Teachers' Experiences with Literacy Instruction for Dual-Media Students

Teachers’ Experiences with Literacy Instruction for Dual-Media Students Who Use Print and Braille

Tina S. Herzberg, L. Penny Rosenblum, and Mary E. Robbins

Structured abstract: Introduction: This study analyzed survey responses from 84 teachers of students with visual impairments who had provided literacy instruction to dual-media students who used both print and braille. Methods: These teachers in the United States and Canada completed an online survey during spring 2015. Results: The teachers reported that they introduced braille to their students at the mean age of 7.8 years. The three most common reasons reported for introducing a student to braille were the student’s diagnosis, print reading speed, and print reading stamina. The amount of instructional time in braille literacy varied widely, and slightly more than 60% of the students were initially introduced to uncontracted braille. The teachers reported that approxi mately half of their students were at or above grade level with their print literacy skills, but only about 25% were at or above grade level with their braille literacy skills. Discussion: Both contracted and uncontracted braille were used when beginning braille instruction for students reading both print and braille. The roles of student motivation and conﬁdence appeared to be important considerations when designing and providing braille literacy instruction. Implications for prac titioners: There are many factors that should be considered when determining if a student should transition from print to braille as a primary literacy medium. Motivating students to want to learn and use braille is critical. A comprehensive curriculum is needed for use with established print readers at various reading levels who are making the transition to braille.

Vision loss can affect a student’s proficiency Holbrook, 2010). If a student is likely to expe with learning to read and write. Teachers of rience progressive vision loss, it is essential to students with visual impairments are responsi address both immediate and long-term literacy ble for conducting comprehensive assessments needs, which may require providing reading and to determine the optimum primary literacy me writing instruction in both print and braille. dium for their students and to identify if there is Some students begin literacy instruction as a need for dual-media instruction in both print dual-media learners, some students begin as and braille (Koenig & Holbrook, 2010). Visual print readers and later learn to read braille, and, efficiency, reading efficiency, and prognosis are in rare cases, some students initially read braille important considerations in the assessment pro and later learn to read print (Koenig & Hol cess (Bell, Ewell, & Mino, 2013; Koenig & brook, 2010).

©2017 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2017 49 Research investigating the reading and achievement (Melekog˘lu & Wilkerson, academic performance of students who are 2013). Students who are less engaged in dual-media learners is limited. Lusk and Corn reading are at risk of failing to learn to read (2006) gathered information about 103 stu proficiently (Morgan, Fuchs, Compton, dents in the United States and Canada who Cordray, & Fuchs, 2008). If students lack the were receiving simultaneous literacy instruc literacy skills to obtain meaning from what tion in both print and braille. Teachers re they read, their motivation for reading de ported that although 35% of their students creases or fails to develop altogether. were reading below grade level in print, 57% Melekog˘lu and Wilkerson (2013) reported were reading below grade level in braille that a lack of reading motivation limited stu (Lusk & Corn, 2006). These findings were of dents’ willingness to improve critical reading concern, since both reading proficiencies skills and strategies necessary for academic were so low. Identification of the factors, as success. In contrast, students with higher lev sessment strategies, and materials necessary els of motivation for recreational reading to support increased print and braille reading were characterized by increased academic efficiency were identified as areas for further performance and positive reading behaviors study. In addition, Lusk and Corn (2006) sug such as engagement and comprehension gested that future research explore at what (Naeghel, Keer, Vansteenkiste, & Rosseel, level of visual acuity and visual field should 2012). dual media be implemented. Reading motivation trends among students A variety of approaches exist for providing who read braille mirror those of their print- braille literacy instruction, including begin reading peers. Data from the longitudinal ning with uncontracted or contracted braille; ABC Braille Study demonstrated that pre using a basal reading approach; implementing kindergarten through fourth grade students in a whole-language approach; using an individ the high-achieving reading group were more ualized, student-centered approach; or utiliz likely than students in the low-achieving ing a combination of two or more of these. reading group to read by themselves and to Prior to the ABC Braille Study, a clear con report that they liked reading (Sacks, Hannan, sensus could not be reached on the most ef & Erin, 2011). Students in the low-achieving fective strategies for teaching braille reading reading group were more likely to report that skills (D’Andrea, 2009). The ABC Braille they did not like anything about braille, and Study found that introduction to more con students in the high-achieving group more tractions earlier in instruction correlated to often reported there was nothing they disliked better performance on reading measures about braille. The researchers concluded that such as vocabulary, decoding, spelling, and motivation is a critical factor in reading comprehension (Wall Emerson, Holbrook, achievement and that teachers of students & D’Andrea, 2009). The authors concluded with visual impairments need to work in col that regardless of the approach used to intro laboration with other team members to iden duce the braille code, basic reading skills and tify and implement strategies for motivating processes should be the primary focus of students who are struggling to learn braille. braille literacy instruction (Wall Emerson et The current study reports the results of a al., 2009). survey administered to teachers of students Students with effective literacy skills can with visual impairments in the United States derive meaning from what they read, which and Canada that gathered information about significantly affects motivation for reading their experiences with providing instruction and leads to higher levels of reading to dual-media learners. Teachers were asked

