Bulletin^?

Contents

Edward P. Berla Tactual Orientation Performance of Blind Children in Different Grade Levels

George Dairy mple Sensory Aids Progress at the MIT Sensory Aids Evaluation and Development Center

I. S. Jain A Report on Blindness in Two Rural Blocks in Northwestern India

G. A. . M. , James J Gill , and Mobility Maps for the Visually Handicapped: A Study of Learning and Retention of Raised Symbols

Dennis K. Kelleher Educational Background and Considerations of Low Vision Aids: Review of Related Literature

Donald Kirtley and Katherine Cannistraai Dreams of the Visually Handicapped: Toward a Normative Approach

Forrest M. Mims III Energy Radiating Mobility Aids for the Blind: Desion Considerations and a Progress Report on an Eyeglass Mounted Infrared Aid

Jennifer C. F. Peel Psychological Aspects of Long Cane Orientation Training

J. A. Phillips and P. M. Seligrr.an ^ Two Instruments for the Blind Engineer

Dean W. Tuttle Comparison of Three Reading Media for the Blind: Braille, Normal Recording and Compressed Speech

Nanay Colleen Webb The Use of Myoelectric Feedback in Teaching Facial Expression to the Blind

AmericanFoundation for the Blind

Bulletin

APRIL 1974

Leslie L. Clark, Editor-in-Chief

Zofja S. Jastrzembska, Associate Editor Audrey C. Gilmour, Copy Editor Michael E. Monbeck, Production Editor

The Researah Bulletin is a publication of the International Research Information Service (Leslie L. Clark, Director), American Foundation for the Blind, 15 West 16th Street, New York, New York 10011 USA. Published irregularly twice a year, the Research Bulletin may be purchased for $1.50 per copy. Subscriptions for four issues are $6.00. Articles in the Researah Bull etin are abstracted in Excerpta Mediaa, Psy ahologioal Abstraats y and Rehabilitation Literature and by the Swedish Institute for the Handi- capped and the Institute for Scientific Information of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences. Manuscripts and other materia 1 to be considered for publication in the Research Bulletin should be submitted in duplicate to the editor-in-chief. All correspondence concerning manuscripts, edito rial policy, and further information about research re- ported in the journal should also be directed to the editor-in-chief. A set of guide- lines for contributors is ava ilable on request. All correspondence concerning subscriptions and orders for back issues should be sent to the Publications Division of the American Foundation for the Blind. Printed in the United States of America Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2010 with funding from Lyrasis Members and Sloan Foundation

http://www.archive.org/details/researchbulletin27lesl ,

CONTENTS

Page Page 1 Tactual Orientation Performance CURRENT RESEARCH NOTES of Blind Children in Different Grade Levels 26 3 Announcement of Modified IBM Edward P. Berld System 3

11 Sensory Aids Progress at the 264 Machine k Ecrire Parlante et MIT Sensory Aids Evaluation Tdldscripteur Parlant Pour and Development Center Aveugles George Dalrymple Louis Braille Bulletin

45 A Report on Blindness in Two 266 The Philips Television Enlarger Rural Blocks in Northwestern H. Bouma India I. S. Jain 267 A Braille Code for Interactive Terminal Use 87 Mobility Maps for the Visually '/ . Boyle Handicapped: A Study of Learning and Retention of Raised Syn±iols 273 Electromechanical Perforated G. A. James and J. M. Gill Tape Reader for the Blind Centrum Obliozeniowe PAll 99 Educational Background and Con- siderations of Low Vision Aids: 275 Language Meaning (Gender Shaping) Review of Related Literature Among Sighted Students Dennis K. Kelleher John G. Cull and Richard E. Hardy 111 Dreams of the Visually Handi- capped: Toward a Normative 2 77 Report of the Perceptual Alterna- Approach tives Laboratory for the Period Donald Kirtley and July 1, 1972 - June 30, 1973 Katharine Cannistraai Emerson Foulke

135 Energy Radiating Mobility Aids 302 An Infrared Seeing Aid: Inauiry for the Blind: Design Considera- Reply and Brief Description tions and a Progress Report on an Forrest M. Mims y III Eyeglass Mounted Infrared Aid Forrest M. ^ Mims III 30 4 Directive Information in Educa- tional Media: An Abstract 159 Psychological Aspects of Long M. Myrberg Cane Orientation Training Jennifer C. F. Peel 305 Electromechanical Braille Copier I. M. Neou and 187 Two Instruments for the Blind W. F. Erwin, Jr. Engineer J. A. Phillips and 310 Progress After Visual Restoration P. M. Seligman Two Preliminary Case Reports and a Request for Communication 217 Comparison of Three Reading Media Linda J. Anooshi an for the Blind: Braille, Normal David H. Warren^ and Recording, and Compressed Speech Pat Apkarian-Stielau Dean W. Tuttle

2 31 The Use of Myoelectric Feedback 313 RESEARCH BULLETIN SUPPLEMENT in Teaching Facial Expression to the Blind Nanay Colleen Webb 32 7 PUBLICATIONS OF NOTE In Memoriam

Samuel J. Mason

Cecil H. Green Professor of Electrical Engineering Associate Director, Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

1921 - 1974 .

TACTUAL ORIENTATION PERFORMANCE OF BLIND CHILDREN IN DIFFERENT GRADE LEVELS

Edward P. Berla*

Errors of directional orienta- A second focal point of inter- tion have serious implication for map est concerns the effects of orienta- reading skills and the application of tion on both the visual and tactual information derived from maps for discrimination and/or recoanition of subsequent mobility behavior. Re- a shape. For vision, it has been search and practical experience with found that children and adults are the blind suggest that they are sub- able to recognize both familiar and ject to significant errors in direc- unfamiliar shapes more accurately or tional orientation. Worchel (1951) quickly when a shape is presented in investigated blind subjects' ability one specific orientation of several to follow a prescribed path and found possible orientations (Braine, 1965; their performance to be poor when Fitts , Weinstein, Rappaport, Ander- compared to blindfolded sighted sub- son and Leonard, 1956). For tactual jects performing the same task. The perception it has been found, at blind subjects' poor performance was least for adult sighted (blindfolded) primarily due to angular deviations subjects, that the tactual recogni- from the correct direction. Cratty, tion of an unfamiliar shape is no et al. (1968) found that blind sub- better in one orientation than it is jects veer about 36 degrees for every in any other (Warm and Foulke, 1968) 100 feet traveled when required to Other research has shown that for walk a straight path. both visual and tactual shape dis- crimination, it is easier to dis- Spatial orientation is current- criminate two identical shapes '.•7hen ly a topic of interest within the they are both oriented in the same general psychological literature as direction than when they are oriented well (Howard and Templeton, 1966). differentially (Warm, Clark and One focal point of interest is the Foulke, 1970). However, research by degree to which subjects can deter- Goodnow (1969) and Pick and Pick mine the orientation of a shape. (1966) has shown that, visually, a Ghent (1960) and Ghent and Bernstein change in shape is discriminated (1961) found that normal children more easily than a chance in the show considerable consistency in orientation of a shape, but tactu- visually identifying the phenomenal ally the reverse is true. This find- orientation of both real and nonsense ing at first may seem inconsistent shapes. For example, different chil- with the previous research on the dren are consistent in calling an un- tactual perception of phenom.enal familiar shape "upside down" based orientation. However, the fact that upon certain distinctive features of children can discriminate the orien- the shape. However, for a similar tation of a shape more easily tactu- task performed tactually. Pick, Klein ally than visually could stem from and Pick (1967) found that both blind either of two diametrically opposed and sighted (blindfolded) children hypotheses. First, if two identical were inconsistent in identifying the shapes are presented to a subject, phenomenal orientation of a series of with one of the shapes rotated 180 shapes, while sighted children per- degrees with respect to the other, forming visually were consistent. the subject could recognize that of the two shapes presented to them, one of them is "upside dovrn *American Printing House for the and Blind. thus call the shapes different be- cause of the differences in orientation. However, a second hy- the Georgia Academy for the Blind, pothesis that seems more likely, at Lavelle School for the Blind, Tennes- least for blind children, is that see School for the Blind, and the the subjects may not in fact recog- West Virginia School for the Blind. nize that the tactual shapes are identical with one rotated. Instead they may perceive them as completely Materials different shapes without detecting the fact that the shapes differ only Three sets of metric figures in orientation. For these reasons, were constructed from three levels the present study was conducted to of complexity. Metric figures are determine more directly the ability constructed by specific rules as de- of blind subjects to detect and tailed by Alluisi (1960), Baker and manipulate the orientation of tactual Alluisi (1962), and Fitts , et al., shapes. It seemed important to veri- (1956) . The metric figures employed fy whether a young blind child has here were constructed by drawing the concept of the orientation of a circles having 3, 4, and 5 equally shape in space and the extent to spaced radii, respectively. The which blind children of different radii were then divided into 3, 4, grades make errors of directional and 5 equal seaments , respectively. orientation. Whether or not blind Then, using a table of random num- children can utilize orientation bers, radial heights were sampled cues and with what degree of accuracy and these points were connected to is of practical importance in utiliz- form geometric shapes having 3, 4, ing directional orientation cues on and 5 sides which constituted the mobility maps, general reference three levels of complexity. Fig- maps, and diagrams. ure 1 illustrates the metric figures employed. Ten geometric shapes from In the present study, blind each level of complexity were used. children from different grade levels Of the 10 shapes , 9 had one or more were presented with a tactual shape unequal sides, while one figure from in one orientation for inspection. each complexity level was equal- Following an inspection period the sided, thus forming a perfect tri- shape was rotated and the subject angle, a perfect square, and a per- was asked to reorient the shape to fect pentagon. Each shape was its original position. In addition, constructed by inscribing the shape the complexity of the stimuli was within the bounds of a circle having varied over three levels to determine a radius of 1-3/4 inches resulting if the complexity of the stimulus in figures which had a maximum di- affects orientation performance. ameter of 3-1/2 inches. A template Nonmeaningf ul stimuli were used in- was made of each form and used to stead of real objects in order to cut each shape from 1/4-inch mason- reduce any effects experience in ite. The figures were presented on using the objects might have played a circular board which had a rotat- in orientation performance. able wheel in the center. The wheel had a radius of 4 inches and the circular board had a radius of METHODS 8 inches. Around the outer edge of the rotatable wheel, affixed to the Subjects circular board, was a scale which enabled the experimenter to measure The subjects were 72 braille the amount of rotation in degrees. readers of both sexes enrolled in Figure 2 is a schematic representa- schools for the blind. Eighteen tion of the apparatus. The apparatus subjects from each of grades two, was secured to a table top by suction four, six, and eight participated in cups on the bottom of the circular the study. The means and standard board. deviations for the ages within each grade are as follows : Grade Two x Experimental Design age = 9.04, SD = 1.19 i Grade Four x age = 10.94, SD = 1.09; Grade Six x The design consisted of four age = 14.19, SD = 1.96; Grade Eight variables which included arade levels, X age = 16.46, 5D = 1.72. The schools experimental and control conditions, participating in this research were complexity, and degree of rotation. subject reorients the shape upside down). If the subject's perforrrance was governed completely by chance, the average degree of error should be halfway between the tv/o extreme scores (0" to 180°) or 90". The control condition thus generated ari 3X3 empirical baseline and an estimate of the mean and variability against which to determine statistically whether performance in the experi- mental conditions v;as above chance level. The order of presentina the three levels of complexity v;as blocked and counterbalanced so that a given subject v;as presented with one of six possible permuted orders 4X4 of three levels of complexity. An equal number of subjects was as- signed randomly to each of the six orders. The equal-sided control figures were randomly interspersed between successive trials of the experimental figures except for the restriction that no control figure was given first within any block and no two control fiaures followed 5X5 each other successively.

Figure 1. Matrices Used to Construct Procedure Stimulus Figures at Three Different Levels of Complexity. At the beginnina of each ses- sion the subjects were given three The effect of grade level was a practice trials to familiarize them between-subjects variable while the with the task. Each subject was effects due to the experimental vs. told that he would be presented v.'ith control conditions, complexity, and a shape on a round wheel and that he degree of rotation were within- had to inspect the shape and remem- subjects variables. For each ses- ber its location. The experimenter sion, for each complexity level, turned the wheel around and asked each subject was given 12 trials which consisted of reorienting each of the nine geometric forms having unequal sides (experimental condi- tion) and three trials reorienting the equal-sided figures (control

condition) . The logic underlying the control condition was that since the shapes were all constructed to have equal length sides there were no distinctive cues to differentiate one corner or one side from any other side. Consequently, after the subject inspected the shape and the experimenter rotated it, there was no distinctive feature or frame of reference available to the subject with which to reorient the figure to its original position. Thus the subject's response could vary from 0° (if by chance the subject reori- ents the shape to its original posi- Figure 2. Schematic Representation tion) to 180° (if by chance the of the Apparatus. the subject to return the shape to RESULTS its original position. Each subject was also informed that the examiner Every subject participated in was timing each trial to determine both an experimental condition in how quickly he could inspect the fig- which he was asked to reorient ure and how quickly he could return unequal-sided figures, and a control the figure to its original position. condition in which he was asked to Each trial consisted of presenting reorient equal-sided figures. The one shape on the rotatable wheel for mean level of accuracy and the inspection, as soon as the subject standard deviations in degrees of removed his hands, the wheel was ro- error as a function of grade level tated a predetermined number of de- for both the experimental and con- grees (90, 180, 270). The subject trol conditions are shown in Table 1. was then asked to return the figure Also shown is the theoretical base- to its original position by rotating line for reorienting tactual figures the shape. For both the inspection if it is assumed either that the phase and the reorientation phase, subjects had no ability to reorient latency was measured from the time the figures or if there were no cues the subject placed his hands on the with which to orient the fiaures. shape to the time he removed them. The amount of error was measured Given these assumptions, the from absolute zero to the nearest expectation is that the subjects degree. The subject's errors were will show an average error of 90 de- not corrected and no information grees. Table 1 shows that the mean was given during the trials. error of the control condition

TABLE 1

Mean Level of Error (In Degrees) as a Function of Grade Level

for Experimental and Control Conditions

Grade Level

X 58.37 46.73 40.09 30.49

Experimental SD 16. 85 15.38 16. 86 16.42

n 18 18 18 18

X 76.21 88.36 84.84 83.51

Control SD 14. 85 18.36 16. 84 18.94

n 18 18 18 18

X 90.00 90.00 90.00 90.00

Theoretical SD

n approximated the theoretical baseline. A separate analysis of variance One main question was whether subjects was performed on the accuracy data at each grade level could reorient only for the experimental condition figures at better than chance levels. in order to evaluate the effects due To answer this question a-priori t to grade level, complexity, and de- tests for simple main effects were gree of orientation of the tactual performed comparing each subject's figures on orientation performance. performance in the experimental con- The only significant effect v/as dif- dition with his performance in the ferences between grade levels {F = control condition using the MS error 9.19; d/ = 3/6 8; p ' 0.01) v/hich for conditions X subjects/groups as showed that performance improved the error term. All of the compari- steadily from grades two through sons of the experimental conditions eight. The complexity and absolute with the control conditions for orientation of the tactual figures grades two, four, six, and eight were and all other interactions had no significant [MS error = 243.31; effect on the reorientation perform- df = 1/68; p < 0.01). The respective ance. A summary of the analysis of t values were: 3.43, 8.01, 8.61, variance is shov/n in Table 2. 10.20.

TABLE 2

Analysis of Variance for Degrees of Error

in the Experimental Condition

Source df SS MS

Total 647 668323.54

Between subjects 71 231038.87

Grades 3 66663.51 22221.17 9.19*

Error 68 164375.36 2417.28

Within subjects 576 437284.67

Complexity 2 3484.56 1742.28 2. 30

Grade X complexity 6 4121.16 686. 86 < 1

Error 136 103155.96 758.49

Orientation 2 4281.89 2140.95 2. 37

Grade X orientation 6 3712.51 618.75 < 1

Error 136 122702.90 902.23

Complexity X orientation 4 2174.12 543.53 < 1

Grade X complexity X orientation 12 2380.38 198.36 < 1

Error 272 191271.16 703.20

''p < 0.01 Analyses of variance were per- A 3-way analysis of variance formed on reciprocals of the latency was performed on the reciprocals of data using only the experimental con- the latency data for the reorienta- ditions. One analysis was performed tion test phase. This analysis on the inspection phase data and a showed that complexity had a signifi- separate analysis was performed on cant effect on task time (F = 20.68; the reorientation test phase. Sepa- df = 2/136; p < 0.01). As shown in rate analyses were performed because Table 5 the lowest level of complex- the task for inspection consisted of ity had the fastest task times while an exploration of the tactual figure, intermediate levels of complexity while during .the test phase the sub- had the longest task times. The ject not only had to explore the most complex figures had latency figure but also was required to ro- scores between the longest and inter- tate the figure back to its original mediate levels of complexity. No position. To compare the perform- other variables or their interactions ance of these two phases in terms of were significant. Table 5 is a sum- task time would have been misleading mary of the analysis of variance. since the conditions were not com- Post hoc tests on the trans- parable . formed data using Tukey's HSd pro- The analysis for the inspection cedure (Kirk, 1969, p. 306) showed phase showed that complexity had a that for both inspection and re- significant effect on task time (F = orientation test phases the only significant effects for the latency 19.9 8; df = 2/136; p < 0.01). As shown in Table 3, as complexity in- data were those between 3-sided and creased task time increased. The 4-sided figures and between 3-sided least complex figures resulted in the and 5-sided figures respectively: fastest task time while the most com- MS error inspection = 0.005085; plex figures resulted in the longest HSD = 8.85, df = 3/136, p < 0.01; task time with figures of intermedi- HSD = 5.52, p < 0.01; MS error ate complexity falling between these test = 0.004492; HSD = 8.46; df = two. No other variables or their in- 3/136, p < 0.01; HSD = 7.13, p < 0.01. teractions were significant. A sum- Thus , for both the inspection and mary of the analysis of variance is test phases, 4-sided figures were 5- shown in Table 4. not significantly different from sided figures using latency as the measure of performance.

TABLE 3

Mean Task Times (In Seconds) as a Function of Stimulus Complexity

for the Experimental Condition during Inspection and Test Phases

Complexity (Sides)

5. 83 6.86 7.46 Inspection SD 2.74 3.27 3.65

X 6.45 8.26 7.99 Test SD 2.69 3.63 3.85 .

TABLE 4

Analysis of Variance of Mean Task Time for Inspection

Phase Using a Reciprocal Transformation

Source Al_ ss us Total 647 5.200049

Between subjects 71 3.519599

Grades 3 0.129601 0.043200

Error 68 3.389997 0.049853

Within subjects 576 1.680450

Complexity 2 0.203217 0.101608 19.98*

Grade X complexity 6 0.019547 0.003258 < 1

Error 136 0.691555 0.005085

Orientation 2 0.004687 0.002343 1.41

Grade X orientation 6 0.005642 0.000940 < 1

Error 136 0.226718 0.001667

Complexity X orientation 4 0.005880 0.001470 < 1

Grade X complexity X orientation 12 0.018073 0.001506 < 1

Error 272 0.505129 0.001857

''p < 0.01

DISCUSSION 30+° of error with a ST' of 16+°. The obvious conclusion is that the blind The results s eem quite clear subjects do have the concept of the with respect to the orientation orientation of a tactual figure in ability of blind ch ildren. The ac- space, but their performance is poor. curacy of performan ce was a linear The large errors in directional function of experie nee (grade level) orientation performance found in the Even at the earlies t grade level present task are consistent with sampled (grade two) , the subjects previous research (Cratty, 19 6 8; showed above chance performance in- Worchel , 1951). It is apparent that dicating that they had some knowledge the difficulty blind children have and ability to util ize a frame of in directional orientation is a reference, and thus were able to re- pervasive one which extends even to orient the tactual figures . such simple tasks as the one used here. Since errors decreased However, from a qualitative steadily over grade levels, it standpoint their overall performance would appear that performance could was poor. Even at the eighth-grade be improved considerably with train- level, the subjects were averaging ing . ,

TABLE 5

Analysis of Variance of Mean Task Time for Reorientation

Test Phase Using a Reciprocal Transformation

Source df SS MS

Total 647 3.386165

Between subjects 71 1.724638

Grades 3 0.102143 0.034048 1.43

Error 68 1.622495 0.023860

Within subjects 576 1.661526

Complexity 2 0.185808 0.092904 20.68*

Grades X complexity 6 0.006566 0.001094 < 1

Error 136 0.610855 0.004492

Orientation 2 0.006967 0.003483 1.83

Grade X orientation 6 0.011042 0.001840 < 1

Error 136 0.258380 0.001899

Complexity X orientation 4 0.005225 0.001306 < 1

Grade X complexity X orientation 12 0.025478 0.002123 1.05

Error 272 0.551204 0.002026 < 1

*p < 0.01

The performance of the task by as the complexity (as defined here) the subjects could be characterized of the stimulus increases, then the as one in which at least one distinc- subjects' task is merely to choose tive feature of the stimulus is lo- one distinctive feature {one corner cated during the inspection phase and or one side) with which to determine coded in relation to a frame of refer- the figure's absolute orientation. ence. Then, during the test phase During the test phase, the subject the figure is explored in an attempt only needed to find this distinctive to relocate the distinctive feature feature ignoring all of the others and this distinctive feature is used and reorient the figure using only to rotate the figure back to its ori- the one distinctive feature. Thus, ginal position with respect to the as long as a stimulus has one unique frame of reference. This characteriz- feature, the task can be performed ation suggests why the complexity of with the same level of accuracy re- the stimulus figure had no effect on gardless of the total number of dis- the accuracy of reorientation. If it tinctive features. is assumed that there is an increase in the number of distinctive features However, complexity did have the distinctive features of a shape an effect on performance in terms of but also a specific frarne of refer- task time. It took longer to in- ence. In the present study no spe- spect and reorient 4- and 5-sided cific frame of reference v/as desig- figures than 3-sided figures. If nated in advance, consequently the task time is viewed as a measure of subjects had to use their own phe- information gaining rather than in- nomenal frame of reference. For formation processing, then increas- example, the subjects may have used ing the complexity (sides and angles) the relative directional location results in a more difficult search of the distinctive features of the task in terms of increasing the time shapes with respect to the sides or needed to choose and then relocate a midline of the body or hand. A distinctive feature for the reorienta- subsequent study is needed to de- tion phase. termine the relative contribution of easily accessible distinctive Observations of the subjects features and specific frames of performing the task indicated that reference in directional orienta- the older subjects were more syste- tion performance of tactual shapes matic and careful in choosing dis- in space. tinctive features of the shapes during the inspection phase than were the younger subjects. During SUMMARY the reorientation phase many of the older subjects would rotate the fig- The effects of stimulus com- ures several times until they lo- plexity (3-, 4-, and 5-sided fig- cated the specific distinctive fea- ures) and degree of rotation (90°, ture (s) they needed to reorient the 180°, 270°) on tactual figural shape. However, younger subjects' orientation performance were in- exploration of the shapes was less vestigated with 72 blind children systematic and complete. Many of in grades two, four, six, and eight. the younger subjects seemed to The overall quality of performance choose distinctive features "im- was poor, but the subjects in all pulsively" and then would have dif- grade levels were able to orient ficulty relocating the same dis- tactual figures at above-chance tinctive feature during the reori- levels with accuracy of performance entation phase. Often it seemed increasing significantly as grade that the younger subjects never did level increased. Complexity and find the distinctive feature they degree of rotation had no effect were searching for and seemingly on accuracy of performance , but reoriented the shape using a differ- increasing levels of complexity ent (incorrect) distinctive feature. significantly increased task time. Thus the behaviors of both the older Differences in tactual search pat- and younger subjects suggest that a terns appeared to be responsible major difficulty in identifying a for the differences in accuracy tactual shape on the basis of its across grades. orientation may be due to errors in perceiving one or more distinctive features of a shape as being identi- cal to the distinctive features of the same shape presented in a dif- ferent orientation. It appears that older subjects, while still making errors, are better at identifying and locating distinctive features of a shape than younger subjects and this may be the major reason their Acknowledgments performance is superior to younger subjects. However, the results of the present study suggest that The author extends his ap- further research is needed to in- preciation to John Siems for his vestigate other factors important assistance in the data analysis to the orientation of shapes in and Ken Coy for making the stimulus space. The minimum requirement to material. orient a shape in space is not only REFERENCES

Alluisi, E. A. On the use of in- Howard, I. P., & Templeton, W. B. formation measures in studies of Human spatial orientation. form perception. Perceptual & New York: Wiley, 1966. Motor Skills, 1960, 11, 195-203. Kirk, R. E. Experimental design: Baker, E. J. & Alluisi, E. A. In- Procedures for the behavioral formation handling aspects of sciences. Belmont, Calif.: visual and auditory form per- Brooks/Cole, 1969. ception. Journal of Engineering

Fsyohology , 1962, 1, 159-179. Pick, H. L. , Klein, R. E., & Pick, A. D. Visual and tactual Brains, L. G. Age changes in mode identification of form orienta- of perceiving geometric forms. tion. Journal of Experimental

Fsyahonomia Science, 1965, 2, Child Psychology , 1967, 4, 391- 155-156. 397.

Cratty, B., Peterson, C, Harris, J., Pick, A. D. & Pick, H. L., Jr. A & Schoner, R. The development of developmental study of tactual perceptual-motor abilities in discrimination in blind and blind children and adolescents. sighted children and adults.

New Outlook for the Blind, 1968, Psychonomia Science , 1966, 6, 62, 111-117. 367-368.

Fitts , P. M. , Weinstein, M. , Rappa- Warm, J., Clark, J., & Foulke, E.

port , M. , Anderson, N., & Effects of differential spatial Leonard, J. A. Stimulus corre- orientation on tactual pattern lates of visual pattern recogni- recognition. Perceptual &

tion: A probability appraoch. Motor Skills , 1970, 31, 87-94. Journal of Experimental Psy-

chology , 1956, 51, 1-11. Warm, J., & Foulke, E. Effects Ghent, L. Recognition by children of orientation and redundancy of realistic figures presented in on tactual perception of form. various orientations. Canadian Perceptual & Motor Skills,

Journal of Psychology , 1960, 14, 1968, 27, 83-89. 249-256.

Ghent, L. , & Bernstein, L. Influ- Worchel, P. Space perception ence of the orientation of geo- and orientation in the metric forms on their recognition blind. Psy chological Mono- by children. Perceptual and graphs. Washington, D.C.: Motor Skills, 1961, 12, 95-101. American Psychological As- sociation, 1951, 65 (332). Goodnow, J. Eye and hand: Differen- tial sampling of form and orienta-

tion properties. Neuropsy chologia , 1969, 7, 365-373.

10 .

SENSORY AIDS PROGRESS AT THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (MIT) SENSORY AIDS EVALUATION AND DEVELOPMENT CENTER

George Dalrymple*

Editor's Note: The following description of the research and developrr.ent progress involving three of the devices for which the MIT Sensory Aids Center is best known was adapted from a report to the Center's sponsors, and covers the period, approximately to the end of 1972 (including some anticipated de- velopments through part of 1973). The report is of more than usual interest, we think, since it is in part an historical narrative aum substantive descrip- tion of what difficulties have been met in the program, and what solutions or compromises were made to achieve hoped-for results. To those involved in sensory-aids research and development, the conduct of work may seem over the years to have the character of little more than a series of chaotic but inter- locking events in which frustrating delays, muddle-headed commentary on one's work by others, and unforeseen and uncontrollable delays in one's plans, form a constant and unremitting source of frustration in the path of useful accom- plishment. We think it is astonishing that Mr. Dalrymple can ignore all these diversions and convey in a compactly telescoped description all the freshness of discovery and excitement of accomplishment that these devices represent. One is also struck by the achievements of the many users who were an integral and important part of the development of the systems, most especially of Braillemboss

Similarly, in the description of the TAC-COM system for communicating with the blind and the deaf-blind, Mr. Russell has given us a refreshing and disarm- ingly skilled look at the complexities that arise in the application of a very simple idea: the utilization of an induction-loop RF receiver system to convey coded signals.

Because these pieces offer a unique view of the inner workings of sensory aids development, we are pleased to publish them, and hope that our readers v/ill

find them both informative and--mirabile di ctul--entertaining , as we did.

As Mr. Dalrymple points out in a note on the personnel involved in his original report, the staff of the Center during the period covered by the report in- cluded Vito A. Proscia, Research Associate and Director of the Center, until April 1972, when he left to become Vice President, Sales & Training, Tele-

sensory Systems, Inc., manufacturers of the Optacon , in Palo Alto, California; Mr. Dalrymple, the present Acting Director of the Center; Nancy Brower, secre- tary until August 1970; Evelyn Welch, secretary from Auaust 1970 through June 1972; Susan Sokalner, secretary at the present moment; Norman J. Berube, Senior Technician. Additional work was done for the Center by Lindsay Russell, con- sulting electrical engineer; and Murray Burnstine, consulting mechanical engi- neer.

The Center was founded in 1964 with John Kenneth Dupress as Director. Mr. Du- press' convictions and vigor profoundly influenced the Center along with the entire international effort relating science to blindness. He served until his death in December 1967. Professor Robert W. Mann was faculty sponsor in aug- menting the Center and has served since as Chairman of the Steering Coirmittee.

''Acting Director.

11 .

INTRODUCTION vibrates when signalled by (wire- less) inductive coupling. The sys- The MIT Sensory Aids Evalua- tem is effective in an area defined tion and Development Center (SAEDC) by signal loops connected to a has been exploring three devices to fixed-station transmitter. Two in- enhance the communication capability stallations are presently in use-- of the blind and deaf-blind. The one at the National Center for Deaf- Adults, New Hyde first is the Braillemboss , a braille Blind Youths and page printer, or braille-producing Park, Long Island; and one at the Teletype. The second is TAC-COM, SAEDC, Building 31 of the Massachu- a wireless communication and paging setts Institute of Technoloay. system for the deaf-blind. The third is the Pathsounder, a device that communicates to the blind traveler BRAILLEMBOSS a blockage of the path ahead. The Braillemboss (Figs. 1 and 2) The Braillemboss has been dem- operates in a fashion similar to a onstrated in two basic ways; one, Teletype, i.e., it converts coded an output device for a computer; the electrical signals into embossed other, as a braille production de- braille. The Braillemboss is con- vice. There is some overlap in these structed as an output device only, functions--for example, when the and when used in an interactive Braillemboss is used as the output role it must be used in conjunction device for a computer-braille trans- with a device containing an appro- lation system. priate keyboard.

The most significant use of The Braillemboss is the product the Braillemboss is as a tool in of a long range MIT program involv- routine day-to-day employment. It ing the efforts of many MIT people has been used as the communication (1, 2). Students, faculty, engi- link from a computer to professional neers working in the Mechanical computer programmers; it has been Engineerincf Department, Sensory used to give customer-service per- Aids Evaluation and Development sonnel access to computer data; and Center, and the Draper (Instrumenta- it has been used as a newswire print- tion) Laboratories were all in- er to give a blind television news- volved. The development was sup- caster access to that service. ported at various times by the Office of Vocational Rehabilitation, The Braillemboss has been used Vocational Rehabilitation Administra- also in small-scale braille publish- tion, Social Rehabilitation Admini- ing activities: several pamphlets, stration and the Social and Rehabili- a chapter of a book, and a book. One tation Service of the Department of pamphlet was published in a coopera- Health, Education, and Welfare, and tive effort with the National Braille by the John A. Hartford Foundation Press; two other pamphlets are SAEDC (3, 4,5,6,7,8,9, 10) Technical Description Sheets. The book chapter was done in cooperation The Braillemboss' earliest be- with Technology Community Associa- ginning was in a design engineering tion and the MIT libraries on behalf course (2.671) , as a result of a of the blind students at MIT and series of lunch-time seminars other colleges in the Boston area. called "Sensory Aids Discussions," The complete book was embossed for chaired by John K. Dupress. These the Library of Congress. seminars brought together members of the MIT community, some of those The Braillemboss was selected who have worked with the blind, and by the national IR-100 Industrial members of the blind community, to Research contest as one of the 100 explore the ways technology can most innovative and significant help the blind. Initial senior "products" produced in America in theses by Lichtman and Eglinton 1972. were written on the design of a braille printer and of a typewriter TAC-COM is a wireless communi- input device for it (11, 12). cator for the deaf-blind. Each user carries a small receiving unit that

12 . , ,

The first operational braille embosser was built by Kennedy as a Master's thesis (13, 14). This model was refined further, and six units were built at the SAEDC. iVo of these units were loaned to users; three were used by students for ad- ditional thesis projects; and one was retained at SAEDC. The SAEDC unit later served as a test bed for the changes incorporated into the Braillemboss

The three student-project braille embossers were built into braille telecommunication terminals by Armstrong for a Master's thesis

(15) . One of the terminals was then incorporated in a computer-based Grade II braille transcription sys- tem by Greiner for his Master's the- sis project and saw limited use at Perkins School for the Blind (16). The other two units were used in design improvement projects by Scott and by Sturgis (17, 18).

The SAEDC engineers and tech- nicians, in conjunction with an en- gineer and design draftsman of the Figure 2. Model 4 BraillemJDOss

Draper Laboratory, reexamined the design and made chanqes to improve its reliability and accuracy, and to reduce its cost of manufacture. As a part of this effort 20 Braillem- bosses were constructed.

As the Braillemboss is present- ly configured it uses "brailler

code" as its input data (19) . This code is an 8-level or 8-bit code; that is, there are eight yes-no ele- ments or bits-per-character or data word. This code was designed to have maximum correspondence to the braille cell. If the eighth level (machine function) is a zero (no) then the first six levels are em- bossed in braille; i.e., level 1 data becomes dot 1; level 2, dot 2, and so on through level 6, dot 6. If the machine function is a 1 (yes) , then the codes in levels 1 through 7 determine the machine function to be performed; these are (a) space, (b) new line (carriage return) (c) new page, and (d) line feed.

The BraillemJooss was built to use the existing "standard" brailler code for braille equipm.ent. It was Figure 1. Model 3 Braillemboss recognized early in the developm.ent

13 . . , , . of the Braillemboss that maximum programmers. This code, called "one- flexibility had to be built into the cell" braille, uses the same pattern device, as it was expected that uses for the alphabet. It takes advantage for the Braillemboss other than re- of the pattern in defining braille, mote production of literary braille using the identical pattern for the via computer would be found. Provi- numbers, defining the same bit ar- sion was made in the Braillemboss rangement as "a" through "j," but for interface units to adapt it to using the lower four dots in the the desired applications. The flex- cell, while "a" through "j" use the ibility would not be needed when upper four dots of the cell. Then, large numbers of Braillembosses are the most important symbols in the built for any given application, as Fortran character set: =, +, -, *, the control electronics can be opti- /, (, and ) are assigned the least mized for the data transmission code ambiguous braille cells. Finally, used. the remaining characters used in the ASCII (Teletype) characters set For most of the present ap- are arbitrarily assigned the remain- plications of the Braillemboss three ing braille characters. This one- data transmission codes are used: cell braille has a one-to-one corres- 7- (1) 5-level newswire (TTY) ; (2) pondence between each printing char- level EBCDIC, and (3) 8-level Tele- acter of the ASCII character set type (ASCII) . The most common inter- used in Teletypes and the 63 possi- face unit uses ASCII data transmis- ble printing characters in the sion code, and has input conversion braille cell. This allows any sys- equipment to permit the Braillemboss tem based upon the ASCII transmis- to operate in parallel with all of sion code to transmit Grade II the present 8-level Teletypes: Mod- braille, since each braille symbol els 33, 35, 37, and 38, regardless has a printing ASCII code to repre- of version, whether Receive Only sent it. One-cell braille has also

(RO) , Keyboard Bend-Receive (KSR) been defined with the 5-level code, or Automatic Send-Receive (ASR) with not all braille symbols repre- sented. One-cell braille is also An interface unit for newswire defined for the 7-level EBDIC, but (TTY) has seen service' at a TV sta- with only 62 printing characters. tion. This interface unit includes a time buffer and format control Interface units have been circuitry to provide clear format built for one-cell braille contain- material. An interface unit has ing translators for each of these been built also for EBCDIC, the code three codes. There have been spe- used by IBM for its remote terminals cial features included in some of Preliminary testing of this unit is these interface units, such as a complete, but it has not seen field data-controlled on/off switch, and service with a time buffer and format- control circuitry for newswire use. Conventional Engli sh braille. either letter- for-letter Grade I or highly contracted Grade II forms are Time-shared Computer not directly usable with computers Programmer Terminal as many of the symbols u sed in the ASCII or EBDIC character set are The Braillemboss is presently

simply not defined in br aille : sev- being used by programmers and sys-

eral characters are ambi guous , i.e., tem analysis with time-shared com- ") "(" and " use the same braille puters at a U.S. government agency, symbol. Further, number s are not two companies, three universities, directly defined in brai lie, but use and a residential school for the a number sign before the letters blind. At each of these installa- "a" through "j" to repre sent the num- tions the Braillemboss is connected

bers 1 through 9 and . to a Teletype such that both the Braillemboss and the Teletype page A new braille system was de- printer produce the received material fined for use with the Braillemboss. simultaneously. Each symbol in the Fortran character set has a unique braille symbol de- This form of interconnection fined in this system by computer was selected for two reasons. First,

14 . . ., .

it insures that the installation will not be restricted to blind users, but can also be used by the sighted; this provides maximum flexibility and use- fulness of the terminal. Second, it limits the amount of special equip- ment at the terminal that must be maintained differently from equip- ment used regularly; it also reduces the complexity of the Brail lemboss

Sensory Aids Evaluation and Development Center Installation

The first Braillemboss built (Serial No. 10) was connected to a Model 35 Teletype at the SAEDC and was first used by a graduate student in his ergometric studies. The terminal was used chiefly with CTSS a time-shared computer system at MIT based on an IBM 7090 computer. This particular Braillemboss is not pres- ently in use, but could be up-graded easily and put back in regular ser- vice if desired. Two Braillembosses

(Serial Nos . 26 and 27) have been and are being maintained on line at the Center for use of MIT students and for computer braille experiments and demonstrations Figure 3. John Morrison at Brailemboss Terminal. John Morrison, NASA/DOT, Cambridge, Massachusetts and to adjust the electronic timing to eliminate the occasional random The first Braillemboss in the dropping of characters. The Braillem- field was installed at NASA Elec- boss and Teletype have been moved at tronic Research Center (ERC) in Cam- least twice, by DOT and by telephone bridge. The Braillemboss and Tele- personnel, without assistance from type were installed in Dr. Morrison's the Center. office during October 1969 (Fig. 3)

ERC was disbanded in June of Programming Course , Perkins 1970 and the facility was trans- School for the Blind, ferred to the Department of Trans- Watertown , Massachusetts portation. Dr. Morrison transferred to the Department of Transportation's For several years the Perkins (DOT) Transportation Research Center. School for the Blind has offered a In October of 1970 the Massachusetts course in computer programming for Commission for the Blind purchased students in the upper school during one Braillemboss for Dr. Morrison's their junior and senior year (20) use, and the DOT installed a Model 33 The object of the course was best Teletype. At that time the SRS- expressed by Benjamin F. Smith in a supported equipment was removed. report to "The Blind in Com.puter Programming, an International Con- Appendices 1 and 2 are Dr. Mor- ference" describing the reasons for rison's written reports on his use use of a time-shared com.puter: of the Braillemboss. It should be noted that the last service call, ex- "... we concluded that this cept for lubrication , was in early computer plan offered consider- 1971 to install a convenience switch able promise as a tool in the

15 ).

classroom of some of the subject Alan Downing, Systems Programmer,

areas in our senior high-school Honeywell Information System (HIS) , department. We felt that the Cambridge, Massachusetts application of the computer to classes in mathematics and sci- Alan Downing exemplifies the ence would be particularly ef- importance of an interactive braille fective both as a means of terminal to a motivated, intelligent greater efficiency in the learn- blind student or computer profes- ing process and also as a means sional. During his junior year at of motivating our students to MIT (1970-71) Downing took an intro- greater interest and effort. ductory course in Fortran program- ming. He was not content to have other students read his output or "Finally, since it had al- proofread his input. He arranged ready been well demonstrated with the SAEDC, therefore, to use that blind people can be high- one of the Braillemboss terminals at ly successful vocationally as the Center as his terminal, and ar-

computer programmers , we con- ranged with the Department offering cluded that we should give our the course to support his use of the students experience on the com- IBM 360/67 time-shared computer at puter with a view to exploring the MIT Computation Center. This both vocational interests and proved satisfactory and was contin- vocational aptitude." (21) ued during his senior year.

An MIT Braillemboss was trans- Downing obtained summer employ-

ferred to Perkins and was connected ment at Intermetrics , Inc., a "soft- to a Teletype previously rented by ware house," contingent upon a Perkins. The initial time-sharing braille terminal being available to computer service was provided by him at their office. The SAEDC then General Electric. (A Babson College agreed to loan him the terminal Hewlett-Packard Model 2000C time- shown in Fig. 4 until a cooperative shared computer system presently is agreement could be reached with the used. Massachusetts Commission for the

Blind (MCB) . The MCB , through an The Perkins students are arrangement similar to Dr. Morri- taught both how to use a time-shared son's, underwrote the transfer of computer and how to program with a Braillemboss for Downing 's use. programming language. During the A new Braillemboss was installed 1972-73 school year there were seven for his use and the temporary students, including five braille Braillemboss returned to the Center. users, in Computer I, and five stu- dents, including four braille users, During his senior year Downing in Computer II. The computer termi- continued employemtn at Intermetrics nal room is now left open during on a two-day-a-week basis, and upon certain afternoons and evenings each graduation he was offered full-time week for use of both students and employment. He decided, however, members of a computer club. that he would rather work on devel- opment of the operating system of The Braillemboss h as operated a large scale computer, and obtained

reliably and efficiently , with only employment at HIS. The Braillemboss two service calls in the period was moved to his new location and March 19 70 through Janua ry 1973. has continued to give good service. Its performance and stud ent ac- ceptance of it has demon strated that

a reliable, maintenance- free braille Donald Keeping, Supervisor ,

terminal is an essential adjunct to Programming Course for the Blind ,

teaching blind students computer University of Manitoba , programming via a time-s hared com- Winnipeg, Manitoba puter This Braillemboss was pro- cured through a grant from the Canadian National Research Council for use of teachers and students

16 "As you knov7, v/e have recent- ly installed here at the Uni- versity of Manitoba an MIT Braillemboss. Outside of a fev; minor mechanical probler^s, we have found the system quite satisfactory. Vie have here a suite of conversational mode programs v/hich are excellent on such a device." (22)

Terry Hicks, Programmer ,

Bristol Engine Division ,

Rolls Royce (1971) , Bristol BS12 70E Great Britain

A Braillemboss v;as transferred during March 1972 to Rolls Royce, Ltd. for use by Terry Hicks, a blind programmer in their Bristol Engine Division. A letter from Dennis C. Boston, Head of Mathematical Services Department, to Milton D. Graham of the American Foundation for the Blind, describing their use of the Braillemboss is appended (see Ap-

pendix 3) . This Braillemboss vjas

converted to 117-V, 50-Hz pov;er , and Figure 4. Alan Dowling at Prototype was tested on 50-Hz line at the May- Braillemboss Terminal nard Plant of the Digital Equipm.ent

Company (DEC) . Since the Braillem- boss is being used on the DEC PDP-10 in the Programining Course for the computer at Rolls Royce, DEC crated, Blind. The Braillemboss was shipped shipped, and installed the Braillem- during October 1971 and was installed boss . by University of Manitoba personnel during November. At the present time the Braillemboss is used only by Phillip Hall, Worcester Polytechnical

Keeping, as all of the present stu- Institute (WPI) , VJorcester Area dents, while legally blind, have Collegiate Computation Center QivA.CCC) , sufficient vision so as not to re- Worcester, Massachusetts quire braille. Through a cooperative agreem.ent The Braillemboss is used with negotiated by the SAEDC between the a Teletype as a terminal on an IBM MCB and the New Hampshire Division 360/65 system using Time Sharing Op- of Blind Services, a Braillemboss tion (TSO) . Keeping estimates that owned by MCB has been loaned to he uses it 4 or 5 hours per week, WACCC. It is presently being used chiefly before and after normal by Phillip Hall, a blind student at working hours and on weekends. WPI from New Hampshire. The Braillem- boss was installed by the staff of the It is also being used in a SAEDC and is located in the terminal/ small-scale program to generate keypunch room at WACCC. It is con- French braille for a group in Toronto. nected to one of the four Teletype The programming associated with trans- terminals of the PDP-10 located in cribing Grade I French braille is the main Center. This terminal is comparable to transcribing English available to any of the users of into Grade I braille, and is much the WACCC PDP-10, but it is the simpler than Grade II English braille. only one usable by Hall. He does not have absolute priority to this The University of Manitoba ex- terminal, but must wait his turn perience is summarized in a letter when all the terminals are in use. from Donald Keeping to Vito Proscia: When a terminal becom.es free, the

17 . . . , user of the Teletype/Braillemboss assist the public in obtaining in- terminal is asked to move to another formation on the tax codes and tax terminal so that Hall can use the rules and regulations, and to answer Braillemboss questions concerning taxpayer records. Presently most of the some 40 braille- For the second semester of the using Taxpayer Service Representa- 1972-73 academic year Holy Cross tives are limited to answering ques- College is planning to install a new tions only on the tax code, rules, Teletype unit in the terminal/key- and regulations--unless they have punch room at WACCC for the use of sighted help to obtain the required a blind student. The Braillemboss data on taxpayer accounts. will be reconnected to this Teletype. This will give blind students a termi- In certain regions the taxpayer nal that will give them absolute pri- records are now available on the In- ority over all other users. tegrated Data Retrieval System (IDRS) a large, regionally based computer. The WACCC serves a consortium Each district office in a reqion with of colleges and universities in the IDRS has Cathode Ray Tube (television- Worcester area. There are approxi- like) displays, on which lines of mately 10 blind students in these data are displayed for a sighted TSR. colleges and WACCC is expecting five Each office also has a Receive Only or six of them to make use of the (RO) Teletype to provide a "hard" Teletype/Braillemboss terminal during copy, one that can be saved when the second semester this year. (It needed should be noted that Holy Cross is not now a member of the consortium.) A Braillemboss was connected to the RO Teletype so that a braille copy and an inkprint copy can be Customer Service made when requested (see Fig. 5) Computer Terminal McSpadden, a blind TSR in the Little Rock office, now has access to the In the past several years the braille equivalent of the other TSRs' computer has become an important part hard copy in the office. His access of many nontechnical jobs. One of to the data is only slightly slower these is customer service. Inquiries than other TSRs when they are not can be about an account or about or- using hard copy. ganizational policies. Another po- tential job area is the making and confirming of reservations for air- lines, hotels, motels, rental cars, etc. In many of these jobs contact with the public is via telephone. Some special equipment is required for a blind person to fill these jobs. Perhaps most important he must have access to a computer output. The Braillemboss is capable of being used as an output device with essen- tially any computer used in the cus- tomer service field. In certain cases telephone indicators may be required. The typical working blind person either has most of the addi- tional equipment required, or it is regularly supplied to him by existing rehabilitation agencies.

Jack McSpadden, Taxpayer Service

Representative (TSR) , Internal

Revenue Service ( IRS) , District Office, Little Rock, Arkansas Figure 5. Jack McSpadden Showing Braillemboss to J. M. Walker, The IRS has employed many blind IRS Commissioner and A. W. Brisbin, persons as TSRs whose function is to Regional Commissioner. .

McSpadden is an enthusiastic The braille material produced Braillemboss user. He is reported by this method v;as distributed to by his supervisor to be performing three blind readers for examination all his duties essentially as do the and use. Approximately five hours other TSRs in that District office. of newswire services (produced on a

It should be noted the Braillemboss daily basis) , v/ere converted into has removed the restriction of need- braille each day. The conversion of ing sighted help, or of limiting the nev/sv;ire-service information in-

McSpadden ' s services to answering to braille took approximately three only tax code questions. hours running time. The pilot study was performed during May and June of 19 70, and terminated v;hen the UPI Newswire reperforator service v/as discontin- ued at ESL. A serious handicap to the blind performing as radio or tele- The next step v;as taken v/hen vision newscasters is the lack of Paul Caputo of Westfield, Massachu- usable direct braille copy of news- setts obtained a job as a television wire services. The Braillemboss, newscaster at WWLP-TV (Channel 22) with a suitable interface unit, has in Springfield, Massachusetts, v.'ith demonstrated that it can provide the provision that the Massachusetts this copy. To develop and demon- Commission for the Blind v;ould ob- strate this capability several steps tain nev7sv/ire braille for his use were undertaken. (Fig. 6) . A Braillemboss v/as in- stalled at W^;LP-TV during May 1971. The first was to produce news- wire braille in non-real time, to The interface unit for this determine the utility of the braille installation had to be significantly copy, and to explore the system be- different from that used previously fore a final design was fixed. for the news demonstration. In the first news demonstration, punched The initial step to demonstrate paper tape was used as a convenience, program feasibility required that but it also served as a timing buffer the following be available: a news- to accommodate the carriage return wire service with a tape reperfora- time of the Braillemboss. Using tor, a 5-level TTY code to one-cell braille translator, a paper-tape reader, and a Braillemboss.

The first items were available for a limited period at Electronic

System Laboratory (ESL) , a part of the Department of Electrical Engineer- ing. (The Laboratory was performing some studies on computer storage and retrieval of news, sponsored by the" American Newspaper Publisher Associa- tion.) A United Press International (UPI) newsprinter and reperforator was also available which could pro- duce 5-level punched paper tape for our use

The SAEDC had all the remaining necessary equipment, with the excep- tion of the translator. The trans- lator was designed and fabricated by the staff engineer, and was installed in one of the MIT Braillembosses lo- cated at the Center. A pilot program was then initiated; punched tapes were acquired from ESL, brought to Figure 6. Paul Caputo Reac the Center, and translated into braille Braillerabossed UPI via the Braillemboss system. Newswire Copy.

19 . this method in an operational system long series of short lines are re- is not desirable, since paper tape is ceived. Computer memory technology yet another expendable item, and the developments since the newswire in- system would require a tape reader terface unit was designed should and tape punch. Furthe rmore , full permit significantly better buffer reel of paper tape last s only five performance for approximately the or six hours , while a b ox of braille same cost as the original buffer. paper lasts several day s ; this com- plicates the operation and requires much more attention by the user than Interactive Grade II is reasonable. Braille Production

To simplify the system, an A computer program for Grade II integrated-circuit storage system braille transcription (DOTSYS III) was designed and built to provide was written by the Mitre Corporation the necessary timing buffer, thus under contract to the SAEDC (23) eliminating the need for the inter- (This contract was supported from a mediary paper tape. Two shift regis- multi-sponsored MIT account.) The

ters are used, both 12 8 words long program is written in COBOL ( COmmon with eight bits-per-word . While one Business Oriented Language) so that register is being loaded from the it can be transferred from one suit- newswire the other register is used ably equipped computer to another

to drive the Braillemboss . When the with few changes (24, 25, 26). ' register being loaded is full, the 1, system interchanges the registers. Additions have been made to Sufficient time generally exists to DOTSYS III to use the Braillemboss unload a register into the Braillem- as an output device. This modified boss while the other register is program is stored in the time-shared being loaded. computer of Interactive Data Cor- poration, in Waltham, Massachusetts, Included in the interface unit a commercial computer facility. are format control circuits. A space counter and line-control cir- A Teletype, connected by tele- cuits are used to divide the 72- phone line, is used as the input/ character line of the Teleprinter output device of the computer. The at a space near the 3 8-cell length Braillemboss is connected via an of the Braillemboss line. This gen- interface unit to the Teletype. The erally eliminates dividing words material to be brailled is typed randomly at the end of the line. into the computer, where a data file Paging-control circuits were in- is created. This file can be proof- cluded also to prevent embossing on read and corrections made. Then, the perforations. with a single command, the material is translated by the computer and This newswire Braillemboss in- brailled on the Braillemboss. stallation was accomplished, as noted, as a cooperative program with The initial interface units the Massachusetts Commission for the did not include a computer-controlled Blind. The Center adapted a Braillem- brailler on/off switch so that they boss to the UPI newswire by designing could be used with the computer and constructing the interface unit. translation program. A redesign of The MCB supplied funds for the neces- the Model 33/35 interface unit per- sary hardware. mits the Braillemboss to be used as a time-shared computer terminal for Unfortunately Caputo's rela- a blind programmer, or by throwing tionship with WWLP-TV ended during a switch, to be used as the braille October 1972. But the Braillemboss output unit for DOTSY III. All performed well during the period and interface units now have this modi- provided him with excellent braille fication. copy that he could read rapidly and accurately while on camera.

There is some dropping of char- acters in the timing buffer used in the newswire interface unit when a

20 National Braille Press Darkneaa using a paper tape prepared (NBP) Demonstration by computer, and to provide Hov/e Press with a paper tape to drive the The first substantial use of stereograph machine. ..." Sched- DOTSY III by the SAEDC was the uling commitments v/ith the NBP dem- braining of an IRS publication for onstration delayed start of this a client of NBP in December 1971. work until February 1, 1972. The The material to be brailled was same steps were employed in the typed into the computer, using the translation as at NBP, includina necessary format controls, thereby two proofreadings, except that a forming the input file. The input punched tape v/as prepared v/hile a typing was done by personnel of both copy v;as being produced by the NBP and the SAEDC. As sections of Braillemboss. (The proofreading the input file were completed, these was perfomed by NBP personnel under sections were individually trans- a purchase order arrangement on a lated, brailled, and proofread. "time available" basis.) Typographical errors in the input file were corrected, and small The unbound braille copy v;as changes were made in the translation delivered to Howe Press on A.pril 12, table of the program to remove pro- 1972. The SAEDC staff worked with gram braille errors. After the in- Howe Press personnel in testing, put file was completed and all known adjusting, and repairing the A.PH errors corrected, the entire pub- paper tape-driven stereotype. The lication was translated, embossed by SAEDC staff then operated the stereo- the Braillemboss , bound by NBP and graph and otherwise assisted in pro- delivered to their client. ducing the embossed zinc plates for press-run braille production. (The The system shown in Fig. 7 was stereotype's reliability could be demonstrated to a large group of improved upon by replacing the relay possible employers and workers for control system with solid-state the blind on January 31, 1972. An logic as used in the Braillemboss.) employee of NBP produced several pages of braille. Following the The experience aained by the typing and correction of the input reaular staff of the SAEDC, supple- file the remote computer translated mented by proofreaders, has demon- the material which was then brailled strated that the existina computer on the Braillemboss. program and equipment can produce computer translated braille. It cannot be done efficiently, hovrever, In Darkness unless the work is performed by an organization fully and completely On January 5, 1972, Howe Press committed to braille production. The of Perkins School for the Blind is- overall national production and sued a purchase order "... to do a timely availability of braille would single copy at MIT of the novel In be improved if several regional com- puter braille production facilities were established to supplement the work presently being done by The American Printing House, the m.any volunteer agencies, and the braille libraries. These regional facilities could be new organizations or exten- sions of existinq braille aaencies

(27) .

Technical Description Sheets (TDS)

Two sets of TDS have been trans- lated by DOTSY III and stored in punched paper tape form, so that Figure 7. Janet Fields Examining copies can be produced on demand. Braille Produced on Braillemboss The first was TDS No. 2, "The at National Braille Press. Braillemboss, A Braille Paae Printer,'

21 . . . . .

(see Appendix 5) . In inkprint it is punched paper tape. This punched two full single-spaced typewritten tape was prepared by a professional pages; in braille it is six plus braillist using a modified Perkins pages. A typist with some previous Braillewriter connected to a paper experience typing in material for tape punch. DOTSYS spent approximately an hour typing the material, proof reading, The Center has a special Tele- and correcting the input file that type, modified by Telephone Pioneer was produced. It then took 20 min- Raymond Morrison, which produces utes of terminal time to translate braille-coded punched paper tape di- and braille the material. rectly from its keyboard. This Tele- type contains all Grade II braille A total time of 80 minutes was symbols in its character set.* required for a person familiar with the DOTSYS format control convention Bertha Kasetta of the Howe >, (see Appendix 6, TDS No. 11) to Press, and two blind young people produce this report. It was not presently or formerly MIT students, necessary for that person to know proofread the material. The book Grade II braille, however, a user was then brailled on the Braillemboss should have enough knowledge of operated by TCA volunteers under the braille to check for obvious oper- direction of the Center Staff. ator, computer transmission, or terminal error. The MIT Libraries undertook the distribution of copies of the The TDS No. 1, "Folding Canes,' finished volume to other universities (28) has also been translated by and colleges in the Boston area. A DOTSYS III. Slightly shorter than copy has been given to each blind TDS No. 2, it is five and one-half student at MIT. The libraries also braille pages long and took 45 min- underwrote the cost of binding the utes to produce volumes by the Howe Press.

Both TDS are available in braille on request from SAEDC. Rehabilitation Agency: Arkansas Enterprises for the Blind^ Little Rock, Arkansas " The Social Beaver " A Braillemboss was made avail- The SAEDC, in conjunction with able to Arkansas Enterprises for Technology Community Association the Blind (AEB) to be used in their (TCA) , the MIT Libraries, and the rehabilitation and training programs. Howe Press has embossed 25 copies of It was installed during September "The Social Beaver," a chapter of 1972. AEB has obtained a minicom- HoToGAMIT (How To Get Around MIT) puter and paper tape equipment to HoToGAMIT is a paperback student be used with the Braillemboss. guide to MIT and the Boston area.

The chapter entitled "The Social AEB ' s applications include Beaver" is a guide to enjoying one- training of IRS/TSR students on the self in and around Boston, and is IDRS system. They will also use the applicable to all, not just MIT, Braillemboss to train other students students in computer interaction. The mini- computer can be used both as a simu- Through a fortunate set of lator of the larger IRS/IDRS or as circumstances, catalyzed by Steve a small computer for actual operat- Shladover of TCA, this braille vol- ing and programming experience by ume was made possible. Lindsay other AEB trainees. Russell volunteered to produce the braille-coded punched paper tape Another AEB application of the necessary to produce the copies of Braillemboss is the braille duplication braille economically on the Braillem- boss *This Teletype is similar in con- The Braillemboss had been used cept, but different in detail, to previously to produce braille ma- the Tyco brailler developed by terials from manually-prepared Woodcock (29)

22 of instructional materials. A paper- in common use by physicians in a tape punch/Perkins Braillewriter com- hospital, or executives in an office bination was borrowed from Howe Press building. Instead of beeping in to support this effort. The Howe response to a call, hov/ever, the Press equipment was used by an expert TAC-COM receiver vibrates. Held in braillist to produce a punched paper the hand, v;hen it is activated it tape which is then used to operate feels rather like an electric tooth- the Braillemboss to produce as many brush while running. braille copies as desired. This same paper-tape equipment was used at an Two purposes established the earlier time by MIT to produce a initial scope of the TAC-COM project, pamphlet for Perkins upper school both related to needs of the deaf- students to establish the accuracy blind: to develop something to serve of reproduction by the Braillemboss. as a fire alarm and also as a door- bell.

The financial support for this TAC-COM* project came from tv/o sources: an initial purchase of hardv;are by the National Center for Deaf-Blind Youths Introduction and Adults* with a viev/ tov/ard ful- filling the above two needs; later, TAC-COM (for "tactile communi- support over a three-year period cation") is the name given a system by the Social and Rehabilitation of signaling to deaf, blind, and most Service of the United States Depart- importantly, deaf and blind persons. ment of Health, Education and Wel- The focal device of the system is the fare, with the objective of augment-

TAC-COM pocket receiver (Fig. 8) ; a ing and broadening the usefulness of six-ounce instrument which vibrates TAC-COM beyond this initial limited in response to a radio signal. Car- scope. ried on the person (in a shirt pocket typically) the receiver functions as a pager, not unlike the pocket pagers Background

To summon a person who is both deaf and blind, to alert him that there is a fire, that he is v/anted elsewhere, or to signal that a par- ticular moment has come ("end of lunch hour") is not an easy thing, unless one is close enough to touch him. A person who is blind, but hears normally, can be alerted in the usual auditory ways: doorbell, fire gong, even by calling out to him. A deaf person, if he has sight, can be signaled visually by turning a light on or off, or in any other way that will catch his eye. For the deaf-blind, there seems to have long been a need for some scheme that could call a person from a dis- tance without needing either his eye or his ear. Many techniques have been used, such as stamping on the floor or starting an electric fan

Figure 8. TAC-COM Receivers, Front and Rear View.

*Referred to siibsequently in this re- port as the "National Center, " it is located at 10 5 Fifth Avenue, Nev: *This section written by Mr. Lindsay Hyde Park, New York, and administered Russell. by the Industrial Home for the Blind, Brooklyn, New York.

23 . : ,

Creation of the ringing field (to create an air current) , but they accomplished by pressing a button have obvious limitations in range and is the front of the transmitter. dependabi lity on "Short Ring" is a momentary-contact pushbutton; "Long Ring" evokes an Although it is this double activation of fixed duration, typi- handicap to which TAC-COM is pri- cally set at five seconds. The lat- marily addressed, there come to mind ter feature is primarily for insur- ways in which a person afflicted with ance against missed calls due to an deafness or blindness alone could overbrief button push on the part make use of a vibratory signaler. caller. Pushbuttons at other A deaf person can be alerted by turn- of the locations can be wired to terminals ing on a lamp, but only if it is as- the back of the transmitter so sured that he will be looking where on that it can be activated from a re- the light can be seen — a difficult mote location if more convenient. requirement when he is outdoors. A nonauditory signal could be useful Five small jacks on the front to a blind person under many circum- the transmitter are outlets for stances one could envision: when a of recharging batteries within the TAC- sound-maker would embarrass him, COM receivers. This is done each annoy others nearby, drown out other night; thus, five receivers can be sounds he must hear, etc. Thus, recharged simultaneously. while the needs of the deaf-blind are the main objective of TAC-COM and many adjuncts, there has its (by now) Receiver been attention given that potential benefits to those with either single Specifications of the TAC-COM handicap do not pass by us unheeded. pocket receiver are

Weight 6.3 ounces Technical Description Size (approx.) 2-1/2" X 7/8" Radio-frequency induction is X 5" the basic technique of the TAC-COM system. This is not true radio com- Battery Four Burgess CD-3 munication; indeed, it is a form of or equivalent signaling that historically ante- dates radio. The transmitted signal 45 minutes 25-kHz alternating magnetic Ringing time is a starting fully up by energizing one or field, set charged more loop antennas placed typically on the walls of the building or Listening time 150 hours, Figure 9 shows rooms to be covered. fully all solid starting the transmitter proper, an charged state unit housed in the kind of cabinet used for audio amplifiers or "Listening" means the quies- small public address systems. cent situation in which the receiver is switched on to re- fSJUimm spond to a call, but is not ac- a i l mmii.uii TO' tually being called. There is very low battery drain, as com- «aaa pared with "ringing," hence the many hours of use when the receiver is on but not acti- vated.

aanas The components are all housed in a small aluminum case, except for the loopstick receiving antenna which is potted in silicone rubber at the bottom. When the transmitter is activated and a ringing field es- tablished, a weak 25-kHz signal is induced in this loopstick. It is Figure 9. TAC-COM Transmitter

24 . ; ; amplified by circuits within the re- Easily the most negative fea- ceiver, detected, and if above a cer- ture of the induction system chosen tain minimum threshold, energizes a is the need for transmitting loops; tiny electric motor within the in- for strong coverage, the v/ires com- strument. Vibration is generated by prising them must run the length and a tiny eccentric on the motor shaft. breadth of the coverage area. VTheth- The mechanical inertia is low, and er this factor makes the installa- the vibration starts and stops with- tion of a TAC-COM system troublesome in milliseconds of the starting and and expensive depends on the build- stopping of the ringing field. ing involved, whether the v/ires must be totally out of sight, and so on. There are v/ays of avoiding some of Transmitting Loop Antenna these problems, about v/hich m.ore v/ill be said in the next few pages. All installations to date make use of transmitting loops in verti- The positive features are tech- cal planes, so that the magnetic nical simplicity and freedom from field lines will be substantially radio interference problems (false horizontally oriented in the service rings, etc.). The receiver uses area. The receiver loopstick will only five transistors, and its sim- normally be oriented more or less ple circuit lends itself to substan- horizontally too, for example, in tial further miniaturization, should the pocket of a sitting or standing such be sought. The noise level at person, so that its alignment is its detector is more than 50 dB be- appropriate for the exciting field. low the signal present upon receiv- If this exciting field were gener- ing a ringing signal; the transmit- ated by a single-loop antenna, how- ter, with only several watts output, ever, a null direction would exist provides considerable "overkill." at which the loopstick, though hori- In short, there is a high strength zontal, would be perpendicular to or safety factor in this system; the magnetic flux lines. (Anyone only the most rare and unlikely who has rotated a transistor radio circumstances could be envisioned in his hands will have observed cor- in which it would interfere v/ith or responding nulls that it, too, ex- suffer interference from other radio hibits in certain directions.) services

To avoid the risk of missed calls due to a user's possible un- Installations to Date favorable orientation while being paged, a second loop is used, also TAC-COM signaling systems have connected to the same transmitter, been installed in: but whose exciting current is in time quadrature with that of the 1. The MIT Sensory Aids Center at first loop, and whose physical place- 292 Main Street, Cambridge, ment is at right angles. This ar- Massachusetts rangement effects essentially null- free coverage, since the null direc- 2. The MIT Sensory Aids Center at tion of one loop's field will be 77 Massachusetts Avenue nearly at the maximum of the other's, (Building 31), Cambridge, and the time quadrature relating the Massachusetts two will prevent destructive inter- ference at intermediate angles. 3. The Headquarters of the Na- tional Center for Deaf-Blind

Youths and Adults , New Hyde Why Magnetic Induction ? Park, New York (30)

A word or two ought to be said (4) The apartment of a deaf-blind about the choice of this low-fre- National Center staff meirier quency induction scheme, especially at Kew Gardens, Nev: York. considering that there are true ra- dio systems as alternatives. For example, why not use Citizen's Band channels, or possibly even private frequencies of one's own assigned by the Government?

25 The MIT Installations main difficulties and their solutions are suinmarized in the following sec-

The TAC-COM installations at tions . MIT (two, because the Sensory Aids Center moved from its old to its new location in 1971) were set up not Vibration amplitude . Many cli- only to prove out the system in an ents find a severe startle factor in initial way, but to gain the experi- the TAC-COM stimulus. This is not ence of many months of continuous surprising. Experience suggests operation--a designer's life-test, that a person deprived of one or so to speak. Both installations more senses is startled by a rela- were accomplished without difficulty; tively minor stimulus in a remaining the coverage area in each case was sense, especially when the stimulus about 4000 square feet, and was null- onset is sudden. Thus, the TAC-COM free. The one transmitter involved vibration, which seemed just ade- has run about three years without quate to its designers for reliable breakdown. It can be keyed (to page detection through a layer or two of receivers in the area) by pressing a clothing, was excessive to most deaf- button either at the Director's desk blind people, and many objected to or at that of his secretary. One wearing the early receivers for that staff member has for several years reason. The problem is easily cor- made it a habit to keep a receiver rected by reducing the rotor mass in his pocket at all times while at eccentricity in the receiver's mo- work; to gain him a secondary bene- tor. A number of receivers were fit (besides the main one of life- recently so modified on a trial ba- MIT. testing the equipment involved) , the sis for the National Center by transmitter has been wired to the Center's telephone switchboard to signal incoming calls, and to an Inadequate pocket retention . "electric doormat" to signal that A second problem was that receivers

someone has entered the front door. dropped out of users ' pockets with Since the reception area and switch- considerable frequency, sometimes board are unattended at off-hours, being damaged on striking the floor the arrangement permits him to work and needing subsequent repair. (The in remote areas of the Center with- early units had pocket clips more out missing incoming calls or visit- suitable for securing a pencil than retain- ors . a six ounce receiver.) The ing method was improved a little by cementing abrasive patches to press The New Hyde Park Installation against the pocket wall, but even the improved units had only marginal This TAC-COM system was in- retention. On the assumption that stalled at National Center Head- each receiver would probably get quarters and put in operation in dropped sooner or later anyway, more July, 1970. A semi-institutional rugged mounting means were arranged setting wherein a number of deaf- for the batteries and motor inside; blind clients are served in various these were the components that gen- rehabilitative and sheltered work erally were dislodged by a bad fall. programs, it has been here at the Each receiver returned to MIT for National Center that the bulk of repair was sent back not only fixed, experience has been gained with the but with more secure internal con- kinds of handicapped people TAC-COM struction. The problem, then, while is designed to serve. not solved completely on a hard-and- fast basis, was considerably allevi- The system is in use at this ated. Further work should include Center as a fire or evacuation alarm a stronger clip yet, perhaps even (initially for testing and demonstra- special pockets sewn on the clothing tion, but now in real use) and has of users for whom nothing else will been wired to a time clock to signal work, perhaps mounting on a belt, or each hour's rest break and return to other similar strategem. Finally, work. The system has functioned as miniaturization of the receiver it was designed to, although a num- would make the task of retaining the ber of problems have turned up. The receiver in place easier no matter what the scheme of mounting.

26 . s

Installation of loops . A third affixed to kitchen v/alls at right TAC-COM problem is the nuisance fac- angles. The coverage v/as adequate tor (and possible cost) of installing in most of the tV70-bedroom apart- the transmitting loop antennas. The ment, although just marginal at ex- number of loops needed and their treme ends of the furthest rooms. placement depend on the geometry of The loop arrangement v/as responsible the service area, and it is not for the marginality; it v/as a com- feasible at present to prepare a promise v/hich avoided time-consuming universal manual of instructions. work of an electrician in snaking The magnetic flux paths are not wires throuah v/alls, etc. The straight lines, but curve away at transmitter v/as actuated by the some distance from a loop, so that apartment front-door intercom "beep- for the moment engineering judgment er" by means of a sound sv/itch is needed to prescribe installation (described later) placed against for a particular setting. For this the tiny intercom loudspeaker in reason, and with a limited number the user's living room. Results of of installations envisioned at this TAC-COM set-up v/ere reported present, it has seemed a wise policy to be satisfactory; it v/as taken for the Sensory Aids Center at MIT down, however, when the user moved to examine each setting and suggest to a new location. an antenna arrangement. A way has been found to simplify the loop re- quirement now, described later (see Ancillary TAC-COM Devices

Horizontal Loop) . A considerable part of the SRS -supported TAC-COM v/ork v/as a TAC-COM' Miscellaneous improvements . study of ways to augment Sever a 1 items of more minor nature usefulness beyond the simple paging were suggested by National Center or calling function. A number of personnel, improvements which would techniques were studied and devices diminish nuisance value and result designed to that end; many of the in greater convenience to deaf-blind studies resulted in working hard- users ware, and some of this hardware v/as placed into service with deaf-blind One would be a "short-stop" clients (at the National Center) button on the receiver: pressing it during the period of the contract. during a ring would terminate or These subsidiary studies are de- abort the remainder of that ring. scribed as follows. A time-clock signal, for example,

might last ten seconds ; the user who "got the message" during the first Standby Battery second could press the "short-stop" button and not be subject to nine An emergency stand-by battery seconds' additional vibration. pack was developed for the 115-V transmitter so that it could con- Also desirable: a more conveni- tinue to run in the event of ac pow- ent recharging method than connecting er failure. If the TAC-COM systerr. the small charging plug to the re- were used as an emergency or fire ceiver. Perhaps the electric tooth- alarm, it is apparent that the very brush scheme could be used: the re- circumstances that might call most ceiver would merely be dropped into urgently for activation of the a slot or receptacle and recharged alarm could be accompanied by a by magnetic induction; no connections failure of ac power; hence the need would be needed. for the battery pack.

The stand-by pack is "retro- Kew Gardens (Apartment) Installation fittable" into existing transmitters; that is, the pack fits entirely in- A "doorbell" installation was to the present transmitter cabinet. put in use on a test basis at the The battery, a set of nickel cadm.ium apartment of a National Center deaf- cells , is kept on trickle charge blind staff member. The transmitter under normal conditions, so that was placed atop a refrigerator in they are always fully charged. A the kitchen, and two loops were sensing relay resDonds to failure of

27 . the main power, and within a second, receiver, then makes it ring by press- throws the battery on to the trans- ing a signal button on the hand-held mitter's internal do bus to supply sender several feet away. The advan- energy if a ring is called for. The tage of the short range, of course, battery will provide 30 minutes of is that one does not ring all the re- ringing, enough, obviously, to warn ceivers in the area, as would happen of an emergency. if the main transmitter were keyed. Thus, a rehabilitation counselor can work with a particular client in an Long-playing Battery institutional setting, make use of the short-range TAC-COM feature for not dis- Something quite separate , and some purpose or other, and not to be confused with the above, is turb other clients by making their a small rechargeable battery pack not instruments ring top. much bigger than a TAC-COM receiver. It is typically kept in one pocket, and the receiver in another, with a End-of-Line Signal tiny cable running between them. Its function is to give the receiver a Another specific use for the substantially longer ringing time short-range signal is to create a than the 45 minutes it normally gets vibratory equivalent to the "end-of- from a full charge on its own internal line" bell on a typewriter. The battery. The reason is that sometimes typist wears the TAC-COM receiver in a receiver is used for many hours a the usual way, with the hand sender day in situations involving much ring- placed on the table alongside the ing, and if operated on its own bat- typewriter with a small cable con- tery alone, would run down long be- necting the two. As he approaches fore the day ended. An example of the end of a line, the instant the such use is in training deaf-blind typewriter warning bell rings, the clients to walk a straight line (cor- hand sender is keyed for about one- recting veering tendency) in which half second, so that the pocket re- the trainer signals to him when he ceiver gives a brief burst. Al- veers via the TAC-COM, by keying a though the typist can neither hear hand sender (described below) the bell nor see the line he types, he gets the warning anyway, and need not keep stopping to feel the Hand Sender carriage position relative to the end of the line. The complete sys- The hand sender (Fig. 10) is a tem is shown in Fig. 11. short-range (about 3 feet) battery- operated transmitter. One of its The typewriter must have a uses is to demonstrate the TAC-COM tiny switch installed at the bell system to visitors or to handicapped hammer, and a small connector on persons. One hands such a person a the back of the machine, so that the hand sender can be connected or disconnected. The typewriter is not encumbered in any way when the new feature is not is use. So far as can be ascertained, most makes of machines can be equipped with the bell switch; and, more important,

so can a Perkins braillewriter . One such Perkins machine was furnished to a deaf-blind braille user for trial.

Selective Ringing

The TAC-COM system at present is an "all ring" system: receivers are identical, and all respond in unison when the 25-kHz activation envision Figure 10 . TAC-COM Hand Sender field is present. One can

28 .

IIS^-V transmitter, to cause the key- ing of the transmitter in response to ambient sound. One can demon- strate its function to a visitor holdina a pocket receiver by giving a loud v/histle; the receiver v/ill vibrate for the duration of the whistle. The sound of the v/histle is picked up, causing the transmitter to be keyed, thus activating receiv- ers in the area.

Useful sound sv;itch applica- tions are probably obvious. The device can be placed near a tele- phone to signal its ringina to a deaf-blind person. The same can be done with a doorbell. No electrical connections need be made, a fact that can be surprisingly advantageous. In the case of the Kew Gardens in- stallation described earlier, for example, the usual city apartment situation was found: a street en- trance with a rov; of intercom but- Figure 11. Vito Proscia Using tons to "beep" each unit, and the TAC-COM End-of-Line Indicator apartment in auestion some flights on a Perkins Braillewriter up. It would have been a costly task for an electrician to run secondary lines down to the street entry, in- circumstances in which it might be stall a special button, etc., to say desirable to signal one receiver or nothing of gettinq the landlord's another out of a group; paging one permission to do so. As an easier particular individual without dis- solution, a sound switch was strapped turbing any others. A brief study across the livingroom intercom was made of ways to achieve selective speaker to pick up a visitor's "beep," ringing. A straightforward way and no connections had to be made to would be to tune receivers in the the existing building wiring. area to different frequencies, and to modify the transmitter for multi- Further uses might include pick- frequency operation. Subcarrier or ing up the buzz of a kitchen timer, tone modulation schemes would be or the cry of an infant waking in the another way. night (the sound switch could be sus-

pended over the crib) . The sensi- The selective ringing problem tivity can be varied over a v.-ide was studied briefly on a theoretical basis. The conclusion was that it would cause considerable complication of present equipment, but is nonethe- less quite feasible. No hardware was built. No user or using agency, to our knowledge, felt a need for incor- porating this feature into existing programs, while hardware for other TAC-COM ancillaries, such as the sound switch, was needed. First hard- ware priority was given where a need existed.

Sound Switch

The sound switch (Fig. 12) is a microphonic device connected to the Figure 12. TAC-COM Sound Sv.'itch.

29 , . range, to make the switch respond only to loud near-by sounds or, if wanted, to much fainter sounds. In fact, the sensitivity can be in- creased to the point where it will key the transmitter intermittently from the sounds of a radio playing in the same room.

Light Probe

A corresponding device , used to detect ambient light instead of sound, was designed and a bread- board constructed. This unit ought to be thought of as a TAC-COM-like instrument, because it has a vibra- tory display; but beyond that, it has no direct connection to the de- sign of either the receiver or trans- mitter. It is, in fact, a totally self-contained unit, resembling a small flashlight. Instead of cast- ing light it responds to light: aim it at a source of light and it vi- Figure 13. TAC-COM for Use with brates like a TAC-COM receiver; aim. Horizontal Loop. it where there is no light and it is still. It embodies a lens, photo- transistor, solid-state amplifying This new system would have circuitry, and a vibration motor. been used at the outset, were it not for concern that the receiver de- The light probe could be used sign would have been complicated, by a deaf-blind person to ascertain and its shape slightly less advan- whether lights were on or off in a tageous for pocket carrying. Also room, whether a pilot lamp glowed to it was thought that the original show that an appliance was turned on, system would give the user somewhat and so forth. Also, it might have more latitude in bending or stoop- application in travel, permitting ing, where the receiver could depart one to home in on a front door light many degrees from the vertical and at night, etc. still have little risk of missed calls

Horizontal Loop These problems seem not to be so troublesome as originally thought, When it became apparent that a and the new system now seems prefer- simpler antenna would be a worthwhile able; it is a step in the right di- system improvement, a modified pock- rection. If and when more TAC-COM et receiver was designed whose loop- systems are installed, the one- stick was oriented vertically (Fig. horizontal-loop arrangement will

13) . The loopstick is held in a probably be recommended for its sim- bulge or "blister" on its front. plicity.

With this kind of receiver the transmitting antenna can be a single Signaling Codes loop in the horizontal plane; it would run around the perimeter of Just as a bell or buzzer can the area to be covered {which could be used for simple messages, "go to be quite large, some acres, in fact) the door," it can also be used to going up and over doors; and it need convey information of much greater not run across floors in the interi- scope, by using, for example, Morse or, a bothersome point with the code. A similar extension of the present system. TAC-COM system has always seemed an

30 . . .

exciting possibility: the receiver responds swiftly to keyed signals, and the transmission of Morse code, albeit at a slow rate, should be possible by simply connecting a tele- grapher's key to the transmitter. Thus one could communicate with a deaf-blind person at a distance, something not readily feasible at present, so far as is known.* With a sound switch appropriately placed near a telephone receiver, Morse code could be sent to a deaf-blind person at his home via telephone.

At least the beginnings of coded signaling are now in view: cli- ents at the National Center distin- guish the long slow ring, for the hourly rest break, from the rapid short rings of a fire drill. Also, visitors to the deaf-blind apartment dweller would identify themselves at the door by individual codes, e.g., two shorts, one long, etc. At the Sensory Aids Center a bread board has been made of an all solid-state code-keyer with which, by pressina a button, various ten-element se- quences of dots and dashes can be Fiaure 14, Pathsounder initiated.

How useful such techniques et al., predecessors to the current might ultimately be is now known. SRS contracts at SAEDC (30). To view the matter conservatively, a Morse code signaling system might A follow-on effort has con- find little usefulness to most deaf- tinued on the evaluation of these blind persons; indeed, on the basis devices. This has involved minimal of conversations with rehabilitation expenditure, simply that needed for workers, there seem not to be many maintenance, responding to inquiries, deaf-blind people who have learned and occasional acts of assistance to Morse code. But the personal com- users and their instructors. The munications barrier is the dominant follow-on seems to have been highly result of this tragic double impair- worthwhile though, and has required ment, and anything that might help only a small fraction of SAEDC ef- penetrate this barrier must have fort. The following is a brief sum- potential value mary of the status of each Path- sounder, with mention of the school or agency concerned.

PATHSOUNDERS** The first unit is in use by a young totally blinded and partially Approximately three years ago deafened woman who suffered an at-

five Pathsounders (Fig. 14) , ultra- tack of meningitis. The rehabilita-

sonic mobility aids (31) , were pur- tion counselor, in overseeina cane chased under Contracts SAV 1057-67, travel instruction for this client, requested a Pathsounder because of the difficulty she vras having in bumping into above-the-waist ob- *It is understood that experimental jects, and because of her inability systems directed toward this end do to localize objects by sound. She most exist, notably one proposed by Bell reported the instrument helpful Telephone Company. and her lessons ended. She now re- tains it on long term loan. (Vision **This section was written by George Dalrymple Center, Columbus, Ohio.)

