restructuring had also resulted in the loss of its trail champions which affected the coordination and development of the trails.

Clarity of roles was also raised as an issue by some stakeholders in Hawke’s Bay Trails. While there was strong support from the region and the two city councils (Napier and Hastings) to maintain their respective sections of the trails, it was suggested that guidelines on expected standards were needed to ensure that the trails were maintained consistently. The lack of clarity about who would provide that guidance and coordination role was raised as an issue by stakeholders.

The trails that were able to embed trail maintenance arrangement when the trails were built were better off than those who didn’t have ongoing maintenance funding arrangement. Hawke’s Bay Trails, Hauraki Rail Trails, Queenstown Trails, Otago Central Rail Trails and Motu

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Trails all had these trail maintenance arrangement organised through a Memorandum of Understanding (or similar). However, there were instances where, despite having these arrangements, some trail partners had reneged on their responsibilities. Stakeholders saw the enforcement of such agreement as a role NZCT Inc. could assist with.

7.2.3.4. Trail marketing and promotion

What worked What were the challenges

Existence of a dedicated and specialist team at the Lack of support to trails in developing mature regional level that helped with marketing and products ready for international market promoting the trails promotion by Tourism New Zealand

a) What worked At the regional level, what emerged as key to the successful marketing and promotion of the trails (especially in the international market) was the existence of a dedicated team such as the local Regional Tourism Organisation (RTO). These organisations had the network, experience, resources and capability to market and promote the trails better. Evidence suggested that having the RTO actively involved in the marketing and promotion of the trails enabled it to be integrated within the regional marketing strategy. Examples of trails which had the RTO in charge of promoting the cycle trails were the Otago Central Rail Trail, Queenstown Trails and Hawke’s Bay Trails. However, the reality was that the local RTO is much more active in established tourism destinations.

At the national level, stakeholders saw that NZCT Inc. could assist with providing consistency in the ‘look and feel’ of cycle trail marketing collaterals (eg, brochures, maps and trail websites). It was suggested that NZCT Inc. could coordinate the nationwide contracting of services on behalf of all the Great Rides. It was expected that efficiency gains resulting from bulk purchasing could be achieved, the benefits of which could then be passed on to all the cycle trails.

b) What were the challenges The main challenge for some of the trails was lack of support to cycle trails for product development in order to meet Tourism NZ criteria for the international market. The need for such support was much more pronounced in areas where visitor products were in their infancy. Making the cycle trail world class was difficult where there was no appropriate support provided to cycle trails in developing international market-ready products. Additional support was required to grow and establish a visitor industry and products around new trails. Given the objective of the New Zealand Cycle Trail initiative, the need to diversify and grow tourism destinations is needed now more than ever.

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8. This work has been drawn from the following sources:

Angus and Associates (2013), New Zealand Cycle Trail Evaluation – Four Cycle Trail Case Studies. Retrieved from http://nzcycletrail.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/NZCT-Final- Report-Angus-2013.pdf

Antong Victorio, 2016. The New Zealand Cycle Trails: Some Benefits in Relation to Costs. A report prepared for the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment. Wellington: Statscience Research, 2016.

BERL Economics (2011). Otago Regional and Sub-regional profile 2009-1010. http://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/41305277/otago-regional-and-sub-regional- economic-profile-clutha-district-. New Zealand, BERL Economics, 2011.

Central Otago District Council (2012). Summary of Economic Analysis of the Central Otago Economy. New Zealand: Central Otago District Council 2012.

Cabinet Economic Growth and Infratructure Committee EGI (12) 206. Future of the New Zealand Cycle Trail Project. 24 September 2012.

Central Otago District Council (2015). Clutha Gold Trail User Survey 2015. Retrieved from http://www.codc.govt.nz/Site-Collection-Documents/Reports/Other-Reports/Clutha-Gold- Trail-User-Survey-Analysis-2015.pdf

Otago Central Rail Trail. Economic Impact and Trends Survey 2008. Otago Central Rail Trail Trust.

Central Otago District Council (2015). Otago Central Rail Trail: User Survey 2014-15. Retrieved from http://www.otagocentralrailtrail.co.nz/assets/User-Surveys/OCRT-User-Survey-Analysis- 2014-15.pdf

Central District Council (2015). Roxburg George Trail User Survey 2015. Retrieved from http://www.codc.govt.nz/SiteCollectionDocuments/Reports/Other%20Reports/Roxburgh%20T rail%20User%20Survey%20Analysis%202015.pdf

Eastern Bay of Plenty Cycle Trail Strategy July 2015.

Jonathan Kennett, 2013. A Guide to New Zealand’s 23 Great Rides: The New Zealand Cycle Trails Ngā Haerenga.

Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (2015). Internal review of the pros and cons of six trail counter technologies. Unpublished.

Ngā Haeranga New Zealand Cycle Trail 2012. New Zealand’s Premium Cycle Tourism Experiences: Featuring 18 New Great Rides Around New Zealand.

New Zealand Transport Agency. Benefits of Investing in Cycling in New Zealand Communities.

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Queenstown Trails Trust. Queenstown Trails for the future 2015-2015: A Strategic Plan for the Queenstown Trails Trust.

Ryan, Chris, Sun Minghui, Thu Trinh & Li Ping (2013), The Hauraki Rail Trail: Cyclists and Spending. Retrieved from http://www.tcdc.govt.nz/Global/2_Economic%20Development/University%20of%20Waikato% 20Rail%20Trail%202012%202013%20Ridership%20and%20Spend%20Research%205.13%20FIN ALv04.pdf

Saunders, M. (2000). Beginning an evaluation with RUFDATA: theorising a practical approach to evaluation planning [Electronic version]. Evaluation, 6(1), 7-21. Retrieved from http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fss/centres/cset/eval-blank/docs.htm.

Sport New Zealand (2014), Sport and Active Recreation in the lives of New Zealand Adults, Retrieved from http://www.sportnz.org.nz/assets/uploads/attachments/managing- sport/research/sport-and-active-recreation-in-the-lives-of-new-zealand-adults.pdf

Te Puni Kokiri. Evaluation of Investments in the Strengthening Management and Governance Programme. Wellington, New Zealand, 2000.

Tourism New Zealand, (April 2013), Tourism Profile, Tourist Special Interest: Cycling. Retrieved from http://www.tourismnewzealand.com/media/1764/cycling-tourism_profile.pdf.

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Appendix 1: The Case Studies

Six trails were selected for the case study to look at what works and what are the challenges in terms of governance and management of the trails. Below is a short summary about each of the trails, when the Great Ride status was granted, a brief description of the governance and management of the trails and tabular discussion of what works and the challenges met concerning the trail’s governance, management, maintenance, and marketing and promotion. The purpose of this section is not to advocate for a specific trail governance and management structure but to highlight what works for whom and under what conditions. These case studies are intended to give other trails the necessary information to determine what would work best for them. Otago Central Rail Trail

Photo courtesy of Otago Central Rail Trail and NZCT Inc.

Otago Central Rail Trail (OCRT), New Zealand’s first rail trail, opened in 2000. The 152km Grade 1 and 2 trail follows the former route of the Otago Central Railway from Clyde to Middlemarch. The former railway line was ideal for New Zealand’s first off-road cycle-way and walking trail.

The OCRT was originally established in 1994 by the Department of Conservation (DOC)to help it raise funds to convert a disused railway line into a walking and cycling trail. This included the removal of ballast, decking the bridges, improving the culverts and adding handrails. The Trust has gone on from its original purpose of raising initial funding for the trail to having a key role

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in marketing and promoting by producing marketing collateral and operating the Official Otago Central Rail Trail website.

The Trust consists of 4 volunteer trustees and it is assisted by two part-time administrators.

The OCRT officially opened fully in 2000 and the teamwork between the Trust and the Department of Conservation (DOC) has continued. DOC undertakes the maintenance, while the Trust upgrades the trail facilities such as toilets, information boards and shelters, as well as the funding of trail resurfacing. The success of this project informed the government’s plans in 2010 to construct the Great Rides of NZCT.

Structure What works What are the challenges

Trail governance

Governance body is a Charitable The Trust structure can Volunteer fatigue and burn out Trust run by four volunteer trustees leverage off existing grant especially since the trustees with help and support from the funding and can receive funds are all volunteers. However the Department of Conservation. The from philanthropic Trust has been fortunate to trustees are chosen based on their community and related have had long term Trustees skillsets, experiences, location and philanthropic activities. averaging over 10 years before commitment. retiring. Strong community involvement and buy-in. Difficulty in recruiting highly skilled and qualified trustees on The Trust is run by highly a voluntary basis particularly in motivated volunteers. a rural area, however, the trust has managed to secure trustees with varied skill sets.

Distance of the trail means that it can be difficult and expensive for Trustees and contractors to gain knowledge of all the communities on the trail and undertake effective networking. The trustees have managed to overcome this by having trustees based along the trail with very strong local networks.

Trail management

Management of the trails is run by Limited support from paid The Trust work with DOC two paid part-time contractors. One part-time DOC staff is managers to develop a work is looking after accounts, letter available for administrative plan that then delegates roles writing and trail enquiries while the support to DOC staff or trustees. There other is in charge of digital media, is clarity around the trustee relationship building and marketing. roles with them being seen as

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Structure What works What are the challenges

They are funded and contracted by supporting the staff where the Trust and their work is their skill sets and networks contracted as per a work plan. may be best utilised.

DOC leads twice annual stakeholder meetings with operators and other interested parties to ensure issues are being appropriately addressed and opportunities considered.

Changes in DOC staff and focus have reduced the landowner stakeholder input into the trail and this is being looked at as a function to be assisted by the trustees who have their own local networks.

Trail maintenance

Trail maintenance is funded by the Ongoing funding from DOC DOC funding is limited. DOC. provides certainty that the Sometimes the Trust needs to trails are going to be partner other organisations maintained. where the trust sees a demand for improvements in order to support DOC. Two recent examples were the trail realignment at Daisybank addressing a safety issue at a state highway crossing and the construction of the underpass at Clyde where the Trust partnered with Central Otago District Council. Both these projects were led by the Trust with input from MBIE and NZTA.

Trail marketing and promotion

Centralised marketing and The local Regional Tourism Requires local knowledge and promotion at the district level by Organisation (RTO) helps with passion of a specialist team Tourism Central Otago. Tourism NZ international marketing and that the local RTO may not also helps with marketing offshore. promotion of the trails. This have. The Trust had been able has leveraged off existing to support the RTO with A business group was established to budget, experience, resources collaterals. help market the trails. and existing networks of the local RTO. Since marketing

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Structure What works What are the challenges

and promotion is the core function of the RTO, the cycle trails benefitted from a more integrated promotion of the trail with the overall marketing strategy and promotion plan for the entire region.

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Queenstown Trails

Gibbston River Trails. Photo courtesy of Queenstown Trails and NZCT Inc.

The Queenstown Trails is predominantly an easy Grade 2 ride with the exception of parts of Gibbston River and Jacks Point which were constructed prior to the Government initiative. The 120km trail is location based hub and spoke in the heart of Queenstown, making the trails accessible to users at various points in the trail. As an established international tourist destination, Queenstown has an established tourism infrastructure with a wide range of accommodation options, activities and experiences. The integration of the cycle trail has enhanced the experience in this tourist mecca. The Great Ride status was accorded to Queenstown Trails on 18 October 2012.

Queenstown Trails Charitable Trust (formerly Wakatipu Trails Trust) is the governance body of Queenstown Trails. The trust consists of eleven trustees representing a wide variety of sectors with a wide variety of experiences: tourism, landowner, insurance, business, Mayor, education and health, planner, developer, finance, engineering, law and DoC. The part-time, paid Trust CEO manages the trail with support from another part-time administrative staff.

Structure What works What are the challenges

Trail governance

The governance body is a Charitable The governance body has the Trust run entirely by volunteers from right people, the right skills different fields with different skill sets and the right experience; that and experience ranging from business, these types of people are

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Structure What works What are the challenges

planning, education, health, legal, available in the community tourism, among others. The Mayor of and can readily be tapped Queenstown and a representative from into. The Trust has a clear the DOC also sit in the Governance mandate and provides Board. leadership and clear direction for the development of the full potential of the trails.

Queenstown Trails Trust has available resources and levers that can be tapped into when developing the cycle trails.

Community and stakeholder engagement in the trails network is strong. There are over 900 Friends of the Trust, strong business support and buy-in including pro-active patrons.

Strong local government connection and involvement where the local Mayor sits as a member of the Governance Board.

The trust structure can leverage off existing grant funding and can receive funds from the philanthropic community and related philanthropic activities.

Trail management

A paid part-time CEO manages the The CEO is a very passionate Volunteer fatigue and Queenstown Trails. The role is individual who puts extra sustainability of a part-time responsible for off road and other effort and time into making work set up given the wide- cycling opportunities, financial sure that the Governance ranging roles and investments, fundraising, part Board is supported properly, responsibilities of the CEO. maintenance, local promotion of the key strategic relationships are trails, trail inspection, relationship built and opportunities are building, community engagement, developed to maximise the quality assurance, developing full potential of the trails. opportunities ie running of events like the Motatapu and protection of opportunities for the future.

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Structure What works What are the challenges

Trail maintenance

There is a Memorandum of The existence of a binding Understanding (MoU) between the MoU between trail partners Council and the Queenstown Trails for trail maintenance Charitable Trust for the former to removed this responsibility maintain the trails. The Trust still from the Trust enabling it to contributes to the trails upkeep and concentrate on the more inspection. strategic role and function.

The Queenstown Mountain Biking Club contributes thousands of hours voluntarily to develop and maintain single tracks and advocate for off-road cycling generally.

Trail marketing and promotion

Through effective lobbying from the Having the local RTO in There is still a need for a Trust, Destination Queenstown, the charge of marketing and special interest group that Regional Tourism Organisation (RTO), promoting the trails helps will help with promoting has helped with promotion of the trails with a more integrated cycling in Queenstown via their website, product directory and regional marketing and given the more than 170 relevant families/media. Tourism New promotion strategy and plan. tourism activities on offer. Zealand assists in marketing and The local RTO also has This is to ensure that promoting Queenstown as a tourism existing budget, experience, cycling tourism continues destination rather than cycling as an resources and networks that to be a niche or a special activity in Queenstown. could be leveraged in interest opportunity rather marketing and promoting the than a ‘core’ activity, and The local (cycle) operators market the cycle trails. that the local RTO will trails and a variety of specific packages continue to conduct to encourage trail use via the domestic The Queenstown Pedallers specific market research and international channels. assist with events, advocacy and promote the trails and and often acts as the ‘eyes the cycling opportunities in Queenstown Trails Trust markets the and ears’ of trail users on Queenstown. trail (not their core function) via its most days of the week. Official Partner Programme, website and social channels without any marketing budget but use leveraging to achieve this.

Every business in Queenstown, around 1500 members, is a member of Destination Queenstown. Everyone has a voice and gets an equal chance of being promoted by the RTO.

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Hawke’s Bay Trails

Photo courtesy of Hawke’s Bay Trails and NZCT Inc.

The Hawke’s Bay Trail is a 200km network of Grades 1 to 3 trails located in the Hawke’s Bay region. It is largely flat even grades and easy to ride any time of the year. The trails include three rides within the network over 200 km of flat, smooth trails. They run beside the Pacific Coast, up and down three major rivers and connect wineries and cafes close to Napier and Hastings. It has a hub and spoke design where a trail user can start and end at different sections of the trails. The Great Ride status was accorded to the trails on 4 November 2012.

During its inception, the project benefitted from a unified regional approach with strong support from Territorial Local Authorities, local iwi, businesses, local communities and other agencies. This strong relationship between and amongst the key stakeholders has been maintained. The governance, management, maintenance, and marketing and promotion of the trail are led by the Hawke’s Bay Regional Council. The marketing and promotion of the trails is led by its local Regional Tourism Organisation (RTO), the Hawke’s Bay Tourism.

Structure What works What are the challenges

Trail governance

A Steering Group composed The Regional Council, Hastings and Clarity around who has of representatives from the Napier City Councils are all joined up and authority and mandate to Regional and City Councils, are supportive of the cycling trail from govern ie provide leadership

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Structure What works What are the challenges

NZTA, Hawke’s Bay Tourism management and maintenance to and direction. While all and key individuals was set promotion. A new Hawke’s Bay cycling council partners are up during the built phase of strategy has been drawn up to have an supportive, there is need to Hawke’s Bay Trails, the integrated approach in developing and identify where the ‘unified voice’ for trail further maximising the benefits of responsibility lies and who is related matters. cycling for the entire region. accountable. At present, it is not clear who has the overall responsibility within the regional council. Currently, the Regional Council’s Engagement and Communication team currently leads the charge.

Trail management

The Engagement and All three councils are working together Stakeholders were not clear Communications team of to maintain their respective sections of whether the Engagement and Hawke’s Bay Regional the trail. Communication team of the Council is ‘in charge’ with Regional Council has trail related matters. authority over the two partner city councils.

Trail maintenance

The two local councils Regular funding is available from the Inconsistent maintenance of (Napier City Council and regional and city councils to maintain the trails due to lack of clear Hastings City Council) and the sections that cut across their guidance and authority to the Regional Council all jurisdiction. direct what could and should maintain their own sections be done in terms of trail of the trail. maintenance.

Trail marketing and promotion The Hawke’s Bay Tourism leads overall The Hawke’s Bay Tourism, marketing and promotion of the trail, the local RTO, is in charge of which is aligned with the overall marketing and promotion marketing and promotion of the region. of the Hawke’s Bay Trails. Having the local RTO in charge of marketing and promoting the trails helps with a more integrated regional marketing and promotion strategy and plan. The local RTO also has existing budget, experience, resources and networks that could be leveraged in marketing and promoting the cycle trails.

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Motu Trails

The Dunes trails. Photo courtesy of Motu Trails and NZCT Inc.

The Motu Trails is a 120km multi-grade trail (Grade 2 to 4 easy, intermediate and advanced) in the Eastern Bay of Plenty following remote rural roads and purpose built trails ranging from a family friendly ride along the dunes to the challenge of a reconstructed 19th century stock route carved into the steep rock gorges of the Pakihi stream. The different routes echo separate chapters of history dating back to the arrival of Pākehā then heralding the arrival of the pioneering farmers then horse drawn coaches and finally the motor car. It is a point-to- point, single journey designed trails. The trails can be accessed at any of the sections of the trails on a single or return journey. The Great Ride status was accorded to Motu Trails on 20 May 2012.

During the building phase of Motu Trails, four agencies - the Opotiki and Councils, Whakatohea Māori Trust Board and DOC– formed a strong relationship and advocated for the cycle trails to be built. After the construction of the trails was completed, these partner agencies disbanded and the ‘governance entity’ was dissolved. The asset was transferred to the local government and its management was embedded in their processes and was governed by the Local Government Act and annually subjected to audit.

The Motu Trails Charitable Trust was established to market and promote the trails. However, the Trails Trust is increasingly moving and needing to be the single point responsible for the coordination of trail activities.

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Structure What works What are the challenges

Trail governance

The local government, as asset Opotiki District Council is With the ‘governance entity’ during holder, is the ipso facto highly engaged despite it the building phase of the trail being governance body for Motu being the poorest District dissolved after completion of the Trails. Council in New Zealand, but it cycle trails, it may pay to review how can only provide so much this could be resurrected in some assistance due to resource form to help with ongoing limitations. governance of the Motu Trails

Trail management

Councils and DOC manage and Having several highly skilled There is a risk of volunteer fatigue maintain their own sections of trustees with a keen Trail and a risk of not gaining funds to the trail. There is also a Manager who works more deliver on core promotional tasks. Charitable Trust with volunteer volunteer hours than paid. While additional trust funding has trustees and part-time paid been gained since the interview, the Trust Executive Officer (0.75 majority of the trust’s funding has to FTE). The Trust’s remit is to be applied for on a case by case help with trail marketing and basis. promotion but is acting as the coordinator for the trails overall.

Trail maintenance

DoC, Opotiki District Council Opotiki District Council is Funding is stretched. DOC and the (ODC) and to some extent, committed to providing on- Opotiki District Council had to re- Gisborne District Council (GDC) going funding for trail prioritise existing budget for trail is responsible for maintaining maintenance. maintenance. Opotiki is one of the their respective sections of the poorest district councils in New trail. ODC and GDC levels of Zealand and while they are service are embedded in their committed to support and maximise Long term plans. the economic potential of the trails, they have limited funds to Much of the trail is located on contribute. DOC has limited funding road which is maintained as a to provide a visible level of service. BAU, not a specific cost to the trail.

