About the Authors

Michel Bitbol is a philosopher and historian of twentieth-century and a member of the Centre de Recherche en Epist´emologie Ap- pliqu´eoftheEcole´ Polytechnique, Paris. He is the author of M´ecanique quantique: une introduction philosophique, Physique et philosophie de l’´esprit,andSchr¨odinger’s Philosophy of Quantum Mechanics. Howard Carmichael is a professor of physics at the University of Aukland (New Zealand), who specializes in and the quantum theory of open systems. He is the author of Statistical Methods in Quantum Optics: Master Equations and Fokker-Planck Equations. James Evans is a historian of science and professor of physics at the University of Puget Sound. He is the author of The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy,aswellofmanyarticlesonthehistory of physics. His scientific papers include studies of optical-mechanical analogies. Arthur Fine is a professor of philosophy (and adjunct professor of physics and of history) at the University of Washington. Past-President of the Philosophy of Science Association, he concentrates on founda- tions of quantum physics and interpretive issues relating to the devel- opment of the natural and social sciences. His works include The Shaky Game: Einstein, Realism and the Quantum Theory. John Heilbron is editor of Historical Studies in the Physical and Bi- ological Sciences and resides near Oxford, England. Among his books are The Dilemmas of an Upright Man: as Spokesman for German Science and H. G. J. Moseley: The Life and Letters of an English , 1887-1915. Wolfgang Ketterle has described himself as a quantum engineer, who wants to produce things that have never existed before. He is John 244

D. MacArthur Professor of Physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 2001 he shared the in Physics with Eric A. Cornell and Carl E. Wieman for the achievement of Bose–Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali . Georges Lochak is the director of the Fondation in Paris. He is the author of Louis de Broglie: Un prince de la science, D´efense et illustration de la science: Le savant, la science et l’ombre, and (with Thomas Borne and Harald Stumpf) Nonperturbative Quan- tum Field Theory and the Structure of Matter. Roland Omn`es is a professor emeritus of physics at the University of Paris-Sud. He is the author of The Interpretation of Quantum Me- chanics, Understanding Quantum Mechanics,andQuantum Philoso- phy: Understanding and Interpreting Contemporary Science. Maximilian Schlosshauer recently completed his Ph. D. in physics at the University of Washington, where his research centered on the foundations of quantum mechanics, especially the theory and inter- pretation of quantum decoherence. His review article on this subject appeared recently in Reviews of Modern Physics.HeisnowatThe University of Queensland (Australia). Abner Shimony is a professor emeritus of philosophy and physics at Boston University, who has sometimes described himself as an “exper- imental metaphysician.” Besides many technical papers on the ramifi- cations of quantum mechanics, he is the author of Search for a Natu- ralistic Worldview: Natural Science and Metaphysics. Alan Thorndike is a professor of physics at the University of Puget Sound. He has recently switched research fields from geophysics to ex- perimental quantum optics and has been busily entangling photons. He is the author of a recent paper exploring classical-mechanical analogies to the Feynman diagram approach in quantum mechanics. Bruce R. Wheaton is director of Technology and Physical Science History Associates (“TAPSHA”), Albany CA. He is the author of The Tiger and the Shark: Empirical Roots of Wave–Particle Dualism. William Wootters is a professor of physics at Williams College who specializes in quantum information theory. His scientific papers appear regularly in Physical Review Letters and Quantum Information and Computation. Index

Anaxagoras, 39 as criterion of classicality, 187 antibunching of photons, 186, Boltzmann, Ludwig, 25–27, 86, 119, 192–195 183 Aristotle, 1, 60 Born,Max,5,30 Aspect, A., 15, 116 Borne, Thomas, 79 , 178–180 Bose, Satyendra Nath, 159, 168 atomicity, 100 Bose–Einstein condensation, 17, 159–181 Bell’s inequality and entropy, 167 and nonlocality, 117–119 conditions for observing, 170–172 experimental tests of, 115–117 observation of, 174–175 Bell’s theorem, 111–115 Bose–Einstein statistics, 164–165 Bell, John S., 2, 14, 89, 234 bosons, 163, 167 Beller, Mara, 100 Bothe, W., 186 Bennett, C. H., 218, 220 Boumeester, D., 227 Bitbol, Michel, 6 Broglie, Louis de, 1, 4 BKS detection model, 192, 193, 198, and Enlightenment philosophy, 74 201, 202 and special relativity, 55–57 blackbody problem, 2, 23–27, 98, 99, drawn to physics after first Solvay 165, 168, 183–184 Congress, 46 Bloch, Felix, 5 family life, 41–43 Bohm, David, 14, 78 his physics education, 48 Bohmian mechanics, 142–143 influenced by his brother, Maurice, Bohr, Niels, 1, 3–4, 11, 14, 29, 30, 45–49 54, 57, 185, 187 joins Cophenhagen school, 77 opposes Schr¨odinger’s continuity military service, 48 theory, 98 Nobel prize, 39 separates macroscopic and on matter waves, 56–58, 76 microscopic worlds, 231–232 onpilotwaves,6,14 Bohr–Kramers–Slater (BKS) scheme, reaction to Bohm’s theory, 78 185, 186, 190 relations with Heisenberg, 76–78 246 Index