31 )

The second unit h as been used independently and effectively in her in an effort to effect some limited new environment. (The Oak Hill travel independence for a fifteen- School, Hartford, Connecticut.) year-old boy blind from birth and confined to a wheelchai r by cerebral The fifth Pathsounder has been palsy. The Pathsounder and appropri- on loan to a colleqe for use by ate training have got h im "on his teachers-in-training in its ori- feet" to a modest exten t, and his entation and mobility program. A instructor reports enco uragement. rather thorough evaluation of the (Ohio State School for the Blind, device's effectiveness was per- Columbus, Ohio.) formed by several students--in par- ticular, on the effectiveness of The third Pathsounder is in use easing a cane traveler's course by a blind Brooklyn resident, a cane- through fairly dense pedestrian traveler who, according to the agency traffic in dovmtown city areas. concerned, was trained with it, found The results were favorable and, it helpful in walking to work in a in fact, most encouraging; their city environment, v/as allowed to re- publication by the investigators tain it, and continues to use it. is anticipated. (University of (The Jewish Guild for the Blind, New Pittsburgh, Pittsburah, Pennsyl-

York , New York. vania. )

The fourth Pathsounder is in ' use by a twenty-one-year-old girl All five SRS-owned Path- totally blind from birth and con- sounders continue to be benefi- fined to a wheelchair by cerebral cially employed, and the .productive palsy. She graduated from a resi- liaison between this Center and dential school where she was given the schools and agencies involved Pathsounder training; because of her should be evident. travel progress the staff elected to have her retain an instrument, and she is now reported to be traveling

32 . . .

APPENDIX 1

Evaluation of the MIT Automatic Brailler

January 15, 19 70

The MIT Brailler has been lo- that, when the time-sharing facility cated in my office in NASA's Elec- became available to me, almost si- tronic Research Center in Cambridge, multaneously, the MIT Brailler v/as Mass. for three months. The Brailler put at my disposal for evaluation is connected to a teletypewriter which purposes is, in turn, connected by a telephone line, to a Digital Equipment Corp. From a purely personal point PDP-10, a digital computer. I share of view, I cannot emphasize enough this office with one other person. the almost unanticipated boost in morale the Brailler has afforded me. I am blind; my office mate is For the first time, I have access to not. Both of us are Ph.D., Aerospace the computer directly and, for the engineers, employed by NASA to pursue first time, I can read the results research in the application of orbital of my labor. It is no exaggeration mechanics to the determination of the for me to say that, for the past motion of earth satellite. The tele- three months, I have spent just about typewriter has been used exclusively every waking moment either sitting by us at the Brailler and teletypev/riter or preparing my next numerical ex- I have been involved in this periment. Needless to say, I have type of work for ten years. By the na- not nearly exhausted the backlog, ture of the work, it has been essen- built up during the past ten years, tial to program the results of my of possible uses for the computer. research on a computer for purposes of verification of the accuracy of the From the point of viev; of a calculations, evaluation of the meth- productive worker, my contribution ods employed and investigation of pos- to the in-house effort has kept pace sible applications. As is not unusu- with my colleagues, which v.'ould not al, I have called in programmers to have been the case had I not had carry out the actual programming and the Brialler at my disposal. I running of the results on a computer. consider it an indispensable instru- I have had to rely on others to at ment for my work. Should I be de- least scan the numerical output in prived of its use, my value to my order to keep abreast of progress. employer would suffer commensur- The whole procedure has been quite un- ately satisfactory. The effort, time, cost, red tape, and the inefficiency of the In my opinion, every possible procedures have led, in practice, to effort should be made to ensure the laying aside possible fruitful avenues development and further refinement for investigation. of the MIT Brailler and its avail- ability to all blind persons vrho can With the advent of time-sharing demonstrate a legitimate use for it. capability, the situation has been The potential uses for the Brailler completely altered. A scientist can are by no means limited to m.y par- now have direct access to the computer ticular applications. The least and almost zero turn-around time. that can be said is that whatever is However, for a blind scientist the available to a sighted person through time-sharing capability of computers a teletypewriter is available to a is absolutely useless without a braille blind person through the addition of output device to reproduce the tele- a Brailler. This capability alone type output. It was my good fortune is sufficient to justify the develop- ment of the Brailler.

33 The MIT Brailler does have Dr. Morrison wrote this re- some shortcomings, but they do not port directly into the PDP-10 com- nearly cancel its advantages. One puter using a teletype and Braillem- difficulty with the present design, boss. A text-editor program, TECO and one which will take some in- (Text Editor and correction) was insert, delete, genuity to eliminate , is the drop- used to correct, ping of a character at the end of and modify the report as necessary. a line. This defect has been more Dr. Morrison then used an auxiliary of an annoyance to me, rather than program to set up the format of the a hindrance, since properly format- report for the line length of the ing the output circumvents line- Braillemboss . Following Dr. Morri- overlap. Noise is another annoy- son's directions a teletype at the ance which can probably only be SAEDC was attached via a telephone ameliorated under the present de- to the computer and the report re- sign. Some aspects of the Brailler quested. The report was printed on which can be improved are: size of the teletype directly from the the machine, manner of presentation computer's memory. This copy was of the brailled material as it is- retyped from the teletype copy sues from the machine, and relia- without further editing. bility.

John Morrison George F. Dalrymple

34 . :

APPENDIX 2

Seini-Annual Reviev;

Date: February 20, 19 71 and shared library programs v;hich are contained in storage in the computer To: Massachusetts Commission for systems. This facility has been espe- the Blind cially helpful to me in learning hov; From: John Morrison to use the GSA computer. Department of Transportation Transportation Systems Center Finally, one of the computer programs (v;hich happens to be available Subject: Operation and application on both computers) is of particular of MIT-SAEDC's Embosser. interest to me for reasons other than At this installation, the mathematical or engineering. This Braille Embosser is connected to a program, called Runoff, v/as devised

Teletypewriter (Mod. 33) . This re- to assist in the preparation of re- mote terminal can, at present, ac- ports. I write a report in braille; cess by conventional (voice channel) type it into the computer, including telephone lines, either a PDP-10 instructions or titling, centering, computer (located in the building) paragraphing, footnoting, etc. I get or the Government Services Admini- back a braille copy of just the re- stration's computer center located port (without the instructions) and in Atlanta, Ga. This latter facili- a typed copy in which my instructions ty is accessed by a local call to for formatting have been carried out. the Boston GSA office; then via From the Braille copy, I can find my leased lines through New York and inevitable typing errors. Others can Washington to Atlanta. The computer review the typed copy for modifica- in Atlanta is a General Electric 440 tions are then made, by Teletype in- Time-share system. put, in the computer. The computer then outputs the corrected report as The remote terminal is in nowise a final copy or draft version. This limited in its use as a conventional report is being generated in this Teletype by having the Braille Em- fashion. I may decide to make some bosser attached to it. It is, as a alterations in the print punctuation matter of fact, not only used by my- as a concession to the braille reader self, but by two or three other to counterbalance the concessions sighted persons. For the most part, many made to the print reader. I use the terminal to perform three functions Regarding the performance of the Brailler itself, there are four The first of these--and by far remarks the most important--is to input sci- entific programsinto the computer 1. Through some circuit change, and to output the results calculated the Brailler is now able to line- by the computer. The Brailler is feed without dropping a character essential in both stages. The termi- at the end of a line. This is a nal produces a braille copy of my marked improvement. program, along with any errors in the program that the computer can 2. I have requested that line- find. This permits me to have a feed signals from the Teletype be permanent copy of the program for interpreted Brailler a space. future use and to make any necessary by the as This modification has not been made. corrections. The output, of course, A not at is most important since it contains line-feed which does occur the end of a braille line always the reason for doing the work in the first place. means a wasted line of braille paper. (This report is beina typed in single for that reason.) Since a The second use of the Brailler space very Teletype line is about double the (and the Teletype) is to obtain cop- length of the Braille line, about ies (Braille and print) of manuals

35 one-third of a braille page is empty. fashion. The cause has not as yet This is an extravagance which should been precisely pinned down. be avoided. 4. A convenience switch has 3. The Brailler misses char- not yet been provided for disabling acters in what appears to be a random the Brailler while non-essential ma- terial is being typed out on the Teletype.

APPENDIX 3

ROLLS-ROYCE LIMITED

P.O. Box 3, Filton, August 1, 19 72 Bristol BS12 7QE Engineering Computing Centre RCP/DCB/600 5

American Foundation for the Blind, Inc. 15 West 16th Street New York, N. Y. 10011

been a great source of . . . You will be very pleased It has to hear that the Braillemboss has satisfaction to us to see such a been an unqualified success. Terry successful outcome and we have many Hicks is delighted with it and by people to thank, not least yourself. its help is a fully contributing, and very capable, member of our pro- Terry Tate, whose enthusiastic gramming team. and industrious guidance of Terry Hicks has been the most significant We have no need to make any single factor in this enterprise, concessions as to the type of pro- would like to see more blind people gramming work we ask Terry to under- exposed to this type of environment. take, though in practice we avoid To this end we are considering the giving him jobs involving unusually possibility of training others, large quantities of output, not be- though the form and extent of this cause Terry would be unable to cope will have to be carefully thought but because the difference in speed out and be ultimately approved by between the Braillemboss and a our Divisional Directors who, I standard line printer would involve should add, have gone out of their his taking rather longer than others. way to support us in this venture.

Dennis C. Boston

36 . ^ ,

APPENDIX 4

Folding Canes

May 4, 15 71

SAEDC Technical Description Sheet No. 1

Since its inception, the Sen- specialized techniques, select sory Aids Evaluation and Development fitting or assembly. Center has been concerned with examin- ing and developing devices to enhance 9. A realistic mass-market price the mobility of the blind. These de- goal was estimated at under vices have included the Pathsounder, $10.00 each. straight line travel indicators, com- passes, the folding cane, and other Each of the then knovm avail- devices. Early investigations estab- able folding canes v/ere examined and lished the following criteria which several tested. None met all of the must be met by a folding cane. requirements, especially that of feel and durability. Earlier work 1. The weight of the cane cannot at MIT had produced a design con- exceed one pound. cept, a central-steel-cable com.press- ing conical joints, v;hich shov/ed 2. The folded cane must fit into a promise of meeting most of the re- coat pocket (5" x 10" x 5/8") quirements. Work on canes using this concept produced the "aluminum-

3. Aside from collision damage, the tube, swaged- joint , central-steel- cane must survive 5,000 fold ex- cable folding cane." tend cycles, based on one year of use by an active blind trav- During the conference for mo- eler. bility trainers and technologists,^ the Center was urged by several of 4. The assembled unit must provide the attendees to distribute the a handle and tip with similar swaged-tube central-steel-cable crook "feel" and sound generation ca- handle folding cane in its present pabilities as those experienced configuration for evaluation purposes by current long cane users. to appropriate aaencies and persons.

5. While the extended cane length An evaluation involving ap- cannot be changed by the user, proximately 100 canes was performed. the design must include provi- The evaluation used qualified mobil- sions for supplying the cane as- ity instructors to interact betvreen sembly in two-inch increments of the Center and each subject. The length over the range of 36 to mobility instructors recruited the 70 inches. subjects and determined the cane length and the tip desired by each 6. Opening and closing input forces subject. The cane and a data package cannot exceed the capabilities of was sent to an instructor for each women and children. subject. The data package included both instructions and the data 7. Opening, closing, locking, and

storing procedures , must be com-

patible with "one-hand" opera- ^ Final report to the VRA from. SAEDC, tion. Oct. 31, 1965.

^Proceedings , Conference for Mo- 8. The overall design must be sim- bility Trainers and Technoloaists ple . Fabrication of component parts should not require SAEDC, MIT, Dec. 14, 15, 1967.

37 ^ collecting questionnaires. The in- agency to assist by providing the structor taught the subject how to tooling and initial production costs. assemble and disassemble the cane The Northwest Foundation for the and at the appropriate times admini- Blind through the Center provided a stered questionnaires. A pretest small subsidy to HYCOR, - a local questionnaire was used to determine aerospace company who agreed to make the subject's regular cane, travel and offer for sale the straight skill, and travel habits, while the handle cane for $12.00. post-test questionnaire recorded his use, likes, and dislikes of the With the introduction of the cane. cable cane by HYCOR, the Center's work in folding canes has been The cane was well received and brought to a successful conclusion. thought by most to have characteris- The work on the folding cane has tics similar to their regular cane. demonstrated the essential require- Two problems reported were namely the ments of providing a new and useful large size of the crook and both the appliance for the blind, from the small diameter and surface of the realization of the need, to the grip. development of a viable concept, to the practical design, to its test Continuing work on folding cane and evaluation, and to the appliance development during the evaluation commercial marketing. produced a straight handle cane using the same principles as the crook The support of the Center dur- handle cane.'* Several usable but dif- ing the folding cane work was by the ferent prototypes for a straight han- Vocational Rehabilitation Administra- dle cane were made. Each of the pro- tion and the Social Rehabilitation totype canes overcame the difficulties Administration of the Department of discovered during the crook handle Health, Education, and Welfare. cane evaluation while retaining its desirable characteristics.

At this stage in the straight- handled cane development, it was rea- lized that this cane met the important above requirements and that it should be made commercially available. A search was then conducted for both a manufacturer and an appropriate

^Final Report to SRS from SAEDC, 19 70. ^HYCOR, North Woburn Industrial Park,

"* Annual Report to SRS from SAEDC, 19 67. Woburn, Mass. 01801.

38 APPENDIX 5

Braillemboss , A Braille Page Printer

August 4, 15 70 SAEDC Technical Description Sheet No. 2

The MIT Braillemboss^ is a Each selector bar is parallel to the braille page printer designed to em- head support track and is controlled boss braille at similar or faster by a solenoid (250 mA @ 40 volts) . rates than teletypes. The Braillem- When a solenoid is energized, the boss accepts electrical braille-coded corresponding interposer pin in the signals from a variety of sources and active head is held in. in turn produces braille pages. When operating continuously, it produces a The heads are positioned by page of braille every 1.6 to 2.0 min- both a support track and a tooth that utes . engages the escapement rack. The tooth is held against the rack by a The Braillemboss lines are 38 spring driven by a torque iriotor. cells long. Each page has 28 lines This combination supplies a constant with 25 lines for braille and 3 blank force to keep the tooth enaaaed. lines for the top and bottom margin. The paper used by the Braillemboss is The escapement rack is com.posed 100-pound-basis manila fan-folded of two one-half pitch racks displaced sprocket-drive paper. When the by one pitch length. The rack shut- sheets are separated and the sprocket- tles back and forth at riaht anqles drive strips are removed at the per- to the head track and is driven by an forations, each sheet is a standard eccentric. Each time the rack moves 11" X 11-1/2". from one side to the other the head advances one cell. When the active The heart of the Braillemboss head is in the last cell location, is the embossing heads, each head it closes an end-of-line switch used contains six embossing pins in the in the Carriage Return logic. braille cell configuration and an interposer pin beneath each embossing The platen is supported by two pin. These heads are fastened to a pivoted arms and driven by cranks at chain and so arranged that one head both ends of the cycle shaft. The is always supported under the platen, rack is also driven by an eccentric a steel female die containing 38 geared at one-half speed to the cycle braille cells. shaft. The cycle shaft is driven by a 1/20 horsepower motor through a Each embossing pin is spring cycle clutch. Each time the cycle loaded upward. If an interposer pin clutch solenoid is pulsed, the cycle is held in, then the corresponding shaft makes one revolution. The embossing pin produces a dot when platen goes through one cycle, from, struck by the platen. If the inter- top to emboss position, and back to poser pin is out, the corresponding top, while the rack moves from one spring- loaded embossing pin is merely side to the other side each time the forced down by the platen and no dot cycle shaft revolves. is made. The fan- fold sprocket-drive pa- Each interposer pin is con- per is supported by two paper tractors trolled by a selector bar. There are mounted close to the head track and six selector bars, one for each dot, platen but on the output side. The with three on each side of the head. paper tractors are driven by a Ledex Digim.otor. Each time the Digim.otor ^MIT Braillemboss Specifications. is pulsed (5 amps (§ 40 volts) , it ad- SAEDC August 1969 with latest revision. vances the paper on braille line.

39 . .

active head is in the first cell lo- A page register is also a part of cation. The Line Feed signal pulses the paper drive and provides one line feed Digimotor. switch closure-per-page to enable a the new page command to be accurately The End-of-Page function is executed. also controlled by a flip-flop. When flip-flop is set, a emboss sequence is as fol- the End-of-Page The series of line feed The electronics determine self-clocking lows. are aenerated to step the pa- the signals that a braille cell pulses from When the paper is stepped to be embossed. The cycle clutch per. is to line position on a page, pulsed and the appropriate se- the first is page register switch resets the lector bars are energized. The em- the End-of-Page flip-flop. bossing is performed as the platen bottom of its excursion, reaches the electrical signals for the selector bars are released and The the are derived from three head is advanced as the platen Braillemboss the sources, manual (including reaches the half-way point on its principal , paper-tape reader, upward travel. The space sequence a keyboard) a 3 The manual modes identical except that selector or a translator. is used primarily for test or lim- bars are not energized. When the are addition to braille from other active head is in the last (38th) ited selector bars sources. The translator allows cell, at the time the or line feed other devices such as Model 27 are released, an automatic card This provides 35 teletypes, an IBM 2741, a signal is generated. to supply carriage return at reader or similar devices an automatic signals. A three the line. The paper is the electrical the end of has been made to and the next head becomes connector adaptor advanced tapes in other codes active head in the first cell permit paper the codes to drive the position than brailler embosser through the appropriate The Carriage Return function translator. is controlled by a flip-flop. When the Carriage Return flip-flop is set, self-clocking series of cycle- a Model SP-2 Paper Tape clutch pulses are generated and the ^Friden The Re ade r heads are stepped around. Braillemboss automatic-line-feed signal when in ^One-Cell Translators, Units. SAEDC, TDS the last cell resets the flip-flop Interface and stops the heads such that the No. 8.

40 ,

APPENDIX 6

Interactive Braille Remote Computer Translated Grade 2 Braille

September 7, 1972 Technical Description Sheet No. 11

A person with typing skills but to be initial capitalized, tv/o equal with a minimum knowledge of Braille signs before each v/ord to indicate can produce a high quality Grade 2 that the word is solid capitals. Braille with ease and dispatch, using Most punctuation is typed in di- the Interactive Braille System. The rectly. necessary components of the system are : Additional format control char- acters are required to tell the pro-

1. A time-sharing computer with gram when to start paraaraphs , v;hen D0TSYS3 stored in it. the typist demands a nev; line to start not in the regular progression 2. A teletype or other time-sharing of text. Other format control sym- computer terminal. bols are used to indicate headings and titles. The most used symbols 3. A Braillemboss attached to the and format controls are listed on a

teletype . single sheet (see belov/) .

It is not necessary for the computer Some training is necessary for to be located at the same place as the typist to learn to create and the terminal and Braillemboss. manipulate the data files in the computer. This training can be ac- The Braillemboss is a Braille complished in a few hours using page printer^ '^ used to produce the manuals prepared by the time-sharing output. D0TSYS3 is a version of computer people. DOTSYS III modified to use the Braillemboss^ as outout unit. After the input file is cre- ated, proofread and corrected if The material to be brailled is necessary, the computer is told by typed into the computer and stored a single typed in command to produce in a data file. The material is the Braille. The computer translates typed in almost as it is written in the material and will either store normal inkprint. The teletype has the Braille to produce multiple only upper case so a control charac- copies or the computer can immedi- ter is required to tell D0TSYS3 ately output the Braille to produce when to capitalize. A single equal only one copy. sign (=) is typed preceding each word This is essentially the system used at the National Braille Press ^Braillemboss A Braille Page Printer, and demonstrated there on January 31, SAEDC TDS #2 August 4, 1970. , 1972. ^Final Report to John A. Hartford Foundation, " Development of a High- This Interactive Braille Sys- speed Braille r System for More Rapid tem is designed to be used in places and Extensive Production of Informa- where skilled Braille transcribers tional Materi al for the Blind," SAEDC, are not available, such as in a pub- September 29 1970. lic school system with a few blind students enrolled. It can also be ^Gerhart, Mil len, and Sullivan, "DOT- used in an agency environment to SYS III, A Po rtable Program for Grade supplement the existing skilled II Braille Tr anslation," MITRE MTR transcribers or to free them, from 2119, May 14, 1971.

41 *

Brackets the relatively simple literary Grade < for a left bracket! 2 Braille to more specialized Braille > for a right bracket ] which is more demanding of their skills. Short Syllable Sign $SV Long Syllable Sign $LV Poetry Foot Sign $FT Braille Control and Format Codes End of DOTSYS III on IDC 360/67 with Caesura Sign $CS Teletype and Braillemboss Symbols Terminal (029 Keypunch) Null $/ Null replacement symbol gener- ally used to prevent contraction Capitalization Forced Blanks $B = initial capital of for Symbol $T following word Termination == for all capitals of following Paragraph 5P word New Line ?^. digits + Italics (Shift TTY) Skip Multiple Line $Slnnb (2 ^

blank) skip nn ] underscore (_) before each word or three words $PG for one, two New Page i two underscores before four or more Tabs

, position word italics and one tab $TAnnb (start at | one underscore before last word nn) multiple $STABmLnn (set tab m at Italics, Capitals, Accent, position nn) Ordering justification, R for Delineator L for left right justification decimal justification Force possible illegal contraction D for $#m before each item to be tabulated /_ before and _/ after letters Titles Prevent contraction $TLS before and $/ within the letters to be con- $TLE after each title tracted produces centered title on each numbered page Quotes " may be used for both left and Heading and right if no quotes within a $HDS before for centered one line quote is used $HDE after $" for left double quote within headings a quote Poetry $"R for right double quote within $PTYS before and a quote $PTYE after all poetry text $' for inner opening quote Braille $'R for inner closing quote Octal $OCTaabbccdd for 4 codes individual braille cells to Accent Mark Allows 0, 5, 8, be inputed ] (Shift M) TTY (12, 11, Keypunch) arrangement dot 1 = 10, dot 2 = 20, dot 3 = 40

= , dot 6=4 dot 4 = 1 , dot 5 2 *To obtain accent control symbol on keypunch hold down Mult Punch key Computer Braille will print 4 codes each strike &, -, 0, 5, and 8 keys $CPBxxxx and graphic x in the com- before releasing. The Mult Punch represented by braille code (ASCII to one-cell) key automatically places keypunch to puter numbers mode. Do not release the Letter Sign + Mult Punch Key until all 5 keys are Checkinq: The symbol struck. Self $SCON$/$/$/$/$/ is used to turn self-checking on and $SCOFF is used to turn self-checking off. Deline- ator is - (circumflex. Shift N) on TTY, or (vertical bar) on keypunch. I

42 , , ,,

REFERENCES

Mann, R. W. , Enhancing the Fina.l report to zocial rehabili- availability of braille. Pro- tation ad.mini strati on, Vepart- ceedings of the International ment of Health, Educo.tion, o.nd Congress on Technology and Blind- Welfare, Contract SP.C-ei-41, ness, New York: American Founda- Sensory Aids Evaluation and De- tion for the Blind, June 1962, velopment Center, Cambridge, 409-426. Mass.: MIT, December 19 70.

Dupress, J. K., Baumann, D. M. B. 10. Development of a high-speed & Mann, R. W. Towards making brailler system for more rapid braille as accessible as print, and extensive production of in- Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Report formational ma.terial for the No. DSR 70249, June 1968. blind. Final Report to the John A. Hartford Foundation, Inc. Evaluation report on work in SAEDC, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT, progress on sensory aids and September 29 , 1970. prosthetics. Engineering Pro- jects Laboratory Report 8768-3, 11. Lichtman, S. A. The design of a Cambridge, Mass.: MIT, October high-speed slave brailler for a 1962. braille converter device.

Thesis (SB) , Department of Mech- Evaluation report on work in anical Engineering, MIT, May progress on sensory aids and 1961. prosthetics , Engineering Pro- jects Laboratory Report 9211-2, 12. Eglinton, D. G. Preliminary de- Cambridge, Mass.: MIT, April sign of the mechanical to elea- 1964. trioa.l coding conversion for a typewriter to braille converter.

Final report to vocational re- Thesis (SB) , Department of Mech- habilitation dministration anical Engineering, MIT, May Department of Health, Education 1961. and Welfare, Contract SAV-1036- 65, Sensory Aids Evaluation and 13. Kennedy, D. W. A high-speed Development Center, Cambridge, braille embossing syster. - 3 Vol-

Mass.: MIT, October 1965. umes. Thesis (SM) , Department of Mechanical Engineering, MIT, Final report to vocational re- May 19 63. habilitation administration. Department of Health, Education 14. Maskrey, R. H., Design and con- and Welfare, Contract SAV-1045- struction of a braille keyboard 66, Sensory Aids Evaluation and for the high-speed electric Development Center, Cambridge, brailler. Thesis (SB), Depart- Mass.: MIT, April 1967. ment of Mechanical Engineering, MIT, May 1963. Annual report to social reha- bilitation administration 15. Armstrong, A. E. A braille tele-

Department of Health, Education communication terminal . Thesis and Welfare, Contract SAV-1057- (SM) , Department of Mechanical 67, Sensory Aids Evaluation and Engineering, MIT, June 1965. Development Center, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT, November 1967. 16. Greiner, W. E. Development of a braille system for classroom use.

Final report to social reha- Thesis (SM) , Department of Mech- bilitation administration , anical Engineerina, MIT, March Department of Health, Education 1968. and Welfare, Contract SAV-10S7-

67, Sensory Aids Evaluation and 17. Scott, D. B. , Jr. System for ->.i

Development Center, Cambridge, production of braille . Thesis

Mass.: MIT, April 1969. (SM) , Department of Mechanical Engineering, MIT, June 19 69.

43 . , ,

18. Sturgis, R. H., Jr., Design mod- 27. Dalrymple, G. F. Transcription ifioations of the M.E. hrailler. of In Darkness via DOTSYS III , Sensory Thesis (SM) , Department of Mech- and the Braillemboss anical Engineering, MIT, May Aids Evaluation and Development 1969. Center, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT, November 19 72. 19. Conference on automatic data processing and the various 28. Folding Canes. Technical De- braille codes, Cambridge, Mass.: scription Sheet No. 11, Sensory MIT, March 17, 18, 1961. Aids Evaluation and Development Center, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT, 19 71. 20. Smith, Benjamin F. , Perkins ex- May 4, periment with computer produced braille, and Waterhouse, Ed- 29. Woodcock, R. W. Braille re- search at George Peabody College, ward J. , Perkins enters the computer age. The Lantern, Vol. Proceedings J Braille Research 37, No. 3, March 1968. and Development Conference Sensory Aids Evaluation and 21. Proceedings of the blind in com- Development Center, Cambridge, 1966, puter programming , An interna- Mass.: MIT, November 18, 20-28. tional conference , Cleveland, October 9-11, 1969, ACM News- letter, Special Issue, July 30. Proscia, V. A., Silver, S., & 1970. Zumalt , L. E. Joint enterprise undertaken between two centers 22. Keeping, Donald, personal com- for development and evaluation munication to Vito Proscia, of a tactile communication aid December 15, 1971. for deaf-blind persons, SAEDC , Cambridge, Mass.: MIT, August

23. Gerhart, W. R. , Millen, J. K. 1971. & Sullivan, J. E. DOTSYS III, A portable program for Grade II 31. Russell, L. Pathsounders In- SAEDC, braille translation , MTR-2119, structor's Handbook J Bedford, Mass.: The MITRE Cor- Cambridge, Mass.: MIT, January

poration , 1969 1969.

24. Millen, J. K. Choice of COBOL 32. Goldish, L. H., Braille in the for braille translation , MTR- United States: Its production, 1743, Bedford, Mass.: The MITRE distribution and use. Thesis Corporation, 1970. (SM) , Sloan School of Manage- ment, MIT, February 1967. 25. Millen, J. K., DOTSYS II: User's New York: American Foundation guide and trans fer and mainte- for the Blind, December 1967. nance manual, MTR-1853, Bedford, Mass.: The MITRE Corporation, 1970. 33. Puckett , R. E., Enhancement of Grade 2 Braille transla- University 26. Millen, J. K. , DOTSYS II: Finite- tion/final report. state syntax-directed braille of Kentucky, 1971.

translation , MTR-1829 , Bedford, Mass.: The MITRE Corporation, 1970.

44 . ,

A REPORT ON BLINDNESS IN TWO RURAL BLOCKS IN NORTHWESTERN INDIA

I. S. Jain*

Editor's Note: The following was excerpted, with only minor editorial changes, from a more comprehensive report entitled "Blindness and Ocular Morbidity in Two Rural Blocks of Punjab and Haryana." The report covered activities car- ried out during 1968-1970 under the Research Project "Establishment of a Pilot Rehabilitation Center and Mobile Ophthalmological Unit for Persons Disabled by Eye Disorders," Project No. VRA-IND-39-6 8/19-P-58135-F-01

TRACHOMA STUDIES contemplated by Franken included comparison of the pattern of various In 1964 the Trachoma Control ocular disorders in both the dry and Project (under the Indian Council of fertile zones of the plains of Punjab Medical Research) disclosed that in and in mountainous Himalayan terrain. a rural population of 355 million Chatterjee presented his figures in the 15 States of India, 19.9 mil- from Lahaul and Spiti in the Hima- lion had visual impairments of vari- layan area (Chatterjee and Franken, ous degrees. Of these 3.5 millions 1968) . Franken (1968) completed the were economically blind. Prior to study for the dry belt of Punjab, this report some analytical work on but that on the fertile belt re- ocular problems in the country had mained undone. To fill in this gap appeared as a result of contact the present study was undertaken in studies or the sending of question- the vicinity of Chandigarh. naires to medical centers (Ursekar, 1955; Cooper, 1964; Aggarwal, et al., What follows is a formal re-

1963) . After the publication of the port on our work, but I would like report, interest among ophthalmolo- to interject a few personal words. gists increased and more studies Only those who have actually had the appeared ( Venkataswamy , 1966; Shukla, experience of going into the vil-

1966, Krishnamoorthy , 1966; Aggarwal, lages can understand the hardships et al., 1966; Chatterjee and Franken, that the team had to endure. One

1968) . These studies laid stress has to shed the ego of being a city on the pattern of disease distri- dweller before going to a village. bution, an important first step Then, after crossing all the barriers for planning any far-reaching of a rugged terrain, one should be strategy to combat any disease. ready to face both the active and To combat blindness, one must know passive resistance of the villaaers the cause and contributing fac- who have every reason to suspect tors . In the part of the country your motives and treat you as an concerned with here, Franken (1968) alien. It is all in the game, and was the first to study the problem I am thankful to the thousands of along scientific lines. The study people who allowed us to examine their eyes, and thus made it possible for us to compile this report. The encouragement of Dr. P. N. Chuttani, *Professor and Head, Department of Director of the Post-graduate Insti- Ophthalmology, Postgraduate Institute tute of Medical Education and Re- Medical and Research, of Education search, and the guidance and eco- Chandigarh, India. nomic support of the U.S. Government';

45 . .. .

Vocational Rehabilitation Administra- rains. Average rainfall is 34.3 tion enabled us to reach the real In- inches dia--rural India. I express my thanks to all involved in the project The economy of the area is for their untiring work and skill. based primarily on agriculture. In My thanks to D. H. Gupta, Institute the 1951 census 57.82 percent of the statistician, for his help with the population was classed as dependent statistical aspects of our work and upon agriculture. In the 1961 cen- guidance given to our project statis- sus, 46.39 percent of the total work- tician. ing force were cultivators and agri- cultural laborers. The lower figure for 1961 is due partly to nonculti-

vating landowners , who do no other MATERIAL AND METHODS work, no longer being classified as workers The study was carried out in two rural blocks in the vicinity of Land in the area is fairly fer- Chandigarh: Kharar Block which is tile. The potentialities for produc- situated in Punjab State, and Raipur tion of paddy maize, wheat, ground- Rani Block in Haryana State. Both nut, sarson and sugarcane are great. blocks lie between 30°02'25" and The peasantry consists of hard work- 31°10'35" north latitude and 76°10'55" ing Jat Sikhs, Rajputs, Gujjars and and 77°36'20" east longitude. The Sainis general population of Kharar Block is about 97,396 and that of Raipur There are three economic group- Rani Block about 91, 139. ings among the farmers : peasant-

proprietors ; tenants; and laborers. A simple random sample was drawn for Raipur Rani Block and a Most of the cultivators are stratified sample for Kharar Block. peasant proprietors; owning and A 5 percent sample was selected for cultivating their own land. the former and 8 percent for the lat- ter. Examination was made of 4,601 persons in the Raipur Rani Block and 8,142 persons in the Kharar Block. SIZE OF OPERATIONAL HOLDINGS An additional 2,193 persons from the Kharar Block were examined, in- As many as 31.8 percent of the cluding 321 of the pilot project households in villages are engaged study, but for scientific analysis in cultivation in the capacity of they have not been included in this peasant proprietors and tenants, ex- study cluding such households who had let out their lands in entirety or were dependent on agricultural labor. The households of peasant proprietors and CLIMATE AND POPULATION tenants are distributed below accord- ing to the size of their operational Temperatures are high in sum- holdings. (Table 1.) mer and relatively low in winter. Beginning in March, the temperature rises, reaching 116 °F or more towards the middle of June. Hot winds blow EDUCATION over the land but heavy dust storms are rare. The rainy season begins According to sample population by the fourth week of July and con- figures, literacy of the area in tinues until the end of September. 1951 was 14 percent; in 1961 liter- During this period the temperature acy was 30 percent. comes down considerably when it rains, but rises again when the rains stop. The scheduled caste and back- The atmosphere, then, is sultry and ward classes, particularly those in- distressing. In October, the weather habiting the rural areas, still lag- is fine and turns to the winter sea- in education. Education is free up son. November and December are pleas- to Middle Standard in all government ant and generally free from rain. and provincialized schools. January and February are months of severe cold and there may be mild

46 .

TABLE 1 swamy and Rajagopalan, 1961; Shukla and Vijay, 1965) by sending question- Distribution-per-1 ,000 Households naires to medical centers (Ursekar, Engaged in Cultivation by Interest 1955; Cooper, 1964) . in Land, and Size of Land Culti- vated, in Rural Areas Only These studies, being biased, do not reflect the disease pattern ac- curately. Many general surveys v;ere Size of Per 1,000 done with a specific disease in mind Operation Distribution (Krishnamoorthy , 1966; Sarda, et al., Holdings of Households 1961) , but few took into account an analytical ophthalmic morbidity of a Less than 1 acre 9.07 community. The survey by Franken v/as 1.0 2 4 acres 83.77 conducted in the dry belt of Punjab 2.5 - 4 9 126.93 and Haryana. The present study v;as 5.0 - 7 4 181.76 done in order to determine the pattern 7.5 - 9 9 119.93 of ophthalmic morbidity in the fertile 10.0 - 12 4 153.19 zone of Punjab to compare it, ulti- 12.5 - 14 9 59.94 mately, with Chandigarh, considering 15.0 - 29 9 190.77 the impact of education, vocation, and 30.0 - 49 9 50.86 socio-economic status, geographic fac- 50.0 and above 17.07 tors remaining the same. Objectives

are :

1. To obtain information on the pat- SPECIFICATIONS OF tern of ophthalmic diseases. SUPPORTING ENQUIRIES 2. To evaluate, if possible, any A pilot project was undertaken factor responsible for a particu- in the village of Lambian (Kharar lar disease. Block) prior to the regular survey to: 3. To assess the ophthalmic require- ments of the area in terms of 1. Ascertain the variability of pop- medical and surgical needs. ulation characteristics and to determine whether the size of the 4. To study the prevalence rate of sample was adequate. blindness and the needs for re- habilitation. 2. Test the utility of various pro- cedures under field conditions before incorporating them in the survey ROAD TRANSPORT

3. Test proformas and other neces- Though motor vehicles are be- sary documentation. coming increasingly popular, bullock carts still hold sway in the country- 4. Estimate the work rate for the side for conveyance and carriage of given time and resources under goods. They are well suited for the actual field conditions. rugged countryside where unpaved roads are unsuitable for sophisti- cated modern vehicles. Bicycles are extensively used in the villages. OBJECTIVES (See Table 2.)

Every developing country is be- sieged with plans for rehabilitation WORKING TECHNIQUE and therapeutic work. Before any such plan can be formulated, it is impera- The survey team consisted of tive to carry out an accurate assess- a research officer postgraduate in ment in order to evaluate the degree ophthalmology with considerable ex- of the problem at hand. Several at- perience; an assistant research of- tempts have been made by various ficer, postgraduate; a ref ractionist workers utilizing different techniques, with diploma in refraction and op- e.g., hospital statistics (Venkata- tometry; other paramedical personnel

47 :

TABLE 2

General Information on Kharar and Raipur Rani Blocks

Kharar Raipur Rani Total Villages Examined: 22 Total Villages Examined: 29

Present in number of villages

Good approach road 3

Dispensary, local 2 2

within 3 km. 5 1 more than 3 km. 15 26

School, local 17 12

within 3 km. 5 7 - more than 3 km. 10

Literacy rate (1961 census) 30 percent 30 percent

Density of population per- square -mile (1961 census) 801 920

Average population per village (1961 census) 600 453

including male staff nurse, publi- having visual acuity less than city man, driver, and one or two 6/9 were refracted. Effort was nursing attendants. made to see the general improve- ment and type of refractive er- A day before the actual survey ror; myopic or hypermetropic. was started, the team would visit the place to see the head man and other a. Inspection done with naked eye and with corneal loupe important persons ; especially the school teachers if there was a local lOx. school. The teachers were, in fact, the most cooperative in this work. b. Visual axis noted and cover The students in a particular school test performed. were examined that same day to estab- lish a favorable atmosphere for the c. Fundus examined through un- process involved. Then, on the speci- dilated pupil. If specific- fied day, a survey of the village was ally needed, Drosyn 5% started. The team moved from house (phenylephrine) was employed to house and examined all occupants. to dilate the pupil. After recording the name, age, d. Intraocular tension was sex, and occupation the following taken digitally in earlier procedure was carried out part of study, but tension was later recorded with a two 1. Brief history. Schlotz tonometer using weights, and scleral rigidity 2. Examination. Visual acuity was taken into consideration checked with E charts. Persons from Friedenwalds Nomogram (1955) .

48 . , :

e. Wherever needed, visual field Total number of cases 100 was tested by confrontation method. Field charting is a Immature cataract cases difficult test to be performed 10 + 15 + 10 = 35 on villagers. Mature cataract cases Any person who needed more de- 5 + 10 15 tailed study was referred to the base hospital Without any cataract 60 60

110 RECORDING OF DATA Here, immature and mature com- The findings of the surgeon bined cases have overlapped. In- were recorded on a printed form (Ap- stead of 40 persons, 50 persons ap- pendix 1) . The pattern of recording pear to have cataract. was uniform. Those persons who were blind (economic) , were also recorded 3. To resolve this difficulty, v/e in a separate form (Appendix 2) and analyzed only in terms of pa- coding (Appendix 3) was noted by the tients, and no overlapping oc- surgeon himself, after consulting the curred. The figures given in booklet, Manual on the use of NSPB the above example are analyzed standard classification of causes of as follows severe vision impairment and blind- ness. Part II, 1966. Bilateral cataract

Bilateral immature cataract 10 DATA ANALYSIS Bilateral mature At the start the analysis was cataract done on a pattern adopted by most of the workers, but changed later. One mature Possible ways of analysis are: one immature 10

1. Tally the diseased eyes and di- Unilateral cataract vide by two to get the number of

persons . This gives a false im- One eye mature cataract, pression of prevalence rate. second eye aphakia If there are 50 cases having a disease in one eye only and 50 One eye mature cataract, having bilateral disease, accord- second eye other than ing to the method described, the aphakia diseased eyes are 150. Of 200 eyes there is an ocular morbidity One eye immature cataract, of 75 percent, but in terms of second eye aphakia the number of patients the mor- bidity is 100 percent because all One eye immature cataract, patients are affected; although second eye other than in 50 percent it is unilateral aphakia 15 and in 50 percent bilateral. Total cataract cases 40 2. The second method takes into consideration the number of per- Normal 60 sons. In this let us say there are 100 cases; 10 having bilateral 100 immature cataract, 5 with bilat-

eral mature cataract , 15 with The general approach to analy- immature cataract in one eye sis has been: only, and in 10 one eye has im- mature cataract and the other 1. Prevalence of disease in rela- eye has mature cataract. There- tion to age and sex. fore, the conclusion will be:

49 . :

2. Bilateral and unilateral occur- For analysis the population rence. examined was divided into age groups of ten years. Percentages were cal- 3. Consideration of site type and culated on the basis of the population aetiology. examined in the respective age groups, designated in the text as group popu-

4. Interpenetrating cohesive analy- lation .

sis . Main analysis was done under Graphic representation has been the guidance of a trained and experi- utilized wherever needed to facili- enced statistician. Chi-square tests tate better comprehension of the were generally used to assess the tabulated data. relative significance of various ob-

servations . Main diseases are analyzed ir- respective of other existing ocular pathologies, meaning that a person POPULATION ANALYSIS with perhaps cataract, corneal opa- city, and glaucoma combined is in- The total number of persons ex- cluded under only one heading, the amined in both blocks was 12,743; one diagnosed first. In the discus- 6687 males and 6056 females. Male- sion of respective diseases the same female ratio was 1:0.9 (Table 3). In patient will come under all the the general population of Punjab and headings Haryana the ratio is also 1:0.89. In

TABLE 3

Distribution of Sample Population Examined and Evaluated by Sex and Age for Each Block

M & F Age Group Sex Raipur Kharar Bell:: To1 Belt Total

0-10 M 955 1,668 2 ,623 4,447 F 659 1,165 1 ,824

M 521 1,020 1 ,541 11 - 20 2,899 F 458 900 1 ,358

M 255 467 722 21 - 30 1,741 F 348 671 1 ,019

M 180 373 553 - 40 1,314 31 F 310 451 761

M 185 306 491 41 - 50 972 F 177 304 481

M 133 226 359 51 - 60 686 F 123 204 327

M 110 140 250 61 - 70 448 F 87 111 198

M 59 89 148 Over 70 236 F 41 47 88 Ratio male/female 1:0.90 Total Males: 2,398 4,289 6,687 Total Females: 2,203 3,853 6,056 Total Both Sexes 4,601 8,142 12,743 5% 8%

50 TABLE 4

Distribution of 1000 Persons of Each Sex by Aqe Groups

Age Group Males Females Averaae

0-10 392 301 347

11 - 20 230 224 227

21 - 30 108 168 138

31 - 40 83 126 104

41 - 50 73 79 76

51 - 60 54 54 54

61 - 70 37 33 35

Over 70 23 15^ 19

1,000 1,000 1,000

*For general population, based on census data.

the various age groups the ratio of less than 6/12. In 16.7 percent male-female examined and those dis- both eyes showed vision of less than tributed in the general population 6/12. So the extent of ocular mor- is slightly different. This may be bidity is 22.8 percent (Table 5). due to the fact that available data on total population is broken up into In the first decade norm.al 9-year age groups while ours was a visual acuity in both eyes is present 10-year age group. The second factor in 98.4 percent. Corresponding per- may be the fact that the population cent figures for subseauent decades figures used are projected figures are 95.3, 83.9, 72.1, 49.0, 30.5, from the 1961 census. The real fig- 16.1, and 6.8. For both eyes abnormal ures may differ to a certain extent. the percent figures are 0.5, 1.9, 9.4, Distribution pattern per 1000 persons 16.3, 37.9, 55.2, 70.6, and 89.4. is shown in Table 4. Thus in every 1000 persons 772 have perfectly normal vision v.'hile 228 have subnormal vision in one or VISUAL ACUITY both eyes. They need either refrac- tion or other treatment. This points In 18.6 percent of the popula- out the great need for the training tion examined it was n ot possible to of more ophthalmologists in India to examine visual acuity, The maximum treat these 25 million persons having number of these was in the first subnormal vision. decade. In the other decades they were less common. In the first decade in 50.9 percent visual acuity could not be tested while in subsequent BLINDNESS decades the percent fi gures were 1.6,

1.8, 1.6, 0.5, 0.6, 0. 4 , and . The term blindness has been variously defined from time to time. In total, 77.2 percent of the It is only lately that a clearer population had visual acuity between definition has emerged. Parsons 6/6 and 6/9 in both eyes; in 6.1 per- (1906) defined blindness as being too cent one eye was normal (6/9 and 6/6) blind to perform work for which eye- while the other eye had vision of sight is essential. In this statement

51 1 1 i1 1 1

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52 : : . there is no objective criterion with Out of this rate of blindness which to measure the blindness. In of 3200 blind per 100,000 population the United Kingdom the criteria of (Table 6) 972 represented incurable blindness is a vision of 3/60 or less. blindness and 2228 curable blindness, The model reporting area for blind- thus making the curability rate ness statistics , United States Public 69.6 percent. This rate varies from Health Service in 1962 defined blind-^ place to place and depends upon the ness as "visual acuity for distant attitude of people and medical facili- vision of 6/60 and less in better eye ties available. In Kharar Block this with best correction, or visual acuity rate is 6 5.8 percent v/hile in P.aipur of more than 6/60 but with widest Rani block it is 73.8 percent, indi- diameter of the field of vision not cating a greater need for medical greater than 20°." This has been ac- facilities. The figures 56.25 per- cepted as a standard definition. cent were found in Ra j iv/in village Franken and Mehta (1968) surveyed the by a Delhi group of vrorkers. dry belt of Punjab with these speci- fications . Among curable blindness only

9 . 5 percent is preventable as com- Many other reports available, pared to 67.8 percent in the incur- however, have used different criteria, able blind series (Fig. 1) . Pre- e.g., F.C. 3 meters or vision 1/60. ventability of curable blindness is In this survey the criteria of blind- 13.1 percent for Kharar and 6.2 per- ness of the National Society for the cent for Raipur Rani. This differ- Prevention of Blindness (United ence is due to cataract and corneal

States) , 1966 was adopted. opacities. The former being more common in Raipur Rani block and the latter being more common in Kharar Prevalence of Blindness block. The preventability of incur- able blindness is 65.3 percent in Based on the total examined Kharar block, while it is 71.2 per- population in the two blocks , compris- cent in Raipur Rani block. Though ing 12,74 3 persons of all age groups, the prevalence of blindness was 3.2 percent as against 2.02 percent reported by Franken and Mehta (1968) , UNPREVENTABLE 1.98 percent and 2.2 percent in two 32.2% villages reported by Aggarwal et al (1966), and 2.5 percent by Ghosh et PREVENTABLE al. (1969) . 67.8%

Blindness Rate

Blindness rate is defined as PREVENTABLE number of blind persons per 100,000 9.5% of population. The blindness rate reported in various places is

Canada - 131 CURABLE U.S.A. - 214 24.5% U.K. - 200 India INCURABLE (by Trachoma Pilot Project) 1000 75.5% Aggarwal et al., 1966 2240 (Incurable 880) Franken and Mehta, 196 8 INCURABLE (In dry belt of Punjab) 2022 13.5 % Our Study (Table 6) 3200

The 3.2 percent encountered in our survey differs from the blindness rate obtained from hospital attending population. In 35,000 cases so ana- lyzed this was found to be 5.8 per- cent as against 26.2 percent reported Figure 1. Blindness, Preventable and by Shukla and Vijay (1965) . Curable

53 1

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54 the need for general prevention in Taken age-v/ise, in the first both blocks is considerable, it is age-group blindness is 1/2 curable greater for Raipur Rani block. This unpreventable and 1/2 preventable in- is due to cases of multiple affec- curable. So v/hole of it is either tions (e.g., cataract in combination curable or preventable (Table 7) . In and glaucoma in combination) in Rai- the second decade it is unpreventaible pur Rani block. It again speaks for incurable. In the third decade cur- the need of more medical facilities able and incurable is in 1:1.75 ra- as well as awareness among the peo- tio, while the ratio of preventable ple. In every 100,000 of population, unpreventable is 1:0.83. In the 3200 persons are blind in this area. fourth decade curable and incurable Out of this 222 8 cases are curable is 1:1 while preventable and unpre- and they need medical attention while ventable is 1:0.86. In the fifth

972 need rehabilitation. Out of the decade curable : incurable ratio is same total 870 cases of blindness 1:0.44 while preventable : unpreventable per 100,000 could have been prevented is 1:2.82. In the sixth decade ratio while 2 330 have unpreventable dis- of curable and incurable blindness is eases. Among the former 870, only 1:0.48 while preventable and unpre- 212 can be cured now while 2228 in ventable is 1:2.30. In the 7th decade the latter group can be cured. Thus the ratio of curable and incurable is 102 have gone blind just for lack of 1:0.3 and the preventable and unpre- medical help in the latter group, and ventable is 1:4.04. Beyond the 7th 658 in the former group. decade the ratio of curable and in- curable is 1:0.34 while preventable and unpreventable is as 1:3.53 roughly.

TABLE 7

Curable and Incurable Patients by Age Group Curable Incurable Ratio Un- Un- Grand Cur- Prevent- Pre- pre- Per- Pre- pre- Per- Total Per- able: able:Un- Age vent- vent- cent- vent- vent- cent- all cent- Incur- prevent- Group able able Total age able able Total age Types age able ab 1 e

0-10 - 0.018 - 1 0.022 2 0.040 1;:1 1:1

- 11-20 1 1 0.034 1 0.030 0;:1 0:1

21-30 1 3 4 0.238 5 2 7 0.402 11 0.640 1;:1.,75 1:0.,83

31-40 4 10 14 1.066 11 3 14 1.066 28 2.130 1;:1 1:0., 86

41-50 5 40 45 4.623 12 8 20 2.057 65 6.680 1;:0.,44 1:2., 82

51-60 7 60 67 9.766 23 9 32 4.664 99 14.430 1::0.,48 1:2.,30

61-70 5 89 19.844 9 27 6.026 116 25.890 1;:0.,30 1:4.,04 Above 70 5 59 64 27.538 14 22 9.322 86 36.860 1:0.34 1:3.53

Total 27 257 284 2.230 84 40 124 0.9700 408 3.200

9.51% 90.49% 67.74% 32. 26=

55 .

TABLE 8

Curable and Incurable Patients by Age and Sex

Curable Incurable Group Group Group Group Age percent percent percent percent Group Males males Females females Males males Females females

- - - 0-10 1 0.038 - 1 0.038

11-20 ------1 0.074

21-30 2 0.277 2 0.196 4 0.554 3 0.294

31-40 4 0.723 10 1.314 2 0.362 12 1.577

41-50 13 2.648 32 6.652 10 2.037 10 2.079

51-60 27 7.520 40 12.232 16 4.457 16 4.893

61-70 49 19.600 40 20.202 13 5.200 14 7.071 7.955 Over 70 32 21.621 32 36.363 15 10.135 7

Total 128 156 61 63

Taking in terms of total blind- 4.457 percent in the 6th decade, 5.200 percent in the 7th decade, ness, curable : incurable is 1:0.44 and preventable and unpreventable is 10.136 percent in the over 70 group. 1:2.67. So while 1/2 of the blind- ness is incurable, about 1/3 is pre- The figures for females are 0.074 per- cent in the 2nd decade and for subse- ventable . quent corresponding decades are The percentage of curable blind- 0.294 percent, 1.577 percent, 2.079 ness in various age groups is as fol- percent, 4.893 percent, 7.071 percent, and 7.955 percent. Though the fig- lows : ures for the males and females do not 0.018 percent in the 1st decade, show any significant difference ex- 0.238 percent in the 3rd decade, cept in the 4th decade, the corres- 1.066 percent in the 4th decade, ponding figures for curable blindness 4.623 percent in the 5th decade, are somewhat higher for females. 9.766 percent in the 6th decade, 19.844 percent in the 7th decade, 27.538 percent in the over 70 group. AGE VS. SITE-TYPE

Figures for incurable blindness in Considering economic blindness the corresponding age groups are: from the point of view of age there 0.022 percent, 0.034 percent, 0.402 is a progressive rise from the 1st percent, 1.066 percent, 2.057 percent, decade onwards, except for a small 4.664 percent, 6.026 percent, and fall from the 1st decade to the 2nd 9.322 percent. Further splitting of (from 0.04 percent to 0.03 percent). percent- these sex-wise reveals (Table 8) that From the 3rd decade on, this in the male population, incurable male age in respective age-group popula- blind are: tions is 0.63 percent, 2.13 percent, 6.69 percent, 14.43 percent, 25.89 per- 0.038 percent in the 1st decade, cent, 36.44 percent, in 3rd, 4th, 5th, 0.554 percent in the 3rd decade, 6th, 7th decade and onwards (Fig. 2 0.362 percent in the 4th decade, and Table 9) 2.037 percent in the 5th decade.

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57 . . .

In the male population the per- diseases 36.3 percent, and general eye- centage of cases of blindness in ball diseases 27.4 percent. In "gen- various age groups is as follows: eral eyeball diseases" phthisis bulbi 0.076 percent, 0.831 percent, 1.084 was in two-thirds of the cases while percent, 4.684 percent, 11.977 per- myopic blindness was in one-third of cent, 2.480 percent, 31.756 percent the cases. In the 4th decade, "gen- : female in the first, third, fourth, fifth, eral eyeball diseases" (male sixth, seventh decades and over 1:3) constituted 14.3 percent, cornea seventy group respectively. In the sclera (male:female 1:3) diseases females the same figures are 0.074 46.4 percent, lens (male:female 1:9) percent, 0.49 percent, 2.890 percent, in 35.7 percent, and site type in- 8.731 percent, 17.125 percent, 27.27 definite (multiple affections) 3.6 percent and 44.318 percent in 2nd, percent. In the "eyeball diseases" 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th decades and one-half were due to phthisis bulbi the over 70 group. Thus, in the and one-half due to glaucoma. first decade, only males were en- countered and in the second decade, In the fifth decade "eyeball cornea only females. From the third decade diseases" were in 1.5 percent, onwards males and females show a sclera diseases (male : female , 1:1.4) progressive rise. In the third dec- in 26.1 percent, lens diseases (male: ade, male population is more in- female 1:2.5) in 60.4 percent, optic volved, otherwise in all the decades atrophy in 1.5 percent, site type in- in 1(3.5 it is the female population which is definite (male:female 1:0.7) in more affected (Fig. 2 and Table 9) percent (cataract in combination about 70 percent and glaucoma in In Among those blind encountered combination in about 30 percent) . in the first decade, half (one case) the 6th decade, atrophic globe con- was due to phthisis bulbi and half stituted 1 percent, corneal opacity 25 percent, lens due to disease of lens. In the sec- (males : females 1:1) ond decade it was optic atrophy fol- diseases 62 percent (male : female lowing meningitis which was encount- 1:1.5), macular degeneration 1 per- (males: ered. (See Tables 9 and 10.) In the cent, site type indefinite third decade, lens diseases consti- females 1:1.5) in 10 percent (three- tuted 36.3 percent, corneal scleral fifths having cataract in combina- tion, one-fifth having glaucoma in combination and the rest indefinite)

In the seventh decade, atrophic

globe was . 8 percent, corneal opa- cities (male :female 1:0.9) 12.9 per- 44.3% cent, lens d iseases (male: female 1:0.9) 75.2 percent, optic atrophy

. 8 percent and site type indefinite

(male : female 1:1.4) 10.3 percent (glaucoma in combination 9.8 percent and cataract in combination 90.2 per- cent)

Beyond 70 eyeball diseases ac- counted for 2.3 percent (atrophic globe and glaucoma 1:1), corneal opacity (male:female 1:0.6) 16.2 per- cent, lens (male: female 1:0.9) 68.8 percent and site type indefinite (male: female 1:1.8) for 12.7 percent (cataract in combination 63.6 percent, glaucoma in combination in 18.2 per- cent and undecided in 18.2 percent).

Table 11 shows some figures regarding the distribution of blind- ness in various age groups reported from several studies.

Figure 2. Age Group in Decades. ( 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 «

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59 TABLE 11

Age Distribution of Blindness According to Selected Studies

Arnold Madras Franken Sorsby Census (Ludhiana) Our Aggarwal Age Group (England) Department Punjab Findings (1967) 0-20 3.4% 20.6% 20.6% 0.73% 2.96%

21 - 30 1.2% 7.9% 5.6% 2.69% 2.96%

31 - 60 12.2% 45.8% 38.9% 46.56% 62.23%

Above 60 83.0% 25.6% 34.9% 49.99% 31.85%

There are a number of further are at variance with the Ludhiana analyses of blindness figures avail- report from the dry belt of Punjab able from contemporary studies. Most (Franken, 1968) . The distribution of the reports, however, were based pattern reported by Aggarwal (1967) similar to our observa- on hospital studies or camps , and is somewhat being biased cannot be taken for com- tions, differences are mainly in parison. the 2nd and 5th decades. The figures are compared in Table 12. Taken in terms of group popula- tion in each age group our figures

TABLE 12

Comparison of Distribution of Blindness Reported in Three Indian Studies In Percentage of Total Group Population in Respective Age Groups

Age Group Franken Our Findings Aggarwal 1967

1st decade 0.679% 0.04% 0.044%

2nd decade 0.911% 0.03% 0.220%

3rd decade 0.765% 0.64% 0.420%

4th decade 1.094% 2.13% 1.750%

5th decade 2.971% 6.68% 3.72%

6th decade 7.162% 14.13% 18.380%

Beyond 6th 11.815% 29.53% 27.740%

Total Blind 2.022% 3.2% 2.24%

60 —1

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61 .

Blindness by Site and block they were 2 percent and 3.9 per- Ty pe of Affection cent (5.9 percent total) (Table 14). (Table 13 and Fig. 3) In North Carolina (U.S.A.) glaucoma- tous blindness is reported in 15.2 The lenticular affections ranked percent, while McDonald (1965) put it first at 64.2 percent. Then in order at 23 percent in Canada (glaucoma of frequency were corneal diseases and myopia combined) . In Poland 21.5 percent, site type indefinite Rostkowski reported this as 12.1 per- (90.4 percent being multiple affec- cent. Bagchi reported glaucoma as tions) 10 percent, eyeball diseases 4.6 percent, Shukla and Vijay (1965) (glaucoma, myopia, and phthisi bulbi as 14 percent, Venkataswamy (1967) as 3.1 percent, optic atrophy 0.7 per- 2 5 to 2 8 percent. Our figures are cent and macular degeneration in 3.2 percent for glaucomatous blind- 0.3 percent (Table 14). ness. The common flaw in most studies is the fact that digital tension is Franken and Mehta reported lens taken as criteria and early glaucoma as responsible for blindness in is missed. The present study was 38.82 percent. This author reported done in part by digital tonometry and that cornea constituted 37.8 percent, in part routine tonometry was done be- eyeball in general 17.01 percent, yond 30 years of aae . The figures retina 3.05 percent, optic nerve for various countries are given in 1.01 percent and site type indefinite Table 15. 2.31 percent, of the total blind en- countered. Leukoma is reported as Table 16 gives a comparison be- responsible for 17.1 percent of blind- tween the data obtained by Franken ness in Poland (Rostkowski, 1965). and by the present study with regard to other diseases. It is evident While glaucoma as a cause of that the whole pattern of disease is blindness is reported as 11.68 per- different in this area. Though cent by Franken and Mehta for the dry ophthalmia and trachoma have con- belt of Punjab, in our series it was tributed considerably towards blind- 1.2 percent as such and 2.0 percent ness in the dry belt, atrophic globe combination (3.2 percent total). In is not reported. In our own series, Raipur Rani block these figures were atrophic globe takes a considerable 0.5 percent (total), while in Kharar toll. Myopic blindness is 0.3 per- cent in our series, while it is 5.33 percent as reported from the dry belt of Punjab.

RETINA 0.2% OPTIC ATROPHY ETIOLOGICAL FACTORS 0.7% IN BLINDNESS

Etiologically , infectious dis- eases constituted 24.5 percent, in- juries and poisonings 1.2 percent, diseases not classified elsewhere (senile degeneration) 64.0 percent. Prenatal influence was 0.8 percent. Indefinite etiology (including mul- tiple affections) was 9.3 percent. Corresponding figures reported from dry belt are 2 5.62 percent due to infections (corneal ulcer 4.57 per- cent), injuries and poisonings, 7.1 percent, prenatal influence 1.52 per- cent, indefinite etiology 2.31 per- cent and unknown to science 54.82 percent (Franken and Mehta, 1968)

Figure 3. Causes of Blindness by Site and Type

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63 TABLE 15

Percentage of Glaucoma, Blindness

Country Percent 1. Algeria 6.0

2. Australia - Melbourne 20.5 Queensland 9.0 Tasmania 12.4

3. Brazil 0.68

4. Canada 11.7

5. Ceylon 4.94 6. China - a. Cing- 1923 6.8 b. Chang - 1930 8.9

7. Egypt 10.0

8. England and Wales 13.0 9. Finland 22.5 10. Germany 15.1 11. Greece 16.0 12. Hungary 8.3 13. India 8.3 a. Negaw (1937) 9.0 b. Bagchi (1934-36) 4.6 c. Shukla (1965) 14.00 d. Aggarwal (1967) 16.3 e. Ours (Survey) 3.5 f. Ours (Hospital, 35,000 patients) 10.7 14. Italy 11.0 15. Japan 9.0 16. Netherlands 12.9 17. Nigeria 10.00 18. Philippine Islands 12.1 19. Poland 12.6 Rostkowski - 1965 12.1 20. Rumania 2.69 21. Scotland 8.1 22. South Africa 3.36 23. Sweden 5.5 24. Switzerland 14.63 25. Tunisia 4.5 26. Uganda 2.3 27. U.S.A. 11.7 28. U.S.S.R. 11.7 a. Golwin (1928) 19.2 b. Savaitov (1932) 21.8

Derived from SORSBY (1950) An International Survey

64 _

TABLE 16

Comparison with Franken Study

Franken Ours 1968 (percent) (percent)

Eyeball in general Glaucoma 11.68 1.2 Myopia 5.33 0.3 Atrophic Globe 1.7

Cornea Ophthalmia 4.06 Trachoma 13.19 1.7 Others 20.55 19.8

Lens Unoperated 38.82 60.5 Operated 3.4 Dislocated 0.3 Retina Tumor 0.25 Retinopathy 2.29 Macular Degeneration 0.3

Optic Atrophy 1.01 0.7

Site Type Indefinite Cataract in Combination 3.7 Glaucoma in Combination 5.3 Undetermined and not specified 2.31 1.0

Thus, infections, injuries, and keratomalacia. This problem, hov;- prenatal influence appeared in great- ever, is not encountered in Northern er proportion in the dry belt. We India. observed syphilitic infection in 0.2 percent, rubella 0.2 percent, Sharma and Prasad (1962) re- trachoma 12.7 percent, and unidenti- ported cataract as a cause of blind- fied infections causing corneal opa- ness in 36 percent , active trachoma cities following corneal ulceration in 20.64 percent, mucopurulent oph- 8.5 percent. thalmia 16.76 percent and smallpox 13.97 percent. These workers, hov:- Smallpox has been reported to ever, report blindness in one eye and cause blindness to 8.37 percent in in both eyes at the same tine. the dry belt (Franken and Mehta) . Our series reveal it to be a contribut- Ghosh et al. (1969) found preva- ing factor of 2.5 percent only. In lence of blindness to be 2.5 percent Raipur Rani Block, this figure was (including unilateral blindness). By 1 percent as compared to 3.8 percent etiology, cataract has been labeled in Kharar Block. as maximum (0.08 percent) . Franken reports it as 0.76 percent, while our In South India, McLaren (1963) figures were 2.1 percent. This is cited xerophthalmia as the most com- taken in terms of total population mon cause of blindness. A survey in examined. Madurai by Venkataswamy (1967) showed 10 percent of blindness was due to Chatterji and Franken (1968) evaluating blindness in Himalayan

65 . . ..

INJURIES .POISONING 1.2% assumed senile changes, and 16 to pre- PRENATAL INFLUENCE natal influence.

Corneal Diseases

Blindness in 690 persons per 100,000 can be ascribed to corneal disease. These are due to infectious disease in 674, prenatal influence in 8, and indefinite etiology in 8.

In the infectious group 376 are due to trachoma, 5 6 due to smallpox and unknown infections, and 241 due to unidentified corneal infections causing ulcers and subsequently corneal opacity.

Eyeball, General

In 100,000 of general population 101 have blindness due to glaucoma

and myopia and phthisis bulbi ; 23 have

glaucoma (open-angle) ; and 16 unspeci- Figure 4. Causes of Blindness by fied glaucoma, 8 having myopia and Etiology 54 atrophic globe. In this last group 46 are due to infection and 8 due to injury. Infections include areas, report blindness at 2.71 per- syphilis, trachoma, smallpox, and cent and 70.5 percent of the blind- other nonspecified infections. Eight ness was due to cataract. The later are due to syphilis, 8 to trachoma, figure compares with the Raipur Rani 16 to smallpox, 16 following corneal Block (74.2 percent) reported in this ulcers study

We encountered another unfor- Retina and Optic Pathways tunate cause of blindness, operating in 3.4 percent of the total blind. Thirty-two cases of blindness- It is due to surgical fault included per-100,000 of population belong to

under 411-37 . 18--37 . 19--37 . 08 and this group. Eight having macular 62.21 (in the camps this figure rises degeneration, and 2 4 due to optic to 6-10 percent just because most of atrophy. Of the latter one-third the people who are blind are common are due to meningococcal infection, denominators for all the camps which in one-third it is senile phenomenon, are held within approachable dis- and in one-third it is due to unknown

tance) . Multiple etiological factors causes operated in 3.4 percent of the blind. They were all from Raipur Rani Block. SITE TYPE INDEFINITE

SITE TYPE AND ETIOLOGY (Table 13) In this category 321 per 100,000 fall. Of these 54 would have infec- tive processes where corneal opacity Cataract and cataract were in combination, 23 of these opacities being due to Projecting the findings to the trachoma, 23 due to smallpox, and 8 rate-per-100 ,000 persons in the gen- due to unidentified infections. eral population 2,056 persons would be blind because of lenticular changes, Thirty-two fall in the group of In this 8 cases are due to rubella, diseases not classified elsewhere 23 due to faulty surgery, 8 due to (16 being senile and 16 presumed injury, 1977 due to senility, 24 senile). Etiology is indefinite in 237.

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01 en a c o T3 •o oi c s- c s c a; c blind c percentage a 0) 3 3 CJ o a) s- O 3 u c^ "rt "a ^ —, tal o o "* ~ d !h o o. a o u o nj o u o c a '3 X 2; o f-i 2: O H O ZO hi t»: Pi H m

67 , .

Among the total 321 in this percent complete blindness. It is group of site-type indefinite, 16 are thus 6.4 percent of the blind who are , "glaucoma in comijination " 46 "glau- totally blind (Table 18) coma and cataract," 227 "cataract in combination," and in 32 site-type This gives a rate of absolute could not be established. blindness of 204-per-lOO ,000 of population. Of these 119 are male and 85 female. In the entire range RESIDUAL VISION of impairment classified as blind, these proportions are 1717 females Out of the total of cases of to 1483 males-per-100,000. The blindness encountered, 24.7 percent projected age distribution of abso- had 6/60 vision, 12 percent had vi- lute blindness-per-100 ,000 was 8 in sion of 5/60 to 4/60, 19.4 percent the first decade, 24 in the third had acuity of 3/60 to 2/60 and 30.4 decade, 16 in the fourth, 24 in the percent had 1/60 or hand-movement fifth, 54 in the sixth, 16 in the vision. Among the rest 7.1 percent seventh, and 62 cases in the over had only light perception, and 6.4 70 group.

TABLE 18

Visual Acuity (Bilateral Blind)

Total 6/60 5/60- 3/60- 1/60- PL-PR Blind- Total Total 4/60 2/60 HM ness Age group M F M F M M F M F M F M F

0-10 - 2 2 0.500

11-20 - 1 - - 1 1 0.300

21-30 - 2 2 12 1 6 5 11 2.700

31-40 4 9 1 1 6-4 6 22 28 6.900

41-50 9 20 3 5 9 4 7 23 42 65 15.900

51-60 11 14 3 9 14 15 15 43 56 99 24.310

61-70 17 8 11 6 21 26 62 54 116 28.400

Above 70 8 1 7 7 13 15 47 39 86 21.000

Total 49 52 26 23 35 44 56 68 12 17 11 15 189 219 408

Total for both sexes all ages 101 49 79 12 4 29 26

Percent- age 2 4.7 12.0 19.4 30.4 7.1 6.4 46.3 53.7 100.000

68 .

in BLINDNESS AND SEX (Table 19) involvement occurred only once a male (0.015 percent). Optic atrophy is 0.029 percent in males It has been mentioned previ- and 0.016 percent in females, and ously that significantly more blind- is statistically insignificant ness was found among females (p > 0.05). Site type indefinite (p < 0,01) is 0.269 percent in the males and 0.379 percent in the females, and Taken by site and type, the in- is statistically insignificant

> . volvement of the eyeball in general (p 0.05) , (Table 19) Lens is 0.119 percent in males and 0.082 involvement, therefore, is the percent in females, and is statis- only significant factor contribut- tically insignificant (p > 0.05). ing towards higher incidence in Involvement of the lens is 1.779 per- females. cent in males and 2.361 percent in females. This difference is highly significant (p < 0.05). Retinal

TABLE 19

Blindness by Site and Type in Male and Female Population

Total Males : 6687 Total Females: 6056

Percentage Percentage in Male in Female Male Population Female Population Remarks

Eyeball in general 8 0.119 5 0.082 (P > 0.05)

Cornea- sclera 41 0.613 47 0.776 (P > 0.05)

Lens 119 1.779 143 2.361 (P > 0.05) - Retina 1 0.015 - -

Optic nerve 2 0.029 1 0.016 (? > 0.05)

Site-type indefinite 18 0.269 23 0.379 ( 0.05)

189 2.826 219 3.616

69 .

Table 20 shows the distribution UNILATERAL BLINDNESS by etiology. Infectious diseases are 0.747 percent in the males and 0.858 Blindness (visual acuity of 6/60 percent in the females, and is sta- or less) in one eye only was found in tistically insignificant (p > 0.05). 3.272 percent of the total population. Injuries 0.029 percent in males, and This is comparable to bilateral blind- 0.049 percent in females are insig- ness for which the figure was 3.2 per- nificant (p > 0.05). Diseases not cent. From the point of view of dis- classified elsewhere (including tribution by age group 0.247 percent senile degeneration indicated by are unilaterally blind in the first diagnosis) are 1.749 percent in males decade. For subsequent decades the and 2.361 percent in females. This figures are 0.793 percent, 2.584 per- difference is highly significant cent, 7.613 percent, 11.078 percent, (p < 0.01). Prenatal influence could 16.964 percent and 22.457 percent, be observed only in males in 0.044 showing a progressive rise right from percent. "Etiology indefinite or the 1st decade, (Table 21). not reported" did not show a signifi- cant difference between males and The findings on unilateral females blindness translated into rate-of- blindness figures per 100,000 of popu- lation are shown in Tables 22, 23, 24, 2 5 and 26.

TABLE 2

Bilateral Blind by Etiology in Male and Female Population

6.687 6.056 Etiological diseases Male Percentaae Female Percentaae Remarks

Infections 50 0.747 52 0.858 Difference insig- nificant (p > 0.05)

Injuries 2 0.029 0.049 Difference insig- nificant (p > 0.05) Diseases not classi- fied elsewhere 117 1.749 143 2.361 Difference . significant (p < 0.01) Prenatal influence not classified elsewhere 3 0.044 Etiology indefinite or not reported 17 0.254 21 0.346 Difference insig- nificant (p > 0.05)

Total 189 2. 826 219 3.614 Difference significant (p < 0.01)

70 .

TABLE 21

Visual Acuity in Cases of Unilateral Blindness

Total- % In % In % In 6/60 5/60- 3/60- 1/60- PL- ly total group total Age 4/60 2/60 HM PR blind Total Grand popu- popu- one eye Group MFMFMFMFMFMF M F Total lation lation blind

0-10 - 1 15 1 7 4 11 0.086 0.247 2.6

11-20 1 - 2 15 5 10 13 23 0.180 0.793 5.5

21-30 4 6 3 18 8 23 22 45 0.354 2.584 10.8

31-40 2 10 5 5 6 9 23 38 61 0.478 4.642 14.6

41-50 8 4 7 2 10 17 41 33 74 0.581 7.613 17.7

51-60 6 9 3 5 15 12 37 39 76 0.597 11.078 18.2

61-70 5 5 3 11 7 5 16 34 40 74 0.581 16.964 17.7

Over 70 14 10 7 33 20 53 0.415 22.457 12.9

Total 29 35 26 26 23 18 74 69 26 35 30 26 208 209 417 3.272

Male and Female Total 64 52 41 143 61 56

Percent- age out of 417 15.4 12.5 9.8 34.3 14.6 13.4

In the first decade, aged to In the second decade, out of 10 years in a general population of 180 persons having unilateral blind- 100,000, the number of unilaterally ness, 32 have phthisis bulbi: 8 due blind cases is 86. Among these, gen- to smallpox, 16 following unidenti- eral eyeball involvement is seen in fied corneal infections, and the 16: 8 have multiple congenital anoma- other 8 due to unspecified causes. lies and 8 phthisis bulbi following In 118 cases blindness is due to smallpox (Table 22). Cornea involve- corneal opacities: 40 due to small-

ment accounts for 30 cases : 16 have pox, 64 due to corneal ulceration, corneal opacities due to trachoma, and of the remaining 14 cases 7 are 7 have corneal involvement due to due to nutritional deficiency and corneal ulcer, and 7 have corneal 7 due to chemical burns. Lenticular opacities which are unspecified (Ta- opacities account for 23 cases. Of

ble 23) . Lens is involved in 16, all these 15 are due to injury, and 8 being traumatic in nature (Table 24) due to congenital cataract. The Eight have congenital persistent hy- remaining 7 cases fall into the un- perplastic vitreous (Table 25). Eight specified group. have anisometropic amblyopia, and 8 have cataract in combination with opa- In the 3rd decade the extrapo- cities of cornea and/or glaucoma, etc. lated figure for unilateral blindness

(Table 26) . is 354. Of this, 40 are cases of

71 TABLE 22

Unilateral Blindness Per-100 ,000-Population Eyeball in General

0- 11- 21- 31- 41- 51- 61- Above 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 70 M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F Total Glaucoma Open angle 111-91.00 8 8 8 24 Glaucoma Surgical or medical procedure 111-37.19 7 7 Glaucoma Type not specified 113-91.00 8 8 16 Glaucoma Etiology not estab- lished or reported 113-99.00 7 7 Myopia 140-91.00 8 8 16 Etiology not estab- lished or reported Multiple congenital malformation. Heredity probable 147-80.20 8 8 Multiple congenital ocular malformation, congenital origin not elsewhere classified 147-89.00 8 8 Atrophic globe smallpox 155-28.20 8 8 8 8 14 16 62 Atrophic globe unidentified infec- tions (corneal ulcer) 155-29.20 8 8 8 40 8 8 8 87 Atrophic globe recreational activity- blow or fall 155-34.08 8 8 16 Atrophic globe foreign body in eye 155-34.09 8 8 16 Atrophic globe unidentified infec- tious diseases, pre- natal 155-29.10 8 8 Atrophic globe occupational 155-31.09 8 8 16 Atrophic globe violent act 155-38.09 8 8 Atrophic globe causal activity not specified 155-49.19 8 8 Atrophic globe etiology not established 155-99.00 7 7 14 Other causes 190-29.20 7 7

Total - 16 8 24 16 24 48 54 48 - 8 30 23 7 7 15 328

Total Male and Female 16 32 40 102 48 38 30 22 328

72 ,

TABLE 2 3

Unilateral Blindness Per-100 ,000-Population Cornea Sclera

0- 11- 21- 31- 41- 51- 61- Pijove 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 70 M F M F M F M F M F M F M F .M F Total Kerato-conjunctivitis trachoma 310-22.00 8 14 8 30 Corneal opacity -

pannus tra- . choma 315-22.00 8 8 16 Corneal opacity - pannus, speci- fied disease not classified elsewhere 315-78.00 8 8 Corneal opacity - smallpox 318-28.00 16 8 15 16 14 8 16 8 101 Corneal opacity - unidentified in- fection (corneal ulcer) 318-29.00 7 24 16 48 8 32 40 36 23 16 8 22 8 288 Other corneal dystrophy (xerophthalmia nutritional deficiency) 340-62.30 7 7 Other corneal dystrophy. Etiology not established 340-99.00 8 8 Other causes of cornea-sclera (corneal opa- city, tra- choma) 390-22.00 8 8 16 8 8 48 Corneal opacity (smallpox) 390-28.20 16 14 8 8 8 8 8 71 Corneal opacity

(corneal ulcer) 390-29 . 00 8 16 16 32 8 8 24 16 31 16 8 8 191 Corneal opacity (chemical cause, injury) 390-48.01 7 7 Corneal opacity (causal agent not specified) 390-48.19 8 8 Corneal opacity (causal activity not specified) 390-49 .19 7 7 Corneal opacity (occupational activity, blow, or fall 390-31.09 7 7 8 24 8 7 7 68 Corneal opacity diseases not classified elsewhere 390-78.00 8 8 Corneal opacity etiology not es- tablished or not reported 390-99.00 7 8 8 8 8 39

Total 22 8 48 70 101 93 78 110 84 32 94 40 48 38 15 23 30 118 194 188 116 134 86 38 73 ,

TABLE 24

Unilateral Blindness Per-100 ,000-Population Lens

0- 11- 21- 31- 41- 51- 61- Above 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 70 M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F Total

Senile cataract 411-62.21 8 8 87 124 160 144 185 142 245 180 89 1372

Recreational activity, cataract 48- (blow, or fall) 411-34.08 8 8 8 8 8 8

Congenital cataract 411-89.00 8 8 16

Occupational activity, cataract 8 (blow, or fall) , 411-31.08 8

Operated cata- ract 412-37.00 8 8

Senile cataract 24 operated 412-62.21 16 8 .