50 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2017 ©2017 AFB, All Rights Reserved to provide information about their students’ Table 1 print and braille literacy skills, as well as their Demographic data of the teachers of students with visual impairments (N = 84). motivation for and confidence in reading. Variable Number (%) Methods Gender (n = 84) INSTRUMENT Female 79 (94.0) A survey was developed using Survey Mon Male 5 (6.0) key, an online survey tool. Teachers of stu Years of experience (n = 84) dents with visual impairments were asked 1–3 9 (10.7) 4–6 11 (13.1) about their training, background, and experi 7–10 15 (17.9) ences specifically related to teaching students 11–15 13 (15.5) who use both print and braille literacy media. 16+ 36 (42.9) For the remainder of the survey, each teacher Reading endorsement (n = 83) selected one student who used both print and Yes 13 (15.6) braille and responded to questions with this No 70 (84.4) = student in mind. Questions were answered Setting in which employed (n 83) about the student’s demographic background, Itinerant 70 (84.4) Residential or specialized school 7 (8.4) assessment tools used in determining media Resource classroom in a public literacy, curricula used in instruction, student school 6 (7.2) confidence, and student motivation for using print and braille. ondary reading medium, with the expectation CRITERIA FOR PARTICIPATION that both media might be used in the future; or AND RECRUITMENT (3) he or she was a younger student simulta Approval to conduct the research was ob neously learning to read in both print and tained from the Institutional Review Board at braille. the University of South Carolina Upstate. An Eighty-four certified teachers of students e-mail invitation with the survey link was sent with visual impairments participated in the to teachers of students with visual impair study. Seventy-eight (92.8%) worked in the ments across Canada and the United States. United States and six (7.2%) worked in Can The survey remained open for two months in ada. Demographic data for the participants is the spring of 2015. Certified teachers who had provided in Table 1. Sixty-three of the teach provided braille literacy instruction to at least ers (75.0%) had between one and 15 students one student who used both print and braille in on their caseloads who received direct visual the last three school years were invited to impairment services. The remainder had a participate. They were required to be able to caseload of 16 or more students. report on at least one student who was in an academic literacy program, read within two Results years of grade level, and had an established All data were via teacher report through the method for reading and writing. In addition, online survey. No verifying data were collected their student had to meet at least one of the or reviewed by the researchers. Not all ques following criteria: (1) he or she had already tions were answered by all participants. learned to read and write in print, but was Throughout the Results section, the n is in learning braille because print was no longer a dicative of the number of teachers of students viable literacy medium; (2) he or she was a with visual impairments who answered that current print reader learning braille as a sec- question for their students. Statistical data