works in radio transmission, 48, 75 Davies, Paul, 82 Broglie, Maurice de, 4, 41, 43–45 de Broglie wavelength, 57, 159 and industrial physics, 44, 50–52 Debye, Pieter, 5 educates his brother, Louis, 45 decoherence, 16, 125–144, 235–236 his first researches, 44 and decomposition of world into his private laboratory, 44–45, subsystems, 135–136 47–50 and measurement problem, military service, 47 129–130 participates in first Solvay and preferred-basis problem, Congress, 46 130–133 research on x-rays, 48, 52–55 and problem of outcomes, 133–134 Buhrman, H., 223 in various interpetations of quantum mechanics, 136 Carmichael, Howard J., 17 in various interpetations ofquan- Caro, Alexis, 44 tum mechanics, 143 cavity quantum electrodynamics, role in destroying macroscopic 184, 186, 192 interference, 235 chemical potential, 164, 165 role of environment in, 126–129 classicality, emergence of from the Democritus, 39 quantum realm, 236–237 dense coding, 218–220, 225 Clauser, J. F., 15, 115, 116 density matrix, 128–129, 133–135, Cleve, R., 223 139–143 closed-universe objection, 135 Descartes, Ren´e, 1 cloud chamber tracks, 88–93, 96 detection loophole, 116 coarse-graining, 126, 128, 135 determinism, 7–8, 75 collapse of the state vector, 7, 207, Dirac notation, 151 232 Dirac, P. A. M., 5, 78, 79 and decoherence, 140–141 on quantum statistics, 169 communication complexity problem, 223 Egorov, Yuri, 237 communication loophole, 115 Einstein, Albert, 1, 3, 5, 17, 27, 28, complementarity, 200, 206, 231 73, 74, 79, 187 Compton, A. H., 186 against Bohr–Heisenberg philoso- Connes, A., 119 phy, 206 cooling, 172 encourages de Broglie, 77 Copenhagen interpretation, 137 on de Broglie’s thesis, 40, 57 Copenhagen school, 5, 6, 75, 98 on light fluctuations, 189 Copernicus, Nicolas, 27 on light quanta, 3, 185 Cornell, Eric A., 18 on statistical energy conservation, Correspondence principle, 76 186 Curie, Marie, 49 on the virtual, 83 predicts Bose–Einstein condensa- Darrigol, Olivier, 57 tion, 160, 169, 170 Darwin, C. G., 89–91 Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen argument, Dauvillier, Alexandre, 48, 52, 58 14, 15, 107, 109–111 Index 247

Empedokles, 60 Heller, M., 119 entanglement, 9–14, 90, 207, 213–218 Hertz, Heinrich, 22 as resource for communication, hidden variables, 8, 14, 15, 81, 85 218–225 Hilbert, David, 232 Everett, H., 15, 136, 138 histories, consistent, 16, 149–157, 237–238 Fermat’s principle, 4, 76 and decoherence, 141–142 Fermi–Dirac statistics, 164 testing for, 154–156 fermions, 163, 167 Holmes, Sherlock, 231, 234 Fine, Arthur, 16 Holt, R. A., 115 fluctuations of light, 189–199 Huysmans,JorisKarl,42 Foster, G. T., 186, 187, 199, 205 framework, 154 indistinguishability, 159, 167 Franck–Hertz experiment, 98 Jarrett, J., 114, 117 Freedman, S. J., 15, 115 Joos, E., 82, 127 Fresnel, Augustin, 42 Jordan, Pascual, 5 Friedman, J. R., 12 Julsgaard, B., 12 Fry, E., 116, 117 Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft, 33, 34 Gamow, George, 89 Kant, Immanuel, 83, 95 Geiger, H., 186, 187 Ketterle, Wolfgang, 18 genidentity, 86 Kramers, H. A., 185 geometry, noncommutative, 107, 119 Lanczos, Cornelius, 73 Ghirardi–Rimini–Weber (GRW) Langevin, Paul, 4, 75 theory, 136, 140, 141 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm von, 8 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 75 Lenin, Vladimir, 28 Griffiths condition, 152 Lewin, K., 86 Griffiths, R. B., 16, 150, 156, 237 Lochak, Georges, 6 London, Fritz, 170 H¨ormander, Lars, 237 Lorentz, H. A., 27, 32, 73 Hagley, E., 217 Lucretius, 40 Haroche, Serge, 217 Hartle, James, 16 Mach, Ernst, 28, 33 Heilbron, John, 3 many-worlds interpretation, 15, 136, Heisenberg, Werner, 1, 5, 74, 78, 101, 138 234 Margenau, Henry, 86 and uranium project, 35 matter-wave amplification, 179 attracted to irrationalist philoso- Maudlin, T., 116 phy, 74 Maupertuis’s principle, 4, 76 his distaste for wave mechanics, 5, Max-Planck-Society, 34 98 Maxwell, James Clerk, 22, 24, 25, his positivism, 83 27, 73 importance of symmetry, 75 Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics, 164 on indeterminism, 75 measurement problem, 129–130 on particle tracks, 91 Mermin, David, 9, 116, 117 248 Index