Cataract oper- ated, assumed senile degen- eration 412-62.22 8 16 8 32 Congenital cataract operated 412-89.00 8 . 8

Dislocated lens due to occupa- tional activity 420-31.19 7 7

Dislocated lens due to recrea- tional activity not specified 420-34.19 8 8

Dislocated lens due to recrea- tional activity (blow, or fall) 420-34.08 7 7

Dislocated lens etiology not established 420-99.00 16 16

8 8 15 8 16 24 ]6 94 148 176 176 185 150 245 196 89 Total 16 23 40 110 324 361 375 285 1554

74 general eyeball disease: 32 of phthisis myopia in 8, atrophic globe due to bulbi, and 8 of myopic degeneration. smallpox in 22, follov/ing corneal Corneal opacities account for 194 ulcer in 40, and 8 cases of multiple cases, of which 45 are due to small- congenital anomalies. Corneal disease pox, 10 4 due to corneal ulcers, and accounted for 188 cases. Etiological 16 due to trachoma. Of the remaining factors in this are trachoma in 46, 29 cases, 14 are due to occupational smallpox in 38, ulcer in 88, injury activity, and in 15 cases etiology in 8, and 8 cases listed as undiag- could not be established. Lenticular nosed. Of the 110 lens disease cases, opacities total 40 cases (32 unoper- presenile type of cataract account ated and 8 operated). Of these, 32 for 95, and traumatic cataract for are cases of presenile cataract in- 15. Classification in the rem.aining cluding 8 congenital cataract. Eight cases is macular degeneration 7, cata- are due to occupational injury and 8 ract in combination other than glau- due to recreational injury. There coma 16, myopia 8, and amblyopia 47. are 8 cases of macular degeneration and optic atrophy. A remainder of 64 In the 5th decade 581 cases cases in this age group are site-type of unilateral blindness are encount- in general population of indefinite : cataract in combination ered a in 16, and amblyopia in 48 cases. 100,000. Forty-eiqht cases have general eyeball disease, of v;hich The overall blindness rate fig- 4 are due to phthisis bulbi, and ure for the 4th decade is 478 persons 8 to glaucoma. The cause of phthisis blind of one eye. These comprise bulbi is smallpox in 16, ulceration 102 cases of general eyeball involve- in 8, and trauma in 16. In 116 ment, 188 of corneal diseases, and cases , corneal disease accounted 110 lens changes. There are 7 cases for blindness: 76 following corneal of retinal disease, and 71 classed ulceration, trachoma 8, smallpox 16, as site type indefinite. The causal and 16 cases where etioloay could not factors in eyeball diseases were dis- be established. Cataract accounted tributed as follows: glaucoma in 8, for unilateral blindness in 324

TABLE 2 5

Unilateral Blindness Per-100 ,000-Population Uvea, Retina, Optic Pathways and Vitreous

0-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 Above 70 Total MFMFMFMFMFMFMFM F

Uvea 51-99 .00

Retina 660-48.03 690-48.03

Optic pathways 720-21.08 770-99.00

Vitreous 890-89.00 8

75 TABLE 2 6

Unilateral Blindness Per-100 ,000-Population Site-Type Indefinite

Above 0-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 70 M F M F MFMFMFMFMFMF

Amblyopia 915 32 16 39 8 22 8

Myopia 958

Cataract in any other combination 956 16 16 16 24 48 24 14 32 3? Glaucoma and cataract 951 Site-Type indefinite 990

Total 16 32 32 39 32 32 54 16 48 40 22 32 3i

persons. Senile cataract is present 8 phthisis bulbi due to smallpox. in 284, aphakia in 24, traumatic Among 86 corneal diseases, 38 are cataract in 8, and dislocated lens following corneal ulceration; 8 be- in 8 cases. Uveitis is present in cause of trachoma and in 32 cases 7 cases. occupational trauma was responsible. In 8 cases no definite etiology could In the 6th decade the rate of be labeled. In 395 cases the blind- unilateral blindness is 597. In 38 ness was due to lenticular changes. of these there is general eyeball Only 8 of these were operated upon. involvement; in 134 cases corneal Optic atrophy due to trauma accounted involvement; in 361 cataract, and in for 8 cases. Of the remaininq 62 64 cases site type is indefinite. cases, 38 were cataract in combina- General eyeball diseases were due to tion, 16 amblyopia, and 8 glaucoma glaucoma in 8, phthisis in 16 was due in combination. to trauma of various types , and in 14 cases etiology could not be estab- In the over 70 years old group lished. In corneal involvement, 32 the total unilateral blindness rate were due to smallpox, 86 due to figure was 415. In 22 of these corneal ulceration, 8 due to corneal there is general eyeball involve- dystrophy, and in 8 cases etiology ment; of it 8 due to glaucoma, 7 could not be established. Unilateral phthisis bulbi followinq ulceration, blindness due to lenticular changes and in 7 phthisis due to unknown accounted for 361 cases; 16 operated causes. Thirty-eight have corneal and 329 unoperated. In 16 subjects diseases; 8 due to trachoma, ulcera- the lens was dislocated due to un- tion in 16, and injury in 14 cases. known factors. In 64 cases the site In 285 cases blindness is due to type is classified indefinite. Am- cataract, which is unoperated in 269 blyopia is present in 8 of these, and operated in 16 cases. The re- and 56 show cataract in combination. maining 70 in this age aroup fall under site type indefinite where In the 7th decade the figure cataract in combination is present for one eye blindness is 581. There in all the 70 cases. is general eyeball involvement in 30, corneal and scleral involvement in A tabulation of the actual 86, cataract in 395, optic atrophy cases of unilateral blindness found in 8 and, in 62 cases site type is in all age groups of the survey popu- indefinite. In general eyeball in- lation is made in Table 27. It can volvement, 22 were glaucoma cases and be seen that eyeball involvement was

76 was present in 10.07 percent, corneal OVERALL PATTERN OF in 27.83 percent, lens in 47.25 per- THE fiLINDNESS DATA cent, and the remaining 14.84 percent had uveal, optic nerve, retinal in- volvement, and other diseases in com- Bilateral blindness is 69.6 per- binations . cent curable and 30.4 percent incur- able. The incurable to curable ratio TABLE 2 7 is maximum in the 3rd decade and it is equal in the 4th decade. Later it Unilateral Blindness falls progressively in various age groups. The preventability of blind- ness in general is 27.2 percent. The Percent- ratio of unpreventable to preventable Cases age goes on rising v/ith age. This is Eyeball in General solely due to cataract. Of the to- Glaucoma 7 1.68 tal population, 3.2 percent is blind Myopia 2 0.48 (2.826 percent in males and 3.616 per- Phthisis (atrophic) 31 7.43 cent in females). The greater involve- Congenital anomaly 2 0.48 ment in females is highly significant < 0.01). This is because of more 42 10.07 (p curable blindness caused by cataract (prevalence of cataract is also sig- Cornea-Sclera nificantly higher in females) . Len- Corneal Opacity ticular opacities as cause of blind- (smallpox) 22 5.28 ness rank first in the list of site- 14.63 Corneal ulcer 61 type affection and as senile degen- 3.12 Trachoma 13 eration in the etiological section. Injury 13 3.12 Corneal diseases rank second by site Others 7 1.68 type and infectious diseases rank 116 27.83 second by etiology.

Lens Unilateral blindness prevalence Cataract unoperated 182 43.65 is almost the same as bilateral There is Cataract operated 9 2.16 blindness, 3.272 percent. Dislocated and a tendency for it to rise progres- others 6 1.44 sively with age. Regarding causative factors, cataract ranks first; then 197 47.25 in order of importance are corneal opacity, eyeball in general, and Uvea 1 0.23 others. The similarity of general pattern in both unilateral and bi- Retina lateral blindness is strikina. Macular degeneration 0.48

Vitreous Persistent hyperplasia 0.23 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS* Optic atrophy 0.48 The results of a survey con- ducted during two and a half years Site-type indefinite in Raipur Rani Block of Haryana and Cataract and glaucoma 0.48 Kharar Block of Punjab are presented. Cataract in combina- By drawing a simple random sample tion 31 7.43 from one block and a stratified saiTi- Amblyopia 20 4.80 ple from the other, a house-to-house Myopic degeneration 1 0.23 survey was conducted to cover 5 per- Unknown 2 0.48 cent and 8 percent of the population in the two blocks respectively. In 62 14.84

*Editor ' s Note. This section summa- rizes the entire report. Consequently it refers to some data not contained in the portions dealing with blindness which we have reprinted here.

77 . all, 12,743 persons were examined, the unilaterally and bilaterally 52.50 percent being males and 47.50 blind is striking. percent females. The ratio of 1:0.90 so covered was akin to the general The general prevalence rate of population distribution figures of trachoma was 54.86 percent (55.24 per- 1:0.87 as taken from the figures cent in males and 54.45 percent in projected from the 1961 census. females) . Stage I and II was en- countered in 15.15 percent while Of the persons so examined, 84.85 percent had III and IV stage. 77.290 percent had perfectly normal One of the trachoma sequalae, i.e., vision while the rest, 32.8 percent, entropion, trichiasis, xerosis was had vision less than normal in one found in 3.9 7 percent of all the or both eyes. Loss of vision because trachoma patients. Entropion and of refractive errors was 5.132 per- trichiasis were seen in 1.35 percent cent (2.777 percent being myopic while xerosis was seen in 2.34 percent. while 2.354 percent was hypermetrop- ic) . The remainder of the loss could Corneal opacities were seen in be accounted for by various ocular 4.51 percent of the examined popula- diseases tion (3.9 percent males and 5.1 per-

cent females) . Among the causes en- The prevalence of economic countered, trachoma and miscellane- blindness encountered was 3.2 per- ous group ranked first. Next in cent. In the male population it was order of frequency were ulcer, small- 2.86 2 percent and in the female pop- pox, injury, surgery, and dystrophy ulation 3.616 percent. The signifi- in that order. In 24 percent tra- cantly higher prevalence of blindness choma could be labeled as a definite in females is due to the presence of cause. A larger proportion of cases cataract which was more frequent in where no definite cause could be at- females than in males, the prevalence tributed or where trachoma was held of other blinding diseases remaining responsible by implication, are the same. grouped under the miscellaneous heading. By site-type, the involvement of lens was observed in the greatest The prevalence of corneal opa- number and then in order of preva- city in the female population was lence cornea-sclera, site-type in- significantly higher as compared to definite, eyeball in general, optic males. The bilaterality of the pathology, and retinal diseases. corneal opacities is 42.09 percent and the remaining 57.91 percent are

Etiologically , senile changes unilateral. More than one fourth were the causative agents in the (26.26 percent) of the patients hav- greatest number of cases. Infectious ing corneal opacities were economic- diseases were second. The next group ally blind. Thus persons who need in order of frequency was "etiology keratoplasty are 2.57 percent in the indefinite or not reported." Injuries general population. and poisonings and prenatal influence were the next in order. Cataract and aphakia combined were encountered in 10.4 84 percent Curable blindness was 69.69 per- of the general population (males cent and 30.49 percent incurable. The 9.735 percent, females 11.331 per- preventability of blindness in gen- cent). Only aphakia, without cata- eral is 27.29 percent. In the series ract, was encountered in 1.451 per- of curable blindness this preventa- cent of the population (1.445 percent bility is 9.51 percent while in the in males and 1.469 percent in females). incurable blindness series this pre- While aphakia did not show any sta- ventability is 67.74 percent. tistically significant difference

between males and females , the com- Unilateral blindness prevalence bined group showed prevalence signif- is almost the same as bilateral blind- icantly more in the females than in ness: 3.272 percent. In causative the males. The hiqher prevalence was factors , cataract rates first and noticed in the 4th, 5th, and 7th next in order are corneal opacity, decades. 1.687 percent of the total eyeball in general, and others. The population had mature cataract (16.4 similarity of general pattern in both percent having bilateral and :

83.6 percent unilateral cataract). colossal in both states. The need For every 1000 patients with aphakia for creating a rehabilitation and there were 1162 with cataract, who vocational counseling unit in each needed immediate surgery. state with branches in each district, is the paramount need brought out by Glaucoma prevalence in the gen- this survey. This v/ould not only eral population was 0.486 percent help the state to save enormous sums (2.26 4 percent above 40 years, 1.641 now lost due to the lanproductive sta- the blind, but v;ould also percent above 30 years) . Primary tus of glaucoma was 5 8 percent and secondary bring new hope and selfesteem. to glaucoma 42 percent. In all, 45 per- this helpless mass of humanity. It cent of the glaucoma patients have would enable them to gain social ac- reached the stage of absolute glau- ceptability and achieve permanent ad- coma. The prevalence in females was justment in the family and community. significantly higher than in males. If we calculate the loss in Other diseases of the eye have terms of earning capacity at the rate been grouped under headings of infec- of 881 rupees per capita per annum., tion, allergies, congenital, and the total loss in both states is other acquired diseases. Among these 660,9 36,772 rupees per annum. Money were pterygium, pinguecula, and spent for attendants to care for the squint. Phthisis bulbi was encoun- blind (taking the working hours as tered in 0.29 percent of the popula- 8 hours/day) is 165,234,193 rupees. tion, and accounts for 1.2 percent The cost of supportina the blind at of the economic blind. the rate of 30 rupees per month per blind person is 270,007,632 rupees per annum. The gross loss to both states is 8,531,778,597 rupees per CONCLUSIONS annum.

If we project the survey fig- ures to the entire states of Punjab Consider the human misery! and Haryana, using census figures Takinq life expectancy to be 52 for 1971, we obtain the following years , the total period endured by picture the blind in perpetual darkness is over 5,270,638 years (over 5 mil- Total number of blind 759,212 lion) . This period can be made Curable blind 522,335 fruitful and worth living only if Incurable blind 227,877 all government and private agencies look at this problem from the hu- Patients who can be immedi- man angle and take it up on a pri- ately rehabilitated by cataract sur- ority basis. gery are 395,502 and the number of those who need corneal surgery is 602,514. Apart from the urgency of relief work the problem of rehabili- tation of incurable blind is also

79 :: : : : : : : . . :

APPENDIX 1

Serial No. Card No. Date M Sex p- Name Age Occupation 1 Student Address Dependents 2 Field worker S.M.C.W. 3. Office worker Income Literate/illiterate 4. Teacher/engineer Nutrition: Good/Average/Poor 5. Businessman Ve ge t ar i an /Non- vegetarian 6. Housewife

Complaints Past history: whether consulted the Doctor or not at any moment.

Examination R.E. L.E. Examination R.E. L.E.

Vision Palpebral Uncorrected Follicles Corrected 1. Trachomatous Color vision 2. Sprinq catarrh 3. Folliculosis Ref. error Papillae with number Scarring Myopia Hyperopia Fornix Astigmatism Pterygium Presbyopia Nasal Temporal Amblyopia Both Squint Vascular and fleshy Paralytic Thin and avascular Concomitant Diagram for its extent Convergent Xerosis Divergent Bitot's spots Vertical (and the site)

Lids : Trachoma Congenital Active Inflammatory Healed Neoplasm Stage Any other affection Sequalae Lid margin Lac. Sac: Con j unctiva Cornea: Conj unctivitis Ulcer Bulbar Vessels Limbus Opacity Pannus Nebular Progressive Macular Regressive Leucoma Herbert's pits Leucoma adh Scarring Staphyloma

80 APPENDIX 1 (Continued)

Examination R.E. L.E, Exairnination L.E. Etiology of Corneal Opacity: Hypermature type Post ulcer, infection Morgagnian traumatic Calcified capsule Trachoma Shrunken Deep keratitis Swollen ens Dystrophy Aphakia; Intraocular Keratomalacia Pressure Chemicals Normal Iris and Corneal Body: Raised

Iris : Glaucoma Pupil Type: Congenital primary

Lens : narrow angle Normal Open angle Congenital Cataract Secondary Traumatic Cataract Cause Diabetic Cataract Absolute Vitreous Fundus: Senile Cataract Optici disc Presenile Cataract Macula Incipient Cataract Blood vessels Cortical cataract Any other positive Nuclear cataract finding) Color cataract Subluxated lens Eyeball and Extra Ocular Muscles Mature Proptosis Cortical cataract Panophthalmitis Nuclear cataract Phthisis bulbi Color cataract Nystagmus Cranial nerve Palsy peripheral Fields

Summary Right Left Refraction

Normal sighted/partial sighted One eye blind/Both eyes blind Better than 6/60 but field restricted 20° 6/60 in better eye 3/60-6/60 2/60-3/60 Less than 2/60 Light projection Light perception Absolute blindness

Diagnosis Treatment

Refractive error Lids Pterygium Trachoma Squint Corneal opacity Cataract Aphakia Glaucoma Optic atrophy Any other

81 ?

APPENDIX 2

Eye Relief, Rehabilitation and Survey Project Chandigarh (India) Chief Investigator: Dr. I. S. Jain

Department of Ophthalmology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh

OPHTHALMOLOGIST'S REPORT OF EYE EXAMINATION

Card No. O.P.D.No.

Name: first middle last Address: Home No. City or Village Block District

Date of birth or Age: Economic status v. poor/poor/average/good Sex: Male Female Occupation before vision impairment:

I. History a. Probable age at onset of severe vision impairment. ' Right eye Left eye b. Severe ocular infections, injuries, operations, if any, with age at time of occurrence

c. Were patient's parents blood relatives? Is patient's ocular condition believed to have occurred in any blood relative (s)? If so, what relationship (s)

II. Measurements

a. Visual acuity Distant Vision Near Vision with best correction with best correction with ordinary lenses with ordinary lenses

R.E.

L.E.

B.E.

Field of vision

Right eye angle substended by widest Left eye diameter of field of vision

Intraocular Pressure

Tension in mm. : Hg R.E. L.E. (Gm. wgt . Yr. of calibration )

82 :

APPENDIX 2 (Continued)

III. Cause of Blindness or Severe Vision Impairment

a. Present ocular condition (s) responsible for P.E. vision impairment. (If more than one, specify all but underline the one which L.E. probably first caused severe vision im- pairment)

b. Preceding ocular condition; if any which P.E. led to present condition, or the underlined condition, specified in a. L.E.

c. Etiology (underlying cause) of ocular P.E. condition primarily responsible for vision impairment (e.g. specific disease, injury, L.E. poisoning, heredity or other prenatal influence)

d. If etiology is injury or poisoning, indicate circumstances and kind of object or poison involved

e. Has patient had any nonocular disease not specified in c, v/hich could have contributed to the vision impairment? If so, specify

IV. Prognosis and Recommendations

a. Is patient's vision impairment considered to be: Stable-Deteriorating- Capable of improvement-Uncertain

b. What treatment is recommended, if any?

c. Is reexamination advised? If so, after what interval?_

d. Other recommendations

Examining Ophthalmologist

Date of examination

Signature Coding

RE A LE A BE

83 APPENDIX 3

Standard Classification of Causes of Severe Vision Impairment and Blindness 1966 Revision

I. Classification by Site and 670 Other retinal degeneration Type of Affection 690 Other affection of retina

Eyeball in General Optic Nerve, Optic Pathway, 110 Glaucoma. Subdivided: Visual Center, Oculomotor Centers 111 Glaucoma, open angle 710 Optic neuritis, including 112 Glaucoma, closed angle retrobulbar neuritis 113 Glaucoma, type not specified 72 Optic nerve atrophy 115 Hydrophthalmos 725 Coloboma of optic nerve, 120 Microphthalmos congenital

125 Anophthalmos , congenital 730 Other affection of optic nerve 130 Albinism 750 Other affection of optic pathway 140 Myopia or visual center 141 Other refractive error 770 Nystagmus 147 Multiple congenital ocular malformations Vitreous

150 Panopththalmitis , endophthalmitis 810 Vitreous hemorrhage 155 Atrophic globe 890 Other affection of vitreous 190 Other affection of eyeball Site and Type Indefinite Cornea, Sclera or Not Reported 310 Keratoconjunctivitis 915 Amblyopia 311 Interstitial keratitis 950 Multiple affections reported 314 Scleritis without indication of priority 315 Pannus as to cause of severe vision 318 Other keratitis impairment. Subdivided: 330 Keratomalacia °951 Glaucoma and cataract 340 Other corneal dystrophy without mention of retinal 370 Keratoconus affection, any type, with or 390 Other affection of cornea or sclera without other affection °952 Glaucoma and retinal affec- Lens tion, any type, without 410 Cataract mention of cataract, with or 411 Cataract, unoperated without other affection 412 Cataract, operated °953 Cataract and retinal affec- 413 Cataract, no report concerning tion any type, without operation mention of glaucoma, with 420 Dislocated lens or without other affection 490 Other affection of lens °954 Glaucoma, cataract, and retinal affection, any type, Uveal Tract with or without other 510 Uveitis, iritis, iridocyclitis, affection choroiditis °955 Glaucoma in any other 520 Chorioretinitis combination 530 Choroidal degeneration "^956 Cataract in any other 570 Sympathetic ophthalmia combination 575 Absence of iris, congenital °957 Retinal affection, any type, 590 Other affection of iris, ciliary in any other combination body or choroid °958 Myopia, degenerative, in any combination Retina (category added for MRA) 610 Retinitis °979 All other 615 Retinopathy 990 Site and type of affection not 630 Retrolental fibroplasia established on examination or 640 Detachment of retina not reported 650 Retinitis pigmentosa °Do not use for degenerative myopia. 660 Macular degeneration Code 958, instead.

84 :

APPENDIX 3 (Continued)

II. Classification by Etiology Neoplasms 51.00 Retinoblastoma Infectious Diseases 52.00 Melanoma, malignant 11.00 Diphtheria 53.00 Phakomatosis 12.00 Fungus infection 56.00 Neoplasm of pituitary gland 13.00 Gonorrhea or stalk 14.00 Herpes simplex 57.00 Other intracranial neoplasm 14.50 Herpes Zoster 59.00 Other neoplasm 15.00 Measles Diseases or Disorders Not Elsev;here 16.00 Meningococcal infection Classified 17.00 Onchocerciasis 61.00 Anemia or other blood disease 18.00 Rubella 62.10 Diabetes mellitus 19.00 Scarlet fever 62.20 Senile degeneration 20.10 Syphilis, specified as prenatal Subdivided: 20.20 Syphilis, other 62.21 Senile degeneration indicated 21.10 Toxoplasmosis, specified as by reported diagnosis prenatal 62.22 Senile degeneration assumed 21.20 Toxoplasmosis, other from age and other reported data 22.00 Trachoma 62.30 Nutritional deficiency 23.00 Tuberculosis 62.90 Other metabolic or arov^th disorder 24.00 Leprosy 63.00 Renal disease other than com- 28.10 Other identified infectious plication of pregnancy prenatal disease, specified as 64.10 Cerebrovascular condition 28.20 Other identified infectious 64.90 Other disease of the circulatory disease system disease, 29.10 Unidentified infectious 65.10 Multiple sclerosis specified as prenatal 65.20 Other demyelinating disease disease, 29.20 Unidentified infectious 65.90 Other disease of the central other nervous system 66.00 Psychogenic disorder Injuries, Poisonings 67.00 Complication of pregnancy A. Causal activity 68.00 Sarcoidosis 31. Occupational activity 69.00 Noninfectious inf lamip.atory disease 32. Military activity 78.00 Other specified disease or dis- 33. Household activity order not elsewhere classified 34. Recreational activity 35. Transportation, Traffic Prenatal Influence Not 36. Birth process Elsewhere Classified 37. Surgical or medical procedure 80.00 Hereditary origin probable or 38. Act of violence possible. Subdivided: 39. Prenatal event 80.10 Hereditary origin probable or 48. Other causal activity specified possible, occurrence in genetic 49. Causal activity not specified family reported or no specified causal activity 80.20 Hereditary origin probable or B. Causal agent possible, occurrence in genetic .01 Chemical causing burn family not reported .03 Radiation, including radiant heat 89.00 Congenital origin not elsewhere .04 Firearm classified .05 Fireworks Etiology Indefinite or Not Reported .06 Other explosive 91.00 Unknown to science .07 Airgun or slingshot 95.00 Multiple etiologies for cases of .08 Blow or fall multiple affections included in .09 Foreign body in eye site and type categories 950-979. .11 Methyl alcohol Subdivided .12 Lead 95.01 Senile degeneration and diabetes .13 Oxygen mellitus, with or without .14 Quinine other etiology . 15 Other toxic agent 95.02 Senile degeneration and other .18 Other nontoxic agent etiology except diabetes mellitus .19 Causal agent not specified or 95.03 Diabetes mellitus and other eti- no specific causal agent ology except senile degeneration 95.99 All other 99.00 Etiology not established on ex- amination or not reported 85 , , ,

REFERENCES

Aggarwal, L. P. Proaeedings of the Canadian Medical Association Journ- 1st annual conference of the al, 1965, 92, 264-279. National Society for the Preven- McLaren, D. S. tion of Blindness , 1967, p. 77. Malnutrition and the eye. New York/London: Academic Aggarwal, L. P., Dhir, S. P., and Press, 1963, p. 308. Lamba, P. A. Trachoma, eradica- Manual on the use of NSPB standard tion: A pilot study. (Trachoma classification of causes of severe survey in children below 5 years vision impairment and blindness of age.) Journal of All India Part II. New York: National Society Ophthalmologiaal Society, 1966, for the Prevention of Blindness, 196( 14:197. Parsons, J. H. Pathology of the eye. Vol. 3. London: Aodder & Stoughton, Aggarwal, L. P., Malik, S. R. K. , and 1906, p. 929. Madan , M. Orient. Archives of Ophthalmology, 1963, 1:106. Rostkowski, L. Causes of blindness in Poland: Ophthalmology as basis of S. Bagchi , Calcutta Medical Journal, research. Journal of All India Oph- 1934-35, 29:283. thalmologiaal Society, 1965, 13:50. R. Bagchi, S. Calcutta Medical Journal, Sarda, P., Harj , C. , and Kheterpal, 1936, 30:460. R. C. Screening of 1000 cases for incidence of simple glaucoma over age of 35. Chatter jee. A., and Franken , S. Journal of All India Vision survey in Himalayan area. Ophthalmologiaal Society, 1961, 15:222. American Journal of Ophthalmology , July 1968, 113-116. 66:1, Sharma, K. L. and Prasad, B. G. An epidemiological study of blindness Cooper, S. N. Trachoma: A biometeor- in Bani Block of Barkandi District logical approach. Journal of All U.P. India Journal of Medical Re- India Ophthalmologiaal Society, search, 1962, 50:842. 1964, 12:50. Shukla, S. P. Epidemiological survey Cooper, S. N. Editorial. Journal of of incidence of trachoma in the dis- All India Ophthalmologiaal Society trict of Nagpur. Journal of All

1964, 12:91. India Ophthalmologiaal Society , 1966, 14:147. Franken, S. Report on research acti- Shukla, B. R. and Vijay, S. D. Glau- vities carried out during 1967-68. comatous blindness in India. Journal Ludhiana: Christian Medical Col- of All India Ophthalmologiaal So- lege, 1968. ciety , 1965, 13:123.

Franken, S., and Mehta, K. K. Oph- Sorsby, A. The incidence and causes of thalmic morbidity in the dry belt blindness : An international survey. of Punjab and Haryana. Ludhiana: British Journal of Ophthalmology Christian Medical College, 1968. 1950, Monograph Supplement No. 14. Sorsby, A., Benjamin, B., Bavey, J. B., Ghosh, B. N. , Datta, S. P., Gopala Sheridan, M. and Tanner, J. M. Krishnan, B., Lamba, K. , Sood, N.N., Journal of Medical Research Council, and Lamba, P. A. Ophthalmic mor- Special Serial Report No. 293.21. bidity in a semi-urban community. 103.104, 1957. Orient. Archives of Ophthalmology , 1969, 7:16. Ursekar, T. N. Trachoma map of India. Journal of All India Ophthalmologi- Krishnamoorthy , R. Incidence of tra- aal Society, 1955, 2:94. choma among the school children in Madurai City. Journal of All India Venkataswamy , G. Problem of blindness Ophthalmologiaal Society, 1966, in India. Proceedings All India 14:165. Ophthalmologiaal Society, 1966, 34:32. McDonald. Causes of blindness in Venkataswamy, G. and Rajagopalan, A. V. Canada: An analysis of 24,605 cases Etiology of blindness in South India. registered with the Canadian Na- Journal of All India Ophthalmologi- tional Institute for the Blind. aal Society, 1961, 12:77-81. 86 . . .

MOBILITY MAPS FOR THE VISUALLY HANDICAPPED: A STUDY OF LEARNING AND RETENTION OF RAISED SYMBOLS

G. A. James* and J. M. Gill"

Twenty five visually handicapped mobility maps can present information schoolchildren participated in a allowing highly mobile, visually- paired associate learning experiment. handicapped persons, who are also They had to learn the meanings of 14 braille readers, to travel in unkncf/m different tactual symbols to a cri- environments terion of two errorless trials. Re- tention was measured by the savings Listing the useful environmental method, and the results showed a sav- features for orientation and naviga- ings of 40.2 percent. Total percent- tion by the visually handicapped has age error scores showed that some been undertaken in two recent studies symbols were easier to learn than (James, 1972; and James, Armstrong and others; these differences are ex- Campbell, 1973). In the first of plained in terms of symbol discrimin- these studies the problems of repre- ability and information content. A senting environmental information on further experiment showed that the tactual maps were discussed. Two of children could locate and identify these problems will be discussed these symbols in the context of a map. briefly here. No significant differences in the tac- number of correct symbols identified First, empirical studies of and were found between children using a tual symbols of areas, lines, key and those using memory alone. points have indicated that there is a limited varietv of tactually dis- tinctive symbols that can be produced INTRODUCTION within these classes (Nolan and Mor- 1972; Gill, 1972; ris , 1971; James, In many situations a tactual map Gill and James, 1973). Nolan and will provide information to visually- Morris (1971) stated "until an in- handicapped persons more effectively ventory of greater numbers of legible than a verbal map. Many of these symbols is accumulated, the potential situations have yet to be defined. for standardization is limited." However, at a practical level, some These studies, done by the paired teachers have found tactual maps to comparison method, only tested dis- be a viable means of teaching visu- crimination and did not test the pos- ally-handicapped students orientation sible improvements that perceptual and mobility skills, or reinforcing training m.ay have on perform.ance environmental concepts. Tactual maps used for this purpose are commonly Second, mobility maps are gener- known as mobility maps in Britain and ally handmade at a local level, some- travel maps in the United States. times employing volunteer help. Dif- Leonard and Newman (19 70) and Bentzen ferent production methods and differ- lo- (19 71) have shown experimentally that ent m.aterials are used from one cality to another. As yet, no study has been made of the different Duali- ties and forms of symbols that can be made by these different methods. *Blind Mobility Research Unit, Uni- versity of Nottingham. In spite of these two problems, there has been a freauent plea am.ong **Inter-University Institute of En- teachers and the visually-handicapped gineering Control, University of map users for some agreement on the Warwick

87 SYMBOL NUMBER SYMBOL ASSOCIATION t CHURCH

STEPS GOING UP

CROSS-SECTION ROAD WITH BUS STOP .AlA

2 I I I I I I I I I I I RAILWAY

10 ROAD GOING UPHILL

ROAD WITH ZEBRA CROSSING

BUILDING WITH ENTRANCE STEPS GOING DOWN

CROSS-SECTION iit. / \ o CROSSROADS WITH ROUNDABOUT

NORTH EDGE OF THE MAP

• • CROSSROADS WITH TRAFFIC DUAL CARRIAGEWAY • • LIGHTS

14 TOILET FOOTPATH T

Figure 1. Print Outlines of Tactual Symbols Presented to Subjects symbols to be used on mobility maps. Session 1: The Initial Some conventional use of symbols Learning Phase would save the mapmaker from develop- ing his symbols out of trial and er- Fourteen different symbols v;ere ror, but would still give him scope produced using a computer assisted for making improvements; moreover, a production system (Gill, 1972) . Plas- visually-handicapped map user would tic copies were vacuum formed in be able to familiarize himself with Brailon, which is a semirigid calen- some basic symbols and would not be dered vinyl 0.2 mm thick. The relief and of required to learn a new code for of line symbols v;as 1.0 mm, every different map he encountered. point symbols 1.5 mm. Line and point symbols were combined to represent Sighted map readers do not learn some features. Print outlines of the the great variety of symbols found on symbols used are shown in Figure 1. mounted on print maps by a process of common The tactual symbols were sense, but through familiarity with stiff card 150 x 100 mm. Instruc- conventional symbols which often con- tions (see Appendix 1) v/ere presented tain several points of information. to the subjects on a magnetic tape re- The distinctive information properties cording. Subjects received randomly of symbols can facilitate the learn- ordered symbols to a maximum of 10 ing and retention of their meanings. trials so that each symbol could be inspected 10 times. On the v?ords Foulke and Morris (1961) and "next symbol" the subject received Nolan and Morris (1963) used paired a symbol, and had 10 seconds to in- associate learning tasks to assess spect it before the association v;ords the learning and retention of asso- were heard from the tape recorder. ciations between tactual symbols and After examining each symbol and hear- verbal responses. Both studies in- ing its meaning once, students v;ere dicated that associations could be required to give these association easily learned and retained at a words before they were heard from the fairly high level. tape recorder. The criterion for com- pletion of the task was two errorless To extend the approach made by trials, each trial consisting of the these paired associate learning stud- 14 symbols. ies to cover a more practical prob- lem, tactual symbols were chosen from, those in common use to represent dif- Session 2: Releaming Phase ferent environmental features or landmarks used by the visually handi- Twenty-one days after the learn- capped for orientation and navigation. ing phase of the experiment, a further An experiment was designed to dis- session was conducted to assess the cover how easily the chosen symbols recall of symbol associations and could be associated with their mean- "savings" on retention. The pro- ings and how well the associations cedure was identical to the first could be retained in m.emory over a session. period of time. Information was also sought concerning the relative con- fusability of the symbols, and the Session 3: Identifying Symbols principles which determine good legi- on a Tactual Map bility. Finally, it was hypothesized that once symbols and their meanings After a further period of 21 days, had been learned they could be iden- students were assigned to one of two tified on a tactual map without re- matched groups on the basis of their course to a key. recall scores from the previous ses- sion. One group was randomly desig- nated the Key Group (K) and the other

the No Key Group (NK) . Subjects in both groups were given a tactual METHOD pseudomap displaying all the symbols used previously (Figure 2) . Group K were also given two pages of Brailon The total duration of the ex- showing the 14 tactual symbols with periment was 43 days, involving the associations in braille. Group three separate experimental ses- NK was asked to identify the symbols from m.em.or\'. Instruc- sions . on the pseudomap tions for this task are shown in Appendix 2. 89 I .

school by the authors and consisted of reading lists of digits and asking the subject to repeat them correctly NORTH EDGE OF THE MAP in the same order (Woodworth and Schlosberg, 1954, page 696). The mean score was 3.3 digits (range 1.5 to 5.5, SD = 0.97)

RESULTS

The results of the experiment were scored on several dependent vari- DUAL CARRIAGEWAY ables; in addition, correlations were computed to assess the effects of several independent variables (Ta-

ble 1) .

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I— Six children in the learning trials, and one in the relearning, ZEBRA the of _j s CROSSING failed to reach set criterion O = two errorless trials. ROUNOAeOUT TRAFFIC LIGHTS Figure 3 shows curves for the learning and relearning sessions. As some students failed to reach the cri- terion, alternative methods of plot- ting the learning curves were not at- tempted. Only one child was responsi- ble for the error rate from trial 5 to 10 on the relearning curve. Figure 2 . Pseudomap Used for the Evaluation of Syntiols in the The children took a mean of 6.8 3 Context of a Map. trials (SD = 2.1) for the learning phase, and 4.08 trials (SD = 1.8) for relearning; this gives a savings of SUBJECTS

Subjects were 25 visually- handicapped schoolchildren. One sub- ject was unavailable for the second session and 4 were unavailable for the third session. There were eight KEY I LEARNING (SESSION I) girls and 17 boys. Only one child O- O RELEARNING (SESSION 2) relied on some residual vision to aid tactual inspection of the symbols. The sample included a range of ages from junior to secondary level (mean age = 11.5 4 yrs., range 7.41 to 17.66 yrs. , SD = 3.05) .

IQ scores for 21 of the students were obtained from the school (mean IQ = 100, range 75 to 144, SD = 13.91). IQ had been measured by the Williams IQ test for the visually- handicapped (Williams, 1956). The authors would like to point out that although the majority of the IQ scores were obtained within the last two years, one student was tested as long as 10 years ago. One of the items commonly used in the Williams Figure 3. Comparison of test is a digit span of apprehension. Learning Curves This test was administered at the

90 TABLE 1

Statistical Results, Spearman Correlations

Session Spearman's t for significance Significance number Variables Rho of Rho DF and correlation

1 age/no. of trials 0. 21 1.01 22 Ho -

1 age/no, of errors 0.27 1. 31 22 :;o -

2 age/no. of trials 0.18 0.88 22 :io -

2 age/no. of errors 0.22 1.06 22 ::o -

3 age/no. of errors 0. 35 1.65 19 ;;o -

1 IQ/no. of trials 0.14 0.61 19 llo -

1 IQ/no. of errors 0.25 1.16 19 IJo -

2 IQ/no. of trials 0.04 0.20 19 Mo -

2 IQ/no. of errors 0.25 1.16 19 tlo -

3 IQ/no. of errors 0.06 0.26 17 No +

1 STM/no, of trials 0.05 0.27 22 No +

1 STM/no. of errors 0.02 0.12 22 No -

2 STM/no. of trials 0.02 0.13 22 No +

2 STM/no. of errors 0.01 0.07 22 No -

3 STM/no. of errors 0.21 0.97 19 No _

40.2 percent. The percentage error two groups. Since the value of "-' v.^as out of total responses for each sym- 32, which was not equal or less than bol is shown in Fig. 4 and indicates the critical value of 12, the null considerable variability among error hypothesis was supported. There was rates for different symbols. Differ- no significant difference between ences between the percentage errors groups K and 'IK. for the learning and relearning ses- sions are more apparent than sug- gested by the savings score. DISCUSSION Table 2 shows a confusion matrix compiled from data for incorrect re- At its inception, it was hoped sponses given by the subjects. The that this study would throw some scores for the two matched groups who light on the developmental problens had to identify symbols on a pseudo- accompanying the use of tactual naps map are shown in Table 3. in schools for the blind. However, the correlations between various in- The data for this analysis were dependent variables (Table 1) were negatively skewed (-1.75), and al- not significant and no firm conclu- though mean scores are used for sions can be made. With a larger .V descriptive purposes a nonparametric it should be possible to identify test, the Mann-Whitney U Test (Siegel, what Berla' and Nolan (1972) have re- 1956), was computed to test for any cently called the "developmental norm^ significant difference between the for tactual perceptual memory span."

91 PERCENTAGE ERROR

ro o O o o

. .1 BUS STOP _ ^^ RAILWAY w ^^^^^^^

ROAD WITH (^ ZEBRA CROSSING ^\-Vx.,. N..;.^-.'.\V.^

STEPS GOING DOWN

MORTH EDGE OF m THE MAP ^\\\\\\\\\\\\\^ -< DUAL CARRIAGEWAY en ^ Q FOOTPATH ni m t~m > \\\\^^\^^^ > 3) z <7) CHURCH z CD B (D CO

WWWWWWW^^ ^ m m 05 C> STEPS GOING UP „, u> z o z —

ROAD GOING UPHILL :^WWWWWWV^ BUILDING WITH ENTRANCE ^^

CROSSROADS WITH ROUNDABOUT \\^"^^

CROSSROADS WITH TRAFFIC LIGHTS r-'^'-"'-'^':^

TOILET ^ i^^^^^^s^^^^^

Figure 4. Histogram Showing Percentage Error for Each Symbol

92 TABLE 2

Confusion Matrix (Learning and Relearning Trials Combined)

ro

CJ 'ji l-i jj -.^ JZ — ^_^ CP ro rH p -rH rH ^~- -I 3 in XI U OJ •rH H

1 0.2 2.2 0.4 0.2 0.6 0.2 2.0

2 1.8 1.2 3.3 0.8 0.2 3 1.0 2.7 1.8 4 1.2 2.0

5 0.6 1.8 0.2 0.2

6 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.2

7 2.2 2.9 0.2 3.1 8 0.2 1.4 9 0.2 2.0 0.6

10 0.8 3.5 0.2 0.8

11 0.2

12 0.2 0.6 0.8 1.4

13 0.2 0. 8 0.2 0.2 1.2 1.0

14 0.2 0.2 0.2 1.4 0.2 0.2

The lack of significant age/IQ elsewhere. This factor may account correlations with performance over a for the apparent similarity in symbol wide age range may have an explanation learning performance between junior in the particular school system. Chil- and secondary schoolchildren. Usu- dren who have greater academic poten- ally children receive no experience tial usually leave the school at the with tactual maps until the secondary- age of 11 to continue their education school, which suggests that there is

93 .

TABLE 3 4 and 9 (steps) were adaptations of a symbol developed by Wiedel and Groves Mean Correct Scores and Ranges for (1972) and consisted of units of in- the Two Matched Groups for Identify- creasing or decreasing height (see

ing Symbols on a Pseudomap Fig. 1 for side elevations) . These units specified "up" or "down." In contrast to these symbols, similar Group /!/_ Mean Range information was specified in Symbol 10

(road going uphill) , and although this K 10 12.4 9-14 symbol may have been masked by the linear symbols bounding it, the dif- NK 11 10.63 2-14 ferences in the effectiveness of the multi-height versus single-height symbols as indicators of up or down are evident in Figure 4. Subjects considerable unrealized potential in feeling Symbols 4 and 9 (steps) were the junior school if map reading can able to run the pad of the finger contribute significantly to a visu- down or up the symbol, and because ally-handicapped child's education. of its distinctive informational prop- erties often guess that the symbol No previous studies of tactual implied "up" or "down." As a result stimulus memory span have presented of this finding, a multi-height symbol to subjects as many as 14 different will be used in the evaluation of stimulus items. In view of the large mobility maps using gradient (road number of items, a savings score on going up- or downhill) as a naviga- the relearning trials of 40.2 percent tional cue. is very reasonable. This compares with the 52.88 percent found by Foulke Symbols 4, 6, 9, and 12 had par- and Morris (1961) using only six tac- ticularly low percentage error tual patterns and association words (<20 percent) for the learning from the New International Phonetic trials, but on the relearning trials Alphabet. It is important that, in Symbols 2, 4, 6, 9, and 11 had a very this study, the association words low percentage error rate (<5 percent). were more meaningful than the phonet- Using a 10-percent error criterion of ic or nonsense words commonly used in acceptability for the relearning tri- paired-associate learning tasks. als, all symbols with the exception Most of the association features used of Symbol 3 (road with zebra cross- in this study were familiar to the ing) would prove acceptable. Sym- children bols 3 (road with zebra crossing) and 10 (road going uphill) had the high- The differences in discrimina- est percentage error of all the sym- bility and associative value of the bols tested and this can be partly verbal terms are apparent in Fig- explained by reference to Table 2. ure 4. Differences in form, relief, Both symbols were displayed in the and size contribute to making a context of two parallel lines which legible tactual symbol. In addition represented a road. Subjects found symbols can have informational prop- these two symbols difficult to dis- erties which may aid recognition. tinguish. Therefore, it is probable Schiff, Kaufer, and Mosak (1966) that if one symbol was successfully found that a tactual line, sawtooth altered the other would remain more in cross-section, can be used to in- legible. The substitution of a dicate direction since it feels multi-height symbol for number 10 smooth in one direction and rough (gradient) has already been suggested. in the other. The tactual arrow pro- Symbols 2 (railway) and 7 (footpath) vided an "intensity basis" for tactual were relatively highly confused, but perception. Point symbols on visual this was mainly in the initial phase maps commonly specify direction, but of the experiment and perceptual when embossed often seem inadequate training might have been responsible to specify the same information for for the lower percentage of errors the visually handicapped. in the relearning phase.

Stimulated by Schiff 's findings The shortcoming of evaluating on the tactual arrow, the authors uti- tactual symbols in isolation as dis- lized variation in height as a prin- crete stimuli is apparent when at- ciple of symbol construction. Symbols tempts are made to put these symbols

94 .

than re'Perrino straight together in a more complex display. consumina Gestalt psychologists support the to the man after nemorizin'? the idea that in perception the whole is necessary symbols. more than the sum of the distinctive parts. Thomson (1968) summarizes this It is hoped to examine these as "the whole has properties of its problems in a further exneriFent com- own, so that the parts and relation- parina the use o^ memor'/ alone and Vev ships within the whole are largely a alone to locate symbols on a tactual product of the entire configuration." pseudomap, and to use dependent mea- sures of time, errors, and efficiency Table 3 shows that when the tac- to compare both methods. tual symbols were displayed in a pseudomap children were able to ob- Most of the children showed a tain a high level of correct symbol high degree of familiarity v/ith the identifications either with or with- features and landmarks to be associ- out a key. However, instead of having ated with the tactual symbols. Some the symbols presented to them the of the younger children reauired some children had to search the entire simplification of the terms involved; configuration to find a particular for instance, a dual carriagev/ay need- symbol. Observations of the strate- ed to be represented as "tv/o roads." gies adopted by the students confirmed One child began searching the central recent analyses of tactual map reading area of the pseudomap to find the strategies by Nolan and Morris (1971). symbol for "north edge of the map" One child in this experiment noted implying that he did not understand the importance of "full-scale cover- the concept involved. This child, age," but few applied any systematic at least, had attached a verbal label search pattern. One would expect to a symbol without realizing the sig- that children with higher IQ's would nificance of that label. These ob- perform better than children with low servations confirm the necessity for IQ's on this task even without train- development of rudimentary environ- ing. The lack of efficiency in search mental concepts before or as part of strategy used by children to locate a mobility program utilizing tactual symbols on the pseudomap caused some maps. Furthermore, development of of them to give up their haphazard these basic concepts would, seem to be search even when they had a key. a prerequisite of meaningful use of Failure to find symbols was particu- tactual maps in any context (Franks larly evident for children reading and Baird, 19 71; Franks and Nolan, the lower right hand part of the map 1970) which was more isolated than other The majority of children tested parts of the map (see Fig. 2) . Sym- bol 4 (steps) was frequently missed on the pseudomap were able to plan and completely or not detected as being follow a simple route from the zebra distinct from Symbol 7 (footpath). crossing to the entrance of the build- ing (see Fig. 2) , indicating that they Since the data show no signifi- understood the significance and inter- cant differences in correct identifi- relationships of the tactual symbols cation of symbols for the matched they had learned. groups, one using a key and another using memory alone, memorizing a key ACKNOWLEDGMENTS of as many as 14 symbols may be a viable proposition. Constant refer- The authors have carried out this ence to a key presents several prob- work with the financial assistance of the Medical Research Council and the lems : Science Research Council. The authors 1. A key placed on the tactual map would like to thank Dr. J. D. Armstrong itself could be mistaken as part (B.M.R.U.), Prof. J. L. Douce , Dr. M. J. Tobin of the map. (I.U.I.E.C. ) and

(R.C.E. V.H . ) . They would also like to 2. Since two sheets (230 x 260mm) thank the Headmaster and pupils of were required to present the key Lickey Granae School. Thanks are also in this experiment, there is the due to Pauline James who prepared the problem of bulk of material. tape recording.

3. Reading the key and then the map may be significantly more time

95 . )

APPENDIX 1

Instructions for words, you have to beat the tape re- Sessions 1 and 2 corder in giving your answer.

There are 14 different raised Try to remember the meaning of map symbols I wish you to feel. each symbol so that you can give the Each raised symbol means something, right answer before it is given by and you have to try and learn what the tape recorder. these symbols mean. (Repeat instructions and answer

Here is an example of a raised any questions . symbol which means a road (present S with sample card) (1st session only.) You will not be able to give the answer to the I am now going to give you some meaning of the symbols until you have more symbols, but the meanings of the heard them once, so you can guess symbols are recorded on the tape re- what they mean to begin with. corder and you will hear them 10 sec- onds after you feel the raised sym- (After the 1st trial.) You have bols. You have to try and give me now felt all 14 symbols. This time the meaning of the symbol before the try to beat the tape recorder with tape recorder tells you. In other your answers, but remember that the symbols will not be in the same order as before.

96 ..

APPENDIX 2

Instructions for 9. Find the zebra crossing. Session 3 10. Find the dual carriagev/ay 1. Find the north edge of the map. Turn the map so that it is at 11. Find the road going uphill. the top of the page. 12. Find the steps going dov/n 2. Find the building with entrance.

3. Find the railway. 13. Find the crossroads with traffic lights. 4. Find the crossroads with round- about. 14. Find the footpath. 5. Find the steps going up.

6. Find the church. 15. Show how you would get from, the zebra crossing to the 7. Find the toilet. entrance of the building.

8. Find the bus stop.

97 , . . .

REFERENCES

Bentzen, B. L. An orientation and Morris, J. E. & Foulke, E. The learn- travel map for the visually handi- ing and retention of associations capped: Hand production, testing between pairs of tactual and audi- and commercial reproduction. Mas- tory stimuli. Unpublished manu- ter's thesis, Boston College, 1971. script, American Printing House for the Blind, 1960.

Berla' , E. P. & Nolan, C. Y. Tactual maps: A problem analysis. Inter- Nolan, C. Y. & Morris, J. E. Tactual national Council of Educators of symbols for the blind: Final re- Blind Youth, Madrid, 19 72. port. American Printing House for the Blind, 1963, OVR-RD-587.

Foulke , E. & Morris, J. E. The learning and retention of associa- Nolan, C. Y. & Morris, M. E. Improve- tions between tactile stimuli and ment of tactual symbols for blind verbal responses. Unpublished children. Report of Department of manuscript, American Printing House Health, Education, and Welfare. for the Blind, 1961. Project No. 5-0421, 1971.

Franks, F. L. & Baird, R. M. Geogra- Schiff, W. , Kaufer, L. , & Mosak, S. phical concepts and the visually Informative tactile stim.uli in the handicapped. Exceptional Children perception of direction. Per- 1971, 38(4) , 321-4. ceptual and Motor Skills, 1966, 23, (Monogr. Suppl. 7) Franks, F. L. & Nolan, C. Y. Develop- ment of geographical concepts in Siegel, S. Nonparametric statistics blind children. Education of the for the behavioural sciences. Visually Handicapped , 1970, 2, New York: McGraw-Hill, 19 56. 1-8. Thomson, R. History of psychology Gill, J. M. Computer production of Pelican, 1968. tactile diagrams and maps. The Leonard Conference, Cambridge, Wiedel, J. W. & Groves, P. A. Tac- England, 73-77, January 1972. tual mapping: Design, reproduction, reading and interpretation. Uni- Gill, J. M. & James, G. A. A study versity of Maryland, Occasional on the discriminability of tactual Papers in Geography No. 2, 19 72.

point symbols. Research Bulletin , Number 26, June 19 73, 19-34. Williams, M. Williams intelligence test for children with defective James, G. A. Problems in the stand- vision. University of Birmingham, ardisation of design and symbol- England, 1956. isation in tactile route maps for the blind. A/ew Beacon, April R. S. & H. 1972, 56 (660) , 87-91. Woodworth, Schlosberg, Experimental psychology

James, G. A., Armstrong, J. D. , & (Rev. ed.) New York: Holt, Campbell, D. W. Verbal instruc- 1954. tions used by mobility teachers to give navigational directions to their clients. /l/ew Beacon,

May 1973, 56 (672) , 86-91.

Leonard, J. A. & Newman, R. C. Three types of maps for blind travel. Ergonomics , March 1970, 13(2), 165-179.

98 EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND AND CONSIDERATIONS OF LOW VISION AIDS: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE**

Dennis E. Kelleher*

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND AND He stated that there v;as a great de- CONSIDERATIONS OF LOW-VISION AIDS mand for the development of nev/ Icr.-i- vision aids which would increase the The primary goal underlying the application, versatility and accept- rehabilitation of people with low ability of low-vision aids amona vision is to enable them to function children and youth with marked visual in the visually oriented environment impairment. as "normally" as possible. In order to achieve this goal, it is often Sibert also recoanized the need necessary to provide some type of for the research and development of aid which reduces some of the dis- new low-vision aids to assist in the abilities characteristic of the im- rehcibilitation and integration of visually-impaired children into the pairment . sighted community. Rosenbloom. (1963) cited special techniques in low-vision rehabilita- It is recognized that lov7-vision tion and reported specific research aids and magnification of all needs in the area of low- vision aids. kinds is legion. We also kno'.v that these aids should not be considered a panacea for all children with seriously im.paired *Low Vision Program, Yolo County vision. However, we do not know Schools, Woodland, California. for whom or at what age this add- ed assistance in seeina might **The Review of Related Literature was really work. VJe need to tr\' to extracted from the author's Doctoral find out. (Sibert, 1965, p". 73.) dissertation, entitled The Effect of Bioptic , Telesoopi c Spectacles upon Sibert also sugaested the possi- the Self Concept and Achievement of bility of a traveling lov;-vision clin- Low-Vision Students in Itinerant Pro- ic which would work in the schools grams ; the dissertation was submitted for the dissemination of devices and in partial satisfaction of the re- information. She contended that this quirements for the degree of Doctor type of arranaement could be verv of Education in Educational Curricu- conducive to the development of new lum in the Graduate Division of the low-vision aids. University of California, Berkeley, California. The dissertation is The intent of this study was to available in either Xerographic analyze the bioptic, telescopic system copy or microfilm, from. University as a low-vision aid. The auestion of Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, the desira.bility of this type of aid 48106 as publication number must first be established since it 72-23-346. could presumably be eliminated if education of the visuallv impaired

99 . were conducted in an atmosphere The itinerant approach, which where the norm was visual limitation. utilizes a traveling teacher of the Educational planning in residential visually impaired, evolved with the schools for the visually impaired advent of some of the technological uses modes of instruction other than advances of the past thirty years, those dependent upon normal vision. such as better transportation enabling The bioptic telescope or any other greater mobility in less time. The aids for distance viewing would not itinerant approach is used primarily be as essential in this type of segre- in rural and suburban areas where gated educational environment as they there is an insufficient number of would in an integrated teaching ap- visually-impaired students to consti- proach. tute a cooperative class or a resource room. Like the resource room, the In education of the blind and itinerant plan is integrated, but the visually impaired, the four basic service is on a more sporadic basis. organizational patterns which have evolved in the past one and a half This current trend of integrating centuries are the residential school, the visually limited into the regular the cooperative plan, the resource classroom reflects the change in room, and most recently the itinerant philosophy of most educators. It is approach now felt that individuals with low vision can adapt to the sighted com- The residential school, a great munity better if educated in a sighted social advance at the time of its environment. According to Lowenfeld conception 150 years ago, functioned (1971), integration of the visually- on the premise that the blind and limited student into the sighted class- visually impaired could not function room was primarily instigated by par- in the sighted community. It was ents urging educators to enroll their felt that they could be better pre- visually-limited children in "normal" pared to cope with their disability classes instead of "special" classes if they were educated in a special which carried a stigmatizing label. school attended only by those with Changing the name from "sight saving similar limitations. These residen- classes" to "classes for the visually tial schools, though segregated, at- impaired" indicated the change in tempted to undertake the learning attitude among many medical practi- process as seriously as the regular tioners from unnecessarily conserving schools except that all types of sight to utilizing whatever residual special equipment to facilitate vision remained most effectively. learning through the auditory and Other factors which encouraged the tactile senses were utilized. It integration of visually-impaired stu- was not for nearly a century that dents into the regular classroom in- educators began to realize the cluded a realization that visually- "separate but equal" education ap- limited children could learn with proach of the blind was more an il- their normally sighted classmates and lusion than a reality; preparation in benefit from the social interaction, a synthetic setting was not nearly a trend toward equal opportunity edu- as helpful as it could be in a more cation for everyone, and technological realistic situation, (Ashcroft, advances such as improved transporta-

1963) . tion facilities, (Lowenfeld, 1971).

In the cooperative plan, the Emphasis has been placed on the visually-impaired student attends need to avoid sending the child regular school but is enrolled in a to a special school, unless this special class for the visually lim- is strongly indicated. Once a ited. He participates in some acti- child is admitted, the entire vities which do not require good vi- school life is usually spent sion along with sighted children. there, an unnecessary state of affairs in quite a few cases. The resource room enrolls the (Bier, 1970, p. 23.) visually-limited child in the regular classroom. When the student feels the Many studies have been conducted need for special assistance, he goes which have analyzed and compared the to the resource room where there is a four organizational approaches for trained teacher and special equipment educating the visually impaired. Jones to help the student with low vision. stated that most researchers favored

100 the resource and itinerant approaches is inconclusive evidence to support for the following reasons: Murphy's statement.

1. Integrated programs emphasize In a recent comparative study of childrens' abilities and like- the advantages aind disadvantages of nesses to other children rather various educational settings for than the differences as segre- teaching the visually impaired, gated programs. McGuiness concluded that the special school encouraged fev;er social pres- 2. The wealth of resources within sures and less independence for the the regular school program is blind and visually-impaired children made available to these children who attended it. Students in itiner- by including them in most general ant programs were usually expected to school activities. develop greater independence, matur- ity, and ingenuity in solving their 3. The services of specially pre- own problems and a stronger self- pared teachers may be made concept of being "normal." available more easily to these children by including them in It would seem that the integrated most general school activities. educational settings amply fulfill the purpose for which they v/ere 4. Under these plans teachers of established, that of facilitating the visually limited devote full the social integration of visu- time to individualized instruc- ally limited children with their tion of children. sighted peers, promoting social maturity and independence, and 5. The visually-impaired child is enabling them to better cope v/ith educated in a setting more nearly the sighted world in their adult approximating that which he will life. (McGuiness, 1970, p. 45.) encounter in adult life. (Jones, 1963, pp. 35-36.) McGuiness also stated that stu- dents in itinerant programs develop Ashcroft contends that itinerant a stronger self-image due to the and resource approaches permit greater greater number of friendships they flexibility of training than the res- develop with sighted people. idential school. He also states that the partially sighted when educated If it is the intent to train low- in an integrated program become more vision students to function as "nor- proficient in basic skills and are mally" as possible despite their poor consequently able to function with vision, it must be concluded that less assistance than their sheltered itinerant programs which permit great- counterparts in segregated classes. er flexibility than any of the other educational approaches are the m.ost Morin (1960) credited two other likely to achieve this goal. benefits to itinerant approaches as opposed to all others. He suggested Whenever we want to know whether that there was a reduction in costs or not we have achieved a certain goal, for transportation and teacher salary we must evaluate a person according since one teacher was able to serve to some baseline to determine if the a larger number of students than a individual's performance level is teacher who stayed in the classroom. commensurate with a predicted level.

Bertran (1958) asserted that The evaluation process attempts to itinerant programs which were more ascertain what a person might be individualized than a classroom could able to do; what a person is pres- serve children with varying intel- ently doing and why and in what lectual ability more easily. areas an individual is not per- forming. The notion of potential Murphy (1960) expressed the capacity is an illusive concept opinion that the continuance of seg- and a controversial subject in regated educational approaches was psychological and educational lit- due to a reluctance of regular class erature. (Smith, 1969, p. 14.) teachers to accept exceptional chil- dren into their classes. Stephens Points of view range from, belief and Birch (1969) argue that there that one's capacity can never be

101 generally ascertained to the feeling blind and visually impaired- (Bishop, that an individual's capabilities can 1971.) be precisely predicted. Jastak and Jastak feel that "Tests must be used for the pur- their Wide Range Achievement Test is poses which they were intended." well suited for "studying the nature (Delp, 1962, p. 49.) Unfortunately, of reading, spelling and arithmetic there is confusion among profession- ability of the brain injured and als as to the purposes tests serve others with physical disabilities" among "normal" children which are (Jastak and Jastak, 1965, p. 1) be- compounded when one is considering cause it has flexibility allowing exceptional children, (Kirk, 1962, individual administration and avoid- p. 44) . ance of duplication of material.

If any deviation is made from the standard directions or time limits, the results are invalid as far as PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN the reported norms are concerned. PEHABILITATION OF LOW VISION Selection of a test whenever pos- sible that does not have delimit- There is an abundance of litera- ing factors which will of them- ture stating the importance of de- selves affect the results of an veloping positive attitudes toward individual's effort regardless of one's self. Bower, Stewart, Maeger, his mental, physical or sensory Allport, Krathwohl and many others limitations, should be made. When expound upon the im.portance of de- evaluating the achievement level veloping a strong self concept. of exceptional children there- fore, extreme care should be ex- Bishop (1976, p. 133) said of ercised in selecting the instru- the importance of encouraging positive ment to be used. (Johnson, 1967, self attitudes among the visually im- pp. 646-7.) paired:

Shapiro, Hallenbeck, and others He may need encouragement in the assert that there are additional areas of self acceptance and self practical problems of administration expression and may reauire many in addition to psychological factors positive personal contacts who which deserve special attention when offer him security by accepting dealing with the blind and visually him as he is. These will assist impaired. him in developing his own ac- ceptance of himself and his limi- Neff and Weiss have stated tations if social and emotional (1965, p. 789) : security are firmly established and will enhance the chances for We must distinguish between the greater success through positive consequences of congenital impair- adjustment. ment and one that takes place in adult life. In the one case, we Allan (1972, p. 30) wrote, "The are dealing with a set of factors key to a more satisfying and meaning- which may powerfully affect the ful life for an individual with par- development process, so that the tial vision is to develop an aware- individual may grow into a very ness of the interrelationship between different sort of person from himself and the rest of the world." what he otherwise might have been. This sequence of early and later Scott (1969) asserted that the traumata is one that needs to be blind and visually impaired are often kept continuously in mind in our made helpless as a result of failure endeavor to conceptualize the to develop positive self attitudes. psychological aspects of dis- The sighted world misleads them into ability and the evaluation of believing they are greatly handicapped those with impairments. and this negative self-concept mani- fests itself in a personality reflect- Most researchers express the ing a self-fulfilling prophecy of opinion that individualized tests failure. The maximum potential of yield more valid evaluations of the some of these individuals would

102 . ) . probably never be realized unless DEVELOPMENT OF THE their self-concept is positively in- BIOPTIC AND ITS USES fluenced. Telescopic spectacles as an aid Successful rehabilitation and for the visually impaired are not a field telescopic optimal use of a low-vision aid are new concept. Full achieved much popu- due to many factors, but the positive glasses never "the marked re- attitude of the subject is probably larity because of viev/ through the most important. (Kelleher, Mehr striction in the field of (Sloan, 1971, 56.) and Hirsch, 19 71. a telescope." p. The weight of the telescopic systen-is Mehr, Mehr, and Ault used low- made from glass was heavy and the un- many vision discussion groups to study conventional appearance caused mental and physi- why a partially-sighted person who low-vision patients v/earing them. could be helped by a low-vision aid cal discomfort while nev/ light- often chose not to use it. Factors Recently, the advent of encouraged such as duration, and severity of the weight optical plastics visual problem, patient motivation, the development of bioptic, telescopic systems are manu- age, intelligence, and the nature of spectacles. Bioptic Selsi, the visual pathology were all cited factured by Univis, Kollmorgen, Feinbloom. In the as contributing factors in the suc- Keeler, Bier, and cessful rehabilitation of patients opinion of the writer, the Feinbloom. with low vision. Specific implica- bioptic contained the finest optics tions for the rehabilitation of the and its design permitted greatest young child, adolescent, young adult, flexibility so this system v/as used adult, and senior citizen were dis- exclusively for this study. cussed with regard to the varying needs of each group. It was con- Feinbloom described the develop- cluded that patients who were in- ment of his bioptic system in 1958 clined to be successful with low- as follows: vision aids were more flexible, had specially de- a higher self regard and developed The bioptic is a stronger peer group relationships. signed Galilean telescopic-type device with a round ocular lens or round Feinbloom (19 35) discussed some and either a rectangular the psychological problems in adapting objective lens depending upon to low-vision aids and contended that power of the system.. Both the the cosmetic appearance of an aid is ocular and the objective lenses of paramount importance and often de- are compound lenses of a fused termines whether an aid is accepted flint and crown glass combina- or rejected by the patient. tion. This type of system mark- edly reduces the spherical and Freeman (1954) reported that the chromatic aberrations. The place- skill and experience of the examiner, ment of the telescope in the su- the personality and outlook of the perior bioptic position, and its patient, and the type of adjustment limitation in size have made uti- the patient made to his visual im- lization in all tasks a reality. pairment were important factors in The bioptic is produced in three determining how well a patient adapt- powers: 2.2X; 3. OX and 4. OX. ed to the use of a low-vision aid. (Feinbloom, 19 72.)

Faye (1970) asserted that high Though the components of the motivation, intelligence, sufficient- telescope are glass to m.inimize aber- regular lens and the ly strong central acuity, adequate rations , the eye motility, stable pathology of carrier housing of the bioptic are long duration, and optimistic atti- plastic to reduce the weight of the tude were qualities in the low-vision system. The Galilean telescopic de- patient which favored a successful sign was selected instead of the as- prognosis tronomical design because the former provides an erect image. The combina- tion of a concave and convex lens, as found in the Galilean design, produces a shorter length telescope, resulting in less weight and a more conventional appearance

103 . .

Many critics have discouraged blocking the view of the remainder of the use of any type of telescopic the class. aid. The criticisms made by Sloan and For driving a car, riding a bicy- Fonda are valid problems encountered cle or even walking, the restrict- with full field telescopic spectacles ed field of view makes the tele- or hand held telescopic aids, but scope more a hindrance than an they are not descriptive of the bi- asset. The apparent change in optic system where peripheral vision the distance of objects (they can be maintained and either the nor- appear closer rather than larger) mal lens or magnified image can be and the apparent increase of the selected quickly. rate of motion of moving objects are other difficulties. Even for Korb (19 70) has made the only ex- tasks in which the user is not tensive study on the uses of the moving about, i.e. for watching Feinbloom bioptic system to date. The ball games, for the theatre and study deals with operation of motor movies, for TV, for reading from vehicles by patients with low vision.

a blackboard, etc. , telescopes Driving a car is probably one of the are usually accepted only when most visually demanding tasks so if it is impractical to obtain all the bioptic has been used success- of the required magnification by fully by over 100 low-vision patients a suitable decrease in the view- to obtain drivers licenses in over ing distance. (Sloan, 1971, eight states and two provinces of p. 56.) Canada, it certainly must be indica- tive of the flexibility and useful- Fonda (19 70, p. 60) agrees with ness of this system in all tasks. Sloan's statement and continues, "Non- optical magnification is much more Korb se t up the following cri- advantageous than are telescopic spec- teria as pre requisites for his pros- tacles. " pective subj ects. Visual acuity through the telescopic portion was Magnification can be produced in required to be at least 20/40, in three ways. It is defined as stimu- addition to full peripheral fields, lation of a larger area of the retina adequate color recognition and eye than would normally be stimulated by motility, vi sual pathology of long the visual image of an object. Mag- duration, an d a stable eye condition nification produced through optical had to exist before the subject was means such as a telescope is called accepted as a sample member. angular magnification. A second way to achieve magnification is to de- Some of the problems in fitting crease the distance from the eye to and prescribing the bioptics which the object being viewed and is called first had to be surmounted included relative distance magnification. In- exact determination of the pupillary creasing the actual size of the object distance, the angle of the bioptic viewed, called relative size magnifi- and the horizontal placement so that cation is a third means of producing maximum acuity could be achieved. If magnification one angle of gaze was favored or showed a reduction in nystagmus, this Fonda and Sloan both expressed also had to be determined for optimal the opinion that the use of relative use of the bioptic. size and relative distance magnifica- tion or non-optical magnification was Another difficulty was the re- very often superior to angular or op- duction of the vertex distance to tical magnification. Feinbloom and maximize the telescopic field with- many others assert that it is not out placing the bioptic so close that often feasible to use non-optical it irritated the eyelashes or became magnification in many school activi- constantly fogged with tears or per- ties without stigmatizing the low- spiration. This was accomplished by vision student. For example, wearing cutting a hole in the standard oph- a bioptic which is only slightly con- thalmic lens and mounting the tele- spicuous is more desirable because it scopic unit through the regular lens is less stigmatizing than moving to a so that it protruded in back of it. distance of two or three feet from The distance from the eye could be the blackboard of a classroom and slightly manipulated by adjustment of the frames

104 other problems Korb reported Specific training procedures to which were overcome with practice in- promote good defensive driving on the cluded head-hand-and-eye coordination, part of the subject included keeping telescopic parallax, vibration, ref- your eyes moving, looking as far erence within the magnified field and ahead as possible to steer, getting looking around the ring scotoma of the whole picture of what's happening the bioptic. around you, making sure the other guy sees you and if all else fails, leav- Korb stated that the 26 subjects ing yourself an escape. who received licenses out of his ini- tial sample of 67 represented a va- Non-optical aids suggested were riety of eye pathologies and a wide the use of sun visors, v/ide brimmed range of ages. hat, sun glasses, and a dark colored vehicle in exterior and interior to The 26 licensed persons have an help control illumination and reflec- unblemished safety record to date. tion. Utilizing a small, import-sized The total driving time of the 26 vehicle to facilitate handling and a persons utilizing telescopic standard transmission v/hich offered prosthesis involves approximately more positive braking v/as also pro- 32 man years. (Korb, 19 70, p. posed. 625.) It was concluded that the bioptic In the most recent study on the was to be used only as a spotting sys- use of the bioptic for driving, Kelle- tem while driving and never exclusive- her, Mehr, and Hirsch (1971) added ly. The amount of use of the bioptic the prerequisites of high motivation was to vary according to the nature and intelligence to Kerb's criteria of the driving conditions. for use of the bioptic as a driving aid. A useful modification for driv- Since using the bioptic to ing, a prism cap added to the bioptic, drive required highly sophisticated was described. It eliminated the visual performance and since this need for the hand-head-and-eye co- was the only use of this flexible ordination by creating a diplopia device thus far explored, it was whereby the subject could see a mag- hoped that the present study would nified image and an unmagnified image be able to contribute to our knov/ledge simultaneously to judge depth monocu- of the uses of the bioptic, telescopic larly and overcome the problem of system by some low-vision students in telescopic parallax. itinerant programs.

105 ) .

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Mehr, E. B., & Fried, A. Unpublished textbook of ophthalmology . Phila- manuscript on telescopic testing delphia: Saunders, 1969. techniques with low vision patients. Scholl, G. T. The education of chil- University of California, Berkeley, dren with visual impairments. In 1971. W. M. Cruickshank & 0. G. Johnson (Eds.), Education of exceptional Mehir, E. B., Mehr, H. & Ault, C. children and youth. Englewood Cliffs, Psychological aspects of low vision New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 196 7. rehabilitation. American Journal Scott, R. A. The making men. of Optometry and Archives of the of blind ; New York: Russell Sage Foundation, American Academy of Optometry , 1970, 47(8) , 605-12. 1969. Shapiro, B. The Stanford battery of Mendenhall, W. Introduction to prob- tests for blind youths and adults. ability and statistics . Belmont, In L. L. Clark (Ed.), Proceedings of California: Wadsworth Publishing the West Coast Regional Conference Company , 1969 on Research Related to Blind and Se- verely Visually Impaired Children. Morin, A. Waukegan finds advantages New York: American Foundation for in the itinerant teacher plan. the Blind, 1965. Sight Saving Review, 1960, 30, 31-35. Sibert, K. N. Instructional materi- als and procedures for the partially Murphy, A. T. Attitudes of educators seeing. Sight Saving Review, 1960, toward the visually handicapped. 30, 162-65. Siaht Saving Review, 1960, 30, 31-35. Sibert, K. N. Research needs in edu- cation from a teacher's viewpoint. Neff, W. S. & Weiss, S. A. Psycho- In L. L, Clark (Ed.), Proceedings logical aspects of disability. of the West Coast Regional Confer- In B. B. Wolman (Ed.), Handbook ence on Research Related to Blind

of Clinical Psyahology . New York: and Severely Visually Impaired McGraw-Hill, 1965. Children. New York: American Foun- dation for the Blind, 1965.

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Sloan, L. L. Reaommended aids for Stephenson, W. The atudy of behavior the partially sighted. (2nd ed. Q technique and its methodology New York: National Society for Chicago: University of Chicago the Prevention of Blindness, 1971. Press, 1953.

Smith, R. M. Teacher diagnosis of educational difficulties. Colum- Stewart, L. H. & Warnath, C. F. bus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill The counselor and society: k

Publishing Company, 1969. cultural approach . Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965. Stein, H. A. & Slatt, B. J. The oph- thalmic assistant. St. Louis: The Suchman, M. Evaluative research. C. V. Mosby Company, 196 8. New York: Russell Sage Founda- tion, 1967. Stephens, T. M. & Birch, J. W. Merits

of special class, resource and Wright, B. A. Physical disability .

itinerant plans for teaching par- A psychological a.pproach . Nev; tially seeing children. Excep- York: Harper & Row, 1960. tional Children, 1969, 2, 481-84.

109

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DREAMS OF THE VISUALLY HANDICAPPED: TOWARD A NORMATIVE APPROACH

Donald Kirtley* Katherine Cannistraci*

The relation of visual impairment behavior for the blind, at least as to dreaming is a topic which has long representative of this population as interested psychologists, as well as those reported by Hall and Van de curious laymen--both blind and sight- Castle (1966) are for sighted dream- ed. For the most part, research ers . here has focused upon the imaginal ingredients of dreams , comparing Previous empirical v/ork on the various visually-handicapped groups dreams of the blind is perhaps best with one another, the sighted, and, classified in accordance with the occasionally, other disability groups. diverse types of research techniques Notwithstanding the great value of which have been employed: dream analysis for the understanding 1. introspective of personality, relatively few stud- ies have delved deeply into the na- 2 clinical ture of motivational other or char- 3. experimental acterological factors in the dream- life of the sightless. Although 4. questionnaire several important investigations have 5. direct interviewing thrown considerable light on certain developmental aspects of the subject, 6. qualitative content (Heerman, 1838; Jastrow, 1888), their analysis emphasis has typically been upon cog- 7. quantitative content nitive rather than psychodynamic analysis variables. Thus, much is known about the sensory structure of the blind's The vast majority of published dreamlife but little regarding the reports rest upon introspective, bearing of their dreams upon indivi- questionnaire and simple interview- dual attributes of personality; in ing techniques — the latter two often other words, we know a great deal occurring in combination. Both clin- about how the blind dream but almost ical and experimental studies, though nothing of what they dream about or generally more revealing, constitute the manner in whiah this material re- only a handful of the total avail- lates to the actual, waking behavior able publications (Blank, 1958; Von of such persons Schuman, 1959; Berger, et al., 1962; Offenkrantz & Wolpert, 1963). Among The present exploratory study the former, the chief emphasis has addressed itself to the first of the been psychoanalytic, while in the above two questions. It is the ini- latter category, the most reliable tial phase of a much broader investi- findings have been those of psycho- gation, still in progress, which will, physiological investigations utiliz- it is hoped, culminate in the estab- ing the EEG method. The Qualitative lishment of meaningful norms of dream content analysis of recorded dream

reports , involving an extensive series of dreams derived from one or more subjects, is an approach *California State University, Fresno. rarely applied--though occasionally

ill a short dream series is evaluated in dreams with a median lenath of this way. Kirtley and Hall's recent 18. study of 307 dream reports contributed by an adventitiously blinded male is, Five of the subjects were so far as we know, the first in this adventitiously impaired from ages field to use the method of quantita- 9, 12, 16, 18, and 33 — four of tive content analysis (manuscript in whom were totally blind, except preparation) . The scoring system em- for one case of mere light recep- ployed was one earlier developed by tion, while the remaining subject Hall and Van de Castle (1966), which had some useful vision. Two sub- is, to date, the most comprehensive jects were congenitally impaired, system of its l^ind, consisting of 21 one totally, the other partially. empirical and theoretical scales (to The ages of the female subjects be described below) that permit the were 20, 31, 36, 39, and 47; those tabulation of a wide variety of mani- of the males 31 and 53. All sub- fest dream elements and, hence, jects were Caucasian and of the straightforward normative compari- middle class, with the completed sons. Previous comparative research level of formal education varying in this area has usually been highly from high school to the Ph.D. ambiguous because of its chronic One subject was a housewife; three failure to utilize reliable, quanti- were college students; and three fied norms. Indeed, such statistical were professional people, one of , data was not made available to dream the latter being retired at the researchers at large until 1966, when time of the study. Save for their Hall and Van de Castle p\±>lished ex- visual handicap, these individuals tensive normative information on 200 appeared to constitute a psycho- normal male and female adults. In logically normal sample. conjunction with their content analy- sis system, these data should be of The Hall-Van de Castle system, appreciable value to future investi- by means of which these subjects' gators interested in clarifying cer- dream- reports were scored, comprises tain longstanding issues regarding 15 empirical and six theoretical the dreamlife of the blind. scales. The former measure such dream contents as physical settings; The present study was a continua- objects; characters; aggressive, tion of the work of Kirtley and Hall friendly and sexual interactions; and applied the Hall-Van de Castle sensory, motor, mental and verbal system to the dreams of a group of activities; success vs. failure and visually-handicapped people repre- good fortune vs. misfortune; emo- senting all major categories of tions; negative and temporal refer- blindness: totally blind and severely ences; and descriptive dimensions visually impaired (i.e., acuity at or of a physical, perceptual or evalua- less than 20/200 in the better eye tive nature. The theoretical scales after correction) occurring prior to are based upon psychoanalytic theory age five, and totally blind and and, therefore, assume the correct- severely visually impaired with onset ness of certain Freudian hypotheses after age seven. concerning the meaning of dream sym- bols. These scales purport to measure attributes central to the castration METHOD complex (castration anxiety, castra- tion wish, and penis envy), as well Dream diaries kept over a two-to- as other items of importance in four-month period were obtained from psychoanalytic theory (orality and seven visually-handicapped volunteers, regression) . However, in the present five females and two males. Diary in- investigation the Regression Scale structions followed the Hall-Van de was not applied, for no normative Castle format, except that allowance data are as yet available for it. was made for tape or braille report- ing. Altogether, the subjects con- Already, many dream studies have tributed 12 8 written dream reports; demonstrated the general worth of the 82 of these met the Hall-Van de Castle foregoing system. It has been fruit- criterion- length of 50-to-300 words fully employed on the dream reports and, consequently, were the only of literally thousands of culturally, dreams content analyzed. The range physically, and psychologically di- of diary length ran from 10 to 35 verse people: normal adults and

112 ) ; ;

children, psychiatric patients, prim- as a group but also among the various itives, and historical personages subgroups into v/hich these sxjbjects (Bell and Hall, 1971; Hall, 1966; could be divided--males vs. females; Hall and Domhoff, 1968; Hall and Lynd, the totally blind vs. the severely 19 70; Hall and Nordby, 19 72; Hall and visually impaired; and the congeni- Van de Castle, 1966; Offenkrantz and tally vs. the adventitiously impaired. Wolpert, 1968; Van de Castle, 1971. Of course, such a finding v;ill not be at all surprising to professional This study, it would appear, has workers for the blind v;ho have long been the first to utilize the method known that the principle of indivi- of quantitative content analysis (the dual differences applies as much to Hall-Van de Castle scales) on the blind persons as to the seeing. In- dreams of persons visually impaired deed, score variability v/as usually both early and relatively late in so great as to render mean comparisons life--both before and after the Heer- highly artificial. For this reason, mann-Jastrow "critical period" of no customary statistical test of the five to seven years of age. Although significance of mean differences v/as the total number of dreams here employed. A subject's proportion analyzed was much smaller than that score for any given content category examined in the Kirtley-Hall inves- was deemed significantly different tigation (their subject's series be- from the corresponding norm figure ing, by far, the longest ever con- if the deviation exceeded 20 percent tributed by a blind person) , the of the norm proportion. The 20- present sample, deriving from a mixed percent criterion was also used in group of subjects rather than a sin- connection with inter-subject com- was probably gle case, somewhat more parisons . representative of the blind at large. On the other hand, the visually- On the other hand, the results handicapped subjects were similar to which follow must be regarded as sug- their respective sighted, male or gestive only, as our subject sample female norm group on relatively few was much too small to warrant gener- variables. These were as follows: alizations to the total visually- handicapped population or, for that average number of settings per matter, to any major segment thereof. dream; There is in this field a distinct total architectural structures; tendency among researchers to gener- average number of characters per alize from inadequate samples; in- dream; deed, the well known stereotypes of total human characters the blind seem to be almost as char- total single human characters; acteristic of blindness researchers total male characters; as they are of the unenlightened pub- total unfamiliar characters; lic. We, therefore, have chosen to dreamer-involved friendliness stress only those findings which general use of temporal and would seem to have a high probability negative terms. of future replication. In references to the head, the visu- ally handicapped tended to be either RESULTS similar to, or higher than the norms. In oral interests they were also cor- Considering the content analysis parable to the norms or somewhat categories generally, the single, lower. most striking result was a clean dem- onstration of the central role of in- (Note: Tables 1-19, listing subjects' dividual differences in determining and norms ' proportions for each con- the specific nature of dream elements tent classification, appear in the for our subjects. On many variables, Appendix. their scores differed markedly from those of the male and female norm Subjects scored lower than the groups against whom they were com- norms on dream contents, such as: pared; but on most of the same vari- ables, they also differed just as total dreams with no settings; much from one another. This inter- total familiar settings; individual spread was not only pro- total geographical references; nounced among the visually handicapped total settings questionable as to their familiarity or unf amiliaritv;

113 ;; . ; ; . ; ; ;; ; ; ;

building materials; total residential structures; implements dreamer as reciprocating aggressor; objects pertaining to travel; dreamer aggressing on females in streets, paths, sidewalks, rail- general road tracks and the like; dreamer victimized by females and architectural structures involved by unfamiliar characters; with vocational or entertainment dreamer- involved and uninvolved activities friendly interactions entailing characters of uncertain identity; bodily contact between persons, acts of physical aggression; invitations, gift giving and the

dreamer- involved and uninvolved like ; aggression involving two or more witnessed friendliness in other aggressing characters with no characters identifiable instigator; dreamer as befriender of familiar self-aggression in the dreamer or characters other characters; failures for human characters other dreamer as victim of aggression; than the dreamer; dreamer as aggressor against male linearity (e.g., straightness vs. characters in general; curvature of objects)/ dreamer aggressing on unfamiliar males and unfamiliar females; and low temperatures. dreamer aggressing on animals; dreamer as victim of male aggres- The blind were lower or no dif- sion, of animal aggression; ferent from the norms in the fre- dreamer- involved and uninvolved quency of references to: acts of friendliness or love entailing close, longterm re- outdoor settings; lationships, such as marriage or clothing; engagement; known characters dreamer as befriender of animals; excluding immediate family members proportion of aggressive acts to and other relatives; aggression plus friendliness smallness, thinness, shortness,

(in other words, the dreams of lowness , or narrowness of objects. these subjects involved more friendliness than aggression) The visually handicapped were problem-solving cognition or goal- considerably higher than the norm on directed thinking activities in the following: the dreamer or other characters; incidents of good fortune to char- total settings ambiguous as to acters other than the dreamer; whether indoor or outdoor; references to mental or physical unfamiliar settings; stimuli involving strong inten- household articles sity; body parts references to heat or warmth and verbal and covert aggression; to newness or youth; friendly feelings or thoughts; references to both high and low proportion of dreams in which velocity dreamer-involved and uninvolved references to density (to emptiness friendliness occurs or vacancy and to fullness or verbal behavior in the dreamer and crowding) other characters; physical activities occurring with Although most of the visually handi- the dreamer in a stationary posi- capped were also lower in sex dreams, tion or moving in a small area of subsequent data obtained from two of space them, as well as six new blind sub- jects, suggest that this low inci- Subjects were higher but not dence was probably the product of greatly so on: censored reporting, mainly on the part of the female subjects. In this body extremities; connection, the blind man studied by witnessed aggression; Kirtley and Hall was much higher than dreamer as aggressor against fa- the male norm group in all types of miliar males; sexual interaction. For a number of verbal friendliness; additional categories, our subjects dreamer as befriender of unfamiliar were significantly, though not marked- characters ly, lower than the norms: sadness in the dreamer;

114 , s

negative moral and aesthetic eval- and, conseauently , their reduced uations; and need to counter sensory deprivation achromatic color. via stimulation from visual images. C3 and C4 were above the norm in In regard to this last finding, the references to the straightness or two adventitiously totally-blind flatness of objects, as v/ell as in females reported much more general negative moral and aesthetic evalua- visual activity and chromatic color tions, while both C2 ' s v/ere lov/er. images than did the sighted female As to the proportion of dreams v/ith norm group; this result seemed to no temporal reference, neither C2 stem from these subjects' unusually differed from the norm., but both heightened attention to that visual visually-impaired subjects exceeded imagery which yet remained to them it. Likewise, in the number of and not from mere verbalism. A dreams with one teporal reference, norm, similar explanation would seem ap- the C2 ' s were comparable to the propriate for the finding on achro- and C3 and C4 were lov/er. Apparent- matic color. ly a temporal frame of reference is more important to the totally blind The one congenitally totally- than to individuals with some useful blind female (Cl) differed markedly vision. When C3 alone v/as compared in numerous interesting ways from with the two C2's, as well as v/ith the other female subjects (see Ta- C4 , many more differences appeared. bles 1-19). However, the extent to In part, these seemed to reflect which these deviations were ascrib- certain advantages of partial sight able to the congenital nature of her over total blindness, and of visual blindness was not clear. A qualita- impairment after the Heermann-Jastrow tive inspection of dream reports re- critical period over such impairment cently collected from three addition- from birth. al TCF volunteers suggests that the bulk of the differences stemmed from Tables 1 through 19 show that unique characteristics of the sub- sex differences in the blind group ject's personality rather than from were of appreciable importance in the fact of her never having seen. determining the nature of subjects' deviations from the norms. VThen the When the two visually-impaired two males were compared with the five females were compared with the two females, the previous pattern of adventitiously totally-blind females deviations changed in numerous ways.