©2017 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2017 51 analyses related to motivation and confidence three months, seven (8.7%) reported four to were performed using SPSS version 23.0. six months, five (6.3%) reported seven to nine The current age of 81 academic students months, and four (5.0%) reported more than one ranged from 6 to 18 years (M = 11.5, SD = year. The majority of 82 students (68, 82.9%) 3.2). Thirty-three (39.3%) of the 84 students had been receiving braille instruction for more had at least one documented additional dis than one year. ability. Ten students were deaf or hard of The teachers of students with visual impair hearing, nine had a learning disability, six had ments were provided with a list of student autism spectrum disorder, three had a trau characteristics that may have influenced the matic brain injury, two had a physical disabil decision to introduce the student to braille, ity, two had other health impairments, and and they could select multiple options. The one had an intellectual disability. The current most frequently selected characteristics were educational level (n = 83) was 49 (59.0%) in the student’s diagnosis (n = 69), print reading elementary school, 16 (19.3%) in middle speed (n = 37), print reading stamina (n = school, and 18 (21.7%) in high school. Of the 33), future plans for higher education (n = 84 students, 62 (73.8%) had a clinical low 28), future plans for employment (n = 17), vision evaluation and were provided instruc print reading decoding skills (n = 14), moti tion in the use of optical aids before a decision vation level (n = 14), and print reading com was made to introduce braille. prehension (n = 13). The teachers were also Students (n = 79) were introduced to provided with an opportunity to list other braille from age 2 to 17 years, with a mean of factors that they considered when making the 7.8 (SD = 3.2) years. Teachers were provided decision to transition the student from print to with a list of informal and formal assessment braille. The most frequently mentioned item tools used in the decision-making process, was assessment data about the student’s print with more than one response allowed and reading ability (n = 46), followed by the need space provided to list additional tools. The to establish a foundation of braille literacy most frequently reported tool reported by the skills for the student because of the belief that 81 teachers who answered the question was the student might not have access to braille observation of student performance in reading instruction at a later time (n = 31), availabil and writing activities (n = 37); followed by ity of resources to assist the student in making informal or locally developed learning media the transition from print to braille (n = 13), assessment (n = 33); learning media assess time in the teacher’s schedule (n = 12), the ment developed by Koenig and Holbrook teacher’s personal belief about when a student (1995) (n = 26); Functional Vision and should transition from print to braille (n = Learning Media Assessments for Students 10), and availability of other team members who are Pre-Academic or Academic and Vi to support the student’s transition to braille sually Impaired in Grades K–12 (Sanford & (n = 8). Burnett, 2008) (n = 18); and Evals (Texas The teachers were asked if they began School for the Blind and Visually Impaired, initial instruction with contracted or uncon 2007) (n = 6). tracted braille. Of the 74 who responded, 29 Eighty teachers of students with visual im (39%) began with contracted braille and 45 pairments reported on the amount of time (61%) began with uncontracted braille. When elapsed between the initial decision to teach asked about at what age students were intro the student braille and the start of formal duced to braille, they reported that 25 students instruction. Forty (50%) reported less than aged 4 –10 years and four students aged one month, 24 (30.0%) reported one to 11–14 years were introduced to contracted

52 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2017 ©2017 AFB, All Rights Reserved braille initially. The mean age of these stu one-half hours per week, 11 (13.5%) students dents was 7.62 years (SD = 2.72). Similarly, received more than one-and-one-half to two it was reported that 36 students aged 2–10 hours per week, 14 (17.4%) received more years, 5 students aged 11–14 years, and 2 than two hours but less than three hours per students aged 15 and 17 years, respectively, week, four (4.9%) received three to four were introduced to uncontracted braille ini hours per week, 10 (12.3%) received more tially. The mean age was 7.57 years (SD = than four hours to five hours of instruction per 3.43). week, and six (7.4%) received more than five An open-ended question asked teachers of hours of instruction per week. students with visual impairments what influ The teachers were provided with five state enced their decision to begin instruction in ments related to a student’s access to braille either contracted or uncontracted braille. during instruction. Forty-three said that they Seventy-three reported a variety of consider allow the student to see their hands while ations. The three most frequently mentioned reading braille, 19 said they showed the stu were the student’s personal characteristics or dent braille configurations visually as the stu abilities (n = 19), the teachers’s personal dent read braille tactually, 18 obstructed the beliefs (n = 19), and the braille curriculum student’s view of his or her hands during used (n = 10). The teachers’ personal beliefs braille reading, nine blindfolded the student were almost equally divided between begin when he or she was reading braille, and nine ning with uncontracted braille (n = 10) and simultaneously showed the student the word beginning with contracted braille (n = 9). A or sentence in print as the student read the teacher who cited personal beliefs as a con braille tactually. In some instances, it was sideration said, “I believe uncontracted braille reported that visual access was not possible helps students to become better spellers.” An for the student because of the significance of other who cited personal beliefs for beginning the vision loss. Other teachers reported that with uncontracted braille said that there is a the student naturally closed or diverted his or “faster satisfaction or usability to introduce her eyes from the braille page. the full alphabet first.” Yet another had a Table 2 includes teachers’ reports of how contrasting personal belief: “I feel teaching many words their student read in print and uncontracted braille makes double the work. braille per minute. They were not asked to First learn uncontracted and then learn con report sources of data used in answering the tracted.” Other common considerations were questions about reading rates. Some teachers the age of the student and the blending of provided reasons for why they did not report braille literacy instruction and the general ed their student’s print or braille reading speeds, ucation curriculum. One teacher said, “I use or both. Twelve teachers reported that they uncontracted braille to keep the student more did not know the student’s print reading speed connected with the curriculum used in her or that the data were unavailable. Three other classroom.” teachers reported that their students could The amount of braille instruction students no longer see print. Similarly, 11 teachers received in a typical week was reported by 81 reported that they did not know the student’s of the teachers of students with visual impair braille reading speed or that the data were ments. Seven (8.6%) students received one unavailable. Eleven additional teachers re half-hour or less of instruction per week, 10 ported that their students were still in the (12.4%) students received more than one half- initial stages of learning braille letters. hour but less than one hour per week, 19 Seventy-seven teachers reported on the (23.5%) students received one to one-and print literacy skills of their students. Eleven