Trail marketing and promotion

The Motu Trails Charitable A charitable trust is able to In a rural area like Opotiki, highly Trust was formed in 2010 to leverage off funding from qualified and highly skilled people progress marketing and grant bodies and already volunteer in many other boards. This therefore impinges on promotion of the trails. The organisations like the Lions their ability to deliver on their Trust is also in charge of the Club and other philanthropic portfolio so the grunt of work ends ‘Official Partners’ Programme organisations. up with the part-time Trail Manager.

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Structure What works What are the challenges

Funding applications and compliance with accountability requirements from grant bodies take a lot of time for so little money but this has to be done because funding from the council is stretched.

May look at how to involve the local RTO more widely in marketing and promotions of the trails, and possibly review the role of the Trust and the Trail Manager (ie, providing specialist advise and local knowledge and support to the local RTO), and channel its focus into the overall management and coordination of trail activities.

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Te Ara Ahi

Photo courtesy of Te Ara Ahi Thermal by Bike and NZCT Inc.

Te Ara Ahi is a 48km Grade 2 and 3 trail that covers a variety of roads passing through the geothermal areas of the Rotorua region. The original vision of Te Ara Ahi was to connect by bike a number of the iconic geothermal visitor attractions in the region. It was accorded Great Ride status on 25 August 2013.

A major organisational restructure in 2014 at Destination Rotorua, the local Regional Tourism Organisation, and the Rotorua Lakes Council affected the governance, management, maintenance and promotion of the trails. Destination Rotorua used to be the key asset holder and responsible for overall governance and management during the building phase of the trail. Its role was cut back and is more focused on promoting Rotorua as a tourism destination. At present, there is a renewed interest to look at maximising the potential of the trails. In the new Long Term Plan developed by the Rotorua City Council, additional resource was obtained and put into the trail maintenance. It is also currently seeking advice from NZCT Inc. on what model works in setting up a trust to manage the trails.

Structure What works What are the challenges

Trail Governance

Destination Rotorua used to The local government has begun Leadership in terms of governance be key asset holder and to renew their support to the and management was lacking due responsible for overall cycle trails by including its to a major restructuring in both governance and management development in the council’s long the regional and city councils. The during the asset built. The term plan. The development of restructuring resulted in losing the function of Destination the trails is now included in the cycle trail champions. Rotorua was cut back. Its role council’s long term plan. Maintenance of the trails was is now more on the stopped. NZTA looked after hard promotion of the Rotorua as infrastructures to a limited extent. a destination, not much to do Gravel sections were transferred with the governance, to new parks group at the council. management and promotion Very little other pockets of of the cycle trails. maintenance were done.

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Structure What works What are the challenges

Trail management

Rotorua City Council is The local government began to Major restructuring in the council looking to establish a trails renew their support to the cycle affected the trail management. trust to be responsible for trails by reviewing roles and maintaining the tracks and all establishing a Trail Trust that will Cycling champion moved types of off road networks. look after the tracks and all types elsewhere. of off road networks. Focus of Destination Rotorua became promotion of a destination so other functions were parked such as maintenance and overall trail management.

Trail maintenance

The Sports and Recreation The local government began to The council is still in the process of team of Rotorua City Council renew their support to the cycle identifying the appropriate is responsible for trails by providing funding for structure and approach to use for infrastructure and trail maintenance. There is also a trail maintenance. They are maintenance needs of the dedicated team (the Sports and looking to establish a trust cycle trails. The council is Recreation team) in the council supported by seed funding from currently looking at now that is tasked to take the council. employing a paid staff responsibility for all trail position whose role would infrastructure and trail include oversight of trail maintenance. maintenance.

Trail marketing and promotion The local government began to The council still needs to clarify the Marketing, promotion and renew their support in marketing role Destination Rotorua will play partnership around the trail and promoting of the cycle trails. in trail marketing and promotion. would still remain as a Active involvement of Destination function of the council but Rotorua (DR) in marketing and need to clarify which arm – promoting the cycle trails is being Destination Rotorua or Parks encouraged due to its existing and Recreation. and established relationship with partners via its existing partnership programme. DR has about 25 per cent of its funding from partnership funds. They have an existing commercial relationship and have the opportunity to leverage even more.

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Hauraki Rail Trail

Biking Owharoa falls. Photos by NZ Cycle Trails Inc. The Hauraki Rail Trail is a two day, 80km Grade 1 and 2 cycle trails using an abandoned railway system in the Hauraki Gulf plains and the Coromandel Peninsula. It follows existing stop banks and railway formations and therefore the alignment and gradient is generally flat and smooth. It is suitable for non-cyclists and beginner cyclists. The Great Ride status was accorded to Hauraki Rail Trails on 5 May 2012.

The Hauraki Rail Trail Charitable Trust was formed in 2012 by the three participating Councils to take over responsibility for the Rail Trail. The three partner Councils are: Hauraki, Matamata-Piako and Thames-Coromandel District Councils. The Charitable Trust is made up of six trustees, three appointed by the Councils (one each) and three Iwi trustees. The trustees are to be selected according to their skills and experience based on business/tourism experience, understanding of governance issues and of tikanga Māori.

The Great Cycle Rides New Zealand trading as Hauraki Rail Trail runs the day-to-day operations of the trails including the centralised booking system, trail inspection and marketing and promotion. Marketing and promotion, particularly to the international market, is done with Destination Coromandel and Tourism New Zealand. The Charitable Trust gets five per cent commission to assist with funding its costs.

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Structure What works What are the challenges

Trail governance

The Hauraki Rail Trail Trust is made up Active involvement of the local Multiple partner agencies of six trustees, three of whom are government in the governance and councils are difficult to appointed by the three iwi and one body. manage. It is sometimes each by the three partner councils difficult to work on a shared (Hauraki, Matamata-Piako and It is acknowledged that the common goal. Thames-Coromandel District Councils) current governance board is not adequately supported and On paper, the Charitable there is a strong interest to get Trust is responsible for the the governance body in order. governance and management, trail promotion and future development, stakeholder relationships and communications, and financial management and funding. However, this has not been the actual case. Clarity around the role of the Charitable Trust is needed.

There are no clear criteria as to who gets nominated into the governance board. This needs to be more transparent.

Trail management

A part-time paid staff member is Trail governance and responsible for managing the trail. management are not closely linked. The role of the part-time staff is more administrative in nature compared to other cycle trails where the trail manager has a more strategic role ie, supports the Governance Board in generating opportunities for the cycle trails and strategic relationship building to maximise the social and economic potentials of the cycle trails.

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Structure What works What are the challenges

Trail maintenance

Hauraki, Matamata-Piako and Ongoing funding from the three Lack of funding for trail Thames-Coromandel District Councils participating district councils is development and contribute funds for maintaining the available for the maintenance improvements ie, tree trail, with Hauraki District Council of their respective sections of planting and trail signage contributing more. As of 1 July 2016, the cycle trails. and markers. responsibility for the maintenance of the trail rests with the Hauraki District Council with funding being provided

by the three partner councils. This responsibility has been taken off the Trust.

Trail marketing and promotion

Marketing and promotion of the trail Involving Destination Need to clarify the is centralised through the Great Cycle Coromandel, the local RTO, in marketing and promotion Rides Limited (Hauraki Rail Trail), a promoting the trails role of the Hauraki Rail Trail company that was formed after a internationally. Trust with that of the public tender process organised by the Hauraki Rail Trail. Hauraki District Council in 2012. Hauraki Rail Trail works with Need to review the overall Destination Coromandel who in turn role of the Hauraki Rail Trail works with Tourism New Zealand in including the booking marketing the trails internationally. commission arrangement and perceived conflict of Hauraki Rail Trail is also responsible interest. for managing the centralised booking system of trail activities, tour guides, accommodations and shuttle bus services.

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Appendix 2: Methodology

Introduction This section describes in detail the methodology used in the evaluation. A summarised version is contained in the main body of the report (refer to page 12). Project planning and design A needs assessment was undertaken to discuss how the evaluation would be useful to the key stakeholders and to inform the overall evaluation design. Using the RUFDATA6 tool, the evaluation team met with NZ Cycle Trail (NZCT) Inc. Board Chair and Project Manager, MBIE Tourism Policy team and cycling trail managing expert Jonathan Kennett to discuss the direction and focus of the evaluation based on their respective needs and current work programmes. Evaluation approach Through the needs assessment, the following evaluation objectives were identified:

• Assess the regional economic contribution of the NZCT; • Assess the economic and social, health, environmental , cultural and other related benefits to affected communities; • Identify key success factors concerning best practice that can be used as guidelines for effective management of the NZCT programme.

In addition, the evaluation approach was informed by the intervention logic developed for the programme. It has also helped frame the following key evaluation questions.

1) To what extent has the NZCT contributed to the regional economic development and growth particularly in terms of employment, business and revenue? 2) To what extent has the NZCT contributed to economic outcomes as well as positive social, health and cultural outcomes among the community? 3) What works best for whom, under what conditions, and why? What lessons can be learnt around setting up and the governance of the project at different levels? What could have been done differently? A mixed method approach was used in evaluating the NZ Cycle Trails. This made use of both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Three different methodologies were used to address the key evaluation questions.

Statistics New Zealand’s microdata, in particular, the Longitudinal Business Database (LBD) was earlier envisaged to assess the extent to which NZ Cycle Trails had contributed to the regional

6 Developed by Saunders (2000), RUFDATA is an abbreviation for the key questions asked of key stakeholders at the initial stages of the evaluation, particularly when drafting an evaluation plan. R stands for Reason for the evaluation, U for Use, F for Foci/Focus of the evaluation, D for DATA or evidence of the evaluation, A for Audience of the evaluation, T for Timing, and A for Agency conducting the evaluation.

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economic development and growth in employment, business and revenue. However, the study was cut short due to unavailability of data in the datalab environment. Usable data was only available until 31 March 2013. Since most cycle trails were completed in 2013 and beyond, the impact of the cycle trails would have only been visible from 2014 and beyond. Due to this timing issue, the LBD analysis was unable to generate meaningful analysis of the regional contribution of the cycle trails. A refresh of the analysis could be undertaken at a later date when the database has been updated to 2015 or later data.

The second evaluation approach used was a cost benefit analysis that also included an analysis of the social contribution of the cycle trails. This study was undertaken to assess the economic as well as the health, social and indirect impacts of the cycle trails. The study was commissioned to an external expert. Detailed discussion of the methodology can be read from the cost benefit analysis report itself, which should be read alongside this full evaluation report.

Then a case study methodology was used to investigate the operations and management of the NZCT programme. Interviews with stakeholders also provided anecdotal evidences around the social and economic benefits of the trails. The success case methodology (SCM) was used to help identify and select the cases visited. SCM was useful for uncovering what was working and what was not as a guide for change. It involved determining what ‘success’ or ‘failure’ may look like. A small number of case sites were then visited to explore important success factors and their inter-relationships. Lessons learned from governance and management at trail level could be used by other trails to work out what would work best for them.

Document review All the foregoing methods were supported by desktop analyses. Documents such as trail feasibility studies, implementation plans and trail reports, survey data (International Visitor Survey data, NZCT Inc. trail user survey data), project management reports, briefing papers and trail websites information were analysed to better understand the initiative and inform the focus of the evaluation. These documents were also used to inform the interview guide for the key information interviews.

The main data sources used were:

• Longitudinal Business Database (LBD) and meshblock census data; • NZCT Inc. Warrant of Fitness of Trails (WoF) data; • Existing NZCT Inc. survey of cycle trail users; • Trail counters; • International Visitor Survey (IVS) data; and • Stakeholder interviews (ie NZCT project managers, Tourism policy staff, NZCT Inc. staff, relevant regional council staff, Tourism New Zealand, NZ Transport Agency and Department of Conservation.

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Case study The case study methodology was used to investigate the operations and management of the programme. The interviews with stakeholders also provided anecdotal evidences around the social and economic benefits of the trails. The success case methodology (SCM) was used to help identify and select the cases visited.

In addition to the five areas of success, consideration was also made on whether the trails were located in rural or urban area, nature of their governance and management structure (ie the existence of a body that has the trails as its purpose of existence or a dedicated person in the local council whose main role is to look after the trails). The selection of trails to visit was also informed by Jonathan Kenneth, NZ Cycle Project Manager and NZ Cycle Trails expert.

Of the 22 existing Great Rides, six trails were selected, as follows:

1. Otago Central Rail Trail (Central Otago) 2. Queenstown Trails (Queenstown) 3. Hawke’s Bay Trails (Hawke’s Bay) 4. Motu Trails (Opotiki/Gisbone) 5. Te Ara Ahi (Rotorua) 6. Hauraki Rail Trail (Coromandel Peninsula)

Key informant interviews used in the case studies The Research and Evaluation team visited the selected trails. There were a total of 31 formal interviews conducted and a greater number of informal interviews. Semi-structured interviews were held with representatives from the local councils, trail managers, Board of Trustees and Chief Executives of Trusts, business owners and operators and key stakeholders from central government agencies (NZ Transport Authority, Tourism New Zealand and Department of Conservation). Interviews with NZCT Inc.. Board and Project Manager as well as MBIE Tourism Policy were also undertaken. A greater number of informal interviews were held with businesses and operators, domestic and international trail users and community members when visiting the six trails.

Interviews were generally held at workplaces and at times, in places most suitable for the interviewees. A semi-structured interview guide was used during the interviews and interviewees were tape-recorded with their consent.

Below were the steps and a description of the activities undertaken by the evaluators.

Step Activity

1. Planning • Developing the interview guide and sending it to stakeholders for feedback process and sufficiency of coverage and areas that the evaluation may need to focus on. • Selecting the cycle trails for the case visit – Success Case Method (SCM) was used to select from the 22 Great Rides six cycle trails being selected based on the following criteria: o Trail use (eg number of people using the trail)

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o Trail experience (eg number of events held, level of satisfaction with trails, maintenance of trail) o Trail ownership and governance (trail has a dedicated employee or a dedicated trust) o Partnership and on-going funding (existence of ongoing partnerships with business and community groups, existence of funds for ongoing maintenance) o Social and economic impact (based on advice of trail managing expert) • While not a key criteria, the trails selected were also a mix of urban and rural trails. • The five success criteria were also used as the key areas used in designing the interview guide. 2. Data Ttwo members of MBIE Research and Evaluation team used face-to-face collection interviews with interviewees were undertaken. The interviewees were informed of their rights prior to the interview and were requested to sign a consent form before the interview commenced.

3. Data Content analysis using a thematic analysis approach was used to analyse the analysis fieldwork notes. The five success criteria used in the Success Case Method when selecting the trails for the case visits were also used as the analysis framework.

4. Report Information collected is presented as aggregated results and quotes are Writing attributed anonymously to maintain confidentiality of participants. Anecdotal stories on the economic and social benefits of the cycle trails gathered from the qualitative study were integrated into the findings of the cost benefit analysis.

Cost benefit analysis It is recommended that the full report should be read as detailed discussion of the methodology is discussed in each section of the report.

Overall evaluation report Findings from these different methodologies were synthesised into an overall evaluation report by the Research and Evaluation Team, Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment.

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Appendix 3: NZCT Intervention Logic Long term outcomes

Increased employment Increased wider benefits to NZ eg pollution Increased productivity in Increased innovation opportunities regionally and reduction and increased recreation, health, social the tourism sector in the tourism sector nationally and cultural experiences

Medium term outcomes

Creation of Regional Ongoing ongoing jobs Growth in cycle Regional employment investment community, through trail based events that Diversification of growth in the tourism, in the trail government and management, generate revenue NZ’s tourism accommodation, and and related business marketing and and provide tourism product mix service sectors businesses engagement maintenance opportunities

Short term outcomes

Greater community, government and Revitalisation of areas Increased international and domestic awareness of the trails through business engagement during trail and attractions branding and marketing

Create jobs through construction and Create demand for Increase in international and Increase local communities’ use maintenance of the trails secondary services domestic cycle tourists of the trail

Outputs

Construct and maintain cycle trails NZCT Inc.. provides oversight to the NZCT networks International marketing of trails

Inputs

$50m initial Maintenance Regional Local contributors – local NZCT Tourism NZ – government investment funds Investment councils, RTO’s, DoC, cycle project international

Problem Assumptions/External factors • Unemployment • Economic conditions affecting international visitor market • Underinvestment in public good assets • Regulatory factors contributing to productivity and growth in the • Limited tourism industry collaboration tourism sector

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Appendix 4: Start Date and Official Opening of the Great Rides NZ Cycle Trail Location Year started Year completed

North Island

Twin Coast Cycle Trail Northland 2010 First section, 2011 Hauraki Rail Trail Hauraki/Coromandel 2010 2011 Motu Trails Bay of Plenty 2010 2012 Waikato River Trails Waikato 2009 2011 Te Ara Ahi Thermal By Rotorua 2010 2013 Bike Hawke’s Bay Trails Hawke’s Bay 2010 2012 Great Lake Trail Taupo 2011 2014 Mountains to Sea Trail Ruapehu Mostly open 2012 in 2010 The Timber Trail Waitomo 2010 2013 Rimutaka Trails Wellington 1984 2014

South Island

Dun Mountain Trail Nelson 2010 2011 Tasman’s Great Taste Nelson Tasman 2010 Stage 1, 2014 Trail The Old Ghost Road West Coast 2010 2015 Queen Charlotte Track Marlborough 1989 1992 Sounds West Coast Wilderness West Coast 2010 2015 Trail St James Cycle Trail Hanmer Springs 2009 2010 Alps 2 Ocean Cycle Trail North Otago 2010 2017 The Queenstown Trail Queenstown 2010 2012 Otago Central Rail Trail Central Otago 1993 2000 Clutha Gold Trails Central Otago 2010 2013 Roxburgh Trails Central Otago 2010 2013 Around the Mountains Queenstown 2013 Stage 1, 2014 Source: MBIE Tourism Policy

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Appendix 5: Case Study Selection Criteria In selecting cases for the success case method analysis, the Research and Evaluation Team developed five areas of success with indicators, measures and relevant information sources for each. The intent was to determine what ‘success’ or ‘failure’ might look like and identify trails exhibiting evidence of success or failure. These five areas were: trail use, trail experience, trail ownership and governance, partnership and on-going funding and economic and social impact.

Below were the criteria used with indicators, measures and sources of data.

Trail use Indicator Measure Source Number of people using the Increase in use of trail by X% Trail counters trail (seasonally adjusted and proportional to the trail Trail Management reports (NZCT and MBIE Tourism investment) Policy)

Trail experience Indicator Measure Source

Number of events held each At least one per year Trail and NZCT websites year

Level of satisfaction with trail 80% satisfied or very Trail survey satisfied

Maintenance of trail No known problems in the Trail warrant of fitness trail that is holding them reports back from achieving their full potential Trail inspection reports

Trail ownership and governance Indicator Measure Source

Have a dedicated employee One employee dedicated to NZCT Project Manager work on trail

Trail has dedicated trust Trust established with trail Trail website as purpose for existence

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Partnership and on-going funding Indicator Measure Source

Existence of ongoing At least one major ongoing Trail and NZCT websites partnerships with business and partnership community groups

Existence of funds for ongoing Ongoing incoming funds Trail Managers maintenance greater than cost of maintenance

Established mechanism to Has a donation collection Website obtain donations and funds site online or on trail

Economic and Social Impact 7 Indicator Measure Source

Number of businesses in 2.5km Increase higher than CBA analysis radius of trail increased regional average Trail User Survey/Business Survey

Number of people employed in Increase higher than CBA analysis 2.5km radius of trail increased regional average Trail User Survey/Business Survey

Revenue has been generated Evidence of positive fiscal CBA analysis by trail impact

Positive social impact has been Evidence of positive social Cost Benefit Analysis generated by trail impact

7 The source of information for this criterion when selecting the case study trails was managing expert Jonathan Kennett.