(C2) , only a few differences emerged. However, the most interesting com- On total indoor settings, the adven- parison was that made between the titiously visually-impaired subject males , C5 (both adventitious totally-

(C3) was comparable to the norm blind siibjects) , and the females, group, while the congenitally visu- C2; all four of whom had lost their ally-impaired female (C4) was only vision after age seven. In addition, somewhat lower; but both C2's were age differences were less likely to considerably higher than the norm. have been a contaminating factor here On total outdoor settings, the visu- since each of these subgroups con- ally-impaired persons did not deviate tained one older and one younger per-

from the norm, whereas both C2 ' s were son--the males having been 31 and 53, significantly lower. For objects as- the females 20 and 47.

sociated with travel, the C2 ' s were

again lower, though C3 was higher and The C2 ' s were much higher in C4 no different from the norm. A references to animals and money than

pattern similar to the latter oc- were the C5 ' s , a direct reversal of curred for references to the body the male and female norm differences. torso, as well as to incidents in On the other hand, the C5 ' s were which the dreamer reciprocates ag- higher than the C2's in references gression. In chromatic color and to the head, another reversal of the

overall visual activities, the C2 ' norm sex difference. Yet with re- were much higher than the sighted spect to dreamer's success, success norm group, with C3 being lower and to others, and dreamer good fortune, C4 no different, suggesting that the subjects' pattern of differences visual phenomena hold less interest was similar to that of the norms.

for the latter than for the C2 ' s The C5 ' s experienced far more dreamer owing to the visually-impaired sub- success and good fortune than did the jects' much fuller visual experience C2's, and far less success

115 . ;

for other characters than did C2's. Factors Related to Some of the foregoing findings were Restricted Mobility easily explainable on the basis of blindness, by its very certain events in the life histories Because limits freedom of of the individuals in question, but nature, profoundly people probably others were not, such as those per- movement, most blind environment taining to animals, money, and suc- do not travel about the do the see- cess. A qualitative examination of nearly so extensively as would explain a the dream diaries suggested that the ing. Such a fact importance of animals to the female number of our results. Compared with subjects arose largely from the fre- the sighted norms, our subjects' lower with quent use of such characters to sym- scores were, on the whole, bolize sex and aggression; the males, respect to total number of outdoor ob- on the other hand, were more inclined settings, geographical regions, travel, thor- to express these impulses openly. The jects associated with findings for money and success ap- oughfares of various types, and public Likewise, peared to indicate appreciable feel- places of entertainment. ings of insecurity and self-doubt in they were relatively high in refer- the females, feelings which were not ences to household articles and to characteristic of the males. numerous kinds of narrowly delimited physical movement--e. g. , standing up, sitting down, combing the hair, brush- DISCUSSION ing the teeth, pacing, walking across a small room, and the like. Thus, in Although the central thrust of dreams, as in waking life, the blind m.obility and the present study consists in a dem- are restricted in their onstration of the overriding import- would appear to spend less time out- ance of individual differences in doors and more time within the home determining dream content for our than do the sighted. Although some subjects, certain findings may, none- seemingly compensatory movement (fly- ing, running, swimming, and so on) theless , have stemmed more from visu- such al handicap than from other variables. was reported by some dream.ers, The results to which we refer are instances tended to be exceptional, grouped below into five broad cate- suggesting that previous investi- gories and concern the impact of gators (Von Schumann, 1959), who visual deficit upon: have stressed such movement in the dreams of the blind, may have as- than 1 mob i 1 i ty signed it greater importance it actually deserves. Moreover, it 2. aggressive behavior; should be pointed out that dream mo- bility in our subjects was not strong- 3. friendly interactions; ly related to degree of vision. Those individuals with some functional sight 4. self-perception; and differed only modestly here from the totally blind, and the one subject 5. perception of the physical en- who showed the highest incidence of vironment. travel, even exceeding the norm, pos- sessed only light reception. This man, a retired health professional, A number of additional findings , those highlighting similarities between the enjoyed traveling and had been over- blind and the sighted, are also of seas a number of times, all facts particular interest in that they sug- from his waking life which were gest a variety of content in the clearly mirrored in the manifest con- dreams of the blind comparable to tent of his dreams. that which has been found in the dreams of the seeing. Our subjects' dreams did not show the paucity of The Effects of Visual Handicap imagination which some researchers upon the Discharge of Aggression (Kimmins, 1937; Singer and Streiner, 1966) have thought characteristic of The dreams of our subjects were the dreams of the blind, especially comparatively low in incidents of individuals blind from early life. physical aggression (murder, assault, This will be discussed later. destruction of property, etc.). Yet

116 when such aggression did occur, it activities in general, our subjects tended to be unusually extreme--the greatly exceeded the sighted. Such dreamer dynamiting hated characters, findings, of course, follow naturally beheading criminals, or observing from the paramount part played by other characters engaged in bloody language (including covert symbolic combat, sometimes involving maiming processes) in the actual lives of and torture. In this connection, sightless people. Visual loss de- Von Schumann has reported that the prives the individual of a major dreams of the blind are characterized channel of communication cind environ- by much violent aggression, a finding mental representation, leaving, as it he attributed to the immense frustra- were, an experiental lacuna v/hich tions experienced by the blind in can be bridged only by means of a everyday life, which arise partly from highly augmented reliance on words the limitations of blindness and and mental images. Earlier research partly from conditions extrinsic to (Berger, olley, and Osv/ald, 1962; it, societal prejudice and discrimina- Von Schumann, 1969) has similarly tion. Our results, however, suggest stressed the special role of thought that, for the blind at large, such and language in the dreams of the massive aggression may be infrequent blind, one comparable to that per- compared with its milder, nonphysical formed by these functions during counterpart. Since Von Schumann's waking. In regard to aggression, it sample consisted primarily of patients may be concluded that language and undergoing psychotherapy (a number of fantasy readily assume priority in whom were newly blinded) , his empha- the blind person's hierarchy of out- sizing reactive dream aggression is lets because the motoric- locomotor not surprising. One would expect modes of expression are less directly such persons to experience the frus- accessible to him. Related to this trations of blindness more acutely point are other findings from the than do psychologically stable indi- present study which suggest that the viduals whose blindness is of long blind may tend to displace or dis- standing; a characteristic of our own guise their aggression much more ex- sample. Thus, we suspect that the tensively than do the seeing. Com- dreams of blind people in general are pared with the norms, our subjects' characterized by low rather than high dreams revealed more negative moral physical aggression. Such a tendency and aesthetic evaluations, more wit- would appear to issue from the obvi- nessed aggression, and less good for- ous fact that visual handicap in real tune to other characters. The fact life does significantly reduce the that the visually handicapped were ease with which effective physical below the norm groups in references aggression can be carried out. In to strong external and internal stim- other words, the general nature of uli perhaps also represents a symbolic dream aggression reflects the pattern extension of the tendency away from. of aggression characteristic of the direct physical aggression. On the individual during waking. On the oth- other hand, we cannot conclude that er hand, the occasional episodes of our subjects were "passive characters" dream violence do apparently serve a in their dreams, since a great deal safety-valve function of releasing of their verbal aggression was reactive aggression cumulatively straightforward and effective. built up during waking. Blindness even in the healthiest individuals Two further results in the ag- invariably entails certain stresses gression category are of particular which would be absent given normal interest. The visually handicapped vision. In our sample, extreme ag- were much lower than the norm.s in gression appears in waking fantasy, mentions of dreamer aggressing though not in overt behavior. Thus, against himself or being victimized it appears that the cathartic role by other characters, suggesting rela- of dreams during sleep is taken over tive freedom from masochistic and by fantasy during the waking hours. paranoid tendencies in the former group. As already stated, our sub- In striking contrast to the jects appeared well adjusted; perhaps scores for physical aggression, those such persons cannot afford traits for aggressive thoughts and verbaliza- such as the above to the same extent tions were much higher in the visu- that the sighted can. Successful ad- ally handicapped than in the norm justment under the stress of blind- groups. Indeed, with respect to verbal ness may demand more energ^' for

117 . —

reality orientation, and hence greater in meeting certain basic life needs pressure to resolve merely intrapsy- which would tend to be heavily thwart- chic problems than would be needed ed without it. Blind people may have for the same level of adaptation, a stronger inclination than the sight- given the reality-testing advantages ed to behave in a friendly manner to- of sight. ward others, since, to some extent, blindness realistically increases Finally, neither quantity nor one's dependence on seeing persons quality of aggressive dream behavior for particular types of assistance was related to amount of useful vision for guiding, reading, driving, in- in our subjects. The partially sight- formation about the environment, and ed manifested the same pattern as did the like. If the blind person is the totally blind. adequately to satisfy such needs, his style of approach to those who can help him (especially when the latter Characteristic Modes of are strangers) must at least be tact- Friendly Interaction ful and agreeable; otherwise he might easily induce an avoidance reaction Our subjects' scores were higher or procure only insufficient assist- in friendly speech and thoughts and ance. In this connection, our sub- lower in friendly acts involving jects, compared with the norm groups, longterm relationships, gift giving, were somewhat lower in acts of be- invitations, and physical contact friending familiar characters (family (handshaking, caressing, and non- members and friends) and somewhat erotic kissing) than were the scores higher in the befriending of unfa- of the norms. Such findings are not miliar characters. Since needs for surprising in view of the general sighted aid from family and friends importance of language and covert, would seem to be relatively assured representational processes in the of satisfaction, the blind person everyday life of the blind person. might naturally have a greater in- That the visually handicapped tended clination to befriend strangers, from to be lower in the more demonstrative whom, the receipt of such help would, types of friendliness, while at the of course, be less predictable. Also same time had as their highest cate- interesting is the fact that, with gory friendly thoughts, suggests that respect to the character classes gen- such persons may find it more diffi- erally, the present subjects were cult to act out their friendly im- more likely to befriend others than pulses than do the seeing. The prob- to be befriended by them., the reverse lem would seem to stem both from of what one would expect had the conditions inherent in blindness friendly interactions of these sub- (restricted mobility and the unavail- jects been essentially passive. ability of certain emotional cues communicated by vision, that is, ges- The pattern of friendly interac- tures and facial expressions) , and tions, described above, was similar from irrational social rejection or for visually-impaired and totally- misunderstanding of the blind. On blind subjects. the other hand, the dreams of some

, subjects showed considerable helping behavior toward other characters, and The Effects of Visual Handicap generally the scores for gift giving, on Self-Perception inviting, and physical friendliness were not strikingly lower than those Blindness or extreme visual de- of the seeing. Similarly, the cate- fect of the kind considered here ap- gory for long-term relationships in- pears to change the self-image in volved the establishment of marriages, certain respects, mainly the body engagements, as well as lasting image. Compared with the norms, our friendships. Most of our subjects, subjects were much higher in refer- unlike the norms, were married and ence to body parts. Blindness makes fairly well settled with a circle of the body more immediate, more promi- regular friends nent in the perceptual field because of the absence of the superior dis- In regard to our subjects' high tance reception afforded by vision. verbal friendliness, one further The incidence of body extremities was source would appear to be the great also somewhat higher in the visually- instrumental value of such behavior handicapped group than in the seeing.

118 perhaps because of the former's spe- tools, weapons and recreational arti- cial concern for mobility and touch cles--though the latter deviation v/as contact. Also, the male subjects were not marked. Similarly, the visually much higher than the male norms in handicapped v/ere either slightly or mentions of the head or parts there- considerably lower in the use of of, but this deviation may only have modifying terms concerned v/ith small arisen from the fact that in both or minute size--thinness , narrov/ness, these cases blindness had been caused shallowness, shortness, or lov/ness; by traumatic injury to the head or fullness and emptiness, crov;ding and neck region. vacancy; fast and slow speed; straight- ness and crookedness, or flatness and In their dreams our subjects were curvature. Of the preceding, those generally below the norms in refer- attributes which pertain to the size, ences to clothing, indicating that the density, and linearity of objects are appeal of clothing is primarily visu- often highly accessible to the sense al. However, female subjects tended of touch, while velocity can easily to be more interested in clothes than be perceived kinesthetically and, to were the blind males, and in this re- some extent, even aurally. However, gard, the interest of the partially with respect to these particular di- sighted was no greater than that of mensions, the present findings indi- the totally blind. Nonetheless, wear- cate that vision may generally produce ing apparel, including jewelry, seems greater phenomenal saliency than any to play a less important role in the of the other sensory modalities, even self-image of the visually handicapped when the latter function cooperatively than in that of the visually norm.al. in some specific object perception. On the other hand, the visually Although the present subjects handicapped did not differ from the differed widely in most pleasant and sighted in the total number o'f modi- painful emotions, they did, neverthe- fiers used in dreams. less, consistently exceed the norms in instances of dreamer sadness. Such Other findings suggest that the a finding, of course, is not surpris- visually handicapped have a stronger ing insofar as visual handicap, even need than the sighted to identify the best adjusted persons must, to environments in terms of their fa- some degree, add to the ordinary com- miliarity or iin familiarity. Our sub- plications of daily living. However, jects had fewer dream, settings ques- we would not label any of our si±)- tionable as to this dimension than jects as "depressive types." As did the norms, for whom the latter is pointed out above, self-aggression a high-frequency category. Neverthe- in their dreams was low, the opposite less, the visually handicapped were of what one would expect to find, were comparatively low in the incidence he to be dealing with pathological of familiar settings and high in that depression. In addition, a qualita- for unfamiliar settings, and, m.ore- tive examination of the diaries did over, exceeded the norms in the num- not reveal the general drabness of ber of settinas ambiguous as to whether content which would tend to charac- indoor or outdoor. terize the dreams of the depressively inclined. In any case, the difference Any one of the following explana- between the visually handicapped and tions could resolve this seeming con-

the seeing in the sadness category was tradiction : not great. 1. In the recognition of physi- cal surroundings, visual cues are The Impact of Visual Deficit on far more important than those from General Perception of the Environment the other senses--that is, the blind are more likely than the seeing, in Normal vision seems to be espe- dreams as in waking experience, to cially important in determining inter- find themselves in unfam.iliar sur- est in certain features of the physi- roundings, and, conversely, less like- cal environment. ly to be in familiar ones. This al- ternative, however, strikes us as Our subjects' dreams were lower improbable, since the majority of than those of the norm groups in ref- blind people we have observed over erences to building materials and the years appeared to spend most of various kinds of implements, including their time in known environments

119 (especially the home and place of that the indoorness or outdoorness employment). Furthermore, the blind of settings is just as often dis- man studied by Kirtley and Hall, criminated by the blind as by the whose diary, as previously mentioned, seeing, but the former, for reasons contained 30 7 dream reports, mani- given above, are less interested fested a pattern opposite to that of (unconsciously less inclined) to re- the present subjects (many more fa- port such characteristics. Of the miliar and many fewer unfamiliar set- three explanations here presented, tings than the male norm group, and we find this last the most cogent. relatively few settings unspecified with regard to their being in or out Other findings lend support to of doors). Which of these patterns the hypothesis of the visually is more typical of the blind is , of handicapped' s heightened need for course, a question that only future environmental clarification. Our content-analysis research can answer, subjects were lower than the norms though we suspect the second type in the number of dreams entirely will be found more often, owing to lacking in physical setting, also

a natural carry-over of known waking lower in references to characters of • environments into dreams. uncertain identity.

2. The results for familiar vs. Regardina characters in the unfamiliar and inside vs. outside "known" category, subjects' scores settings suggest that the blind may tended to be relatively low or else tend to feel substantially alienated were similar to those of the norms. from the external environment. Yet This finding, however, should not be we find this explanation even less interpreted to mean that the visu- plausible than the first. Our sub- ally handicapped were often lower in jects' dreams did not show any trends all types of known characters, for toward isolation from physical ob- the category only covers friends and jects or other people, and feelings accTuaintances . It does not, for ex- of loneliness or depersonalization ample, include immediate family mem- were infrequent, all of which should bers, distant relatives, or prominent have been pronounced had these indi- persons. Low scoring in the "known" viduals, in fact, felt environment- category seems to have stemmed, at ally estranged. least in part, from a high incidence of family members in the dreams of 3. In recording their dreams, the several subjects. Also, it seems sighted norms may have been less care- likely that visually-handicapped peo- ful than our subjects about reporting ple generally would tend to have fev/- degree of setting familiarity, so er friends and acquaintances than do that the results at hand artificially the sighted, owing to the importance exaggerate the true differences for of normal mobility in the widening of this dimension, assuming there are the individual's interpersonal con- any. Since the sighted do not share tacts . the environmental-orientation problem of the blind, they could easily be In conclusion, it appears that less inclined to label dream surround- in proportion as visual handicap shuts ings in terms of familiarity vs. un- one off from the environment, the familiarity; for this variable would normal human need for environmental be of much less consequence to the knowledge concomitantly intensifies, sighted than to the blind in affecting not so much with respect to informa- freedom of movement. Likewise, for tion about the physical dimensions of the orientation of the blind, the lat- particular objects (their size, line- ter type of identification would seem arity and density) , but chiefly to be of much greater importance than through pressures to identify other that concerning indoor vs. outdoor persons and certain broad aspects of location, which elicited as little the physical environment (one's posi- specific labeling from our subjects tion in space relative to surrounding as did degree of familiarity from the objects and their positions in rela- norm groups. Once the blind person tion to one another). In other words, has established whether the dream the dominant need is for environmental situation is known or not, the further Gestalten or cognitive maps, which can step of labeling its indoor or outdoor facilitate mobility, the class of be- nature may seem somewhat trivial and havior we believe most seriously frus- hence tend to be ignored. We suspect trated by visual loss. All things

120 . . being equal, the need for environ- behavioral form, not of specific be- mental awareness would seem most fully havioral content. Contrary to the realizable in individuals with some compensation hypothesis, the continu- functional sight or at least visual ity position holds that dreams do not memory typically embody total reversals of waking tendencies. Drecims are, of course, compensatoiry to some extent The Relation of Visual Handicap in that they frequently fulfill v/ishes to Originality and Variety which cannot adequately be gratified of Dream Content through waking action. Yet in most such cases, conscious daydream.ing From their research on the plays a similar compensatory role, dreams of blind children, Kimmins and there is continuity in this re- (1937) and Singer and Streiner (1966) spect. Thus, the same personality have reported a lack of the original- organization appears to underlie both ity and variety of content which is dream and waking behavior, and the so common in the dreams of seeing visually handicapped cannot escape it children. They regarded early blind- any more than can the seeing. ness, sui generis , as profoundly det- trimental to the development of ima- ginative ability. On the other hand, CONCLUSION four of our subjects had been blind or nearly so since childhood (two It should be pointed out that the from birth, one from age nine, one norm groups employed in this studv from age twelve) , and they, as well consisted entirely of college stu- as the three subjects blinded later, dents from 19 to 25 years of age. were generally comparable to the Therefore, it is likely that many of sighted norms in variables, such as: the deviations here reported resulted average number of settings per dream, from, the age variable rather than total architectural structures, aver- blindness or other factors. Our use age number of characters per dream, of these admittedly imperfect norms total human characters , total single was justifiable on at least tv/o grounds: humans, total males, total unfamiliar to date, no other norms are available; characters, general references to with respect to dream diaries contin- time and average number of descriptive ued over periods of 20 or m.ore years elements per dream. For the above (some from early adulthood to late content categories, our findings life) , the weight of current evidence clearly suggest that the dreams of indicates general consistency in dream these persons were not devoid of va- content notwithstanding the effects of riety. Furthermore, a qualitative aging and changes in environment (Hall comparison of their dream, reports and Nordby, 19 72) with several hundred contributed by sighted college students, did not re- Because of the smallness of the veal any greater novelty of content sample, we have refrained from drawing in the latter. Consequently, we any far-reaching, substantive conclu- strongly suspect that the abovemen- sions from our results, though a number tioned studies, because of major of them would intuitively seem, applic- methodological shortcomings, both able to the blind in general and, substantially exaggerate the damaging hence, highly likely to be reproduced effects of childhood blindness. by future researchers. We believe that the chief value of the present study consisted in its illustration of Theoretical Implications the scientific superiority of quanti- tative content analysis, particularly In general, the present findings the Hall-Van de Castle system, over were congruent with Hall's (1966, other methods previously used in this 19 72) continuity hypothesis: dream field. We hope our work will encour- mentation is continuous with waking age more investigators to adopt a behavior in the sense that dream con- similar approach. If truly repre- cerns and activities tend to be re- sentative normative inform.ation on peated during waking, either explicit- the dreams of blind people is ever ly through action or implicitly by way to be obtained, some form of Quanti- of conscious thoughts, fantasies, at- tative content analysis would appear titudes and preoccupations. The iden- mandatory. tity, however, is one of general

121 TABLE 1

Settings

Male Female Norms C5-H C5-B Norms CI C2-S C2-E C4 C3

Average number of settings per dream 1.29 1.20 1.13 1.31 1.16 1.43 1.47 1.60 1.15

Indoor 0.440 0.333 0.556 0.550 0.591 0.700 0.727 0.406 0.467

Outdoor 0.469 0.500 0.222 0.351 0.136 0.100 0.273 0.344 0.333

Ambiguous 0.072 0.167 0.222 0.086 0.200 0.250 0.133

No setting 0.019 0.011 0.273 0.067

Familiar 0.305 0.083 0.111 0.369 0.182 0.100 0.546 0.250 0.267

Distorted 0.022 0.333 0.058 0.046 0.091 0.094 0.200

Geographical 0.079 0.083 0.035 0.031

Questionable 0.384 0.333 0.222 0.429 0.364 0.300 0.046 0.156 0.200

Unfamiliar 0.190 0.500 0.333 0.099 0.136 0.600 0.318 0.469 0.267

C5-H - Total, Adventitious, Male - Henry

C5-B - Total, Adventitious, Male - Bill

CI - Total, Congenital, Female

C2-S - Total, Adventitious, Female - Sally

C2-E - Total, Adventitious, Female - Ethel

C4 - Congenital, Visually Impaired, Female

C3 - Adventitious, Visually Impaired, Female

122 TABLE 2

Objects

Male Female Norms C5-H C5-B Norms CI C2-S C2-E C4 C3_

Average number of objects per dream 4.8 8.8 6.1 5.3 3.1 4.1 8.0 4.1 9.6

Architecture 0.271 .102 0,.327 0.317 0..345 0..345 0..258 0,,378 0,.160

Residential 0.113 .046 0..122 0.146 0..052 0,.241 0..100 0,.195 0,.088

Vocational 0.048 0..020 0.052 0..207 .033 0,.073 0..088

Entertainment 0.031 0..011 0..041 0.026 0..017 0,.017 0,.024

Institutional 0.012 0.015 0,.052 0,.035 .008 0,.024

Detail 0.063 0..046 0,.122 0.070 0,.017 0,.069 0,.108 0..061 0,.055 Building Materials 0.002 0.001 Miscellaneous 0.002 0.007 .008

Household Articles 0.082 0.125 0.102 0.104 0.155 0.035 0.167 0.085 0.200

Food or Drink 0.018 0.079 0.021 0.017 0.067 0.012 0.056

Implements 0.066 0.061 0.020 0.017 0.103 0.033 0.012 0.008

Tools 0.014 0.003 0.103 0.008 0.008

Weapons 0.301 0.008 0.012

Recreational 0.021 0.061 0.009 0.017 0.025

Travel 0.112 0.261 0.020 0.084 0.035 0.035 0.058 0.037 0.072

Streets 0.067 0.046 0.044 0.025 0.024 0.056

Regions 0.056 0.034 0.184 0.047 0.035 0.035 0.050 0.171 0.064

Nature 0.091 0.102 0.020 0.075 0.104 0.075 0.110 0.048

Body parts 0.102 0.171 0.225 0.118 0.172 0.241 0.092 0.098 0.232 Head 0.033 0.046 0.102 0.061 0.052 0.069 0.058 0.061 0.080 Extremities 0.038 0.102 0.020 0.034 0.086 0.069 0.017 0.012 0.080 Torso 0.014 0.011 0.041 0.012 0.017 0.008 0.012 0.048 Anatomy 0.008 0.020 0.011 0.035 0.008 0.012 0.024 Sex 0.009 0.011 0.041 0.001 0.017 0.069

Clothes 0.057 0.046 0.102 0.017 0.035 0.092 0.024 0.080

Communication 0.039 0.011 0.061 0.042 0.172 0.035 0.033 0.024

Money 0.015 0.007 0.017 0.035 0.017 0.012

123 TABLE 3

Characters

Male Female Norms C5-H C5-B Norms CI C2-S C2-E C4 C3

Average number of characters per dream 2.4 ,7 2.9 2.8 2.5 2.3 2.9 3.2 1.8 Animals 0.060 ,037 0.042 0.021 0.063 0.114 0.063 0.167 Creatures 0.001 0.016 Single animals 0.0 36 0.029 0.021 0.063 0.068 0.047 0.125 Plural animals 0.024 0.037 0.013 0.046 0.016 0.042

Human characters 0.9 39 0.963 1.000 0.958 0.979 0.938 0.886 0.922 0.833 Single human characters 0.687 0.808 0.870 0.719 0.652 0.533 0.692 0.763 0.750 Plural human characters 0.313 0.192 0.130 0.281 0.348 0.467 0.308 0.237 0.250

Male 0.530 0.,30 8 0. 522 0. 372 0.,435 0.,467 0.,385 0.254 0.,400 Female 0.258 0. 500 0. 266 0. 401 0..239 0.,400 0.,333 0.576 0..300 Joint sex 0.131 0.,115 0.,130 0.,133 0,.283 0,.067 0.,205 0.117 0..200 Indefinite 0.081 0.,077 0..087 0.,095 0..044 0..067 0,.077 0.051 0..100

Familiar 0.452 0,.346 0.,783 0.,584 0,.630 0,.200 0..667 0.627 0..600 Unfamiliar 0.548 0..654 0,.217 0.,416 0,.370 0,.800 0,.333 0.373 0..400

Adults 0.973 0,.923 1..000 0,.933 0,.783 0,.667 0,.949 0.915 0.,900 Teenagers 0.006 0..014 0.,087 0,.333 0.034 Children 0.018 0,.077 0,.042 0,,130 0,.051 0.017 0.,050 Babies 0.003 0,.011 0.034 0,.050

Immediate family 0.095 0..192 0,.217 0,.147 0,.283 0,.231 0.170

Relatives 0.023 0,.115 0,.087 0,.045 0,.077 0.119 0,.200 Known 0. 313 .304 0.,36 8 .348 .200 .231 0.288 .400

Prominent 0.016 0,.0 39 .174 0,,010 0,.051 0.034 Occupational 0.171 0,.154 .044 0,.085 .087 .067 .128 0.068 Ethnic 0.020 0,.021 .067 0.051 .100 .250 Strangers 0.232 .423 .130 . 171 .283 .200 .154 0.203 Uncertain 0.119 .077 .044 .133 .200 .051 0.051 .050 Dead, imaginary, and metamorph- oses 0.013 .0 39 .019 .051 0.017

124 TABLE 4

Proportion of Aggressions by Subclass of Aggression

Male Female Norms C5-H C5-B Norms CI C2-S C2-E C4 C3

8 Murder 0.06 0.02 0.20

7 Attack 0.22 0.15 0.06 0.05 0.20

6 Chasing 0.15 0.13 0.06 0.20 0.09

5 Destruction 0.06 0.04 0.20 0.05

4 Threat 0.05 0.04

3 Rejection 0.18 0.25 0.36 0.06 0.40 0.11 0.09 0.40

2 Verbal 0.18 0.50 0.33 0.15 0.25 0.33 0.50 0.20

1 Covert 0.10 0.25 0.67 0.11 0.56 0.56 0.23 0,20 5-8 0.50 0.34 0. 13 0.60 0.18 0.20 1-4 0.50 1.00 1.00 0.66 0.88 0.40 1.00 0.82 0.80

TABLE 5

Summary of Aggressive Encounters

Male Female Norms C5i-H C5-B Norms CI C2-S C2-E C4 C3

Proportion of dreams with aggression 0.47 0. 10 0.50 0.44 0.58 0.43 0.40 0.60 0.23 Reciprocal 0.12 0. 75 0.10 0.06 0.20 0.11 0.09 0.40 Mutual 0.05 0.05 0.18 Self- aggression 0.03 0.01

Dreamer- involved aggression 0.80 1. 00 0.50 0.80 0.75 0.60 1.00 0.91 0.80 Dreamer as aggressor 0.31 1.00 0.45 0.67 0.33 0.78 0.50 0.25 Dreamer as victim 0.48 0. 50 0.50 0.33 0.67 0.22 0.20 .25 Dreamer as reciprocal 0.13 0. 50 0.10 0.10 0.50 Dreamer mutual 0.05 0.04 0.20 Dreamer self 0.04 0.01 Witnessed aggression 0.20 0.50 0.20 0.25 0.40 0.09 0.20

125 TABLE 6

Proportion of Friendly Interactions by Subclasses of Friendliness

Male Female Norms C5-H C5-B Norms CI C2-S C2-E C4 C3

7 Marriage 0.04 0.14 0.08 0.10

6 Physical 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.14 0.10

5 Inviting 0.08 0.14 0.15 0.13 0.14 0.11

4 Helping 0.42 0.29 0.43 0.32 0.25 0.43 0.42 0.33 0,56

3 Gift 0.11 0.10 0.08 0.14 0.11

2 Verbal 0.20 0.14 0.29 0.19 0.33 0.29 0.13 0.24 0.22

1 Covert 0.06 0.43 0.14 0.08 0.25 0.33 0.10

TABLE 7

Summary of Friendly Encounters

Male Female Norms C5-H C5-B Norms CI C2-S C2-E C4 C3

Dream in which friendliness occurs 0.38 0.50 0.75 0.42 0.63 0.57 0.80 0.60 0.54 Reciprocal friendliness 0.02 0.01 0.13 0.05 Mutual friendliness 0.08 0.14 0.07 0.08 0.04 0.11 Self friendliness 0.04 0.05

Dreamer involved friendliness 90 1.00 0.71 0.84 1 00 1.00 0.83 0.95 0.78 Dreamer as befriender 45 0.86 0.80 0.41 0.6363 0.14 0.70 0.30 0.43 Dreamer as befriended .45 0.20 0.46 17 0.86 0.25 0.60 0.57 Dreamer reciprocal .03 0.01 13 0.05 Dreamer mutual .07 0.14 0.04 08 0.05 0.05 Witnessed friendliness .10 0.29 0.16 0.17 0.05 0.22

126 TABLE 8

Sununary of Sexual Interactions

Male Female Norms C5-H C5-B No2rms CI C2-S C2-E C4

Proportion of dreams in which sex occurs 0.116 0.100 0.036 0.15i 0.05 Dreamer- involved 0.93 1.00 0.68 1.00 1.00 Witnessed sex 0.07 0.33 Dreamer with opposite sex familiar 0.32 0.77 1.00 Dreamer with opposite sex unfamiliar 0.54 1.00 0.23 1.00

TABLE 9

Proportion of Activities in Which the Dreamer is Involved

Male Female Norms C5-H C5-B Norms CI C2-S C2-E C4 C3

Proportion of all activities in which dreamer 0,.79 3 is involved ,.528 0.,716 0..550 0.,490 0,.844 0,,654 0,.635 0.,771

Verbal 0,.016 0.,396 0.,273 0,.019 0,.556 0,.294 0,.424 0,.407 0,.239

Physical 0,. 130 0..271 0.,273 0.,097 0,.222 0,,118 0,.121 0,.111 0,.457

0, Movement 0,.164 0,. 104 0,.091 0..148 0..074 0..235 0,.16 7 0..148 .109 Location change 0,.059 0..083 0,.053 0,.037 .167 0,.148 0,.065

Visual 0,.106 0,.104 0..182 0..104 0,.037 0,.235 0..182 0,.111 0,.065

Auditory .014 0..013 .037 0,.118 .030 .037

Expressive .008 0,.182 0,.012 0,.019 0,.019

Cognitive .031 0,.042 0,.044 .019 .015 0,.019 .065

127 TABLE 10

Summary of Failures

Male Female Norms C5-H C5-B Norms Cl C2-S C2-E C4 C3

Proportion of dreams in which failure occurs 0.15 0.25 0.10 0.37 0.07 0.05 0.08 Failure for dreamer 0.86 0.50 0.83 0.78 1.00 1.00 Failure for other humans 0.11 0.50 0.17 0.22 1.00

TABLE 11

Summary of Successes

Male Female Norms C5-H C5-B Norms Cl C2-S C2-E C4 C3

Proportion of dreams in which success occurs . 15 0.10 0.25 0.08 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.30 0.23 Success for dreamer 0.89 1.00 1.00 0.87 0.67 0.67 1.00 Success for other humans 0.11 0.13 0.33 1.00 0.50 0.33

TABLE 12

Proportions of Misfortunes by Subclasses of Misfortune

Male Female Norms C5-H C5-B Norms Cl C2-S C2-E C4 C3

6 Death 0.08 0.60 0.10 0.50

5 Injury 0.21 0.17 0.20 0.25 0.33 1.00 0.38 0.33 0.50

4 Accident 0.25 0.17 0.19 0.13 0.17

3 Threat 0.13 0.17 0.13

2 Falling 0.05 0.33 0.03 0.17

1 Obstacle 0.28 0.17 0.20 0.30 0.67 0.50 0.33

128 TABLE 13

Summary of Misfortunes

Male Female Norms C5-H C5-B Norms CI C2-S C2-E C4 C3

Proportion of dreams in which misfortune occurs 0.36 0.50 0.50 0.33 0.16 0.14 0.40 0.20 0.15 Misfortune to dreamer 0.71 0.67 0.68 0.67 1.00 0.63 0.83 Misfortune to others 0.29 0.33 1.00 0.32 0.33 0.38 0.17 1.00

TABLE 14

Summary of Emotions

Male Female Norms C5-H C5-B Norms CI C2-S C2-E C4 C3

Dreamer emotions Happiness 0.180 0.111 0.151 0.096 0.133 0.462 Sadness 0.075 0.143 0.110 0.19 4 0.267 0.167

Anger 0.10 3 0.111 0.143 0.078 0.161 0.067 0.077 Confusion 0.195 0.333 0.143 0.164 0.065 0.133 0.167 0.231 Apprehension 0.302 0.444 0.143 0.333 0.355 0.133 0.333 0.154

Emotions of other characters Happiness 0.014 0.038 0.067 0.167 Sadness 0.018 0.286 0.019 0.133 0.167 Anger 0.032 0.143 0.055 0.032 Confusion 0.043 0.014 0.032 0.067 Apprehension 0.039 0.038 0.065

129 TABLE 15

Modifiers

Male Female Norms C5-H C5-B Norms Cl C2-S C2-E C4 C3

Average number of modifiers per dream 2.222 2.70 1.38 2.92 2.68 1.86 3.60 1.65 3.38

Chromatic 0.067 0.074 0.114 0.385 0.167 0.091 0.023

Achromatic 0.039 0.037 0.091 0.046 0.308 0.093 0.091 0.136

Large 0.180 0.296 0.364 0.133 0.039 0.077 0.259 0.061 0.136

Small 0.095 0.037 0.078 0.020 0.074 0.091 0.091

Intense 0.295 0.111 0.300 0.411 0.130 0.121 0.250

Weak 0.051 0.074 0.091 0.038 0.039 0.056 0.030 0.046

Filled 0.016 0.015 0.068

Empty 0.008 0.002

Straight 0.004 0.111 0.004 0.030 0.046

Crooked 0,012 0.091 0.013 0.020 0.046

Hot 0.005 0.008 0.077

Cold 0.007 0.037 0.008 0.154 0.061

Fast 0.036 0.021 0.019

Slow 0.007 0.007

Old 0.040 0.037 0.091 0.042 0.157 0.056 0.030 0.046

Young 0.051 0.037 0.042 0.020 0.037 0.030 0.046

Pretty, Good 0.052 0.14i 0.071 0.177 0.074 0.182 0.046

Ugly, Bad 0.035 0.273 0.058 O.lli 0.037 0.182 0.023

130 TABLE 16

Nuinber of Negatives Per Dream

Male Female Norms C5-H C5-B Norms CI C2-S C2-E C4 C3

0.282 0.250 0.186 0.143 0.133 0.300 0.308

1 0.290 0.300 0.268 0.105 0.067 0.200 0.077

2 0.222 0.100 0.375 0.234 0.053 0.267 0.200 0.308

3 0.124 0.300 0.250 0.136 0.263 0.429 0.200 0.150 0.231

4 0.040 0.100 0.125 0.086 0.158 0.286 0.067 0.150

5 0.024 0.100 0.044 0.053 0.143 0.067 0.077

6 0.018 0.100 0.046 0.368 0.200

TABLE 17

Number of Temporal References Per Dream

Male Female Norms C5-H C5-B Norms CI C2-S C2-E C4 C3

0.656 0.700 0.625 0.598 0.632 0.571 0.600 0.900 0.923

1 0.238 0.300 0.250 0.256 0.263 0.286 0.267 0.100 0.077

2 0.076 0.104 0.105 0.133

3+ 0.030 0.125 0.042 0.143

131 TABLE 18

Distribution of Oral Incorporation and Oral Emphasis Scores

Male Female Norms C5-H C5-B Norms Cl C2-S C2-E C4 C3

Oral Incorporation 0.840 0.800 0.875 0.830 0.947 1.000 0.533 0.850 0.692

1 0.100 0.125 0.108 0.053 0.200 0.150 0.154

2 0.042 0.044 0.067 3+ 0.018 0.200 0.018 0.200 0.154

Oral Emphasis 0.878 1.000 0.875 0.8760,,876 0.947 1.000 0.733 0.900 0.692

1 0.090 0.125 0,.106 0.053 0.267 0.100 0.154 2 0.032 0..010 0.154 3+ 0,.008

TABLE 19

Distributions of Castration Anxiety, Castration Wish, and Penis Envy Scores

Male Female Norms C5-H C5-B Norms Cl C2-S C2-E C4 C3

Castration • Anxiety

0.79 8 1.000 0.875 0.908 1.00 1.00 0.800 0.950 0.769

1 0.188 0.125 0.088 0.200 0.231

2 0.012 0.002 0.050 3+ 0.002 0.002

Castration Wish 0.910 0.900 0.625 0.922 0.895 0.857 0.867 0.950 0.846

1 0.086 0.100 0.375 0.076 0.10 5 0.143 0.133 0.050 0.077

2 0.002 0.002 V 0.077 3+ 0.002

Penis Envy 0.950 1.000 1.000 0.974 1.00 1.00 0.933 0.950 0.846

1 0.048 0.026 0.067 0.050 0.154 2 0.002 3+

132 ,

REFERENCES *

Bell, A. & Hall, C. The personality Heermann, G. Deotungen und betrach- uber die traume der of a child molester : A study of tungen dreams. Chicago: Aldine Atherton, blinden. Monateahrift fur 1971. Medizing Augenheihunde und

Chirurgie , 1838, 1, 116-80.

Berger, R. , Olley, P., & Oswald, I. The EEG eye movements and dreams Jastrow, J. The dreams of the blind. of t±ie blind. Quarterly Journal /Vew Princeton Preview, 1888, 5, 19-34. of Experimental Psy ohology , 1962, 14, 183-6.

Blank, H. Dreams of the blind. Kimmins, C. Children' s dreams. Unwin , 19 37. Psyahoanalytio Quarterly , 1958, London: 27, 158-74.

Hall, C. The meaning of dreams. Offenkrantz, W. & Wolpert, E. (Rev. ed.) New York: McGraw- The detection of dreaming in Hill, 1966. a congenitally blind subject. Journal of Nervous and Hall, C. & Domhoff, B. The dreams Mental Disorders , 1963, 136, of Freud and Jung. Psy chology 88-90. Today, June 1968, 42-5. Singer, G. & Streiner, B. Imagina- Hall, C. & Lynd, R. Dreams, life tive content in the dreams and of blind and sighted and literature : A study of Franz fantasy play Kafka. Chapel Hill: University children. Perceptual and Motor of North Carolina Press, 1970. Skills, 1966, 22, 475-82.

Hall, C. & Nordby, V. The individual Van de Castel, R. The psychology and his dreams. New York: New of dreaming . New York: General American Library, 1972. Learning Press, 1971.

Hall, C. & Van de Castle, R. The content analysis of dreams. New Von Schumann, H. Traume der blinden. York: Appleton-Century-Crof ts Basel: S. Karaer Co., 1959. 1966.

*A most exhaustive bibliography on the dreamlife of the blind may be obtained from the library of the American Foundation for the Blind, 15 West 16th Street, New York, New York 10011.

133

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ENERGY RADIATING MOBILITY AIDS FOR THE BLIND: DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AND A PROGRESS REPORT ON AN EYEGLASS MOUNTED INFRARED AID*

Forrest M. Mims, III**

Part 1. Design Considerations for Ultrasonic and Electro-Optical Mobility Aids

INTRODUCTION CURRENT MOBIUTY AID RESEARCH Though many of the technical and Both ultrasonic and electro- man-machine aspects of blind guidance optical detection techniques have an devices have been clearly understood active history in mobility aid de- since at least 19 49, early devices velopment. Ultrasonic devices are were too large and cumbersome to pro- particularly intriguing since a va- vide practical mobility assistance. riety of animals utilize sonic and Nevertheless, test results with early ultrasonic methods for navigation devices provided important experi- and object detection and avoidance. mental verification of the principles The use of sonic navigation tech- of active sonic and electro-optical niques by blind travelers is, of aids. These encouraging results course, well known. maintained interest in the field and permitted such technological innova- Current mobility aids research tions as semiconductor technology to is primarily centered around devices , be exploited in the development of and concepts promulgated by Kay more compact aids. Russell,-^ Benjamin,-^ and Mims." Kay and Russell have developed aids This report will review the op- employing ultrasonics to detect tar- erating principles of current mobili- gets. The operating techniques are ty aids research with a view toward similar, but Kay's device provides identifying the most desirable fea- a complex information content v.'hile tures of the various approaches. Russell's supplies a simple signal Such topics as sonic and electro- merely indicating the presence of a optical ranging, physical configura- target within the detection range. tion, and the man-machine interface will be considered. The report will Culminating research begun in conclude with a detailed account of the early 1950 's, Benjamin and his the development and preliminary re- co-workers at Bionic Instruments, Inc. sults of an infrared mobility aid have developed a cane equipped w^ith mounted in its entirety upon eyeglass three miniature laser transmitters frames and receivers. The Laser Cane pro- vides a detection capability for drop-offs, overhanas, and straight- ahead targets. Mims has also em- * Preparation of this report was ployed an infrared source, the light- sponsored by a grant from the Ameri- emitting diode, in an aid which is can Foundation for the Blind, Inc. mounted in its entirety upon eyeglass This aid is ** 6901 Zuni S.E. A-12, Albuquerque, (spectacle) fram.es. described in detail later in this New Mexico 8710 8. report.

135 . .

The relative merits and demerits subject. Preliminarv results have of these four mobility schemes, and shown electrophosphenes can be cre- several others, will be discussed at ated by activation of appropriate length in the body of this report. electrodes While this report is limited to aa- tive aids, those which project a beam There can be no doubt that con- of energy into free space and signal tinued research into multiple-resolu- the presence of a target when suffi- tion element-passive sensors will cient energy is reflected back to a play an important role in future mo- receiver, it is important to realize bility aids development. However, there exists extensive research into the problems which remain before a passive or nonradiating devices which high-resolution passive system can may ultimately have a very distinct become practical are immense. Recent role in aiding mobility. Interest in reports in the lay press describing passive devices has increased in re- one of the sensory systems presently cent years, particularly with improve- under development have created a ments in semiconductor light detection false impression of the ease with techniques. Early passive sensors which a high-resolution passive sen- provided but one resolution element sor can create a tactile image of an and an audible or tactile indication object. Pictures clearly showing the to indicate variable illumination outline of a cup or telephone, for levels at its active surface. Though example, are misleading at best since some of the devices were quite ingeni- they are generated by observing the ous in design and could even provide object of interest at an angle which range indication, most have been aban- produces a readily recognizable sil- doned. ^ houette. Since the device has a two- dimensional output, variations in the More success was had with a viewing angle of three-dimensional multiresolution element scheme devel- objects can make reliable identifica- oped by Starkiewicz and embodied in tion difficult or even impossible. the Elektroftalm. ^ This device has Passive sensory aids of this nature, 120 light sensors in a two-dimensional sometimes referred to as vision sub- array behind an imaging lens. By ac- stitution systems, are also troubled tivating the appropriate members of by a variety of technical problems. a 120-element tactile stimulator ar- One of the most significant problems ray worn on the forehead in response concerns variations in the illuminat- to visual stimuli, the Elektroftalm ing light for objects being viewed; provides crude information about the others include size, weight, and shape of illuminated objects within cost. its field of view. Though high-resolution passive The Elektroftalm concept has been environmental sensors are at an early expanded upon by Bliss and Bach-y- level of development, the field bears Rita. Bliss and Gardiner have devel- close watching. These systems come oped a passive viewing system employ- closest to approximating the eye it- ing 144 sensors and stimulators.' At self, and future developments may the University of the Pacific's Smith- permit a close integration of elec- Kettlewell Institute of Visual Sci- tronic sensors and the brain's visual ences in San Francisco, Bach-y-Rita process. and Collins are developing a system employing 400 sensors and stimulat- ors.^ In it a solid state self- ULTRASONIC AIDS scanned detector array is utilized; a recent technological development A variety of sonic mobility aids giving the system an advantage over has been developed over the years, those developed by Starkiewicz and and the best known models are those Bliss contrived by Kay and Russell. Kay has developed both hand-held and head- All these multiple-resolution mounted aids, while Russell's aid is element-passive systems incorporate suspended from the neck by a short tactile stimulation. A more radical strap. Kay has abandoned his early approach has been undertaken by hand-held aid for a more sophisticated Brindley and Lewin who have implanted head-mounted unit. The acoustical 80 electrodes in contact with the oc- sending and receiving transducers are cipital lobe in the brain of a blind mounted in a modified spectacle frame.

136 . ^ . . .

A pocket-carried package contains the one and four meters distant are 5.% unit's electronic circuitry, power and 2 3.2 milliseconds respectively; switch, and batteries. A flexible traverse times easily resolved by cable connects the electronics pack- straightfor'/'/ard electronic circuitry. age to the spectacles, and internally Electromagnetic v;aves are propagated mounted earphones on either temple approximately 3 x 10° meters-per- are coupled to both ears by plastic second (3 nanoseconds-per-meter) tubes It is exceedingly difficult to de- sign simple, inexpensive electronic Russell's aid is larger than circuitry to resolve such rapid time Kay's, but the entire device is as- intervals and convert them into a sembled in one package. The output recognizable tactile or audio out- is a pair of small speakers attached put. to the unit's neck strap. The speak- ers produce output signals with suf- The slow transit time of ultra- ficient amplitude to be heard without sonic systems offers the option of ear tubes. either analog or digital output to the blind user. In fact, it is pos- Both aids utilize ultrasonic sible to design one system which pro- sound, but their outputs to the blind vides a choice between the two out-

user are quite different. Kay's aid puts , thus providing the advantages presents complex tonal signals from of each. which a properly trained user can gain information about the range and While sound's slow transit time surface texture of a target. Rus- enhances simple tim.e-of- flight rang- sell's device contains limiting cir- ing schemes, the propagated wave is cuitry which processes the complex subject to the fluctuations of the analog signals received by his device transmission medium. Calm air merely and converts them to one of two tones. absorbs the sound wave, but a turbu- A clicking sound indicates a target lent atmosphere can cause significant is within two meters of the user, and refraction of a sonic beam with re- a second tone with higher pitch in- sultant inconsistencies in target de- dicates a target is within a meter. tection.^^ Atmospheric turbulence In this report the former output tech- results from convection currents and nique will be classified as analog thermal variations and typical sources

and the latter as digital . include wind, hot pavement, fans, and heaters The difference in output between the Kay and Russell devices is sub- Of even more significance, the stantial, and a controversy has arisen relatively long wavelength of a typ- over which approach is better suited ical ultrasonic aid, 2.5 to 5 mm in to actual use with blind travelers. the case of Kay's swept- frequency This matter will be treated later in device, causes many targets to ap- this report. pear as specular reflectors. In the visual sense, a specular reflector is Both the Kay and Russell aids a shiny surface which reflects an on- have been used in tests with blind coming beam at the angle of incidence subjects with varying degrees of suc- while a diffuse surface scatters the cess. Kay's aid has probably been oncoming beam in a distribution ap- evaluated by more blind users than proximating pi [not 2pi) steradians. any other electronic mobility aid. At optical wavelengths a typical Evaluations by blind users, qualified specular reflector is polished m.etal, engineers, and mobility trainers have while a typical diffuse reflector is resulted in an interesting set of ob- ordinary paper. Many targets have servations concerning the use of ultra- both specular and diffuse reflectance sound in an active mobility aid. There characteristics is virtually unanimous consensus, for example, that the relatively slow The specularity of a surface is velocity of sound in air, 344 meters- determined by the wavelength of the per-second at 20 degrees Celsius, of- oncoming beam and the texture of the fers a significant advantage over svurface. If the variations in tex- electromagnetic mobility aids in pro- ture are large in relation to the on- viding range information. -^ ° The coming beam's wavelenath, the surface "round trip" times for a sound wave will tend to scatter the radiation in from a sonic mobility aid to targets a diffuse fashion. If the variations

137 . 3 are small or nonexistent, the surface outset in that the rapid transit time will tend to reflect the radiation of the emitted beam makes tim.e-of- specularly at the angle of incidence. f light ranging impractical. However, electro-optical aids permit operation Specular targets can be diffi- in a pulsed mode with a significant cult to detect with narrow-beam ac- reduction in power consumption. tive mobility aids since the oncoming Pulsed operation also permits very beam will be reflected away from the high peak powers, up to 15 or more aid's receiver unless the target is watts in the case of diode laser viewed from the normal angle. Since sources, and improved signal-to-noise ultrasonic aids tend to have a very ratio. Triangulation techniques can wide beam, most specular targets re- be used to obtain approximate range flect some energy back to the re- information . i 2 » 1 ceiver. Just as ultrasonic aids are Certain nonspecular surfaces are sometimes susceptible to ambient difficult to detect with an ultra- sources of ultrasonics, electro- sonic mobility aid. High absorption optical aids are sometimes affected which surfaces , particularly those by ambient light sources. Artificial have sufficient porosity to trap in- light sources powered by alternating coming ultrasonic waves, may return current can produce 60- or 120-Hz little energy to the transmitter. output signals and bright continuous Clothing and draperies can be par- sources such as the sun or its re- ticularly difficult to detect. flections can reduce sensitivity of the receiver's detector. Fortunate- Still another reflectance arti- ly there are methods to eliminate fact at ultrasonic wavelengths is these kinds of interference. Tuned echo reinforcement. When an ultra- circuitry or gating the receiver to sonic beam is directed into the the transmitter will eliminate modu- corner of a room, the waves are retro- lated interfering sources, while op- reflected back to the receiver. The tical filters can reduce the effects resulting effect causes the corner to of strong continuous sources. give a stronger return than the adja- cent walls. Some users of ultrasonic A particularly important fea- aids have reported this phenomenon ture of electro-optical aids is the assists orientation within a room. ability to vary the transmitted beam, divergence with a simple, adjustable Ultrasonic systems are not im- lens assembly. A narrow beam pro- mune to ambient interference. Swept vides higher power density at small frequency devices must be sensitive targets and increases azimuthal reso- to a wide range of wavelengths, and, lution, while a large beam increases therefore, they will detect such the chance of illuminating sm.all sources of ultrasonics as rustling targets. Some persons may prefer leaves and vibrating fluorescent one configuration over the other, lamps and this is easily accomplished with a simple lens adjustment. Finally, by their very nature there is a practical limit to which The small size of conventional ultrasonic aids can be miniaturized. electro-optical sources makes minia- Kay's Sonic Spectacles represent the turization practical. Indeed, there smallest ultrasonic aid yet devel- are plans which will be described oped, but the device requires a sepa- later in this report to fabricate an rate pocket-carried electronics entire aid inside the frames of modi- package. More sophisticated elec- fied spectacles much like an eyeglass tronic circuitry might reduce the hearing aid. The complete aid, in- - size of even Kay's aid, but the vol- eluding batteries, will weigh ap- ume required by the three sending and proximately 100 grams, and will be receiving transducers will remain a entirely self-contained. limiting factor. LASERS VS. LEDS ELECTRO-OPTICAL AIDS Through the years a varietv of Electro-optical mobility aids liaht sources has been employed in suffer a serious drawback from the experimental electro-optical mobility

138 . aids. Incandescent lamps, gas-filled (about 3.5) and parallel cleavage glow-discharge tubes, and strobe zones. If the junction is fonrfed lamps have been used with only mod- perpendicular to the parallel cleav- erate success.^"* Target detection age zones, it is a relatively simple was achieved, but these sources were procedure to create tv/o parallel end hindered by large power consumption mirrors by scribing and breaking the or low power output. crystal. The high index of refrac- tion gives a reflectance of about In 1962 efficient semiconductor 30 percent and this is generally in- near-infrared emitters were devel- creased to nearly 100 percent on one oped, and shortly thereafter these facet by an evaporated film of gold same kinds of emitters permitted the over an insulatina layer of silicon fabrication of tiny semiconductor dioxide lasers. In the intervening years development of energy radiating LEDs emit light from all portions electro-optical mobility aids has of the semiconductor not blocked by centered around semiconductor light electrodes, but the diode laser emits sources. The two contenders are nearly all its radiation from one or light emitting diodes (LEDs) and both end mirrors. This permits high semiconductor injection lasers. VJhile collection efficiency since a simple the latter is merely a specialized f/1 lens can be used to intercept all configuration of the former, the two of the radiation and collimate it in- sources each have unique character- to a beam of desired divergence. istics and operating requirements.

A typical LED consists of a slab LASERS of gallium arsenide (GaAs) a milli- meter or less square. A P-N junction The relative advantages and dis- formed in the GaAs in the origin of advantages of LEDs and diode lasers recombination radiation, as electrons in a mobility aid application are di- stimulated to higher-than-normal en- verse and are discussed in great de- ^ ''"' ^ ^ ^ ergy levels by a flow of current in tail elsewhere. ^ ' It is im- the forward direction resume equilib- portant to note that both sources rium by dropping back to their ground have been used with varying degrees state. In GaAs the wavelength of of success, but electronic and opti- emission is typically centered at cal considerations are unique for 905 nanometers, but the addition of each. silicon as a compensating dopant in- creases this figure to 9 50 nanometers Both the LED and injection laser with a substantial increase in power have a high power conversion effi- efficiency. Noncompensated diodes ciency (a few percent or more) . Cer- have rise times of approximately a tain specially structured LEDs have nanosecond, while that of silicon- about twice the efficiency of injec- doped diodes is typically 300 tim.es tion lasers. These diodes, hov/ever, greater, but the latter devices may are costly and in a mobility aid ap- deliver five or more times the output plication injection lasers generally power for the same forward current. offer higher power- con vers ion effi- ciency. Consider, for example, a For most practical purposes the typical commercial injection laser wavelengths emitted by these devices capable of delivering 4.5 watts when are invisible to the unaided human driven with a 10-ampere pulse, and eye. However, the radiation from an efficient and inexpensive LED GaAs lasers at 905 nm is visible as capable of delivering 6 milliwatts a dim red when the source is viewed at 100 milliamperes bias. Representa- directly in subdued ambient light. tive commercial devices with these Gardiner has prepared an interesting specifications are, respectively, the report on the visibility of wave- RCA SG2002 laser and the General lengths beyond the C.I.E. absolute Electric SSL-55C LED. ^ photopic luminosity curve . -^ When driven with a 10-ampere The semiconductor injection laser pulse, the LED will deliver about is an LED prepared with two end mir- 2 40 milliwatts, only about 5.3 per- rors to provide the resonant cavity cent of the 4.5 watts emitted by the prerequisite to laser action. GaAs laser for the same peak for\'.'ard cur- has both a high index of refraction rent. Eaually significant, the LED's

139 ,

the twig. Combined with power conversion efficiency has illuminate the lower power output of the LED, dropped from about 5 percent at this significantly reduces the chances 100 milliamperes forward bias to for detecting the twig at a range of 1.7 percent at 10 amperes. The only meters. power conversion efficiency of the more than 1.5 laser is an impressive 5.6 percent. These detection considerations must be tempered with the realization In addition to high peak power that a small-divergence illuminating and conversion efficiency, the infra- may not even strike the twig. A from an injection laser beam red emerging beam with more divergence offers more far easier to collimate than that is opportunity of illuminating the twig from an LED. This is because the and at least presents the prospect of injection laser emission is direc- an output signal. The trade-off, tional and emerges from a region on then, is that a narrow-beam system the laser chip only about 0.002 mm x will give a stronger return from a 0.0 76 mm. Radiation emerging from a small target than a system with large source this small can easily be col- divergence, but there is more likeli- limated into nearly parallel light hood of illuminating the target with very small f/1 lens. The with a larger beam. Laser Cane developed by Bionic In- the struments produces a spot only about Thus far the laser appears to be 2 wide at a range of 3 meters. cm superior radiation source in an Even this small divergence can be a electro-optical mobility aid. How- reduced substantially, and the author ever, its driving requirements lessen has produced a spot only 1 mm wide at its overall advantages. To fulfill 3 meters with an optical system vir- for sustained laser tually identical with that employed the requirement an inversion in the in the Laser Cane. Total dimensions oscillations, of stimulated electrons, of the spot at 15.25 meters were population the injection laser must be pulsed 5 mm X 120 mm which corresponds to levels as high as divergence of only 0.33 mr x with current a amperes/cm2. Recently low- 7.87 mr. 100,000 threshold double-heterostructure de- produced which have The injection laser's small spot vices have been required driving current to certainly an impressive char- reduced size is thousand amperes per cm^ acteristic. Indeed, Benjamin has in- only a few devices have confirmed op- dicated the most important aspect of but these erating lifetimes of only a few hun- the injection laser in the Laser Cane dred hours when operated at a repeti- is its small size and consequently -^^ rate of about 1 kHz. Practical the small optical system. tion operational current densities for single-heterostructure Depending on the mechanical struc- good quality lasers range from 40,000 to ture of the LED, the lens which pro- injection 50,000 A/cm2 . In short, to achieve duces a highly collimated beam for an the population inversion prerequisite injection laser gives a minimum diver- to laser action, very high current gence of about 3 degrees when used must be present in the with an LED. Spot size in the far densities junction. 20 field is consequently larger, and semiconductor power density on small cross section To reduce the current to prac- targets low. At a typical target of from about 10 to range of, say, two meters, an injec- tical levels injection lasers are tion laser system with a nominal di- 100 amperes, The RCA SG2002 vergence of 10 milliradians will made quite small. example, has a easily cast all of its radiation on described above, for area of only 0.076 mm x a target such as a small diameter junction required twig. This greatly enhances the 0.305 mm. This reduces the , but the prospect of the twig being detected current to about 10 amperes cannot sink by the system. Indeed, an experi- tiny volume of the laser mental hand-held injection laser aid this current, if applied continuous- therm- developed by the author will easily ly, without being destroyed by al action. For this reason conven- detect a twig only 4 mm in diameter tional non-double heterostructure at a range of more than 3 meters. be operated at With its comparatively large diver- injection lasers must of typically no more gence, however, only a small fraction pulse widths 200 nanoseconds. To avoid a of radiation from a LED system will than

140 gradual pulse to pulse thermal ac- reverse-biased PIII photodiodes coupled cumulation, duty cycle (total "on" into a v/ide-band amplifier make for time) must not exceed 0.1 percent. a practical receiver combination.'^'^ Also, conventional lasers have a lim- When applied to the operating ited lifetime, and their degradation considerations of a mobility aid, is a continual and irreversible phe- these driving requirements mean great nomenon. Good quality single- care must be exercised in the design heterostructure lasers have demon- of the injection laser driving cir- strated improved lifetimes, and a cuitry. For most practical consider- study by RCA has shown lasers oper- ations two options are available to ated at 1 kHz possess 80 percent of obtain the necessary high current and their original output after 1,000 fast-pulse width. 2^ One is to switch hours operation.^" a high voltage through a controlled semiconductor switch such as a sili- Other disadvantages of injection con controlled rectifier (SCR) . The lasers include temperature sensitiv- other is to switch a voltage through ity and beam diffraction patterns. an avalanche semiconductor switch Narrow-beam laser mobility aids v;ill such as a selected transistor or four- not be troubled by the latter phe- layer diode. In both cases the volt- nomenon, but wide-beam laser systems age is stored in a small capacitor generally exhibit highly irregular until being discharged through the power distribution in the emitted semiconductor switch and laser. beam. Infrared photographs vividly demonstrate this phenomenon.^' This The SCR technique has the ad- may mean targets with sm.all optical vantage of simple design and opera- cross section will be alternately de- tion, but typical SCRs present a tected and missed as they are scanned relatively high impedance to the very by an aid. Temperature sensitivity fast pulse required to operate a la- is more serious since it directly ser. For this reason several hundred effects the output of the laser and volts are required to obtain the 20 possibly its degradation rate. Typi- or 30 amperes required to drive con- cal injection lasers exhibit signif- ventional single-heterostructure la- icantly lowered current threshold sers . values as temperature drops. There- fore, a system designed to operate a Avalanche transistor circuits laser at or close to its maximum cur- can be designed which produce simi- rent level to achieve maxim.um power lar current levels for significantly output will fail if the laser's smaller voltage levels. This is be- temperature is allowed to drop to an cause avalanche transistors possess extent which causes its maximum per- a much lower impedance at fast-pulse missible driving current level to widths. In a comparison of practical fall below that delivered by the SCR and avalanche transistor driving driving circuit. Depending on the circuits conducted by the author, temperature change, the laser may be typical SCRs possessed an impedance degraded or even destroyed. In a of nearly 5 ohms for a 75-nanosecond typical system in which the laser is pulse. Typical avalanche transistor operated at its maximum current rat- impedance was only a third this val- ing, a drop in temperature of only _ ue. 10 degrees F causes laser failure.-^

Obviously, diode laser pulsers Temperature regulation can be require a careful study of trade-offs employed to protect the laser, but a before selection of a final circuit. simpler procedure is to limit peak Even with great care in circuit de- current to a safe value for a speci- sign a laser circuit will consume fied temperature range. The laser more power than a similar LED cir- simply would not be operated when cuit. ambient temperatures exceeded the allowable range. Injection lasers present other special problems in the design of a Other potential difficulties mobility aid. For example, the fast with injection laser mobility aids pulse width of an injection laser im- include electromagnetic pulse (BMP) poses special design requirements on effects and safety. The EMP phe- the receiver, and for most practical nomenon results from the very fast, mobility aid considerations only high-current discharges reauired to

141 ,

drive a laser. EMP can cause substan- This is not the place for a de- tial interference in nearby electro- tailed discussion on the implica- magnetic receivers such as radios and tions of potential injection laser sensitive aircraft navigation equip- hazards and government regulations. ment. Fortunately the effects are It is likely, however, that the new generally minor. In a test, conduct- government regulations will expand ed by the author, an injection laser the current controversy. A collec- system produced no discernible inter- tion of detailed discussions on laser ference in an AM radio receiver so safety, and numerous references, are » ^^ long as the two were separated by at presented elsewhere. ^^ least 75 cm.

Safety is a less precise area. LED The high voltage (i.e., several hun- dred volts) which may be necessary to Though the injection laser is operate some laser mobility aids superior to the LED in power output poses a potential hazard, but only and ease of beam collimation, the if the aid's protective housing is laser's driving requirements pose a opened. Of more concern is the po- significant drawback. The LED be- tential ocular hazard to persons comes a viable alternative optical within the laser's field of view. source for this reason. That a sensory aid for the blind may have the potential of harming the A LED can deliver 100 milliwatts eyesight of normally sighted persons from a 3-ampere current pulse. This is, to say the least, ironic. represents only about 2.2 percent of the RCA SG2002 laser's peak power, At the outset of any discussion but the LED pulse can be significantly on laser ocular safety, it is essen- wider than the laser's. A 5-micro- tial to note that the field is con- second pulse is far easier to detect troversial. The laser cane has been and amplify than one only 100 nano- independently evaluated for safety by seconds wide. five separate institutions. The evaluations included exposure tests Of even more significance is the with laboratory primates, and no dis- simplicity and compact size of the cernible retinal deterioration was circuitry required to generate 3- noted. These tests were conducted ampere pulses for an LED. A simple under worst-case conditions with the regenerative amplifier with but four animals being exposed in one instance components and powered by a miniature for 20 seconds, and in another for 9-volt battery will easily fulfill 3 r 30 minutes, ^^ both far longer than the the pulse requirements likely exposure times for a person whose eye or eyes happen to momen- LEDs possess other advantages tarily fall within one of the cane's over injection lasers. They are very three beams. economical, a great variety of com- mercial devices are readily available, Nevertheless, recent reports in and operating lifetimes are orders of the literature indicate laser damage magnitude greater than those of injec- threshold levels may be far lower tion lasers. than previously expected. For this reason and others, the Bureau of This discussion on the relative Radiological Health of the Department merits of injection lasers and LEDs of Health, Education, and Welfare has is summarized in Table 1. A careful proposed stringent safety guidelines study of these considerations and for most laser products manufactured, both analytical and experimental sold, and operated in the United studies have convinced the author States.^'' Optical radar systems are that the LED can be used in a prac- not included in the present standards tical mobility aid. While the laser but Wilbur F. Van Pelt of the Bureau's is definitely a practical source, as Electronic Product Division's Electro- amply demonstrated by the laser cane Optics Branch recently stated safety and a variety of experimental laser requirements for laser ranging sys- mobility aids assembled by the au- tems will be implemented should their thor, the LED permits very low power use "become well defined and pose a consumption and a degree of minia- significant hazard to the general pop- turization not realizable with any ulation. "28 other source.

142 TABLE 1 experimented with actively. The laser cane is itself distinct from Lasers vs. Light Emitting Diodes previous hand-held aids, since most (LEDs) of these devices have been box-like contrivances. Some of them v/ere found to provide important supple- Characteristic Laser LED mental information when used in con- junction with a cane or guide dog, Peak Power 100 W 300 mW but none were capable of providing safe and reliable guidance alone. Average Power 15 mW 250 mW Consequently, the blind traveler v/as required to give up both his hands Power Efficiency 6% 10% to carry his cane (or guide dog har- ness) and the mobility aid. Maximum Duty Cycle 0.1% 100% Body-mounted aids have long been Rise Time 1-50 ns 1-300 ns suggested as a more practical physi- cal scheme, and Russell's Travel Path Beam Divergence 20° 10-180° Sounder exemplifies such a configura- tion. The aid is conveniently sus- Spectral Width 3.5 nm 40 nm pended from the neck by a short strap, much like a camera. An even more Note: These characteristics are flexible approach to body-mounted representative and may vary aids would be exemplified by those significantly. worn on the head. This class of aids is becoming so important that a separate discussion of them is v/ar- ranted. PHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR MOBILITY AIDS HEAD-MOUNTED MOBILITY AIDS Most developers of mobility aids ^ ^ regard the joint goals of small size Kay , Bishop,"'* del Campo,'^ , and light weight as essential to Starkiewicz ^ Chardon,^^ Benjamin,"^ their development effort. Early Bach-y-Rita, ^ Mims , '* and others have aids (ca. 1950) frequently weighed independently suggested or devised more than five pounds and were rath- head-mounted mobility aids. Kay v;as er large, even cumbersome, but modern one of the first to achieve a practi- semiconductor technology has made cal embodiment of this one time elu- possible considerable reductions in sive goal. His device, which is size and weight. described elsewhere in this report, takes the form of modified spectacles A pleasant cosmetic appearance which contain three ultrasonic and has also been a design goal, though two audible transducers. A pocket- some blind persons have stated a carried electronics and battery pack- preference for an easily recognizable age is connected to the spectacles device to assist, like the white cane, with a flexible multicore cable. in identifying the visual deficiency of its operator. ^^ In past years en- Bishop has proposed a simple gineers frequently were forced to ig- passive system consisting of a photo- nore cosmetic considerations just to cell with an aperture to limit its permit demonstration of a working field of view. He has suggested that aid. As a result some devices were two of these sensors together with quite elaborate in appearance and batteries and output devices could be required the user to manipulate a mounted on modified eyeglass frarr.es. variety of contrivances for mobility cues with at best questionable value. Mims has proposed both infrared LED and injection laser aids mounted Physical considerations divide entirely to spectacle frames and has mobility aids into two broad cate- fabricated several working models. gories: those which are hand carried This approach will be described at and those which are body mounted. length later in this report. Though hand carried aids have a long history, at present only one hand- Benjamin has proposed a two-beam held aid, the laser cane, is being laser mobilitv aid housed entirelv in

143 . . .

eyeglass frames. One beam would look Tactile stimulation has the ob- straight outward while the other vious advantage of providing an inter- would look down. face to the blind user without block- ing useful acoustical cues. Tactile Bach-y-Rita and Collins are de- transducers, however, are frequently veloping a Vision Substitution System difficult to maintain, and their pow- similar to that developed by Starkie- er consumption is greater than audible wicz. Collins' system is more ad- devices vanced in that it contains 400 resolu- tion elements and makes use of a re- The primary advantages of an cent development in semiconductor audible interface are improved in- technology, a self-scanned detector formation bandwidth, simplicity, and array. The array, in essence a true low power reauirement. Unfortunately solid state television camera, is at- audible output techniaues can block tached together with an imaging lens part or even all of the user's acousti- in the to conventional spectacle frames. The cal cues. Blockage can be ,, electronic processing circuitry and form of earphones, inserts, tubes an array of tactile stimulators are which physically obstruct all or part worn or mounted elsewhere on the of one or both auditory canals, or body. constant auditory outputs from the aid which mask ambient acoustical Del Campo has developed an ex- cues perimental passive system mounted in J

a swimmer's face mask. The device, Of course one cannot automatic- |

called the Amauroscope, transmits ally assume that blockage of ambient j

visual information to five electrodes acoustical cues by any or all of | on the scalp. these methods is automatically un-

favorable. The benefits to be gained ' The obvious conclusion from this from the aid which initiates the movement toward head-mounted aids is blockage must first be assessed. Re- that the head offers a useful mobility sults from tests with blind users, aid platform. Both tactile and audio however, tend to confirm the over- output techniques can be employed and, riding importance of ambient acousti- of course, the head has freedom of cal cues . movement. In effect, mounting at least the detection system of a mo- Perhaps a more important man- bility aid on the head gives the blind machine interface consideration, and user the potential of a pointing and certainly a more controversial one, tracking ability in some ways reminis- is the quantity of information trans- cent of that possessed by normally mitted from the mobility aid to the sighted persons blind user. In the area of active mobility aids, current researchers

The ideal head-mounted aid would are divided into two camps : those be self-contained to avoid cables or advocating a relatively high informa- wires leading to electronics and bat- tion transfer and those supporting a tery packages carried elsewhere on the simpler digital or "go no-go" indica- body. Thus far only the active elec- tion. The relative merits of the two tro-optical aids devised by Mims have cases can be conveniently compared been totally self-contained, but it is with a consideration of Kay's Sonic possible that improvements in design Spectacles and Russell's Travel Path could lead to a self-contained ultra- Sounder. Both of these aids are sonic aid. Kay's device comes closest ultrasonic devices with audible out- to this goal, but the electronics put. Kay's aid employs a swept fre- package for his Sonic Spectacles con- quency system which provides abundant tains a good deal of circuitry as well information about the environment in as the system's battery. a binaural output. While interpret- ing the output signals can be diffi- cult, information regarding target THE MAN-MACHINE INTERFACE surface texture, range, and general outline is present in the output sig- Over the years the two primary nal. Range is indicated by the pitch output mechanisms for mobility aids of the audible output, with the fre- have remained tactile and audible quency decreasing with range. Sur- transducers. Indeed, some aids have face texture is indicated by subtle used both (i.e., the laser cane). variations in the output. For

144 example, hard surfaces give a "It is clearly understood that this "strong" signal, while porous targets responsiveness to reflectivity may such as draperies give a "fuzzy" sig- give rise to some interesting observa- nal . tions, but it is the deep conviction of the present writer that only the Russ ell's aid presents far less space-occupying characteristics of info rmati on to the blind user. Range objects are of importance for the is i ndicated by one of two single practical travel problem."''^ f req uency tones. The first tone is a cl ickin g sound heard when a target Other workers have also noted the is f rom 7 6 to 178 cm distant. The relative merits and demerits of ana- ampl itude of the clicks increases as log and digital systems. Chardon the targe t advances from the outer summed up the problem nicely v/hen he to i nner limit and abruptly becomes noted, "Since it is impossible to a 80 0-Hz tone as the 76-cm zone is provide the blind person with all the broa ched. information in the environment, v;e must content ourselves with giving Though both Kay's and Russell's him that information v;hich is of vi- aids are similar in operating princi- tal importance. This means, first of ple, each has a unique information all, giving information about obsta- output. Either aid could be adapted cles in his path."'"^ to supply the output of the other, but in each case the designer has Kay disagrees v;ith those who fa- settled upon what in his view consti- vor digital output technioues and tutes the most promising output takes the view that the analog output scheme. scheme is more progressive. "There have been many pockets of resistance Kay has presented intriguing ar- to this concept, among them several guments for the acceptance of schemes scientific colleagues," he recently which supply detailed information to wrote. "Even now some keep insisting the b^ind traveler. ^^ He has studied that a blind person reauires only a the principles of ultrasonic naviga- simple display which is easily tion employed by the bat and has con- learned."''^ cluded that a high-information content supplied in a binaural format will eventually permit properly trained DISCUSSION persons to acquire a spatial sense of what lies before them. These discussions of optical and ultrasonic techniques, physical con- Russell takes an opposing view- figuration, and the man-machine inter- point.^^ He notes that his device face are necessarily incomplete, but receives a complex set of information they do illustrate the wide range of about the environment within its field possibilities in the design of active of view, but that the device is de- mobility aids. They also point out signed to process this data for the several unsettled and even contro- blind person. He notes this approach versial areas in present design and fails to provide subtle cues about operational philosophy. the texture of a target, but questions the value of such information. Re- Though a variety of approaches ferring to the simple two-tone output toward the design of mobility aids of his aid as a language system, Rus- appears at least potentially practi- sell convincingly argues that his ap- cal, there is no overriding need to proach saves the blind user from wait until any particular concept ap- sometimes difficult concentration pears superior to the others before during the target detection process. widespread testing and even serial production can be initiated. On the The analog versus digital contro- contrary, a view expressed by several versy is not new. Thirty- four years workers is that no one approach will ago Dr. Edwa rd A. Jerome, a psycholo- prove a panacea for all persons desir- gist with th e Naval Medical Research ing an electronic aid to supplement Institute, n oted that an early active their normal mobility method. While electro-opti cal aid provided an in- one person may prefer the rich in- dication of target reflectance by formation content of an ultrasonic means of amp litude variations in the aid, another may prefer a simpler go/ output tone He subsequently observed, no-go indication.

145 .

with these thoughts in mind, I optical aid mounted on eyeglass shall now proceed to describe my own frames, is in large part the result approach to devising a mobility aid. of a careful study of the technical The design philosophy embodied in considerations presented thus the present device, an electro- far.

Part 2. An Eyeglass -Mounted Active Infrared Mobility Aid

INTRODUCTION to the door or, in fact, to be sure the signal thought to be from the The author has constructed a va- knob was not from an object between riety of active infrared mobility aids the door and the aid. ^ i 4 4 ^ 14 5 since 1966 . '* » , 3 , , while at least some of the engineering consid- These significant drawbacks not- erations discussed herein were ap- withstanding, the aid was tested with plied to the design of these aids, a large population of blind children the man-machine considerations evolved and adults with encouraging results. more slowly and after tests with blind Tests were conducted with blind subjects adults in several cities in the

The first aid was housed in a plastic case measuring 2.6 cm x 2.6 cm X 9.5 cm, and with batteries weighed approximately 100 grams. The aid, which is shown in Fig. 1 during a test session with a totally blind student, employed a beam, of pulsed near-infrared from a light emitting diode (LED) to detect targets. The LED was driven by a simple transistor- ized regenerative amplifier. Some of the infrared striking a target was reflected back toward a sensitive de- tector on the aid. The detector, a silicon solar cell operated in the unbiased photovoltaic mode, generated a signal proportional to the infrared received from the target. This signal was amplified by a discrete transistor circuit and passed directly to a mag- netic earphone.

The output signals from this first crude aid were of limited value. There was no direct ranging informa- tion, and the amplitude of the single frequency tone varied as a function of range and target reflectance. This amplitude variation permitted several interesting capabilities. For example, it was a simple matter to locate the Figure 1. Miniature hand-held infra- position of a door knob on a door by red mobility aid; a nonranging aid means of the higher amplitude signal weighing 100 grams, limited to the provided by the former. But it was role of obstacle avoidance when used not possible to determine the range with a cane or guide dog.

146 .

United States, and students at the Texas State School for the Blind, the Ecole des Garcons Aveugles in Saigon, Republic of Viet-Nam, and the Saigon School for Blind Girls.

In the limited role of an obsta- cle avoidance device, this aid per- mitted blind children to navigate their way through mazes of desks, chairs, and other potential obstacles with generally good success. In con- trast to aids which supply a more complex output signal, learning time, particularly for children, was short. In a typical case a student would be given the aid, instructed on its op- erating principles for a few minutes, and assigned a maze task. Manual scanning was readily mastered and the children would invariably complete the assigned task with few, if any, collisions Figure 2. Compact infrared mobility aid with adjustable triangulation The experiment with blind stu- ranging feature. Thumb operated dents in Viet-Nam, an informal study plunger controls intersection of involving approximately 30 pupils, transmitted beam and receiver was particularly encouraging in view field of view. of the dual barriers of language and lack of technical sophistication. A Vietnamese assistant devised a de- the LED assembly, an approximation of scriptive name for the aid. May do target range could be deduced from tieng dong alio nguoi mu di (literally, the position of the plunger. For ex- machine which makes sound for the ample, a signal peak which occurred plunger's up- blind people to go) , which simplified at the midpoint in the explanation of the device by the ex- down cycle indicated a target ap- perimenter to the pupils and pupils proximately 1.5 meters distant. to one another.