Education 1–10 11–30 31–50 51–75 7–100 101–125 126–150 Medium level wpm wpm wpm wpm wpm wpm wpm

Print Elem. 9 5 8 5 3 1 1 Middle 1 2 2 2 0 2 0 High 0 2 1 4 2 0 0 Braille Elem. 8 15 3 5 0 0 0 Middle 5 2 3 0 1 0 0 High 1 6 4 1 1 0 0

(13.1%) students were performing above primary medium students used for each sub grade level, 30 (39.0%) were performing at ject. Table 3 summarizes these data. grade level, and 36 (46.9%) were functioning The teachers were provided with a list of below grade level. For braille literacy skills, materials and curricula often used for braille three (4.2%) out of 72 teachers reported above literacy instruction. They could select multi grade-level-performance for their students and ple responses to indicate what they used with grade-level performance for 16 (22.2%). their students. The most commonly reported Fifty-three (73.6%) students were reportedly materials were teacher-developed materials functioning below grade level. (n = 54); followed by Building on Patterns Teachers were provided with a list of com (Boley et al., 2009 –2012; Pester, 2006; n = mon tools used to write braille, and could select 32); Mangold Developmental Program of multiple responses. The most frequently used Tactile Perception and Braille Letter tool was the Perkins Brailler (n = 76), followed Recognition (Mangold, 1994; n = 29); Braille by refreshable braille displays (n = 17), braille Fundamentals (Cleveland, Levack, Sewell, & notetakers (n = 16), embossers (n = 7), Perkins Toy, 2002; n = 15); Patterns (Caton, Pester, SMART Braillers (n = 5), Mountbatten Braill & Bradley, 1983; n = 14); I-M-ABLE ers (n = 4), slate and styli (n = 4), and the (Wormsley, 2011; n = 3); Braille Connec electric Perkins Brailler (n = 3). tions (Caton, Gordon, Pester, Roderick, & Teachers were provided with a list of com Modaressi, 1997; n = 3); and Braille Too mon school subjects and asked to report the (Hepker & Coquillette, 1995; n = 3).

Table 3 Primary learning medium used by academic students, by subject.

Education English or Computers and Medium level language arts Mathematics Science Social studies Music technology

Print Elementary 31 42 32 31 29 30 Middle 10 16 12 13 9 11 High 9 12 11 11 5 8 Braille Elementary 12 4 7 8 1 2 Middle 1 1 1 0 0 1 High 3 2 1 1 0 1 Auditory Elementary 5 2 7 8 10 8 Middle 5 0 3 3 1 2 High 5 3 4 5 2 3 Total 81 82 78 80 57 66

Print Braille

Motivation Confidence Motivation Confidence Rating (n = 77) (n = 70) (n = 77) (n = 46)

Very motivated or confident 32 8 14 18 Somewhat motivated or confident 18 14 32 18 Neutral 12 6 8 0 Somewhat unmotivated or unconfident 4 20 13 6 Very unmotivated or unconfident 8 22 7 4 Unmotivated or unconfident 0 — 0 — Depends on the task 3 — 3 —