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Appendix 6: NZ Cycle Trail Evaluation Consent Form

What is this evaluation about? The evaluation of the NZ Cycle trails aim to: • assess the regional economic contribution of the cycle trails; • assess the social, health, environmental, cultural and other related benefits to affected communities, and • identify key success factors concerning best practice that can be used as guidelines for effective management of the NZ Cycle trail programme. A mixed method approach is being used to meet the objectives of the evaluation. These methods include the case study approach which aims to take a detailed look at selected cases to understand what works best for whom, under what conditions, and why/how, and also understand the lessons to be learned around the setting up and governance of the project at all levels, and what could have been done differently. What does this study mean for you? You have been involved and/or affected one way or the other by the establishment of the cycle trails. We would now like to talk to you in person to find out more about your experiences and views around trail use, trail experience, trail ownership and governance, partnership and on-going funding, economic and social impact and overall success (or not) of the trails. The interview will take about 60-90 minutes. What are your rights? You have rights in this study: • If you do not want to take part in the interviews you don’t have to. • No one, except the Research and Evaluation team, will know what you have said – your name won’t be used in any reports. • You don’t have to answer any question you don’t want to and you can stop the interview at any time. • The information you give us will be stored in a safe and secure place and will be destroyed four years after the research is completed. • If you decide that you no longer want to be part of the study you can ask for your information to be taken out within two weeks of doing the interview. • You can check the notes taken during the interview. You can do this during the interview or as soon as you have finished the interview. • We would like to tape record your interview if you agree. This is to make sure we take down all the information you tell us.

Tick the boxes you agree with below:

 I understand the information above and know my rights in this study. I understand that I do not have to be part of this study if I don’t want to.

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 I understand that I don’t have to answer any question I don’t want to and can stop the interview at any time.  I agree to take part in an interview.  I agree to the interview being tape recorded.  I would like to hear about the study after it is finished.

My name:______

My Email Address: (If you would like to receive a summary of the report, this is where we will send it)______

My signature: ______

The date:______

Who can you contact if you would like to find out more about the evaluation? If you have any questions about this evaluation, please contact Matilde Tayawa Figuracion or Cath Taylor at the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment.

Matilde Tayawa-Figuracion Phone 04-901 9827 Mobile 027 476 3787 Email [email protected]

Cath Taylor Phone 04-9011586 Mobile 021 800 009 Email [email protected]

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Appendix 7: NZ Cycle Trail Evaluation Case Study Interview Guide Introduction • Introduce MBIE Research &Evaluation Team, evaluation objectives and key evaluation questions • Provide a quick overview of the project stages and highlight the purpose of the case study visits and timing: o What works best for whom, under what conditions, and why/how? o What lessons can be learned around setting up and governance of the project at all levels, and what could be done differently? • Clarify that the discussion will not focus on commercially sensitive information • Advise that we would like to record discussions and provide assurance that all comments in the report will remain anonymous. • Any questions before we get started? Trail Use • Describe current use of the trail o Who uses it (international/domestic/tourists, locals, cyclists/walkers, others, other markets etc) o How the trail is used (entry points, directions, volumes, peak seasons/months/days/times) o Do user stay overnight on the trail, in the area or elsewhere o Current/anticipated patterns of day vs overnight users • What geographical area is affected by the trail in terms of o Economic impact? Just the immediate area (2.5km radius, 10km radius, 20 or more km radius) o Other impacts (for example environmental, social etc.)? o Any outside or new operators entering the local market in response to the trail development? o What is future use of the trail likely to look like? o What is anticipated in terms of use and user characteristics? o How do you see the trail evolving and maturing over time? Trail Experience • Number of events held each year – how many events held each year, who are involved, what impact (economic and social impacts) this/these event(s) may have had? If none, why? • Level of satisfaction with trail – How satisfied are the trail users with location of the trail? How about the design of the trail? Overall trail experience? Why? • Maintenance of trail – Who are involved in the maintenance of the trail? What is the average cost per km to maintain? Who pays for maintenance? Any known problems in the trail that is holding you from achieving its full potential?

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Trail ownership and governance • Do you have dedicated employee that is looking after the trail? How helpful or not is this? • Is there a dedicated trail trust that is looking after the trail? How helpful or not is this? Partnership and on-going funding • Is there an existing on-going partnerships with business and community groups? What is this? How was this developed? • Is there an existing arrangement for on-going maintenance, including funds? If yes, what is this? How was it developed? • Is there an established mechanism to obtain donations and funds? How was this established? Economic and social impact • What are the current or expected outcomes of the trail for the community? Has or will… o Stimulated the economy? o Stimulated community involvement? o Stimulated pride, sense of belonging, general ‘good will’? o Stimulated event activity? o Provided recreational benefits to the local community? o Provided commuter (active transport) benefits to the local community? o Stimulated regional and business investment? o Increased jobs in the area? . Construction . Post construction . Temporary/short-term jobs vs permanent/long-term employment . Expectations for the future o Led to new businesses or expansion of existing businesses? o Increased high value tourism (cycle tourism) o Increased in regional profile? o Increased in regional branding and marketing? o Stimulated collaboration between business and local government and/or the community? • Any other benefits? Unintended consequences? • Do you see or expect any problem/impediments/costs to the community? • What would be needed to overcome these or to realise further benefits of the trail, including greater market demand? • Any views on how the NZCT brand increased awareness about NZ as a cycling destination?

Overall success (or not) of the trail • What was used that worked? How? With whom? When? Under what circumstances? What was not helpful? • What results were achieved? What is the measurable difference? How do you know – what evidence?

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• What good did it do? What was achieved? Why was that important? What negative outcomes were avoided? • What helped? What contributed to the success? • Suggestions – what might have increased the level of success even further?

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Appendix 8: NZ Cycle Trails Evaluation Case Study Information Sheet Kia ora,

As you may be aware, the Research and Evaluation Team the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (MBIE) are conducting an evaluation of the New Zealand Cycle Trails.

Project Objectives and Key Evaluation Questions (KEQs) The key objectives of the evaluation are to: • Assess the regional economic contribution of the NZCT; • Assess the social, health, environmental, cultural and other related benefits to affected communities; and • Identify key success factors concerning best practice that can be used as guidelines for effective management of the NZCT programme.

Three streams of work will aim to provide answers to the evaluation objectives. These are: 1. Analysis of regional impact using the Longitudinal Business Data (LBD) in the Information Data Infrastructure (IDI), a massive data infrastructure about business performance; 2. Social Cost Benefit Analysis to investigate not only the economic benefits but also intangible benefits of the cycle trail; and 3. Case Study of selected trails to understand best practice around trail management and governance.

The Case Study Visits The aim of the case study visits is to take a detailed look at selected cases to understand what works best for whom, under what conditions, and why/how, and also understand the lessons to be learned around the setting up and governance of the project at all levels, and what could have been done differently.

We have selected six cycle trails to visit using various criteria of success. We hope to be able to have in-depth discussion with you and other key stakeholders around the following:

• Trail Use • Trail Experience • Trail Ownership and Governance • Partnership and on-going funding • Economic and Social Impact • Overall success (or not) of the trail

A separate Interview Guide is included for your perusal, reference and guidance.

The interview will take about 60-90 minutes. We will endeavour to visit you at your workplace or a place that is most convenient for you. We hope to be able to record the interview (with your agreement) to help with our analysis. We will ensure that we follow ethical considerations as discussed below.

73 MINISTRY OF BUSINESS, INNOVATION & EMPLOYMENT NZ Cycle Trail Evaluation Report 2016

Ethical considerations The Research and Evaluation (R&E) Team undertaking the case visits are members of either the Aotearoa New Zealand Evaluation Association (ANZEA), the Australasian Evaluation Society (AES) or the American Evaluation Association (AEA). The R&E Team will adhere to the Evaluation Standards of these professional evaluation groups.

The evaluation will be conducted in accordance with the ANZEA and AES guidelines for the ethical conduct of evaluations.8 Given the evaluation will have some Māori components to it, we will also ensure that appropriate measures are undertaken to respond to Māori ethical issues.

We will ensure that all participants in the evaluation undertake their participation voluntarily and explicitly, and without threat or undue inducement, indicate their willingness to participate in the project.

Prior to interviewing, we will provide participants with a consent form. At the outset of interviews we will talk participants through the consent form to ensure that they are aware of: the kinds of information to be sought, the procedures that will be used to assure confidentiality; the option to decline answering any question and the option to withdraw from the interview at any time.

We will ensure we protect participant confidentiality and privacy through informed consent and the responsible use of information (including appropriate policies regarding information storage, storage timeframes and disposal protocols).

All contact details and personal information gathered for the evaluation will be confidential to the project team. Participants’ identities will be kept confidential unless their roles are so singular as to make such anonymity impossible. In these cases, participants will be advised that they could be identified and given the opportunity to review their contributions before inclusion in any reports.

Key contacts: If you have any questions before and after our visit, please contact:

Matilde Tayawa-Figuracion Cath Taylor Senior Analyst, Research and Evaluation Unit Analyst, Research and Evaluation Unit Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment MBIE Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] DDI: 04 901 9827 DDI: 04 901 1586 Mobile: 027 476 3787 Mobile: 021 800 009

8 www.aes.asn.au/about/Documents%20.../code_of_ethics.pdf

74 MINISTRY OF BUSINESS, INNOVATION & EMPLOYMENT NZ Cycle Trail Evaluation Report 2016

Appendix 9: Formula Used in Estimating Visitor Numbers from 2015 NZCT Raw Data

Prepared by Jonathan Kennett, 16 June 2016

From the raw data I have calculated the number of individual users and the number of user days. Obvious errors in the raw data have been corrected. For user days I have estimated the average time taken to ride a trail (ie, for the OCRT 3.5 days. Formula for each trail are given below. Numbers in italics are estimates. This has not yet been reviewed by the trails.

Comparisons between trails are not reasonable because they have different numbers of counters and some are close to population centres, while others are not. For example, the Hawke’s Bay Trail has a counter on Marine Parade which is very close to Napier playgrounds, swimming pool, bike hire, i-SITE and aquarium, etc. The Great Taste Trail on the other hand does not have a counter on the Railway Reserve Path, which would be used by more people than any of their other section. The same goes for Mountains to Sea (no counter on the trail leading to town) and the Rimutaka Cycle Trail (no counter on Petone Foreshore) and Otago Central Rail Trail (no counter near Alexandra).

Therefore, some trails are not counting short trips on their most popular sections of trail (there are more notes on this point at the end).

Formula

I have extrapolated from the raw data based on my knowledge of where the counters are and how people are using the trail.

Twin Coast: Data is sum of two counters which are on unconnected sections of the trail, therefore multiply by 0.75 to estimate visitor numbers (estimate half the users are doing both sections).

Hauraki Rail Trail: There are three distinctive legs: Thames to Paeroa, Paeroa to Waihi and Paeroa to Te Aroha. For users: Thames to Paeroa, multiply Kopu by 0.95 = 10,751. Paeroa to Waihi, multiply Karangahake Bridge (actually C7, not C8) by 0.55 . I’ve also corrected C7 data for Sept by halving it. Total count for users = 58098. Paeroa to Te Aroha, multiply D3 by 0.95 = 13,039 Total users = 81,888. Multiply by 1.2 to obtain user days = 98,265

75 MINISTRY OF BUSINESS, INNOVATION & EMPLOYMENT NZ Cycle Trail Evaluation Report 2016

Waikato: How many counters do they have? I estimate 4. There would be a high percentage of day visits – est 50% (20667 users) and the other counts are getting one person four times (therefore 5166). Total = 25,833.

Motu Dunes Trail: Has two counters and I estimate 80% of the users will be going there and back and are therefore being counted four times. The remaining 20% are being counted twice. Therefore multiply the data by 0.3 to estimate user numbers. All users travel through Dunes in one day. Motu Pakihi Track has two counters and estimate all users are counted twice. All users ride Pakihi in one day. I used 2016 data for Q1 as 2015 Q1 data was all over the place.

Te Ara Ahi: Three counters. Hemo Gorge: assume 90% of Hemo Gorge users riding both ways to access MTB Park. Therefore multiply by 0.55. Counter at Waimangu is unreliable. 2015 data was ignored. Waiotapu: Counter data for Waiotapu is good for three months. I have estimated the rest of the year. Numbers riding there and back at this location I estimate to be only 20%. Therefore multiply by 0.9 to only count that 20% once. Therefore, approximately 1000 people are probably riding the full trail.

Timber Trail. I have only used the counter data from Hut No 10. As this is in the middle of day two it is unlikely to get users going past it twice, those numbers would be offset by people doing day trips from Pureora. Most riders do this trail in two days.

Taupo Great Lake: They have 5 counters. The data is the sum total of the counters. They have three distinctive sections of trail: Waihaha, Orakau, and W2K. Waihaha: take Waihaha counter, subtract 800 as one way trips, divide the remainder by 2, then add 800 back. 2015 total is 3200 Orakau: multiply by 0.8 to remove double counts. 2015 total is 8622. W2K: every user will be passing both counters, or one counter twice. Therefore add both counter data and divide by two. 2015 total is 25251+14199 = 39,450 divided by 2 = 19,725 To get total users we can assume that 800 users (the boaties) on Waihaha are doing W2K, and perhaps 50% of Orakau Riders (4311) are doing W2K. Therefore total users is 19,725+800+4311= 24,836. As virtually no riders are staying overnight on the trail the number of users = the number of days.

Mountains to Sea: Has 5 counters, but providing intermittent data. We have Bartrums counter throughout 2014 providing fairly reliable data for those riding to Bridge to Nowhere. Total is 2322. We have a Jan 2014 count for Old Coach Road. 4182. We do not have any counts for the Whanganui end. There will be thousands using the riverside trails (locals and visitors). Therefore we are undercounting for the trail as a whole. The data for Bridge to Nowhere is probably counting canoers and jet boaters walking up from the landing and back, so I will ignore that data. Add Bartrums to Old Coach Road and an estimated 2500 for Fishers Track to get a conservative total of users. Assume 50% of Bartrums are doing the whole trail (=1161) and averaging 3 days.

Hawke’s Bay Trails: HBRC has 9 counters, but they just use the total of the Marine Parade counter as an estimate of total users. I have analysed the data for January and concluded that

76 MINISTRY OF BUSINESS, INNOVATION & EMPLOYMENT NZ Cycle Trail Evaluation Report 2016

their estimate is conservative. A more accurate estimate of users is obtained by multiplying the Marine Parade data by 1.11. The number of user days is the same as the number of users because this is a small network with counters on every section, however, many of these ‘days’ are only short trips of 2-4 hours.

Rimutaka Trail: There are three counters on the popular Hutt River Trail and two on the Rail Trail. There are no counters on the Wild Coast.

For Hutt River Trail use the Country Lane counter located between Lower and Upper Hutt to get total number of users. Correct Jan count subtracting 10,000 and estimate missing data for Sept and Oct as 4000 counts each. On Rimutaka Rail Trail, correct March Tunnel by estimating it was 5000. Correct Aug Tunnel by estimating it was 4000. Correct Nov Tunnel was closer to 2276 (certainly not 6276).

Use Country Lane counts as estimate of total number of users on Hutt River Trail (the counter is in a remote area and very few people ride this section of trail two ways). Total = 57,411.

For Rail Trail assume half the users are riding through, and half are doing return trips. Therefore multiply corrected total of 47441 by 0.75 = 35,580.

For the Wild Coast, use DOC data, assume two thirds are doing return trips, and therefore multiply by 0.6. Note that the Jan number is exceptionally high because this section was only opened the previous November.

User numbers Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Hutt 7216 7013 6216 2366 3940 4631 4310 3360 4000 4000 4728 5631 Rail 3144 1910 3750 5042 2881 2658 3328 3000 2811 1627 4707 1632 Wild 1088 402 447 532 245 196 150 120 150 196 501 731

User Days will be less as this is a two day trip but we are getting data from three counters. Therfore multiply users by 0.9.

Queen Charlotte Track: I have entered only the data from the Ship Cove plus the mountain bike data for Anakiwi during Dec, Jan and Feb. which is when Ship Cove is closed to mountain bikes. For user days, multiply user numbers by an average of 3.

Dun Mountain Trail: I have seen no raw data for this trail, so I have used Antong’s data.

Great Taste: They have 7 counters, and several local populations feeding into the trails throughout its length. Whakatu Drive: Assume 50% are riding two ways. Multiply 76,729 counts by 0.75 = 57,546 users. Wairoa Bridge, Brightwater: Assume 80% are riding two ways. Multiply 31,514 by 0.6 = 18,908 users. Totara Grove, Wakefield: Assume 20% are riding two ways. Mulitply 13,492 by 0.9 = 12,143 users. Waimea Inlet, Richmond: Assume 50% are riding two ways. Multiply 51,294 by 0.75 = 38,470 users.

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Aporo Road, Tasman: Assume 10% are riding two ways. Multiply 20,000 by 0.95 = 19,000 users. Kaiteriteri Road: Assume 20% are riding two ways. Multiply 21,823 by 0.9 = 19,640 users.

To estimate the total number of individual users is challenging on this particular trail. Some users are doing the whole trail and therefore being counted 6 times. Other users are riding past just one counter. And there will be many users doing short rides (especially between Nelson and Stoke, in Rabbit Island and around Motueka), who are not being counted at all.

For the purposes of this report, it is reasonable to assume that most users are riding either to/through Brightwater or they are riding around Waimea Inlet, or they are commuters riding Whakatu Drive to Nelson. There will also be a significant number doing rides between Mapua and Kaiteriteri. Here is a formula that I propose is used to obtain the number of individual riders doing rides longer than 2 hours: Wairoa Bridge users + Waimea Inlet users + 50% of Whakatu Dr users + 50% of Kaiteriteri Road users. The user total for 2015 = 95,971.

As the distances between counters is short, use the same number as an estimate of user days.

St James: Three counters on the trail: Saddle Spur is in the middle and indicates number of people doing the full trail taking an average of 1.5 days. I have multiplied this number by 4 to include the number of users doing the Homestead Loop at the end of the St James.

Old Ghost: Data is sum of two counters, multiplied by 0.55 to estimate visitor numbers because most but not all users are riding all the way though and some are flying in and only being counted once (actually I doubt that 10% of users are flying in, so this may be a small overestimation, but it is the formula OGR Trust is using). Note that most users are spending two days on the trail. The trail was fully opened in Dec 2015. Data counts for 2016 Q1 are up by 96%.

West Coast Wilderness Trail: WDC has 6 counters between Taramakau River and Ross. Also, GDC has counters between Greymouth and Taramakau River. There are very high numbers of Greymouth recreational users doing day trips, and moderately numbers just doing day trips around Kaniere Water Race. Total counts are Watsons Creek Counter (GDC) plus Wards Road (WDC) Total users derived from the total data multiplied by 0.667. Total days derived from estimate that one third of the users are doing the full trip and taking an average of 3 days. Therefore, multiply individual user count by 1.667.

Little River: It is not yet a Great Ride and we have no data.

Alps 2 Ocean: 13 counters! The data is strongly weighted by Oamaru local riders at Saleyards Road. Also estimate 20% day trippers at Lake Pukaki, and 50% day tripper at Sailors Cutting during Christmas holidays. Total users = (Saleyards minus 80% of Pukaki) X 0.5 + 80% of Pukaki plus 50% of Sailors Cutting riders. This is likely to be conservative as there will also be holiday makers going for short rides on other parts of this long trail.

To calculate days (saleyard users – Pukaki users) + (Pukaki users x 5 days) + (50% Sailors Cutting users).

Note that most users are now starting from Lake Tekapo.

78 MINISTRY OF BUSINESS, INNOVATION & EMPLOYMENT NZ Cycle Trail Evaluation Report 2016

Otago Central Rail Trail: Based on full year data from 2003 to 2014, and the averages that DOC calculate on a remote counter (Poolburn). Use Poolburn for estimate of number of users (this will not be counting Alex commuters). Based on DOC analysis, 30% of Poolburn users are day trippers and 70% are doing the whole trail (I will assume they average 3.5 days), therefore multiply Poolburn user numbers by 2.75 to get total user days.

Roxburgh Gorge: One counter at the popular (Alexandra) end of trail. There is a 12 km gap in the trail and the jet boat is expensive, therefore assume that 80% of users are riding there and back and the other 20% are either taking the jet boat or riding down from Flat Top Hills. Therefore multiply data by 0.6%.

Clutha Gold: Three counters operating accurately from Oct 2015 (so I have used available 2016 as well). Assume 50% are doing the full trail and are being counted three times, the rest are doing day trips (as per OCRT). Therefore multiply the sum total of the three counters by 0.4. For day use assume 2 day trip for half of the users (ie 60% of data) and day trippers for the rest (ie 40% of the data), therefore multiply data by 0.6.