These early tests demonstrated DESIGN CONSroERATIONS FOR that an active infrared mobility aid AN EYEGLASS-MOUNTED AID employing a light emitting diode can detect most targets within a 3-meter While this aid provided substan- range. The tests also demonstrated tially more information than the pre- a convincing need for the provision ceding unit, tests with blind sub- of at least some range information. jects revealed that both the require- Accordingly, a second aid was designed ment for hand-held operation and the employing an adjustable triangulation earphone cord restricted its practi- base. cality. Therefore, still another aid was designed. This new aid was to

The aid shown in Fig. 2 , measured incorporate two LED transmitters, each 3 cm x 5 .5 cm X 8 cm and with batter- pulsed at a different repetition rate, ies weighed approximately 140 grams. and a single receiver. The aid would The LED was mounted in a lens tube be mounted on conventional eyeglass assembly connected to a spring and frames and would be entirely self- plunger. Normally the LED lens as- contained. The output signal would sembly was parallel to a similar lens be an audible tone heard in one ear assembly housing a phototransistor via a thin plastic tube designed to detector. Depressing the plunger, block only part of the external audi- however, rotated the LED tube and va- tor;^'' canal. ried the intersection region of the transmitted beam and the receiver Triangulation would supply range field of view. Since the signal from information. The two LED beam.s would a target would reach an amplitude peak intersect the receiver field of view at some point during the rotation of at ranges of respectively 1 and 3

147 meters. The beams would be suffi- ciently divergent to overlap one an- other at about 2 meters. As a target was approached, then, the first sig- P A pT nal would be the tone from the first o r LED, the second signal a mixture of R = m (1) the tones from both LEDs , and the ^th" third signal the tone from the second LED. where Pq is the peak power of the This aid was intended to supple- transmitter, Aj- is the area of the ment the mobility cane or guide dog. receiver optics, p is the reflectance In this role it would primarily de- of the target, t is the transmissiv- tect targets at shoulder level and ity of the collection optics, and above, though slight head movements P-t^h is the receiver threshold power. would permit wider coverage. The go/ no-go output of the aid combined with Some objects to be detected by the relatively narrow detection cone the aid have a cross section smaller would prevent output signals, even in than that of the transmitted beam. a crowded environment, unless a tar- Common examples of these objects in- get was being detected. clude small tree branches , narrow poles, and wires. The maximum de- To test the improved circuitry tection range for such an object and go/no-go output of the proposed which diffusely reflects the trans- eyeglass aid, a single-beam prototype mitted beam is expressed as was assembled in a small hand-held housing with a rotating lens tube for the LED. An engineering evaluation 4 P A A^ p T ^ ' o r of the device and tests against a t R = wide variety of targets were encour- m (2) aging. ^th ^ " To evaluate the prospects of mounting the proposed aid to eyecrlass where A^ is the illimiinated area of frames , and to test the m.an-machine the object and n is the divergence considerations of a head-mounted digi- of the transmitted beam. tal output device, three single-beam prototypes have been assembled and The ratio of power output to used in both engineering evaluation power threshold is an important fac- and preliminary tests by qualified tor in both eauations. By inserting mobility trainers and blind subjects. appropriate values into Eq. (1) , for example, it can be shown that a de- tection range of one meter against OPTICAL RADAR RANGE EQUATIONS an object with a p of 0.05 when a 12 mm receiver lens is employed re- Optical radar range equations quires a P /P^, of about 7 x 10^. were employed in the design of the o th prototype eyeglass mobility aid.'*'* The equations account for factors OPTOELECTRONIC CIRCUITRY such as target variations (diffuse or specular nature of target, reflect- Figure 3 is a block diagram ance, and size of target with respect showing the circuitry of a prototype to the cross section of the transmit- eyeglass-mounted aid. Design of the ted beam) , collection area of the re- prototype aid involved choice of an ceiver optics, transmitter output pow- efficient near-infrared emitter, de- er, and receiver sensitivity. sign of a high-gain receiver rela- tively free from effects of ambient Most objects to be detected by light, and optical considerations. the travel aid are diffuse reflectors. The design possibilities were limited The maximum detection range of an op- by strict requirements of compact tical radar whose beam is completely size, economy, and low power consump- intercepted by a diffusely reflect- tion. ing object is expressed as

148 ^ .

LED RECEIVER PULSER 5 The receiver consists of a sili- con PiN photodiode, a high-gain in- TRANSMITTER tegrated amplifier, a threshold cir- A /-L. cuit, and an audio transducer. wide variety of photodetectors is REFLECTION available, some v/ith more sensitivity 0<\ than the type used here. Hov/ever, the PiN diode's linearity significantly reduces the saturation effects of am- bient illumination and permits the receiver to operate in bright sun- light without an optical filter. THRESHOLD PHONE In operation the photodiode sig- CIRCUIT <5 nal is amplified approximately 80 dE RECEIVER by the integrated amplifier and passed on to a monostable multi- Figure 3. Block diagram for a vibrator threshold circuit. VThen single-beam, nonranging eyeglass- the amplified signal exceeds a pre- mounted mobility aid. set, adjustable threshold value set to be above the noise level (typically 0.15 volts), the multivibrator issues a stretched output pulse. The pulse TRANSMITTER is converted to an audible signal by a subminiature receiver identical to Several commercially available those employed in eyeglass hearing light emitting diodes (LEDs) were aids considered as an infrared source, and an economical unit with a miniature The combined voltage gain of the built-in reflector was selected for amplifier and threshold circuits is its high power and optical efficiency. about 110 dB. With the threshold cir- The silicon compensated GaAs LED is cuit adjusted for a signal-to-noise driven with 2.7-amp current pulses ratio of 2.5 (bright sunlight condi- and emits 53.8 mW as measured with a a tions) , the receiver will detect calibrated silicon solar cell. The minimum signal of 12 nanowatts, and 20-usec pulses are delivered at a when the ambient light is subdued the rate of 130 Hz by a simple two- receiver can be set to detect 6 nW. transistor modulator. A detailed description of the transmitter cir- cuitry, power measurement techniques, PACKAGING and other factors affecting LED op- . ^ ' ^ eration is given elsewhere ^ The transmitter and receiver are each housed in 13 mm x 90 mm brass LED is Some of the flux from the tubes. Each housing includes two collected by a 12-mm f/1.2 lens and internal acrylic bulkheads for cen- collimated into a beam whose central tering the LED and photodiode and component can be adjusted to a mini- holding the circuit boards in place. mum of 70 milliradians . When adjust- The bulkheads also serve as battery ed to 130 mR (7.5°) the central beam retainers and eyeglass mounting fix- contains 10.5 mW of the 5 3.8 mW emit- tures . ted by the LED; 32.1 mW of the loss is due to radiation not reaching the The receiver circuitrs' is m.ore lens and lens losses. The remaining complex than the transmitter's and 11.2 mW is contained in a diverging two circuit boards, both of which are and halo surrounding the primary beam shown in Fig. 4, are required. The The having a half angle of 1 radian. receiver's audible transducer is halo originates from reflections mounted to the battery retainer bulk- within the LED mounting package. head. Output to the ear is provided

149 TEST PROCEDUPES AND RESULTS The completed prototype aid was tested in a variety of controlled and subjective experiments. In addition to quantitative evaluation of detec- tion range capability, the tests were designed to check the possibility of establishing a maximum detection range so that the blind user would have some range information about a de- tected object. Accordingly, both transmitter and receiver were aligned Figure 4. Receiver circuit boards so that the former's beam intersected for the prototype eyeglass- the latter 's field of view at an ad- mounted mobility aid. At left justable distance from the aid, for is the high-gain integrated example, 3 meters. The optical tri- amplifier; at right the monostable angulation format for the prototype multivibrator threshold dis- aid is shown in Fig. 7. criminator. QUANTITATIVE TESTS by a removable plastic tube inserted through the housing and into a re- The aid was tested against a va- ceptacle in the bulkhead. The trans- riety of diffusely reflecting targets mitter and receiver, including op- with a cross section larger than that tics, electronics, battery, housing, of the transmitted beam. The result- and switch assembly, weigh about ant detection ranges were plotted on 38 grams each. The transmitter and a computer-generated graph of Eq. 1 receiver have a tested battery life showing detection range vs. target of 32 and 6 2 hours respectively. By reflectance for several values of way of comparison, both the laser Pq/P^j^. Target reflectance was meas- cane and the sonic glasses operate ured with a calibrated ref lectometer only 4 hours before requiring re- assembled for the purpose. The charging of their batteries. Oper- Pq/P^I-, values used for computer proc- ating cost is approximately 7.5

Figure 5. Disassembled view of the Figure 6. Completed prototype non- prototype eyeglass-mounted infrared ranging eyeglass-mounted infrared mobility aid; transmitter left, and mobility aid, completely self- receiver right. contained and requiring no supplemental battery or electronics packages.

150 A knowledge of Po/Pth ^^ important in predictina the aid's performance IR BEAM DETECTION REGION TRANSMITTER against many common objects. Some objects, however, have a specular re- flectina component or a cross section RECEIVER FIELD OF VIEW smaller than that of the transmitted beam and make detection range predic- Class, smooth Figure 7. Triangulation scheme for tions more difficult. the prototype eyeglass-mounted unpainted metal, and other specular infrared mobility aid. reflecting targets severely limit the aid's detection range. VThile these objects can be detected at consider- As shown in Fig. 8, the experi- able ranges when their surface is mentally measured detection ranges normal to the oncoming beam, their most closely agree with a Pp/Pth °f off-axis detection range is nominal 9 X 10 5. Since the power within the at best. central beam of the transmitter is 10.5 mW, the Pth is about 12 nW. The Detection of most diffusely re- aid was tested against a variety of flecting objects is characterized by common objects, some of which are an output signal from the time the given in Table 2. object is initially detected to a

TABLE 2

Detection Ranges for Targets with a Variety of Reflectances

Predicted R * (cm) Measured R (cm) Target Material Reflectance (%) m m

Fabric 1.5 64 65

Paper 5.0 116 119

Wood** 12.0 180 195

Fabric 31.0 289 287

Stucco** 40.0 329 312

Concrete** 62.0 409 381

Fabric 64.0 416 396

Stucco** 77.0 456 437

Stucco** 88.0 487 498

Wallboard 91.0 496 504

* tt t . , and the target where P /P , is 9 x 10 , A is . 36 cm , is 8 is a diffuse reflector (Eq. 1).

painted

151 . .

point only a few centimeters from the eyeglasses. While Fig. 7 shows a near detection range cut-off point some- what farther from the aid, sufficient off-axis infrared from the transmitter is scattered back to the receiver to give a broader detection capability.

One of the aids has been tested in environmental extremes which might be expected to alter its per- formance. Detection range is reduced when the target is illuminated by di- rect sunlight. Fog caused no measur- able change in detection range, and snow, rain, and hail caused an occa- sional false return in the form of solitary clicks. Storage at -23 de- grees Celcius for eight hours pro- duced only a slight detection range reduction and storage at 46 degrees Celcius for three hours produced no reduction in detection range. Opera- tion in humidities ranging from RANGE (M) 10 percent to 95 percent (relative) resulted in no noticeable detection range reduction. The aid success- Figure 8. Detection range vs. target fully withstood drop and vibration reflectance for the prototype tests. (Note: Though the circuitry eyeglass-mounted aid. Note close of of the aid is unaffected by high agreement theoretical prediction humidity, and the aid has been suc- (solid line) and experimental results (circles) cessfully operated in the rain, it should be noted that the reflectance of many materials is reduced by eith- er a surface layer of water or water difficult to detect.'*^ These pre- absorption which can reduce the aid's liminary tests with the eyeglass aid detection range.) have shown doorways can be easily entered without collision by merely scanning the head once or twice to SUBJECTIVE TESTS assess its azimuthal position.

The author has tested the aid It is illustrative to compare with several blind subjects in lim- this task as performed with the eye- ited preliminary tests and the Pros- glass infrared aid and the Sonic thetics and Sensory Aids Service of Glasses. The ultrasonic system has the Veterans Administration is in- such a wide beam (60 degrees) that formally evaluating two additional the door opening cannot itself be aids. Though limited in scope, tests resolved. Instead, the operator conducted by the author have proved receives signals from all sides of encouraging. Subjects have used the the opening even when gazing directly aids to detect overhanging branches, at the aperture. By means of head open doors, hallways, poles, pedes- movements the user can discern subtle trians, and other objects. The aid variations in the binaural output aind has proved useful in tracking a deduce the existence of the opening. partner in a conversation and stand- The narrow beam infrared aid with ing in line digital output provides a far simpler detection scenario. The aid only A formal evaluation of an earlier signifies targets within its field electro-optical aid, the hand-carried of view, so that when the user gazes G-5 Obstacle Detector developed by at the opening no output signal is Bionic Instruments, Inc., concluded present. The high resolution pro- that of a variety of specified ob- vided by this scheme permits the user stacles narrow openings (doorways) to readily ascertain the shape and and "low" obstacles proved the most approximate dimensions of the opening

152 by a simple scanning process. In con- The output to the blind user trast to the ultrasonic aid, little will take tv;o form.s. Three of the training or concentration is required aids will employ an audible trans- for this operation, and blind subjects ducer and three different tones v/ill frequently walk directly through the indicate in which of the three de- center of doorways during their first tection zones a target is located. trial with the infrared instrument. The remaining three aids v/ill employ a miniature tactile stimulator on Thus far two important recom- each temple of the eyeglass frames. m.endations have come out of the pre- Vibrations from either or both stimu- liminary testing. One is that the aid lators will provide the outputs for should be considered a supplement, the three detection zones. not a replacement, for such tradi- tional guidance devices as the mo- The proposal includes an evalua- bility cane and guide dog. The other tion program to measure the technical is the addition of a second channel specifications of the aids and to whereby a target will trigger three test them with blind subjects. All tones as it is approached is essen- six aids v/ill be delivered to Arkansas tial for providing range informa- Enterprises for the Blind for inde- tion. pendent testing. The Southwest Research Institute A PANGING EYEGLASS AID is presently seeking funding for this development effort. If funding is The single-beam, prototype eye- forthcoming and if tests results glass aids have demonstrated that an warrant, the eyeglass aid v;ill be LED can be used as a source of near- further improved and serial produc- infrared in a mobility aid. Since tion considered. the prototypes provide no range in- formation, tests with blind subjects are inconclusive at present. But the LASEP EYEGLASS AIDS technical success of the aid and its small physical size have encouraged Earlier in this report a com- further work. parison of LEDs and injection lasers concluded that the injection laser Accordingly, I have approached offers superior optical power output, the Southwest Research Institute in but that the LED is less costly, San Antonio, Texas with the sugges- easier to operate , and consumes less tion they undertake the final design, power. Accordingly, LEDs have been assembly, and testing of an eyeglass employed in most of the electro- aid with a ranging capability. The optical mobility aids designed and Southwest Research Institute is well assembled by the author. known for its work in bioengineer- ing. In April 19 71, however, an ex- perimental injection laser transmit- Following a favorable recom- ter measuring 1.2 cm. x 12 cm. includ- mendation from Arkansas Enterprises ing a self-contained battery and for the Blind, based upon an informal suitable for use in a mobility aid evaluation of one of the prototype configuration was designed and as- is eyeglass aids , the Institute has re- sembled. The transmitter, which cently formulated a detailed proposal described in detail elsewhere,"*" for developing and testing six eye- projected a 2.3 mR beam which pro- glass aids which will provide range duced a spot approximately 2 cm in information.'*^ The aids will be diameter at a distance of 4.3 meters. housed inside cosmetically pleasing, The divergence could be varied by a hollow eyeglass frames much like eye- simple lens adjustment. At a pulse glass hearing aids. There will be a repetition rate of 2.5 kHz, this sys- single transmitter and two receivers. tem consumed about 2 3 mW and there- A simple optical arrangement will fore operated approximately 80 hours cause the receiver's fields of view from the stack of 18 1 . 3-volt m.ercur\- to intersect the transmitted beam, in cells contained within the cylinder. two zones about 1 and 3 meters from the aid. An overlap of the two fields This laser transmitter was of view would provide a central detec- mounted on eyeglass frames for an tion zone. informal evaluation in a m.obility

153 .

aid configuration by a blind subject. been developed, for example, could be The most significant finding was the directly substituted for the LEDs in exceptional resolution provided by the prototype eyeglass aid with no the transmitter's narrow-beam width. transmitter or receiver circuit re- For example, a pencil could be easily visions.'*'' Lasers now at a labora- resolved at a range of several me- tory stage of development would ters. There was some question from typically provide more than 120 mW, the subject, however, concerning the all of which could easily be col- possibility of missing small targets lected by a simple lens. This con- with the system. figuration would provide a power advantage over the LED it replaced Further development of this la- of at least 12:1 and a Po/Pth of at ser eyeglass aid has not been pursued least 1 X 107. This value of Po/Pth due to the weight of the transmitter is higher than that for the 500 mW (approximately 75 grams including laser cited earlier, since the first the mercury cells) and the success laser must be operated at a much of the LED approach. Nevertheless, faster pulse width (e.g., 75 nano- the injection laser may yet find a seconds) with reduced receiver sensi- practical role in an eyeglass mo- tivity. bility aid. Low-threshold large optical cavity (LOC) double-hetero- structure diode lasers have recently ONGOING WORK been made commercially available. One typical laser of this type, an Pending the outcome of the RCA developmental type C30025, has Southwest Research Institute proposal, a threshold current of only 1.2 am- no work on developing more advanced peres and delivers 730 mW at a for- eyeglass mobility aids is presently ward current of 5 amperes. This is under way. However, there is a com- nearly five times the power available prehensive ongoing program to further from a conventional (nonhemispheri- quantify the aid's electro-optical cal structure) LED for the same for- specifications, refine the optical ward current. Furthermore, all the radar range eauations, and gather radiation from the laser can be easi- data about target reflectance. ly collected with a simple lens. Considering the difficulty in col- Measuring the electro-optical lecting more than 20 percent of the specifications is hindered by a nec- radiation from the LED into a central essity for calibrated standards and beam, the laser offers a potential accurate test equipments. Though the power output advantage of more than data presented herein are believed to 25:1. be reasonably accurate, there is a continual effort to update them as This new laser can be driven by appropriate simple, low-voltage circuitry very similar to that employed in the pro- The optical radar range equa- totype LED eyeglass aids described tions used to calculate various de- in this report. Receiver design, tection ranges for diffuse targets however, would have to be modified larger and smaller than the oncoming somewhat to accommodate the laser's beam have been experimentally veri- very fast pulse width. Assuming a fied and are correct. The equations, receiver sensitivity of 100 nW and however, need to be refined to take a laser output of 500 mW, a Po/Pth into account such factors as signal- of 5 X 10^ is possible. This gives to-noise ratio, targets with both a detection range of about 4 meters diffuse and specular reflectance against a diffuse target which has characteristics, solar background a reflectance of only 10 percent and illumination, and others. intercepts all the transmitted beam. Target reflectance studies are The conclusion from these ex- particularly important, and present periments and studies of a laser eye- plans are to identify the reflectance glass aid is that while the LED is of the "average" target for a variety preferable from a cost and weight of outdoor and indoor environments. standpoint, new injection laser de- This study involves direct measure- velopments bear close watching. High- ments with two reflectometers , one duty cycle double-heterostructure in- which measures diffuse reflectance jection lasers which have already over a large (3 cm^) surface area

154 and one which measures total reflect- graphic infrared. This kind of data ance over a small surface area. The is very useful in the field of en- design, construction, and operation vironmental remote sensing. of these ref lectometers are described in detail elsewhere. ^° This study Of course the instrument is ideal also involves image conversion tech- for measuring the reflectance of tar- niques to record various scenes for gets for electro-optical mobility later evaluation. Both color and aids and optical radars in general. black and white infrared film are These applications, construction of employed, as is an image-converter two kinds of simple reflectometers, tube. Image conversion permits any and typical results are explained in desired scene to be recorded at the detail elsewhere 5 wavelength of interest by means of a suitable optical filter over the Another interesting technologi- camera lens. Densitometry permits cal spin-off has been the application the relative infrared reflectance of of the eyeglass aid in a pulsed, fre- objects recorded on the image to be quency-modulated voice communications measured. For quick checks, a cali- system. Amplitude modulated optical brated reflectance target containing communicators are easy to design, but a grid of various reflectances and their performance is impaired by a placed within the area of the scene reduction in receiver output as the being photographed permits subjective distance between transmitter and re- determinations of reflectance. This ceiver is increased. A pulsed system same technique can be used to gather which employs a threshold circuit at real-time results with a filtered the receiver output will provide a image-converter tube. constant signal output within the specified communicating range. TECHNOLOGICAL SPIN-OFFS Since the existing eyeglass aids incorporate receivers with a threshold The development of this series stage at the output, they are well of active infrared mobility aids has suited for use in pulsed optical com- resulted in several interesting tech- munications. A simple voice-m.odulated nological spin-offs. To evaluate the pulsed transmitter which will fit in aid quantitatively, for example, the the mounting tube occupied by the reflectance of a great variety of aid's existing transmitter (including common materials had to be measured. miniature microphone) has been de- This kind of data is not readily signed and tested in a bread-board available in the literature, and that configuration by the author with good which has been published cannot al- results. An eyeglass optical com- ways be applied in a practical case munications system such as this could due to possible variations in the re- provide covert, interference-free com- flectance of similar and even identi- munications between individuals a few cal targets. Commercial reflectometers hundred meters apart. A book has been are available, but they are costly. prepared describing in detail the de- Therefore a simple ref lectometer was sign, operation, and circuitry' of designed utilizing an LED of the same several optical communications sys- type used in the mobility aid. The tems which have evolved from this entire device cost less than $10. work in electro-optical mobility 1 When calibrated against a smoked aids. 5 magnesium-oxide reflectance standard prepared in accordance with National There have been several other Bureau of Standards instructions, re- technological spin-offs from the flectance data obtained with the in- infrared eyeglass aid, particularly strument agreed quite closely with in the area of miniaturized injection published data. laser systems. The two described here illustrate possible commercial An interesting application of applications whose development might the ref lectometer has already been defray some of the expense of the found. The near-infrared reflectance mobility aid itself. Optical com- curve for most vegetation is rela- municators, intrusion alarms, and tively flat, so the monochromatic other electro-optical systems directly near-infrared reflectance measure- resulting from this mobility aid re- ments obtained with the instrument search are described in detail else- ^ ^ 1 '^ / ^ ^ 5 can be applied to the entire photo- whe re . 1 ' '

155 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Rehabilitation Center have dispensed helpful advice and consultations concerning the prototype non-ranging Several individuals have made eyeglass aids. important contributions to the de- velopment of the eyeglass infrared I am grateful to the American mobility aid. Noel Runyan, an elec- Foundation for the Blind (AFB) for trical engineer, has tested each of funding the preparation of this re- the aids described in Part 2 of port. Mr. Louis Goldish, director this report and provided important of the Foundation's Sensory Aids evaluations. He has also provided Analysis and Development Program, important information about cane has provided information about the travel and acoustical cues. design philosophy, potential user population, and encouragement. James P. Miller, chairman of Dr. Milton Graham, Director of the Southwest Research Association, AFB's Department of Research has has provided valuable discussions contributed valuable discussions on regarding optical radar range equa- the general subject of sensory aids. tions and assistance with the com- I am particularly indebted to Les- puter generation of range equation lie L. Clark, Editor of the Besearah

results. Important discussions on Bulletin , for making the preparation active electro-optical aids have of this report possible. been provided by J. Malvern Benja- min, Jr., president of Bionic In- Finally, I wish to acknowledge struments, Inc. J. J. Whitehead the patience, understanding, and and L. W. Farmer of the Veterans enthusiastic support of my wife, Administration's Central Blind Minnie.

156 . , , , ,

NOTES AND REFERENCES

J. M. , Jr. Op. cit. , Kay, L. Ultrasonic mobility 10. Benjamin, aids for the blind. In 65-6. L. L. Clark (Ed.), Proaeedings Ibid. , 66. of the Rotterdam Mobility Re- 11. Conference . New York: search aid for American Foundation for the 12. Cranberg, L. Sensory , March Blind, 1965, 9-16. the blind. Electronics 1946, 116-19. Russell, L. Travel path sounder. Application _ of Ibid. 73-8. 13. Hannan, W. J. injection lasers to communica- tion and radar systems. RCA Benjamin, J. M. , Jr. A review 95-9. of the Veterans Administration Lasers, 1972, blind guidance device project. Op. cit., Bulletin of Prosthetics Research, 14. Benjamin, J. M. , Jr. 67-72. 1968, 10 (9) , 63-90. J. Effectiveness Mims, F. M., III. An infrared 15. Gardiner, F. eyeglass mobility aid for the of IR covert illuminators. 178-81. blind. Proceedings of the RCA Lasers, 1972, Southwest IEEE Conference F. M., III. April 1972. 16. Campbell, R. , and Mims, Semiconductor diode lasers. In- W. Sams & Co., See, for example: Bliss, J. C. dianapolis: H. Crane, H. D., and Gardiner, K. W. 1972, 75-136. An ambient-light object detector III. Light em/uttino and its potential extension to 17. Mims, F. M. , H. W. Sams convey object shape information. diodes. Indianapolis: 24-38. In L. L. Clark (Ed.), Proceedings & Co. , 1973, the Rotterdam Mobility Re- of emi,tting 18. Mims, F. M. , III. Light search Conference . New York: Indianapolis: American Foundation for the diode projects. in press. Blind, 1965, 61-71. H. W. Sams & Co., 1973,

Benjamin, J. M. , Jr. Op. cit., Starkiewicz, W. , and Kuliszew- 19. ski, T. Progress report on the 81. Elektroftalm mobility aid. Ibid. F. M. III. 27-38. 20. Campbell, R. , and Mims, , Op. cit. , 25-39. Bliss, J. C, and Gardiner, K. W. , 75-110. A mobility aid for the blind to 21. Ibid. supplement the cane. (Final re- port. Project No. 4213) Stanford 22. Ibid., 111-36. Research Institute, 1966. 23. Ibid., 74.

Bach-y-Rita, P. , Collins, C. C. Light emitting Saunders, F. A., White, B., and 24. Mims, F. M., III. H. W. Sarr^s Scadden, L. Visual substitution diodes. Indianapolis: by tactile image projection. & Co. , 1973, 142-3. Nature, 1969, 221, 963-4. 25. Schlisser, G. , and Insler, J. See, for example: McClung, R. R. Portable optical communicator Short term field evaluation of rides laser for secure voice Type 8A9 ultrasonic aid for the transmissions. Electronics blind. Bulletin of Prosthetics March 16, 19 70, 96. Research, 1968, 10(9), 91-8. 26. Bionic Instruments, Inc. L'ze (brochure) Also see, Kay, L. Sonic glasses Bionia C-4 Zas^r Czm. : Instru- for the blind. Research Bulle- Bala Cynwyd, Pa. Bionic ments , Inc. tin Number 25 , 1973, 37-50 (Appendices A and B)

157 , ,

27. The complete regulations will 42. Kay, L. Sonic glasses for the appear in a future edition of blind. Research Bulletin Num- The Federal Register and are ber 26, 1973, 33. expected to take effect in late

1974. 43. Mims, F. M. , III. Eyeglass mo- bility aid for the blind. Jour- 28. Laser Foaus , May 1973, 16. nal of the American Optometric Association , June 1972, 673-6. 29. Archives of Environmental Health,

February 1970, 20(2), 156-211. 44. Mims, F. M. , III. An active infrared mobility aid for the 30. Laser health hazards control. blind. Proceedings of the Air Force Manual, April 1968, Ele ctro-Optical Systems Design 161-8. Conference, 1972, 14-18.

31. Mims, F. M. , III. Use LEDs, not 45. Mims, F. M. , III. Light emitting lasers, in rangefinders . Elec- diode projects. Indianapolis: tronic Design, May 25, 1972, H. W. Sams, in press. 48-50. 46. Deatherage, Bruce H. The evalua- 32. Benjamin, J. M. Jr. Op. cit. tion of the Haverford-Bionic 63. Instruments obstacle detector. In L. L. Clark (Ed.), Proceed- 33. Kay, L. Ultrasonic spectacles ings of the Rotterdam Mobility the R. for blind. In Dufton Research Conference . New York: (Ed.) Proceedings of the Inter- American Foundation for the national Conference on Sensory Blind, 1965, 214. Devices for the Blind, London:

St. Dunstan's, June 1966, 275-92. 47. Laenger, C. J., Sr. , et al. A proposal for a mobility aid 34, Bishop, W. Passive environmental for the blind. Southwest Re- sensors and their transducers. search Institute, April 11, In L. L. Clark (Ed.), Proceed- 1973. ings of the Rotterdam Mobility

Research Conference . New York: 48. Mims, F. M. , III. Relaxation American Foundation for the oscillators provide compact Blind, 1965, 51. drive for injection lasers.

Electronics , July 19, 1971, 35 Product Engineering , March 25, 88-90. 1968. 49. Kressel, H. Semiconductor 36. Chardon, G. A mobility aid for lasers: Devices. (Technical the blind. In L. L. Clark (Ed.), Report PRRL-71-TR-012) RCA Proceedings of the Rotterdam Mo- Laboratories, 1971. Page 43, bility Research Conference . New Fig. 2.5.32. York: American Foundation for the Blind, 1965, 79-81.

50. Mims, F. M. , III. Light emit- 37. Benjamin, J, M. Jr. Op. cit. ting diode proj ects . Indian- 89. apolis: H. W. Sams, in press.

38. Kay, L. Sonic glasses for the blind. Research Bulletin Num- 51. Mims, F. M., III. Optical ber 25, 1973, 29-33. communication. Indianapolis H. W. Sams, in press. 39. Russell, L. Op. cit., 77-8.

40. Zahl, P. A. (Ed.) Blindness modern approaches to the unseen environment. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1950, 486.

41. Chardon, G. Op. cit., 79.

158 PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF LONG CANE ORIENTATION TRAINING

Jennifer C. F. Peel*

In the following series of five paper reports on an experiment which papers, which will appear under the arose out of methodological problems above general title, important dif- associated with performance evalua- ficulties and problems associated tion, aimed to discover (a) what the with long cane training will be ex- psychological threshold for drop de- amined, and experimental attempts at tection is, and (b) whether it could overcoming them will be described. play a useful part in a battery of The first is a critical examination tests. The fourth paper reports on of the standard teaching method, and the effect of providing augmented five specific areas of weakness in feedback during the first week of that method are discussed from, a psy- indoor training, and will describe chological point of view. These are: a technique for taking daily objec- difficulties relating to information tive performance measures. overloading, selective attention away from crucial aspects of the task, The fifth and final paper as- negative transfer of training, and a sesses how the whole experim.ental general paucity of feedback. training technique, including an attempt to augment feedback concern- The second paper reports on ex- ing case handling, fared in a real perimental training techniques which life situation. sought to overcome the first four of these problems and how they fared in a practical setting. The third The first four papers appear in this issue of the P.esearah Bulletin; the last one will appear in a subsequent issue. *Blind Mobility Research Unit, De- partment of Psychology, University of Nottingham, England.

159 PART I

Critique of Standard Long Cane Orientation Training from a Psychological Point of View

Techniques for training people handling) , is tauaht and practiced in long cane orientation have been first, then other aspects of the in use for the past thirty years, skill such as the use of orientation since Hoover (1950) began his pioneer cues is added. Thus the progression work during World War II. During is from practicing single skills in those years many suggestions for simple environments to using diffi- modifying the traditional training cult multiple skills in more complex method have been made and success- environments with the speed of pro- fully put into practice (cf. Camp- gression being determined by the bell, 1971). These modifications ability of the trainee. '^ have always had to do with specific areas of the training, such as in- Progression is encouraged by creasing the instructor/student ra- stressing the universal nature of tio, providing crash courses, etc., whatever is taught, so that a skill but have rarely looked at the stand- or technique taught in a simplified ard training method as a whole. situation is shown to be applicable This paper will critically analyze to another, more complex one. Ori- some basic assumptions of the train- entation taught early, so that a ing scheme from a psychological point client can see that he is using a of view and make practical sugges- set of principles capable of dealing tions for improvement. with a number of events.

A specifically psychological Verbal instructions are the approach was adopted not to denigrate largest source of information through- the experience of practitioners and out the training for both tactical cane users, as this discussion is procedural techniques (such as road based on the author's practical ex- crossing) and precise motor skills perience in using the long cane and (such as cane handling). Thus, the in working as a mobility instructor. only augmented or artificial feed- There is however much to be gained back a trainee gets comes from his from combining practical experience instructor. This information tends of problems and the kinds of insights to be massed early in the training that can be gained from applying the period and at specific parts of the psychologist's body of knowledge. lesson, so that the client is briefed to perform a task and debriefed on its completion (Fitts and Posner, THE STANDARD LONG CANE 1967) . In the early stages of train- TRAINING METHOD ing much verbal feedback concerning cane handling is being given. It is Although the exact training generally done a short time after the methods used by individual instruct- completion of a response rather than ors and in use at different institu- concurrently with it. The instruct- tions will obviously vary,* in general or's aim is to phase himself out of the basic principles of the training the lessons gradually, at first pro- are these: the training is part viding repeated information about progressive in nature. One aspect arc width, and later allowing his of the skill, such as the touch tech- client to learn by experience that a nique (the basic factor in cane narrow arc width may result in a bumped shoulder.

*"Standard training method" refers TRAINING DIFFICULTIES to the method currently used in Great Britain, brought here from Building upon this very brief ac- the Veterans Administration Re- count of the basic principles of habilitation Center, Hines , U.S.A. standard long cane training, I now

160 . — , want to discuss how it works in prac- out certain aspects of the informa- tice, and to point out major problem tion they are receiving; or they may areas. In fact, this analysis will allow stimuli to v/ait for attention focus on the teaching of cane hand- and so build up an increasing time ling, for this is at the same time lag between the arrival of a stimu- both the central feature of this par- lus and the attempt to cope v/ith it; ticular mobility technique and a par- or, they may work too fast and commit ticularly difficult skill to acquire. more errors (Miller, 1964) . This se- An instructor's aim is so to train lective attending may lead to poor his client to use the cane as if it cane handling or to a concentration were an extension of his body. Thus, on, say, orientation rather than cane by having the correct arc width and handling. the correct amount of cane contact with the floor, he is both protected The blind are particularly prone from and given information about his to information overload because they environment generally have to monitor information at higher levels of awareness. They Problems in long cane teaching have, for instance, the problem of arise because the difficulties in- consciously synthesizing information volved in learning any motor skill from several sources rather than, as are compounded by the lack of vi- the sighted might do, xmconsciously sion. Therefore it is necessary to analyzing what they see (Leonard, describe the task immediately con- 1970) . Also in mobility they have fronting the long cane trainee. less time for making decisions: for example, they cannot see that they First, in any learning situation may be approachina a step or curb. the trainee must work from a clear description of the skill he is at- In motor learning, another major tempting to learn. For the blind problem is that of actually being trainee this prerequisite is particu- able to hit upon the correct response, larly difficult to achieve because and recognizing those characteristics his ability to receive, interpret, that distinguish it from an incorrect and use information that is intrinsic one. The learner's aim is to be able to the task is curtailed. Instead to correct his own errors, for if of using clear visual feedback he they go uncorrected and are practiced has to appreciate and use esoteric they may be learned, become habitual, proprioceptive, kinesthetic, and and prove difficult to unlearn at a tactual sources. When the task re- later stage (Kay, 1953). Again, quirements are described verbally blindness as such makes the self- by the instructor there is the added detection of errors difficult. In difficulty of translating words into addition, in cane handling, few warn- feelings, and it may be that the ings of error come via intrinsic task requirements remain unclear for feedback. For instance, a traveler a long time. may walk a whole block with a narrow arc width without bumping his shoulder, A second problem is that through and therefore not receive warning inexperience the learner is unable to that his technique is faulty. anticipate, weigh, and categorize items of information correctly. When Finally, cane handling itself is presented with a stimulus the learner a difficult skill. On the one hand, has to try to recognize it, assess information tends to be distorted be- what has to be done with it, and try cause it is received at the cane's to perform the correct response. If tip (at a distance from the body) at any of those stages he makes a while on the other, there is a con- mistake there is little chance to go siderable difference between the ex- back and correct because new sets of tent of the controlling wrist move- stimuli requiring different responses ment and the resulting sweep of the may have come along in the meantime. cane's tip. Furthermore, the basic Thus, most novices generally face an requirements of cane handling (an information overload at the beginning accurate arc width and sensitive re- of training. actions to the tip's contact with obstacles) are exacting, for they Overloading leads many learners imply nothing less than that the user to attend selectively to only certain must learn to project his body image parts of the task. They may filter forward to the tip of the cane

161 . . . obviously difficult when you cannot these two aspects of mobility. The see where the tip is (Cratty and requirements of cane handling are Sams, 1968) difficult and exacting, and the re- ward for improving, say hand posi- tion, may not be obvious, let alone OVERLOADING AND significant. Yet, the solution of SELECTIVE ATTENTION orientation problems may have some of the excitement of good detective Looking at problem areas par- work so the need to achieve in that ticularly associated with standard sphere may become associated with the long cane training, we will see that need to demonstrate that one is in- one of them seems to arise from the telligent, bright, and alert. instructors ' stress on the importance of teaching cane handling and orienta- Finally, the cues associated tion together. While it is true that with orientation are in large measure a client may spend a while simply easier to perceive and recognize than practicing cane handling, orienta- those that are intrinsic to cane tion is normally introduced the mo- handling. For instance, it is easier ment he begins to make short simple to recognize footsteps than it is to journeys; after about four lessons pick up the proprioceptive cues as- (not counting training in "pre-cane" sociated with an incorrect arc width. mobility skills) . From then on ori- entation and cane handling tend to In sum, the learner's attention receive almost equal amounts of at- may be directed away from cane hand- tention from the instructor. ling before he has mastered it. In- stead of concentrating on establish- From my own experience as a ing good techniques and eradicating trainee and instructor it appears bad ones, he tends to practice his that orientation training is intro- errors and allows them to become duced long before the skill of cane habits handling has been mastered. These two facets of the training are com- Perhaps the most crucial point, peting for the client's attention. however, is that through the addition The competition appears to be un- of orientation at this stage there is equal, for extraneous factors direct added yet another load for the learn- attention towards orientation often er's already stretched capacity to at the expense of cane handling. cope. This overloading may have a number of detrimental effects, vary- The most significant factors ing from inflexible behavior (Fitts contributing to this situation are: and Posner, 1967, p. 37) to states first the stresses and anxiety ex- of anxiety and confusion (Wechster, perienced by the blind traveler 19 45) , all of which may result in (Locke, 1972) will inevitably en- taking longer to acquire the skill. courage him to use cues and techniques which appear to him to maximize his safety. For instance, at this stage TRANSFER OF TRAINING in training he is unlikely to feel sufficiently sure of his cane hand- A second problem arising from ling to trust it completely. So if the standard training technique be- he has been taught the orientation comes apparent during that frustrating cues which give him prior warning, and troublesome period when the train- say about stairs, he is going to want ee first tries to travel outdoors. to watch out for these. Then, when Very often the situation develops as he has spotted the cue his anxiety follows. By lesson 19, when the will mount and so too will the temp- changeover often takes place, the tation to use old and tried methods trainee will already be performing of drop detection (such as foot shuf- well indoors. His handling of the fling) . Thus at each stage attention cane will have become more automatic is directed away from cane handling and will be showing a rhythmic, firm, and at crucial moments (detecting a and regular touch. Instead of having step down) the cane may not be prop- to struggle with and concentrate on erly used at all (Knapp, 1963, p. 121) his cane technique he will be largely unaware of that; rather, he will be Second, for many there may be un- paying attention to his environment equal amounts of intrinsic interest in and quickly and efficiently completing

162 .

his journeys. The contrast between This ti me the primary source of his last performance indoors and his the difficul ty seerris to be the need first performance outdoors conse- to modify th e touch technique. Other quently will be most marked. First parts of the skill, such as hand po-

of all, in the new environment he may sition, grip , etc. remain the same in no longer feel safe. The dangers of the two situ ations and are positively outdoor travel where there are cars, transferred from one to another fSey-

side curbs, overhanging trees, etc., mour , 1957) The disruption comes are obviously more numerous and more about becaus e there is negative trans- significant than those faced indoors. fer between the tv7o touch techniaues. Furthermore, he may feel less secure because outdoors things are on a Various reasons can be put for- much larger scale. Walls from which ward why the transfer is negative, noises rebound are further away and Bruce (1933) pointed out that where the general noise level is much higher task stimuli (i.e., floor texture) and more confusing. and responses differ in two situations no trsinsfer s hould be expected. But It is not just the novel aspects going beyond this, it looks as though of the new environment that are bur- the learner s imply forgets to make densome to the trainee. A far more the right res ponse, and because the serious impediment is the fact that old response is inappropriate finds the skill he equipped himself with himself in di fficulty (Holding, indoors no longer functions as well 1965) . outdoors. The reason is that when the cane is used on smooth floor sur- Another reason is that there faces (found indoors) , the tip's con- might be interference between the old tact with the floor can be quite ex- and the new response. Such interfer- tensive--as much as 15 cms. On rough ence tends to occur when similar surfaces, such as pavements, the tip skills have not been overleamed tends to jam in cracks if there is a (Siipola and Israel, 1933) and tends slide phase to the movement.* There- to be greatest when the learning of fore the correct technique in these the first task is at an intermediate circumstances is to touch the tip to stage (Mander, 1954). Thus, the the floor and lift it off immediately. amount of time devoted to cane hand- Though clients always have this ex- ling indoors appears to be crucial. plained to them, in my experience they find it very difficult to put A third reason for the poor their instructions into practice. It transfer of training may be that the normally happens that every few yards skill acquired during training on the the client finds that the cane has easy task (cane handling indoors) jammed in a crack, and with infuriat- cannot be transferred to the harder ing frequency he has to stop, pull task (cane handling outdoors) because his cane out, realign himself, and it lacks some of the necessary skill start again. Frustration mounts to components used in the latter (Hold- a disheartening level, often result- ing, 196 2) . Thus it appears as though ing in an alarming deterioration of the indoor training not only encour- skill. ages the client to acquire a skill different from that he is going to This is another occasion when a be required to use outdoors, but also problem that is met with in many fails to teach him much that will be training situations, namely that of of use. It could be true that in ori- progressing from the simplified train- entation the cues and techniques used ing environment to the testing real- in the two situations are so differ- life setting is, in the case of long ent that rather than expecting a cane training, augmented by diffi- transfer from one to another, in- culties peculiar to cane handling. structors should, to a certain extent, approach them separately. Lawrence, (1954) who has shown that where simu- lators differ slightly from, the final *This problem may be less severe task these differences may be import- in America where the floor texture ant and produce negative transfer. of the sidewalk is apparently smooth, but it is certainly met with Therefore there is a case for in Europe where paving slabs tend saying that a client should tackle the to be used. complex task of outdoor travel as soon

163 .

as possible, for having acquired the The instructors' alternative is difficult skill he could then expect to give the feedback concurrently it to transfer positively to the with the response, but this also has simpler situation, and would have its drawbacks. It may cause the avoided the frustrations and disap- client to attend to the artificial pointments that at present accompany feedback, rather than the intrinsic the first few weeks of outdoor trav- cues, with the result that when the el. former is taken away (the "crutch" is withdrawn) there is a sudden drop in performance (Annett, 1959). Or FEEDBACK the client may find it confusing and difficult to associate a particular The third problem arising out piece of feedback with a particular of the standard training scheme is response. This is especially notice- one that affects it throughout. Un- able if the concurrent feedback be- like the problems already discussed, gins to lag, as it may well do during it is not limited to a particular a sequence of responses (Lee, 1950). situation or portion of the training, though like them its effects are most Thus, there is a clear case for apparent in the early stages of learn- replacing words as a source of feed- ing. The problem centers on the dif- back with something more in harmony ficulty of supplying the blind client with the body's intrinsic feedback with adequate information concerning systems. For blind clients perhaps his cane handling. the most flexible and easily control- lable method for augmenting feedback Again we see a situation in is to provide it tactually. Teaching which the difficulties created by aids could be designed which would blindness itself render conventional provide the client with a concrete teaching techniques inefficient (for description of the task's require- a fuller account of these difficulties ments and present information about see Leonard, 1970) . In this case the errors in such a way as to direct conventional method of supplying attention to intrinsic rather than verbal descriptions of the skill and extrinsic sources of feedback. verbal feedback about it is at fault. For by these means it is impossible to give the blind person a clear idea SUMMARY of what he must do. The major problems associated The drawbacks involved in using with the standard long cane training words as the primary source of aug- scheme appear to be these: mented feedback are these: First, it is very difficult to avoid giving 1. The emphasis on teaching long descriptions in visual terms; terms cane handling together with ori- that may mean very little to blind entation from a very early stage people. Second, there is no way in generally causes an overloading which words can draw attention to of the learner's capacity to the skills' intrinsic cues (i.e., cope and attend. As a result, proprioceptive, kinesthetic, and he will selectively attend to tactual) that the client must learn things other than cane handling. to recognize. 2. In the indoor environment, with Third, it is difficult to give its smooth surfaces, the trainee the verbal information at the right appears to learn a technique that time. Take the example of correcting is inappropriate to outdoor a client's arc width. The best that travel. Transfer between the an instructor can manage is to give two environments and techniques the information a short while after is difficult. the response has been made. This means that there is a delay between 3. There is a general paucity of the response and the feedback, during feedback regarding cane handling, which distracting stimuli may break most feedback being given in the the response- feedback link {Brackbill form of words which are difficult and Kappy , 19 6 2) to relate to the task's intrinsic feedback and do not draw the cli- ent's attention to it.

164 , . ; .

AN ALTERNATIVE TRAINING SCHEME then the client might still be in the right frame of mind to concentrate on Because the difficulties follow- his cane handling aind not feel so ing upon the problems described can much resentment and frustration with be so damaging, a new training tech- the difficulties of using a cane on nique which seeks to avoid them has rough pavements been developed. Briefly, the princi- ples out of which these new techniques Third, to increase the amount of grew were these: First, it appeared information available concerning the that the burden of overloading which skill of cane handling, a piece of results in selective attention for apparatus v;as devised which augmented aspects of the skill other than cane the learner's tactual feedback in re- handling could be avoided if the lation to arc width and extent of cane learner was allowed to spend his first contact. This, it was hoped, not weeks of training concentrating on only defined the task more clearly, cane handling alone. Then when cane but encouraged the learner to concen- handling had been largely mastered trate on the tasks ' intrinsic cues so and had become a habit rather than a that he could become more self-criti- conscious process the teaching of cal of his performance. orientation could safely begin. Sec- ond, the training scheme sought to All these techniques were tested avoid the difficulties of transferring in both experimental and practical the skill of cane handling from the teaching situations. How they fared indoor to the outdoor environment. and how they came to form part of a Here the suggestion was that if the new teaching method will be reported transfer was made as easly as possi- later in this series. ble, say within the first fortnight.

REFERENCES

Annett, J. Learning a pressure under Gagne, R. M. & Bolles, R. C. A re- conditions of immediate and delayed view of factors in learning effi- knowledge of results. Quarterly ciency. In Holding, D. H. (Ed.) Journal of Experimental Psy ahology Experimental psychology in industry

1959. Harm.ondsworth , Eng. : Penguin, 1959.

Brackbill, Y. & Kappy , M. Delay of Holding, D. H. Principles of training reinforcement and retention. Jour- Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1965. nal of Comparative Physiological Psychology , 52, 14-18, 1962. Holding, D. H. Transfer between dif- ficult and easy tasks. Srizisc Bruce, R. W. The conditions of trans- Journal of Psy choloay , 53, 397-407, fer of training. Journal of Ex- 1962. perimental Psy chology , 16, 343-61, 19 33. Hoover, R. E. The cane as a travel aid. In Zahl, P. A. (Ed.), Blind- Campbell, D. W. A vacation course in ness, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton long cane orientation mobility. University Press, 353-65, 1950. Mimeograph, Department of Psy- chology, University of Nottingham, Kay, H. Experimental studies of azult 1971. learning. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1953. Cratty, B. J. & Sams, T. A. Body image of blind children. State Knapp, B. N. S'

Cole, 1967. Journal c^ Ps'^ chology , 38, 367-82, 1954.

165 ,

Lee, B. S. Effects of delayed speech Miller, J. C. Adjusting to overloads feedback. Journal of the Aaousti- of information. In Rioch, D. McK. cal Society of Ameriaa , 22, 824-6, and Weinstein, E. A. (Eds.), Dis- 1950. orders of oommuniaation , research publications. Association for Re- Leonard, J. A. The concept of the search into Nervous Mental Dis- minimal information required for orders, 42, 87-100, 1964. effective mobility and suggestions for future non-visual displays. Seymour, W. D. Transfer of training Mimeograph, Department of Psycholo- in engineering skills. Occupation- gy, University of Nottingham, 19 70. al Psychology , 31, 243-7, 1957.

Locke, P. M. Stress in blind pedes- Siipola, E. M. & Israel, H. E. Habit trians. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. interference as dependent upon University of Nottingham, 19 72. stage of training. American Jour-

nal of Psychology , 45, 205-27, 1933. Mander, G. Transfer of training as a function of degree of response Wechster, D. R. H. The clinical overlearning. Journal of Experi- measurement of anxiety. Psychiatric mental Psy ahology , 41, 329-35, Quarterly, 19, 618, 1945. 1954.

PART II

An Experiment on the Effects on Long Cane Mobility of Reducing the Length and Content of the Indoor Training Period

Criticisms of the standard long EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN cane training method have been made above which suggest that in its pres- Control Group ent form it creates several very seri- ous difficulties for the learner. The Group lA was trained for four standard insistence that orientation weeks. Throughout they received and cane handling are taught together standard long cane training in both from a very early stage led to an cane handling and orientation. They overloading of the learner's capacity spent the first two weeks indoors to cope and caused him to direct his followed by two weeks outdoors. attention away from cane handling to orientation. Similarly, the indoor training environment was thought to Experimental Groups be inappropriate in the sense that it allowed the trainee to acquire a cane Group IB was trained for three handling technique which he would not weeks. They also received the stand- be able to use outdoors and which ard training throughout in both cane would interfere with the more useful handling and orientation. However, outdoor technique. they spent only a week indoors before going outdoors for two weeks. In this paper an experiment will be described which set out to test Group llA was trained for four whether these defects are present in weeks. For the first two weeks they the standard training scheme and concentrated on cane handling alone, whether an alternative training method and trained indoors . In the second might eliminate them. two weeks they trained outdoors com- bining orientation and cane handling.

Group IIB was trained for three weeks. During the first week they

166 learned only cane handling and were SUBJECTS indoors. During the following two weeks they were outdoors and combined Twenty- four paid volunteers, cane handling viith orientation. drawn from a university population, acted as subjects. There v/ere an It was hypothesized that the ef- equal number of both sexes and the fects of overloading and selective age range was from 18 to 24 years. attention would be avoided by Groups There were 6 subjects to a group llA and IIB because they had concen- and all were sighted. trated on cane handling alone during initial training. By contrast, these effects would be apparent in the per- METHOD formances of Groups lA and IB who, from the beginning, had combined cane Subjects were blindfolded before handling with orientation. lessons and not allowed to see the place where the lessons were held. Similarly, regarding the effects They had an hour's training on four of training in an "inappropriate" en- consecutive days in each v;eek, and vironment. Groups IB and IIB were one hour's testing on the fifth. expected to adapt more readily to Except where the design of the ex- the rough outdoor surfaces, because periment called for a difference, they had spent only one week indoors. lessons followed the standard teach- On the other hand. Groups lA and llA ing procedure. were expected to experience greater difficulties in making the transition TESTING PROCEDURE to outdoor travel, because they had trained for two weeks on smooth in- Subjects' performances were door surfaces. evaluated at the end of the three

TABLE 1

Experimental Design

Group Indoors Outdoors Test

lA Two weeks Two weeks Familiar and Cane handling and Cane handling unfamiliar orientation and orientation routes

IB One week Two weeks Familiar and Cane handling and Cane handling unfamiliar orientation and orientation routes

llA Two weeks Two weeks Familiar and Cane handling Cane handling unfamiliar only and orientation routes

IIB One week Two weeks Familiar and Cane handling Cane handling unfamiliar only and orientation routes

167 , . or four weeks of training. For this TRAINING RECORD evaluation, subjects were observed and filmed as they negotiated two Throughout the training indivi- routes in quiet residential areas. dual daily records of subjects' Both routes were approximately half a progress were kept. Particular at- mile long, and subjects were familiar tention was paid to how they reacted with one, but not the other. The fa- to their training programs, and how miliar route was simple in shape and and when they developed the ability had been met once before. The un- to cope with different situations. familiar route was more demanding, having an unusual shape, narrow clut- tered pavements, and the novelty of RESULTS a gradient.

The groups ' mean scores for each Subjects negotiated two differ- item on the rater's score sheet is ent types of route so that the varied shown in Table 2. This table presents conditions might reveal diverse quali- a profile of the mean of the group's ties in subjects' performances. ability. The main point of an analy- Whereas optimum performances could sis of this data is that at the time be maintained on the familiar route, of the evaluation there were no major any weaknesses in skill were expected differences between the performances to be revealed on the more difficult of the four groups. The judgments of route (Armstrong, 1968). observers supported this conclusion.

Objective scores were gathered The data also shows that all sub- at the end of training. However, jects were able to perform most of objective performance measures can- the subskills most of the time. Again, not at present cover all the aspects the observers' judgments supported of training experience and perform- this, though they went on to say that ance that are of interest; in this there were differences in the way study qualitative judgments were also subskills were performed. recorded. Finally, it is clear that a num- For the objective scores Leonard ber of subjects reached a comparative- and Wycherley's method of using a ly high level of competence after a "flow chart" type of assessment form relatively short period of training. was used (Leonard and Wycherley, The rater and observers agreed that 1967). Briefly, this form divides 11 of the best performers could have a route into street blocks and lists traveled safely by themselves in fa- all the subtasks that the traveler miliar, quiet residential areas. In should perform (detecting up-curbs unfamiliar areas they might have got clearing on up-curbs, etc.) . Sub- lost, but probably would not have jects are then scored according to hurt themselves (Table 3) whether they performed the subtasks or not. Scoring was done by a quali- The following conclusions are fied and experienced long cane in- based on the daily training record: structor. 1. Subjects who concentrated on This type of flow-chart scoring cane handling only during their misses many of the more subtle as- indoor training became bored pects of a performance because it and careless. only records whether or not the sub- task is performed, and says nothing 2. It was easier to teach subjects about how it is carried out (Brown, who had only trained for one 1966). This gap was filled by having week indoors how to adapt to two observers record independent, the outdoor environment. simultaneous commentaries on how sub- jects were faring on the routes. 3. Difficulties which emerged early These were done by the author and in the training were ironed out another experienced observer using by the time of the final evalua- pocket tape recorders. Finally, sub- tion . jects were filmed performing all sub- tasks .

168 CQ n r- VO u> o "^ '.D CO r^ Q cr. ro 00 ro in CD 00 o ro -T rH rN rH

o r~~ r- ro o ID ID O r~ r- O u o U3 ro in rH o >D in 00 cr\ in in T ro ro T V •D rH o rsj o o VD 00 ro ro M-l m "3" CO c in in CO o VD CTi D ro 00 r^J rH (^1 & a r^ ro 0) o o o o '-O o o p^ o o CO in in in rH o o VD in in in in VD ro

ro ro 00 CO ^ >D ,-i in Q) Q r^ CO 1X> o CM ro CO o ro '3' 0) H a- CM rH rH [^ -p O o o r^ >D o r- ro r~ o u u U3 o o in 1X> o VD ro VD c CD in ID o o VD VD 'a- r--\

CQ ro a" rH r^ <-{ rH rH 1^ in c Q o UJ ro 'a- ro ro o o CM •H rsi CM rsi rH rH rvj 4-1 t^ CTN r^ ro (0 CT\ o r^ o r^ O i—i (0 •rH > rsj ID ro o o VD s CO 00 o VD 00 VD a0) 0) 4-> tN (y\ in Q a\ in D ro O rH in .H S c in in in VD CO 13 •rH C e m in (M in •a- ro (tJ VD D0) o UJ in rH ro o VD ro o o CO VD VD 00 a<

o n o XI X! M M Sh a -P n 4J r 3 14H p D x: x; n MH O U en h cn cn -P H w O w CO tn -H tn D ai Q, to -rl r 4) •P +J c c 0) c Q) (D o rH D to rH (D (1) •rl u to s S ^ (1) m M u Q u 0) M F "1 rH (D •p +J -P 11 n -P Ti rH Ti D 01 en -P 3 3 01 (0 to > n, tu ID cr •H Sh 0) -p rH M m Q Cu w i-l u Q in u &H c.

169 ,

TABLE 3

Raw Scores for the Eleven Best Performers: Familiar Route

Possible Score 5 5 5 5

Rank , Rank familiar unfamiliar Test Item* Subject route route 10

Group lA

1 1 1 5 4 5 7 7

2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5

3 15.5 6.5 3 2 3 7 2

Group IB

1 8 11 5

2 10 2 3

Group llA

1 4 8.5 8 8

Group IIB

1 10 18.5 8 8 2 4 2 4 5 5 5 3

2 10 15 6 7 3 4 4 4 5 5 3

3 2.5 6.5 6 6 5 5 4 5 5 5 7 7

4 2.5 6.5 7 7 4 4 3 4 5 5 5 6

5 6 5 6 4 5 4 5 5 5 5 6 6

•^Test items correspond to those shown in Table 1.

170 ,

DISCUSSION noted repeatedly that v/hen subjects were relieved of the necessity of Evaluation Methodology finding their own way round a build- ing, or of the challenge of complet- A first reaction to the data ob- ing a route on their ov;n, they becarre tained is disappointinent that the bored and lost interest in the task. method of evaluating performance used Thus, instead of taking advantage of turned out to be so inadequate. On their greater freedom to concentrate the positive side it did show, in on cane handling, they became slack agreement with the observers' judg- and lazy and were careless and sloppy ments , that by the end of training about their performances. there were no major differences be- tween the groups and that nearly all The effects of this teaching subjects were able to perform the method reflected on the teacher in subskills. However, the quantitative a similar way. She too found the scores failed completely to record lessons boring and frustrating. She differences in the efficiency with was constantly having to exhort sub- which subskills were performed, and jects to improve their performances, also differences in performance which and yet had none of the normal in- occurred during the training program. centives (such as the challenge of an interesting orientation problem) This implies that improvements to offer them. In addition, subjects' in the current methods of evaluating conversation related to the task performance need to be made, espe- tended to diminish, so that cues and cially in the following areas. First, items of interest that are normally one evaluation only at the end of remarked on by trainees were not men- training is not enough, for it misses tioned by these subjects. It seemed many of the differences in training that the development of a full pro- experience that are coped with and fessional relationship between client eliminated by an expert instructor. and instructor could be impeded by Instead, daily performance measures such a consequence. The trainee might need to be taken. Second, scores lose interest in the task and fail to should say something about the effi- see the potentialities of long cane ciency and economy of the perform- mobility, while the instructor might ance. (This was in fact done in find this a frustrating and unreward- later experiments in which daily ing stage of training. measurements were taken and an ob- jective measurement of the smoothness In fact these comments apply of performance was used--see below.) mainly to Group llA, who spent two weeks indoors learning cane handling The inadequacies of the final only. Those who spent only a week evaluation apart, a wealth of informa- in similar circumstances (Group IIB) tion was obtained from the daily did not seem to suffer from boredom. training records. The justification They were still at a stage in which for using this sort of information the attainment of skill in cane is simply that it is the only source handling was sufficiently novel, currently available, and thus is com- difficult, and intriguing to command monly used among trainers and in- their attention. This suggests that structors. Therefore, until better the notion that overloading usually evaluation techniques can be devel- occurs during training may still be oped, training experiences arising true, and that in the case of Group from one set of circumstances should llA the beneficial effects of reduc- be clearly and fully described so ing overloading were overshadowed by they may be compared with the experi- harmful effects of boredom. ences of others elsewhere. In sum, it seem.s that the prob- lem of overloading is secondary to Overloading and Orientation Training the importance of proper m.otivation. It may still be disheartening for a The experimental hypothesis re- trainee to be stretche d beyond his garding relationship between orienta- capacity, but it is ob viously far tion training and overloading turned worse if he loses inte rest through out to be more complicated in prac- not being stretched at all. Thus tice than the theory predicted. In there is a critical le vel to be sought the daily training record it was involvina a balance be tween challenge

171 interest, and overloading on the one test routes if they had not been hand, and a clear, unimpeded chance given occasional, additional orienta- to receive information and to prac- tional tips as they negotiated them. tice, with the risk of boredom, on A third of the subjects fell into the other. The happy experience with this category. Regarding safety, Group IIB seems to indicate that for two subjects would have had a major some the balance is achieved when collision with an obstacle but for orientation is kept out of the first the intervention of the safety man; week of training, but is upset if in- the rest would have completed the door training under these circum- routes without having hurt them- stances is continued for too long. selves .

On the positive side, all sub- Inappropriate Training jects could perform the subskills, Environment such as clearing on the up-curb; differences lay in the efficiency The suggestion that transfer be- and smoothness with which they were tween indoor and outdoor environments performed. Of the 11 best performers is made easier if it is done at an we found that they could negotiate early stage of training rather than an unfamiliar route in a quiet resi- later received support from the ex- dential area without getting lost, perimenter's experience with the sub- without injuring themselves, and jects in this experiment, and from having performed fairly skillfully the objective data. The latter dem- and efficiently with their canes. onstrated that those who spent only one week indoors fared the same as Thus, we have an indication of those who spent two weeks. Hov/ever, what useful levels of competent mo- the daily training notes recorded a bility can be achieved after only 12 definite difference, in that those or 16 hours of training. By compari- who had only spent one week indoors son, under the traditional training were easier to help during the trans- method, trainees who had had an fer period. It seemed as though sub- equivalent number of hours would only jects from Groups IB and IIB, at an just have started work outdoors. While earlier stage of training, were it is dangerous to extrapolate too therefore more prepared to listen to far on evidence based on experience the instructions on how to cope with with young, healthy, intelligent the situation. The others, subjects blindfolded subjects, the implica- in Groups lA and llA, preferred try- tions of these results is that some ing out their own strategies. It blind people will profit from short- appeared as though those who had had ened or "crash" courses and need not more training at this stage had got be taught at the leisurely pace of used to operating on their own and the standard teachina method. were reluctant to return to depend- ency on detailed verbal instructions. CONCLUSIONS

The Level of Competence This experiment revealed the in- Achieved adequacies of the flow-type score sheet for this particular situation. The primary reason for embarking Where detailed comparisons between on this type of training experiment training schemes are to be made, the is to try to improve the cost effec- performance measures must not simply tiveness of long cane teaching. Thus record the more obvious features of the question, "What level of compe- a blind traveler's performance (such tence did the subjects achieve by the as pavement position) , but finer as- end of training?" is of crucial im- pects of the skill as well. Thus, in portance in assessing the effective- later experiments use of the flow- ness of the experimental training type score sheet was supplemented by methods. measurements of the accuracy with which the cane was used, the smooth- The first aspect of this ques- ness of the performance, and the dis- tion to be described should cover tribution of time relative to the those tasks that subjects could not various subtasks performed on a test accomplish. A number of subjects journey. would not have completed both of the

172 On the training side, overload- The overall conclusion drav/n from ing turned out to be of secondary this experiment is that clients v/ho importance to boredom in these par- have characteristics similar to the ticular circumstances. Though the subjects used in this experiment could possibility that overloading may oc- be trained effectively in a shorter cur was not ruled out, it appeared time than the standard teaching meth- more important to establish a balance od suggests. Hov;ever, a further im- between the opposing factors of bore- plication is that where time and mon- dom and overloading. Such a balance ey are so precious that crash or seemed to have been struck for some shortened courses are necessary, then subjects when training in cane hand- every moment of the training must be ling only was restricted to the first scrutinized to see that it is being week. This fitted in very nicely used to provide the optimum amount of with the conclusion that subjects information and the best opportunity who stayed indoors for only one week for practice. At present it looks as made the best transfer to outdoor though that valuable one v;eek of in- conditions. This was because they door training could be better used. were still in a receptive frame of Thus , subsequent experiments in this mind so far as listening to instruc- series were designed to test methods tions and concentrating on cane for doing so. handling were concerned.

REFERENCES

Armstrong, J. D. A report on the Ergonomics, 9, 1, 46-56, visit to Nottingham of Miss J. 1966. Woodcraft and Mr. John Williams 15th-16th November, 1968. Mimeo- Leonard, J. A. & Wycherley, R. J. graph, Department of Psychology, Towards the measurement of perform- University of Nottingham, 196 8. ance of travel skills. Proceedings, Conference for mobility trainers Brown, I. D. A subjective and objec- and technologists, 27-45, Sensory tive comparison of successful and Aids Evaluation Development Center, unsuccessful trainee drivers. Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, 27-45, 1967.

173 . .

PART m

An Experiment to Determine a Long Cane User's Ability to Detect a Drop Below Ground Level

The present experiment was de- ranging from 1 to 9 centimeters (cm) signed to determine a typical long deep. cane user's threshold for detecting drops below ground level and to dis- cover whether this particular test Safety of ability could distinguish among different subjects' performances. When subjects failed to detect The information is potentially im- the drop at the end of the long plat- portant. An instructor should know form they were supported by an ex- what level of skill it is reasonable perimenter. No one said he felt for him to expect of a client; just afraid. as he should know when it is impos- sible for the blind person to travel alone and when it is best for him to The Elimination of seek sighted assistance. Both ex- Additional Cues amples cited have a direct relevance to practical problems (such as de- Noise cues were eliminated by tecting down-curbs on pavements) and having the subjects wear earphones both raise the question of the psy- on top of malleable wax ear plugs. chological threshold for detection. The remaining sounds were drowned The second function of the experi- by the experimenter striking a board ment underscores the ever-increasing similar to the two platforms. The need of those studying and teaching position of the noise board was blind mobility to be able to evalu- varied. ate accurately and objectively the performances of people and aids. In Vibrations set up on the long this case it was predicted that as platform by the subject's cane were peoples' ability to detect drops increased and prolonged by an ex- varied, it would be reflected in a perimenter striking the long plat- wide range of scores achieved in the form in time with the subject's test. steps

Subjects were asked not to try SUBJECTS to judge the distance to the drop, and were prevented from doing so by The blind long cane user popu- being led back by circuitous routes lation of the City of Birmingham and to different starting points on the its vicinity were asked to take part long platform. They were also asked in the experiment. Twenty-three peo- not to use a "slide technique" to ple volunteered of whom four were re- detect the drops, but instead the jected for having too much residual touch technique normally used for vision outdoor travel on rough pavements

(Suterko, 1967) . APPARATUS PROCEDURE Subjects walked along a platform 32 feet long, 6 feet wide, and 6 Subjects examined the apparatus inches above ground. Along its and had all of its aspects explained length the platform was bounded by to them. They were asked to detect a wall 10 inches high which prevented the depth of the drop at the end of subjects falling off. the long platform without stepping off. Also, it was explained that if The depth of the drop was lim- they detected the edge of the plat- ited by a smaller platform (6 feet form rather than the drop itself the 8 inches by 3 feet) which could be trial would not be scored, but would raised and lowered to give drops have to be rerun.

174 .

Following each run the height of Results the small platform was adjusted, with the different depths presented in ran- Because seven subjects v;ere un- dom order. The range of depths was able to attempt six trials at each from 1 to 7 cm, with each depth being depth, the results for the whole sam- given six times, subjects making 42 ple have been divided into tv/o groups trials. Group 1 includes those v/ho v;ere able to fulfill all the experimental re- quirements; Group 2 includes the seven Modifications to who were not. the Procedure The experimental results are When the experiment had got un- shown in Table 1. der way it was discovered that some svibjects were physically incapable of complying with all requirements. Group 1 Due to fatigue, seven subjects were unable to attempt all 42 trials, and Subjects in this group appeared the procedure was modified for them. to become more reliable in their Efforts were concentrated on discov- ability to detect drops at a depth ering what depths they could detect of 4 cm. Eight subjects v/ere able 50 percent and 80 percent of the time, to detect this depth 50 percent or This meant they made fewer attempts more of the time, with the median at the smaller drops (i.e., 1 and 2 score 58.4 percent correct detections cm) and more towards the middle and At 5 cm they were able to detect the end of the range. drop significantly more often than not, with the median score at 83.3 percent correct detections; eight of Criteria for Scoring them achieved this level or better.

Subjects were deemed to have successfully detected a drop if they Group 2 stopped before stepping off the long platform; a fail was recorded if they The results for this group seem stepped onto the small platform. The to be inferior. The median for 4 cm trial was rerun if subjects detected was only 40 percent with three sub- the edge of the platform rather than jects making 25 percent or fev/er the drop. False positives were re- correct detections, while at 5 cm it corded if a subject indicated that he was 66 percent; with six subjects thought he had detected a drop before making 60 percent or more. However, he had in fact reached the end of the at 6 cm the median was 100 percent long platform. However, so few false with five subjects scoring 85 percent detections were made that they were or more correct detections. not included in the results.

TABLE 1

Depth of Drops and Median Score for Whole Sample and Sample By Groups

CM Whole Sample oup 1 Groua 2

Main Platform 1

2 16,7

3 33.3 33.3

4 50.0 58.4 40.0

5 83.3 83.3 66.7

6 100.0 91.7 100.0

7 100.0 100.0 100.0

Full Scale N = 19 N = 12 N = 7

175 ,

Differences they will hear a car crossing the line of travel, or feel the pavement In spite of what seem to be dif- sloping towards the road. Neverthe- ferences between the two groups a less, it is reasonable to expect peo- Mann-Whitney U test (Siegal, 1956) ple to be able to detect drops in showed that they were not in fact circumstances in which proprioceptive significant. signals are the only ones available (e.g., the unguarded manhole), and furthermore the majority have been DISCUSSION taught during training to cope with this eventuality. Th(2 Measured Abi lity to De tact Drops as a Me.asure Thus, though the laboratory set- of Cane Hand].mg Abi:lity ting for the test may have been an unusual one, the skill tested is au- The results of this experiment thentic. were not as clearcut as one would have liked. Though it was reason- The Ability to Detect Drops able to assume that older si±)jects as a Pyschophysical Measure and those in poor health--in other words , those who made up Group 2 The importance of these experi- would show abilities inferior to the mental findings does not lie so much comparatively young and fit people in the information they give us about in Group 1, this did not in fact ap- a blind person's ability to detect pear in the results. Nevertheless, certain signals, but rather in de- there is evidence that there are fining circumstances in which the quantifiable differences between blind traveler can be expected to peoples' skills in this area. For operate safely and efficiently. The example, the experiment has shown fact that over half of the present that whereas some people were accu- sample could detect 4-cm drop 50 per- rately responding to a drop of 4 cm cent of the time, and 5-cm drop (two responded correctly every time 80 percent of the time, should there- at that height) others could only do fore be related to real travel re- so when the drop reached the 6^cm quirements. In the general conditions mark. Thus, though the two groups prevailing in Great Britain this can in this study were not significantly be done fairly simply. For example, different from one another, it can the average drop off the pavement to safely be suggested that given large the road in a typical suburb is about enough samples this particular test 10 cm, a depth that we now know the will be of use in future evalua- majority of long cane users should be tions . able to detect easily. However, there is cause for alarm in towns and cities because the average drop from the The Validity of the Test pavement to the road is between 3 and 4 cm. Since these particular drops The problem of assessing the have to be detected against a back- validity of this test rests upon the ground of noise and distraction it question of how far the laboratory is clear that the chances of a blind situation in which it was carried out pedestrian unwittingly stepping into matches up to the long cane user's the road are high. day-to-day situation and require- ments. In other words, has the Nevertheless, it is pleasing to stringency of the experimental pro- observe that even the less skilled cedure left us testing a totally people in the present sample were able artificial skill? It is true for to detect a 6-cm drop reliably, and so instance that in a real life setting by using the long cane have managed to long cane users detect drops, such avoid a considerable number of jolts as down- curbs, as much by auditory and shocks. Furthermore, if some peo- and tactual cues as they do by pro- ple can reliably detect drops as small prioceptive cues. For example. as 3 and 4 cm, then the long cane has been demonstrated to be a very effec- tive mobilitv aid in this respect.

176 . . .

REFERENCES

Siegal, S. Nonparametrio statistiae Proceedings conference for mo- for the behavioral saienoes bility trainers and technolo- New York: McGraw-Hill, 116-27, gists. Sensory Aids Evaluation 1956. and Development Center, Massa- chusetts Institute of Tech- Suterko, S. Long oane training. nology, 13-18, 1967. Its advantages and problems.

PART IV

An Experiment to Determine the Effect of Providing Augmented Knowledge of Results on the Acquisition of the Skill of Cane Handling

The results of previous experi- Although it is not possible to ments made it clear that certain peo- provide the learner with enough in- the ple might well be given adequate formation that is intrinsic to training in long cane mobility task through feedback, the form of feedback used through a shortened or "crash" extrinsic or augmented learner's course. This possibility increases ought at least to direct the the need to scrutinize current train- attention to those natural sources ing practices to ensure that they al- of information. Two methods of pro- chosen low maximum use to be made of evejry viding augmented feedback were moment of the training. to do this.

One area which does not match The first was an adaptation of up to such scrutiny is the initial Holding and Macrae's (1964) response was a one or two weeks of training. In the restriction technique. This author's experience the difficulties form of motor guidance whereby a encountered in this period center on subject's movements are forcibly the standard method of teaching cane terminated by a barrier. handling, which includes methods of describing the task of cane handling, A variation on this guidance and of specifying the correct arc technique was also tested in which width and extent of cane contact. information about arc width and cane contact was given tactually by way A primary difficulty is the of the floor surfaces which the si±>- this standard practice of giving a verbal ject touched with his cane. In description of the cane handling way he could distinguish a correct the technique. As a result, the learner from an incorrect placement of does not have his attention directed cane by the feel of different floor to the proprioceptive, kinesthetic, textures and tactual cues which will form the foundation of his skill, but instead These two teaching methods were the has to pick these up for himself thought to have advantages over (see Part I). Therefore, it seemed standard technique. First, they wise to seek an alternative way of provided concurrent feedback, and describing the skill, one which would so avoided the confusion that usually avoid the pitfalls of verbal, visually results when delayed feedback is given oriented descriptions, and at the about a repetitive task (Lee, 1950). same time would give maximum informa- Second, because such feedback com.es tion about the task after the subject has committed himself

177 . , . . j

to the task, it could not be used to response restriction groups were told modify the current movement, but must to strike the barriers softly and low be referred forward to future at- down. The tactual K-R groups were tempts. Thus, some of the problems told to let their canes touch only involved in the use of action feed- the smooth sections of the floor. On back are avoided (Macpherson, Deese aspects of the skill other than those

and Grindley, 19 49) . relating to arc width and cane con- tact all six subjects were given Such are the general advantages verbal instructions. of providing nonverbal extrinsic feedback, but there are others which During the time the experimental relate more specifically, either to groups spent in the laboratory their the use of response restriction tech- movements were restricted to walking niques , or to methods of providing up and down a constructed pathway. tactual Knowledge of Results (K-R) They left it only to rest or to be However, these will be examined in tested. the "Discussion" section.

With these two techniques as a Group 1. The Control Group basis, certain modifications were tested to find out how much informa- Subjects in this group were tion the learner could profitably given the standard training and as use. In one experimental setting, a consequence were taught almost information concerning the lateral wholly verbally. During their time and medial placement of the cane was in the laboratory they moved about given. In another, only the lateral the whole floor space. placement was identified and subjects were expected to pick up from the standard verbal description an idea Group 2. Tactual Knowledge of how much cane contact was neces- of Results (TKR 1) sary and where such contact should finish. Augmented feedback was provided for this group in the form of tactu- ally discriminable differences in the SUBJECTS surface texture of the floor of the

pathway. The floor was made up of ) Thirty paid volunteers, six to five strips of two types texture. of | a group, acted as subjects. Their The central strip on which the sub- • characteristics were the same as jects walked was roughly textured. j

those described in Part II of this On either side of this were smooth ) series, the only difference being sections in which the subject was that they were given a half hour's told to land his cane. The cane was training followed by 15 minutes of supposed to land at the outside edge testing for five consecutive days. of the smooth section and slide into ' the center until it lifted off just

before touching the central rough -j Training strip. Outside the right- and left- hand side smooth sections were rough The five groups of si±ijects were sections which, if the subject touched given identical training (following them with his cane, warned him that

the standard procedure) , except where his arc had been too wide {Fig. 1) experimental variables called for a difference. They followed the same schedule regarding training environ- Group 3. Response Restriction (RR 1) ment. For the first three days they were restricted to moving in a large A pathway for Group 3 was built laboratory, while in the last two to provide a double restriction. A lessons they traveled about in a large wall of plastic bricks (25 cm high) building. restricted the outward swing of the cane, while the edge of a hardboard All subjects were given verbal strip (one cm high) restricted its instructions which included verbal inward swing. The hardboard was K-R. However, the control group was 25 cm wide and provided the surface the only one that was given K-R con- on which the subjects walked cerning arc width. For example. (Fig. 2)

178 .

Group 5

The training conditions for this group were identical with those of Group 4 except that the lateral ex- tent of the cane's swina in this case was restricted by the v/all of bricks.

THE PATHWAY The apparatus enabled subjects to walk straight and relieved them of the fear of colliding v/ith obstacles by the use of two metal handrails which ran along either side of the subject. The rails projected out over the pathway so that they did not interfere with the movement of the cane

The dimensions and characteristics of the floor of the pathv;ay are shown in Fig. 3. For the purposes of this experiment the "correct" arc v/idth and extent of cane contact was de- fined as follows:

Figure 1. Apparatus used by TK 1,

Groups 4 and 5

The training techniques used for Groups 4 and 5 were simply modifica- tions of those used for the previous two groups. These subjects were given no information about the medial extent of the arc, except in an ini- tial verbal description that was given to everyone.

Group 4

Instead of walking on a central rough section. Group 4 walked on a path that was continuous with the two sections in which the cane was sup- posed to land, i.e., a smooth surface. Hence, though they contacted a rough section if the cane was swung too far outwards, they received no warning if they slid the cane too far medi- ally. Figure 2. Apparatus used by KR 1.

179 . .

ROUGH SURFACE iiiiiiiiiiii From this an indication of the SMOOTH SURFACE direction of travel and a measure- ment of the dynamic base (Scrutton GROUPS & Robson, 1968) was obtained by link- successive foot prints by a CONTROL ing straight line. The accuracy with which the cane had been placed was < I2CMS> then scored by measuring from the iHiiiiiiii III! Ml null mill iiiiiiiii center of the dynamic base to the

< 25 CMS > lateral and the medial points of the arc. Extent of cane contact was also measured.

The measurements obtained were:

1. Distance from the center of the dynamic base to the most lateral L point of the arc;

Figure 3. Dimensions and Character- 2. Distance from the center of the istics of Floor of Pathway. dynamic base to the most medial point of cane contact with the floor; 1. Lateral limit of the cane's swing: half of the mean of 3. The extent of cane contact with the male population's shoulder the floor. width plus 5 cm (i.e., 27 cm from the center of the path- Finally, throughout the train-

way) . ing, daily records of each subject's progress were kept. 2. Medial limit of the cane's contact with the floor; the above minus 15 cm (i.e., RESULTS 12 cm from the center of the pathway) The data obtained from the daily test walk were recorded in the form 3. Extent of cane contact with of error scores. To do this, the ac- the floor: 15 cm. tual position at which the cane land- ed, or the actual extent of cane con- These measurements correspond to the tact with the floor, was recorded as instructions usually given to train- a plus or minus score, according to ees during indoor training. whether it was too wide or too nar- row, too long or too short. Thus, The control group was told to accurate positioning or movement of land the cane 5 cm wider than the the cane gave scores of 0. Most of shoulders and to slide it medially the results are presented in this 15 cm. form as signed mean error scores (see Tables 1, 2, and 3; Figs. 4, 5, and 6) METHODS OF TESTING AND SCORING An alternative method of analyz- ing the data was also used, in which After each training session sub- an absolute error score was obtained jects were tested as they walked the by ignoring the sign of the error. length of the room unaided. During In this form, the data do not give the walk they tried to perform exact- a detailed picture of how subjects ly the same movements they had under performed, and so blur possible dif- training conditions. Data were ob- ferences between groups; nevertheless, tained by having the subject walk the form does concentrate more strin- down a continuous sheet of paper with gently on the size of the errors. ink pens attached to his feet, and another ink pen inserted into his The data were first analyzed to cane tip. Thus, the extent of the see whether the various training con- cane's contact with the floor, and ditions had caused the groups to per- foot prints, were marked. form differently. For this the

180 TABLE 1

Lateral Point of the Arc

Cont rols TKR 1 RR 1 TKR 2 PR 2 Day Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

1 14.22 14.94 -5.17 9.53 6.31 13.38 1.0 6 10.91 -1.3 11.03 2 12.91 14.09 -5.70 11.04 0.74 16.7 1.24 11.33 -3.74 8.55

3 9.58 12. 39 -6.32 7.99 0.24 14.2 1.81 8.7 -4.64 8.13 4 13.26 9.09 -5.94 9.29 -2.24 15.92 3.27 11.24 0.81 10.75 5 13.78 11.44 -6.33 12.22 -3.16 15.98 -3.16 15.98 1.26 7.55

TABLE 2

Medial Point of the Arc

Controls TKR 1 RR 1 TKR 2 RP 2 Day Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Me an SD

1 17.25 15.17 6.36 10.14 13.74 14.78 7.74 12.1 0.96 14.74

2 15.92 15.26 3.77 10.32 5.14 19.12 7.96 13.4 -0.52 13.24

3 20.82 13.33 6.62 12.16 3. 31 14.30 4.88 9.67 1.19 13.13 4 14.33 14.37 3.38 10.55 0.68 14.97 8.77 10.61 2.77 12.86 5 15.11 16.33 1.7 12.06 -3.26 13.27 7.34 10.88 -0.48 12. 83

TABLE 3

Cane Contact

Cont rols TKR 1 RR 1 TKR 2 RR 2 Day Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

1 6.49 13.49 -4.68 7.34 0.22 12.0 -1. 83 10.07 9.09 8.81 2 7.0 11.48 -0.03 7.86 2.36 9.68 1.70 12.27 8.71 6. 85 3 -2.87 12.43 -0.84 9.74 8.87 11.59 2.90 13.47 12.84 11.59

4 7.89 19.56 2.01 12.26 6 .48 16.94 7.81 19.75 16.57 13.27 5 9.23 19.14 0.0 11.91 11.75 15.71 8.85 18.77 14.86 14.87

181 .

Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of SIGNED MEAN ERROR SCORES variance, and the Mann-Whitney U Test were used (Siegal, 1956). Only the 20 Groups' data for days 1, 3, and 5 were analyzed. The former test was 15 applied to the data • for all groups '^^^ ^'^^' together, and the latter test to 10 ^^* specific pairs of groups. The sig- • nificance levels quoted for these "^ analyses relate to two-tailed tests. oIT :^- -——-. X x-__ .*•.— k When data, in the 4- . \ form of signed s. • ^^"^"'^x means, were analyzed according to the •^ *••• 9 Kruskal-Wallis r^ test, there were sig- o nificant differences between the -10 groups on all three days on all mea- DAYS surements. The significance le:vel ranged from 0.05 to 0.001. Figure 4. Lateral Point of the Arc. The more detailed analysis of the Mann-Whitney U Test showed that the only really consistent differ- ences were that the control group tended to have a wider arc (i.e., 20 wider lateral and medial cane place- ments) than all or most other groups. Extent of cane contact was more extensive than that for two other 10 groups on day 1 only. There were some differences between the ex- perimental groups , but these were few and showed no consistent pat- tern .

A Kruskal-Wallis analysis of the -5 absolute mean error scores showed DAYS fewer significant differences. For the data on lateral placement there were significant differences on days

1 and 5 , and for medial placement on Figure 5. Medial Point of the Arc. days 1 and 3. Here the significance levels ranged from 0.0 5 to 0.02. 20 The data on the extent of cane con- tact revealed no differences between groups

Again, the Mann-Whitney tests showed that the significant differ- ences revealed by the Kruskal-Wallis test were caused by the fact that the control group's performances tended to be inferior to those of the other groups. Differences between experi- mental groups were so few as to have no significance.

The standard deviations from the CONTROL GROUP .— means for all three categories of TKR I o- data (i.e., extent of cane contact; RR I X- lateral and medial placement) showed TKR 2 IB. so few significant differences between RR 2 k. groups that it seems fair to conclude Figure 6. Extent of Cane Contact, that the different training conditions had little effect on the variability of an individual's performance.

182 : .

confusing (their movements v/ere fre- CORRELATIONS BETWEEN quently being stopped by the restric- PERFORMANCE MEASURES tions) and later too easy (all they had do was to move the cane and The only significant correla- to let the restrictions do the rest) tions between performance measures were as follows :

KR 2 (, ) Day 1. lateral with medial place ment This group was, like TKP. 1, care- = . 5 32 > . 01 Signed means r , p ful and sensitive towards the skill. It looked as if they had to take care (one-tailed test) ; maximum use of the apparatus. Absolute mean error to make 0.578, p > 0.01,

RR 2 ( ) |_ U Day 3. extent of cane contact with RR 2 medial placement: By the end of the first day had lost the carelessness v;hich char- acterized RR 1. Henceforth, though, Signed means r = 0.615, > 0.01; p some of them had difficulty with the the Absolute mean error wrist movement and the shape of cane's movement on the floor; they r = 0.385, p = 0.05. s ^ generally tried to use the apparatus well by striking it gently and low down. Day 5. extent of cane contact with lateral placement: GENERAL COMMENTS ON THE Signed means r = 0.39 > 0.05; 7, p EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS Absolute mean error = From the instructor's point of r . 126 , p is not signif- view it was useful to have the train- icant. ing environment controlled and sim- plified. Experimental subjects were almost immediately sure of their THE safety, while the controls remained COMMENTS FROM inhibited and distracted by their DAILY TRAINING RECORD fear of collisions.

the Control Group By the third day of training experimental setting became very bor- This group's greatest difficulty ing for the instructor, though none was that of concentrating on cane of the subjects found it so. handling. Other things distracted them and made their progress generally slower and more difficult than that of DISCUSSION the others. The results of this experiment will be examined in two sections. In the first, the differences between the KR 1 (, ) Control and Experimental Groups will contain At first this group found it dif- be discussed. The second will ficult to discriminate the different an assessment of the comparative m.erits textures. By the second day they were of the experimental techniques. reasonably competent at this, and from measure- then on appeared to be careful and Two of the three objective recorded daily through- precise in their performance. ments which were out the experiment show quite clearly that the Control Group's performance was, in general, qualitatively differ- R 1 (I ) T. ent from the performances of the Ex- lateral and These were the least impressive perimental Groups. For the Control of the Experimental Groups. Their medial cane placement consistently overestimated the task at first seemed to be too Group

183 width of the movement, and in general This constant supply of feedback made larger errors. However, their helped in another way, by making it training conditions did not affect easier for subjects in the Experi- their ability to learn the correct mental Groups to shift attention to extent of cane contact. Here they different aspects of the skill. It performed equally as well as the Ex- is a common experience among instruct- perimental Groups. ors that, when they have taught the client to perfect one part of the The comments contained in the skill (e.g., hand position), and they daily training record make clear the then try to correct something else reasons why these differences oc- (e.g. , arc width) , performance of the curred. Here the consistent theme first part often immediately deteri- was the contrast between the com- orates. Though this happened for the parative simplicity of the experi- Control Groups , the Experimental mental situation and the complexity Groups did not seem to have such of the Control Group's training set- trouble. For them, instructions re- ting. This contrast was produced garding cane placement were always solely by the effect of the training concretely present so that they were apparatus on reducing the number of free to concentrate on other features distractions that normally plague of the skill without running the risk both client and instructors. of forgetting the primary features. In the experimental setting no one had to worry about overbalancing, DIFFERENCES BETWEEN bumping into obstacles, or veering. EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS Instead, after one or two attempts, subjects could easily walk up and The results of the statistical down the apparatus. In other words, analysis of the data show that there they had immediately attained a level were no consistent differences be- of mobility within the apparatus that tween the Experimental Groups. There- usually comes only after a number of fore, it seems fair to conclude that lessons in "pre-cane" skills. Thus, on a general level it does not matter with these Groups , cane handling which of the experimental techniques could be taught immediately so that is used in training. However, since when the time came to walk outside a choice does have to be made, and the apparatus they had developed since the daily training record did enough skill and confidence to avoid suggest that the groups had different the normal difficulties. Therefore, experiences according to their par- if cane handling can be taught first, ticular circumstances, it is worth- in the absence of other difficulties, while considering the information then the skill itself will provide obtained during the course of the the learner with the ability to cope experiment. with these difficulties when he has to. In this way the difficulties may The main emphasis of the train- never seriously interfere with his ing record was always on the differ- performance. ence between the tactual K-R groups and the response restriction groups. Si±ijects in the Experimental The first appeared to have a lighter, Groups had therefore an initial ad- more sensitive touch with the cane, vantage which other characteristics and to perform other aspects of the . of the apparatus enabled them to skill (such as hand position) with capitalize upon. The main point in greater care and precision. The their favor was that from the first response restriction groups either they had an especially clear descrip- never developed these qualities (e.g., tion of the task, which from then on RR 1 never did) or did not develop acted as a constant regular source them as early as the others. of feedback. This meant that from the beginning they were able to moni- The source of these differences tor their own performances. Conse- may be found in the contrasting de- quently, while subjects in the Control mands made on the subjects by the Group tended to ask whether they were differences in construction of the making the right movements , those in training pathway. Now while both the Experimental Groups made such types of experimental training situa- pronouncements for themselves. tion gave experimental subjects the

184 advantage over the controls of always Previous experience (Gordon, 1968) has being aware of their errors (as far shown that it is the off-target char- as cane movement was concerned) there acter of such feedback which contrib- were differences in the amount of ac- utes to subjects' interest. This is tive control that subjects were re- because subjects know v/hen their per- quired to exert to avoid errors. For formances are improving, because as the tactual K-R groups an active in- they do so they receive less and less volvement was demanded. Though the warning of having missed the target. apparatus warned them when they had made an error, the responsibility for When we come to consider v/hether controlling their movements and for it is necessary to give a learner in- avoiding mistakes was left entirely formation concerning the point at with them. What is more, if the cane which the slide phase of the movement tip was put down on the wrong spot, should be halted, the objective data then it had to be dragged across the obtained from this experiment shov/s rough section on to the smooth. This that it does not matter whether such can be regarded as a form of punish- information is given or not. (There ment, because it was mildly difficult were no consistent differences betv;een to do, and so irritated them. Conse- the groups for the data on medial cane quantly, to avoid the punishment, placement.) All that could be said subjects had to concentrate on the is that it seemed to be one of the skill's intrinsic feedback. factors which made subjects in Group TKR 1 take great care over the skill, By contrast, the R-R groups were and which gave them pleasure when they able to abrogate responsibility for got it right. their movements. Though as is gen- eral in a response restriction train- ing situation (Holding and Macrae, CONCLUSIONS 1964) they had to adopt their own movement pattern for carrying out the The results of this experiment response; they could rely entirely on demonstrated that a subject's progress the restriction to ensure that the re- in acquiring some aspects of the skill sponse was correct. Hence, as there of cane handling can be affected by was nothing forcing them to attend the type and amount of augmented feed- to intrinsic cues, it began to look back which he is given. Subjects as if the effect of relieving them of trained according to the standard motor demands was to relieve them of method (in which they are given only the need to concentrate on perceptual verbal instructions) consistently over- demands as well. In other words, estimated the extent of the required though they had the double advantage movement, and in general made larger of being prevented from making errors errors than those who were given while having error information made either tactual K-R or who were trained available to them, they seemed to re- according to a response restriction spond by relying on the former and technique. ignoring the latter. The advantages of the experi- These factors seem to have af- mental training environments seemed fected the subject's general attitude to be that they provided controlled, to learning the whole skill. For in- simplified settings in which subjects stance, it was difficult to motivate gained a useful level of "instant" the R-R groups to maintain such things mobility. Thus subjects easily ac- as a correct hand position, because to quired a sufficient skill at cane them these requirements did not ap- handling to enable them to cope with pear essential. Their task, of walk- some of the difficulties that usually- ing up and down the apparatus, could upset the learner. The constant sup- be performed quite well without that. ply of feedback that was available also helped them to gather informa- On the other hand the tactual tion about the task for themselves, K-R groups had to maintain these fea- and to attend to more than one aspect tures of the skill in order to avoid of the skill at a time. the "punishment. " But they also be- came quite involved in their own Though the differences between

progress , and so tried very hard to the experimental groups were not evi- walk the length of the apparatus with- dent according to the objective

out touching the rough sections. measurements , the trainer cam.e to the

185 , .

conclusion that the setting which re- is to say with blind trainees who are quired the most active involvement on set to undertake a full course in the part of subjects produced the long cane mobility, rather than with more skilled cane users. The response blindfolded volunteers undergoing a restriction method, which allowed sub- short training experiment. A full- jects to abrogate responsibility for scale evaluation of this sort has their movements, was therefore con- been undertaken, and the results will sidered less successful than the tech- be reported in a forthcoming paper. nique for providing subjects with tactual K-R. However, it did not ap- pear to matter whether subjects were given information about both lateral ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS and medial cane placement or simply the former. This study was carried out at the Blind Mobility Research Unit at On the basis of this study it the University of Nottingham under does seem fair to suggest that better the auspices and financial assistance use could be made of the initial of the Medical Research Council. I training period than is usually the would like to acknowledge the super- case. However, before any really visory help given by the late it firm conclusions can be reached Dr. J. A. Leonard and the practical is necessary to test these findings assistance given by Miss E. Leigh that in a less artificial atmosphere— and Mr. R. Grouse.

REFERENCES

& Gordon, N. B. Guidance versus aug- Macpherson, S. J., Deese , V., mented feedback and motor skills. Grindley, G. C. The effect of Journal of Experimental Psy ahology knowledge of results on learning 77, 24-30, 1968. and performance: 111 the influence of the time interval between trials. Holding, D. H. & Macrae, H. W. Guid- Quarterly Journal of Experimental ance restriction and knowledge of Psychology , 1, 167-74, 1949. Ergonomics, 7, 289-96, results. Scrutton, J. & Robson, P. The gait 1964. of fifty normal children. Physio- therapy, 54, 1968.

'Lee, B. S. Effects of delayed speech Siegal, S. Nonparametric statistics feedback. Journal of the Aaous ti- for the behavioural sciences oal Society of America^ 22, 824-6, New York: McGraw-Hill, 19 56. 1950.

186 .

TWO INSTRUMENTS FOR THE BLIND ENGINEER

John A. Phillips Peter M. Seligman*

Department of Electrical Engineering Monash University Clayton Victoria Australia

PART 1

A Braille-Reading Digital Multimeter**

Abs tract An instrument with a tactile digital output necessarily gives in- Hitherto, multimeters for use formation in sampled rather than con- by blind persons have been of two tinuous form. For this reason, and types : also in order to keep the user's hands as free as possible, the in- 1. Conventional movina-coil type, strument has a supplementary audi- with a mechanical lockina de- tory output. This output is a con- vice which enables a follow-up tinuous tone of frequency proportion- pointer to be brought up to the al to the digital output, and enables meter pointer in order that the the user to appreciate quickly the reading may be taken against a order of magnitude of the quantity braille scale; being monitored and also its time dependence. He can, for instance, 2. Potentiometric type, with an tell whether the quantity is increas- auditory null. The readina is ing, decreasing, oscillating, or taken by moving a pointer across varying erratically as would be the a braille scale until null is case with a poor connection. When achieved. an accurate readina is required, this is read in braille on depression of Both types of instrument make a press-to-read panel. The panel is the taking of readings a more com- strategically placed so that it can plex procedure for the blind person be reached by the left (braille read- than for the sighted person. Recog- ing) hand, leavinq the right hand nizing that it would be desirable to free make the process simpler rather than more complicated for the blind per- The instrument has a three-digit, son, the design and construction was solenoid-operated readout and has undertaken of a braille-reading ranges and accuracy sim.ilar to those digital multimeter. of conventional multimeters. It is battery operated and portable, weigh- ing 8 1/2 lb. and measuring 4" x 8" X 11". *Now at 146 The Boulevard, Essendon, W.5, Victoria, Australia. **Designed by P. M. Seligman, super- vised by J. A. Phillips, for a final year project (1967) in Electrical En- gineering at Monash University.

187 INTRODUCTION counted. The final value of the counter is displayed in braille by The requirement for the instru- the readout unit. Since both the ment described here arose when a counter and the readout unit draw blind student was enrolled in the a fairly heavy current, a push-to- degree course in Electrical Engineer- read arrangement is used to conserve ing at Monash University. The in- battery life. The sequence after the strument was designed and built with- press-to-read panel is operated is in the Electrical Engineering Depart- as follows: ment and was successfully used by the student in his laboratory work 1. Power is applied to all logic for the latter two and a half years circuitry and after waiting of the course. for contact bounce to cease, the reset pulse to all flip- It must be pointed out here that flops is removed. the design is a prototype and should not be considered to be a final ver- 2. A gating circuit operates on sion of the instrument. Improvements the first pulse from the ref- which could be implemented in a final erence oscillator to arrive version will be included in this pa- after the press-to- read panel per. has been pressed.

After reception of this pulse, Description the gate is open and the counter counts input VCO pulses. A block diagram of the scheme used is shown in Fig. 1. The instru- On reception of the next pulse ment consists of two linear voltage- from the reference oscillator, controlled oscillators (VCO) , one the gating circuit closes the of which is fed with the input volt- gate and sends out an "end—of— age and the other with a reference count" signal. voltage so that it runs at a fre- quency of one hundredth of that at The "end-of-count" signal closes which the first oscillator runs at a switch which applies power to full scale. Both oscillators run the readout, allowing it to continuously, the first oscillator display the reading at which is gated by the second and the pulses the counter stopped. within the fixed intervals are

PRESS TO READ UNIT - APPLIES POWER

TO, AND RESETS, LOGIC CIRCUITRY

'I ^ Y ^ 1 A MPLIFIER INPUT BRAILLE BRAILLE QUANTITY RANGING INPUT V.C.O GATING MODE OUTPUT CIRCUITRY (TONE GEN.) CIRCUIT COUNTER DISPLAY

r t \

END OF COUNT 1 ' 1 r OVERLOAD SIGNAL DETECTOR

1

1 1

r 1 REFERENCE Y ^ V.C.O. V (30 Hz.) REMOTE re;f EARPI ECE - ^ -u

MODE (SCALE) CHANGE SIGNAL

Figure 1, Block Diagram.: Braille-Reading Digital Multimeter

188 6. On releasing the panel, all pow- Ranging Circuitry and er is removed from the circuitry Input Amplifier and the system is returned to its "dead" state. The ranging circuitry used in the instrument is very similar to Further operation of the panel that used in commercial multimeters resets the counter and the sequence having ac and dc current and voltage 1 to 6 is repeated. A graphical ranges. The difficulty of the non- representation of the sequence is linearity of ohms ranges would have shown in Fig. 2. resulted in a high degree of extra complexity, thus these v/ere excluded An auditory monitoring signal from the design. The rangina cir- (sawtooth wave) is taken from the in- cuitry is of a type which has common put VCO, or tone generator, to a linear scales for all ranges. The transducer which consists of a ranging circuitry is passive and dynamic- type , miniature earphone. makes use of a current transformer. Because the circuitjry of the multi- meter is floating and can be at a The dc-input amplifier following potential of several hundreds of the ranging circuitry serves tv/o pur- volts above ground, it is essential poses: first, it acts as a buffer to to have good electrical insulation ensure that no signal generated with- between it and the user. The trans- in the instrument itself can appear ducer is therefore placed inside the at its terminals (such effects are instrument, the sound being piped out most disturbing) ; and second, it pro- via a flexible plastic tube. The vides gain. The linearity of the tube is fitted at its remote end with VCO circuit used, depends to a large the plastic earpiece from, the ear- degree on the voltage level from phone. which it is fed. The full-scale

A further function with which PRES >-TO-READ PRESS- ro-READ PANE . DEPRESSED PANEL (ELEASED the multimeter is fitted is an over- load alarm. This alarm produces a - - loud beeping from a separate trans- --^^ -.-.^ ducer and is heard without the ear- REFERENCE piece. It operates with inputs in excess of 140 percent of full scale in- and also with reverse polarity REFERENCE puts. The alarm however does not OSCILLATOR afford any protection when the in- PULSES T strument is switched off. sKT Lastly, a pushbutton is provided INPUT 4\J^ K^K^^^^NMW^^^M for checking the calibration of the V.C.O. multimeter. Its operation should produce a full scale reading on the digital display. A failure to do INPUT V.C.O. so usually indicates that the batter- PULSES ies need replacing.

GAT 1 NG DESIGN PULSE

The lines along which the in- strument was designed will now be GATED described. Since the discrete cir- OUTPUT cuitry in many places could be re- placed by integrated circuitry, and since the logic circuitry is based END OF on now obsolete RTL devices , full COUNT circuit diagrams will not be given SIGNAL here. COUNT READ

OURATI )N DURATION

Figure 2. Operating Sequence

189 . voltage derived directly from the which charges the integrating capaci- ranging circuitry is 125mV--insuf f i- tor from, the supply rail while a di- cient to achieve the accuracy re- ode holds the input end of the ampli- quired. The amplifier consists of fier at near earth potential. When an IC operational amplifier (709c) the output reaches the upper limit with shunt feedback and provides a of the backlash, resetting is termi- voltage gain of 30. Its input re- nated and the integrator-output volt- sistor replaces the meter movement age begins to ramp down once again. plus swamp resistance of a conven- A pulse output is obtained from the tional multimeter. resetting circuit, the tone output for auditory monitoring being taken Because the interval over which directly from the integrator output. the counter gate is open is of the Each VCO uses three NPN and two PNP same order as the period of mains silicon transistors. .. power frequencies , it is essential that the output of the rectification A constant voltage source is re- circuitry for the ac ranges of the quired to stabilize the frequence of instrument be well smoothed. A time the reference VCO. To provide this,

constant approximately equal to that two constant current sources are , of a mechanical meter movement was used to develop fixed voltages across 1 used. The same effect could also zener diodes. Each of these voltages have been achieved, however, by plac- acts as a reference for the other ing a capacitor in parallel with the current source. The circuit provides shunt feedback resistor of the opera- excellent stability against variation tional amplifier, limiting its fre- of supply voltage and continues to quency response to a few Hz. operate when the supply has fallen to within a fraction of a volt of the

The operational amplifier is reference level. It also does not , protected against overload by two suffer from the disadvantage of single- ' silicon power diodes connected back- zener diode references, i.e. high to-back across its input. Power di- current consumption with nominal sup- odes , rather than light current di- ply voltage. odes are used because of the low- source impedance from which the circuit is driven. Braille-mode Counter

The braille-mode counter consists j Voltage Controlled Oscillators of three separate sections, one for each digit; units, tens, and hundreds, The reason that a VCO is used with each digit counting directly in for the reference oscillator as well the braille numeric code and operat- as for the input, is partly a matter ing a separate solenoid-actuated dis- of design convenience. With the ex- play. This is in contrast to other ception of the values of the timing braille readout schemes in which components, the circuits for both digits must be read sequentially from oscillators are the same. There is one unit. an additional advantage in that any slight instability (due to battery In this multimeter, as in many , voltage variation or temperature) in multimeters , for the measurement of the frequency of one oscillator, ap- voltage, interdecade ranges are pro- proximately tracks with the instabil- vided. The range sequence is 10-25-

ity of the other. Thus the overall 100 etc. For 1-percent resolution i accuracy of the instrument is sig- therefore, the most significant digit nificantly higher than the accuracy needs only to be able to read 0,1, of either of the VCO ' s or 2 and is simpler than the units

and tens digits. The units digit on ..

The oscillator design itself the other hand, is designed to count ' consists of a miller-integrator which in either mod 10 or mod 4 and is . is reset by a form of large-backlash slightly more complicated than the schmitt trigger. The output of the tens digit which counts in mod 10 integrator ramps down, at a rate pro- only. This aspect of the design will portional to input voltage, until it be discussed at a later stage, the reaches the lower limit of the back- design of the basic mod 10 counter lash, when resetting is initiated. will be dealt with first. This is performed by a transistor

190 .

Basic Mod 10 Braille Counting

Stage . Braille numerals are produced by a four-bit code of raised dots in AB the braille positions 1, 2, 4, and 5, the following manner: 00 01 II 10 in CD

Four J-K flip-flops are used, 00 X X •; 1 one per-dot-position. The counter

is synchronous; i.e. its bistable 01 X X 4 J elements change state simultaneously on a clock pulse applied to all trig- 11 X 7 8 ger inputs; and it could be described as a shift register with multipath 10 X 9 6 2 feedback.

Figure 3 outlines the braille numeric code, with 1 representing a Figure 4. General Braille Map dot present and 0--no dot present. vlumeral A B c D The procedure for drawing up the Karnaugh maps for each input of 1 1 each flip-flop is as follov/s:

2 1 1 1. Find the existing state of pin A when the digit is indicating the 3 1 1 numeral 1 from Fig. 3.

4 1 1 1 2. Look in the row below, to see what the state of pin A must be 5 1 1 when the nu'neral is 2

6 1 1 1 3. Note that pin A is 1 in both cases; i.e., pin A must be 1 and 7 1 1 1 1 must not change on the next clock pulse. 8 1 1 1 4. Look in Fig. 5 to see what con- 9 1 1 ditions on the J and K inputs are required for pin A to remain 1 1 1 Carry = DA 1 after the clock pulse. The table shows that the input on J is immaterial, but the input on K must be 0. A • B • 5. Take the general braille map, and form a map for each input Aj and Dot Positions Ak by substituting X for state 1 in the map for Aj and for state D C • # 1 in the map for Aj^. Figure 3. Braille Numeric Code

Figure 3 can be transformed into J K the general Karnaugh map Figure 4. Qn Vl The Xs indicate nonexistent states for the code. X

Figure 5 represents the char- 1 1 X acteristics of the J-K flip-flop, Q being the state of an output before 1 X 1 a clock pulse and Qn+l the state after 1 1 X n a clock pulse , with the J and K input states shown. X here indicates that the state of a particular input is im- material. Figure 5. JK Flip-flop

191 J

Flip Flop A 00 01 11 10 00 01 11 10

00 X X X X 00 X X n 01 X X X X 01 X X ^-n 11 ,x 1 X X / 11 X) X 10 X X X 10 X X

Aj = D A^ = C.B.D

Flip Flop B 00 01 11 10 00 01 11 10

00 X X X 00 X X X X [x 01 1 X X 1 01 X 1 ] ^1 11 X X X i; 11 [x 1 1 xj

10 [x X X 1 10 X X

Bj = D + C ° ^K =

Flip Flop C 00 01 11 10 00 01 11 10

r 00 X X 1 00 X, X X ^_ 01 X X 1 01 [x X X X 11 \ X X X 11 b^ li 10 X X X \X 10 X J L fl

°-^ + D.A ^K =

Flip Flop D 00 01 11 10 00 01 11 10

00 X X X 00 X X X x~

01 X X X X 01 j-X X' 1 V 11 X X X 11 ^ l] 1

10 X ll ij 10 xj X X ,x .

^ B + D.A °J =

Figure 6, J and K Inputs

Flip Flop J K A D C.B.D. B D D C B D.B + D.A D B B + D.A

Figure 7. Input Summary

19 2 .

- 6. Continue down Fig. 3 in this Modification to Bi-modal Opera manner until is reached. The tion . The method that v/as used to following state is then 1. achieve a full scale count of 250 instead of 100 v;as to arrange the Figure 6 gives the maps for all units stage of the counter to count eight inputs of the four flip-flops. not in ten steps-per-cycle but in If loops are drawn around the largest four steps-per-cycle. The steps possible areas containing no zeros were 0-3-5-7-0, this being the se- according to the usual rules, the quence involving least modification minimised boolean functions for each to the basic mod 10 design. The input are obtained. These functions modification was implemented using express what each input of each flip- one "nor" gate and two changeover flop must be in terms of the outputs switches, formed by wired sv/itch of all the other flip-flops, in or- wafers ganged to the range change der that the input conditions are switch those that are required to shunt it into its next state on reception of Alternative Ranging Schemes . a clock pulse. A simpler method of achieving the same effect as described in 2.3.2. The inputs to all the flip-flops would have been to increase the are summarized in Fig. 7. It remains period of oscillation of the ref- then only to produce the boolean erence oscillator to 2 . 5 times the functions using "nor" gates and ap- period on the decade ranges , allow- ply them to their appropriate inputs. ing the counter to count to 250 A schematic diagram for this is given rather than 100 with a full scale in Fig. 8. input. This would have resulted in a saving of switch wafers and wiring From Fig. 3 it can be seen that effort. the digit can be detected by the boolean function D.A. This function A more elegant solution would can therefore be used to produce a have been to simply use a full 3- "carry" signal for the n ext digit. digit display and dispense with inter- Figure 8 shows that D.S. is available decade ranging altogether. A VCO of already; i^t only remains to invert it *l/2-percent instead of i2-percent to get D.A. linearity would be required, but

rr J c J D

'-K B «* K C K D

B + A.D C.B.D <^ ^^

B + A.D C + D

19 3 this would be perfectly realizable and the result would equal or exceed the specifications of our instrument in every respect, with the added ad- vantage that fewer range switch po- sitions would be required. The scheme would require a larger number of com- ponents, but since the three digits Numeral A c would have identical counter circuits, some economy could be realized in de- sign and assembly. 1 1 Design of "Short" Numeral . The hundreds digit in the braille display 2 1 1 needs only to be capable of reading 0, 1, and 2. This represents a two- fold simplification in that pins A and C only, are required to indicate the numerals 1 and 2. The numeral 0,

since it is always a leading , needs never to be displayed and hence a Figure 9. Sequence of Hundreds Digit saving of two braille pins can be made. Figure 9 gives the sequence for pins A and C in this "short" numeral.

The simple scheme shown in c- Fig. 10 provides the function re- quired.

C J A Gating and Resetting CARRY

K C A Resetting . After application of power to the counter all flip- flops must be reset in order that counting may begin. It is essential, however, that the last contact bounce is over before the resetting pulse is removed. This delay is achieved by means of a logic buffer amplifier and a capacitor charging circuit as shown in Fig. 11. When the ampli- Figure 10. "Short" Numeral fier input reaches a threshold of one base-emitter junction voltage, the reset pulse is removed.

Gating . The arrangement which provides the gating of the counter, has three states:

1. Reset and ready to receive pulse RESET PULSE from reference oscillator to -> turn gate on.

2. Triggered and ready to receive pulse from reference oscillator to turn gate off.

Blocked, after reception of second pulse to prevent any further opening of gate.

Figure 11. Resetting Circuit

194 since there are three different this application, their voltage being states, two flip-flops are required a little too high for three to be to perform this function. The cir- used in series , but mainly because cuit given in Fig. 12 is a binary their internal resistance is too high counter with a facility to block it- for such a heavy current, f-langanese self when it reaches 2 (sequence is batteries are much more suitable. 00, 01, 10). It does this by apply- These cells have an open circuit ing to both the J and K inputs of voltage of 1.35 V so that if three the first flip-flop. are used in series, the total voltage is 4.05 V. The cells have a very la// internal resistance; the short- INPUT OSC. IN GATE _] circuit current for the "D" size be- TO COUNTER INPUT ^ ^ J ing approximately 10 A. This gives a total voltage drop of only 0.3 V at 700 mA, bringing the voltage down to 3.75 V on load. Since the cells REF. J J also have an essentially constant o"^-!."* T 1 T voltage discharge characteristic, K K R R they can be used for a considerable RESET IN time before falling to 3.2 V on , , 1 load. < END OF COUNT SIGNAL The capacity of both sets of batteries is sufficient to supply power for several months' norm.al op- Figure 12. Gating Circuit eration. It was found that the low- voltage supply lasted somewhat This circuit is reset together longer than the 9-volt supply. with the counter at each operation of the press-to-read panel. Electromagnetic Braille Readout

Power Supplies Figure 13 shows a cross-section of the readout solenoids. These con- Two separate power supplies are sist of coils of 1800 turns of 44 required for the instrument; one, a B&S enameled wire, wound on brass low-voltage high-current supply for tubular formers of 2.5—mm OD and 2,0- the logic circuitry and readout unit, mm ID. The coils are inserted into and the other, a higher voltage low- a common mild steel block which has current supply for the VCOs , over- been drilled with ten 6-mm diameter load alarm, etc. In an improved flat-bottomed holes, 6 mm deep. The version of the instrument, the two block provides the outer path of the supplies could be obtained from one magnetic circuit while the mild steel source, the higher voltage being de- plungers which slide within the brass rived via an inverter from the low formers, form the inner path. A var- voltage. Balanced, regulated, posi- iable air gap is formed between a tive and negative voltages could then steel cover plate and the tops of the be used allowing greater flexibility plungers. The air gap at the base in the design of the VCOs. of the plunger is kept constant over the full movement by allowing the In the instrument described here, plungers to pass through clearance however, two sets of batteries are holes in the bottom of the block. used and the VCOs must work using a Brass pins are used to transfer the single unregulated 9-V source. A motion to plastic caps which form medium size Eveready type 2362 trans- the braille dots. istor radio battery is used. Two problems were encountered in The voltage tolerance for the IC the design. The first was one of logic used is 3.6 V ±10 percent, i.e., achieving a high degree of reliability 3.2 to 4.0 V. This circuitry draws with the low power available. When approximately 400 mA at 3.6 V, which the plungers are at their lowest po- together with the readout current sition, the force is low, and this gives a total consumption of 700 mA combined with the effects of dust and in some cases. Ordinary zinc-carbon dirt between the plunger and former dry cells are somewhat inadequate for sometimes resulted in a failure to

195 : , .

operate. In the up position the air onto the solenoid supply line, oper- gap is very small and the holding ating the appropriate solenoids. force large, presenting no problem. When C has discharged to the lower It was thus decided that some addi- supply voltage (approx. 3.6 V) the tional force must be made available heavy-current diode D begins to con- initially only to overcome the static duct and the low-voltage supply takes friction at a time when the plunger over to supply the holding current. is in its least favorable position. The display is then read. On release This was done by supplying the sole- of the press-to- read panel, the ca- noids momentarily with a high voltage pacitor charges up again and after and then transferring to a lower approximately two seconds is ready voltage for holding only. The cir- for further operation. cuit is shown in Fig. 14 and operates as follows The second design problem was one of size. The spacing of the While the instrument is switched dots of standard braille is small on, the 1000-yF capacitor C, is (2.3 mm) and to build solenoids of charged to the sum of the voltages the dimensions necessary to achieve of the two battery supplies, through it directly would be exceedingly the resistor R. When the press-to- difficult. A scheme using larger read panel is depressed, the counter solenoids with remote actuation of is activated and begins to count. the pins would be bulky and compli- On finishing, an end-of-count signal, cated. A compromise was reached via the transistors Trl and Tr2 here by the use of offset pin caps, switches the 12.6 V or so held on C together with a dot spacing of 4.78 mm, approximately twice that of standard braille. Although a short familiarization period was required, the large size braille PLASTIC PANEL n]r was found to be satisfactory in use. BRASS PIN The offset pin caps were turned STEEL COVER from PTFE and in their raised posi- PLATE tion protrude about 1 mm through holes in a perspex cover. This provides complete electrical in- sulation between the instrument and the user. Photographs of the braille readout before its installation in the instrument can be seen in Fig. 15.

CONSTRUCTION

Figure 16 illustrates the lay- out of the instrument inside and out. The positions of the circuit boards, -9.-^. ' current transformer, shunts, and ^.1%l batteries can be seen in the upper

AU illustration. The plastic tube which dimensions $^"€-^^ pipes the sound from the auditory monitor transducer to the outside of ^^-' the case is also visible. The lower -a ji illustration shows the front panel with the hand in the reading posi- tion, the range switches, on-off- reverse switch and full-scale check button rU- 4-78 ir^—J PINS — P.TPE.p.tf: BRAILLE Screening and Insulation

Figure 13. Electromagnetic The multimeter is housed in a Braille Readout wooden box which is lined with alumi- num foil to form an electrical shield.

196 FIG. ft. SOLENOID SUPPLY CIRCUIT

BRAILLE SOLENOIDS UNITS TOTAL

END OF COUNT SIGNAL FROM COUNTER OUTPUTS Figure 14. Solenoid Supply Circuit

This shield is connected to the com- mately 3-1/2" x 6", operating on a mon terminal via a 0.001-yF, 2-kV microswitch. The advantage of the capacitor in parallel with a l-Mfl panel is that it enables the user to resistor, providing the electronic operate the instrument from almost circuitry with an environment which any angle, using one hand only. The is at a similar potential to itself. ball of the thumb, palm, or lower This is essential in an electronic wrist can be used to hold the panel instrument in which the whole cir- down while the reading is being cuitry can be swinging at 50 or taken. An array of fixed dots rep- 60 Hz through hundreds of volts. The resenting the braille numeral symbol complete instrument is mounted on a II • II 3/8-in. thick perspex front panel is placed immediately before the which is also backed with aluminum electromagnetic display to allow foil. No metal parts except the the ac- terminals protrude through this the user to quickly locate tive display area. panel. It is thus completely safe for making "floating" measurements. In the unlikely event of the case Range Change Knobs electrically breaking down or being penetrated by a conductor, the cur- Three features were considered rent would be limited to a very low design of these: value by the resistor-capacitor con- necessary in the nection between the screen and com- mon. 1. For convenience of reading, they should be flush with the

panel ; Since the readout unit is fairly close to the input terminals and 2. They arranged so that the there is the danger that the user's be reading position is fixed and fingers may stray too close to them, near the dis- a substantial perspex barrier has electromagnetic play; been provided between the two.

3. They should be totally insu- Press-to-Read Panel lated from the switch shafts.

A large button was originally The design adopted consists of used for this function but later was a plastic disc with two 1/4-in. deep D-shaped depressions for the finger replaced with a hinged panel approxi-

197 input terminals be bridged with a gas discharge tube or some other form of overvoltage protecting device.

CONCLUSION

Brief Specification

Ranges . AC: 2.5 V, 10 V, 250 V, 1,000 V, 10 mA, 100 mA, 1 A, 2.5 A, 10 A. DCt 2.5 V, 10 V, 25 V, 100 V, 250 V, 1,000 V, 100 uA, 1 mA, 10 mA, 100 mA, 1 A, 10 A.

Accuracy . *2 percent of full scale between 10 percent and 100 per- cent of full scale with a resolution of one on the 0-100 scale and three on the 0-250 scale. Usable readings can be made to 50 percent overscale on the 0-100 ranges and up to the reading 300 on the 0-250 ranges.

Figure 15. Braille Readout Before Installation

and thumb. The disc is let into the panel so that it does not protrude. On the circumference of the disc are the braille markings which are read opposite a fixed reference indenta- tion. These markings were added by glueing vacuum- formed sheet plastic face plates to the knobs.

Overvoltage Protection

At an early stage in the testing of the instrument in use, measurement was made of the field voltage of a dc generator. When the field of this machine was switched off, a substan- tial voltage spike was produced, arc- ing between adjacent contacts on a range change switch, demolishing both the switch and the components mounted on it. We therefore consider it im- portant, if the voltage ratings of the range switches used- are not as high as might be desirable, that the Figure 16. The Completed Instrument

198 User's Comments The audible monitor is extremely useful. It obviously provides in- So far we have simply described formation continuously about the the engineering involved in this in- parameter being measured. Any strument from the designer's point change is immediately noticed, of view. In conclusion it would per- even if a measurement is not be- haps be fitting to hear a word from ing made at the time. VThen some the user, Tony Brown: change is made in the circuit under test, the audible monitor Over several years, I have provides immediate feedback about used this instrument in many the effects of that change. situations, especially for study- ing the behaviour of experimental The audible alarm also has the electronic circuitry. I have al- advantage of immediate feedback so used other instruments for this to the operator when the para- task. These have produced tactile meter is out of range, or of readout either by sensing the the wrong polarity. position of the meter pointer with a probe, or by nulling an Thanking you for your con- audible signal with a graduated tinued interest in the develop- potentiometer. ment of equipment with braille read-out. I have found the digital meter the easiest of these to use. It also provides more information than other meters of my experi-

ence .

Only the digital meter does APPENDIX not require effort and judgment on the part of the operator. When the readout button is The following appendix to pressed, the measurement is Part 1 contains circuit diagrams made, and displayed in braille, of the prototype braille-reading on the panel. digital multimeter as it was built in March 1968.

199 .

»9V To Sic, To Sib. sa*%—tt.'> >560a To RANGE S2C. S2b. swncH»« 3 -U. 100 250 COH COM 250 10 SOLENOID SUPPLY

IN FS 111 111 1000 >f 4 3 10 7 TONE GEN OUTPUT 2 6 U n 8 SOLENOID COW t9V 5 9 On/OH/Rt» TONE GENERATOR GATED BRAILLE r^ " K 7 BIMOOAL 1 Bi BOARD COUNTER (UNITS) 15 -4.V lA BOARD t 16 BLEEPTONE 9V 9 2 U 6 1

Vbe Vee 58V (Vcc)

Aio

+9V .Be. REFERENCE BRAILi-E COUNTER _c» M OSCILLATOR TOs & 100s. Do ftv^Off/Rm BOARD 2 BOARD 3

PRESS TO READ

Figure 17. Interconnection Diagram

BOWOC PI6

3,,, 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 i~Hrlr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Irhrt S2C ^ Command)

Commm(2) SIB „ S2B I I ! 1 I 250 Mod< 1 1 ] f I I IIIIIIMM ^ IX Hod*

91 - CLOCKWISE S2-CL0CKWEE

f\/s/y^^/Yv/s/s/\/\/\^\/v^/^^J^^

o ""o ""o ""o o ""i o 6 SID Ijil A 6 6 d 6 ""o ""o j S2D

- Scam ciof«

91*

COH AC.

Figure 18. Range Switching

200 BOARD 1 E.CPINS :pK

13 K-

CSV6 >

seoK

^^ 'Cwf < 7 IK < 27K< <15K <1K

Vbe ^ FS.

TONEe OUT B2Y94i

-4V»i-vV\A-

VtE fi

Figure 19. Tone Generator: Board No. 1

= 250 «F

I M ADJUST FOR CORRECT F S. READING

Figure 20. Reference Oscillator Board No. 2

201 J - K F F ML923 GATES VL914

BUFFER : u L 900

Figure 21. Braille Counter: Tens & Hundreds Digits, Board No. 3

202 —: BESET

560 \y^ 560 / 560 l^ 560 |^ *" '"''^' ^"^X (""'^tI P'^'^L P^^T^

J-K F. F. . (IL923 GATES )IL914

BUFFERS ' pL900

Figure 22. Gated Braille Bi-Modal Counter: Units Digits, Board No. 4

203 PART 2

An Auditory "Oscilloscope"*

Abstraat INTRODUCTION

The cathode ray oscilloscope Following the design of a Braille- (CRO) is an instrument which is in- reading Digital Multimeter for use valuable to the electrical engineer. by a blind student, the logical con- The blind engineer is, however, de- tinuation of the work was an attempt prived of its use and is placed at to provide a substitute for the cath- considerable disadvantage. It is, ode ray oscilloscope. The instrument therefore, desirable to consider to be described here was also designed equivalents or substitutes for this and built in the Department of Elec- instrument and the auditory approach trical Engineering and was used by used in this attempt met with some the blind student in the final year degree of success. The instrument of the Electrical Engineering course makes use of a multidimensional audi- at Monash. tory display in which frequency, am- plitude, and timbre are all utilized. It is clear that in the design This technique has been shown to be of an "oscilloscope" for the blind more efficient than schemes using one there are for all practical purposes dimension only. only two basic approaches available; the auditory and the tactile. Of Since an oscilloscope must be these the former was selected. Al- capable of displaying waveforms wide- though a device of this type may not ly ranging in frequency, and since have as high potential performance signals must be no higher in frequency as a tactile equivalent, it has the than a few Hz. to be suitable for advantage of being easier and consid- auditory modulation, the instrument erably cheaper to implement. incorporates a signal-sampling time- scaling device. Sampling is con- trolled by a slow-sweep generator or Auditory Displays may be performed at a fixed point on the observed waveform, the sampling In view of the considerable acu- position then being controlled by an ity of human pitch perception, an ob- external linear-slider potentiometer vious method of encoding low- frequency marked in braille. Measurement of (of the order of 1 Hz) analogue in- the waveform amplitude at the point formation is by frequency modulation can be made via an external braille of an audible carrier tone. This voltmeter. As far as possible, the technique, together with binaural circuitry of a commercial oscillo- location has been investigated by

scope has been used, the instrument Black ^ for the transmission of hand- described here consisting of an at- written characters. It was found tachment which can be strapped to that motion with a bandwidth up to the side of an essentially conven- about 3 Hz could be followed, and, tional CRO. further, that if only the vertical component (represented by frequency) was transmitted that the error rate did not increase much. In these ex- periments low- frequency pulse trains

*Designed by P . M. Seligman, super- were used as the modulated carrier vised by J. A. Phillips, for a and an exponential frequency-to-input Master of Engineering Science (1970) law was used to give a linear pitch- in the Electrical Engineering De- to-input sensation. partment, Monash University.

204 It was decided to perform simi- which becomes harsher with increasing lar experiments to those described slope. By the timbre of the tone it above with the kinds of waveforms is easy to detect any change in func- that are experienced in oscillographic tion slope. With a negative going displays and with a sinusoidal carrier input, a different timbre is used, centered about 1 kHz--a region of this being produced by the addition high pitch acuity. During the course of a square wave of frequency f. This of these experiments , frequency devia- effectively means the addition of odd tions of *1, 2, and 3 octaves were harmonics and results in a shrill used and this was found to have little squeaky sound which becomes a whine bearing on the ability to differenti- at higher frequencies. The amplitude ate between waveforms. Investiga- of this square wave is also controlled tions also showed that although the by input function magnitude. general excursions of a function were easily detected, features involving It may be asked why it is neces- the change of slope of an increasing sary to use two different timbres to function or even the comparatively indicate positive and negative slopes gross difference between the peak of when the difference between these a triangular wave and the peak of a must be perfectly obvious from the sinusoid were difficult to detect. rising or falling pitch of the tone. This indicated that additional audi- The reason for this can be seen if tory information on the derivative the case of the display of an equi- of the function would improve matters. lateral triangular function is con- Psychophysical tests were performed, sidered. If the upward slope of and using an elementary model^ of the the wave is of the same magnitude as subject/system it was found that the the downward slope and different tim- estimated channel capacity could be bre modulations are used for positive increased from 4.9 bits/sec to and negative slopes, an abrupt change 7.1 bits/sec, by the use of a multi- in timbre will be heard at the transi- dimensional display which included tion. This would not be the case if the function derivative. It was thus both polarities of derivative used decided to implement this feature in the same modulation. Complete con- the practical auditory oscilloscope. tinuity would be observed at the transition and the user would be It remained to decide what type left to deduce that because of the of modulation should be used in the lack of an abrupt change in timbre, practical auditory oscilloscope. The an abrupt transition at the peak of original tests in which the improve- the observed function had occurred. ment was demonstrated, used chordal A smooth-peaked wave would also show modulation in which dissonant and con- continuity, that is, the tone would sonant gliding chords were used to become gradually purer as the slope display the positive and negative reduced to zero and then gradually parts of the derivative. The ampli- harsher again. The two functions tudes of the secondary tones in the while being distinguishable would chords indicated derivative magni- therefore not be as obviously dif- tude. Although this multidimensional ferent as they would be with a two- display was satisfactory, it required timbre scheme. The auditory' display rather too much hardware for a prac- is thus a three dimensional one, in tical implementation. "Timbre" modu- that pitch, timbre strength, and lation was found to be easier to im- timbre type are used, although the plement and was just as effective in third dimension is only partially conveying derivative information. In exploited. It could perhaps be this modulation, a pure sinusoidal called a 2-1/2 D display. tone is heard with a constant input. As before, with an increasing input the sinusoid increases exponentially Time Scaling in frequency (f) to give a sensation of linearly increasing pitch, but in It is clear that it is insuffi- addition to this, a secondary tone, cient simply to devise auditors^ a square wave of frequency 2f and schemes to present analogue informa- amplitude proportional to the deriva- tion if the information is not suit- tive is added to the pure tone. This ably time scaled for presentation. has the effect of adding even har- In the case of a substitute for an monics of f to the sinusoid, turning oscilloscope, signals of any frequen- the pure tone into a harsh nasal sound cy up to several x'^IHz should be

205 observable and these must be reduced Description of Operation to the order of 1 Hz while preserving the waveshape. With nonrepetitive We are now in a position to de- signals this cannot be done without scribe the operation of the complete elaborate storage devices, but for instrument. Fig. 23 is a block dia- repetitive signals, time scaling can gram indicating the interconnection be performed by sampling. A simple of the various sections. 5-inch oscilloscope of a type used by second year engineering students The CRO timebase (TB) and "y" in the laboratories of the Electrical outputs are fed to the sample and Engineering Department was used as a hold unit. Starting the slow-sweep basis for the time scaling equipment. generator or applying an externally Slight modifications were made to the generated signal to the "x" input of CRO to make the timebase and vertical the S.&H. unit produces a time-scaled signal outputs available externally output. This is fed to an exponential via buffer amplifiers through a socket function generator which doubles its at the rear of the instrument. By output for a 1-cm upward deflection taking the timebase output and compar- and halves it for a 1-cm downward de- ing it with the output of a slow-sweep flection on the CRO. The frequency generator, the sampling instants are of the linear voltage-controlled os- derived. Samples of the vertical out- cillator which follows, thus varies put taken at these instants are held one octave-per-cm of vertical deflec- in a hold circuit enabling the wave- tion. The sinusoidal output of this form on the CRO screen to be recon- VCO is the fundamental auditory signal structed at the speed of the slow- of the "oscilloscope" and is fed via sweep generator. The time-scaling an audio amplifier to the headphones. circuit also provides the derivative output, the formation of which will It will be noticed, that in ad- be described further in sec. 2. dition to the sinusoidal output of

TIME SCALED OUTPUT ^- BUFFER SAMPLE & EXPONENTIAL AMPS HOLD FUNCTION V.C.O. FIG.24 FIG. GENERATOR FIG. T.B. 25 2: 27 FIG. C.R.O. 26C DIFFERENTIAL ru 01 \> AMPLIFIER 2f U uy FIG. 28 SAM P LING^OSITIO N "mod INDICATOR MODULATOR -w- FIG. 28 EXT. DERIVATIVE o ^- OUTPUTS HALF WAVE M n RECTIFIERS +ve MODULATOR START SLOW ^ FIG. 28 BUTTON SWEEP GENERATOR END OF SWEEP MUTE FIG. 26b

OVERLOAD PERIODIC DETECTOR MUTE FIG. 26a

AUDIO AMPS. FIG. 2 "TO METER IF REQUIRED

Figure 2 3. Complete Auditory Oscilloscope

206 . .

the VCO, there are two square-wave -6 dB v;ith respect to funda- outputs, one of the same frequency mental signal level for trace and the other of double frequency. slope of 1 cm/cm. when deriva- These are used to give the tone its tive gain is set to )anity. timbre. They pass through modulators

and then also to the headphones and Volume Control . form the derivative auditory-signal path. The inputs to the modulators 53, variable in 5 steps giving are controlled by a complementary fundamental signal levels of 74, (push-pull) output of a differential 77, 80, 83, and 86 dB, above amplifier in conjunction with the 2 X 10-4 ybar with both Beyer S.&H. unit. Although both derivative DT48 and Sennheiser HD414 head-

outputs can swing in either the posi- phones . tive or negative direction, only the

positive parts are used. In the nega- Switches . tive going sections, half-wave recti- fiers cut off the input to the cor- 54, sweep start. responding modulator. Thus it can S5 , bandwidth; high/lov;--5-Hz be seen that only one modulator can sampling noise filter v/hich pass audio- frequency square-wave sig- is used when sampling rate is low. nals at any one time, and that the frequency is 2f with a positive de- Sg , derivative, on/off. rivative, and f with a negative one. The amplitude of the signal passed is Sy, mono/stereo; derivative dis- equal to the magnitude of the deriva- play, combined with or separated tive, the modulator gain being unity. from fundamental. In the sepa- rated display, total power for Further details included in both earphones for Fig. 23 are: fundamental signal is transferred to one ear- phone and total power for deriva- 1. The muting of the VCO by the tive output is the sweep generator when its sweep transferred to has been completed. other. Sg, sweep selector; selects eith- 2. The periodic muting of the VCO er internal linear sweep by the overload detector if the or ex- ternal slider-controlled sv/eep. waveform on the CRO goes off screen. Center position of this switch mutes all displays. 3. Provision, for a sighted assist- Sockets . ant, of a sampling marker via the Z mod (intensity) input of the CRO. Headphones; stereo phone socket. External sweep; 5-pin socket pro- Controls Provided viding also positive supply volt- age for external linear slider, The niamber of controls necessary potentiometer. to operate the instrument has been External voltm.eter; 3/4-in. by reduced to a minimum to avoid, as 4 mm sockets enable much as possible, sources of confu- to external of sion to the blind operator. All ro- measurements trace distance above tary controls are of the stepped type screen base to be made. Output, to facilitate convenient resetting to IV/cm. any position frequently used. The controls provided are listed below: DESIGN

Sweep speed . Sj, variable in 8 Circuit description and design steps; 22, 16, 11, 8, 5.6, 4.0, 2.8, and 2.0 seconds total-sweep details of interest are given. Al- time though some use has been made of in- tegrated circuits, it is likely that if design were repeated, further use Derivative gain . S2 , variable in of integrated circuits would be 5 steps: 2.0, 1.0, 0.5, 0.2, and m.ade 0.1. Derivative signal level is

207 .

Buffer Amplifiers (Fig. 24) is drawn in T5 by a 150-K resistance to the negative supply. The circuit is straightforward, taking a differential input from the CRO vertical amplifier and converting Sample and Hold (Fig. 25) this to a single-ended output by means of a long-tail pair, one side Fundamental output . This cir- of which drives a complementary cuit is in fact a dual circuit which emitter- follower. A low-impedance samples and holds the CRO vertical source is required to drive the sam- signal at two instants separated by ple and hold circuit. The trimming a time, equivalent to that represented potentiometer P]_ is used to cancel by 0.2 cm on the horizontal axis of residual fluctuations in tail current the CRO (the time itself is dependent due to the finite dynamic resistance on the timebase setting of the CRO) of the zener. The output voltage of The dual samples are required for the circuit is eight ±4 volts for a production of the signal derivative full screen display. The time base and will be discussed further in the buffer consists simply of a potential next subsection. dividing emitter-follower. This gives an output which ram.ps from to 10 V. Transistors T^ and T2 form a With 0-volt output, a standing current comparator which fires the two schmitt

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209 triggers consisting of the microcir- In order to overcome these prob- cuits M]^ and M- . Triggering occurs lems, a dual sampling technique has when the timebase and slow-sweep been used. The method eliminates the voltage levels are almost equal. scaling problem by obtaining the The schmitt outputs drive the two space derivative ^Y/dx instead of monostables comprising M3 , M4 , and the time derivative dy/dt and does

M5 , M6 respectively. These in turn not require the use of elaborate drive the two saturating switches T4 filters. One sampling circuit is

, 22-volt sample Ax (equivalent and T5 , producing the 100 nS adjusted to sampling pulses required for the to 0.2 cm of the CRT) ahead of the sampling operation. other. The difference. Ay, between the two samples if detected by a The microcircuit M7 is connected differential amplifier (Fig. 28) as a bistable flip-flop which is set whose output is then '^Y/Ax, a good at the beginning of the first sampling approximation to the gradient of pulse and reset at the second. This the function y(x). drives the saturating switch Tg pro- ducing a 22-volt pulse which when ap- plied to the Z mod input of the CRO, Overload Detector (Fig. 26a) produces an intensifying marker whose beginning and end indicate the sam- Through the use of zener diodes pling positions. In the sampling and the trimming potentiometers Pl4 circuit, use is made of field effect and Pi5, the OR circuit M]_ detects devices in both sampling and holding sample and hold output voltages which operations. The junction FETs T7 and are equivalent to trace displace- Tg are used as bipolar switches al- ments which exceed the CRT dimen- lowing 100-pF mica capacitors to sions. The output of this circuit charge to the vertical signal level raises the supply voltage to one of present in the sampling period. In- the capacitor discharging resistors sulated gate FETs T9 and T2_q connect- of the astable multivibrator based ed as source followers serve to de- on the microcircuit M3. This oper- tect the voltage on the holding capac- ates when overload occurs and pro- itors. The circuit is capable of duces the periodic muting output re- holding a signal with a time constant quired. of approximately 6 seconds. The output marked S.&H. (1) which is the result of the earlier sample of the Slow Sweep Generator (Fig. 26b) two, provides the time-scaled signal for the fundamental FM display. The In this circuit, T2 acts as a trimming potentiometer ^n balances constant current source which charges the two S.&H. outputs. the 2-uF capacitor to produce a line- ar voltage ramp. The capacitor voltage is buffered by a source fol-

Derivative output . The problems lower. To. By means of a level de- of obtaining a time derivative from tector similar to those employed in a time-scaled, sampled signal are two- the overload circuit, the voltage at fold: the source of T3 is monitored. Upon reaching 10 volts, it trips the bi- 1. Because of the stepped nature stable M4. This produces a mute of the sampled signal, the output and causes T^ to discharge derivative will be a series of the capacitor, resetting the sweep. impulses rather than a continu- The sweep is started by depressing ous function. Elimination of the pushbutton 84, thereby setting this effect requires the use of the bistable M4 and releasing the elaborate filters. capacitor.

2. Since the degree of time scaling of the functions to be differen- Exponential Function tiated is variable, the func- Generator (Fig. 26cr tions can be encountered at different speeds. This makes This is achieved by use of the the scaling of a time-derivative exponential volt-amp characteristic circuit difficult. of a silicon semiconductor junction.

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A monolithic circuit M5 containing and a saturating switch, T5 which, by four transistors is utilized, one shorting its output to the supply transistor, T7, being used as a diode rail, resets the integrator. The to provide the exponential charac- rate of reset is linearly proportional teristic and the other three to keep to input voltage. The BAX13 diode and

the chip heated to a constant tempera- 6 . 8-K resistor at the input of the ture. The operation is as follows: integrator protect T]^ during reset- the base emitter junction of Tg is ting. Resetting of the integrator used as a temperature sensor. A fall produces a heavy pulse of current in in temperature of the chip results in the 220S^ resistor in the collector of

decreased base current in Tg, raising T2 . This drives the two cascaded JK its collector voltage and thereby in- flip-flops M]_ and M2 which produce creasing the dissipation in T5 and Tg the 2f and f square-wave outputs for The temperature of the chip is thus the derivative display. Muting, or regulated, keeping the volt-amp char- inhibition of the VCO operation is acteristics of T7 independent of am- achieved by raising either the J or bient conditions. The chip tempera- K input of M-|_ to a small positive

ture can be set by means of T7. Two voltage . operational amplifiers M5 and M7 are used to provide the voltage drive and Production of the sine wave of current measurement for T7. Pg sets frequency f for the fundamental FM the junction bias voltage while Pg display is of some interest. The adjusts the output offset of the cir- transistors Tg and Tg form a second cuit. integrator to which the square wave from M]_ is applied through T7. T7,

via the emitter follower Tg , uses Voltage Controlled the oscillator input-control voltage Oscillator (Fig. 27) to modulate the square-wave input to the integrator, thereby producing a This consists of an integrator triangular wave whose amplitude is

comprising transistors T]_ and T2 , a independent of frequency. A close schmitt trigger, T3 and T4 which de- approximation to a sine wave is tects when the integrator output volt- achieved by the use of two back-to- age ramps below a predetermined level back silicon diodes which reshape

VCO in o-

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212 + 22 V»

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Figure 28. Differential Amplifier, Modulators, Audio T^plifiers

the triangular wave. This sine wave Ts and T7, the two signals of fre- is adjusted for minimum distortion quency f and 2f which comprise the by the trimming resistor Pj^g which square wave outputs of the VCO. Tg varies the triangular wave amplitude. and Tg are two shunt feedback audio Distortion at 1 kHz can be adjusted amplifiers whose gains are controlled to below 2.5 percent, a suitably low by variation of their feedback re- level. sistors. Series resistance is in- cluded in their outputs to allow fundamental and derivative signal Differential Amplifier, Modulators , mixing in monoaural operation. Audio Amplifiers (Fig~ 28l

The differential amplifier here Power Supply (Fig. 29) is that used to measure the differ- ence between the two sample and hold The power supply makes use of outputs. Its gain is varied by two integrated circuit regulators switching of the emitter resistors using external series regulator of the transistors T2 and T3. The transistors and is fairly self- capacitor between the collectors of explanatory. For simplicity all T2 and T3 limits the frequency re- positive supplies are derived from sponse of the circuit to 25 Hz. Posi- one transformer winding and bridge tive outputs only are taken, these rectifier. Series dropping resistors being used to modulate, by means of are used to reduce dissipation in the transistors T2 and T^.

213 Figure 29. Power Supply

CONSTRUCTION

The inst rument was constructed on a module c onsisting of four alumi- num bars moun ted between the front and back pane 1. The overall dimen- sions are: 3" wide, 8-1/2" high and 15" deep, the depth and height being arranged to b e the same as those of the CRO enabl ing the unit to be at- tached to its side. The combination is shown in F ig. 30.

The circuits were constructed using a number of different tech- niques. The sample and hold unit which operates at fairly high speeds was constructed on a double-sided printed circuit board. One side of this board was left unetched and served as a ground plane. Small areas of copper were removed to clear component leads. The VCO circuit used a printed board without ground plane. This board had been designed for the experimental apparatus and required little modification to be adapted for this equipment. The re- maining circuitry was constructed on "veroboard," a perforated board with copper strips running lengthwise along Figure 30. Auditory Oscilloscope each row of holes. attached to CRO

214 All circuit boards for the main Adjustment part of the equipment were mounted vertically between the two outermost Table 1 lists the trimming po- aluminum bars of the module. The tentiometers used to a lign the equip- power supply circuit board, however, ment. These are given in the sug- was mounted on the bars nearest the gested order in v/hich they should be CRO and the power transformer on the adjusted. The derivat ive display back panel. Mains supply to the unit should be switched on and derivative was taken via a mains connector from gain set to maximum in these adjust- the CRO switched and fused supply. ments . The sweep sele ctor should be Signal leads were brought via coaxial switched to "internal, In adjust- cables through a 12-pin connector on ments which reauire us e of the ear- the back panel of the CRO. phones the display may be unmuted by

TABLE 1

Adjustment of Auditory Oscilloscope

Pot. Fig. Adjustment

Minimum ripple on vertical signal buffer amplifier output.

7 Relevant supply to +22 V.

7 Relevant supply to +10 V.

7 Relevant supply to +3.6 V.

3 Sampling marker to beginning of trace and fully on screen.

3 Sampling marker length to . 2 cm.

4c With equipment ambient temperature raised to

45°C; voltage at pin 11, M^ , to just 10 V.

4c With Pg set to lowest position and CRO vertical shift to lowest position; until VCO just begins to oscillate.

4c With trace set to screen center; for VCO output frequency f = 1 kHz.

6 As above; until derivative signal (for 2f square 10 wave) is just heard in earphones.

3 As above; until both derivative signals are heard 11 equally or become inaudible--then adjust P-,q until derivative signals are just audible.

^12 4c As above; and with external voltmeter connected at panel; for reading of 4.0 V. ^3 4a With trace set to screen top; for overload de- tector just operating.

^14 4a With trace set to screen base; for overload de- tector just operating.

Pl5 4b With repeated slow sweeps until marker moves just to end of trace before resetting.

Pic 5 For lowest distortion sinewave at earphones.

215 starting the sweep on a low speed or encountered in determining whether setting the sweep selector to in- the CRO ranges had been appropriately ternal and connecting the external, set and the triggering satisfactorily linear slider, potentiometer. All adjusted. Although with experience other controls may be set as is found it is possible that performance in convenient. The adjustments should this direction could be improved, be carried out with the CRO extern- there is a case here for the use of ally triggered and no signal on the a selfranging oscilloscope as an y input. input device. The automatic trigger- ing of the oscilloscope used was on the whole good, but on occasions when CONCLUSION it did fail to trigger correctly an indicator of some type would have Operation been useful.

Although considerable practice The device was fairly tiring to is required to learn to interpret use. It is likely that with frequent the displays produced quickly and use this would be less the case, but efficiently, the equipment is rela- with the experience to date, it has tively simple to use. The sweep been found that after one hour, per- speed and display volume can simply formance is considerably reduced. be adjusted to convenient levels and Short breaks, even of one minute for each particular pattern, the de- duration, however, improve this situa- rivative gain set to give reasonably tion significantly. similar derivative and fundamental signal volumes. In cases where the derivative is of little importance, such as with the display of square waves, this facility may be switched off. When there is doubt as to the fundamental and derivative composi- tion of the display, these may be ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS separated by means of the mono/stereo switch. In cases where absolute measurements must be made on a wave- form these are made using the extern- We would like to thank the al linear slider potentiometer and a staff of the Monash University braille voltmeter. Electrical Engineering Depart- ment for their assistance in the construction of these instruments User's Comments and for their help in the prepara- tion of this report. Two main points were made by a user of the equipment. We would also like to thank Tony Brown for his manv useful In situations where no informa- comments and suggestions and tion was given on the waveforms to his patience during the testing be measured, some difficulty was of the instruments.

REFERENCES

Black, W. L. An acoustic pattern Seligman, P. M. A communication sys- presentation. American Founda- tem model of auditory pattern recog- tion for the Blind, Research nition in the temporal mode. Pro-

Bulletin , No. 16, May, ceedings of the Third International 1968. Conference on Systems Sciences, Hawaii, 19 70.

216 . .

A COMPARISON OF THREE READING MEDIA FOR THE BLIND* BRAILLE, NORMAL RECORDING, AND COMPRESSED SPEECH

Dean W. Tuttle

Abstract selections and 24 multiple-choice questions. Students were permitted

Purpose . This study attempted to skip or reread any of the reading

to compare reading by braille (B) , selections whether B, N, or C. An reading by listening to normal re- index of learning efficiency was

cording (N) , and reading by listen- computed for each test by dividing ing to compressed speech (C) with the number of minutes spent reading respect to an index of learning ef- the selections. ficiency (comprehension score per unit of time) One hundred and four subjects satisfactorily completed the testing

Sample . Braille readers, 14 procedures. Utilizing the medians through 21 years of age who were of both braille comprehension scores attending schools in California were and normal recording comprehension included in the sample. Students scores, four levels were identified: with additional handicaps were not high braille readers, high listeners excluded. (39 subjects); high braille readers, low listeners (13 subjects); low Research, Design, and Method- braille readers, high listeners (13

ology . After an introduction to subjects); and low braille readers, reading by listening to compressed low listeners (39 subjects). speech, each subject took three equivalent forms of the Reading An analysis of variance pro- Versatility Test, Intermediate Lev- cedure was used to analyze each of el; one in braille, another in normal the contrasts B - N, N - C, and recording and a third in compressed B - C, across the four levels and speech. Care was taken to distribute overall. the effects of form and order. Each test included four prose reading Conclusions

For the total sample, there was no difference in comprehension among the three reading m.edia. *Editor's Note: For the total sample, reading The Abstract, Background and Re- by braille took almost twice as view of Literature, and the Bibliogra- long as reading by listening to phy printed here were extracted from normal recording and almost the author's doctoral dissertation, three tim.es as long as reading A Comparison of Three Reading Media by listening to compressed for the Blind: Braille , Normal Re- speech. cording, and Compressed Speech, sub- mitted in partial satisfaction of the For each of the four levels, requirements for the degree of Doctor reading by listening to com- of Philosophy in Special Education to pressed speech was more efficient San Francisco State College, Graduate than either reading by braille Division, of the University of Cali- or reading by listenina to nor- fornia, Berkeley, California. mal recording.

217 .

4. For the total sample, reading comprehend much more through one by listening to compressed medium than the other. This implies speech was more efficient than that, for any given individual, text- reading by listening to normal books and recreational materials recording which, in turn was must be made available in the medium more efficient than reading by which is most effective for him. braille Since compressed speech is the

Implications . This study fo- most efficient of the three reading cused on but two aspects of reading media under study, local, state, and behavior: comprehension and time. national agencies must not hesitate The reading of graphs, maps, and to provide visually-handicapped stu- other technical materials was not dents with materials in compressed represented in the tests. The ef- speech in order to help them meet fects of reading by listening on the ever-increasing reading demands. acquisition of allied skills such as Furthermore, since reading by listen- spelling and punctuation were not ing is an effective reading medium examined. for the blind, it may very well be an effective reading medium for the However, this study has dem.on- sighted who encounter difficulty strated that blind students do not reading print. all respond way read- in the same to This study does not imply that ing by braille and reading by listen- braille is outmoded. Braille is still There who ing. are some students the most exact medium for reading and writing for the blind.

BACKGROUND AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE

SUPPORT FOR UNDERLYING NEED FOR COMPRESSION ASSUMPTION OF THIS STUDY Part of the problem of word rate The underlying assumption is that can be stated very simply. Foulke reading by listening is a valid form (1964) found that the average braille of reading. Emerson Foulke (1969- reader can process braille at the 1970) wrote a series of articles en- rate of 10 4 words-per-minute . For a titled, "Reading by Listening." He group of eighth grade blind subjects briefly compared the processes and without additional handicaps, their skills involved in three forms of braille reading rate was found to be reading: print, braille, and listen- 150 words-per-minute (Lowenfeld, ing. Reading, including reading by Abel, Hatlen, 1969). Word rate can listening, is viewed as an active be improved through the use of re- processing of symbols, be they visual, corded materials which have been read tactual, or auditory, for the intel- aloud. Reports of oral reading rate ligibility and comprehension of mes- have ranged from 150 to 175 words-per- sage units. Several studies have minute (Bocca and Calearo, 196 3; compared reading by braille with read- Goldstein, 1940; Johnson et al., 1963; ing by listening (Lowenfeld, 19 45; Nichols and Stevens, 1957). However, Nolan, 1967; Steel, 1969). Having neither of these methods approximates identified 11 different skills, the average word rate of the silent Hackett (196 8) studied the hierarchy visual reader of 250 to 300 words- of skills in listening comprehension per-minute (Harris, 19 47; Taylor, and reading comprehension, and found 1937) . them to be similar.

218 .

METHODS OF SPEECH joined to form a continuous pattern. COMPRESSION Because the discard sample is so short, no speech sound critical to Foulke (1969) analyzed six the intelligibility of the v;ord is methods of speech compression. The ever fully discarded. Amounts of simplest method requiring no special compression can be controlled and device is to pace the oral reader at varied without a distortion in voice a faster rate. However, one cannot pitch or Quality. For purposes of maintain this pace for long without this study, the electro-mechanical an increase in articulation errors sampling techniaue for compression and loss of inflection (Kozhevnikov is most appropriate. Thus, v/hen and Chistovich, 1965). Another sim- compressed materials are referred ple method of attaining speech com- to later, it should be understood pression is to play back a tape or that the materials have been com- record at a faster speed than the pressed by this m.ethod. speed at which it was recorded.

Within certain limits , this has been found to be satisfactory, but it HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT does introduce pitch distortion and OF THE ELECTRO- a loss of voice quality (Fletcher, MECHANICAL COMPRESSOR 1929; Foulke, 1966; Garvey, 1953a, b; Gore, 1968; Klumpp and Webster, 1961; Miller and Licklider (1950) were Kurtzrock, 1957; McLain, 1962; Nixon, interested in the intelligibility of et al., 1968; Nixon and Sommer, interrupted speech. They found that 1968) . the spoken word could be understood when it was turned on and off as Compression by the sampling slowly as ten times a second. Garvey technique, whereby instantaneous seg- (1953b) reasoned that if the "off" ments of the speech sound are alter- portions of the interrupted speech nately retained and discarded, and could be discarded, and the "on" the retained samples joined to form portions abutted in time, the result continuous speech, can be achieved would be intelligible compressed by means of a computer (Cramer, 196 7; speech, free of pitch distortion. Scott, 1963). Gerber and Scott Using a recorded tape, he painstak- (19 71) describe dichotic speech, an- ingly cut and spliced to remove the other form of compressed speech us- "off" portions, and demonstrated ing the computer. Speech segments that the resulting compressed speech which would normally have been dis- was indeed intelligible. His method, carded are now joined to form con- however, was too cumbersome for any- tinuous speech and are fed through thing but research purposes. Then earphones to the other ear simultane- Fairbanks et al. (1954) , announced ously. Though highly satisfactory, the development of their electro- both of these methods are currently mechanical apparatus for the com- impractical because of the high cost pression and expansion of speech. of computer time. The American This development stimulated many to Foundation for the Blind jointly consider the possibility that blind with Bell Telephone Laboratories readers could more nearly approximate undertook the development of a har- the reading rate of the silent visual monic compressor. The experimental reader. prototype was completed in 1968

(Breuel and Levens , 1971). Its main disadvantage is that it is limited INTELLIGIBILITY AND to compressions of 50 percent. COMPREHENSION AS A FUNCTION OF WORD PATE The sixth method of compression is an electromechanical device de- Compression and veloped by Fairbanks, Everitt, and Intelligibility Jaeger and announced in 1954. It was later modified by Graham (19 71) With his splicing technique, This sampling device has the capacity Garvey (19 5 3b) found that when a for discarding samples 20 to 40 mil- list of words was compressed to liseconds long while retaining sam- 40 percent of its original tim.e, ples 20 to 80 milliseconds in dura- there was only a 10 percent loss tion. The retained samples are then in intelligibility. Kurtzrock (1957) ,

219 .

using the electromechanical compres- 325 and 425 words-per-minute. Other sion device, found a 50 percent loss studies report similar findings in intelligibility when a list of (Foulke, 1968a; Harwood, 1955; Lang- words was compressed to 15 percent ford, 1968; Nelson, 1947; Woodcock, of its original time. Fairbanks and 1971) Kodman (1957) compressed a similar list of words to 13 percent of the original time and found 5 7 percent Index of Learning Efficiency intelligibility. The latter investi- gators also discovered a substantial Simple scores in comprehension loss in intelligibility when the and word rate do not take into ac- duration of the discard sample ex- count the time saved in reading by ceeded 80 milliseconds. listening. An index of learning ef- ficiency was defined as the compre- hension score divided by the time Relation of Intelligibility required for the listening task. and Comprehension of Fairbanks et al. (1957a) , Enc and Compressed Speech Stolurow (1960) , Foulke et al . (1962) found, in their respective studies, Foulke and Sticht (1967) pre- that this index of learning effi- sented materials to subjects at five ciency increased with compression different compressions. Though both until a word rate of approximately intelligibility and comprehension 280 words-per-minute was reached. declined as the compression increased, comprehension declined more rapidly On another dimension of learn- than intelligibility. This study ing efficiency, Enc and Stolurow suggested that there are other fac- (1960) , Friedman et al. (1966) , and tors in addition to intelligibility Foulke (1966) were concerned with which affect the degree of comprehen- the relationship between word rate sion. They hypothesized that the and retention. They concluded that perceptual and cognitive processes word rate had no special effect on required for comprehension depend on the rate at which forgetting oc- a time factor needed for the regis- curred. tration and assimilation of input data (compare Overmann, 1971). COMPREHENSION OF COMPRESSED Compression and SPEECH AS A FUNCTION OF Comprehension LISTENER VARIABLES

Diehl et al. (1959) found that, Age of Listener for word rates bounded by 126 and

2 72 words-per-minute , listening com- Fergen (1954) , Wood (1965) , and prehension was unaffected by changes Foulke (1969) found a positive rela- in compression. Fairbanks et al. tionship between the age or grade of (1957a) found little difference in a child and his ability to compre- listening comprehension when materials hend accelerated speech. However, were presented to college students at primary age children were able to 141, 201, and 282 words-per-minute. respond successfully to short impera- However, comprehension dropped rapid- tive statements which had been com- ly with compressions beyond 2 82 words- pressed. per-minute. Foulke et al. (1962) used both literary and scientific selections with blind subjects and Intelligence found comprehension through reading by listening to be only slightly af- Wood (1965) found no relation- fected by increasing word rates be- ship between the IQ of primary age tween 175 and 2 72 words-per-minute. children and their ability to respond They also found an accelerating loss to instructions which had been com- in comprehension above 275 words-per- pressed. Fergen (1954) found no re- minute. Foulke and Sticht (196 7) lationship between the 10 of grade found a 6 percent loss in comprehen- school children and their ability to sion between 225 and 215 words-per- comprehend accelerated speech. deHoop minute and a 14 percent loss between (1967) and Engman (1970) found that

220 . moderately compressed materials could and scientific materials used. How- be used with mentally retarded stu- ever, the subjects fovind the scien- dents without a significant loss in tific selections more difficult to comprehension. (Compare Napier, listen to than the literary material. 1971.) Woodcock (1971) reported that Fairbanks, et al. (1957a), using five the IQ, when mental age is held con- categories of difficulty, cind George stant, does not seem to be an im- (1969) found listening comprehension portant variable. On the other hand, not to be a function of the diffi- when working with adults, Fairbanks, culty level of the material. et al. (1957a, b) , Goldstein (1940), and Nelson (1947) did find a positive relationship between IQ and ability to comprehend compressed speech. COMPREHENSION OF These studies offer no conclusive evi- COMPRESSED SPEECH AS dence about the relationship between A FUNCTION OF TRAINING IQ and reading by listening to com- pressed speech. Vorr and Miller (1965) exposed subjects to five listening selections compressed to 380 v/ords-per-minute Print Reading Rate Listening comprehension improved from the first to the third selection, but Jesters and Travers (1965) had not thereafter. Woodcock (1971) re- subjects read print or read by lis- ported a similar finding. Perhaps tening to normal recordings at simi- this demonstrates a simple adjustment lar word rates. For both reading to accelerated speech. Orr, Fried- print and reading by listening, com- man and Williams (1965) found a prehension declined as word rate in- 29.3 percent improvement in compre- creased. However, up to a rate of hension of material compressed to

200 words-per-minute , reading by 4 75 words-per-minute following sev- listening yielded better comprehen- eral weeks of training. Kleinman sion scores than did reading print. (1963) , Napier (1971) , and Rawls

Also Goldstein (1940) , Orr, Friedman (19 71) also found an improvement in and Williams (1965) found a positive listening to compressed speech after correlation between the subject's training had occurred. Foulke (1964) print reading rate and his ability used materials compressed to 350 to comprehend compressed speech. words-per-minute with blind subjects. He found no significant difference in tests of comprehension given be- Visual Status fore and after training. Other studies include Fairbanks, et al. Hartlage (1963) found that blind (1957b), Friedman, et al. (1966). and sighted subjects did not differ It is apparent that thus far no ade- significantly with respect to listen- quate, effective training program, has ing comprehension at a normal word been developed for improving compre- rate. However, Foulke (1964a) found hension of compressed speech. that blind subjects could comprehend compressed speech better than sighted subjects. This is probably due to the fact that the blind subjects were THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN accustomed to reading by listening. PRINT OR BRAILLE READING AND READING BY LISTENING

COMPREHENSION AS A FUNCTION "Do we learn more efficiently OF THE LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY by listening or by reading? The OF THE COMPRESSED MATERIAL answer, were it known, would be of prime importance to the edu- Formulae for the absolute diffi- cator as well as all others who culty of a reading selection have been seek to instruct, influence or developed by Dale and Chall (1948) convince others. Psychologists

and Flesch (1948) . However, these have sought this answer for over formuJ.ae were developed for print 70 years and are still pursuing reading. For lack of anything better, it. A vast literature has Foulke, et al. (1962) used one of grown up, but any definite answer these formulae to equalize the literary has failed to appear." (Duker, 1966, p. 399.)

221 , ,

Intelligence Feder (1940) found that for 150 uni- versity freshmen, reading print was Print reading was found to be increasingly superior to reading by more effective than listening for listening as the level of difficulty subjects with higher IQ and better increased. Carver (1934) tested 91 reading ability. Green (1934) after college students and adults. Listen- using both modalities to present ing was superior for the easier ma- psychological material to college terial. students, found that reading print was superior for students who ranked "Meaningful familiar material is in the upper quartile in reading more efficiently presented aurally ability and listening was superior whereas meaningless and unfamiliar for students in the lowest quartile. material is more efficiently present- Davy (1971) found that high school ed visually." (Day and Beech, 1950, students with reading problems had p. 402.) a significantly higher level of com- prehension from listening to tape- recorded speech at normal speed than Braille Reading and Listening from reading equivalent printed ma- terial for an equal length of time. It is uncertain if the relation- ship between print reading and listen- ing is maintained for braille reading Retention and listening. Nolan (1967) present- ed scientific, literary, and social For immediate recall, visual studies materials to blind students mode is favored. For delayed recall, in grades seven to ten. When the same auditory mode is favored. Corey amount of time was utilized, learning (1934) using audio materials of by listening to normal recordings was

100 words-per-minute , with college found to be more efficient than learn- freshmen, reported that the visual ing by braille. When comparing braille mode was better for immediate recall. with talking books, Lowenfeld (1945) However, after a few weeks, Corey found that though braille was better found no significant difference. for most students, talking books yielded relatively high comprehension scores for low IQ blind children in Grade Level grades three through seven.