Participants were asked to rate their stu students accessed pleasure reading materials, dents’ level of motivation and confidence followed by auditory (n = 26), e-readers (n = with reading print and braille for completing 25), standard print (n = 22), computer (n = academic tasks. Table 4 provides their rat 16), live reader (n = 14), hard copy braille ings. Correlations were computed to determine (n = 12), and refreshable braille display (n = if there was a relationship between the student’s 2). Teachers were provided with a list of audio motivation and level of confidence with reading devices and asked which options their students T in each of these media. The Kendall’s test used to access pleasure reading. More than one T = < identified a positive correlation ( .391, p response was allowed. E-readers (n = 25) were .05) between motivation and confidence for stu most frequently reported, followed by the Na dents reading print. No significant differences tional Library Services player (n = 13), Victor were found between motivation and confidence Stream (n = 9), and BookPort (n = 8). Table 5 for students reading braille. reports the frequency for the number of times Teachers were asked about the type of ma per week students used braille, print, or auditory terial students read for pleasure. The most to access the pleasure reading materials. frequently reported type of material was fic tion books (n = 51); followed by nonfiction Discussion books (n = 33); web pages (n = 17); picture books (n = 16); graphic novels, including Eighty-four teachers of students with visual comic books (n = 10); e-mail (n = 7); and impairments shared information about their magazines (n = 6). Large print (n = 33) was work with students who used both print and the most frequently reported method for how braille literacy media. They reported that their

Table 5 Frequency of students’ reading for pleasure using various media.

Print Braille Auditory Frequency (n = 76) (n = 76) (n = 73)

Daily 18 (23.7%) 3 (3.9%) 12 (16.4%) 3–5 days per week 11 (14.5%) 2 (2.6%) 12 (16.4%) 1–2 days per week 18 (23.7%) 11 (14.5%) 14 (19.2%) Less than 1 day per week 13 (17.1%) 19 (25%) 13 (17.8%) My student does not read [in this medium] for pleasure 16 (21.1%) 41 (53.9%) 22 (31.5%)

©2017 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2017 55 students were introduced to braille at a variety to visual fatigue, an advantage of dual-media of ages, and a wide range of informal and instruction may be that the student could use formal assessment tools were used in the braille for subjects or content that are not decision-making process. There is a need for visual in nature, such as reading text. If this more formalized ways to determine the need method effectively reduces visual fatigue, the for dual media instruction. In addition, it is student may then be able to use vision for not clear from these data which students tasks that are more difficult to access tactually would benefit from beginning braille instruc or through auditory means, such as map read tion with contracted versus uncontracted ing and interpreting graphs and figures. braille. Future studies that use longitudinal Other characteristics that may be predictive approaches, similar to that used by the ABC of how successful a student will be in learning Braille Study, and focus specifically on dual- braille could not be definitively identified media learners of various ages, have the po from this study. However, the data suggest tential to provide the field of visual impair that incorporating braille in both academic ment with this type of valuable information. and nonacademic settings, including for rec As illustrated in Table 3, braille was less reational activities, may enhance motivation likely than print to be used as the primary for developing braille literacy skills. With the literacy medium across all grade levels and exception of one teacher of students with vi for all academic subjects. This may indicate sual impairments, all respondents identified that the students in the study were more pro motivation as being important for a student ficient in reading print than in braille. A learning braille. The majority of students higher proportion of elementary-age students were reportedly very or somewhat motivated reportedly use braille in their academic for reading print (64.9%) and braille (59.7%). classes as compared with students in middle Although only 15.6% of dual-media students and high school. With the exception of Eng were reportedly somewhat or very unmoti lish language arts for elementary-age stu vated for reading print, 26.0% of dual-media dents, braille was equally or less likely than students were somewhat or very unmotivated auditory modes to be used as the primary for reading braille. Despite the acknowledged literacy medium. Although students were importance of motivation, many teachers re more likely to use braille for that subject than ported that their student only used braille for for any other, only 19.8% of students across academic purposes. The number of students grade levels used braille as their primary lit who read for pleasure daily was remarkably eracy medium for it. Fewer students primarily low for all literacy media, particularly con utilized braille for science (11.5%), social sidering that more than half of students were studies (11.3%), mathematics (8.5%), com reportedly very or somewhat motivated for puters and technology (6.0%), and music reading in print and in braille. Students were (1.8%). This finding may be the result of six times more likely to read daily for plea students having higher proficiency with liter sure using print (23.7%) as compared with ary braille than with the Nemeth Code for braille (3.9%). Similarly, although 38.2% of Mathematics and Science Notation. It is un dual-media students reportedly read for plea clear from the data whether students utilize a sure three or more days per week in print, single medium or dual media for their aca only 6.5% of these students read in braille at demic subjects. Although the primary literacy this frequency. In part, this may reflect that medium was reported for each subject, some braille instruction is often delivered in a one- students may use multiple media for a subject, on-one setting with a teacher in a format depending upon the task. If a student is prone that is focused on acquisition of braille