Queenstown Trails: Queenstown has over ten counters. The trail trust has supplied us with adjusted figures. As we do not have the raw data we have had to use their user estimates.

Around The Mountains: We have received only one month of data for 2015, therefore I have very low confidence in these numbers.

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Appendix 10: Trail Governance and Management Structures

NZ Cycle Trail Land ownership Asset Holder Governance Management (paid or volunteer) Responsible for marketing and promotion Responsible for trail maintenance Otago Central Rail Trail DOC Central Otago District Council Otago Central Rail Trail Charitable Trust Trail manager – volunteer Tourism Central Otago, Otago District Council DOC (Central Otago) Admin staff – paid part time (x2) Roxburgh Trails (Central LINZ, Central Otago District Council, Central Otago District Council Central Otago Clutha Trails Trust Roxburgh and Clutha formed a company Tourism Central Otago, Otago District Council Central Otago Clutha Trails Trust Otago) private landowners Clutha Gold Trails (Central LINZ, Central Otago District Council, Central Otago District Council Central Otago Clutha Trails Trust Clutha and Roxburgh formed a company Tourism Central Otago, Otago District Council Central Otago Clutha Trails Trust Otago) private landowners Queenstown Trails DOC, LINZ, Central Otago District Queenstown Trails Trust Queenstown Trails Charitable Trust CEO, Queenstown Trail Trust – paid part time Destination Queenstown, Queenstown Lakes District Queenstown Lakes District Council (Queenstown) Council, private landowners (formerly Wakatipu Trails Trust) Admin staff – paid part time (x1) Council Motu Trails (Bay of Plenty) Iwi, Opotiki District Council, Gisborne Opotiki and Gisborne District Motu Trails Charitable Trust Trail manager – paid part time Trust but mainly the Trail Manager – paid part time DOC, Opotiki District Council, Gisborne District District Council, DoC Council (but mainly Opotoki) Council Te Ara Ahi Thermal by NZTA, private landowners, DOC Rotorua District Council Rotorua City Council Rotorua Council Staff Destination Rotorua, Rotorua District Council Rotorua City Council but looking to set up a Bike (Rotorua) (Destination Rotorua) Charitable Trust to be responsible for trail maintenance Hawke’s Bay Trails Hawke’s Bay Regional Council, Hastings Hawke’s Bay Regional Council Hawke’s Bay Regional Council Hawke’s Bay Regional Council staff - Sports and Hawke’s Bay Tourism, Hawke’s Bay District Council Hawke’s Bay District Council, Napier City Council (Hawke’s Bay) and Napier City Council, DOC Recreation Team and Hastings City Council Hauraki Rail Trail Hauraki, Matamata-Piako and Thames- Hauraki District Council Hauraki Rail Trail Trust (three iwi and a Hauraki Rail Trail Limited Domestic – Charitable Trust Charitable Trust initially but the three district (Hauraki/ Coromandel) Coromandel District Councils council appointed Trustee from each of International – Hauraki Rail Trail councils are currently contributing for its the three councils) maintenance Twin Coast Cycle Trail – Vintage Railways, Far Council Far North District Council Far North District Council paid staff Destination Northland Far North District Council Pou Herenga (Northland) North District Council, NZTA, private landowners, Waikato River Trails LINZ, private landowners South Waikato District Council (?), Waikato River Trails Trust Waikato River Trail Trust paid full-time staff (x2) Waikato River Trail Trust Waikato River Trail Trust (Waikato) Mighty River Power, Waikato Regional Council, Taupo District Council Timber Trail (Waitomo) DOC DOC DOC DOC DOC DOC Great Lake Trail (Taupo) DOC, private landowners, iwi Bike Taupo Bike Taupo Bike Taupo paid staff Destination Lake Taupo Bike Taupo Mountains to Sea NZTA, private landowners, DOC, iwi Ruapehu District Council, Wanganui Ruapehu and Wanganui District Councils Visit Ruapehu DOC, Wanganui District Council, Ruapehu District (Ruapehu) District Council, DOC (rotating chair) Council Rimutaka Trails Private landowners, NZTA, Councils Wellington Regional District Trail governance group Greater Wellington Positively Wellington, Hutt City, DOC, Upper Hutt Positively Wellington, Hutt City, DOC, Upper Hutt Council, DOC, Hutt City Council, and Destination Wairarapa and Wairarapa RTO Upper Hutt City Council, Wairarapa City Council Dun Mountain Trail Nelson City Council, private landowners Nelson City Council Nelson Tasman Cycle Trails Trust Project Manager Nelson Tasman Cycle Trails Trust Nelson City Council (Nelson) Admin support Great Taste Trail (Nelson NZTA, Council, Nelson Tasman District Council, Nelson City Nelson Tasman Cycle Trails Trust Project Manager Nelson Tasman Cycle Trails Trust Tasman District Council Tasman) City Council, private landowners Council Admin support The Old Ghost Road (West DOC DOC, Mokihinui-Lyall Backcountry Mokihinui-Lyall Backcountry Trust with Mokihinui-Lyall Backcountry Trust Mokihinui-Lyall Backcountry Trust Mokihinui-Lyall Backcountry Trust, DOC Coast) Trust DOC oversight Tourism Westland Queen Charlotte Cycle DOC, Marlborough District Council, DOC DOC, Queen Charlotte Track Inc, Queen Admin officer – part time DOC DOC and private landowners Trail (Marlborough private landowners Charlotte Track Landowners Society Queen Charlotte Inc Destination Marlborough Sounds) Queen Charlotte Track Inc St. James Cycle Trail DOC DOC DOC DOC DOC DOC (Hanmer Springs) West Coast Wilderness DOC Westland District Council Westland District Council supported by Westland District Council Tourism Westland Westland District Council Trail (West Coast) Greymouth District Council, Westland Greymouth District Council Greymouth District Council Greymouth District Council District Council, NZTA, private landowners Alps 2 Ocean Cycle Trail McKenzie District Council, Waitaki McKenzie District Council Waitaki District Council Tourism Waitaki – full time Tourism Waitaki Waitaki District Council (North Otago) District Council, DOC, private Waitaki District Council landowners Around the Mountains LINZ, Genesis, Southland District Southland District Council Southland District Council Southland District Council Venture Southland Tourism Southland District Council (Queenstown) Council, NZTA, DOC, private landowners Source: MBIE Tourism Policy

80 MINISTRY OF BUSINESS, INNOVATION & EMPLOYMENT NZ Cycle Trail Evaluation Report 2016

MANAWATŪ –WHA NGANUI GROWTH STUDY

OPPORTUNITIES REPORT JULY 2015 PUBLISHER Ministry for Primary Industries Pastoral House, 25 The Terrace PO Box 2526, Wellington 6140, New Zealand Tel: 0800 00 83 33 Web: www.mpi.govt.nz This publication is available on the Ministry for Primary Industries website (www.mpi.govt.nz) and the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (www.mbie.govt.nz)

ISBN No. 978-0-908334-61-2 (print) ISBN No. 978-0-908334-60-5 (online) © Crown copyright July 2015 – Ministry for Primary Industries. This document may be copied for non-commercial purposes providing its source is acknowledged.

DISCLAIMER While every effort has been made to ensure the information in this publication is accurate, the Ministry for Primary Industries does not accept any responsibility or liability for error of fact, omission, interpretation or opinion that may be present, nor for the consequences of any decision based on this information. MINISTERS’ FOREWORD

As Ministers for Economic Development, Primary Industries and Māori Development, we believe strongly that building successful and more resilient regions is key to building a prosperous nation. Recognising and capitalising on the investment opportunities and strengths of different regions is vital for each region to provide employment and a good standard of living for its people and to maximise each region’s contribution to the economic and social wellbeing of New Zealand. The Regional Economic Activity Reports (REARs) have allowed us to understand and compare regional performance at a high level. Through the REARs, we know that the current economic and social performance of regions varies significantly. The Regional Growth Studies programme provides an independent view of specific regions, chosen because their potential is not yet fully realised. Within each of these regions there are excellent success stories but also some pockets of high deprivation. This deprivation can only be fully addressed through wealth creation and higher levels of employment. The Regional Growth Studies explore opportunities to achieve growth in investment, incomes and employment by sector. The reports pose the questions “what are the investable opportunities in this region and what is preventing investment in them?” The Regional Growth Studies programme complements the Government’s Business Growth Agenda, which works to grow New Zealand businesses, create jobs and improve the standard of living for all New Zealanders. The Regional Growth Studies programme will also provide a deeper level of information to enable New Zealand Trade and Enterprise and regional economic development agencies to bring investment, and ultimately employment, into the regions. The Manawatū-Whanganui Regional Growth Study follows two studies released earlier this year on the Northland and Bay of Plenty regions and the East Coast Economic Potential Study covering the Gisborne and Hawke’s Bay regions, which was released in 2014. It provides a view that has been developed through evidence and with input from key businesses and economic players in the region. It provides the region and central government with a shared view of the potential of the region and its local communities. While the Manawatū-Whanganui region is one of the slower growing regions in New Zealand, there is real scope to increase incomes and employment in the region through building on its various strengths, such as its fertile productive land, its location as a natural transport and logistics hub for the lower North Island, its internationally-renowned tourist destinations, and its strong food innovation and agri-business research history. Many of these strengths lie at the sub-regional level, but together they provide strength for the region as a whole. Increasing productivity and added value, particularly in the sheep and beef, dairy, and tourism sectors, will provide opportunities to improve the region’s economic performance.

i MINISTERS’ FOREWORD continued

The Government is also committed to raising Māori economic performance. Achieving the goals of He kai kei aku ringa: the Crown-Māori Economic Growth Partnership will be realised if action is taken in those regions where there are larger Māori populations. The Manawatū-Whanganui region also has the benefit of a significant youthful Māori population. He kai kei aku ringa literally means providing the food you need with your own hands. This concept of economic independence or self-sufficiency is a fundamental principle for Māori, who look to the best interests of, and outcomes for, whānau. Māori play a considerable role in the Manawatū-Whanganui economy but the potential of Māori capability and assets have not been fully realised. The opportunity to leverage this potential aligns with the review of the Te Ture Whenua Māori 1993, which aims to make it easier for Māori to use and develop their whenua to meet their aspirations. The full potential growth in this region will only be achieved if iwi/Māori can actively work to raise the utilisation and productivity of their assets, and increase the skills, employment and incomes of the region’s poorest whānau. Working hand in hand with local and central government, we believe the potential benefits for the country from such a collaborative approach to be enormous,and still largely untapped. This Regional Growth Study identifies a number of actions that support the goals of He kai kei aku ringa. We are committed to maintaining and building on the strong partnerships established in this region and, through the development of a Regional Economic Action Plan, to further explore and realise opportunities identified in the report. Realising opportunities will only be successful if all stakeholders pull together to do what is right for the region – not just for individual sub-regions or sectors. To be successful, the Regional Growth Study will also need to inform and inspire industry, iwi and Māori, and central and local government to act individually and collectively to turn opportunities into realities. We welcome this report and its findings.

Hon Steven Joyce Hon Nathan Guy Hon Te Ururoa Flavell Minister for Economic Minister for Primary Minister for Māori Development Development Industries Minister for Whānau Ora Minister of Science and Minister for Racing Associate Minister for Economic Innovation Development Minister for Tertiary Education, Skills and Employment Minister for Small Business Associate Minister of Finance

ii MANAWATŪ–WHANGANUI GROWTH STUDY: OPPORTUNITIES REPORT July 2015 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

MBIE and MPI would like to thank the following people for their valued contribution in completing this report:

REGIONAL PROJECT STEERING GROUP: Nic Peet (Horizons Regional Council), Craig Nash (Spearhead), Kemp Dryden (Te Ranga Tupua representative), and John Quigley (New Zealand Trade and Enterprise).

REGIONAL TECHNICAL ADVISORY GROUP: Rob Bartley, Allan Benbow, Anne-Marie Broughton, Mark Cleaver, Denis Emery, Bernie Higgins, Grant Huwyler, David Lanham, Cam Lewis, Michael McCartney, John Signal, Andrew Watters.

HENLEYHUTCHINGS/NZIER TEAM: Geoff Henley, John Hutchings and Krystal Guppy from HenleyHutchings, and John Ballingall, Shamubeel Eaqub and Michael Bealing from NZIER.

iii iv MANAWATŪ–WHANGANUI GROWTH STUDY: OPPORTUNITIES REPORT July 2015 MANAWATŪ-WHANGANUI GROWTH STUDY 2015

This study was prepared by Shamubeel Eaqub and John Ballingall of NZIER, and Geoff Henley and John Hutchings of HenleyHutchings. The assistance of Krystal Guppy of HenleyHutchings and Michael Bealing of NZIER is gratefully acknowledged. NZIER and HenleyHutchings would like to thank all of those who participated in interviews and contributed greatly to the content contained within this report.

NZIER HenleyHutchings Level 13 Level 1 Grant Thornton House iCentre 215 Lambton Quay 50 Manners Street Wellington, 6140 Wellington, 6011 www.nzier.org.nz www.henleyhutchings.co.nz

Key Contact: Key Contact: John Ballingall Geoff Henley Deputy Chief Executive Partner, HenleyHutchings Tel +64 4 470 1804 Tel +64 4 979 8480 Mob +64 21 606 477 Mob +64 27 447 0447 E [email protected] E [email protected]

NZIER & HENLEYHUTCHINGS Page I 1 MANAWATŪ-WHANGANUI GROWTH STUDY 2015

The map below details the key content within each section of this report.

PAGE I 2 NZIER & HENLEYHUTCHINGS MANAWATŪ-WHANGANUI GROWTH STUDY 2015

About the authors ...... 1 Document map ...... 2 Contents ...... 3 Tables ...... 4 Figures ...... 5

1. Key points ...... 10 2. Map of Manawatū-Whanganui Region and Districts ...... 24 3. Objectives and scope ...... 26 4. Analytical framework ...... 28 5. Regional context ...... 38 6. Opportunities and enablers ...... 62 Opportunity: Tourism and visitor services ...... 63 Opportunity: Sheep and beef farming and processing ...... 82 Opportunity: Land use intensification ...... 97 Opportunity: Mānuka honey ...... 118 Opportunity: Fresh vegetables ...... 131 Opportunity: Poultry meat production and grain growing / processing ...... 144 Opportunity: Affordable care and lifestyle for older people ...... 159 Opportunity: Business process outsourcing and food innovation outsourcing ...... 172 Enabler: Distribution and transport ...... 181 Enabler: Productivity of Māori land ...... 193 Enabler: Growing businesses ...... 205 7. Actions and institutional arrangements ...... 214 8. Sub-regional profiles ...... 224 9. Appendix 1 – Technical Advisory Group (TAG) ...... 268 10. Appendix 2 – References...... 270

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Table 1: Description of filters ...... 33 Table 2: Manawatū-Whanganui region overview ...... 38 Table 3: Growth within regions is more variable than across regions...... 49 Table 4: Key tourism statistics (March 2014 year) ...... 65 Table 5: Employment in tourism related industries ...... 71 Table 6: Overall metrics for tourism ...... 76 Table 7: Employment patterns in the sheep, beef and related sector ...... 84 Table 8: Overall metrics for sheep and beef ...... 91 Table 9: Key dairy sector statistics ...... 100 Table 10: Overall metrics for dairy ...... 112 Table 11: Employment in the honey industry ...... 120 Table 12: Employment in vegetable growing ...... 133 Table 13: Possible opportunities in the vegetable sector ...... 134 Table 14: Global vegetable and fruit trade (exports), 2013 exports and market concentration .... 135 Table 15: Top vegetable importers ...... 135 Table 16: Overall metrics for the vegetable industry ...... 140 Table 17: Key statistics for poultry related sector...... 146 Table 18: Top poultry importers, Imports and NZ’s relevance ...... 148 Table 19: Global poultry trade (exports) -2013 exports and market concentration ...... 149 Table 20: Grain processing key indicators ...... 150 Table 21: Overall metrics for poultry ...... 155 Table 22: Employment in the aged care-related sector...... 164 Table 23: Overall metrics for older people care and lifestyle ...... 169 Table 24: Sub-regional profiles ...... 224 Table 25: Sub-regional profile - Ruapehu ...... 226 Table 26: Sub-regional profile – Whanganui ...... 232 Table 27: Sub-regional profile - Rangitikei ...... 239 Table 28: Sub-regional profile – Manawatū District ...... 245 Table 29: Sub-regional profile – Palmerston North City ...... 251 Table 30: Sub-regional profile – Tararua ...... 256 Table 31: Sub-regional profile - Horowhenua ...... 262

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Figure 1: The virtuous cycle of investment ...... 30 Figure 2: Prime working age* population in Manawatū-Whanganui ...... 41 Figure 3: Population growth by broad age group, 2006-2013 ...... 42 Figure 4: Land use patterns ...... 44 Figure 5: Population share in selected urban areas (1935-2014) ...... 45 Figure 6: Median personal weekly income: Manawatū-Whanganui and New Zealand ...... 46 Figure 7: Employment rate: Manawatū-Whanganui and New Zealand ...... 47 Figure 8: Wide differences in economic performance ...... 48 Figure 9: Size and growth of sectors at a regional level ...... 50 Figure 10: Regional competitive advantage by sector ...... 51 Figure 11: Income and cost of living, 2013 ...... 52 Figure 12: Unemployment rate, 2013 Census ...... 53 Figure 13: Employment growth, 2004-2014, compound annual growth rate ...... 54 Figure 14: Highest qualification by selected ethnicity in Manawatū-Whanganui, 2013 Census ...... 57 Figure 15: Visitor expenditure (all expenditure) ...... 66 Figure 16: Visitor spending growth, 2009-2014, % change ...... 66 Figure 17: Composition of visitor spending % of total, 2014 ...... 67 Figure 18: Seasonality of accommodation ...... 67 Figure 19: Occupancy rate of short term commercial accommodation ...... 68 Figure 20: Key industry comparative statistics ...... 85 Figure 21: Land use and land use capability...... 98 Figure 22: Key comparative statistics ...... 101 Figure 23: Dairy productivity in selected regions ...... 102 Figure 24: Regional land use and potential land use for dairy production ...... 103 Figure 25: Water availability compared to land use capability ...... 107 Figure 26: Exporters/producers...... 121 Figure 27: Importers/consumers ...... 121 Figure 28: Overall metrics for the Mānuka honey industry ...... 127 Figure 29: Possible opportunities in the poultry related sector: regional comparative analysis of Manawatū-Whanganui and Waikato ...... 145 Figure 30: New Zealand poultry consumption per capita ...... 147 Figure 31: Poultry meat consumption and incomes ...... 148 Figure 32: Possible opportunities in the grain related sector ...... 151

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Figure 33: % of total – origin location of over 65 aged group inward migrants to the region ...... 162 Figure 34: Possible opportunities in the aged care sector: Regional Comparative Advantage analysis of Manawatū-Whanganui and BoP ...... 165 Figure 35: Transport investment funding paradigm ...... 189 Figure 36 Location of Māori owned freehold land ...... 195 Figure 37: Programme structure ...... 216 Figure 38: Industries, specialisations, size and growth - Ruapehu ...... 228 Figure 39: Regional comparative advantage - Ruapehu ...... 229 Figure 40: Industries, specialisations, size and growth - Whanganui ...... 236 Figure 41: Regional comparative advantage - Whanganui ...... 236 Figure 42: Industries, specialisations, size and growth – Rangitikei ...... 241 Figure 43: Regional comparative advantage - Rangitikei ...... 242 Figure 44: Industries, specialisations, size and growth – Manawatū District ...... 247 Figure 45: Regional comparative advantage – Manawatū District ...... 247 Figure 46: Industries, specialisations, size and growth – Palmerston North City...... 253 Figure 47: Regional comparative advantage – Palmerston North City ...... 253 Figure 48: Industries, specialisations, size and growth - Tararua...... 258 Figure 49: Regional comparative advantage – Tararua ...... 258 Figure 50: Industries, specialisations, size and growth – Horowhenua ...... 263 Figure 51: Regional comparative advantage – Horowhenua ...... 264

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Acronym Meaning

B Billion BGA Business Growth Agenda BPO Business Process Outsourcing BSA Bovine Serum Albumin CEO Chief Executive Officer DCANZ Dairy Companies Association of New Zealand DHB District Health Board DoC Department of Conservation EDA Economic Development Agency FAR Funding Assistance Rates FOA Food and Agricultural Organisation FTE Full Time Equivalent GAP Growth Acceleration Programme GDP Gross Domestic Product GFC Global Financial Crisis GFR Gross Farm Revenue GP General Practitioner GRIP Growth Realisation Programme HH HenleyHutchings HQ Head Quarters HPMV High Performance Motor Vehicle HR Human Resources ICT Information and Communications Technology IMF International Monetary Fund IP Intellectual Property ITO Industry Training Organisation KG Kilogram LTP Long Term Plan LUC Land Use Capability M Million M3 Meters cubed Mbps Megabits per second

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Acronym Meaning

MS Milk Solids MBIE Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment MFAT Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade MoE Ministry of Education MPI Ministry for Primary Industries MSD Ministry of Social Development NEET Not in Education, Employment or Training NZ New Zealand NZIER New Zealand Institute of Economic Research NZTA New Zealand Transport Authority NZTE New Zealand Trade and Enterprise OCD Open Country Dairy PA Per Annum PGP Primary Growth Partnership PKE Palm Kernel Expeller PwC Pricewaterhouse Coopers QVNZ Quotable Value New Zealand R&D Research and Development RCA Regional Competitive Advantage RLTP Regional Land Transport Plan RMA Resource Management Act RTO Regional Tourism Organisation SFF Sustainable Farming Fund SH State Highway SLUI Sustainable Land Use Initiative SME Small and Medium sized Enterprises SU Stock Unit TAG Technical Advisory Group TPK Te Puni Kōkiri UCOL Universal College of Learning UFB Ultra-Fast Broadband UK United Kingdom USA United States of America

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NTS 1. KEY POI

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The casual observer could be forgiven for what is many people’s first impression of this region - a land of “milk and honey” - in the biblical and literal senses. Manawatū- Whanganui looks fertile and prosperous with spectacular remote landscapes framing rich farmland. Its agricultural industries, particularly the hill country beef and lamb sector, are amongst the most productive in New Zealand. While not a leading dairy region, it is nationally significant and boasts an array of arable farming types. It has notable institutions like Massey University and agriculture research establishments with an international reputation. It has significant provincial cities like Palmerston North and Whanganui and sits astride State Highway 1 and the main trunk railway line. Yet, measured on almost any economic criterion, it is at the tail end of the regional development stakes in New Zealand. For example, GDP per capita is 23% below the national average, and the region ranks 13th out of 15 statistical regions.