For students below the seventh grade, listening is consistently re- Correlations Between ported as superior to reading due to Reading and Listening the fact that reading skills have not yet been fully developed (Day and "In respect to the relationship Beech, 19 50; Haberland, 19 56; Lumley between listening ability and 1933). Young (1930) studied 2,000 reading ability, correlations children in the fourth, fifth, and ranging from low to relatively sixth grades. The auditory mode was high now make a positive rela- significantly superior at the fourth tionship doubtful." (Keller, grade, but only slightly superior at 1960, p. 149.) the sixth. Reading print was foiind to be superior above the seventh grade Goldstein (1940) reported a correla- (Cody, 1962; Haugh, 1950; Russell, tion of 0.78. Similar high correla- 1928). Caughran (1953) suggested tions were found by Bonner (1960), that mental age is more reliable than Evertts (1961) , Holmes and Singer chronological age or grade level to (1961), and Toussaint (1961). Using determine the relative superiority a procedure for testing listening of reading print to reading by lis- comprehension which did not involve tening. He reported reading print reading, Blewett (19 49) found the superior above a mental age of 13.5. correlation between print reading and listening to be 0.35. Other studies have likewise found low correlations Difficulty of Reading between reading print and listening MateriaT (Baldauf, 1960; Brown and Carlsen 1955; Stromer, 1952). Correlations With respect to level of diffi- between braille reading and listening culty of the material, Larsen and

222 .

for third to seventh graders ranged 275 words-per-minute. However, the between 0.56 and 0.76 (Lowenfeld, optimum rate for belov/ average stu-

1945) . dents seems to be 250 v;ords-per- minute. There v/as no conclusive evidence regarding the effectiveness SUMMARY of a training program in the use of compressed speech. Of the three reading media, braille, normal recording, and com- The relative superiority of pressed speech, braille is the slow- reading print to reading by listening est and compressed speech is the is undetermined. With respect to fastest. Some studies have compared comprehension, half of the research reading by braille with reading by studies favor the visual mode while listening to normal recording, sug- the other half favor the auditory gesting that, though more is compre- mode (Day and Beech, 1966). Vflien con- hended through the former, the latter trolling for amount and difficulty of is more efficient. Other studies material and age of subject, there is have compared reading by listening to a moderate- to- low correlation betv;een normal recording with reading by lis- the two media. This suggests that tening to compressed speech. As the some students read either print or word rate of compressed speech is in- braille better than they read by creased, comprehension declines more listening, while for others the rapidly than intelligibility. An op- reverse would be true. timum rate for students of average or above average ability appears to be

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certain aspects of language . Doc- subjects. Proceedings of the toral field study, Colorado State Second Louisville Conference on College of Education, 1951. Rate and/or Frequency-Controlled Speech. Louisville: University Lowenfeld, B. Braille and talking of Louisville, 1971, 282-8. book reading , a comparative study. New York: American Foundation for Nelson, H. E. The effect of varia- the Blind, 1945. tions of rate on the recall by radio listeners of "straight"

Lowenfeld, B. , Abel, G. L. & Hat- newscasts . Unpublished doctoral len, P. H. Blind children learn dissertation. State University to read. Springfield, Illinois: of Iowa, 1947. Charles C. Thomas, 1969. Nichols, P. G. & Stevens, L. A. Are Lumley, F. H. Research in radio you listening? New York: McGraw- education at Ohio State Univer- Hill, 1957. sity. Fourth Yearbook of the Institute for Education by Radio. Nixon, C. W. , Mabson, W. E. , Trim- Columbus: Ohio State University, boll, F., Endicott, J. E. & 1933. Welch, B. E. Observations on man in an oxygen-helium environment at Many, W. A. The comprehension of 380 mm. Hg total pressure: IV identical materials presented communications. Aerospace Medi- under reading and listening con- cine, 1968, 38(1) , 1-9. ditions. Master's thesis, State University of Iowa, 1953. Nixon, C. W. & Sommer, H. C. Sub- jective analysis of speech in Maxwell, M. A comparison of three helium environments. Aerospace standardized college reading Medicine, 1968, 39(2), 139-44. tests. Unpublished study, Uni- versity of California at Berkeley, Nolan, C. Y. Reading and listening 1971. in learning by the blind. Ex-

ceptional Children , 1963, 29, McDonald, A. S. et al. Reading 313-16. versatility tests, and manual of directions. Huntington, N.Y.: Nolan, C. Y. Listening and reading Educational Development Labora- in learning. Proceedings of tories, 1968. the Louisville Conference on Time Compressed Speech. Louis-

McLain , J. A comparison of two ville: University of Louisville, methods of producing rapid speech. 1967, 67-8. International Journal for the Education of the Blind, 1962, Nolan, C. Y. & Kederis, C. J. Per- 12, 40-3. ceptual factors in braille word

recognition . Research Series Miller, G. A. & Licklider, J. C. R. No. 20. New York: American The intelligibility of interrupted Foundation for the Blind, 1969. speech. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America , 1950, 22, Orr, D. B. The measurement of lis- 167-73. tening comprehension. Proceedings of the Second Louisville Confer- Mills, D. M. Interrelating reading ence on Rate and/or Frequency- and listening in grades four Controlled Speech. Louisville: through eight. Reading and the University of Louisville, 1971, Language Arts. Proceedings of 219-23. Chicago Press, 1963, 59-62. Orr, D. B., Friedman, H. L. & Morrison, D. F. Multivariate sta- Williams, J. C. C. Trainability

tistical methods . New York: of listening comprehension of McGraw-Hill, 196 7. speeded discourse. Journal of

Educational Psychology , 1965,

56 (3) , 148-56.

228 . ,,

Overmann, R. A. Processing time as Scott, R. J. Computers for speech a variable in the comprehension time compression. Proceedinyz of of time compressed speech. Pro- the Louisville Conference on Ti.me ceedings of the Second Louisville Compressed Speech. Louisville: Conference on Rate and/or Fre- University of Louisville, 1967, quency-Controlled Speech. Louis- 29-35. of Louisville, ville: University Steele, N. W. Learning by blind chil- 103-18. 1971, dren of low ability: The relative efficiency of reoAing and Hasten- Parker, C. C. Effect of rate of Unpublished doctoral disserta- presenta- ing. compression and mode of tion, George Peabody College for tion on the comprehension of a Teachers, 1969. recorded communication to junior college students of varying apti- Sticht, T. G. Studies on the effici- tudes. Proceedings of the Second ency of learning by listening to Louisville Conference on Rate and/ time-compressed speech. Proceed- or Frequency-Controlled Speech. ings of the Second. Louisville Con- Louisville: University of Louis- ference on Rate and/or Freauency- ville, 1971, 21-28. Controlled Speech. Louisville: Uni- versity of Louisville, 1971, 80-9. P. Reading abilities and Plessas, G. Stromer, W. F. An investigation into intelligence factors children of some of the relations between read- having high and low auding abili- ing, listening and intelligence . ties. Unpublished doctoral Unpublished dissertation. Univer- of dissertation. University sity of Denver, 1952. California at Berkeley, 1957. Taylor, E. A. Controlled, reading Postman, N. & Weingariner, C. Teach- Chicago: University of Chicago

ing as a subversive activity . New Press, 1937. York: Delacorte Press, 1969. Taylor, J. L. Use of compressed speech, tapes and discs and of Rawls, R. Program of training for variable frequency power supply listening-reading for visually with selected children and adults. impaired students using compressed Proceedings of the Louisville Con- recordings. Proceedings speech ference on Time Compressed Speech. of the Second Louisville Confer- Louisville: University of Louis- ence on Rate and/or Frequency- ville, 1967, 55-60. Controlled Speech. Louisville: University of Louisville, 1971, Toussaint, I. H. Interrelationships 289-312. of reading , listening , arithmetic and intelligence and their im.plica- Rose, E. A comparative study of the tions. Unpublished doctoral "dis- Brown-Carlsen listening compre- sertation. University of Pittsburgh, hension test and three tests of 1961.

reading comprehension . Unpub- Verne, J. From the earth to the moon. dissertation. lished doctoral New York: Scribner, 1918. New York University, 19 58. Vorr, J. B. & Miller, J. M. The ef- Russel, R. D. A comparison of two fect of practice on the comprehen- methods of learning. Journal of sion of speeded speech. Speech !!sno-

Educational Research , 1928, 18, g raphe , 1965, 32, 452-5. 235-8. Warren, R. P. Poetry in a time of crack-up. Intellectual I^igesz Scott, R. Interrelating reading and March-April, 19 70. listening in grades nine through fourteen. Reading and the Language Witty, P. A. & Sizemore, R. A. Studies Arts. Proceedings of the Annual in listening. Elementar-j English, Conference on Reading. Chicago: 1958, 35, 538-52; 1959, 36, 59-70; University of Chicago Press, 1963, 36, 130-40; 36, 297-301. 6 3-7. Wood, C. D. Comprehension of com- Scott, R. J. Temporal effects in pressed speech by elem.entary sahacl

speech analysis and synthesis children. Washington, D.C. : U.S. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Department of Health, Education, University of Michigan, 1965. and Welfare, Office of Education, 1965.

229 Woodcock, R. W. The application of Young, W. E. The relation of read- rate-controlled recordings in the ing comprehension and retention classroom. Proceedings of the to hearing comprehension and

Second Louisville Conference on retention . Unpublished doc- Rate and/or Frequency-Controlled toral dissertation, State Uni- Speech. Louisville: University of versity of Iowa, 1930. Louisville, 1971, 90-102.

230 . ,,

THE USE OF MYOELECTRIC FEEDBACK IN TEACHING FACIAL EXPRESSION TO THE BLIND*

Nancy Colleen Webb

PART 1

Background

Facial expression is perhaps the The many different facial ex- most important of all non-verbal com- pressions are the result of various munication. It has been used by ac- combinations of muscular contrac- tors and artists through the ages to tions. Most of the major muscles describe the finest nuances of affect. may be defined in terms of expressive In 1877 Charles Bell put forth a function (s) (Gray, 1959; Quiring, lengthy theoretical treatise on the 1960) . Patterns of muscular and significance of facial expression, feature involvement have been analyzed and Darwin (1896) discussed the de- in detail by such investigators as velopment of facial expression within Thompson (1941) and Fulcher (1942) the evolutionary scheme. While much and have been used as criteria for facial expression is spontaneous, it identifying expressions (Landis, is often employed purposefully in so- 1924b; Frois-Wittman, 19 30) . It cial interchanges. This ability is must be noted, however, that most virtually nonexistent in the blind expressions involve several of the (Thompson, 1941; Fulcher, 1942; muscles in one way or another, and Dumas, 1932; Eikenberry, unpublished many muscles can be divided into paper; Foulke , personal communica- parts which may move independently. tion) , and it would be useful for The descriptions which follow, then, them to develop it. It should in- concentrate upon the primary, rather crease their social effectiveness to than the only muscles involved in be able to control and manipulate various expressions. their facial musculature. The pur- pose of this study was to attempt to Expressions of pleasure, happi- teach facial expression to blind sub- ness, or joy result primarily from, jects using biofeedback obtained by the contraction of the z-^gc.ztisus transducing the myoelectric activity which draws the comers of the mouth of the facial muscles back and up. The expression is even more pronounced if the cvb'icuZaris oauli (sphincter muscle of the eye) becomes involved. Contraction of this circular m.uscle causes narrow- ing of the eyes often seen in expres- *A thesis submitted to the Faculty sions of happiness. Expressions of of the Graduate School of the Uni- anger, on the other hand, employ auite versity of Louisville in partial a different set of muscles. The a:r- fulfillment of the requirements rugatcr , a small muscle originating for the degree of Master of Arts. at the arch of the eyebrow and ex- tending just to the bridge of the

231 — , , nose, is the primary muscle used. It control of the face, that supplement- causes the forehead to wrinkle ver- ary motor pathways may become in- tically between the eyebrows. Other volved in the expression of emotion. muscles which may be involved in an They, too, base their conclusion on angry expression are the dilator clinical pathology, observing that of the facial component naris , which widens the nostrils, and destruction the orbicularis oris (sphincter of of the cortico-bulbar system may pre- the mouth), which, either alone or in vent voluntary movements , but not combination with the mentalis or the natural expression. Fulcher (1942) extends this line of thought with risorius , gives the mouth various tightly-drawn appearances typical of the idea that each neuromuscular displeasure. An intensified state branch has its own patterning devel- such as rage will include the mas- opment, the emotional developing seter, which may be used to clench patterns for expressing the self, the the teeth or to protrude the lower volitional developing its own pat- jaw. Puzzlement, a much more mild terns for social communication. emotion, may use the same corrugator movement used in anger, but none of Obviously, spontaneous expres- the other muscles involved in express- sion, or that occurring reflexively ing that emotion. Fear usually in- as part of a total emotional response, first in the infant. volves the frontalis , which wrinkles is observed the forehead transversely, the levator Sherman (1927) found that the facial infants pro- palpebrae superioris , which widens patterns twelve-day-old various kinds the eyes, and the masseter , this time duced in response to to open the mouth by dropping the of stimulation could not be differen- jaw. Surprise results from a lesser tiated from one another. At around degree of the same frontalis and 21 days of life, the smile appears, masseter movement. Other expres- and many observational studies have sions and the primary muscles effect- focused on this expression. Gold- ing them are: scorn or contempt-- stein (1957) feels that the infant levator anguli oris; sadness or smile is different from all other , and that it occurs grief triangularis ; sulkiness--men- facial movements talis; irony — depressor labii inferi- long before any kind of imitation is possible. Goodenough (19 31) states oris ; grinning--risor-LMS (Gray, 1959; Quiring, 1960; Chusid, 1970; Landis that there is a "core of native re- 1924b; Thompson, 1941). action-patterns" which appears too early to be learned. Spitz (1946) Movement of the facial muscles studied 251 white, black, and Indian comes under the control of the many infants from widely diverse environ- branches of the seventh cranial nerve ments and concluded that the smile is (except for the levator palpebrae universal. She stated that the motor of the smile is present superioris , which is innervated by patterning birth, but some- the third cranial nerve) . Except for at, or soon after, the bilateral innervation of the time after the second month, the frontalis (forehead) muscle, facial smile takes on a "semantic" function. muscles receive contralateral cortical Washburn (19 29) performed an inten- innervation (Chusid, 1970). A theory sive study of infant smiling and of dual neural control of facial move- laughing, assuming that these re- degrees of the ment was postulated by S . A. K. Wil- sponses were different son in 1929 (Fulcher, 1942). He puts same affective state. She found all forth the following as evidence point- smiling to be responsive, requiring ing to separate innervating pathways: specific stimulation. Other investi- the fact that certain automatic move- gators, however, claim to have ob- ments of the facial musculature due served a spontaneous dropping-of f-to~ to respiratory processes can be in- sleep smile (Spitz, 19 46; Freedman terrupted temporarily by voluntary 1964) . Washburn (1929) noted that action or through emotional excite- smiling increased in frequency of ment; and cases of partial facial occurrence over the first year of paralysis and pathological laughing life, whereas the frequency of laugh- and crying. More recent writers tend ing remained fairly stable. She con- to agree with Wilson's findings. In cluded that smiling is "more" learned their textbook on neuroanatomy, Cros- and laughing "more" innate, and that by, Humphrey, and Lauer (196 2) note, developmental differences are more im- in their discussion of cortical motor portant than individual differences.

2 32 . .

As the child learns to control laughter, and pleasure, and moderate the production of various expressions, agreement on disdain, horror, and at- he begins to learn to perceive these tention, although judges did not in others. A developmental lag be- agree on disappointment, anxiety, tween the receptive and expressive cynicism, or aversion. Landis phases of this learning process was (1924a) reported highest agreement documented by Odom and Lemond (19 72). on contemplation, pleasure, sex- Much as the child's receptive vocabu- feeling, and disgust, while pain was lary develops prior to his ability to lowest. Enjoyment and shame had the use the same concepts expressively, highest correlation coefficients be- children of two different age groups tween intended expression and judged were found to be able to discriminate expression in a study by Tomkins and among more expressions than they McCarter (1964), with surprise and could accurately produce. The dis- distress lowest. crimination skill seems to improve at a faster rate than the production In most studies, accuracy meams skill, so that by age 10, the lag is that the judge has labeled an expres- even greater than it is at age 5. sion with the same term the expressor These skills have not been compared had in mind when producing it. In in older individuals, so their rela- some cases, a judge would be accurate tive positions are unknown for ado- if he used the same label that the lescence and adulthood. experimenter had in mind while trying to evoke a particular emotion. On It would appear, then, that while the other hand, consensus m.ight be the basic "machinery" of naturally considered to be a valid criterion occurring expression is innate, the for identifying expressions. If a influence of learning is evident in number of judges agree on a particu- the abilities of people both to simu- lar label, there is face validity in late various expressions at will, and this even though it may not reflect to interpret the expressions of oth- the expressor 's intentions. Since ers with some degree of accuracy. To an interpreter is necessary for an document the existence of either of expression to have meaning, its mean- these abilities is to assume the ex- ing must depend in part on the istence of the other, due to the com- opinion of the interpreter. Gener- municative nature of the phenomenon. ally, consensus and accuracy rise Evidence that people can expressively and fall together, and although Tom- communicate through facial gestures kins and McCarter (1964) found that is inseparable from the evidence that consensus did not always predict ac- people can interpret those gestures. curacy, they discovered that confu- sion on the part of the judges tended Many studies have shown that this to be systematic. Osgood (1966) , dis- communication, indeed, occurs. Feleky covering that certain dimensions of (1914) was the first to use judges to expression tended to be confused with view a number of photographs, guess others in a systematic way, noted the the feelings of the person by the ex- congruity between his findings and pression on his face, and attach ap- those of Tomkins and McCarter (19 64) propriate labels. Using a linear In Tomkins and McCarter' s study, scale where all errors were not of judges did not confuse enjoyment with equal magnitude , she found enough anything, while Osgood reported con- agreement among 100 judges to warrant fusion of the dimensions quiet plea- further research in the area. Buzby sure and glee only with each other. (19 24) reported that while judges Tomkins and McCarter 's surprise was were successful on expressions sig- confused with both interest and fear, nifying disdain, disgust, horror, and whereas Osgood found surprise con- bewilderment, they judged anger and fused with interest (though not vice dismay poorly. 'Boucher (1969) deter- versa) , and fear confused with sur- mined that judges could differentiate prise (though not vice versa) fear, sadness, and pain on the basis of facial expression. Thompson and An examination of the literature Melzer (1964) found love, happiness, reveals several factors which influ- fear, and determination easiest to ence accuracy and consensus among identify, and disgust, contempt, and judges. Several of these pertain suffering most difficult. Frois- primarily to the judge, and these Wittman (19 30) found a high degree of will be examined first. concurrence on expressions of pain.

233 . ; , .

The nature of the judging task early studies in 19 41. However, in is one important factor. Asking the 1954, Schlosberg added a third di- judge to identify expressions with mension (sleep-tension) and found labels resulted in semantic problems it could be reliably incorporated both within studies and in relating into the surface (Osgood, 1966). one study to another. Allowing judges to choose their own labels re- Several factor analytic studies sulted in too much individual differ- have confirmed these basic dimensions. ence in preference of terms, while Engen , Levy, and Schlosberg (195 8) limiting the judges to certain labels found consistency of judgments high- forced the experimenter to select est for the pleasantness-unpleasant- descriptors somewhat arbitrarily. ness (P-U) dimension, next for the This and other problems in early sleep-tension (S-T) dimension, and qualitative studies were dealt with lowest for attention-rejection (A-R) by quantifying the study of facial Gladstones (1962) found three dimen- expression. Woodworth constructed sions, two resembling Schlosberg 's a linear scale with six categories: P-U and S-T; the third he labeled expressionless-mobile. His findings 1. Love, Mirth, Happiness; concerning strength of prediction corresponded exactly to those of 2 Surprise Engen et al. (1958). Four dimensions were reported by Frijda and Philips-

3. Suffering, Fear; zoon (1963) :

4. Determination, Anger; 1. Pleasantness-unpleasantness;

5. Disgust; 2. Naturalness and submission- artificiality and condescension; 6 Contempt 3. Intensity of expression- (Woodworth and Schlosberg, 1956). control of expression; When judgments were obtained on a series of photographed expressions 4. Attentional activity-disinterest. inaccuracies were found to be some- what systematic. In most cases, the Osgood (1966) concludes that there correct category was the modal se- are at least three dimensions to com- lection, while those closest to it munication through facial expression. on either side had the next highest number of responses. For example, Part of the disagreement as to if a photograph portrayed surprise, number and quality of dimensions is most judges selected category 2 (sur- due to the number and diversity of prise) , while most judgment errors the scales of measurement, and part went into categories 1 (love) and 3 due to the various methods employed

(suffering) , and very few, if any, in treatment of the data. Varimax were as far away as category 5 (dis- solution, bipolar scales method, and gust) . This scale was determined to multidimensional method of complete be circular since the responses to triad have all been used. The litera- category 6 photographs spilled over ture does reveal complete agreement into category 1 and vice versa. on a pleasantness dimension, and al- most complete agreement on an activa- Arranging these categories in a tion dimension. The third and any circle, Schlosberg constructed two additional dimensions are those most axes through the circular surface, debated. one representing basically a pleasure dimension (pleasantness -unpleasant- Sherman (19 27) found that situa- ness) , the other a quality-of-atten- tional cues seemed to be the factor tion dimension (attention-rejection) which made the difference in accuracy (Woodworth and Schlosberg, 1956). of judging reactive expressions. His The scale positions of photographs judges' accuracy improved consider- plotted according to these axes cor- ably when they saw the context in related 0.94, 0.92, and 0.9 6 in three which each photo was taken. In a separate experiments with data from further investigation of this hypo- judgments. The validity of this thesis, Frijda (1961) gave a control scale in predicting judge behavior group only the situational cues and has held up since the time of these found their judgments far less

234 , , accurate than those who judged on the to be more accurate, v/hile Jarden basis of facial expressions alone. and Fernberger (19 26) and Sherman These conflicting results are most (1927) found no effect for either likely due to the fact that Sherman's variable, nor did Gates (1925) find subjects were 12-day-old infants a sex difference in children. Engan, whose faces contained very little in- Levy, and Schlosberg (1957) reported formation. It appears that, although that the judgments of nev/spaper situational cues do play a role, fa- readers were as accurate as those cial expressions of adults are speci- obtained in the laboratory, and Le'/y, fied to a considerable degree by the Orr, and Rosenzweig (1960) found face alone. Landis (1924b) proposed judges dravm from tv;o clinical popu- that rather than a stimulus evoking lations to be as accurate as normals. an emotional state which is document- In a series of studies on crosscul- ed in the face, a situation-reaction tural comparisons of judges, Ekman complex produces a particular feeling, and his associates have determined These situation-reaction complexes that there are no significant differ- are what we have attempted to de- ences in judge accuracy from country scribe with labels. to country or betv;een literate and preliterate cultures (Ekman, 1970; Besides being partly situation- Ekman and Friesen, 19 71; Ekman, Soren- dependent, j udgments were found to be son , and Friesen, 1969). Tomkins and affected by training (Woodworth and McCarter (1964) suggest that the judge

Schlosberg 1956) , and by suggestion may be operating under certain per- (Jarden and Fernberger, 1926; Landis, ceptual taboos which influence his

1924b) , even if it was purposefully usage of labels (their judges tended

. misleading ( Fernberger, 1928). Lang- not to use the label "shame") How feld (1918) documenting individual judges perceive expressions concerned differences in suggestibility, demon- Haslam and Pedersen (1966) . They had strated the independence of suggesti- judges rate 20 pictures of facial ex- bility from accuracy of judgment. pressions on 20 semantic differential scales. They collected information As previously noted in the de- on the judges' age, sex, class and velopmental lag study by Odom and major in college, and various per-

Lemond (19 72) , the age of the judge sonality measures, and found that has a definite bearing on accuracy certain dimensions of perspective of judgment. Gates (1923) studied (factor analyzed from the responses the behavior of judges along a de- to the pictures) were associated with velopmental continuum. Asking for certain of these variables. They labels to six relatively unambiguous state that there are "different photographs, she recorded responses idealized types of people which rep- from judges ranging from three years resent distinct modes of perception of age to adulthood. Her findings of facial expression of emotions, were as follows: over 50 percent of and these types can be identified by the judges labeled laughter correctly some of their personality character- " at 3 years, pain from 6 to 7 years, istics [p. 646] . anger at 7 years, fear at 10 years, surprise at 11 years, and scorn (only Communication via facial expres- 43 percent) at 11 years. All adults sion is affected by other variables labeled scorn correctly. For a test which primarily concern the expressor. constructed after this study. Gates What the critical facial stimuli are (1925) found the scores correlated has concerned several investigators. highly with measures of social or In an attempt to evaluate the part- emotional maturity, but not with whole relationship. Boring and Titch- physical or mental maturity. This ener (1923) used a series of feature indicates the social significance of drawings by Piderit to construct a facial expression. plaster model with 20 movable pieces. Using this model to produce a variety

Other specific variables pertain- of facial patterns , they found that ing to judges have been evaluated for particular meanings may be represented their contribution to accuracy of by particular simple expressions, judgment. The sex and sophistication while more complex meanings may re- of judges have been tested for ex- quire more complicated expressions. perimental effect. Buzby (1924) Dunlap (1927) did a study which showed found women and the unsophisticated the mouth to be more important than

2 35 .

the eyes in the communication of dif- The cognitive nature of the ex- ferent expressions. Buzby (1924) pressor' s task may affect judge ac- found the eyes and upper part of the curacy. The subject may be instruct- face to contain more information. It ed to produce various expressions must be noted that Dunlap's label or he may be stimulated in various "mouth" actually included everything ways and his "natural" facial re- below the midpoint of the nose. sponses used as the material to be Frois-Wittman (19 30) and Coleman judged. If he is asked to produce (1949) found no consistent dominance an expression, he may attempt to re- of either part. produce it from memory, or he may imagine a situation that would evoke Landis (19 24b) performed a de- the requested expression, and at- tailed observational analysis of tempt to react to that imagined muscular involvement in several spon- situation. If he reproduced an ex- taneous expressions and concluded pression from memory, it might be a that a smile was the only expression kinesthetic memory of his own face, which could be called typical of any a visual memory of his own face, or situation in his experiment. While a memory of someone else's face. he did not find that unique muscular Fulcher (1942) presents a lengthy patterns characterized the various discussion of the difficulty the ex- situations , both the situations and perimenter has in controlling this the analysis of the muscular involve- cognitive variable. Even though he ment were subjectively determined. took pains to instruct his subjects Also, he reported certain very unusu- merely to "look as if," not to "feel," al reactions of his subjects such as say, angry, he felt it necessary to smiling while watching the decapita- offer examples of situations in tion of a rat; smiling at the tactile which one might appear, say, angry. discovery of frogs in a pail, which A very vivid imagination might pro- casts some doubt on the validity of voke the actual emotion, and the ac- his laboratory situations relative companying facial behavior. On the to real world situations. The range other hand, expressions of "real" of emotions aroused was probably emotions being filmed in a labora- quite limited (Woodworth and Schlos- tory may not be quite the same as berg, 19 56) . He reported, but could expressions occurring spontaneously not account for, an individual-pat- in the natural world (Woodworth and terning phenomenon, i.e., there Schlosberg, 1956) tended to be a predominance of cer- tain muscle groups in each individual. Landis (1924a) performed a semi- Tomkins and McCarter (1964) felt that nal study of the facial expression each face had a predominant expres- of "real" emotions. He created vari- sion which could contaminate its por- ous situations in the laboratory in- trayal of other affects. Frois- tended to elicit certain feelings.

Wittman (19 30) , in an attempt to The facial responses to these situa- clarify this issue, used judges to tions (or feelings) were preserved label expressions and then analyzed in both moving and still pictures muscle involvement both according to and subjected to the judgment pro- the judged expressions and according cedure. Next he had each s'jbject to the intended expressions. He recall each situation, remember his found that muscular patterns predict- feelings, and re-enact the facial ex- ed modal judge behavior in every case, pressions. Pictures of these expres- though they did not characterize the sions were then judged. Results intent of the expressor except in showed greater accuracy with the laughing, crying, and horror. Still, "acted" expressions than with those judges were accurate beyond chance. taken in the real situation. The Frois-Wittman felt that an explana- actual responses to the stimuli were tion for the part-whole differences more varied and thus more difficult was that movement per se is an inade- to judge; when subjects attempted to quate criterion since the qualities reproduce the responses, they pro- of type and degree of movement are duced more conventional expressions. not delineated. Besides, the sig- This distinction between natural and nificance of a given muscular move- voluntary expressions becomes even ment is relative to the entire pat- more critical in the expressive be- tern. havior of the blind, to be discussed in Part 2.

236 .

Another factor is that some ex- ability improves still further has pressions may be easier to produce not really been validated, but adult than others. Expressions of pleasure expressors are fairly effective. (laughing, smiling, etc.) are the earliest to appear and are, by all In sunmary, it has been shov/n accounts , the easiest to produce that people do involve the face in (e.g., Frois-Wittman , 19 30; Fulcher, their expression of emotion, using

1942) . Not much material has been certain patterns of muscular contrac- provided on this subject except that tions in conjunction with certain in middle childhood, anger, inter- feelings. VThile the basic expressive est, and surprise follow laughter equipment of naturally occurring ex- in ease of production, while distress pression is innate, the influence of and fear are most difficult (Odom learning is evident in the ability and Lemond, 1972). For the adult, of people to produce voluntarily difficulty for any particular ex- expressions which simulate the pression should vary from individual spontaneous ones. People can, to to individual according to Landis some extent, perceive the emotions (1924b) and Tomkins and McCarter of others by their facial pattern- (1964) ing. The extent to which this communication is successful de- The expressor may be affected pends on several factors. Some by a semantic factor. He may not expressions are easier to communi- be able expressively to distinguish cate than others, and classifying between two similar terms, or may expressions into dimensions is have difficulty relating a particu- easier than exact labeling. Ex- lar term to a particular feeling. pressions tend to be more varied Subjects may differ in their evalua- and thus more difficult to inter- tion of such relative terms as dis- pret if they are spontaneous than content--anger--rage . Tomkins and if the expressor is consciously McCarter (1964) found that semantic trying to communicate. In inter- confusion, degree of emotion por- preting reactive expression, trayed, and the overshadowing of knowledge of the situation in facial affect by formal language which the expression is occurring were factors in the communication helps considerably. Cultural fac- of various affects. tors do not seem to have much effect on success of communica- As previously mentioned, the tion, but suggestion and training age of the person producing the ex- are both effective. Age makes a pression is critical. Within the difference both in the ability first few weeks of life, reactive to produce, and in the ability expressions are non-dif ferentiable to discriminate among, expressions, (Sherman, 1927). By age 5, there is receptive skills exceeding ex- some ability to effect differential pressive skills. facial patterning voluntarily, and by age 10, this ability has improved significantly (Odom and Lemond,

1972). Hanada, Inoue , Hazeki , and Takano (1960) electrographically demonstrated that the ability to contract facial muscles develops gradually with age. Whether the

237 . :

PART 2

Facial Expression of the Blind

The question of voluntary versus accurately judge d by those who had "natural" or reflexive expression is worked with blin d children. Fear an important one in the study of was not observed , but Thompson notes sighted persons, but it becomes that none of the situations was critical in the study of the blind. frightening. Th us, while laughing, Goodenough (19 32) observed the facial smiling, and cry ing may be assumed reactions of a congenitally blind- to be innate (ag reeing with Darwin, deaf girl of 10 years of age. In 1896; Washburn, 1929; and Landis, response to a small doll being 1924b) , the othe r expressions men- dropped down her back, she produced tioned above may be affected by normal facial expressions of sur- learning. prise, attention, determination, anger, rejection, and happiness in As to the maturational question, her finally successful effort to important findings were retrieve it. Fear was also ob- served in other situations. 1. For laughing, the effect of maturation was to decrease Freedman (1964) cites several amount of facial activity in observational reports documenting both blind and sighted children; the smile of blind children at nor- mal ages. Thus vision, per se, is 2. For smiling, this effect was not a prerequisite for the occur- the same only in blind ohil- rence of either spontaneous or re- dven--the amount of facial sponsive smiling. Auditory, tactile, activity in smiling did not and internal stimuli are known to decrease in the sighted; evoke smiles (e.g.. Spitz, 1946; Washburn, 1929). Vision, however, 3. For crying, activity increased does play a part in the later de- for both groups as far as it velopment of all facial expression. was observed (none seen after the third year) Thompson (19 41) set out to com- pare in detail the spontaneous fa- Thompson noted that in laughing and cial behavior of blind and seeing smiling, random muscular movement children. She observed and filmed was limited in the older seeing 26 blind (including 4 deaf-blind) children, and that expressions of and 29 seeing children in various the sighted were more uniform than real life situations. These children those of the blind. She accounted ranged from seven weeks to 13.5 years for both of these in terms of visual of age, affording a developmental mimicry. Her study, Thompson felt, continuum for isolation of matura- supported Wilson's theory (Fulcher, tional factors. Thompson concen- 19 42) that the facial musculature trated on the expressions of laugh- is under a dual neural control, and ing, smiling, and crying, and ob- while "emotional" expression is af- served other expressions to a lesser fected by maturation, some amount degree. She had judges to determine of imitation is involved in "volun- the amount of involvement of eight tary" expression. facial features in each expression and found that expressions of laugh- The theory also finds support in ing and smiling occurred at all age those studies dealing with voluntary levels, and crying at younger lev- expression rather than that occur- els, in both blind and seeing chil- ring spontaneously. To be more ac- dren. Two sets of judges were asked curate, one might rephrase it "ex- to evaluate total expressions. These pression occurring in response to a were judges familiar with the blind reauest rather than in response to and judges not familiar with the naturally occurring internal or blind. Expressions of anger, sulki- situational stimuli." The widely

ness , annoyance, and sadness were cited findings of Mistschenka (e.g., observed in the blind and were more Woodworth and Schlosberg, 1956;

238 Thompson, 19 41) are in agreement with amount of facial activity which is Thompson's (1941). Mistschenka noted largely innate. As they grov; older, that blind children are inferior in the sighted are stimulated through their ability to move facial muscles social interaction to imitate expres- at request, and that this inability sions they see on the faces of others, is even more pronounced in regard to This tends to stylize their expres- their voluntary production of facial sions and eliminate unnecessary move- expressions. He found a gradual re- ment. Thus, through visual facilita- tardation of voluntary facial pattern- tion, they build a repertoire of ing of the blind between the ages of learned motor patterns from their 4 and 18. natural expressive rudiments. The blind, however, lacking the visual Dumas (19 32) was the only in- stimulation and feedback, tend to use vestigator to study voluntary facial their facial musculature less and expression in adult siobjects. He less until at maturity, spontaneous found that 33 congenitally blind expression is underdeveloped and adults were grossly inadequate in voluntary expression is totally in- their ability to produce facial ex- adequate. As the older blind child pressions at request. He was con- begins to realize that his expres- vinced from the observations of those sions may be inappropriate, he v/ill who lived or worked with them, how- probably prefer to make slighter ever, that their expressions of real movements or none at all. As part emotion were not remarkable. of an emotional outflow, a blind person's facial patterns will be Probably the most illuminating "normal" as judged by those around investigation into the development of him. The fact that judges not fa- voluntary facial expression was that miliar with the blind will not be of Fulcher (1942). He compared blind as accurate in judging their expres- and seeing children in a three-way sions supports the idea that vision analysis of the expressions happy, tends to stereotype expressions, sad, angry, and afraid: first with where the blind maintain patterns respect to amount of facial activity; which are more individualized (and second with respect to movement of thus more easily detected by those

specific parts of the face; and third, who know them) . In his attempt to with respect to adequacy. His re- respond to a reauest to produce a sults indicated that the blind show particular expression, the blind less facial activity in their expres- person is at a loss since he has no sions of every emotion, though the reference point and no practice at relative amounts of activity for the voluntary control of the facial various emotions is similar to the muscles. There may be an entire sighted. As Thompson (1941) found, neuromuscular network which fails there was an increase with age in the to develop. facial activity of the sighted, while activity in the blind children de- creased with age. Though the dif- RATIONALE FOR THE ferentiation of the expressions of PRESENT STUDY the blind is not as sharp as that of the seeing, the blind do tend to show Several studies indicate that it the same trends of differential ac- could be an important social gain tivity. This suggests that though for the blind to be able to exercise vision is probably the most meaning- more control over facial expression. ful factor in the development of ex- Shears and Jensema (19 69) found that pression, it is not solely responsible a sample from the normal population, for it. Fulcher admits that it is in ranking desirability of various

difficult in a study of this type to afflictions (in friend or in self) , insure that the expression is truly used "interference in the communica- "posed" and not the result of the tion process" as one criterion for subject's feelings, e.g., he may judgment. Himes (1960), in studying imagine something which scares him culturally-defined stereotypes of rather than merely trying to look blind people, found that sighted stu- afraid. dents were very accepting of the idea of having a blind student on campus

To summarize these studies, it (at an impersonal distance) , but did would appear that in infancy, both not, on the whole, accept the idea of blind and seeing exhibit a certain a blind student as a steady date.

239 . .

Thus as intimacy of hypothetical (and some clinicians) to train sub- social relationships increases, the jects in the control of various sighted tend to be less willing to physiological systems not normally become involved with the blind. The under "voluntary" control. It is blind would do well to change the hypothesized that the lack of per- stereotype which creates this situa- ceptible feedback from a given "in- tion, particularly since they tend voluntary" system is the reason for to evaluate themselves in terms of the lack of control. When the acti- the sighted (Strauss, 1967). Zunich vity of that system is made perceptible and Ledwith (1965) reported that through bioelectric transduction, blind children felt they were less control becomes feasible. Biofeed- popular than their sighted peers, back is a relatively recent develop- due perhaps to an abnormal body ment in operant methodology. Specific- image. Many of these social prob- ally, it refers to the establishment lems of the blind might be mitigated and operation of a closed electro- somewhat through development of fa- physiological circuit in which se- cial control. Dumas expressed the lected biopotentials generated by a same opinion in 19 32, "It would ob- person are transduced into auditory, , viously be a great service to the visual, or tactual signals which are blind to teach them mimicry which fed back to the person. would make them seem more like our- have been done with selves , [sic] it would draw us nearer Many studies them and at the same time contribute externalized feedback of the various to adapt them to this community life physiological systems. The best from which their blindness isolates known work has dealt with the en- ." them [p. 31] hancement of the alpha frequency of the electroencephalogram (e.g.,

Osgood (1966) , noting that fa- Kamiya, 1968; Hart, 1968; Brown, cial behavior plays a significant 1970; Peper and Mulholland, 1971). role in the "gestural code," devel- Control of heart rate and variability oped a linguistic analogy of facial has been demonstrated by Engel and expression wherein each element has Hansen (1966); Levene , Engel, and a counterpart: temporal sequences of Pearson (1968); Brener, Kleinman, facial movements i^tf sentences ; mo- and Goesling (1969); Shapiro, Tursky, mentary patternings (e.g., as might and Schwartz (1970); and Lang (1971). be captured in a still photo) ?» Blood pressure and skin temperature phrases; configurations of signifi- have been externalized and fed back -i^^^s* cant parts (e.g., mouth) words ; (Brener and Kleinman, 19 70; DiCara and muscular patterning of these and Miller, 1968; Green, Green, and parts (e.g., curled lip) sai' phonemes Walters, 19 70). Most work with myo- Since the blind have poor control electric feedback has been an effort over these elements, they are unable to decrease muscle tension through to effectively "converse" in this representing its level by a signal nonverbal language. which the subject attempts to manipu- late. Budzynski and Stoyva (1969;

Tomkins and McCarter (1964) pro- 1972) , Green et al. (1970) , and pose a theory of affect in which the Hardyck, Petrinovich , and Ellsworth face assumes a vital role. They feel (1966) are among those successfully that the primary human motive is af- utilizing muscle feedback to lower fective response, and affects are tension primarily facial behaviors. The face is the "organ of maximal transmission A blind person attempting to of information to self and others control facial movement may be analo- [p. 120]," and its evolution is to gous to a "normal" person attempting increasing expressiveness through to control brain rhythms or heart greater visibility of the facial mus- rate. Dumas (19 32) reports that one culature and through increasing dif- blind subject stated that while he ferentiation of muscular innervation. knew perfectly well what the experi- According to this theory, the blind menter was asking him to do (simulate ". will become more and more visibly dif- various expressions) , . . I do not ferent, and learning facial control know how joy, sorrow or anger are ex- will become more and more essential. pressed on my face [p. 32]." His sub- jects appeared to have no memory' or A technique called biofeedback knowledge of the facial components of has been utilized by many researchers their emotional expression. He noted

240 — . r that some subjects felt their face participate in an important communica- (manually) while laughing, and tried tion network, they should profit from to reproduce the lifting of the gaining control over the facial mus- cheeks. Thus, it would appear that culature. Due to the feasibility of feedback of the specific movements gaining this type of control through involved in the various expressions biofeedback, it v/as decided to per- is what is needed. form an experiment in v/hich the myo- electric signals from contracting fa- Since blind people do exhibit cial muscles v/ould be transduced into an inadequacy in voluntary facial auditory signals v;hich the subject expression, and are thus unable to could perceive and attempt to manipu- late.

PART 3

Method

SELECTION OF EXPRESSIONS judges were clearly superior, AND JUDGES ten average, and tv/o poor. The Before training blind subjects three highest-scoring judges to produce expressions to be judged, were selected to continue in the it was necessary to select the best experiment. expressions and judges for this pur- pose. These two selection processes Subject errors also distributed themselves were carried out simultaneously in normally over a range extending 17 a pilot study. from errors for the best subject to 42 errors for First, five expressions were the worst subject (Fig. 2). preselected according to two cri- Of the five expressions, teria--recognizability according to only happiness was past literature and uniqueness of recognized in al- most muscular involvement (i.e., each ex- every case. In terms of judge errors, the expressions pression should emphasize a different were recognizable in the follow- muscle for ease of distinction) . Ac- ing order from easiest cordingly, the following expressions to most were chosen: happiness, disgust, difficult: happiness (11), fear fear, anger, and sadness. (40), disgust" (41), sadness (50), and anger (56). These results are consistent with those Motion picture film was taken of re- ported most often in seven sighted subjects (four men and the litera- three women) voluntarily producing ture . each of the five expressions in counterbalanced order (see Appen- dix 1, Instructions to Sighted Sub- X X jects) . This film was edited to randomize subjects and expressions, X X and was X X X X presented to a group of 15 I I I r I I—I I I—— \——i—T— people, each of whom independently matched the five labels to the ex- 5 10 15 20 pressions (see Appendix 2, Instruc- tions to Judges, 1). Analysis of (# ERRORS) these data disclosed the following:

1. The distribution of judge errors Figure 1. Distribution of Judge indicated that three of the Errors (First Judging)

241 The chi-square statistic was As a result of these data, it used to evaluate contingency was decided to have the best three between judged expressions and judges plus five additional (new) intended expressions and a sig- judges view a second series of ex- nificant chi-square value pressions produced by the best five new subjects. The (p < 0.001) was obtained (Ta- subjects plus two expressions sadness and disgust were ble 1) . The degree of this association is indicated by a removed from the second series for phi coefficient of 0.41. the following reasons: sadness

TABLE 1

Contingencies for First Judging

Expression Expression Intended Judged Afraid Angry Disgusted Happy Sad

Afraid 75 (0.71)* 17 (0.04) 13 (0.01) 4 (0) 6 (0)

Angry 21 (0.04) 58 (0.55) 17 (0.11) (0) 18 (0.01)

Disgusted 5 (0.01) 22 (0.11) 29 (0.27) 1 (0) 13 (0.01)

Happy 3 (0) 1 (0) 7 (0) 97 (0.92) (0)

(0.64) Sad 1 (0) 7 (0.01) 39 (0.12) 3 (0) 68

parenthetical numbers indicate ratio-scale values

X = 353.39, p < 0.001

*• = 0.41

X X II' i iii i I I I i i ii I TT I I ^ 35 40 45 15 20 25 30

(# ERRORS)

Figure 2. Distribution of Subject Errors (First Judging)

242 . " , .

of produced no consistent pattern X contractions, and little muscular X muscular contraction of any sort. X X Consequently, there would be no myo- r electric feedback to guide responses during training. Disgust was dropped partly because it also lacked a char- acteristic pattern of muscular con- (# ERRORS) tractions, and partly because it had high conf usability with both anger Figure 4. Distribution of Subject and sadness. Many subjects complained Errors (Second Judging) about attempting to differentiate be- tween disgust and anger. Anger, though more poorly judged, was felt The muscular contractions re- to be easier to condition with muscle sponsible for the expressions on the feedback since its muscular signature second film were observed and re- was more universal than that of dis- corded in order to establish criteria gust and also more distinct from for use during the training of blind happiness and fear than was that of subjects. The results of this analy- disgust sis are shown in Table 3. Replace- ment of one of the expressions was The second set of data, then indicated by this analvsis, although result from eight judges viewing sev- the expression of fear was identified en subjects each producing three ex- quite accurately by judges, five dif- pressions: happiness, fear, and anger. ferent patterns of muscular contrac- The instructions and procedures of tion were employed in the production this judging were the same as before. of this expression. It was expected Results indicated that one of the that frontalis movement would be ob- three originally chosen judges was served in the fear expression (Thomp-

tied for first place, though the oth- son, 1941) , but only two subjects er two did not do as well. There actually employed this muscle to any were very few judge errors this time, appreciable degree. Quiring (1960) the greatest number being three (Fig. states that the function of the

3) . It was decided to use the top frontalis is to move the scalp back- four judges for the final task, that ward and forward and to raise the of judging the blind expressors. The eyebrows as in surprise. Through subject charged with most errors also informal observation it was noted had three (Fig. 4) .* The chi-square that the frontalis was consistently statistic was significant beyond 0.001 used in the expression of surprise, and the phi coefficient was 0.73, and it was felt that if judges could showing a high degree of concurrence discriminate surprise as well as

(Table 2) . Happiness was again the fear, surprise would be preferable easiest expression to judge (zero er- to fear for training purposes.

rors) , while anger moved into second

place (four errors) , leaving fear last Consequently, expressions of sur- (seven errors). prise produced by the six best sub- jects were recorded on film, and these expressions, together with *One subject was dropped from consid- their expressions of happiness and eration since she made a total of 10 anger recorded on the second film, errors, eight of which were the result were used in assembling the third of every judge labeling her fear ex- film. Three judges identified all pression "anger. 18 expressions on this film correctly

(6 subjects X 3 expressions) , and X the remaining judge made only one X X error. Further statistical analysis A X r 1^ was clearly not reauired. Inspection of the muscular contractions responsi- ble for the expression of surprise indicated that five of the six sub- (# ERRORS) jects used the frontalis to express that emotion. Figure 3. Distribution of Judge Errors (Second Judging)

243 , , , ,, ,,

TABLE 2

Contingencies for Second Judging

Expression Expression Intended Judged Afraid Angry H appy

Afraid 11 (0.61)* 4 (0.06) (0)

Angry 5 (0.06) 14 (0.77) (0)

Happy 2 (0) (0) 18 (1,0)

*parenthetical numbers indicate ratio-scale values

57.86, p < 0.001 '' = 0.73

TABLE 3

Muscles Used by Sighted Subjects

Expressions Subject Happy Angry Afraid Surprised

1 zygomaticus, levator palpebrae, frontalis, zygomaticus orbicularis orbicularis oris masseter frontalis oculi

zygomaticus corrugator masseter frontalis masseter

zygomaticus corrugator, frontalis zygomaticus orbicularis orbicularis oris masseter, frontalis oculi levator levator palpebrae, palpebrae masseter

zygomaticus corrugator orbicularis oris (none) masseter, orbicularis oris

zygomaticus corrugator, levator zygomaticus masseter palpebrae levator palpebrae, frontalis corrugator

zygomaticus corrugator, corrugator frontalis orbicularis oris masseter

244 : ;

SUBJECTS

The five subjects who partici- pated had the following character- istics :

Sex Age Onset of Blindness Dearee of Vision age cause

1. F 45 10 years tumor light perception 2. F 19 post-natal RLF* light perception 3. F 18 post-natal RLF* none 4. M 43 peri-natal unknown none 5. M 20 11 years detached retina none

'Retrolental fibroplasia

APPARATUS (Cannon Super 8 Auto Zoom, model 518) . Myoelectric response was ob- tained from three facial loci. At each locus, the myoelectric response Training was picked up by gold-plated surface electrodes (Grass type E5G) connected The purpose of the experiment in a bipolar configuration, and ap- was explained to the subjects. Each plied to the input of a bioamplifier was prepared for training by first

(Medical Associates model 110) , the scrubbing the entire face with a dc gain of which is approximately facial scrub (a honey-almond-mint 1,000. The output of this amplifier mixture) shown in pilot studies to was rectified, averaged, and applied be superior to an alcohol-rubbing to the input of a voltage-controlled preparation in terms of its effect oscillator whose output frequency was on skin resistance. (Resistance a positive function of input voltage. with the scrub is about one-half The oscillator output was further am- what it is with alcohol.) Each site plified by an audio amplifier and ap- was wiped with alcohol, and electrode plied to a loudspeaker. Two of the jelly* rubbed in. Each electrode loudspeakers were situated on either cup was filled with jelly and taped side of the subject, the third di- onto the skin with a small gumir.ed rectly behind him. Thus, the loca- sponge disc with a hole in the m.id- tion of the tone informed the subject dle (Dr. Scholls' Corn Pads, Sm.all) . which muscle he was contracting, and This was held securely in place with the frequency of that tone gave him a piece of 3-M Blenderm surgical tape. information concerning the strength The electrode pairs were placed in of contraction. the following configuration (Fig. 5a)

PROCEDURE

Each subject was paid $6.00 for *This was a highly saturated electro- participating in the experiment. The lytic jelly, homemade according to a procedure consisted of three phases formula used by Law-zill (in press) : pretraining, training, and post- 4 2 gm boric acid training. 720 ml H2O 300 gm sodium chloride Pretraining 210 ml glycerin 15 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid Each subject was requested to 40 gm tragacanth gum express happiness, anger, and surprise (see Appendix 3, Instructions to In order to increase viscosity for Blind Subjects). These expressions use with cup electrodes, about 50 gir. were recorded on Super-8 film, type tragacanth was added to the original TXR 464, with a motion picture camera solution.

245 1

FRONTALIS

AURICULAR { CORRUGATOR

ORBICULARIS OCULI PROCERUS

LEVATOR LAB 1 NASALIS SUPERIORIS ZYGOMATiCUS ORBICULARIS ORIS DEPRESSOR ANGULI ORIS MENTALIS DEPRESSOR LABII PLATYSMA INFERIORIS

Figure 5a. Standard Electrode Placement

Figure 5b. Modified Electrode Placement

246 . ,

1. right frontalis and the OThioularis oouli . The 2. left frontalis result of this was a tightly v/rinklec3 3. origin of corrugator nose with the upper lip drav/n uward 4. insertion of corrugator and the eyes tightly shut. It v/as 5. origin of zygomaticus therefore decided to move electrode 6. insertion of zygomaticus 5 from the origin of the y.-^aorrsatioAZ to the midpoint of the infraorbital A common ground electrode was placed head of the levator- lahii su^perioris on the back of the neck. Resistances (Fig. 5b). The subjects then had ranged from 7,000 ohms to 25,000 ohms to learn to operate the corruaator between electrode pairs, and from relatively independently of the 10,000 ohms to 30,000 ohms electrode- levator la.hii superioria , keeping to-ground. one speaker on and the other off.

The following guidelines , as es- tablished in the pilot study with sighted subjects, were employed in Posttrainina judging criterion behavior:

Expression Muscular Involvement With the electrodes rem.oved, essential secondary each subject was again reauested to express happiness, anger, and happy zygomaticus orbicularis surprise, and these expressions oculi were recorded on film. Fron angry corrugator orbicularis these films, and the films made oculi during phase one (pretraining) a final film was constructed in surprised frontalis masseter which all of the pre- and post- training expressions produced by Procedure during this phase varied all subjects were arranged in from subject to subject, according random order. This film was to the needs and abilities of the in- shown to the panel of judges twice. dividual. It was preestablished that During the first showing, follow- training would continue until all cri- ing the procedure employed in teria were reached or three hours selecting judges and expressions time was spent. Subjects 1 and 5 each judge labeled each expres- were trained for approximately one- sion with one of the three de- half hour, Siibject 4 was trained for scriptors with which he was pro- two hours, and Subjects 2 and 3 for vided (see Appendix 4, Instruc- three hours tions to Judges, 2) . During the second showing, each expression No subject had trouble producing was identified by the experimenter a happy expression, and none was given and classified by each judge as more than 10 trials. Subjects 1 and appropriate or inappropriate. 5 had very little trouble with the Expressions judged inappropriate anger and surprise expressions, learn- were relabeled by the judges ing quickly to differentiate between with descriptors they regarded these movements of the forehead on the as more appropriate. Expressions basis of the feedback. judged appropriate were further classified as adequate or in- An important change in procedure adequate , and rated for degree was indicated by a common difficulty of adequacy or inadequac\'. found in the three subjects who needed longer training (Ss 2, 3, and 4). These subjects had a very difficult time with the movements involved in the anger expression. At first they could not get the aorrugators to move at all; each finally succeeded by a contortion of the face involving several muscles, notably the levator labii superioris (infraorbital head)

247 I .

PART 4

Results

X The four judges made a total of X 22 errors in the identification of X r- 1 the 30 expressions. Distribution of r — T may judge errors and subject errors 2 3 4 6 be found in Figs. 6 and 7. Table 4 shows the judge errors for each sub- (# ERRORS) ject on each expression before train- ing and after training. The effec- tiveness of training was determined Figure 7. Distribution of Subject (Final Judging) by a t test comparing judge errors Errors on pretreatment expressions with er- rors on posttreatment expressions. The intersection of judged and This produced t values of 2.66, sig- nificant beyond the 0.05 level intended expressions was arranged into two contingency tables, one for (4 d. f . ) for subjects, and 4.37, significant at the 0.025 level pretraining expressions and one for expressions. In Ta- (2 d.f.) for expressions. The com- posttraining putational formula used was that for ble 5, both the actual numbers and matched pairs, since independence the ratio-scale values may be seen. could not be assumed (Hays, 1963, Both chi-square values were signifi- the 0.001 level, the p. 335). cant beyond value for pretraining contingency being 36.09 3, the posttraining value strength of as- TABLE 4 being 103.427. The sociation in each table is shown by Location of Judge Errors the phi coefficient (Hays, 1963, p. 606). For the pretraining data, a phi of 0.55 was found, while for Expressions the posttraining data, this value rose to 0.93. Thus the coincidence Pre- Post- of judged and intended expressions Sub- training training was much stronger after, than before, jects HAS HAS training.

1 3 1 2 6 Cochran's Test (Hays, 1963, performed on judge er- 2 4 1 1 6 p. 629) was rors to determine inter-rater reli- 3 4 4 2 2 ability. The Q value of 51.574, the 0.01 level 4 1 2 3 1 1 significant beyond (29 d.f.) allows one to reject the 5 hypothesis that there were no dif- ferences amona the 30 expressions Total errors 19 Total errors 3 in terms of difficulty of the judging task. The judges tended to concur H - Happy in the errors they made. A - Angry S - Surprised Judgments regarding appropriate- sup- < ness and adequacy of expressions t = 2.66 , p 0.05 port the contention that training was effective. Table 6 summarizes XXX X these judgments for all judges, all 1 1 1 1 1 1 subjects, and all expressions. The expres- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 number of times pretraining sions were classified appropriate (t^ ERRORS) was 42, of a possible 60 (4 judges x

15 expressions) , while the number filmed Figure 6. Distribution of Judge rose to 53 for expressions Errors (Final Judging) after training.

248 ,

TABLE 5

Contingencies for Final Judging

Expression Intended Expression Pretraining Posttraining" Judged Happy Angry Surprised Happy /-j-igry Surprised

Happy 13 (0.65)* 2 (0.001) 5 (0.002) 18 (0.90 (0) (0)

Angry 6 (0.002) 17 (0.85) 4 (0.001) (0) 20 (0.95) 1 (0)

Surprised 1 (0.001) 1 (0.001) 11 (0.55) 2 (0) (0) 19 (0.95)

= 36.093, p < 0.001 = 103.427, p < .001

$'=0.55 $'=0.93 *Parenthetical numbers indicate ratio scale values.

The number of expressions judged ade- Significant pretraining to post- quate also rose from 28 (of a possi- training differences v;ere found be- ble 42) before training, to 44 (of a tween : possible 53) after training. The judges concurred more often than not 1. Appropriateness judgments for in classifying expressions as to ap- subjects (t = 2.99, p < 0.025; propriateness and adequacy. On only three of the 30 expressions did the 2. Appropriateness judgm.ents for judges split 2-2 on appropriateness expressions (r = 2.04, judgments. Some < concurrence was seen p 0.05) ; even in the relabeling of expressions regarded as inappropriate, for ex- 3. Adequacy judgments for subjects ample, all three = judges who felt that (t 2.76, p < 0.0 25) ; expression 10 (surprise) was inappro- priate stated that it looked more 4. Adequacy judgments for expres- like an expression of happiness. sions {z = 3.05, p < 0.005').

No pre- post-differences in appropri- ateness or adequacy appeared for hap- py expressions or for angrs' expres- sions alone. Surprise expressions, TABLE 6 however, were found to be more ap- propriate after training (r < 0.025). Appropriateness and Adequacy Ratings Surprise also tended toward a differ- ence in adequacy judgments, although significance was not reached (r < 0.1) Expressions For inappropriate expressions of sur- prise, the judges most often felt Ratings Pretraining Posttraining "angry" would more accurately describe the expression. Other surprise poses Appro- they felt inappropriate elicited la- priate 42 53 bels of "happy" (used four times) "frightened," "hurt," "concerned," Adequate 28 44 and "curious." The muscles used by each sub- ject for each expression on the final film were observed and recorded. Ta- ble 7 shows a comparison of muscular

249 ,

TABLE 7

Muscles Used by Blind Subjects

Expressions

Pretraining Posttraining Subject Happy Angry Surprised Happy Angry Surprised

1 zygomaticus (none) masseter zygomaticus corrugator, frontalis orbicularis masseter oris

zygomaticus, orbicularis masseter, zygomaticus, corrugator, frontalis orbicularis oris, (frontalis)* orbicularis orbicularis masseter,

oris , frontalis oris, oris, (levator triangularis masseter levator labii labii levator labii superioris sup.)

sup. , mentalis

(none) orbicularis (none) zygomaticus corrugator, frontalis oris orbicularis masseter oculi

(none) (zygomaticus) (masseter) zygomaticus, corrugator, frontalis levator orbicularis masseter labii su- oris, perioris, orbicularis (mentalis) oculi

zygomaticus orbicularis masseter zygomaticus orbicularis frontalis oris oris, masseter orbicularis oculi (corrugator)

parenthetical muscle names indicate very slight movement

involvement for pretraining and post- training poses showed contractions of training expressions. It strikes one muscles which were considered to be immediately how many more muscles of secondary importance in portraying were involved in the posttraining ex- anger and surprise (see criteria, pressions overall. In the pretrain- p. 247) . After training, while sub- ing expressions, the number of mus- jects retained those secondary-muscle cles most often moved was one or movements, they also demonstrated none, with only Subject 2 involving primary-muscle involvement. In two several muscles in one of the three cases, inappropriate movement {front- expressions. After training, two to alis and zy gomaticus in anger) was three muscles were employed for each eliminated through training, and expression. In the expressions of in two cases primary- and secondary- happiness , the only improvement in muscle movement was observed where terms of muscle involvement was that no movement at all was seen in the two subjects who had moved no muscles corresponding pretreatment expres- before training moved the zygomaticus sions . after training. For anger and sur- prise, however, improvement was more substantial. In general, the pre-

250 PART 5

Discussion

It appears from the data pre- visible movement in both the aorru- sented that the facial expressions gator and the levator, but aorrugator of the blind subjects improved con- contraction, again, can be accom- siderably as a result of myoelectric plished without visible movement of feedback training. The results can- the orbiaularis oauli. not be explained by judge, subject, or expression variables. Concurrence After relocating one electrode was fairly high among judges and the so that levator labii superioris distribution of judge errors showed movement could be monitored, the small variability. Of five subjects, subjects attempted to isolate aor- four shared fairly equally in the rugator contraction with the help of error pool. Errors were divided the feedback. As training progressed, fairly evenly over expressions also. movement of the levator became more The only factor which could account and more diminished, but the involve- for the improved quality of expres- ment of the orbicularis oauli re- sions was changes in patterning of mained intense. It seemed that the muscular contractions. subjects needed the help of another

muscle to pull the aorrugator , so The most important observations that the feedback they got was at on muscle movement were related to least partly from the synergistic the anger expression. Three of the movement of the aorrugator in sym- subjects displayed very similar pat- pathy with other muscles. In the terns of difficulty in effecting final anger expressions of these aorrugator contraction. First they subjects, orbiaularis oculi movement could get no sound from the speaker is evident, and some levator labii connected to the electrodes on their superioris movement can still be seen aorrugators . Eventually each dis- in one subject. It is almost certain covered a way to activate that speak- that with more training, these sub- er--by contracting a number of mus- jects could learn to completely iso- cles, among which were the aorru- late aorrugator movement, in view gators. The expression resulting of the change from use of both the from this looked much more like pain levator and the orbiaularis oauli to or revulsion than anger. The main use of the orbicularis oauli only to offenders were the levator labii "help" the aorrugator . It is prob- superioris and the orbiaularis oauli , able that this change was a result without which the subjects appeared of the fact that the subject had to be unable to get aorrugator move- feedback from levator movement, but ment. Sumitsuji, Matsumoto, Tanaka, none from orbicularis oauli m.ovem.ent. and Kaneko (1967) have employed Another electrode relocation was not electromyographic techniques in the feasible within the structure of the study of the facial muscles, and have present study. documented synergistic relations among all of the muscles except two {front- Two tentative conclusions to be alis and orbiaularis oculi are anta- drawn from this are that the aorru- gonistic) . They note particularly gator is used much less by the blind strong synergistic relations between than by the sighted, and that it the orbiaularis oauli, the levator functions primarily to make adjust- labii superioris , and the aorrugator. ments that facilitate visual percep- The muscles are related in the fol- tion. Although Fulcher (19 42^ also lowing manner: when the levator is observed little voluntary* use of the contracted, the aorrugator is auto- corrugazor by his blind subjects, matically pulled downward. Thus the sighted people often employ the aor- two are inseparable if levator con- rugator to enhance visual acuity or traction is the desired action. Cor- to shield the eyes from bright light. rugator contraction, however, can be Also pointing to the visual aid role effected independently of visible of the aorrugator is the fact that it levator movement. Strong orbiaularis was only the congenitally (or post- oauli contraction can cause some natally) blind in this study who had

251 no voluntary control of this muscle differentiation of the expressions at the beginning of training. The as the subject changed from one to two adventitiously blinded subjects, another. The feedback stage became while not actually using the aorru- critical in cases where the subject gator in the pretraining expressions, was unable to effect the desired had little trouble gaining mastery movements. Thus in the present study, over it once training began. The feedback was probably unnecessary for feedback was, therefore, much more the effective production of the happy necessary in the case of the con- expression (although it may have ex- genital ly blind who had never experi- pedited acquisition) . Feedback was enced the voluntary control over this useful in acquiring the expression muscle which develops with vision. of surprise, especially in distinguish- ing between the forehead movement in- The muscular p atterning required volved in surprise and that involved for surprise was mu ch easier for all in anger, and it was essential to the subjects to produce However, since learning of the expression of anger. no subject had used the primary sur- prise muscle {front alis) in the pre- Feedback of the myoelectric ac- training surprise e xpressions, there tivity of the facial muscles to aid was unlimited room for improvement. the blind in improving voluntary Since every subject did, in fact, gain facial expression seems to be a control over fronta lis contraction, promising research area. The train- improvement in the appropriateness of ing procedure employed in this study this expression was significant. can be considered not only effective, but rapid, simple, interesting, and The expression of happiness need- useful to blind people. For future ed least training since most blind work in the area, several recommenda- people are fairly adequate in volun- tions are in order. tarily expressing this type of emo- tion (Dumas, 1932; Fulcher, 1942). As for choice of expressions, Three of the five st±ijects in this those should be used for which the study used the primary muscle for most benefit can be derived from showing happiness (zugomaticus) be- feedback. Anger would certainly be fore training, so attempting to train high on the list. Happiness is not this pattern was not really neces- recommended. Most other expressions, sary. All subjects learned in a including surprise, would probably very few trials and probably relied fall somewhere between these two ex- little on the myoelectric feedback. tremes. The following expressions The most beneficial aspect of having should be considered since each re- an "easy" expression like happiness sults primarily from the movement was that it provided the subject with of a single muscle: grinning (risori-

reinforcement early in the process, us) , puzzlement {oovvugator) , revul-

and with a model after which to pat- sion [levator labii superioris) , con- tern the more difficult tasks. tempt [levator anguli oris), sulki-

ness [mentalis) , irony [depressor

There appear to be two components labii inferioris) , and determination to gaining voluntary control over the [orbicularis oris). These associa- facial musculature to effect the vari- tions of expressions with contrac- ous patterns. In the normal develop- tions of particular muscles would, ment of the sighted, these components of course, have to be verified. Pain develop more or less concurrently, al- and fear are likely to involve too though in general, knowledge lags be- many different muscles from subject

hind control (Odom and Lemond , 1972). to subject, and sadness is likely to In training blind subjects in the involve none, so these are not recom- present study, these components were mended. If systematic electromyo- artificially divided into stages, so graphic analyses of each expression that the subject was first given in- were performed on a large group of formation concerning desired pattern- people, one would have an exact myo- ing, and was then trained to control graphic definition of each expression effectively that patterning with the with mean strength of contraction and "mirror" provided by auditory feed- variability values for each muscle. back. In some instances the first This would certainly be helpful in stage was sufficient, although feed- guiding the training of facial con- back was still helpful in the rapid trol.

252 .

It would be desirable to effect transducing myoelectric signals from the following changes in apparatus: facial muscles into sound. Expres- sions of happiness, surprise, and 1. Four or five feedback circuits anger were defined primarily by involve- would allow for the training of ment of the y.ygomatiou:;, the ffontaliz ,

a larger number of expressions, and the oovrugato-o , respectively. and for more definitive pattern- These muscles v/ere connected through ing among these. separate voltage-controlled oscillat- ors to separate loudspeakers, such 2. Use of a more sophisticated sig- that each muscle activated a differ- nal than the kind used in the ent speaker. present study would be necessary if the number of circuits was Motion pictures of each subject increased. Rather than having producing the three expressions be- spatial and intensity cues, it fore and after training v/ere assem- would be desirable to have a bled in random order and were show.n frequency cue such that each to preselected judges v;ho attempted muscle involved might be de- to identify the expressions. The fined by a particular frequency judges were correct significantly of the feedback signal, while more often on the posttraining ex- the amplitude of this signal pressions. Appropriateness and ade- would remain a function of in- quacy of expressions, as rated by the tensity of contraction. judges, also improved significantly as a result of training. 3. For more flexibility and con- venience, each feedback gen- erator should have external controls for the adjustment of threshold and gain.

Procedural improvements might include the following:

1. A tape-recorded criterion re- sponse produced by a sighted subject might be presented to the blind subject as a guide.

2. For congenitally blind subjects, a longer period of training would be beneficial. This would include a more formal and lengthy "weaning" pro- cedure, wherein the subject would learn to produce the desired facial pattern with- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS out feedback.

A followup test at some later date would provide useful The author gratefully acknowl- information on the longrange edges the invaluable assistance effectiveness of training. Dr. Emerson Foulke provided in di- recting this project. Appreciation is extended to committee members SUMMAPY Dr. Paul Jones, especially for as- sistance with the filming apparatus, Blind people lack skill in pro- and Dr. Adam. Matheny for his inter- ducing facial expressions at will. est and valuable comments. Special The biofeedback technique was em- thanks are due Stan Hertel, who ployed to facilitate their gaining designed the apparatus, and Fred

this type of control over the facial Higbie , who built it. Thanks are musculature. Five blind subjects also extended to Dr. Ir\\'in Nahinsky were provided with an auditory "mir- for the use of his research ror" of their facial activity by space

253 APPENDIX 1

Instructions to Sighted Subjects

This is a study of facial ex- expressions which are both realistic pression. We are concerned with and distinct from each other so the the differences between the blind judges will be able to tell what and the sighted in producing volun- you intended to express. tary or posed expressions. We will film posed expressions of both If there are no questions, we blind and sighted subjects, and will begin by getting familiar with judges viewing these expressions the specific expressions before po- will attempt to match each to its sitioning the camera for filming. label. Your task will be merely Ready? to produce the expressions to be filmed. (use randomized list for order of expressions) We will ask you to produce five different expressions, each of (position and focus cam.era) which may be practiced until you feel you are ready to have it We will do each expression in filmed. I will sit behind this the same order this time. I will screen and will not watch you at give you the expression, and when you any time, so that you may feel feel you have it like you want it, free to manipulate your face in press this switch and I will turn on any way you wish. Remember, the the camera for five seconds. Try to important thing is to produce maintain the expression for that period. Ready?

254 APPENDIX 2

Instructions to Judges, 1

This is a study of facial ex- descriptor may be used, and the pression. There are two types of poses are in random order. On the expression — that which is more or lines numbered 1-35, you v/ill enter less reflexive, where facial move- your judgment using the abbreviations ment is one part of a total emotional provided. Each expression v/ill be on reaction, and that which is social the screen for approximately five in nature, its main purpose being to seconds. I will stop the projector communicate information to others. between expressions so you v/ill have We are concerned with the second time to record your judgment. Be type. If facial expressions do have certain to make a judgment for every communicative value, we should be expression and be very careful not to able to "read" someone's face i f he mix up the numbers. You v/ill have poses specifically for that purpose. only once to view each exposure. On the filmstrip, you will see vari- Any questions? ous people producing various expres- sions. Your task is to label each expression accurately. This judging is a preliminary one, and from the results, we will On your judging sheet, note the select a few of the best judges to five descriptors: afraid, angry, continue in the experiment. This disgusted, happy, and sad. All the entails more judgments at a later expressions you will see will repre- date and a fee of $2.00 payable sent one of these five. There is upon completion of the judging no limit to the number of times any task.

255 APPENDIX 3

Instructions to Blind Subjects

This is a study of facial ex- so that you may feel free to manipu- pression. We are concerned with late your face in any way you wish. the differences between the blind and the sighted in producing volun- (Let subject practice expres- tary or posed expressions. We will sions.) film posed expressions of both blind and sighted subjects, and If there are no questions, we judges viewing these expressions will begin by positioning the camera. will attempt to match each to its label. Your first task will be (Position and focus camera.) merely to produce the expressions to be filmed. I will give you each expression and when you feel you have it like We will ask you to produce you want it, press this switch, and three different expressions —happi- I will turn on the camera for five ness, anger, and surprise--each of seconds. Try to maintain the expres- which may be practiced until you sion for that period. Ready? feel you are ready to have it filmed. I will sit behind a screen and will not watch you at any time.

256 .

APPENDIX 4

Instructions to Judges, 2

This is your final judging task. 1. All the people you v/ill see There are two stages, the first will are blind; follow the same procedure as before, and I will explain the second when 2. If you are not certain in mcihing we come to it. As before, each ex- your judgment, circle the letter pression will be on the screen for you choose. five seconds. The descriptors you will use are listed at the top of (Complete first taskj your sheet (happy, angry, surprised). We will now go back over each ex- Please work independently. Two pression. I am going to tell you v/hat things are different this time: each one is and you will rate it as to appropriateness and adequacy (explain rating procedure)

257 , . ,

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262 CURRENT RESEARCH NOTES

MODIFIED IBM SYSTEM 3

IBM has announced that David forms raised dots on the reverse

Schwartzkopf , a visually impaired side of the paper. programmer, has modified the IBM System 3 components to permit a A modification in the RPG II braille print-out. compiler for the S-3/Model 10 card system was also required. The v/ork The period in the System 3 was accomplished under the internal alphabet is used as a "flying peri- grant scheme of the company by od," and utilizes two print posi- Schwartzkopf, at the Rochester, tions on three lines, to form the Minnesota laboratories. Schwartz- six possible embossing points for kops is now a senior associate pro- the braille cell. The System 3 grammer at the IBM Boca Raton, printer ribbon is removed and a Florida facility. The compiler 14-inch elastic strip (20 cents) is program and an instruction manual placed over the printer hammers. are available through local IBM In operation, the embossing head branch offices.

263 . . . . , ,

MACHINE A ECRIRE PARLANTE ET TELESCRIPTEUR PARLANT POUR AVEUGLES *

(TALKING TYPEWRITER AND TALKING TELETYPEWRITER FOR THE BLIND)**

A la Faculte des Techniques de d'environ 2 70 touches/minute I'dcoute I'Universite de Ljubljana, en Yougo- est simultan^e. Ce module, destine slavie, un systeme de machine a a 1' education des op^rateurs aveugles ecrire parlante et de telex parlant a ete specialement concju en vue a ete mis au point a 1' usage des d' assurer une ecoute tres claire. aveugles . L' ensemble se compose de Lorsque la frappe est plus rapide trois elements fondamentaux: la memoire magnetique peut entrer dans le circuit pour adapter la a) Machine a ecrire parlante de vitesse d' audition; la vitesse de construction courante , plus circuits frappe n'est alors plus limit^e. elect roniques La machine a ecrire parlante est b) Teles cripteur de modele courant. equipee d'un dispositif electronique qui, au moyen d'un signal sonore, c) Groupe electronique assurant les avertit I'aveugle de la dernifere commandes automatiques , les emissions ligne de la page. sonores et les memoires correspon- dants En incluant le teliscripteur dans

le systeme , de nouveaux postes peuvent Les combinaisons ac , be, abc etre envisages pour standardistes sont possibles. aveugles ou autres emplois specialises. Le principe en est le suivant: le La machine a ecrire parlante est telegramme (adressg ou recu) peut de constion courante, perfectionnee etre lu par I'op^rateur aveugle, de circuits electroniques qui codifi- chaque signe pouvant ainsi etre trans- ent les frappes de telle sorte qu'en forme en sons correspondants . Les 1 appuyant sur ' une quelconque de ses impulsions re9ues par le tel^scripteur touches elle produit un son equiva- sont codees a quelque vitesse qu'elles lent a la voie humaine . La lettre arrivent, puis mises en memoire d'ou "a" correspond au son "a", la lettre elles peuvent §tre ensuite soit "b" au son "b", le chiffre 3 corres- reprises, soit decodees et trans- pond au mot "trois", le nombre 125 formees en signaux sonores corres- aux mots un , deux, cinq, etc. ^ Pour pondants. Le reglage de la vitesse la ponctuation, trois tonalites de de decodage est congu de mani^re que hauteur differente sont utilisees: I'operateur aveugle puisse lire le pour le point 400 Hz, la virgule message a la vitesse qui lui convient. 700 Hz, le trait d'union 1200 Hz. Tout autre signe de ponctuation est Toutes indications ou ordres sont represente par une combinaison de donnes a I'operateur par son ou con- ces 3 frequences tact. Les ecouteurs stereophoniques

grace a leur reglage , permettent La duree d'un son simple, nombre 1' ecoute de ce qui va 'ttre transcrit, ou ponctuation est d'environ 220/1000 ce qui est transcrit et ce qui a dej^ de seconde, soit 4, 5 sons par sec- ete transcrit. onde ou environ 2 70 a la minute, dans le cas d'une ecoute directe au fur et a mesure de la frappe. Autrement dit, lorsque la vitesse de frappe est **This announcement appeared in Le Louis Braille, November/December *Nous avons le plaisir de reproduire 1972, No. 150, page 4. It is re- cidessous le texte que nous a adress^ printed by permission of the Asso- M. Arsen Surlan de Ljubljana (Yougo- ciation Valentin Hauy pour le slavie) Bien des Aveugles.

264 Pour faciliter la commande des telescripteur LOZEIIZ-SEL, ont ete appareils, des p^dales sont incor- utilises, por^es. La capacity d'enregistre- ment, en mdmoire, de la machine h

^crire ou du t^ldscripteur est d'en- Pour tous renseio-.-..:: ':;.':s , viron una heure. priere de s'adresser a M. Arsen Surlan, Faculte des Techniqxies

Une machine h ^crire rdalis^e electriques , 61000 Ljubljana, a la Facultd -- R0G-T0PS-S3 -- et un Trzaska 25, Yougoslavie.

265 THE PHILIPS TELEVISION ENLARGER

H. Bouma Eindhoven, The Netherlands

The Institute for Perception Re- provides a magnification range of be- search is a joint venture of the tween 5 and 2 5 times. Philips Philips Company (in particular We decided to deviate somewhat the Eind- Research Laboratories) and from related apparatus to achieve a hoven University of Technology. Al- complete and stable setup which re- research in though primarily aimed at quires no separate table and which is the field of human perception, the not portable. The reason for this was side a Institute has as a activity that we wished to simplify controls on developing aids for few projects as far as possible, and to provide the handi- people with perceptual or motor best TV magnifier to serve the need. caps . Approximately one hundred fifty written Stimulated by an article people in the visual acuity range be- by Dr. Genensky, in 19 71 we adapted a tween 0.01 and 0.25 have been tested. CCTV system to the needs of an indi- Seventy-five percent preferred the TV vidual with a severe visual handicap magnifier over their own optical aids. to see if it would enable him to read Ten people could read with the TV- again. In 1972 we tested new proto- magnifier only, and, in fact, used for visually types at three institutes braille in daily life. According to handicapped children and adults, for our experience, the upper acuity limit we periods of a few weeks each. Also, where more classical optical aids take with production and dis- made contacts over is lower for children (0.1) than tribution units within Philips, with for adults (0.25) probably because of a magnifier built the results that TV stronger accommodation power in chil- according to our specifications became dren. We agree with Dr. Genensky 's commercially available in the Nether- findings that the functional disturb- 1972. lands in December ances (low acuity, visual-field re- As with most other CCTV systems strictions) are of more importance for enlarging print, basic components than the type of disease. We have of the system are an X-Y tablet, a TV met a number of people who, to our camera and a large-screen TV set. We surprise, could read with the TV mag- chose an electrically driven zoom ob- nifier, despite severe visual-field jective, which in its present form restrictions.

THE PHILIPS TELEVISION MAGNIFIER

ON-OFF SWITCH

MAGNIFICATION CONTROL

FOCUS CONTROL

CONTRAST 3 REVERSAL SWITCH

X-Y PLATFORM

VERTICAL TABLE HEIGHT CONTROL

266 . s

A BRAILLE CODE FOR INTERACTIVE TERMINAL USE

J. Boyle, W. Jacobs and N. Loeber*

In order to support a wide va- a special code tailored to the needs riety of interactive computer termi- of a diversified group of braille nal applications, a single-celled terminal users should be considered. braille code is needed that consists Revision to existing standards and of alphabetic characters, numbers, their impact on the experienced read- punctuation, and those special sym- er of braille is an area of major bols that are most frequently en- concern. However, existing literary countered in secretarial, scientific, codes which are simple and widespread legal, educational, and some pro- in use, and more specialized codes gramming applications. This one- with lesser usage v/ere not designed cell code could be used for such for, and will not fill, the needs of on-line activities as computerized the multiplicity of applications in text entry and editing, data-base which a teirminal for the blind could inquiry and update, computer-assisted be adopted.

instruction , and programming in languages such as PL/1, COBOL, and The following chart is a first 360/370 assembly language source draft of a general-purpose interac- code tive terminal braille code to meet the above-stated objectives. For Existing braille codes have purposes of comparison, the symbol been examined for their possible assignments for literary braille adoption as a standard braille grades 1 and 2, and programmer's interface in a terminal environment. code have been presented. Attempts Each code reviewed had drawbacks have been made to minimize changes which led us to the conclusion that to existing literary codes. Readers comments and suggestions on estab- *IBM Corporation lishing a common braille code for Monterey and Cottle Roads computer terminal use are encour- San Jose, California 95193 aged.

CODE COMPARISON CHART

Literary Literary- Programmer' Terminal Symbol Grade 1 Grade 2 Code Braille

• o A or 1 A or 1 o o o o

• o B or 2 B or 2 • o o o

• • C or 3 C or 3 o o o o

• • D or 4 D or 4 o • o o

267 CODE COMPARISON CHART (Continued)

Literary Literary Programmer's Terminal Symbol Grade 1 Grade 2 Code Braille

• o E or 5 E or 5 E E o • o o

• • F or 6 F or 6 • o o o

• • G or 7 G or 7 • • o o

• o H or 8 H or 8 H H • • o o

o • I or 9 I or 9 • o o o

o • J or J or • • (zero) (zero) o o

• o K o o • o

• o • o • o

• • M M M M o o • o

• • N N N o • • o

• o o • • o

• • • o • o

• • Q Q • • • o

• o R R R • • • o

o • • o • o

268 s

CODE COMPARISON CHART (Continued)

Literary Literary Programmer ' Terminal Symbol Grade 1 Grade 2 Code Braille

o • • o

o o •

o V V V o

AND AMPERSAND AMPERSAND

FOR GREATER THAN EQUAL SIGN

OF OPENING BRACKET LEFT OR PARENTHESIS PERCENT SIGN

THE NOT SYMBOL NOT SYMBOL

WITH CLOSING BRACKET RIGHT OR PARENTHESIS LESS THAN

CH ASTERISK

GH LEFT PARENTHESIS

SH QUESTION MARK

TH LEFT BRACE o o

269 CODE COMPARISON CHART (Continued)

Literary Literary Programmer's Terminal Symbol Grade 1 Grade 2 Code Braille

• o WH EQUAL SIGN 5 o o

• ED DOLLAR SIGN 6 • o

• ER OR SYMBOL 7 • o

• OU UNDERSCORE 8 • o

o OW AT SIGN 9 • o w o WW w • o

o o COMMA COMMA 1 COMMA • o o o

o o SEMICOLON SEMICOLON 2 SEMICOLON • o • o

o o COLON COLON 3 COLON • • o o

o o PERIOD PERIOD 4 PERIOD • • o •

o o EN 5 LESS THAN • o SYMBOL o •

o o EXCLAMATION EXCLAMATION 6 EXCLAMATION • • POINT POINT POINT • o

o o PARENTHESIS PARENTHESIS 7 ASTERISK • • LEFT & LEFT & • • RIGHT RIGHT

270 CODE COIMPARISON CHART (Continued)

Literary Literary Programmer' s Terminal Symbol Grade 1 Grade 2 Code Braille o o OPEN QUOTES OPEN QUOTES QUESTIOM • o OR OR f-lARK • • QUESTION MARK QUESTION MARK o o IN GREATER THAN o • SYMBOL • o o o CLOSE QUOTES CLOSE QUOTES QUOTES o • • • o • ST SLASH SLASH o o • o o • ING PLUS SIGN PLUS SIGN o o • • o • NUMBER SIGN NUMBER SIGN NUMBER SIGN POUND SIGN o • OR • • RIGHT BRACE o • AR RIGHT OR o • PARENTHESIS SYMBOL • o o o SINGLE SINGLE SINGLE SINGLE o o QUOTE QUOTE QUOTE QUOTE • o o o HYPHEN HYPHEN HYPHEN HYPHEN o o OR • * MINUS o • ACCENT ACCENT CENT PERCENT SIGN o o SIGN SIGN SIGN OR T^v'O-CELL o o INDICATOR o • USED FOR TWO SEMICOLON DOLLAR SIGN" o • CELLED OR TWO-CELL o o CONTRACTION INDICATOR o • USED FOR EXCLAMATION o • TWO-CELLED POINT ZERO o • CONTRACTIONS o o USED FOR COLON AT SIGN OR o • TWO-CELLED TWO- CELL o o CONTRACTIONS INDICATOR

271 CODE COMPARISON CHART (Continued)

Literary Literary Programmer's Terminal Symbol Grade 1 Grade 2 Code Braille

O • ITALIC SIGN PERIOD ITALIC SIGN O O OR OR O • DECIMAL POINT UNDERSCORE

O O LETTER SIGN LETTER SIGN QUOTES LETTER SIGN o • o •

O o CAPITAL SIGN CAPITAL SIGN COMMA CAPITAL SIGN o o O • •«

272 .