56 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2017 ©2017 AFB, All Rights Reserved contractions and rules rather than approached may have been limited. In addition, no data by how to incorporate braille in the student’s were collected from students about their mo lifelong literacy skill set. It is essential that tivation or confidence to use print and braille students’ reading preferences be considered to achieve academic tasks. and that they have access to a wide range of motivating braille reading materials. It is also IMPLICATIONS FOR PROFESSIONALS important that teachers assist students of all Since learning braille contractions and rules ages in identifying meaningful ways for in does not ensure that braille will become a corporating braille into their daily lives for meaningful literacy tool, it is crucial for activities such as labeling household items; educators to formulate strategies for tailoring writing notes or cards to a pen-pal; reading, instruction to address the individualized writing, and following recipes; making lists; learning needs and preferences of students. managing money; reading menus; reading en Braille knowledge and skills should be rein vironmental signs; and other similar tasks that forced through incorporating braille into mo promote independence, self-confidence, and tivating, practical, everyday life activities be motivation for using braille. yond the academic learning environment. To There was a statistical significance between promote and encourage more students to de teachers of students with visual impairments’ velop strong braille literacy skills, teachers of perceptions of student motivation and their students with visual impairments need to en perceptions of student confidence in using sure that students have access to motivating, print to complete academic tasks. It is note age-appropriate, pleasure-reading materials in worthy that not all teachers who provided a braille. To become proficient braille readers, ranking of their student’s motivation to read students need to read braille in multiple and print and braille provided a ranking of student varied settings, not exclusively during in confidence. Further study is needed to evaluate structional time with teachers or for academic the relationship between student motivation and purposes. In the initial stages of braille liter confidence in developing skills in a new literacy acy instruction, pairing braille pleasure read medium. In addition, future study that collects ing with print or auditory versions may be data directly from students is warranted. beneficial for the student so that he or she does not become frustrated due to difficulties LIMITATIONS with tactile discrimination, limited braille This study has several limitations. First, data knowledge, or inefficient decoding skills that were self-reported from the teachers of stu could interfere with braille reading fluency dents with visual impairments and were not and comprehension. These are important con verified by the authors through record review siderations for increasing student motivation or observation. No work samples to document and building proficiency with braille reading. student reading or writing were collected. In Although Building on Patterns was report addition, these teachers were not asked to edly the most frequently used curriculum for report measurements used in answering the teaching braille to established print readers, questions about reading rates and grade level. this program was not designed for dual-media Since the majority of them reported that they students and, therefore, it may not be as ef worked with students in itinerant settings, fective for this population as it is for the target knowing the students’ motivation for reading audience. The field of visual impairment for pleasure, the types of literacy tools they would benefit from the development of a cur used in core academic subjects, and the stu riculum that is specifically designed for dents’ perceptions of their literacy abilities academic dual-media learners at varying

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58 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2017 ©2017 AFB, All Rights Reserved Wormsley, D. P. (2011). A theoretical rationale cation, University of South Carolina Upstate, 800 for the individualized meaning-centered ap University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303; e-mail: proach to braille literacy education with stu [email protected]. L. Penny Rosenblum, Ph.D., professor of practice, Department of Disabil dents who have mild to moderate cognitive ity and Psychoeducational Studies, University of Ar disabilities. Journal of Visual Impairment & izona, P.O. Box 210069, Tucson, AZ 85721; e-mail: Blindness, 105, 145–156. [email protected]. Mary E. Robbins, Ph.D., teacher of students with visual impairments, South Carolina School for the Deaf and the Blind, 101 Tina S. Herzberg, Ph.D., associate professor Executive Center Drive, Suite 120, Columbia, SC and director of graduate programs, School of Edu 29210; e-mail: [email protected].