The reality is that this region is experiencing slow or static growth, ageing and declining populations and employment. The Manawatū-Whanganui economy grew by an estimated 1.3% a year in the decade to 20141 in terms of GDP - slower than the national growth rate of 2.1% a year. The region was the second slowest of all regions. And yet, it has an abundance of underutilised resources - human, natural and physical - and significant pockets of wealth that could be gainfully employed to improve prosperity for the region and for New Zealand as a whole.

1 In real terms, that is, after adjusting for price movements.

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What is it that holds this region back when it has apparently got so much going for it? The answer lies primarily in global trends and impacts largely outside local control and the region’s failure, thus far, to adapt quickly enough. Global forces have taken a large toll on jobs. Traditional job creators – agriculture, manufacturing, so significant to the region - have become less labour intensive and some activities have disappeared altogether. It has been gradual, has been happening for a very long time, is somewhat invisible on a day-by-day basis, but the impact has been huge. The decline of manufacturing has been very severe and long term. Contemporary enterprises are not filling the gap in anything like sufficient numbers to offset the erosion of employment. The region has been especially vulnerable because of its narrow range of enterprise. With its agricultural powerhouse not producing jobs and manufacturing in the same position, the region has little to fall back on and growth has faltered as a result.

NTS

The situation this region finds itself in is not of its own making, but the task is now one of 1. KEY POI regeneration. It is not a quick-fix that is required or even possible. Only the activation of significant extensions to existing industries and the nurturing of relatively new but compatible industries will lead to a gradual restoration of the region onto a stronger growth path. Active regional leadership will be required to build capability and knowledge-based networks, which are the foundation of successful new and extended industries and sectors, and to convert local advantages into growth and especially jobs. History has proven that regions are vulnerable to the effects of global trends, where metropolitan centres are somewhat more insulated. Change will not take place of its own accord. It will not simply arise solely from market activity. Provincial towns and regions like Manawatū-Whanganui will need to provide strong leadership and direction to facilitate the building of their own networks, both physical (like transport and communications) and virtual (co-operative networks and partnerships). They have to extend these networks not only nationally but beyond national borders to export markets. The success of regions is not a maverick “man-alone” enterprise, but one of connection and engagement.

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To do this, regional stakeholders require a catalyst and that’s what this Study and subsequent implementation of its recommendations can potentially represent. We have aimed to identify regional growth opportunities that can boost jobs and living standards, create GDP or export growth and unlock latent productivity gains in the Manawatū-Whanganui region and its sub-regions. Some sector opportunities we have identified involve trending towards greater scale to better compete on costs. This is especially true of traditional agricultural sectors. Others involve consolidating more fragmented sectors like tourism, yet ensuring they are responsive to change. The aim is to build on existing strengths (e.g. rural history), but look towards the future (e.g. agri-tech, niche services) to identify areas where firms and sectors can compete on innovation and quality as well as price. The Study includes a section focused on institutions and machinery for realisation of these opportunities based on enabling teams which are effectively networks of like-minded people. We recommend they are a partnership of private sector, Māori, iwi/hapū and central and local government.

The approach of the Study involved a mix of qualitative and quantitative activity in roughly equal proportions. Data can tell a lot about a regional economy as a snapshot in time, and we’ve assessed that. But it can’t tell you about ideas, attitudes, barriers or potential for collaboration. So we’ve consulted with over 140 people around the region including local government, iwi/hapū, Māori, commercial and community stakeholders and central government representatives to get a more nuanced picture of what’s happening on the ground. Feedback from these interviews has been overwhelmingly positive, reflecting an energy and determination to improve the living standards and prospects of Manawatū- Whanganui and its sub-regions. Many have told us that our consultation has lifted the level of engagement around economic opportunities at the local level. We hope so.

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Our recommendations are a synthesis of our empirical analysis and our independent interpretation of the key themes from the interviews. We looked for additionality to activity that’s happening already, either via:

 Improved productivity from an existing base; or  New sectoral opportunities arising from changing demographics and market conditions. We have taken a mixed portfolio approach when recommending opportunities, trying to ensure a rural and urban balance and that each District benefits from at least one, or ideally more than one, opportunity. We have sought opportunities that consolidate sectors and others that diversify them. Some are ‘hairy audacious’ opportunities while others are more modest. Some are short and others are long term. We have included some vital enablers. Most of the opportunities involve Māori in one way or another. We have considered both public and private investment. In considering what each opportunity could contribute, job intensity was high on our list even, as with the care of older people opportunity, where there are no export advantages

of significance. Some could contribute to GDP through returns to land and capital and boost the region’s export revenue, but may not be job-intensive. Others could bring new NTS people, new skills and a greater dimension to the regional economy. It’s a ‘hard road’ finding the perfect opportunity and trade-offs between impacts are

inevitable. But all the opportunities we landed on are expected to deliver a positive 1. KEY POI outcome to households and firm owners in terms of improved living standards. Those that made the final cut, out of a long list of over 80, are detailed in this report.

We have also identified intervention strategies for each opportunity to provide those who come after us with our best advice and guidance on where we believe the starting point should be. We have been mindful to identify regional levers – those points of intervention or action that can be taken at a regional level and those within the grasp of people in the districts and across the region. In short, we selected a set of opportunities where each brings something different to the region. Collectively they represent a package of action that could achieve the regeneration objective we believe is necessary to focus on. The overwhelming point we wish to communicate is that we believe ‘the ship will not right itself’. Things will just drift without a commitment to change and development and dedicated leadership of it.

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It was beyond the scope of this report to detail business cases and detailed implementation strategies although we have included a section on the structures and institutions we think are necessary to move opportunities forward. Our key message in that section is the absolute need to build structures of sufficient scope and gravity to do the job – to avoid undershooting the target. Without them we believe the effort will founder.

Eight opportunities have been identified and they have been presented in the report in an order of priority based on a mix of criteria including ease and immediacy of realisation, contribution to the region, and leadership support from stakeholders. With each opportunity we have made an estimate of its potential employment (and financial) value to the region where possible, or the marginal benefit from improvement. These are not detailed appraisals of economic impact from these opportunities, which were beyond the scope of this Study. We have not included the qualitative or spill-over benefits in this summary. In the Sub-Regional Profiles, there is a detailed profile of each district, together with an assessment of opportunities in that district and including feedback from district-based stakeholders. Finally, we have paired each opportunity with a district or number of districts as a basis from which we would expect initiatives to arise. The eight opportunities are:

Location: Primarily Ruapehu and Whanganui districts but also Rangitikei. Description: There is significant tourism activity in the region but as it is widely distributed, it is somewhat fragmented, generally small scale in nature (except the long term ski and related attractions of Mount Ruapehu), and performing at a lower level than it could be. The regional attractions are largely domestically focused with little international profile, except the Tongariro Crossing. Opportunity: There are two interventions which could stimulate a higher profile offering in order to attract an international market. Both are located on the Central Plateau and in the Whanganui and Rangitikei rivers areas. We argue that the sector should initially focus on these two interventions to avoid spreading the effort too thin. The first is to extend current mountain biking trails by introducing an additional trail on the Turoa side of Mt Ruapehu and enabling the use of Ruapehu Alpine Lifts facilities year- round. This enhanced offering should be marketed in association with other mountain biking initiatives in the central North Island.

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The second and related intervention is to package the range of outdoor/nature/cultural tourism offerings, many of them Māori-related, into a consolidated and extensive marketing package. Benefits: There are benefits that derive directly from the activities themselves such as jobs and GDP. There are also benefits arising from much better utilisation of existing infrastructure including chairlifts, roads, hospitality and accommodation services - making the area a centre for year-round visitor activity and producing significant extra jobs as a result. We believe the profile created by the successful execution of this opportunity will have flow-on effects to other tourism opportunities in and around the region as well. Potential: If an increased visitor spend of 10% was achieved it would boost regional GDP by $63m a year and add 71 jobs directly and indirectly.

Location: Across all of the region but particularly in Whanganui, Rangitikei, Manawatū and Tararua.

Description: The region represents a large portion of the sheep and beef sector in New NTS Zealand as a result of the extensive area of hill country in the region. Small achievements on individual farms can add up to a major net effect. In addition, the region is arguably the agri-business centre of New Zealand with a large infrastructure of farm and processing services and facilities. 1. KEY POI Opportunity: There are two opportunities: one is improving on-farm productivity and the other is increasing value-added processing. The Red Meat Strategy is geared to changing farmer practice nationally but it is, as a result of its complexity, a slow process. A tailored extension programme would accelerate change in the region. Currently the Horizons Regional Council’s SLUI (Sustainable Land Use Initiative) has advisors on-the-ground helping farmers improve their practice to control erosion. We are recommending that this initiative is extended to encompass other aspects of farming practice besides erosion control. Benefits: There is already significant investment in the SLUI programme. Extending its brief would be a cost efficient way to achieve the necessary farming performance improvement and augment farming revenues. Such an initiative also has the potential to achieve greater production out of Māori freehold land. Further active extension of value-add innovative processing would add to the status of the region and also produce jobs across the spectrum of high to lower level skills. Potential: A conservative estimate of increased farm productivity in the region is $26m pa. This does not include added-value benefits in the processing sector, which would depend on other factors, and are difficult to quantify accurately at this stage.

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Location: Rangitikei, Manawatū, Tararua and Horowhenua. The opportunities vary from small operations in the Rangitikei River valley to broader and large opportunities on the Manawatū plains and sand country. Description: The region has a significant area of class 1 and 2 lands capable of carrying greater intensification through dairying and arable/horticulture uses. While there are a number of possible inputs into farming to drive intensification (within environmental limits), irrigation has the greatest potential. There are some significant barriers to irrigation in the region to be overcome, for example inadequate electricity supply and inadequate information for land owner decision-making. A package of interventions is recommended including working with MPI to document the potential returns for investors from land use intensification in the region when compared to other regions. Benefits: As with sheep and beef farming, incremental improvements in farming performance across the region can produce significant improvements in jobs and GDP. With the introduction of the One Plan2 which controls environmental impacts, the regulatory framework is available within which greater intensification can take place. Potential: We estimate irrigation could add as much as 20% to productivity improvements in dairying alone (as has been the experience in Canterbury). A 1% increase in production adds $6m and 33 jobs to the regional economy.

Ā

Location: Rangitikei, Whanganui, Ruapehu and Tararua. Description: The Mānuka honey market is growing, with production and export numbers climbing rapidly to meet international consumer demand. Significant potential exists, particularly in the value-added nutraceutical market. There are significant investors in and around the industry and a PGP programme is well underway. Opportunity: It could be argued that the time has come for this product. While there is an opportunity for table honey, the potentially greater prize is the use of the product in natural medicine as a nutraceutical. The opportunity is for Manawatū-Whanganui to take advantage of this and make better use of its currently underutilised or poorly utilised extensive hill country hinterland which is ideal for Mānuka honey production.

2 The ‘One Plan’ is the integrated regional plan prepared by Horizons Regional Council under the Resource Management Act (1991).

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This will require, amongst other things: better information and education aimed at hill country land owners and potential farmers; continued research and development; and regional council policies on land clearance for Mānuka plantations. Benefits: The industry uses low grade land, adds diversification for hill country farmers, opens an opportunity for Māori land and is quite labour-intensive in the collection and processing of the product. Potential: Being an emerging sector with high uncertainty, future Mānuka honey growth is impossible to estimate with any accuracy. The Mānuka Research Partnership has estimated growth of $75m pa in 2010 towards $1.2b by 2028. If Manawatū-Whanganui was to claim 10-20% of that growth it would make a substantial contribution to the region.

Location: Horowhenua, Rangitikei and Ruapehu. Description: Horowhenua and Ruapehu are traditional vegetable growing areas. Over the years production has grown to meet domestic demand but the domestic market is now

saturated. While some product is exported from the region, export effort is small and fragmented. The growers struggle to exert control on this uncertain market. NTS The current growing areas in the region are well-suited to the industry. There is good land onto which to expand and vegetable growing is relatively labour-intensive.

Opportunity: The opportunity lies in expansion of fresh vegetable production for export. 1. KEY POI The international market for fresh vegetables has grown enormously in recent years and New Zealand has a very minor portion of it. Expansion of the export effort requires the balancing of three things – production, market demand and logistics. Any operation would also require scale. We believe that a concerted joint effort of growers in the area, who would initially focus on a limited number of export markets, could potentially grow the export market to a level of stability and continuity that would produce significant returns. Benefits: Besides the jobs and GDP advantages, extension of vegetable production will bring greater diversification to the primary sector in the region and assist with economic resilience. Potential: The sector is currently relatively small, contributing around $85m or 1% towards the regional economy. Every 1% lift in output increases the regional economy by $1m and adds around eight new jobs. A dedicated effort would be intended to produce a lift of output in excess of 20% to achieve required export economies of scale.

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Location: Horowhenua, Rangitikei and Manawatū. Description: The consumption of poultry meat is growing rapidly worldwide to the point that it is a dominant source of protein. The domestic market is also growing but there is adequate supply for this market. We have shown ourselves to be good producers of poultry products because of our unique international disease-free status. There is also potential with eggs and egg derivative products. Opportunity: There is significant room for increased supply to China and other Asian countries whose current poultry meat consumption levels are well below those of other parts of the world. Some local operators are already exporting to Japan. New Zealand has high standards of production, well developed practice and a well-developed regulatory environment. Benefits: Manawatū-Whanganui needs greater diversification in its offering to add resilience to the regional economy. Poultry products are ideally suited to do this. Grain growing and poultry meat production would help to insulate the region against shocks in any one product category. There is land, distance from urban areas, yet good access to logistics. Poultry can drag behind it other enterprise that would add dimension to the regional economy. Grain processing would strongly support the emerging poultry industry and an established dairy industry. Grain processing would provide construction and operational revenues to the region. Grain processing would also provide an outlet for arable crops which would encourage optimum use of class 1, 2 and 3 lands. While this would take time, the benefits are worthwhile. Potential: As demand for poultry continues to increase, the Manawatū-Whanganui region could plausibly reach a similar scale to Waikato, adding some 1,200 jobs. The potential would be much larger if export markets are established.

Location: Initially in Horowhenua but Whanganui is also well positioned. Description: Due to New Zealand’s ageing population, demand for aged residential care will outstrip supply in the next two years and this situation will likely continue for at least two decades. Affordability is becoming more important in care, not only for the individual, but more particularly for Government as the population ages.

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Opportunity: New models of care and lifestyle for older and elderly people are required. Internationally, there is a move away from segregating older people, whether in retirement villages or rest homes, and instead creating arrangements where they remain in close proximity to the local community. Horowhenua could become a centre of best practice. Horowhenua is located close to Wellington, and with a mild climate and older people-scale towns like Levin and Foxton it is well-suited to taking a significant piece of this market. The modest property values in the region would also support the development of this sector. This is a complex opportunity to realise, but there is existing local leadership to take this opportunity forward. In the first instance a detailed concept and feasibility study needs to be negotiated with a wide range of interested parties including iwi. Benefits: This is an opportunity that can contribute positively to national aged care costs by reducing the exposure of Government to care subsidies and also providing local employment for care givers and health professionals. Potential: The model of care proposed in this opportunity has benefits in saving public money as well as generating regional GDP and jobs. Although the proposed model would be different, by way of comparison, an 80 bed rural residential facility could add $32m and 66 jobs to a rural economy such as Horowhenua.

NTS 1. KEY POI

Location: Contact centres and related outsourcing based across the region but centred on Palmerston North; science, innovation and technical innovation outsourcing associated with Food HQ in Palmerston North. Description: Outsourcing of a range of services from large corporates is a growing worldwide trend. In large part, it is driven by costs, but also availability, reliability and quality of the labour force are also important dimensions. There is also a trend of professionals, scientists, innovators and technical people being sought after internationally, no matter what their home location. Opportunity: The most obvious opportunity is to grow the contact centre industry and in the region’s cities and larger towns there is a ready supply of suitable labour for this industry. The opportunity for Food HQ is for its plans around outsourcing food-related research, innovation and technical services to be more specific and pragmatic to ensure that they are achieved. Benefits: With contact centres the benefits are jobs, especially for second household incomes. In the more technical areas of outsourcing it encourages clustering of skills which has all sorts of other downstream benefits including greater innovation potential.

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Potential: The proposal of the parties working on the call centre opportunity at present is to double current jobs in three years to a total of 2,000.

There are many enablers to economic growth. In many cases enablers emerge organically from commercial activity, and are thus – in our view – outcomes rather than specific opportunities to target. Vocational education and training is a case in point. There are excellent training institutions locally but the signals from the commercial sector are often too weak for them to know where to place their emphasis. A stronger focus on opportunities which will define workforce requirements more clearly will help remedy that problem. Ultra-fast broadband is another key enabler and the lack of forward capacity in a number of areas of the region is of significant concern to many of the stakeholders we interviewed. The second tranche of broadband is coming up and the Government’s expectation is that councils will need to partner with providers to put in a proposal to MBIE for broadband expansion into their area. It is vital that this next step is actioned. Effective broadband will be fundamental to business growth across all sector opportunities and as such it is identified as a critical component of the Grow Business enabler, which is outlined below. Some enablers such as irrigation and electricity supply have been dealt with within each of the opportunities, notably Land Use Intensification. However, in our view there are three strategic areas of enablement that need strong and focused attention and in this Study, we have developed these in more detail:

 Transport and Distribution – a hubbing concept and optimised roading designed to improve the efficiency of supply chains and logistics to and from the region. This will reduce transaction costs and boost competiveness. This ties closely with agricultural opportunities such as fresh vegetables, poultry and farming development generally, but also builds on existing southern North Island hubbing which is already in place. Why is this so important? – because most of the opportunities identified rely heavily on access - supply chain and logistics - and we are concerned that less than optimal planning in this area might seriously frustrate excellent effort. What action is required? – we conclude that transport planning and provision is well thought out, but there are additional issues requiring consideration to meet the needs that would arise from the successful execution of the opportunities identified in this study.