Minkowski, Hermann, 29 attitude toward quantum mechan- modal interpretations, 139–140 ics, 30 Mott, N. F., 89–91, 93, 99 behavior under Nazis, 29, 33–34 blackbody problem, 23–27 Nernst, Walther, 73 Brieftagebuch, 22, 29 Neumann, John von, 1, 6, 232–238 loss of his son Karl, 31 axiomatic approach to quantum Manifesto of 93 Intellectuals, 32 mechanics, 233 Nobel prize, 27, 33 his model for measurement, 127, on disjunction between theory and 131, 133, 234 nature, 207 on predicates in quantum opposition to Mach, 28, 29 mechanics, 233 taste for universal in science, 3, Newton, Isaac, 27, 73 22, 28 nonclassicality thesis and Habilitationsschrift, 22 criterion for, 187–188 welcomes World War I, 31 nonlocality, 12–15, 107, 109, 111, Poincar´e, Henri, 46 117–119 Poirot, Hercule, 234 pooling of separated data, 223–225 objectivation, 94, 95 predicate, elementary, 233 Omn`es, Roland, 6, 16, 120 preferred-basis problem, 130–133 orthodox interpretation, 136–137 principle of sufficient reason, 8 outcome independence, 113, 114, probability, conditional, 150 117, 118 compared to probablity amplitude, outcomes, problem of, 133–134 151 conditions for its existence, 152 Pange, Pauline de Broglie, Comtesse projection operator, 151, 154, 233 de, 39, 43, 46 propagator, 151 parameter independence, 113, 114, Proust, Marcel, 49 117, 118 particles quadrature squeezing, 186, 195–199 and trajectory problem, 86–88 quantum jumps, 94–101 denied by Schr¨odinger, 81 Rayleigh–Jeans law, 184 indispensible features of, 82 Reichenbach, H., 86 Pasteur, Louis, 73 relative-state proposal, 138 Pauli, Wolfgang, 5, 78, 98 Rockefeller Foundation, 35 on quantum statistics, 169 Runge, Carl, 22, 27–29 Perrin, Jean, 30, 48 Rydberg atoms, 217 photons and lack of Bose condensa- tion, 165–166 Schlosshauer, Maximilian, 16 Physikalisch-Technische Reich- Schopenhauer, Arthur, 95 sanstalt, 24 Schr¨odinger cat paradox, 11, 234 Planck threshold, 119–121 Schr¨odinger, Erwin, 1, 5, 59, 76, 235 Planck, Max, 2–3, 73, 76, 115, 183, against hidden-variable theories, 185, 231 85 and Weimar Republic, 32 against particles, 82–94 Index 249

against quantum jumps, 94–101 Technische Hochschule, 24 and non-duality, 94 Tegmark, M., 144 doubts possibility of observing de- teleportation, 220–223, 225 parture from classical statistics, experiments, 226–229 170 Teller, Paul, 82 his account of Compton effect, 98 Thorndike, Alan, 16 his definition of reality, 84 Tittle, W., 116 his demonstration of Planck’s transactional interpretation, 15 radiation law, 98, 99 Trillat, Jean-Jacques, 48, 50 his holistic view, 95 on entangled states, 10, 108, 213 van Dam, W., 223 on impossibility of ascribing virtuality, 83 trajectories to particles, 86 Voltaire, Fran¸cois-Marie Arouet de, on theory construction, 96 77 on virtuality, 84 reasons for rejecting particles, 89 wave–particle correlations, 199–204 reluctance to use 3n-dimensional wave–particle duality, 17, 39, wave functions, 99 185–187 replies to Bohr’s criticisms, 98 Weihs, J., 116 Shimony, Abner, 15 Weizs¨acker, Karl Friedrich von, 74 shot noise, 198 Weyl, Hermann, 236 Simon, A. W., 186 Wheaton, Bruce R., 4 Slater, J. C., 185 Wieman, Carl E., 18 Solvay Congress, 6, 32, 46, 54, 75, 77 Sommerfeld, Arnold, 5, 29, 30, 32 Wien, Wilhelm, 23, 24 Spencer, Herbert, 22 Wiesner, S. J., 218 statistics, quantum, 88, 159, 161–165 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 16 historical development of, 168–170 Wootters, William K., 17 Stern–Gerlach effect, 98 Stumpf, Harald, 79 Zeh, H. D., 82, 127, 235 subsystems, division into, 135 Zeilinger, Anton, 227 superposition principle, 108–109 Zurek, W. H., 132