 Productivity of Māori Land – bringing into greater production the large tracts of freehold Māori land much of which is under-productive or even unused. Why is this so important? – because this land represents a significantly under-utilised resource and there are issues which continue to hamper its resolution which will not fix themselves.

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What action is required? – we believe the opportunities recommended in this Study – sheep and beef, land use intensification, Mānuka honey, tourism – present real opportunities for use of Māori land, but specific interventions are required to resolve the legal and ownership issues that continue to frustrate progress in this area.

 Growing Businesses – seeking a means of building capacity, scale and innovation into currently small business operations across the agriculture, manufacturing and service sectors and in most sub-regions. Broadband access and the significantly increased uptake of ICT by businesses across all sector opportunities is a critical component of this. Why is this so important? – because the individual firm or business is the atom that makes the regional molecule. Without small and medium businesses performing, opportunities will founder. Leadership and vision in every business and enterprise is needed to realise these opportunities. What action is required? – we are recommending strategic support for businesses at a governance and management level that builds vision and skills.

NTS 1. KEY POI

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The “leadership” word was used repeatedly to us and it is fairly liberally sprinkled through the Study. We were told the region lacked leadership but we take the view that leadership emerges when there are compelling demands for it. We have tried to shape the opportunities in such a way that leadership can form around them and we hope that will happen. Leadership is also required for the whole process of realisation and we have made firm recommendations on structures and institutions in that regard. What we all know is that the task requires a commitment to collaborative enterprise, working together, making things happen, not being daunted by complexity (because there is plenty of that) or impeded by obstacles of the mind such as outdated views of public and private responsibility. In today’s connected world isolation and separation is fatal to the achievement of complex opportunities. Let’s just put the specific opportunities aside for a moment, as important as they are. The City of Palmerston North, together with Whanganui, have a vital role to play as the principal urban centres of the region. The success of the region is very much tied to their success and not just as economic, but also as cultural, educational and social centres. Cafes contribute as much to economic development as do trucks and tractors. The region needs to have a beating heart and in today’s world that’s our urban centres. Our assessment is that Palmerston North in particular needs to step up to this plate and help pump the social blood through the arteries of the region. There is always danger in trying to do everything and achieving nothing. We have been selective in what we have recommended regarding opportunities and particularly regarding enablers. In the section on ‘Actions and Institutional Arrangements’ we emphasise the need for a solid and well planned approach as long term issues require a well-conceived and robust response. We recommend the formation of teams around particular opportunities with a strong foundation in particular districts. We recommend robust, joined up governance involving the main players – central government, regional and local government, business and iwi/hapū.

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WANGANUI REGION AND DISTRICTS - 2. MAP OF MANAWATŪ

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Ū

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3. OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE

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The Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (MBIE) and the Ministry for Primary Industries (MPI), working with the Manawatū-Whanganui region engaged a consortium comprised of New Zealand Institute of Economic Research (NZIER) and HenleyHutchings to undertake an Economic Growth Study in the Manawatū-Whanganui region, the region covered by the Horizons Regional Council. The Study seeks to identify significant opportunities to grow and diversify the economy and to expand investment, employment and incomes in the region. It seeks to identify and suggest solutions to barriers to growth, and make recommendations as to how these opportunities might be progressed. It is not a strategy, but the selection of opportunities and enablers is deliberately strategic. Commencing in October 2014, the consultants undertook a staged process of investigation of the region as a whole, each of the sub-regions and a wide range of sectors, industries and enterprises including iwi/Māori and local government. The consultants also engaged with a locally-derived Technical Advisory group (TAG) to assist with their considerations. The TAG was assembled by MBIE in consultation with MPI and local and regional authorities and iwi/Māori. This document is a big read because we have tried to address two requirements:

 The need to provide an overview of the region and to recommend regional level responses.  The need to provide an analysis of the challenges and opportunities facing each district, so that those districts can engage with the recommendations. The effect is that the Report is at times a little repetitive. It is designed for the snap reader who will go directly to their area of interest. The Key Points section at the front provides an overview. We are very clear that this document is a study not a full-blown strategy. We have synthesised the best opportunities. We have also pointed strongly towards the strategic interventions we believe are necessary so that those following on from us have a clear point to start from. We wish to acknowledge the huge amount of support given to us by many people. Over 140 people were interviewed including meetings with interested groups in all the districts of the region. The members of the TAG attended four meetings and gave valuable advice to us between meetings. The Steering Group, contributors and government officials have given freely of their time to provide advice, check texts and verify conclusions. Despite our thorough researching and fact checking, much of the content relies on the accuracy of contributor information. However, the conclusions drawn in this report are ours and we have been grateful for the independence that MBIE and MPI have allowed us.

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4. ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK

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This section explains our interpretation of “opportunities” and outlines the processes we used to identify potential opportunities for lifting Manawatū-Whanganui’s economic performance. We refer to this as our analytical framework.

It depends who you ask. It is clear that the Manawatū-Whanganui economy has underperformed relative to other regions in New Zealand. We quickly found through our early engagement with officials, the Technical Advisory Group (TAG) and key informants, that “opportunity” means different things to different people. Some took it to mean lifting the performance of existing businesses and sectors by drawing in under-employed resources or lifting the return from existing resources. Others felt that opportunities were about new business lines or sectors that might emerge in the future. Still others talked about cross-cutting ‘horizontal’ issues that would likely enhance firm performance across the board (e.g. infrastructure and educational improvement). That these opportunities would boost GDP, either via higher domestic sales or export activity, was generally seen as the welcome outcome, rather than the specific goal of the initiatives. Adding to the raft of definitions was the presence of numerous – and quite different – sub-regions within the Manawatū-Whanganui region. People’s views of opportunities in Palmerston North City were very different to those in Tararua or Ruapehu.

Ultimately, the goal of realising opportunities – and of most public policy – is boosting household living standards in the Manawatū-Whanganui. The desired future state is thus one where the region’s people and businesses are able to take advantage of the opportunities available to them in order to lift their living standards and the overall economic, social, environmental and cultural wellbeing of the Manawatū-Whanganui region. Taking these factors into account, we defined an opportunity as meeting one or more of the following criteria:

 Likely to unlock productivity in an existing sector.  Potential to release un-used or under-used resources (labour, capital, land) in an industry or sector.  Builds on an existing regional comparative advantage.  Is in a growth period, or may be about to enter one.

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 Is attractive for Māori investors or workers.  Will deliver jobs, especially in areas where employment opportunities are limited, and particularly for those who are relatively unskilled or who are seeking a role as a second income earner in the family.  Will contribute to increased exports as international markets are ready to accept more of New Zealand’s goods or services.  Will boost regional GDP through its direct growth and its links to other sectors (i.e. upstream and downstream flow-on effects).  Is unlikely to ‘cannibalise’ activity from other parts of New Zealand, so is likely to be net additional to New Zealand as a whole. These are the factors that we took into account when identifying, short-listing and quantitatively assessing potential opportunities.

Each opportunity brings something different to the region, and its sub-regions. Some are likely to bring job opportunities, but may have low export potential as they sell primarily to the domestic market. Others will create GDP via returns to land and capital and boost the region’s export revenue, but may not create many new jobs due to being relatively capital-intensive. Some offer considerable value specifically to Māori stakeholders; others are available for all participants in the regional economy. Trade-offs between the potential beneficial impacts of opportunities are thus inevitable, but all opportunities are expected to deliver a positive outcome to households (and firm owners) in terms of improved living standards. 4. ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK

When whittling down our list of potential opportunities, we have also been cognisant of the need to deliver a balanced package. We have thus taken a mixed portfolio approach where there is interdependence between many of the opportunities. The opportunities we present here cover different:

 Timeframes (ready right now to longer term initiatives).  Sub-regions.  Rates of return and risk.  Impacts on jobs and returns to other factors of production (land, capital).  Impacts on Māori and non-Māori. This approach reflects our view that there is no single definition of an opportunity to which we have to stick slavishly.

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A unifying theme across the opportunities in this report is that unlocking opportunities requires investment. This investment can be locally, regionally, nationally or globally sourced. It can take the form of business investment, central government intervention and funding or local government coordination. But investment doesn’t just happen – it responds to the promise of more than satisfactory returns for any given level of risk. This means that investors have to understand the region’s opportunities. The aim here, then, is to create a virtuous circle where opportunities attract investment, which generates new opportunities that require more investment, and so on. This study is about identifying viable, market-ready investment opportunities in the Manawatū-Whanganui region. Investment includes capital but also energy, time and reputation. FIGURE 1: THE VIRTUOUS CYCLE OF INVESTMENT

More return- seeking capital

Higher living Increased standards investment

Greater and more diverse opportunities

Source: NZIER

Our analytical framework combines quantitative and qualitative analysis. There are various ways of assessing a region’s growth potential and the opportunities that may contribute to this growth. There is no single ‘best practice’ approach in the international literature on this subject, so the chosen methodology depends on the task at hand and the preferences of those carrying out the analysis. In broad terms, identifying opportunities can occur by using quantitative and/or qualitative methods:

 Quantitative methods assimilate official statistical data and analyse their key features across a range of metrics, such as GDP, job growth and regional comparative advantage. Such methods are helpful for identifying what is happening now in the economy, and how this has changed over time.

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 Qualitative methods such as literature reviews, structured interviews and stakeholder workshops help to add colour and richness to the official data. They are particularly helpful for finding out more about why certain trends are occurring, or why certain initiatives aren’t progressing – things the raw data cannot easily tell you. They provide valuable information about ideas, attitudes, barriers to realisation and potential avenues for collaboration at the local level. We have chosen to use both of these approaches right from the outset of this project in order to generate as much useful information as possible about what is happening on the ground in the Manawatū-Whanganui economy and its sub-regions. We believe this approach is warranted because of the paucity of sub-regional level official data and our broad definition of an opportunity; it simply wouldn’t have been feasible to generate meaningful insights using formal data analysis alone. We acknowledge that our approach differs somewhat from that employed in the Northland and Bay of Plenty Growth Studies, which have tended to focus on the data first and then been followed up with interviews to add a more nuanced story. In our view, there is no right or wrong methodology to these studies, and as explained above, we are confident that our choice of approach delivers a set of investment-ready opportunities that display a wide range of features, all designed to boost living standards in the Manawatū-Whanganui.

Our general approach was to assimilate as many potential opportunities as possible using quantitative and qualitative techniques and then use numerical filters and professional judgement to narrow this long-list down to a more manageable, balanced set of opportunities to present here in more detail. We generated our long-list of ideas in four ways: 4. ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK 1. Quantitative analysis of regional data – we used a range of data to identify the largest, most specialised and fastest growing sectors. Those that shared more than one feature were added to our long list. 2. Engagement with the Technical Advisory Group (TAG) – we canvassed TAG members, who represent some of the key influencers in the economic development space in the Manawatū-Whanganui region, to draw on their expertise in the region. This was done across four half-day meetings and additional offline discussions with individuals and groups from the TAG. 3. Informant interviews and workshops3 – over a three month period, we spoke to over 140 informants, many face-to-face, some by telephone and some in mini-workshops held on-location in each of the districts.

3 Feedback from these interviews with regional stakeholders has been overwhelmingly positive: there is an energy and determination to improve living standards in the Manawatū-Whanganui and its sub-regions. Many have commented that our consultation has lifted the level of engagement around economic opportunities at the local level.

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4. Review of existing literature – we reviewed over 40 publications from the past decade related to economic development in the Manawatū-Whanganui region and pulled out the key themes for each sub region.

Based on these sources, we assembled a long list of over 80 opportunities.

Each of those opportunities was then tested for its potential using a mixture of numerical filters, discussions with the TAG and other key informants. Not all of the criteria listed above in the section defining ‘Opportunity’ are able to be readily quantified with any level of robustness. As such, we quantified the potential where we could, and used professional judgement and discussion with experts where we couldn’t. The quantitative filters are summarised overleaf. These numerical filters, and the remainder of the criteria listed above, are discussed throughout the descriptions of the opportunities in this report. In brief:  The green/amber/red measures show how each opportunity scores, relative to the economy as a whole.  The specialisation scores are defined as: high (regional specialisation more than 15% higher than the national average), medium (regional specialisation greater than national average, but less than 15% greater) and low (doesn’t have a regional comparative advantage). The choice of the 15% cut-off is arbitrary.

We used the filters, along with discussions with officials and TAG, to refine our long-list to a short-list of 15-20 opportunities. We then analysed these opportunities in more depth by ranking our opportunities by the scores in our filters. We initially used the filters as a gate. If the opportunities were small, had no specialisation locally or in the global export market, or were contracting sharply – they were stopped. In the second stage, we scored the remaining opportunities on their growth, likely spill-over into local jobs and incomes (directly and indirectly) and impact on the economy. The qualitative aspects also tested the validity of the opportunity, potential regional impact, practicality and local fit.

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TABLE 1: DESCRIPTION OF FILTERS

Filter name Explanation/why it Measure Indicator Data sources matters

Current size Denotes current size of We measured it = Relatively Statistics New sector in region, based on in filled jobs, large employer (>750 Zealand. employment. Larger because the data filled jobs, top 5% of Business sectors are likely to have is readily industries by size) Demography a larger impact; while available and database. smaller sectors are likely does not require = Relatively to have a smaller net estimation and small employer (500- impact. application of 750 filled jobs) judgement. = Very small employer (<500 filled jobs)

Employment Shows what proportion of The share of = Greater than Wages as a intensity a sector’s output is output that is economic average share of output accounted for by wages. paid out in (>27%) - Statistics New To understand the impact wages or Zealand Input- of growth in the sector on compensation to = Similar to Output tables. jobs and local incomes. employees. economic average (17%-27%)

Some sectors are capital intensive, accruing = (<17%) returns to the asset owner – meaning the immediate spill-overs to the economy are less powerful.

Economic Shows extent of upstream The impact of an = Higher than Statistics New linkages and downstream links to increase in economic average Zealand Input- other sectors. To sector output on (>5%pt) Output tables. understand the impact on wages paid in other sectors – or the other sectors. = Same as 4. ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK spill-over benefits. Some economic average (+/- industries buy from 5%pt) and/or supply into a large = Lower than number of industries. This economic average (<- means growth in that 5%pt) sector will spill over to increased activity in other sectors.

Stage of Shows job growth over Growth in sector = Strong growth Statistics New lifecycle past decade. If a sector is jobs nationally in jobs (>10% growth Zealand in growth mode, then it is and where over 10 years) Business more likely to be a applicable Demography success. increases in = Little change database for global exports. in jobs (+/- 10% over employment 10 years) data; UN Comtrade = Large decline database for in jobs (>10% decline global trade over 10 years) data.

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Filter name Explanation/why it Measure Indicator Data sources matters

Share of A quick summary measure Opportunity High: RCA > 1.15 Calculations regional to complement the size of sector’s share of from Statistics economy the industry. all jobs in the Medium: 1 < RCA < New Zealand region. 1.15 Business Demography Low: RCA < 1 database.

Share of New A quick measure of how Opportunity Level and growth rate Calculations Zealand sector much of the sector is sector’s share of from Statistics based in the region. local jobs New Zealand Business Demography database.

Comparative Shows sector’s share of Revealed Level and growth rate Calculations advantage or regional employment Comparative from Statistics specialisation compared to the national Advantage is New Zealand share. If a region already where the Business has a specialisation in a opportunity Demography sector, it means it is sector’s share of database. already good at it and local there is potential to grow employment is it. higher than the national average.

Export details Shows how global market The size, growth Level and growth rate UN Comtrade - World is growing and provides and distribution database. an understanding of what of exports of is happening in the global opportunity trade in the opportunity product. product, who are the biggest exporters and who are the biggest importers.

Export details Shows New Zealand’s NZ’s share of Level and growth rate UN Comtrade - New Zealand export growth and global trade, database and provides an share of growth Statistics New understanding of how NZ and Zealand fits within the global specialisation of merchandise traded market for the opportunity trade and for opportunity. product tourism, MBIE visitor expenditure survey and Statistics New Zealand Tourism Satellite Accounts.

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Those reading the report may well wonder why other opportunities were not highlighted for analysis. Those that may have come to mind are forestry, wood processing, fishing and aquaculture. Each of these was considered, but they did not stack up as new game breaker opportunities when we looked at their merits and applied the filters described above. For many, it was business as usual. Many people recommended that the region needed a promotional campaign. We did not consider this to be a new opportunity, under our chosen definition. The reputational challenges have existed for many decades. Opportunities that bring with them new directions and structural changes are what is required.

The penultimate step of the evaluation analysis was estimating the potential benefits to the Manawatū-Whanganui region of realising the opportunities we have identified in this report. Given the considerable uncertainty about how these might play out, it is difficult to estimate the potential gains with any real confidence. Full economic impact analysis or cost-benefit analysis of each opportunity was outside the scope of this project. However, we have attempted to provide a “what if?” indication of the potential magnitude of effects, given certain assumptions, and where feasible, we have discussed the distribution of gains (i.e. to Māori, low-skilled, by sub-region) qualitatively.

The ultimate filter for an opportunity is its viability – can an opportunity move from being 4. ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK an idea to realisation? It became quickly obvious to us that exceptional opportunities were likely to have already been exploited by someone in some form. The silver bullets had been fired. Those left inevitably involve challenges; whether they are scale or scalability issues, lack of technology or expertise, market penetration or identification challenges. An intervention strategy is required to unlock them. Successful regions have the leadership and vigour to do this. With every opportunity there are strengths and weaknesses around key inputs such as skilled labour, available capital and technology, but these three factors can be procured with greater or lesser degrees of difficulty. Labour and capital are two particular shortcomings in some parts of the Manawatū-Whanganui region. But there are three more fundamental factors that enable the realisation of opportunities. Clearly geography is one of those and there are some things that won’t easily work because of the particular geography of the region, for example – physical isolation from main transport trunks such as is the case for Whanganui. The two others are culture and institutions. Many informants told us of a culture of complacency or lack of ambition. Others described it as an unwillingness to take risks. We believe we experienced significant hesitancy, even lack of confidence, to identify and take opportunities.

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Many informants also told us of a lack of regional cohesion. They described a feeling of isolation and unwillingness between sub-regions to work together for the good of the whole. That said, the point was repeatedly made that this was improving, especially lately at a local government level. This lack of cohesion was referenced to the business sector as well. We interpreted some of this as being a lack of structures or entities (call them institutions) to move ideas forward and a lack of sophistication in those that existed. We formed the view that in many cases structures were too loose or non-existent. Accordingly, we have developed a section in the report on interventions and implementation: essentially who needs to do what, to move the opportunities from the hypothetical to the actual? Most economic policies are applied at a national rather than regional level and for the sake of efficiency alone this is appropriate, but important questions for this Study were not only what further development can take place regionally but what opportunities can be initiated and sustained by essentially regional interventions, and what is the nature of those interventions? This is terribly important in development terms because the current situation the region finds itself in is largely the product of factors beyond its control. Morale and confidence will build sharply if local people can get their hands on local and regional levers and thereby have more influence over outcomes. Finally, the “leadership” word was used repeatedly. Informants said the region has lacked leadership and an apparent unwillingness to coalesce around successful ventures. Instead, too often, we were told, successful operators were left to make their own way – some do and some don’t. This lack of networks, lack of interconnectedness and lack of common goals and resolve is a key consideration is assessing what is possible in the future of the region.

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5. REGONAL CONTEXT

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This chapter explores the characteristics of the Manawatū-Whanganui region and examines how they affect its economic performance. First up, a quantitative overview is provided of critical performance indicators (Table 2). TABLE 2: MANAWATŪ-WHANGANUI REGION OVERVIEW

Difference Manawatū- New Zealand compared to New Whanganui region Zealand

People

GDP ($m)(1) 9,147 229,718 4.0%

GDP per capita ($)(1) 39,442 51,319 76.9%

Population 231,200 4,442,100 5.2%

Population density (per km2) 10 16 63.9%

Age composition (% of regional total)

0-14 21% 20% 5.2%

15-24 14% 14% 5.3%

25-64 49% 51% 4.9%

65+ 16% 14% 6.1%

Māori share 21% 16% 7.1%

- Of which aged under 25 53% 52%

Aged dependency ratio(2) 26 22

Skills, income and work

Tertiary educated (% of population) 23% 29% 78%

Personal income 25,000 28,500 88%

Household income 50,000 63,800 78%

Continues over page

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Employed 100,521 2,001,009 5%

Employment rate 59% 62% 95%

Unemployment rate(3) 8% 7% 110%

Participation rate(4) 64% 67% 96%

Average firm size (excl. zero sized) 10 11 89%

Housing

Home ownership rate(5) 65% 65% 101%

House price(6) $223,588 $488,674 46%

House price to household income ratio 4.5 7.7 58%

Weekly rent(7) $246 $375 66%

Rental share of household income 26% 31% 84%

(8) Gross rental yield 5.7% 4.0% 144%

Household income after housing costs

After rent(9) 37,203 44,318 84%

After mortgage payments(10) 35,585 32,296 110% 5. REGONAL CONTEXT Notes 1) 2014, Regional GDP estimates 7) Nov-2014, MBIE average rent 2) The number of people aged 65 and over, 8) Annual rent share of house price. Does for every 100 people between the ages not assume vacancy or take any operating of 15-64 costs into account. 3) Unemployed share of labour force 9) Household income less annualised weekly 4) Labour force share of working age rent population 10) Household income less mortgage 5) Owned or in trust share of total stated payments assuming 20% deposit, 7% long 6) Dec-2014, QVNZ average house price term interest rate and 30 year term.

Source: All data Statistics NZ and 2013 unless otherwise stated

Table 2 highlights a number of characteristics of the region that help us to understand it: the trend towards ageing is greater than the NZ average creating a higher than average aged dependency ratio; there is a strong demographic bias towards Māori with a high proportion of Māori under 25 years; a lower tertiary education percentage is evident; higher unemployment rate and lower employment participation rates; and costs of living are moderate with lower housing costs especially after deducting mortgage costs.

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The Manawatū-Whanganui region is home to around 5% of the New Zealand population – slightly more for the older cohorts (6% of over 65s) and Māori (7% of national Māori). The population has barely grown over the past decade (0.1% p.a. between 2001 and 2013 compared to 1.1%pa nationally). Demographics are a headwind for the region. Important differences exist between sub-regions and age-groups. Some of the sub-regions are growing at a modest pace, but four are stagnant or declining (See Figure 3). All sub- regions have a growing older and shrinking younger population, except for Palmerston North and Manawatū. Palmerston North’s younger population profile is consistent with the economic opportunities available in the region, which attracts families, as well as a large education precinct. The ageing profile of the Manawatū-Whanganui region is consistent with a broader pattern of ageing across New Zealand and many other advanced economies. The main drivers are increasing life expectancy, lower fertility and the baby boomers reaching retirement age. Young people are also leaving the region. The prime working age (defined as those aged 25-54) peaked in the 1996 census and has been shrinking since then. This demographic ‘hollowing’ combined with an ageing population (people leaving the workforce) and lower fertility (fewer babies being born, thus fewer entrants into the workforce) means the prime working age population is likely to decline further. Informants from several districts complained about the difficulty of securing labour and some argued for greater emphasis on migration to support economic growth. This is despite a relatively high level of local unemployment – the labour force that is available is not always suited to labour demand. A disengaged youth labour force exacerbates the challenge for local businesses.4 The shrinking prime working age population is, of itself, a stark reason for change. If there are fewer people of working age, a key input into economic activity, the economic potential of the region is diminished. Statistics New Zealand projections based on current trends suggest that this will continue for decades to come (See Figure 2). To attract young people, either for local young people to stay, or to come from outside the region, there have to be compelling reasons. Economic reasons, particularly jobs and affordable lifestyles, are at the heart of migration or location choice. The poor education outcomes for some young people also mean that they do not have the skills to get jobs.

4 The NEET rate (under 25s not in employment, education or training) was 17.5% in Manawatū-Whanganui in 2014, versus 11.4% nationally. The NEET rate is a measure of youth disengagement.

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Ageing is a critical demographic pattern to watch. It will have meaningful implications in a number of areas, including:

 Demand: changing demand profile as different age groups consume different goods and services. In addition, each generation wants different things. This will create significant changes in work and consumption patterns over coming decades.  Supply: Labour supply will be very different. While many will continue to work much later in their life, there will be a relative shortage of young people, across skill levels. Being able to recruit, train and retain staff will be a critical issue for employers.  Politics: An ageing population will mean an increasing proportion of the population on relatively fixed incomes. This will make raising rates and other charges difficult. This means that the local political economy will tend to favour reduced investment and a resistance to change.  Community leadership: This means that the leadership talent pool is diminishing, resulting in a small number of people able (and willing) to engage in sector, industry, enterprise and community leadership.

FIGURE 2: PRIME WORKING AGE* POPULATION IN MANAWATŪ-WHANGANUI

Actual Projections

95,000

90,000 5. REGONAL CONTEXT

85,000

80,000

75,000 1991 2001 2011 2021 2031 2041

* Prime working age is defined by convention to be those aged between 25 and 54.

Source: Statistics New Zealand (Censuses and subnational population projections)

Figure 2 shows the prime working age population (aged 25-54) in Manawatū-Whanganui peaked in the 1996 census and has been trending lower since then. Statistics New Zealand projections show further declines are likely if current trends persist.

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FIGURE 3: POPULATION GROWTH BY BROAD AGE GROUP, 2006-2013

% change per year, 2006-2013

Data Graph

Region and age 0-14 15-39 40-64 65 Total 0-14 15-39 40-64 65 Total years years years years+ years years years years+

New Zealand 0.3% -0.1% 1.4% 2.9% 0.9%

Manawatū-Whanganui -0.6% -0.9% 0.5% 2.3% 0.1%

Ruapehu -2.7% -2.9% -0.8% 0.9% -1.7%

Whanganui -0.9% -1.2% 0.5% 1.5% -0.1%

Rangitikei -1.3% -1.7% -0.4% 1.8% -0.6%

Manawatū 0.0% -0.2% 1.5% 3.2% 0.9%

Palmerston North 0.3% -0.4% 0.9% 2.5% 0.5%

Tararua -1.6% -2.0% 0.1% 2.4% -0.5%

Horowhenua -1.1% -0.7% 0.4% 2.6% 0.3%

Source: Statistics New Zealand (Censuses)

Figure 3 shows the 2006 to 2013 growth of population by broad age group in NZ, the Manawatū-Whanganui regional council area and each of its constituent territorial authorities. The broad pattern is of a declining young population and a growing old population. To slightly dramatize the situation, but nevertheless reflect the reality, the region will have fewer productive people to drive the economy, more people dependent and fewer able to lead the economy out of this situation.

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The Manawatū-Whanganui region is not a region by anything other than administrative and statistical definitions. Historically, there has not been a strong common interest largely because it is a large and diverse geographic area in central North Island where each of the sub-regions has unique characteristics and challenges. The territorial authorities are:  Horowhenua District Council  Manawatū District Council  Palmerston North City Council  Council  Ruapehu District Council  Tararua District Council  Whanganui District Council. It is also geographically diverse. It comprises large expanses of mountain and hill country and significant areas of lowland plains. The major urban centre, Palmerston North, is towards one end of the region and those parts in the north comprising much of Ruapehu tend to face north and probably identify as much with the Waikato as Manawatū- Whanganui. It has a number of significant rivers, notably the Manawatū and Whanganui, which are often described as the life-blood of their respective areas of the region.

The hill country is a mix of volcanic material producing soils of variable fertility and sandstone which is prone to erosion and, related to this, the plains areas are periodically subject to serious flooding. The lower plains are a mixture of sand and alluvial material with generally good fertility and water retention. Agricultural informants described farming in the area as generally “hard”. Whilst productive, it does not reach the heights of productivity for say dairying or arable that can 5. REGONAL CONTEXT be found in Southland or Canterbury. The climate is temperate, with a moderate rainfall all year around, although summer droughts are becoming more common with evapotranspiration aggravated by often strong westerly winds. The geography of the region provides benefits but is not a decisive comparative or competitive advantage.

The region is subject to wide variations of land use, although there is also significant specialisation in selected parts which is largely a product of geography. The hill country - mainly sheep and beef - is extensive. The plains - mainly dairy and arable - are also extensive. Mixed land uses are common throughout the region. The map in Figure 4, right, illustrates patterns of land use and the predominance of sheep and beef farming throughout the region. It should also be noted that there are large areas of native cover offering tourism opportunities.

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FIGURE 4: LAND USE PATTERNS

Source: Ministry for Primary Industries

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The growth challenges faced by the region are not new. A long term view seen through the urban populations of Palmerston North and Whanganui illustrates the point. In the 1930s the two urban centres were about the same size. The population of Palmerston North grew faster than the national total until the 1981 Census. Since then Palmerston North has not grown as fast as the national total, joining the declining national significance of Whanganui which started to occur as early as 1935. The relative decline of the region has been in train for many decades (See Figure 5). The Manawatū-Whanganui economy was valued at $9.1b in 2014, accounting for 4% of the New Zealand economy. The share of national economic activity is smaller than the size of the regional population (5%), because GDP per capita is around 23% lower than the national average. The difference in GDP per capita is mainly due to the composition of the regional economy, which has a greater concentration of industries that do not employ many people or tend to have many low paying jobs, low employment participation and a higher than average dependency ratio. For example, the region is specialised in agriculture, retail, construction, health and education – sectors that tend to have low

wages. Lower economic participation through work and more retirees further lower GDP per capita relative to the rest of New Zealand.

FIGURE 5: POPULATION SHARE IN SELECTED URBAN AREAS (1935-2014) % share of the NZ population living in the urban areas of Whanganui and Palmerston North

Whanganui Urban Area Palmerston North Urban Area 5. REGONAL CONTEXT

2.5%

2.0%

1.5%

1.0%

0.5%

0.0% 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005

Source: Statistics New Zealand (Yearbooks, censuses and subnational population estimates)

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The regional economic patterns are reflected in lower incomes and lower participation in work. Median personal income was on average 11% lower than the national figure in the decade to 2014, and 18% lower in 2014 (See Figure 6). The gap is getting wider. Participation in work is also lower. In the beginning of official labour statistics in 1986, the regional employment rate, or the share of working age population in work was similar to the national total. Since then, employment in the region (as a share of the working age population) has been persistently lower than the national total. The average gap has been 2.5% of the working age population in the decade to 2014. Recently the employment rate has fallen in Manawatū-Whanganui, while it rose nationally. The gap in the regional employment rate from the national total was 5.7% in 2014, equivalent to 10,000 jobs. The recent weakness is driven by two components. First, the region specialises in industries with declining employment levels. They are downsizing, measured by employment, across New Zealand and also the region. Second, some of these sectors are doing worse than in other parts of New Zealand. One example is the agriculture, forestry and fishing sector; 12% of the region’s employment is in this sector, compared to 7% nationally5. Between census years of 2006 and 2013, national employment in this sector fell by 4%, but 10% in Manawatū-Whanganui. So, losses of employment in the region were due to greater exposure to a declining sector and steeper job losses than in other parts of New Zealand.

FIGURE 6: MEDIAN PERSONAL WEEKLY INCOME: MANAWATŪ-WHANGANUI AND NEW ZEALAND Personal income of all people from all sources, $ per week

New Zealand Manawatū-Whanganui 650

600

550

500

450

400

350

300

250 1998 2003 2008 2013

Source: Statistics New Zealand (New Zealand Income Survey)

5 2013 census data

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The region is not holding its own on GDP, which measures the total output of the economy, and neither is it holding ground on employment. It’s not a question of capital winning out over labour; both are falling behind national averages. The result is that there is underutilised labour (See Figure 7) which leads to the problem of young people leaving the region to seek employment in the cities or offshore. Massey University and other training institutions hold young people for the duration of training but a large proportion leave the city at graduation. Also as noted earlier, the ageing of the population is accelerating.

FIGURE 7: EMPLOYMENT RATE: MANAWATŪ-WHANGANUI AND NEW ZEALAND % of working age population in employment

Manawatū-Whanganui New Zealand

68 66 64 62

60 58 56 54 52 50

1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010 2014 5. REGONAL CONTEXT

Source: Statistics New Zealand (Household Labour Force Survey)

There are wide sub-regional differences. For example, in the Manawatū-Whanganui region average employment growth rates over the past decade ranged from -1.3% a year for the district with the lowest employment growth rate to +1.1% for the fastest growing district. These divergences can be seen all over New Zealand and are in part reflective of small economies, which lack breadth and depth and are therefore vulnerable and potentially volatile. Table 3, over the page, demonstrates that the lowest district performance in terms of employment growth is on a par with other deprived districts across the country. The district in Manawatū-Whanganui with the highest employment growth is still amongst the slowest growing in the country.

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FIGURE 8: WIDE DIFFERENCES IN ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE

Source: Statistics NZ, NZIER

In Figure 8: Wide differences in economic performance are evident. Each map ranks territorial authorities by their performance in selected measures of prosperity. Red depicts weakness; blue strength. The first map shows population growth between the 2006 and 2013 censuses. During this time many of the Manawatū-Whanganui territorial authorities contracted. The second map shows the median household income. Outside of a handful of locations in the main urban centres, household incomes are low in provincial New Zealand. The third map shows the unemployment rates; they are generally high in the North Island compared to the South Island. This in part reflects an older population in the South Island, but also weak labour market performance in the North Island. The second map depicts the median annual household income for each territorial authority. In 2013, the median annual household income nationally was $63,800. Territorial authorities with median annual household incomes above $63,800 are depicted in blue including Auckland, urban Wellington and parts of Canterbury. While spatially small, a significant percentage of national households are located in these urban centres. The rest of the territorial authorities (in red) experienced median household incomes below $63,800 including all territorial authorities in the Manawatu-Whanganui region.

Of the 10 largest sectors in the Manawatū-Whanganui region, half have shed jobs in the past decade. Personal and household incomes are lower than the New Zealand average, in part because of lower economic engagement through work and also because of the region’s high proportion of low skill jobs. Some of the income difference from other parts of New Zealand is overstated, because the cost of housing (to buy, but not to rent) is relatively low in the region. This means that income in the region can go further. But it does not take into account future income prospects, which are relatively low due to limited career and income progression opportunities. This fact alone may be a key driver in the lack of ambition we detected in the region.

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TABLE 3: GROWTH WITHIN REGIONS IS MORE VARIABLE THAN ACROSS REGIONS Compound annual rates of growth in employment 2001 to 2013

Lowest District growth Regional growth rate Highest District growth rate rate Northland 0.6% 0.9% 1.2% Auckland 1.2% 1.6% 2.5% Waikato -0.6% 1.2% 2.0% Bay of Plenty -1.8% 1.2% 2.4% Gisborne-Hawke's Bay -0.8% 0.5% 1.0% Taranaki -0.3% 1.2% 1.8% Manawatu-Whanganui -1.3% 0.3% 1.1% Wellington -0.7% 1.0% 1.8% Upper South Island 0.8% 1.1% 2.1% Canterbury 0.3% 1.5% 4.3% Otago -0.1% 1.2% 4.2% Southland -0.5% 0.5% 1.0%

Source: Statistics NZ; NZIER

Table 3: Employment growth within regions is more variable than across regions. This depicts the divergence of economic performance within regional council areas. For each regional council area, we show the district or territorial authority with the lowest employment growth rate, the employment growth rate for the total region, and the sub- region with the highest employment growth rate. In the Manawatū-Whanganui region,

Ruapehu district is the worst performing and Manawatū the best performing. 5. REGONAL CONTEXT

Figure 9 below shows the prominence and growth of sectors in the region, as measured by filled jobs in the business demography dataset. What is immediately apparent is that the larger and more productive sectors such as manufacturing and primary are in negative growth. Where growth is evident in the larger sectors it is driven by public expenditure in health and public service. Palmerston North is second only to Wellington as an economy based on public sector spending.6 This is not a strong and sustainable basis for a growing economy, due to tight fiscal conditions that are expected to continue. The wholesale and construction sectors’ position in the figure below reflects the hubbing and distribution activity in the region which has grown in recent years and which arises

6 Stephenson, J. (2013). ‘Regional government expenditure Estimates of core crown spending by region’. NZIER report to MBIE and Treasury, April 2013. http://www.med.govt.nz/sectors-industries/regions- cities/pdf-docs-library/research/regional-government-expenditure- report/Regional%20government%20expenditure%20full%20report.PDF

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from a regional comparative advantage. Its potential scale is capped by the level of primary economic activity to feed the hub. FIGURE 9: SIZE AND GROWTH OF SECTORS AT A REGIONAL LEVEL

Manawatū-Whanganui

Source: Statistics New Zealand (Business Demography Statistics)

In interpreting Figure 9, note that the sectors on the right hand side in employment terms are large and those on the left are small. The sectors on the top half of the chart have increased employment in the past decade and those in the bottom half have lost jobs. For example, manufacturing is a large employer, but it has been shedding jobs over the past 10 years. ICT is a small sector and shrinking. Property services is a small sector, but growing. The primary sector has created few new jobs in the last decade. The largest segment – sheep and beef – has been shedding jobs. Dairy has added new jobs and so has poultry but from a small base.

Figure 10 below shows each sector’s specialisation in the Manawatū-Whanganui region and their growth over the past decade. For example, the Manawatū-Whanganui region is specialised in the primary sector (agriculture, forestry and fishing) but the sector has not created many new jobs over the past decade. This is partly due to the nature of these industries in general and also due to their greater mechanisation in recent years. It also reflects the lack of development of processing capability which, while also mechanised, can produce jobs. Contrasting specialised industries are health (specialised and growing) and manufacturing (specialised and contracting). Manufacturing is suffering from global pressures on traditional enterprises. From a positive viewpoint there is a base of manufacturing activity and capability on which to build. The key to unlocking this area is likely to be technology and innovation.

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FIGURE 10: REGIONAL COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE BY SECTOR

Manawatū-Whanganui

Source: Statistics New Zealand (Business Demography Statistics)

In interpreting Figure 10, note that the sectors on the right side demonstrate greater specialisation; those on the left less so. Those above the line are growing, those below are not. 5. REGONAL CONTEXT

The region’s median household incomes are relatively low (see Figure 11). There are large differences within the region. While incomes are relatively high in Palmerston North (8% below the national median), they are lowest in Horowhenua (39% below the national median). Incomes should be seen in the context of the cost of living. The largest difference in living costs tends to be in housing. The cost of housing in the provinces is generally much lower than in metropolitan cities. While after-rent incomes are still lower than the national median, most parts of the Manawatū-Whanganui region have higher incomes after mortgage payments. The main difference between provincial and other urban centres is not just the current level of incomes, but also the potential for future incomes. Our analysis of sectors, occupations and future career progressions suggest that lifetime income prospects are also low in the region. The relatively low cost of housing is consistent with lower lifetime incomes. These differences in incomes matter. They can make it difficult to retain or attract people to the region, particularly in innovation and leadership roles. But for businesses, the region can be a relatively low cost business location, not just in terms of land and commercial rent, but also in terms of wages and stability for workers (for example,

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workers in a region like Manawatū-Whanganui have more of a chance of buying a house than in Auckland, where house prices are much more expensive relative to incomes). FIGURE 11: INCOME AND COST OF LIVING, 2013

Region Median Household Difference from NZ income ($ per year, 2013) Median income After rent After mortgage

income income

Manawatū-Whanganui 50,000

Ruapehu 44,400

Whanganui 43,800

Rangitikei 48,600

Manawatū 57,700

Palmerston North 58,500

Tararua 47,500

Horowhenua 39,200

NZ 63,800 Source: Statistics New Zealand, MBIE, QVNZ, RBNZ, NZIER calculations

Figure 11 shows the median household income as at the 2013 census. Household incomes in the region are lower than the national median, as shown in the first set of bar charts. But these measures do not take into account a key variation in the cost of living – housing. Once we account for rents the picture stays the same, but home owners with a mortgage are better off in most sub-regions.

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Employment conditions in parts of the region are challenging. The unemployment rate is higher than the New Zealand average across many of the sub-regions (See Figure 12), but Rangitikei, Manawatū and Tararua had lower unemployment rates at the time of the 2013 Census. While national employment has grown modestly over the past decade, the Manawatū-Whanganui region has shrunk slightly (See Figure 13). The past decade contains one of the deepest and longest recessions on record and as such the trends need to be seen in this context. FIGURE 12: UNEMPLOYMENT RATE, 2013 CENSUS

Region Unemployment rate, 2013 Census Difference from NZ

Manawatū-Whanganui 7.8 0.7

Ruapehu 8.1 1.0

Whanganui 9.6 2.5

Rangitikei 6.1 -1.0

Manawatū 5.8 -1.3

Palmerston North 7.5 0.4

Tararua 6.1 -1.0

Horowhenua 10.1 3.0

NZ 7.1

Source: Statistics New Zealand 5. REGONAL CONTEXT

Figure 12 shows the unemployment rate for the Manawatū-Whanganui region and the sub regions. The pattern is uneven – Rangitikei, Manawatū and Tararua had a lower unemployment rate than the national total. But the other regions had higher unemployment rates.

The regional labour market has performed worse than the national total due to two reasons:

 Job losses have been more widespread across sectors.  The region is specialised in some of the sectors experiencing deep and structural change. The labour market presents the most compelling platform for change. As already explained, many of the region’s large industries are in decline, similar to national and global trends. This is being further compounded by worse regional performance compared to the national average. Manawatū-Whanganui specialises in industries that are in long term decline (at least in terms of jobs); and does worse in those industries than other parts of New Zealand.

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FIGURE 13: EMPLOYMENT GROWTH, 2004-2014, COMPOUND ANNUAL GROWTH RATE

NZ Manawatū-Whanganui region

Manawatū Palmerston North Rangitikei Whanganui Horowhenua Tararua Ruapehu

-3.0% -2.0% -1.0% 0.0% 1.0% 2.0%

Source: Statistics New Zealand

Figure 13 shows the growth in jobs over the decade to 2014, as measured by filled jobs from Business Demography statistics. Three sub-regions have grown: Manawatū, Palmerston North and Rangitikei. But others have shrunk and the region in total has been losing jobs by 0.1% a year, compared to growth of 1.1% a year nationally. However, the broad patterns are consistent with longer term history. Many primary and manufacturing sector jobs are being ‘offshored’ through globalisation or are being replaced through technological advances. In other instances changing tastes and preferences means some products and industries are obsolete.

The go-forward strategy for the region has to be two-fold.

 To improve performance of its existing businesses. While this may not reverse the declining trend, it would be less steep.

 To expand sectors that have growth prospects and in which the region has a credible chance of building self-sustaining clusters. The recommendations in our opportunities section address both these points with this approach in mind.

Māori play a considerable role in the regional economy but the potential of Māori capability and assets has not been fully realised. One in five people in the region is Māori (20.6% of the regional population in 2014). Manawatū-Whanganui has the 6th highest regional Māori population in New Zealand and accounts for 7.3% of the national Māori population. It is home to a number of iwi.

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The largest are Te Atihaunui a Pāpārangi with more than 11,600 members and Ngāti Raukawa with more than 15,100.7 While the Māori population in the Manawatū-Whanganui region is large, the Māori labour market performance is comparatively poor. In 2014, the Māori unemployment rate was more than double that of European ethnicity, at 14.6% compared to 6.4%. Convergence to the non-Māori unemployment rate would reduce Māori unemployed by 56% or around 2,000 people. Share of the population in employment is also lower for Māori at 57.4% versus 60.2% for European ethnicity. This gap is equivalent to around 1,000 jobs. Similarly, the median personal annual income for Māori is around 25% lower than for European ethnicity in the region ($24,300 compared to $32,800 in 20138). The gap between Māori and non-Māori incomes narrowed between 2001 and 2006 but grew again between 2006 and 2013, possibly as a result of the GFC9. By increasing employment by around 1,000 people, reducing unemployment by around 2,000 people, and incomes catching up with those of European ethnicity would increase total income for Māori in the region by an estimated $205m (equivalent to 2.2% of regional GDP). The potential is huge but there are challenges. For example, although there has been consistent improvement of most education indicators for Māori in the region 10, Māori are still over-represented in ‘no’ or ‘low’ qualifications and under-represented in higher qualifications.

There are two positive developments that can be leveraged to deliver a better Māori economic outcome:

 Demographic: over half (53%) of the Māori population is under 25.  Treaty settlements: identified and agreed settlements total over $200m, which can be leveraged for social and economic gain. Māori own considerable assets in the region and these are expected to grow as remaining treaty settlements are completed. The asset base of traditional land is significant. Within 5. REGONAL CONTEXT the region there is more than 190,000 hectares of Māori Freehold Land consisting of 2,156 land lots of varying size.11 This supports a number of farming businesses, which, because of the land types and terrain in the Manawatū-Whanganui region and where Māori land is located, are mostly devoted to sheep and cattle farming and forestry. The largest farming business within the region is Atihau-Whanganui Incorporation (further details are in the Productivity of Māori Land section).

7 Statistics NZ 2013 Census

8 NZ 2013 9 Based on 2001, 2006, 2013 census, customised data sets for Māori and non-Māori median personalised annual income, Statistics New Zealand. 10 Ministry of Education “Education Counts” website: www.educationcounts.govt.nz 11 Horizons Regional Council with areas updated by PWC 2014

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The predominantly Taranaki-based Paraninihi ki Waitotara Incorporation (PKW), the owner of dairying land and 15 dairy farms totalling 20,000ha, also has some of its land assets in the region. In Palmerston North, the Palmerston North Tenths Trust owns 13 hectares of central Palmerston North worth more than $77m. 12 Until 1996 the land owned by PKW and the Palmerston North Tenths Trust was held in perpetual leases at legislatively prescribed below market rates of return with lengthy rent review periods. The Māori Reserve Land Amendment Act 1996 improved the terms of the leases in favour of the landowners, moving to market rents and providing owners with the option of purchasing the improvements on their land. This will continue to have an impact on the farm, commercial and residential property markets in these regions as the landowners gain more revenue from commercial rents and buy back leases and the improvements on their land. There have been relatively few historical Treaty of Waitangi settlements in the region. Iwi that have settled include Ngaa Rauru Kiitahi whose rohe overlaps Taranaki and Whanganui. Their settlement in 2003 totalled $31m and they now have assets of more than $40m. Ngaa Rauru is a member of the Iwi Collective Partnership, a group of 12 iwi that have pooled their fisheries assets to develop greater control over the processing and marketing of their quota acquired as a result of the 1992 settlement of Māori fisheries claims. Ngaa Rauru is the only iwi in the region to be a member of the partnership. Ngāti Apa received a settlement of $16m in 2008 and has developed an active investment approach including ownership of commercial property in both Whanganui and Palmerston North. It has entered a partnership with the Atihau-Whanganui Incorporation and a local farming company to buy and operate 1100 hectares of sheep, cattle, dairy and forestry property near Bulls. Ngāti Toa, whose Rangatira are primarily based in the Kapiti region also have interests within the Manawatū-Whanganui Region. Ngati Toa reached agreement with the Crown on their historic Treaty claims in 2012 and received $70m in financial redress. The historical Treaty claims regarding the Whanganui River are in the final stages of settlement and include legal recognition of the Whanganui River as an entity in its own right as Te Awa Tupua, a $30m fund to assist with restoration of the health of the river as well as a total of $80m in financial redress for iwi. 13 A new governance structure has also been established to replace the Whanganui River Māori Trust Board and represent the interests of iwi in Te Awa Tupua – Ngā Tangata Tiaki o Whanganui. The majority of iwi have not yet reached comprehensive settlements. This includes Rangitāne o Manawatū, Rangitāne o Tamaki nui a Rua Wairarapa, Ngāti Kahungunu o Tamaki nui a Rua Wairarapa, Muaūpoko, Ngāti Raukawa, Te Atihaunui a Pāpārangi, Ngāti Rangi, Uenuku, Ngåti Maniapoto, Ngāti Tuwharetoa and Mokai Patea. Some iwi also have interests in the separate historical claims relating to Tongariro National Park. Prepared Foods, the largest processor of paua in New Zealand and a major producer of ready to eat long life meals for other brands, is based in Palmerston North, and opened a new processing plant and factory in 2013. Prepared Foods is one of four divisions of

12 Tenths Trust website 13 Office of Treaty Settlements and annual reports of iwi

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Aotearoa Fisheries Ltd, a wholly Māori owned entity which, among other things, holds a 50% share of the large seafood processor and exporter Sealord transferred to Māori as part of the 1992 commercial fisheries settlement. 14 In addition to iwi assets and business, there is also a significant number of Māori in business who employ others or who are self-employed. Together they make up 8.2% of the total Māori in employment in the Taranaki and Manawatū-Whanganui region. 15 The current relative underperformance is a call for action, as improving the Māori economic performance to the regional average would massively boost economic outcomes. Māori are starting from a position of disadvantage. If the goal is to reach convergence over time, to invest in young children now for success in adulthood, there has to be success at each stage of life. A Brookings study16 on social and economic mobility summarised the conditional steps to success in adulthood (measured as reaching middle class by middle life) requires success in early childhood, a good foundation in middle school, good achievements in high school (and avoid the traps of early pregnancy or crime), gain tertiary qualifications and enter into a good job. Māori are stumbling at many of these steps, with continuing differences in qualifications gained from school low transition through tertiary education and consequently engaging in low skill and low paying jobs.

5. REGONAL CONTEXT

14 Aotearoa Fisheries Ltd Annual Report 2014 15 Māori in Business study, MBIE 2014 16 http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2012/09/20-pathways-middle-class-sawhill-winship

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FIGURE 14: HIGHEST QUALIFICATION BY SELECTED ETHNICITY IN MANAWATŪ- WHANGANUI, 2013 CENSUS

All Manawatū- Māori Manawatū- Māori vs Manawatū- Whanganui Whanganui Whanganui

No Qualification 27% 37%

Level 1 Certificate 15% 18%

Level 2 Certificate 11% 13%

Level 3 Certificate 9% 11%

Level 4 Certificate 11% 8%

Level 5/Level 6 Diploma 8% 5%

Bachelor Degree/ Level 7 10% 6%

Post-graduate/Honours 2% 1% Degree

Masters Degree 2% 1%

Doctorate Degree 1% 0%

Source: Statistics New Zealand

Figure 14 shows the share of population in each qualification category. Māori have fewer qualifications, making it harder for them to access good jobs.

On the face of it, the region appears to be in relative economic decline and this has been a feature for a very long time. With the loss of jobs, loss of companies in key industries and an ageing population goes the ability to create ecosystems of development. This is not an ideal setting for building a collection of highly skilled people where innovative sparks can fly, that can generate leadership and energy to create renewal in a regional economy that sorely needs it. The region needs scale and active ecosystems including a deep pool of suitable labour, soft infrastructure like social networks, places to meet and play as well as its existing physical infrastructure like roads, schools and hospitals. Without these the region lacks the energy required to drive development. All that said, there are some glimpses of possibility:

 Some sub-regions are doing better than others, suggesting decline is not inevitable and local factors, such as leadership, play a part.  The region has not sufficiently used its regional scale to support economic development and this represents potential opportunity. It is difficult but not impossible

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for a small dispersed population to replicate the agglomeration benefits of larger cities by building good connection internally and externally with metropolitan centres.  There is a wealth of regional human, natural and physical capital that, if utilised better, can deliver tangible economic and social benefits. The boat will not right itself. For development to accelerate there needs to be a culture of innovation and leadership. It requires a committed effort of regional leaders to build the culture and the institutions of growth.

5. REGONAL CONTEXT

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6. OPPORTUNITIES AND ENABLERS

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This section describes the growth opportunities and enablers that we have identified in the Manawatū-Whanganui region. Eight opportunities have been identified and they have been presented in the report in an order of priority based on the filtering process and an additional mix of criteria including ease and immediacy of realisation, contribution of jobs to the region and leadership support from stakeholders. There are three enablers which are presented in no particular order because they are all very different to each other. Each of the opportunities and enablers are assessed under five headings:

 What – what is the opportunity? What is the current situation? What are the prospects?  Why – why is it an opportunity and what sort of opportunity is it?  Why not – what are the factors that may work against it?  Filters Summary – how is it that we arrived at this opportunity as a priority? What filters did we apply and how were they scored?  How – how can this opportunity be unlocked? At the end of each section there is a summary of interventions which outlines who should carry out what action and where to realise the opportunity and finally there is a visual summary in the form of a quadrant diagram which provides the answers to these questions, at a glance, for each opportunity/enabler. The opportunities have been carefully selected. Some are large sectors such as sheep and beef where small changes can have large impacts. Others are extensions of existing activity such as fresh vegetables, based on the belief that expansion can be leveraged off the existing platform. Still others are relatively new to the area – Mānuka honey and poultry meat for export. In making the selection we were mindful of a number of criteria such as short and long term achievability, chances of success, local commitment and leadership in the sector and, of course, the viability and productivity of the sector for jobs and GDP. Within each opportunity we have identified a strategic intervention or a point of entry, so while we would like to see an overall expansion of tourism, and particularly international tourism, in the region, we have limited ourselves to a focus on adventure/nature/cultural tourism in the Central Plateau and major rivers. We believe that if this was realised the flow-on effect would gradually stimulate other tourism opportunities. It’s a case of initially addressing what is manageable then building on success. We have selected only three enablers out of a possible much larger number. Those selected focus on critical areas such as transport and distribution. This is critical to the achievement of all the opportunities and effective supply chains are vital. Others focus on areas of under-utilised resources such as Māori land and where the way ahead remains uncertain. An enabler such as this requires dedicated and purposeful effort. The last enabler – ‘growing businesses’ – is about investing in the performance of the basic building block of business in the region – the small and medium enterprises – and intervening to address the business culture by enhancing their governance and management. Other enablers are referenced in the opportunities such as vocational education and training, broadband and regional leadership and are not treated separately.

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The region already has significant tourism assets and exposure. The emphasis is on outdoor and nature-based adventure and is well-suited to a new generation of domestic and international tourists. Comparative advantage lies not only in the geography of the region and its location at the centre of high volume traffic flows from State Highways 1, 3 and 4. There is also a uniquely spiritual character to the mountains of the Central Plateau and the Whanganui River with its numerous marae settlements. Ski field developments are well-established and recent enhancements in the Ruapehu area include cycle trails, but apart from the skiing facilities the other attractions are not well known. At present it is predominantly a domestic destination and few of the attractions have reached a scale of market recognition to attract significant international traffic. Current tourism activity is widely distributed, somewhat fragmented and generally small scale in nature and performing at a lower level than it could be (except for the long term ski and related attractions in the Tongariro National Park). The opportunity is to use existing resources better, on a larger scale, with better coordination of diverse offerings and packaged through a single point of entry geared to both international and domestic markets. Mountain biking on Tūroa is the ideal point of intervention to leverage this opportunity. The rapidly growing popularity of the sport and its pulling power to bring people (with opportunity for repeat visits) to the region, especially in the low shoulder seasons, would 6. OPPORTUNITIES AND ENABLERS drive growth across all aligned adventure and outdoor tourism offerings. The benefit to the region would be immense in that public and private infrastructure currently used for only part of the year (hospitality, accommodation and services) would become 365 day operations. There is a compelling prima facie case that tourism of this nature would add jobs and increase incomes in the short and medium term.

Current patterns and projections The current tourism contribution in the region, apart from the existing ski-related offering and the Tongariro Crossing, has latent growth potential. The region is not telling the story of the potential outdoor recreational opportunity because the offerings are fragmented with no cohesive narrative around them. As a measure of the potential value of the opportunity, if the level of international visitors was raised to that of domestic visitors, $460m pa would be added to the regional economy, together with 520 jobs. This would boost regional employment by 0.5% and sub- regional employment, if concentrated in a place like Ruapehu District, by 11%.

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This is very much a long term upside scenario. A more probable scenario is increasing visitor spending by around 10%, which would boost regional GDP by $63m a year and add 71 new jobs directly and indirectly. We regard an increased visitor spend of 10% as very achievable simply through better packaging. We believe the mountain bike opportunity, which will take longer to develop, has the potential to enable growth to be better than this figure. The tourism sector is already important for the Manawatū-Whanganui region, (see Table 4) accounting for 4.2% of GDP directly and another 3.3% indirectly (through related industries and induced demand). It generated economic activity of $633m in 2014 ($355m directly and $277m indirectly) and 7,105 jobs (4,008 directly and 3,097 indirectly). Tourism accounts for 7.4% of the regional economy, a little higher than the national total of 7.0%. Tourism spending over recent years has been up and down, reflecting uncertain economic conditions. Nevertheless, growth in tourism expenditure has been robust in the five years to 2014 (Figure 15) suggesting Manawatū-Whanganui is a maturing destination. Visitor spending grew by 16% in this period, driven by domestic tourism (Figure 16). This is significantly better than the national growth of 7% over the same period. While the Manawatū-Whanganui region has a similar total exposure to tourism as the New Zealand total, the region is more reliant on domestic tourism than international tourism - 87% of total tourism expenditure is domestic versus 59% for New Zealand - (Figure 17). Source, season, value and change in the nature of tourists The largest sources of offshore visitors to both the region and nation are from advanced economies like USA, Australia and UK. But the fastest growth is coming from markets like China (which is now New Zealand’s second largest source of visitors) and emerging markets like India and Indonesia; economic growth in both these countries is leading to a rapidly increasingly mobile middle class with disposable income. India is also a good market for shoulder season travel which could help extend the tourism season in the region. The type of visitor changes as incomes within visitor countries increase. Visitors tend to move from organised tours to independent travel. The latter tends to be more aligned to individual interests, for example mountain biking, trekking and experiences such as those available on the Forgotten Highway (State Highway 43), including the opportunity to self- drive a converted golf cart along the tracks of the Forgotten World railway. This positively reflects just some of the many tourism opportunities in the Manawatū-Whanganui region. This shift in the type of visitor is also reflected in the growth of the camper van traveller – both domestic and international – as this form of travel makes the area more accessible. Ruapehu, Whanganui and Rangitikei are areas that lend themselves as destinations for this type of traveller, particularly as they sit at the centre of the intersection between state highways 1, 3 and 4. A report completed in 200717, although a little dated, documents the high volume of domestic and international tourism flows on these highways. Much of this was the Foreign

17 See http://www.med.govt.nz/sectors-industries/tourism/pdf-docs-library/tourism-research-and- data/other-research-and-reports/tourism-flows-model/tourism-flows-model-summary.pdf

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Independent Traveller (FIT) heading south down State Highway 1. The opportunity lies in better understanding these travellers with the challenge being to draw them off the road because of their desire to connect with the experiences and activities available in the area. MBIE forecasts that international visitor numbers and expenditure will continue to grow over coming years. Manawatū-Whanganui has the opportunity to take a bigger slice of visitors coming to New Zealand. Tourism tends to be seasonal, with high visitor numbers during summer, and lower but still significant visitor numbers during winter/spring for skiing (Figure 18). While Tūroa has become a national and international destination for skiers the remainder of the attractions in the area have very limited profile, even with those visiting the area to ski. TABLE 4: KEY TOURISM STATISTICS (MARCH 2014 YEAR)

Manawatū-Whanganui NZ Share of NZ

Tourism GDP $m 633 14,850 4.3%

Direct $m 355 8,339 4.3%

Indirect $m 277 6,512 4.3%

Tourism employment 000s 7 167 4.2%

Direct 000s 4 94 4.3%

Indirect 000s 3 73 4.1%

Tourism expenditure $m 875 17,293 4.3% 6. OPPORTUNITIES AND ENABLERS Domestic $m 763 10,134 4.3%

International $m 112 7,159 4.3%

Source: Statistics New Zealand, MBIE, NZIER estimates

Tourism expenditure in Manawatū-Whanganui tracks very closely that of New Zealand as a whole as illustrated in Figure 15. It is also a strong contributor when compared with other regions.

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FIGURE 15: VISITOR EXPENDITURE (ALL EXPENDITURE) (Nominal expenditure, indexed to 100 in 2009)

Manawatū-Whanganui NZ

115

110

105

100

95

90

85 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Source: MBIE, NZIER calculations

FIGURE 16: VISITOR SPENDING GROWTH, 2009-2014, % CHANGE

30% Domestic contribution International contribution Total 25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%

-5%

-10%

-15%

-20% Total Otago Nelson Tasman Waikato Taranaki Gisborne Auckland Southland Northland Wellington Canterbury WestCoast Hawke's Bay Bay of Plenty Bay of Marlborough

Manawatū-Whanganui Source: MBIE

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