ELECTROMECHANICAL PERFORATED TAPE READER FOR THE BLIND

Centrum Obliczeniowe PAN Skrytka pocztowa Nr 22

00-901 Warszawa P K i N

The electromechanical perforated dimensions: 25 cm long, 10 cm wide, tape reader is the first device built and 3.5 to 6.5 cm high. Its top in Poland with the intention of em- slants slightly towards the person ploying blind programmers in elec- using the device. tronic computing centers. Using this device, a blind programmer can easily There are two reader v/i ndows in read by touch, information recorded the top of the console, cons isting on the perforated tape. The device of eight appropriately arran ged mov- consists of an ordinary reader of an ing pins which successively re produce eight-track perforated tape, and a the characters of the perfor ated tape braille countershaft in the form of according to the code in whi ch those a handy console (Fig. 1) . The con- characters have been recorde d. In sole is fitted with a system of eight view of the fact that the ei ghth movable pins controlled by signals track of the perforated tape is rare- from the reader, and two pushbuttons ly used, the pins have been arranged for continuous and intermittent work in two rows, as follows: (Fig. 2) 8

TECHNICAL FUNCTIONING DATA 7

The device consists of two parts; 3 6 a reader of eight-track perforated tape (basically any type) , and a 2 5 braille countershaft. 1 4 The perforated tape reader is adapted to coordinate with the braille This system corresponds to the countershaft. The countershaft is a arrangement of punctures on the per- miniature console of the following forated tape into those on the left

Figure 1. Fiaure 2,

273 , , .

and those on the right of the guiding is about 2,000 z^. Work was started perforated row. On the console, with- recently on building a perforated in the reach of the fingers of one tape reader (costing several thousand hand, there are two pushbuttons: one zj.) which could be used with the for intermittent work and another for braille countershaft. With a yearly continuous work. production of perhaps a dozen sets, the price of one device will probably Every time the intermittent be about 5,000 zj. work button is pressed, there ap- which pears an arrangement of pins USE IN ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING corresponds, in a slightly modified manner, to the arrangement of punc- The device may be used for ex- tures of the tape character which is amination or reading of short per- being read. The arrangement of the forated tapes, and for checking dubi- pins does not change as long as the ous tape segments resulting from fail- intermittent work button is not ure in punching devices. At present, pressed again. After it is pressed, in view of the lack of braille print- a new, consecutive arrangement of ing devices controlled by data carri- pins appears, representing the next ers, it may also be used for reading character. The continuous work push all material coded on the perforated button is used for continuous reading tape or for moving the tape at a regular speed of two to ten characters per Together with tape punching de- second. The adaptation of the per- vices, the electromechanical reader forated tape reader to cooperation makes it possible for the blind to with the braille countershaft calls control the correctness of recording for only slight modifications which of data or programs. The device could do not exclude the reader from also be used to read any kind of ma- further utilization. Either reserve terial coded on perforated tape in readers available in electronic com- the braille code. Recording material puting centers, or readers withdrawn on perforated tape is far less expen- from use because of their lower per- sive than printing it in braille or formance, can be used for this pur- recording on a magnetic tape.

pose . ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS PROTOTYPE The small size and shape of the console adds to the usefulness of the The prototype of the device has device; however one has to know the been built in the Computing Center code used on the perforated tape in of the Polish Academy of Sciences, order to use the device. The arrange- PAN, Warsaw, Palac Kultury i Nauki ment of the eight pins makes it possi- X pietro, according to a design by ble to read the full stock of 256 Jerzy Reszel and Ryszard Sawa. The characters which are used at present price of the prototype device is in perforated tape technology. In relatively high (about 12,600 zj) be- view of general use of perforated tape cause the perforated tape reader in Poland, the device should be part used was rather expensive (10,600 zj) of the basic equipment of a blind pro- The price of the braille countershaft grammer of electronic digital computers,

274 , ,

LANGUAGE MEANING (GENDER SHAPING) AMONG BLIND AND SIGHTED STUDENTS*

John G. Cull and Richard E. Hardy

Virginia Commonwealth University

Abstract schools were selected because of the similarity. They are both located Blind students showed signifi- in a rural section of Virginia. The cant differences from their sighted students in both schools have a high counterparts in assigning gender to degree of similarity in educational, 17 commonly used words out of 50. cultural, and social levels, and in Language seems to help condition per- level of general academic achieve-

ception, and persons who are deprived ment . of vision seem to have different in- terpretations concerning the meaning The Gender Association Survey of words in the language. (5) which is based on semantic dif- ferential tests was administered in May of 1971. Subjects reacted to INTRODUCTION abstract and concrete English nouns on a five-point masculinity-femininity Language plays an important part scale where number 1 was masculine, in our perception of the feeling of and number 5 was feminine. persons toward us and, in general, of the total environment around us (1, No reason for the study was given 2, 7). Problems relating to communi- to the subjects in order that precon- cation skills and sight loss have ceived ideas about the survey could been described in the literature (3, vary uncontrolled. Biographical data 4, 6) . included age, sex, and education. None of the students used a second The purpose of this research was language at home. to evaluate the meaning of words with- in the language system for both blind and sighted students to determine RESULTS whether substantially different mean- ings exist for the two groups. The mean scores on the Gender Association Survey for blind and sighted males and females were com- METHOD pared. (Tabular material available from the authors at the address shown Twenty-two totally blind stu- at the end of this article.) A dents at the Virginia School of the standard error of the mean differences Blind in Staunton, Virginia, and 64 for males and females showed that both sighted subjects from the Wilson groups scored as could be expected Memorial High School in Fishersville from chance factors alone. Virginia, were randomly selected from classes of senior English. These two For purposes of cross-validation, both the blind and sighted groups were then divided into random subgroups *Received in the Editorial Office on and the same statistical procedure was applied. Results indicated that January 26, 19 73 and published immedi- when comparisons were m.ade between the ately at Provincetown , Massachusetts. subjects, only two Copyright by The Journal Press. two groups of blind words were interpreted significantly Reprinted by permission of The different at the 0.0 5 level. The com- Journal Press, 2 Commercial Street, Provincetown, Massachusetts. This parison between the two groups of subjects in interpreted paper appeared originally in The sighted re- indicated that three words Journal of Psychology, 1973, 83, 333-4. sponse

275 .

were interpreted significantly dif- survey. Differences at the 0.05 lev- ferent at the 0.0 5 level. el of significance were found for 17 words, as follows: love, progress, The blind and sighted groups star, knot, chair, sun, thief, work, were compared on their responses to man, defeat, cloud, smoke, root, fear, the masculinity and femininity con- belief, battle, life. notations of the English nouns on the

REFERENCES

1. Jacobovits, L. A. & Miron, M. S. 4. Moor, P. M. Blind children with

(Eds.) . Readings in the psy- development problems. Children,

chology of languages . Englewood January-Februairy 1961, 1, 9-13. Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967. 5. Osgood, C. E. The Gender Asso- 2. Korzybski, A. Science and Sanity. ciation Survey. Unpublished New York: Country Life Press, manuscript. Institution of Com- 1933. municational Research, University of Illinois, Urbana, 1967. 3. Minor, L. E. A study of the in- cidence of speech deviations 6. Rogow, S. The nonverbal blind among visually handicapped chil- child: Two paths to speech, ^ew dren. iVew Outlook for the Blind, Outlook for the Blind, January

January 1963, 57(1), 10-14. 1969, 63(1) , 1-7.

Saporta, S. , (Ed.). Psycholin- guis ties New York: Holt, Rinehart Winston, 19 61.

Virginia Commonwealth University Regional Counselor Training Program Box 499 WWRC

Fishersville , Virginia 22939

276 REPORT OF THE PERCEPTUAL ALTERNATIVES LABORATORY FOR THE PERIOD JULY 1, 1972 - JUNE 30, 1973

Emerson Fouike*

The function of a perceptual program of research. In September system is to gather the information 1972, Paul VJard, Director of the used by the individual in regulating University Development Office, and his interactions with his environ- I traveled to New York and explored ment. When, because of sensory or the possibility of funding v;ith the motor impairment, a perceptual sys- executive officers of several pri- tem fails to function or functions vate foundations. As a result of inadequately, the affected indivi- this effort, grants v/ere obtained dual must replace the information from two foundations: $25,000.00 that is lost with information ac- from the Robert Sterling Clark quired by interpreting sensory data Foundation, and $75,000.00 from the gathered in other ways and by other Grant Foundation. The grant from perceptual systems. the Robert Sterling Clark Foundation is currently providing general sup- On June 25, 1969, by an action port for the Laboratory's program of of the Board of Trustees of the Uni- research. This term of support will versity of Louisville, the Perceptual end September 31. The grant from Alternatives Laboratory was estab- the Grant Foimdation makes provision lished under the auspices of the for general support, and for the Graduate School of the University support of several specific projects of Louisville for the purpose of to be discussed later. The support investigating perceptual alterna- provided by the Grant Foundation will tives. At its present stage of de- commence on October 1, and extend velopment, the research program of through June 30, 19 75. the Laboratory is concerned primarily with the investigation of perceptual Maxwell A. Kerr, President and alternatives for individuals with co-owner of ADA-MAX, an audio-visual visual impairment. However, per- engineering firm, in Jackson, Michi- ceptual alternatives for visually un- gan, and I co-authored a proposal impaired children with severe reading for research on techniques for re- problems, and for children with pro- trieving information from tape re- found motor disabilities have also corded texts. This proposal was received attention, and the long- submitted to the Seeing Eye Founda- range objective of the Laboratory tion, where it received favorable is to investigate the entire spec- consideration, and the Seeing Eye trum of useful perceptual alterna- Foundation has made a grant of tives . $15,582.96 to the Perceptual Alterna- tives Laboratory to support the pro- During the past year, a substan- ject described in the proposal, and tial commitment of time and effort discussed in a later section of this was made to the search for funds with report. The initial and terminal which to carry forward the Laboratory's dates for the period of support have not yet been established, but it will be approxim.ately coincident with the 1973-74 fiscal year. Director Perceptual Alternatives Laboratory In May, Dr. James Driscoll, University of Louisville Chairman of the Department of Psy- Louisville, Kentucky 4020 8 chology', and I went to Washington,

277 .

diffi- D.C. and held discussions with the tape recorded texts, is the administrators who supervise the culty of finding specific locations, paragraph extramural support programs in sev- such as chapter headings , eral federal agencies. These discus- headings, or the locations at which sions were undertaken in an effort to new pages begin in the inkprint ana- become better informed about the logues of such texts. Because these the types of research, and levels and locations cannot be found easily, terms of support regarded as feasible retrieval of desired information is con- by the agencies we visited. The hy- an inefficient process, and as a are less pothesis is that the perspectives sequence, tape recorded texts gained through these discussions will effective than their inkprint ana- permit a more efficient quest for logues . funds from federal sources , and this hypothesis will be tested shortly by The retrieval problem may be re- the submission of proposals now in duced by recording, at appropriate preparation locations in the track on which text is recorded, tones so low in frequency that they are nearly inaudible. Be- ACQUIRING INFOPMATION cause they are nearly inaudible, when BY LISTENING the tape is reproduced at the normal playback speed, their presence does The information that is ordi- not interfere with the perception of narily acquired by reading the print- speech that has been recorded on the played ed page may also be acquired by lis- same track. When the tape is tening to the recorded oral reading back in the fast- forward mode on a of another person. Though reading tape recorder that has been modified by listening is not as effective as so that the tape remains in contact fast- the visual reading of a skilled visu- with the playback head during are in- al reader, there are circumstances forward operation, the tones amount under which it may be a desirable creased in freauency by an alternative. The busy physician or that is proportional to the increase executive may make better use of the in tape speed, and they are heard as time he spends in his car by listen- clearly audible "beeps," displayed high-pitched ing to recorded oral reading as he against the background of drives. The skilled worker may be chatter that results from reproducing aided in carrying out a complicated speech at the fast- forward tape assembly requiring continuous visual speed. monitoring by listening to a sequence cur- of recorded oral instructions. The This system of indexing is the child with normal vision who does not rently employed by Recording for learn to read effectively, and who is Blind in its preparation of recorded not benefited by efforts at remedia- textbooks. A rudimentary code with charac- tion, may find reading by listening two characters is used. One the the most viable alternative. Reading ter, a single "beep," signifies The other 'by listening is an obvious alternative beginning of a new page. "beeps," for those who have little or no vi- character, two consecutive sion, and under many circumstances, signifies the beginning of a new at the be- it offers a better alternative than chapter. An announcement the braille or large print. The investi- ginning of each track indicates if a gation of reading by listening is a pages covered on that track, and this major component of the Laboratory's new chapter starts on the track, this program of research. This investiga- fact is also announced. With tion has included research intended information, the reader can, by in- are to explicate the processes on which terpreting the code signals that during fast-forward opera- reading by listening depends , and re- manifest in search to evaluate a variety of ap- tion, locate pages and chapters plications of reading by listening. which he is interested. An index code with a larger number of char- acters should permit a more detailed The Comparative Evaluation of search of a tape recorded text, and Simple Index Codes for the the result should be more efficient Identification of Locations retrieval. in Tape Recorded Texts' A project has been initiated in Print- A serious problem, experienced collaboration with the American objective by those who read by listening to ing House for the Blind, the

278 of which is to develop one or more this cassette properly, tv/o modifica- such codes. Tones produced by an tions of the conventional cassette oscillator will be used as code ele- recorded are reauired. Its motor ments, because their electronic gen- speed must be continuously variable eration is a simple matter, because through a range that centers on a they can be recorded satisfactorily, playback speed of 15/16 ips, and the and because they can be varied in playback head must not be retracted several dimensions in which human ob- from the cassette v/hen the recorder servers are known to demonstrate good is placed in the fast-for-//ard mode. discrimination. The one or more codes This second modification permits the to be tested will include tones of tape to be scanned by the playback two durations, tones of two pitches head when the cassette recorder is and two portamento effects. Code running at the fast-forward speed. characters will be composed of either The cassette players nov; supplied to one or two of these elements. By blind and physically handicapped exploiting all possible combinations readers by the Library of Congress, of these elements, 42 characters can and the cassette recorders sold to be composed. The first task will be blind and physically handicapped to evaluate these characters in terms readers by the American Printing of speed and accuracy of identifica- House for the Blind include all of tion. The information gained by the modifications reauired for the evaluation will guide the selection proper reproduction of the Talking of code characters for further test- Dictionary. When the dictionary ing. One or more codes will be con- cassette is played on the modified structed, and used to index tape re- cassette recorder at 15/16 ips , the corded texts. These texts will be signal containing the full text of examined by subjects who are given the dictionary is reproduced proper- tasks requiring search and retrieval. ly. The signal containing only the The efficiency with which they per- pronunciations of the words that are form these tasks will be compared also spelled and defined in the full with the efficiency that characterizes text is reproduced at a speed which the performance of such tasks when is so much slower than the speed at conventionally recorded tapes are which it was recorded that it is used. nearly inaudible. Only an occasional, low-pitched rumble is heard, and it is quite unobtrusive. VJhen the cas- THE TALKING DICTIONARY sette recorder is placed in the fast- forward mode of operation, the signal The objective of this project is containing the pronunciations of to record, on tape, the oral reading words is intelligibly reproduced and of a dictionary in a manner that will displayed against the background of permit rapid search of the recorded high-pitched chatter that results format and efficient retrieval. The from reproducing the signal contain- dictionary is presented on cassette. ing the full text at the f ast-for.card To prepare a cassette, two tape re- speed. Since, at this speed, the cordings are needed. One tape, re- signal containing the full text is ferred to hereafter as the text tape, unintelligible, it adds only noise contains the full text of the dic- to the signal that is being processed tionary. The other tape, referred to by the listener, and it does not of- hereafter as the index tape, contains fer serious interference. As the only the pronunciations of the words listener scans at the fast-forward that are pronounced, spelled and de- speed, he must make slight adjustments fined on the text tape. The index in motor speed in order to maintain tape is recorded at 15 inches-per- the index signal at the proper pitch. second (ips) , which is an approxima- Each word properly reproduced at the tion of the fast- forward speed of the fast-forward speed is so located on modified cassette recorded on which the tape that its termination, and the recorded dictionary is reproduced. the termination of the definition In order to prepare a dictionary cas- preceding the definition to which sette, the text tape is reproduced at the index word refers, occur at the the speed at which it was recorded, same point on the tape. Each cassette and the index tape is reproduced at contains a braille label and a large- 15/16 ips. The signals from these print label indicating the first and tapes are mixed and recorded on a last word recorded on each track. cassette at 15/16 ips. To reproduce Using these labels , the listener

279 .

selects the cassette and the track neither tone is present, both trans- containing the word in which he is ports run. If the tone on one tape interested, and plays the cassette is absent, the transport handling at the fast-forward speed until he that tape is stopped, and remains hears the word for which he is search- stopped until the termination of the ing. He then changes to the slow tone on the other tape is sensed. playback speed and listens to the Then, the idle transport is started spelling and definition of that word. again and the cycle is repeated. In order to make the termination of an Of course, the time required by index word coincident with the termi- a listener to consult this dictionary nation of the segment of full text is considerably greater than the time preceding the segment to which the required by the normal visual reader index word refers, the tapes are to consult a printed dictionary. How- played backwards. The voice signals ever, if the alternative is a braille obtained from, the two tapes are fed dictionary, the advantages are more to an audio mixer, the output of apparent. The Talking Dictionary will which is recorded on a final master require considerably less space and tape that is suitable for use on a be significantly cheaper than the high-speed cassette duplicator. braille dictionary. Though a superi- or reader may consume less time in Because of staff shortages, ex- consulting the Talking Dictionary, cept for work on problems of instru- the difference is not so marked as in mentation, little progress has been the case of the visual reader, and it made on this project during the past may disappear altogether in the case year. However, with the support of a poor braille reader. Further- provided by the Clark Foundation, it more, most of the blind people who has been possible to employ a re- read by listening do not read braille search assistant who is spending all at all, and for them, the Talking Dic- of his time on the dictionary pro- tionary may provide the only alterna- ject. The development of an effi- tive to dependence upon the assistance cient procedure for the production of a visual reader in consulting a of the master tapes needed for cas- dictionary. sette duplication should be accom- plished within a few weeks. This project was also reviewed in last year's report, and in that The next step v/ill be taken in report, an automatic control device collaboration with the American Print- for handling the tape recorders used ing House for the Blind, which has in preparing the master tapes needed expressed an interest in making the for cassette duplication was described. Talking Dictionary available to blind Experience proved this device to be and physically handicapped readers. inadequate, and much of the effort ex- Although the intention to collaborate pended on this project during the cur- has been agreed upon by the Perceptu- rent year, was devoted to the develop- al Alternatives Laboratory and the 'ment of an improved control device. American Printing House for the Blind, The new control device has now been the nature of this collaboration has completed, and it appears to function not been specified. The Perceptual satisfactorily. It operates in the Alternatives Laboratory could assume following manner. responsibility for the recording of index and text tapes and for the As the reader's voice is record- preparation of the final master tapes ed on one track of a stereo tape, a needed for cassette duplication, or tone from an audio frequency oscil- it could use index and text tapes re- lator is recorded on the other track. corded at the Printing House to pre- After pronouncing each word on the pare these final master tapes. Al- index tape, and after completing each ternatively, it may be more conveni- segment on the text tape, the reader ent to deliver the instrumentation presses a button which briefly inter- that has been developed, and the pro- rupts the tone produced by the oscil- cedure it enables, to the Printing lator. When these tapes are repro- House. In any case, the Printing duced the recorded tones are sensed House would assume responsibility for by circuitry which operates relays the duplication and distribution of that start and stop the transports on cassettes which the tapes are being reproduced. When both tones are present, or when

280 When this step has been complet- speed at v/hich it v/as recorded, and ed, other applications for voice in- the resultant signal is recorded on dexing will be explored. For instance, a final master tape, v/hich is suit- it would be a simple matter to index able for direct playback or for du- a tape recorded text book with an- plication. nouncements that locate and identify new pages, new chapters, paragraph Rapid scanning is an importamt headings, and so forth. ability of the visual reader that is not shared by the aural reader. This ability permits the visual reader to The Evaluation of the "Running gain a general impression of the con- Abstract" as an Aid for Search tents of a book, and to locate sec- and Retrieval in Tape Recorded tions of particular interest to him Reading Matter for more careful reading. VThen he is reviewing a book that he has already This project has been undertaken studied, the ability to scan rapidly in collaboration with Maxwell A. Kerr, permits him to spend his reviewing an electrical engineer who directs an time efficiently. With Kerr's pro- educational technology laboratory in cedure for preparing a "running ab- Jackson, Michigan. Kerr contributed stract," and the recorded format de- the concept of the "running abstract." veloped for presentation of the Talk- He has developed a procedure for sub- ing Dictionary, scanning can become jecting full text to a kind of scrut- an ability of the aural reader, as iny that permits the rapid abstrac- well. Using a cassette v/ith the tion of sequences of crucial words and proper format, and a cassette re- phrases which form meaningful state- producer with the necessary modifi- ments. When these statements are read cations , the aural reader might start in sequence, the result is an abstract by listening to a recorded book at which exactly parallels the full text, eight tim.es its normal playback speed. but which is only one-eighth of the At this fast speed, he would hear the full text in length. Kerr has shown "running abstract," which would suf- that little training is required for fice to give him a good idea of the mastery of his procedure, and that contents of the book. When he en- people without background in the sub- countered a section he wished to ject matter of the text under scruti- study more carefully, he would re- ny, who have learned his procedure, duce his tape speed and listen to can produce satisfactory abstracts of the full text. technical reports. A proposal concerning the de- Using the recording technique velopment and evaluation of this employed in the preparation of the procedure was prepared by Kerr and Talking Dictionary, an abstract of myself, and submitted to the Seeing this sort can be recorded on the same Eye Foundation. It received favor- track that is used for the full text able consideration, and the Seeing recording. First, the abstract is Eye Foundation has made a grant of recorded on tape. The text of the $15,582.96 to the University of Louis- abstract is displayed for the oral ville to support work on this project reader who makes the recording by a during the 1973-74 fiscal year. In pacer, which is adjusted to expose order to realize the terminal objec- text at a rate that will insure its tives specified in the proposal, it reading in one-eighth of the time re- will be necessary to provide suitably quired for the reading of the full modified cassette players, train peo- text to which it refers. If neces- ple to prepare "running abstracts," sary, any further adjustment of the identify reading matter that is suit- playback time of the abstract tape able for purposes of evaluation, train can be accomplished by time compres- oral readers in the use of the pacer sion or time expansion. The tape con- that presents the text of the ab- taining the abstract is then repro- stract, and prepare recordings with duced at one-eighth of its recording the proper format. W^hen this has speed which results in a playback been accomplished, an evaluation ex- time equal to the playback time of the periment will be conducted to deter- full recorded text. The signal ob- mine the extent to which the avail- tained from the abstract tape is ability of a "running abstract" en- mixed with the signal obtained by re- ables the aural reader to realize producing the full text tape at the the advantages of rapid scanning.

281 The Development of an and which incorporates an oscillator, Aural Testing Instrument the 60 cycle output of which is re- corded by pressing a momentary switch Acquiring test information by when the machine is operating in the listening to the recorded oral read- record mode. With the device con- ing of a test form is an obvious al- nected to his cassette recorder, the ternative for those who, for whatever aural test taker listens to a cassette reason, cannot read print. However, on which test items have been record- if such a recording is reproduced on ed. At the end of each test item, a conventional equipment--record play- brief 60-cycle tone is sensed by the er, open-reel tape player or cassette device and the tape recorder is auto- player--the aural reader is handi- matically turned off. If he wishes capped. The person who acquires his to proceed to the next item, he test information by reading a printed presses a momentary switch on the de- test form can easily reread any test vice, which starts the cassette re- item if he is not sure of its mean- corder again. If he wishes to hear ing. He will typically read a few the item again, he presses the re- items once, many items twice, and a wind button on the cassette recorder few items many times. Furthermore, and releases it when he hears a high- he can maximize the number of test pitched tone. This is the 60-cycle items he is able to complete by pass- tone that marks the boundaries be- ing over items that seem difficult to tween test items, but since the tape him on first reading, responding to to which he is listening is being the items he finds easy, and then re- played at approximately 16 times the turning to the difficult items for normal playback speed, the tone he more thoughtful consideration. How- hears has a frequency in the neigh- ever, if the recorded oral reading of borhood of 1,000 cycles-per-second

a test is reproduced on conventional (cps) . When, upon hearing the high- equipment, the performance of these pitched tone, the test taker stops operations becomes so inefficient his recorder, the tape in the cas- that the advantages gained by resort- sette is properly positioned for ing to them are largely cancelled by hearing the test item again. Of the time that must be spent in per- course at the conclusion of the sec- forming them. Returning to a precise ond hearing of the test item, the location in a conventionally recorded cassette recorder is automatically tape is a task that must be accom- turned off, as before. He may re- plished by a trial and error process peat this operation as many times as of successive approximations. It he wishes. He may return to any de- consumes so much time, and becomes sired test item by holding the re- so aggravating, particularly when it wind button down and by counting must be carried out under the time high-pitched tones until he arrives pressure associated with the taking at the tone marking the location of of most tests, that the aural reader the item in which he is interested. will usually elect to forego the ad- If he loses count during this opera- -vantages he might realize by retrac- tion, he can find his place again by ing. If the test score earned by the releasing his rewind button when he aural reader is depressed because he hears the next tone and by listening has not had access to operations which to the number of the test item in- contribute to successful test perform- dexed by that tone. If he wishes to ance, and which are accomplished with skip ahead, he can press the fast-

ease by visual readers , his score will forward button on the cassette re- not be a valid indicator of the abil- corder and listen for the oscillator ity the test purports to measure. tone used to locate item boundaries, which will again be heard as a high- To solve this problem, the lab- pitched tone in the neighborhood of oratory arranged for the design and 1,000 cps. construction of a prototype device by Biotronics, an electronic engineer- This device, and the procedure ing firm in the Louisville area. This it enables , were also described in device is designed to be used as an the last report. It performs the accessory to the cassette recorder functions for which it was designed. sold by the American Printing House However, experience gained during the for the Blind, which has been modified current year has revealed problems to reproduce, when it is operated in in human engineering that must be the fast- forward or fast-rewind mode. solved before the system is ready for

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field testing. More attention must public schools is predicated on the be given to the manner in which ability to read. In large measure, switches are to be operated by the a child must obtain from printed user. Furthermore, the necessity of reading matter the information he operating switches at two different needs to succeed in the tasks set locations--the cassette recorder and for him by his teachers. If he can- the remote device--in order to con- not read well, his ability to gather trol a single process, appears to be this information is impaired and his undesirable. To solve this problem, performance is adversely affected. it will probably be necessary to in- Public school educators are becoming stall the control device in the re- increasingly av;are of a large number corder itself. The manner in which of children in public schools who, this is to be accomplished will be in spite of persistent efforts at determined in the next few months. remediation, never learn to read ef- The grant from the Grant Foundation fectively. They do not perform v/ell

makes specific provision for the sup- in school , and it is tempting to con- port of this project. Next October, clude that their poor school perforrri- when money from this grant becomes ance and their poor reading ability available, several cassette recorders are both the consequences of limited will be purchased from the Printing intelligence. This may sometim.es be House and the necessary modifications true, but experiments performed in will be made. With the capability this Laboratory and elsewhere raise provided by this system, the aural the possibility that some of the test taker can perform the operations children who read ineffectively can that should make aural test taking an listen effectively, and have the attractive alternative for persons ability to succeed in school tasks with visual reading problems. How- if they are not reauired to depend ever, field testing will be required upon visual reading for information. before the system can be recommended To explore this possibility, a project for use, and it should be possible was initiated in collaboration with to get field testing under way during the Jefferson County School System. the spring semester, 19 74. Parallel forms of a test of compre- hension were administered to 275 stu- dents in the seventh grade at Valley Aural Testing in the Junior High School. One form of the Public Schools test was printed, and the other form was recorded on tape. By analysis An experiment was conducted dur- of these test scores, it was possible ing the current year to gauge the ef- to identify a group of children who fectiveness of aural testing. Chil- are accurately described as poor dren in the public schools served as visual readers, but adequate aural subjects in the experiment. Parallel readers forms of a group test of intelligence were administered to each student. As a next step in this investi- One form was printed, and the other gation, a text book scheduled for form was recorded on tape. In addi- use by the students who served in tion, a Wechsler Intelligence Scale the experiment was prepared in re- for Children was administered to each corded form, and one dozen copies student in order to provide criterion were duplicated on cassette. The scores for comparison with the scores cassette books were made available obtained from the group tests of in- to Valley Junior High School in the telligence. The data of this experi- expectation that the children iden- ment have not yet been analyzed, but tified as poor visual readers but it is evident from inspection that the adequate aural readers would be given intelligence of some of the students the opportunity to study the books in the group was assessed more ade- recorded on cassettes instead of its quately by the aurally administered printed counterparts. At this point group test than by the group test in in the investigation, there was a printed form. change in public school personnel, and the program was not effectively implemented. However, it may be pos- The Role of Aural Reading sible to resume the investigation in in a Public School Program the fall auarter, 1973. The objec- tive is to compare the performance Adequate functioning in the pro- of those who the gram of education offered by our use cassette books with

283 the performance of students in a con- analyzing the reading behavior of trol group who use conventional study visual and aural readers, those op- materials, and with their own perform- erations that account for the effi- ance in courses in which tape record- ciency of visual reading and that ed books have not been used. are not ordinarily available to the aural reader. This analysis has pro- An investigation resembling the vided the basis for formulating the one just described is planned in col- functional requirements of a satis- laboration with the Louisville Public factory aural reading instrument. School System. Marilyn Kreisle, Co- ordinator of Learning Disabilities, There is no piece of equipment will serve as a co-investigator. on the commercial market embodying Through testing and observation, it all of the required functions. How- has been determined that there are a ever, an office dictating machine significant number of children in the manufactured in Switzerland and dis- Louisville Public Schools with better tributed in this country by Dicta- than average intelligence, who have phone Company can, with some modi- seriously inadequate reading ability. fication, be made to incorporate They perform poorly in school, and it enough of these functions to permit is apparent that they do so because an evaluation of the improvement in they cannot acquire by reading the reading effectiveness that may be information they need for success in realized through the use of a func- school tasks. If a proposal prepared tionally adequate reading instrument. by Kreisle, after consultation with Two of the dictating machines have members of the Laboratory staff, is been acquired. An effort will be accepted by the Louisville Public made to modify them, and to prepare School System, an effort will be made reading matter in a manner suitable to determine the extent to which these for reproduction on them. A few children can benefit from the oppor- aural readers will be given training tunity to read by listening. Paral- in the use of these instruments, and lel forms of a test of listening com- their experience will be taken into prehension, one printed and one re- account in designing and construct- corded on tape, will be administered ing a more suitable aural reading to those children whose poor scholas- instrument. tic achievement appears to be a con- sequence of reading disability. Those An effort will be made to con- children who, on the basis of test clude this evaluation in the fall performance, can be described as poor semester of 1973. The period of visual readers but adequate aural support provided by the grant from readers, will be given an opportunity the Grant Foundation will commence to do all of their studying by listen- in October. This grant makes spe- ing to recorded text books. The ef- cific provision for supporting the fectiveness of aural reading for the development of a prototypical aural students under investigation will be reading instrument. This instrument -evaluated by comparing their current will probably reproduce reading mat- performance, as indexed by scores on ter recorded on an oxide-coated tests of scholastic achievement, plastic or paper sheet, instead of school grades, and subjective ap- tape, because of the relative ease praisals by teachers, with the per- with which information recorded on formance of the same students during that sheet can be accessed. A mag- the preceding year, when they were netic medium is contemplated, since required to depend upon visual read- its use will permit the construction ing. The Louisville Public Schools of an instrument with the recording will be responsible for the adminis- capability of a conventional tape or tration of tests of comprehension, cassette recorder, and this capability supervision of the use of study ma- should be given high priority in the terials and the collection of evalua- design of an aural reading instru- tion data. ment. The design and construction of the prototype will be undertaken The Development of an in collaboration with Biotronics. Aural Reading Instrument

In one line of investigation carried on in the Laboratory, an ef- fort has been made to identify, by

284 The Development of a is small, readily available, and rel- Print-to-Speech Transducer atively inexpensive. The electronic logic required to interface this ap- The two preceding reports in paratus with devices that display this series have included discus- their results digitally is v/ell kno'.'m sions of a project in which the ul- and easily provided. Hov/ever, in ad- timate objective is the development dition to its feasibility from an en- of a device that recognizes print gineering point of viev/, a display letter shapes, transduces each recog- must also be perceptually feasible. nized character to one of the sounds This means, in the present case, that for which it stands , and reproduces it must be possible for human observ- sounds in the same sequence in which ers to make absolute identifications they were recognized. By simulation of the tonal dyads in the touch-tone on the computer maintained by the code with sufficient speed and accu- Psychology Department, it was possi- racy to warrant their use as code ble to demonstrate that output con- signals in situations in which there structed in this manner has a speech- is little tolerance for error. like quality, and that its inter- pretation can be learned without This possibility v;as examined great difficulty. With relatively by an experiment conducted in the little training, reading rates in Perceptual Alternatives Laboratory. the neighborhood of 130 words-per- Random permutations of the 12 dyads minute have been demonstrated. in the touch-tone code v/ere recorded on tape. Each of the dyads was given Because the Laboratory had no a name — one of the numbers from 1 funds that could be used to provide through 12--and a paired associates a salary for a co-investigator on method was used to teach the nam.es this project, Glenn Smith served in of dyads to subjects. Upon the pre- this capacity for a considerable sentation of each dyad, the si±>ject time without remuneration. However, guessed its name, after which the he could not continue in this manner experimenter announced its correct indefinitely, and he ultimately ac- name. Thus, the subject v;as imiriedi- cepted a position as Director for ately informed of correct and in- Computer Services for the Blind correct guesses. A trial consisted (CSB) , to be discussed in a later of one random permutation of the 12 section of this report. His work as dyads, and each subject was scored Director of CSB has fully occupied for the number of correct identifica- his time, and it has been necessary tions on each trial. The intention to suspend work on an output suitable was to administer trials until a cri- for a print-to-speech transducer. terion of two consecutive errorless This project will be reactivated trials was attained. However, it when suitable arrangements can be soon became apparent that this cri- made, but it will probably not be terion was unattainable and the possible to do so in the coming year. training of each subject was there- fore discontinued when the experi- menter was convinced that no further Learning a Touch-Tone Code improvement would occur.

Dr. Francis Lee, professor of The results of the experiment electrical engineering at M.I.T., are summarized in Table 1. and President of Lexicon, a firm that manufactures an electronic speech compressor, has given some TABLE 1 consideration to the problem of transducing the displays produced by Absolute Identifications of the Tonal electronic calculators, and other de- Dyads in the Touch-Tone Code vices with digital readouts to a Percent form that can be appreciated by visu- Subjects Trials Correct ally impaired individuals. There are reasons that invite consideration of M. J. 47 16 the signals in the touch-tone code F, T. 47 13 used by the telephone company as E, M. 59 17 audible indicators of the values J. W. 47 17 registered on digital displays. The S, S. 83 35 apparatus required for their generation T. K. 47 12 L. F. 47 21 T. C. 47 17 285 From this data, one may conclude that dimensional values represented in the subjects were responding beyond a production of a given reader combine chance level, and that some learning to determine the preference of the was taking place. However, it is al- listener, is not yet possible. so apparent that no useful learning occurred. The numbers of errors made To examine this issue, an ex- by each subject in consecutive blocks periment was conducted in which sub- of five trials were counted. These jects were asked to evaluate all of sums were examined for practice ef- the possible pairings of 12 oral fects, but none were found. readers--four professional readers, four experienced amateur readers and The performance of these sub- four readers drawn at random from the jects indicates that the absolute student body at the University of identification of the tonal dyads in Louisville. The production of each the touch-tone code cannot be accom- reader was recorded, and samples plished with enough reliability to lasting 1 minute were obtained from justify their use for purposes of these recordings. By pairing each communication. It would probably be sample with every other sample, 66 possible to identify many of the pat- pairs of samples were formed, and terns that can be formed with se- re-recorded in a format that placed in each pairing on quences of two or more dyads . For the two samples example, some of the patterns formed concurrent parallel tape tracks. by telephone numbers appear to be During playback, each of the samples distinctive and easily identifiable. in a pairing could be reproduced However, the engineering simplicity selectively by operation of a switch. of a display in which each digit The subjects' task was to compare the would be specified by a single dyad samples in each pairing and, in each is the principle argument for using case, to express a preference for the touch- tone code. Other sets of one of them. tonal dyads would undoubtedly be more perceptually feasible. For instance, As would be expected, prelimi- the absolute identification of the nary analysis of the data thus ob- dyads in a set of dyads in which one tained indicates that professional member of each dyad was always the readers were, with one exception, same in frequency, while the other preferred over experienced amateur members were related to the fixed readers, and that experienced amateur member as notes in the musical scale, readers were, without exception, pre- could probably be learned with ease. ferred over readers chosen at random. The practical difficulty with this The data have been transcribed to approach is that devices for the gen- Hollerith cards, so that a computer eration of other sets of dyads are may be employed in an analysis in- not available. They would have to tended to disclose the multidimen- be designed and built, and since their sional preference structure expressed intended application would justify by the subjects who served in the ' only limited production, they would experiment. The first step in this undoubtedly be expensive. analysis has shown that there is no single dimension which will account for the expressed preferences. When A Dimensional Analysis completed, this analysis should in- of the Productions dicate the number of dimensions need- of Oral Readers ed to account for the expressed pref- erences, and it should suggest hypoth- Aural readers express clear pref- eses concerning the identity of these erences regarding oral readers. In dimensions that can be tested in some cases, the bases for these pref- further research. erences are evident. However, in other cases, it is not possible to identify the factors that are evalu- Comparative Evaluation of ated by a listener in forming his the Signal Quality of preference. Even a superficial analy- Different Speech Compressors sis suggests that several dimensions must be taken into account in evaluat- In the past few years, rapid ing the production of an oral reader, progress has been made in the develop- but the specification of these dimen- ment of the technology upon which the sions and of the way in which the time compression and expansion of

286 recorded speech depends and several should be useful to manufacturers arid electronic and electromechanical to consumers. speech compressors are now commer- cially available. The Center for Rate-Controlled Recordings, a unit ACQUIRING INFORMATIOxN of the Perceptual Alternatives Lab- BY TOUCH oratory, has, for many years, played a prominent role in the conduct of Investigation of the ability to research concerning tim.e-compressed gather information by touch is a m.a- and expanded speech. Because the jor activity of the Laboratory. In- Center has no commercial interests cluded in this category are experi- at stake, it has received requests ments concerning man's perceptual from several manufacturers (as well capacity with respect to dot patterns as many of their prospective custom- of the sort represented in the braille ers) for an objective evaluation of code, experiments evaluating various the signals produced by different schemes for expanding the braille speech compressors. code, experiments concerning factors that define the effectiveness of In response to this demand, a tactographic displays and experiments study has been planned in which the concerning haptic perception of forTP.. intelligibility of speech compressed Experiments in visual perception are on different compressors will be de- also occasionally performed in order termined. To make this determination, to produce data for comparative pur- sentences that adequately sample the poses . phonemic spectrum will be recorded on tape, and compressed and expanded by several degrees on each of the Identification Thresholds for compressors under evaluation. The Moving Braille Characters specimen prepared on each compressor will be submitted to the manufacturer In an effort to understand the of that compressor for examination perceptual basis for the reading of and, if the manufacturer is not satis- braille, Nolan and Kederis (1969) fied with its quality, the master have determined the threshold of tapes used in preparing the specimen identification for all of the char- will be made available to him, and acters in the braille code. To do he will be invited to prepare a speci- this , they employed a tachistotactom.- men that fairly represents the per- eter. This is an instrument which formance of his compressor. When controls the interval during which the specimens have been collected, dot patterns are exposed. Patterns they will be presented to groups of of pins rise above the display sur- listeners who will be asked to repro- face of the instrument to the height duce in writing the sentences they of a braille dot, remain in position hear. Each sentence will be scored for a preset time during which they for the number of words correctly re- press against the finaertip of the produced, and an effort will be made subject, and then recede below the to deter^nine the types of error rep- display surface again. A psycho- resented in each incorrectly repro- physical procedure is followed in duced word. determining the minimum time of ex- posure that is reauired for the iden- In another approach, the rela- tification of a dot pattern, and the tive preferences of listeners for the time thus determined is regarded as signals of the speech compressors un- its threshold of identification. der evaluation will be determined. The listening experience upon which The difficulty with this method preferences are to be based will be for determining thresholds is that provided by extended samples of fluent it only minimally realizes an essen- speech, prepared on these compressors. tial condition of cutaneous stimula- With information about intelligibility, tion--a condition that is satisfac- and information concerning the pref- torily realized when braille is read erence of listeners, it should be in the conventional manner. The ex- possible to make meaningful compari- citation of cutaneous receptors re- sons among the output signals of the quires movement of the tissue in commercially available speech com- which they are embedded, Khen a pressors. The results of this study subject is stimulated by the dot

287 . . .

patterns displayed on a tachistotac- have been identified. The speed at tometer, tissue is moved by the pins which a dot pattern is first identi- used to form patterns as they rise fied is regarded as an index of the above the display surface, and as threshold of identification. When they recede below it again, but not thresholds have been determined for while they are stationary during the all of the characters in the braille interval of exposure. On the other code, the procedure is repeated, but hand, when braille is read in the characters are replaced with words. conventional manner, there is con- The data thus obtained can be ex- tinuous movement of the cutaneous amined for relationships between tissue in contact with the page as thresholds for words and thresholds the fingertip passes over the dot for the letters of which those words patterns in a line of writing, and are composed. hence, there is continuous excitation of cutaneous receptors. Thresholds

• ' of identification obtained under con- The Reading Behavior of . ditions of stimulation that more Exceptional Braille Readers closely approximate the conditions of stimulation realized during the Much of the research concerning reading of braille may prove to be the perceptual basis for the reading more useful in elaborating an ac- of braille has elucidated the per- count of the perceptual basis for ceptual processes underlying typical braille reading than thresholds based braille reading behavior. The proc- upon the relatively static stimula- ess depicted by this research is one tion provided by the tachistotactome- in which letter percepts, acauired ter serially, are integrated to form word percepts. Reliance on this In collaboration with John Kil- process results in the slow reading patrick, a graduate student who con- rate (in the neighborhood of 100 ducts research in the Laboratory, an words-per-minute [wpm] for adult experiment is now in progress in braille readers) that is typically which braille readers are required observed. However, there are a few to identify the braille characters braille readers who read so rapidly and words embossed on a paper tape, (200 wpm per minute or faster) that as it passes beneath their finger- their reading behavior is not con- tips. The tape is handled by a spe- vincingly explained by a process in- cial tape transport, designed and volving the integration of serially constructed in the Laboratory for this perceived letters purpose. The tape is transferred from a supply reel across a display surface In the course of collecting data to a take-up reel. The subject under for the experiment described under examination places his fingertip on the preceding heading, two subjects the moving tape, and is stimulated with exceptionally fast reading rates by the dot patterns embossed on that were encountered. In the phase of 'tape as they pass beneath his finger- this experiment in which whole words tip. Tape speed is well regulated, were presented on the moving tape, and Ccin be varied through a wide one of these subjects made rapid and range accurate identifications at the fast- er tape speeds employed in the ex- Clients at the Kentucky Reha- periment, but at the slower tape bilitation Center for the Blind are speeds, her identification time in- serving as subjects in the experi- creased, and she began to make er- ment now in progress . The purpose rors. She reported spontaneously of this experiment is to determine that, at the slower tape speeds, word identification thresholds for the patterns began to disintegrate, com- characters in the braille code, and pelling her to identify letters one for words specified by those char- at a time. The report of this sub- acters. To determine the threshold ject, together with her reading be- for braille characters, the trans- havior, suggests that patterns con- port is initially adjusted for a sisting of whole words are the per- tape speed that is too fast to permit ceptual units of the process in which identification of any of the charac- she engages as she reads. ters under test. As the examination proceeds, tape speed is gradually Observation of this braille read- reduced until all of the dot patterns er has revived an earlier interest of

288 mine in an approach to the study of the movement betv/een the fingertips braille reading that seeks an accu- of the reader and the line of braille rate behavioral description of ex- writing occurs at a fast and constant ceptionally fast braille readers in rate. The ability to detect and in- order to formulate and test hypothe- terpret such patterns enables the ses concerning the perceptual pro- reader to read braille at a rate that cesses implied by this behavior. Con- greatly exceeds the typical braille sequently, a study has now been reading rate, and that compares fav- planned in which a small number of orably with the silent visual reading exceptionally fast braille readers rate. If patterning of the sort re- will be identified and examined in- quired by this hypothesis is a re- tensively. A variety of measures ality, the ability to control the that might be related to reading rate, rate at which braille characters move such as intelligence, cutaneous acu- across the fingertip or fingertips ity, reaction time to cutaneous stim- employed for reading may make it pos- uli, age at which braille was learned, sible to establish the condition un- and so forth, will be collected. der which braille readers can learn to become aware of and to interpret In an attempt to obtain an ac- this patterning. curate record of the reading behavior of these subjects, an instrument has The tape transport used to de- been constructed that permits their termine thresholds of identification hands to be photographed as they for letters and words presented at read. A transparent sheet of plastic controlled rates will be used in this with braille embossed on it is placed study as well. The study v/ill prob- on the plate glass display surface on ably be conducted at the Kentucky top of the instrument. An electric Rehabilitation Center for the Blind, timer, with its face down, is also in collaboration with its Director, placed on the plate glass surface, Fred Gissoni. to one side of the plastic sheet. A motion picture camera, mounted be- neath the plate glass display sur- Reading Rate and face, is focused on that surface. It the Field of View makes a continuous film record of the reading behavior of the subject, and The typical silent visual read- of the time registered on the face of ing rate is nearly three times the the timer. Analysis of this film may typical braille reading rate. A per- permit a more accurate and detailed ceptual analysis of the two kinds of description of the different behaviors reading suggests that this differ- employed by the reader, and of the ence is explained by the difference distribution of these behaviors in in the amount that can be observed at the time dimension. one time by the visual reader and the braille reader. The limits of the If this approach is fruitful, it braille reader's field of view^ are set will lead to an understanding of the by the surface area of the fingertip perceptual processes upon which rapid that is used for sensing braille char- braille reading depends. With this acters. Because of the size of braille understanding, it may be possible to characters in relation to this area, formulate training procedures intend- little more than one character can be ed to make these processes available observed at a time. As a result, when to slow braille readers. the fingertips are moved across the

page , words tend to be perceived a letter at a time, and the reader must Increasing the Braille spend some of his time integrating Reading Rate serially perceived letters in order

to achieve word percepts . On the An experiment is now planned that other hand, as the visual reader ac- seeks an improvement in reading rate quires experience, he gradually learns by giving subjects practice in read- to identify whole words and even ing connected prose, presented on phrases. He can do so, because his moving tape at a speed that is gradu- field of view is much larger in rela- ally increased as practice continues. tion to the size of characters in the

According to a current hypothesis, a print code , and he can observe many kind of dynamic patterning, involving letters at one time. whole words and phrases emerges when

289 . , . ,

In order to make the difference and were designed to permit a compari- upon which this explanation depends son of performance supported by hap- more explicit, an experiment was con- tic perception with performance sup- ducted to determine the number of let- ported by visual perception, on tasks ters that can be seen during an ex- requiring discrimination, tasks re- posure which is too brief to permit a quiring recognition, and tasks requir- change of visual fixation. By means ing identification. His dissertation,

of a tachistoscope , letter groups entitled "The Haptic and Visual Ca- containing 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 13 pacities for Perceiving Shapes that letters, chosen at random, were ex- Vary in Three Dimensions," is now on posed to view for 10 milliseconds. file in the library at the University This interval allows enough time for of Louisville, and articles based up- the perception of letters, but there on it are being prepared for publica- is not enough time for more than one tion in appropriate professional jour-

fixation. Subjects were instructed nals . to report all of the letters they saw.

Few errors of identification The Multi-Sensory Test were made when one or three letters of Conceptual Ability were presented at a time. Beyond this point, errors increased as the Because of the demand value of number of letters presented at a time visual stimulation, there is a high was increased. Even under those con- probability that the infant who sees ditions in which error rates were will attend to the stimulation in his high, subjects were able to identify visual environment, and that he will several of the letters presented learn to interpret this stimulation simultaneously, and if these letters in order to acauire information about had been arranged in meaningful se- the external world. On the other quences to form words and phrases hand, the stim.ulation that can be it is a safe inference that the re- experienced by an infant without duction in uncertainty would have sight lacks the demand value of visu- greatly increased the number of cor- al stimulation, and as a result, blind rect identifications. This experi- infants show considerable variability ment is now completed, and a detailed in the extent to which they consult report of it is in preparation. the stimulation available to them for the information they need about the external world in order to interact The Discrimination, Recognition appropriately with it. Many blind and Identification of children give the appearance of having Three-Dimensional Random Shapes evolved an adjustment that minimizes attention to external stimulation, Several experiments have been and that maximizes attention to in- conducted in this Laboratory to ex- ternal, self-produced stimulation. plore the ability of subjects to dis- criminate, recognize and identify Several years ago, I developed, random patterns of dots, examined by in rudimentary form, a test that was touch. Although the dot patterns intended to estimate the extent to used in these experiments occupied which blind children acquired the in- three dimensions, only two of these formation contained in the external dimensions contained information, stimulation available to them. This since the height of dots was constant. test consisted of a set of 14 blocks It can be argued that haptic perceptu- that were to be sorted into two groups al ability is not fully disclosed of seven. Seven unicjue sorts were when patterns of this sort are em- possible, depending upon the cue used ployed since the exam.ination upon for classification. They could be which their perception depends pro- sorted in terms of texture (rough or

duces relatively little of the kines- smooth) , height (tall or short) , shape

thetic stimulation that informs haptic (round or square) , surface detail perception (presence or absence of a small dim- ple in the center of the top surface) This issue was examined by a color (blocks of two colors gave par- series of studies conducted by Dr. tially sighted children the opportun-

Richard Baird, and reported in his ity to use color as a cue) , weight

doctoral dissertation. His experi- (light or heavy) , and sound (half of ments were of the cross-modal type. the blocks rattled when picked up and shaken)

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This test was administered to a developed for producing such displays, small group of blind children in the and the Laboratory/ ov/ns a vacuum- third grade at the Missouri School forming machine, used for duplicat- for the Blind, and results suggested ing master displays on plastic sheets. that the test was eliciting the be- However, the techniques currently havior from which the desired in- used for the construction of tangible formation could be inferred. A pre- displays make hea^/y demands on pa- liminary account of this research tience, skill and time, and they are was published (Foulke, 1964) but oth- limited with respect to the variety er commitments made it necessary to of symbols that can be displayed v/ith suspend work on this project before ease procedures for test administration and scoring could be developed, and John Gill, a researcher at War- the project became dormant. wick University, Warwick, Englarid, has developed a method for the con- Although I was unable to carry struction of tactographic displays forward the development of the test, that appears to have many advantages I made a set of test blocks avail- over methods now in use. Original able to two graduate students--one composition of the tangible display at the University of California, and is done at a computer terminal that one at Washington University in St. includes a visual display unit (VDU) Louis —who used the test to gather an analog control of the joy-stick data reported in their doctoral dis- type, and a teletypewriter. The in- sertations. Recently, I have received formation required for the specifica- an increasing number of requests for tion of symbols is stored in the com- information about the test itself, puter. The supply of symbols in- and about its cost and availability. cludes symbols for points, such as These expressions of interest have dots, filled and unfilled circles, led to a decision to reactivate the filled and unfilled triangles, stars, project. X's, etc.; symbols for lines, such as solid lines, dashed lines, dotted Betty Herz , a volunteer worker lines, broad and narrow lines, etc.; in the Laboratory, is supervising and symbols for area consisting of a the construction of new sets of variety of surface textures. Tele- blocks, more satisfactory than earli- type commands cause these symbols to er sets in terms of uniformity, dur- be displayed on the VDU, where they ability, ease of construction and can be positioned by operating the expense of materials. One of the joy-stick. Dot patterns correspond- new sets has been made available to ing to the dot patterns of the braille Lily Oatfield, Director, Psychologi- code can also be added to the display cal Services, State of North Carolina by teletype commands, and positioned Department of Human Resources , who by the joy-stick. When a satisfac- has agreed to provide a report of her tory graphic display has been com- experience with the test. Another posed in this manner, the inform.ation set of blocks will shortly be sent that is needed to specify the com- to Dr. Rachel Rawls , a member of the position of this graph is encoded on Special Education faculty at North punched paper tape. This tape is Carolina State University at Raleigh, used to operate a numerically con- who has also agreed to report her ex- trolled milling machine that engraves perience. Further work on develop- a negative of the graphic display in ment of the test will be initiated in a sheet of plastic. From this nega- this Laboratory as soon as an inter- tive, a rubber positive is made that ested student can be found. serves as a master for use on a vacuuir- forming machine. The advantages of this system include the relative ease An Improved Method for with which graphic displays can be Constructing Tangible Displays composed, the nearly inexhaustible supply of symbols for points, lines The investigation of factors af- and areas, to which the composer has fecting the ability to gather, by access, and the remarkably high quality haptic examination, graphic informa- of the end result. The use of a mill- tion that is displayed in tangible ing machine provides better control form on a two-dimensional surface, over the formation of tangible symbols has been an enduring interest of the than has heretofore been possible, and Laboratory. Techniques have been the reduced variabilitv amona svmJDOls

291 . .

of the same type permits a more reli- patterns are made available for tac- able and a more finely graded differ- tual examination. The dot patterns entiation among symbols of different to be examined are embossed on a types. The equipment required for sheet that is mounted on a platform this method is expensive, and if it beneath the display surface. In or- were dedicated solely to the produc- der to present a pattern, the plat- tion of tangible graphic displays, form is elevated by solenoids, and the method would probably not be eco- the dots embossed on the sheet mount- nomical. However, the method does ed on it are pressed through holes not make excessive demands on com- in the display surface, a thin mem- puter capacity, and almost any gen- brane of tightly stretched metal with eral purpose computer with analog-to- holes in it at locations correspond- digital conversion may be used. Plans ing to the dot positions in braille are now underway to implement this cells . The dots embossed on the method on the Supernova computer that sheet beneath the display surface is a component of the ARTS System, to protrude above it when the platform be discussed later. Gill has offered is elevated, and recede again when to make available the necessary soft- the platform is returned to its rest- ware, and to assist in its installa- ing position. Up to 30 characters, tion. A VDU and a numerically con- or an entire line of braille writing, trolled milling machine will have to may be displayed at one time. The be purchased, and the money needed interval during which dot patterns for these purchases is now being are available for examination is con- sought. trolled by an interval timer, con- nected in the power supply of the If the effort to implement this instrument method is successful, maps, graphs, and diagrams needed by students in a Nolan and Kederis defined thres- variety of educational settings will hold as the minimum time of exposure be prepared. An effort will be made needed for the identification of a to generate a body of user experience character, and used a method of lim- that can be consulted to evaluate the its to estimate thresholds. Because effectiveness of the method. The sys- of the time consumed in changing the tem will also be employed to produce sheets on which characters are em- research materials for use in experi- bossed for presentation by the ments concerning orientation and mo- tachistotactometer, they found it bility, experiments concerning factors expedient to emboss several charac- affecting the information that can be ters on a sheet, and to determine acquired from tangible displays, and thresholds for all of the characters so forth. on this sheet before replacing it with a new sheet. Since a subject Finally, the system will be made could quickly memorize the characters available for demonstration. De- embossed on a single sheet, he could scriptions of the system and of our eliminate most of the characters in 'experience with it will be published the code from consideration and there- in appropriate professional journals, by greatly reduce his uncertainty re- and those interested in considering garding the identity of any character its implementation elsewhere will be presented to him for examination. To invited to visit the University in solve this problem, it was necessary order to study its construction and to eliminate those series of stimulus operation administrations, ordinarily employed in a method of limits, in which the stimuli were initially above threshold, A Re-examination of Thresholds and to retain only those series of with an Improved Tachistotactometer stimulus administrations in which the stimuli were initially below threshold. In their investigation of the Estimates of thresholds obtained by perceptual factors involved in the this attenuated procedure are apt to reading of braille, Nolan and Kederis be unduly influenced by errors of ha- determined the thresholds of identi- bituation. fication for the characters in the braille code. To do this, they em- Due to design limitations of the ployed a tachistotactometer, an instru- tachistotactometer, stimulus presenta- ment that provides for temporal con- tions could not be made brief enough trol of the intervals during which dot to permit the administration of

292 .

complete series of stimuli. The mass This experiment is scheduled for of the platform that had to be moved the 1973-74 school year. It will be from one position to another and back conducted by Beth Challman, a member again in order to present a stimulus of the Laboratory's research staff, in an interval of controlled duration and reported in her master's thesis. was so great that its movement could not be accomplished in the time re- quired for very brief stimulus presen- Development of a tations, and it was not possible to Braille Page Embosser make the time of exposure for some of the characters in the code brief As a result of developments nov/ enough to preclude their identifica- in progress, such as the AilTS System, tion. Consequently, thresholds for it will soon be feasible to deliver these characters could not be deter- computer-generated ser'/ices to blind mined. persons by telephone. These services could include the production of hard More precise estimates of the copy in braille, but the braille page thresholds of identification for the embossers currently available that characters in the braille code may would be suitable for use as terminal be useful in further analysis of the devices are so expensive that, in perceptual basis for the reading of most cases, individual ownership is braille. Consequently, a study has not feasible. To solve this problem, been planned that seeks to eliminate an effort has been undertaken, in col- the sources of error in the results laboration with Biotronics, an engineer- reported by Nolan and Kederis . An ing design firm in the Louisville com- instrument has been constructed that munity, to develop a braille page em- permits the presentation, one at a bosser that will operate at teletype time, of all of the characters in the speeds , and that can be manufactured braille code. Dot patterns are formed at a low enough price (under SI, 000) by pins that rise through holes in to make individual ownership feasi- the display surface. Each pin is ble. driven by its own solenoid. The in- terval during which a character is Preliminary designs have been available for examination is deter- completed, and a prototype of the mined by an interval timer, connected embossing mechanism has been con- in the common return of the power structed, but lack of money has pre- supply that energizes the solenoids vented further hardware construction. Since the mass of the pins that must However, the grant received from the be moved from one position to another Grant Foundation makes specific pro- and back again in order to present a vision for the support of this de- dot pattern for an interval of con- velopmental effort, and it will be trolled duration is much smaller than activated again when grant funds be- the mass of the platform used for this come available for spending next purpose on the tachistotactometer , and October. since the distance traveled by pins is much less than the distance traveled by the platform, much briefer stimu- THE PERCEPTUAL BASIS lus presentations are possible with FOR MOBILITY the new instrument, and stimulus val- ues below threshold can easily be The perceptual basis for the produced. Since any character in the skill that enables the blind pedes- braille code is immediately available trian to reach his objective inde- for presentation on this instrument, pendently, safely, comfortably ana the entire set of characters in the gracefully, is one of the Laboratory- ' s code can be brought under examination continuing research interests. For at one time. With appropriate inter- example, experiments have been con- facing, the instrument can be oper- ducted to evaluate the contributions ated by a computer, and the use of a of the physical characteristics of computer permits the efficient de- the cane employed by the blind pedes- termination of thresholds by the trian to its effectiveness for gath- Parameter Estimation through Sequen- ering information. The interest in tial Testing (PEST) procedure, an developing techniaues for the produc- interactive procedure in which each tion of tangible maps is closely re- stimulus presented to the subject is lated to the interest in the per- contingent upon his preceding response. ceptual basis for mobility, because

293 tangible maps constitute a potentially be equipped with a grip that fits important source for the information comfortably in the hand, and this needed by the blind pedestrian for grip should permit more accurate orientation and mobility. Research manipulation of the cane when it is activity in this area has been lim- used as an exploring tool to gather ited by the lack of funding, and it information about the path ahead. has not been possible to sustain an A new tip has been designed which organized program of research. How- permits the cane to explore surface ever, with the general Laboratory discontinuities without becoming support provided by the grant from lodged in cracks. The Design En- the Clark Foundation, it has been pos- gineering Division of General Elec- sible to initiate some research, and tric 's Appliance Park has agreed to the general support provided by the design and build an injection mold grant from the Grant Foundation will so that this tip can be formed in make it possible to continue research plastic, and will provide the tips in this area. needed for current evaluation and ultimate production. Initially, tips made from several different A Rudimentary Theory plastics will be produced and evalu- of Mobility ated for strength, wear, resistance to humidity and other relevant fac- A rudimentary theory of mobility tors. The first canes assembled has been formulated in an effort to will be given to experienced blind account for the behavior of the blind pedestrians in the Louisville com- pedestrian (Foulke, 1971). This the- munity. Their criticisms will be ory seeks to identify the operations taken into account in designing the upon which the blind pedestrian de- second generation of canes. The re- pends in gathering the information designed canes will be subjected to he needs to pursue a course of travel more formal evaluation in field successfully, and provides guidelines tests in which an effort will be for a programmatic research effort. made to develop measures of their The theory will be one of the topics effectiveness, and to compare them of discussion concerning mobility with conventional canes in terms of theory organized by the American measured effectiveness. If the new Foundation for the Blind, and St. canes survive these tests, arrange- Dunstans Association for the War ments will be made for their produc- Blind. The conference is scheduled tion and distribution. Charles for September 23, 19 7 3 through Sep- Ned Cox, Director of Kentucky Indus- tember 26, at Cambridge University, tries for the Blind, has expressed England. Those attending the confer- an interest in evaluating the feasi- ence will be able to offer a level bility of their production in the of criticism that should permit eval- workshop maintained by his agency. uation and refinement of the theory.

The Preservation of Cues to The Development of an Distance and Direction in Tape Improved Cane for Use Recordings Used for Training by the Blind Pedestrian in Mobility

Earlier research conducted in Ordinarily, the cues that speci- this Laboratory has demonstrated the fy the distance and direction of sound significance of weight, length, ri- sources are lost when sounds are re- gidity, and form of tip as factors corded on tape or record. This is affecting the efficiency of the cane largely true, even when conventional as a tool for gathering information. stereophonic recording techniques are These factors have been taken into employed. However, Batteau {Annual account in a project now in progress, Report of Listening, Inc., July 1967), in which the objective is to develop has shown that if exact replicas of a cane that is more informative to human external ears, including the its user than canes currently avail- canals leading to the ear drums, are able. The aluminum tubing selected mounted on a replica of the human for construction of the new cane will head, and if microphones are placed permit a shaft that is a little light- inside this head in the positions that er and more rigid than the shafts of would be occupied by ear drums, the canes now in general use. It will be signals generated by these microphones.

294 ,

when fed through independent channels in the Laboratory's progrcim of re- to earphones , retain the cues that search, other perceptual alternatives specify the distance and direction have received some attention during of sound sources. These cues are the current year. Follov/ing are ac- preserved when the microphone signals counts of these activities. are recorded on tape and reproduced binaurally. The effect is startling- ly realistic. It is difficult for A Communication Device for the observer to believe that the Use by Children v/ith he hears sounds are emanating from P:rofourid Motor iDisability the earphones he is wearing. They appear to be clearly localized in Last year's report included a the space surrounding him. description of a communication device that could be operated with the mini- The vividness of this experience mal movements remaining to persons has suggested a possible role for with profound motor disabilities. tape recordings of this sort in the This device enabled the selective courses of instruction in orientation backlighting of 64 transparencies, and mobility provided for blind per- arranged in eight columns and eight sons. Such recordings might, for in- rows. Selection of the transparency stance, make it possible for trainees to be backlighted was accomplished to receive initial instruction in the by the operation of two switches. interpretation of the sounds of traf- Repeated operation of one sv;itch fic and other street sounds in the caused the backlighting to be trans- safety of the classroom, before they ferred from column to column across received actual training in the en- the display, while repeated opera- vironments in which those sounds oc- tion of the other switch caused the cur naturally. Accordingly, a project backlighting to be transferred from has been initiated with the assistance row to row down the display. When of John Kilpatrick, a graduate student backlighting had progressed to the who works in the Laboratory, in which end of a column or row, the next an effort is being made to build the operation returned it to the begin- necessary equipment and to prepare ning of the column or row again. By training tapes for evaluation. With switch operations varying from a the assistance of Dr. Charles Wagner, minimum of one to a maximum of 14 a member of the medical faculty at any transparency in the display could the University of Louisville, and be backlighted. Robert Stockier, of Gates-Stockier Optical Company, exact impressions of The switches were designed for the external ears of a cadaver were operation by poorly controlled arm made, and from these impressions, movements , because a girl at the replicas of the external ears were Cerebral Palsy School in Louisville formed. These replicas have been who might be benefited by this device mounted on a mannequin head of the was capable of such movements . How- sort used to model wigs in store win- ever, the switches could have been dows. Information needed for the designed for operation by any pair selection of microphones and other of independent movements, regardless components in the system is now being of the parts of the body involved, gathered. When these components have or even by the myoelectric potentials been acquired, they will be assembled that are generated when muscles are and the system will be tested. If it contracted. functions in the expected manner, training tapes will be prepared and A child unable to speak because evaluated. Fred Gissoni, Director of of motor impairment could use the de- the Kentucky Rehabilitation Center vice for simple communication by back- for the Blind, has agreed to assist lighting a transparency that had some in the preparation and evaluation of bearing on a current need. A picture training tapes. of a glass of water might suggest to others that the operator was thirsty; OTHER PERCEPTUAL a picture of a bed might signal the ALTERNATIVES desire for sleep, and so forth. In addition, it was hoped that the de- Though the three areas of re- vice might enable steps leading to search on listening, touch and mo- the ability to read by promoting an bility have received major emphasis improved understanding of the

295 , relationships between written words Many blind children receive and the objects for which they stand. their education in residential After a student had learned to select schools , operated by the states in a given object, the word naming that which they live. In these schools, object could be added to the trans- there has been a tendency to avoid parency, and later, the student might the problems that might result from discover that it was possible to sexual misconduct by carefully super- achieve the same communicative out- vised segregation. As a result, the come by selecting a transparency child who spends much of his child- which displayed only the word. hood in a residential school misses the opportunity to learn about sexual Initial experience with the de- differences that is afforded by grow- vice was quite encouraging. Children ing up in a family with brothers and seemed to enjoy using it, perhaps be- sisters. Of course, the blind child cause it enabled them to exercise becomes aware of the emphasis on some control over the environment-- sexuality in our culture, and the to make something happen. However, combination of curiosity and ignor- the attempt to use the device for ance frequently leads to the forma- instructional purposes revealed tion of bizarre theories concerning shortcomings . Prolonged switch sexual differences. closures resulted in damage to the control electronics. The inability In recent years, there has been to transfer backlighting in both a growing conviction on the part of directions, horizontally and ver- many educators that blind children, tically, proved to be a serious in- more than most, need adequate sex

convenience . education. They argue that the blind child's lack of opportunity to gain It was determined that these the experience that informs his sight- problems could be corrected without ed peer, and the misconceptions re- difficulty in a second generation sulting from this lack of experience,

prototype , but there was no money predispose him to sexual maladjust- to pay for the design and construc- ment in adult life. On the strength tion of this prototype. However, the of this argument, attempts have been grant received from the Grant Founda- made to provide sex education in tion makes specific provision for many residential schools, although the support of further work on this no satisfactory way has been found project. Accordingly, when money to show the blind child what the from the grant becomes available for sighted child can see. A convincing spending next October, Biotronics case can be made for the desirability will build a second generation pro- of sex education for blind children, totype. If it appears to function but its validity depends , for the satisfactorily, several additional most part, on anecdotal experience. devices will be built and limited There has been none of the systematic field testing will be initiated. observation that would permit an ac- curate description of the state of ignorance of blind children, and no Sex Education for the Blind search for the relationships between that ignorance and the consequences In the course of growing up, the that presumably ensue. child who sees has many opportunities to learn about sexual differences. Thomas Uhde , a medical student He continually observes differences at the University of Louisville, vis- in body conformation, and most chil- ited the Laboratory last year to dren have occasional glimpses of learn about its program of research, normally concealed parts of the body. and to explore the posssibility of Furthermore, anatomical differences participating in a research project are explicitly shown in pictures to involving blind children. He had which these children have easy ac- been working part-time at the Ken- cess. The blind child may have lit- tucky School for the Blind, and his tle opportunity to discover such dif- experience included some counseling ferences. He can explore his own of adolescent boys. During his con-

body , but he cannot see other bodies versations with these boys, he had and learning about them by touch is occasionally encountered some curious prohibited. deficits in sex knowledge. He

296 discussed his findings with a rrember Some completed Questionnaires ray be of the school faculty, who told him returned before the summer is over, of the need for sex education at the but many of them cannot be completed school, and the school's interest in until school personnel returri in the formulating a program of sex educa- fall. Consequently, the project can- tion. The curiosity aroused in Uhde not be brought to a conclusion this by his experience at the school, to- summer, but Uhde intends to finish gether with the school's current in- analyzing the data, and to v/rite the terest in providing sex education, final report during the 1973-74 school seemed to provide a climate that year, as time permits. would be congenial to an investiga- tion of the sex knowledge and sex attitudes of blind children. Teaching Voluntary Facial Expression to Blind Subjects Accordingly, a plan was made that called for Uhde to interview Different situations elicit dif- blind subjects, ranging in age from ferent emotional responses from hu- prepubescence to early adulthood. mans. Facial expression is one com- The objectives of the interview were ponent of the emotional response, to elicit reports from his subjects and the facial expressions associ- of their knowledge of sexual anatomy ated with different emotional re- and the manner of its involvement in sponses are discriminable enough to sexual behavior, and to obtain expres- permit fairly accurate inferences by sions of their attitudes concerning those who observe them of the em.o- sexual behavior and its regulation. tional states or feelings v/ith v;hich In order to insure uniformity with they are associated. By observing respect to the topics to be explored facial expressions in the contexts during the interviews , he prepared provided by the various situations an interview schedule, the construc- in which they occur, children learn, tion of which was guided by consulta- in the course of development, to m.ake tion with members of the Laboratory these inferences. They also leam, staff, and members of the faculty at by observing the facial expressions the Kentucky School for the Blind. of others and the reflections of their In addition, he has prepared ques- own facial expressions, to control tionnaires for administration to expressive behavior, so that they parents, houseparents and teachers can display facial expressions volun- of blind children. These question- tarily as well as spontaneously. naires are designed to elicit expres- sions of attitudes concerning sex Blind children manifest facial education, and opinions concerning expression spontaneously, in response the methods and content appropriate to different situations. However, to a course of sex education. since they lack the opportunity to observe the facial expressions of A few of the interviews have others and the reflections of their been conducted and analyzed. Pre- own facial expressions, they are cut liminary versions of the question- off from an important source of feed- naires have been administered to back, and they acauire only rudi- several trial groups. Using the mentary ability to control facial data thus obtained, the preliminary expression. They are conspicuously questionnaires have been revised, lacking in the ability to produce and the final questionnaires that are different facial expressions volun- to be sent to parents , houseparents tarily . and teachers have been prepared. Facial expression is employed, A summer fellowship, funded by by those who can control it, for the Rauch Foundation and administered communicative purposes. A person by the Association of Educators for may smile deliberately because he the Visually Handicapped, has been wants another person to make the in- obtained for Uhde . The income pro- ference that he is happy. The poker vided by this Fellowship has made it player wears a poker face because he possible for him to devote his entire does not want others to infer from summer to work on this project. His his face the feelings aroused by the objectives for the summer are to com- hand he draws. Lacking the ability plete and analyze the interviews, and to control facial expression, the to distribute the questionnaires. blind person cannot engage in this kind of communication with others.

297 .

If facial expressions could be Kenneth Ingham, and he has directed made to produce feedback, and if the the project that has brought the sys- author of those expressions could tem to its present state of develop- learn to differentiate the feedback ment. The ARTS system is a configura- produced by different facial expres- tion of computing machinery that is sions, it should be possible for a programmed to provide a variety of blind person to gain control of fa- services useful to blind persons. cial expression, and to produce dif- These services are delivered by tele- ferent expressions voluntarily. This phone. The input to the system is a possibility was explored by Nancy typewriter keyboard, connected to the Colleen Webb with an experiment re- user's telephone. The output of the ported in this issue of the Research system is computer-produced speech, Bulletin. heard over a loudspeaker, which is also connected to the user's telephone.

For feedback , she used auditory Services provided by the system in- signals controlled by the myoelectric clude dictionary consultation, com- potentials that are generated when position of letters and other manu- muscles are contracted. Myoelectric scripts, bookkeeping, filing, the potentials were sensed by electrodes mathematical computations available attached to the facial muscles that on a sophisticated electronic calcu- are contracted in order to produce lator, print-to-braille transcription, facial expressions, so that, for each computer aided instruction, computer pattern of muscular contractions, programming and so forth. there was a corresponding pattern of auditory signals. Before training, Last year's report included an motion pictures were made of the account of the events I initiated blind subjects who participated in that led to the establishment, by the experiment, as they attempted to an action of the Kentucky State Leg- obey requests for different facial islature, of Computer Services for expressions. The inability of sub- the Blind Corporation (CSB) , a public jects to obey these requests was es- corporation charged with the imple- tablished by showing the motion pic- mentation of the ARTS system and the tures to a panel of judges, selected delivery of its services to blind for their skill in judging facial citizens of Kentucky. The state

expressions. Judges were largely provided $173,000 to meet CSB ' s costs unable to identify the pictured ex- during the first two years of its pressions. Subjects were then operation trained, under the feedback condi- tion, to produce requested facial The transactions of CSB are expressions voluntarily. After train- supervised by a board that includes ing, subjects were again filmed as the Director of Division for the they attempted to produce the same Blind, Bureau of Rehabilitation Ser- facial expressions requested for the vices; the Superintendent of the earlier film. The post-training film Kentucky School for the Blind; the was viewed by the panel of judges, Director of Industries for the Blind; who demonstrated substantial ability and six members appointed by the Gov- to identify the pictures expressions. ernor of the state, of whom I was one and am currently serving as Chairman A small number of subjects re- of the Board. The board appointed ceived brief training and were taught Glenn Smith, a member of the Labora- only a few of the many facial expres- tory's research staff, as the first sions commonly employed. Neverthe- Director of CSB, and he is currently

less , the experiment succeeded in serving in that capacity. The Uni- demonstrating that blind persons can, versity of Louisville has made avail- with appropriate feedback, learn to able to CSB, without charge, the space produce facial expressions voluntari- it needs for computing machinery, and for the administration of its busi-

ness .

Computer Services Initially, we believed that the for the Blind development of the ARTS system was substantially complete, and that it with The Audio Response Time Sharing could be implemented quickly and attempt to System (ARTS) was conceived by Dr. ease. However, as the

298 implement proceeded, it became ap- the exDloitation of perceptual alter-

parent that considerable development natives . of both hardware and software was still needed. As a result, we were unable to adhere to the schedule set The Center for Rate - forth in our agreement with the State Controlled Recordings of Kentucky. By the time of this writing, the system was supposed to The Center for Rate-Controlled be delivering services and earning Recordings is a unit of the Labora- income to defray operating expenses. tory. It was established to provide Instead, it is not yet operational. a source for time-compressed or ex- The principal hardware components of panded recorded speech, of high the system have been delivered, and quality and at a moderate cost, for will shortly be interconnected. The use in research and education, and configuration of devices needed to to disseminate information concerning provide the necessary storage of in- rate-controlled recorded speech. Dur- formation has only recently been de- ing the current year, the Center has termined. A final decision regarding continued to meet the demand for time- the source of user terminals is still compressed and expcinded recordings, to be made. Although some software and has continued its monthly publica- has been developed, a major develop- tion of the CRCR Newsletter. Many mental effort is still required in requests for information have been order to provide the software needed met through correspondence, telephone for implementation of the full spec- conversations and consulting visits. trum of ARTS services. The most serious impediment to It is now clear to us that what the useful application of recorded we originally regarded as a service speech that has been compressed or project will have to be regarded, for expanded in time, has been the lack the time being, as a research and of suitable equipment at a moderate development project, and we are cur- price. However, efforts to develop rently exploring the possibility of moderately priced equipment of satis- continued support of the project, un- factory quality have been under-'ray der these terms, by the State of at several locations, compressors Kentucky. In spite of the diffi- from five different manufacturers culties we have encountered, we re- have become available within the last main convinced that the ARTS system two years, and other compressors, now can provide the services originally under development, will be available claimed for it, but we now know that soon. Because of the prominent role a developmental effort of consider- played by the Laboratory in the de- able magnitude will be required be- velopment of time-compressed and ex- fore full implementation can be panded speech, three manufacturers achieved. The time required for this have donated compressors to the Lab- developmental effort will depend up- oratory, and others have indicated on the level of support we receive. an intention to do so shortly. The With adequate funding, it can be ac- Laboratory is now able to provide complished within three years. We speech that has been compressed or expect to implement some of the ser- expanded in time by computer, as well. vices of which the ARTS system is The Center is becoming a m.useum of capable within the coming year. contemporary compression technology, and this should result in a further expansion of its role in the dis- SERVICES PROVIDED semination of information. BY THE LABORATORY It was expected that the increas- The Laboratory's principal busi- ing availability of relatively inex- ness is the conduct of research. How- pensive speech compressors would ever, an effort has also been made to largely eliminate the dem.and for the provide useful services to educators compression service provided by the and researchers in its field of inter- Center. However, this has not been est. These services include the dis- the case. Apparently, the publicity semination of information, the prep- attending the commercial introduction aration of research materials, the of new compressors has stimulated in- development of equipment and the con- terest in the possibilities suggested sultation with educators concerning by the ability to control the rate

299 of recorded speech, and many inter- Discussions have been held with ested persons have wanted to gain faculty members at the Kentucky some experience before making a de- School for the Blind, in order to cision to invest in equipment. In acquaint them with the possibilities any case, the current year has seen offered by audio- tutorial instruction, an increase in the rate of requests and an offer has been made to assist for time-compressed and expanded re- the school in the training of teach- instruc- cordings . ers and the preparation of tional materials. There has so far been no implementation of audio- Audio-tutorial Instruction tutorial instruction at the school. However, several teachers have ex- In audio-tutorial instruction, pressed an intention to explore its the objective is to make available to possibilities, and if their interest groups of students the advantages or- leads to action, the next step may dinarily associated with individual be an application for funding to sup- tutoring. This is accomplished by port a collaborative effort on the recording on tape the information part of the Perceptual Alternatives that would otherwise be presented Laboratory and the Kentucky School for during a lecture to a group of stu- the Blind to develop the facilities, dents. Careful attention is given materials and training needed to in- to the organization of content, and corporate audio-tutorial instruction each recording is accompanied with as a regular component of the school's a set of written behavioral objec- program of instruction. tives which specify the student be- havior that will constitute evidence of mastery. Mastery of each unit is Consultation required before the student is al- lowed to proceed to the next unit. The Laboratory continues to pro- Each student progresses through the vide consultation to such agencies as course at his own rate, and every the American Foundation for the Blind, student who completes the course is the American Printing House for the assured of a passing grade. Blind, Recording for the Blind, State Department of Education and so forth. Because of the Laboratory's re- Consultation covers psychology, edu- cording facilities, it is ideally cation and educational technology, as suited for the preparation of audio- they apply to blindness and other per- tutorial instructional materials. ceptual impairments. Over the past two years, these fa- cilities have been used to prepare the materials required for the audio- PUBLICITY tutorial presentation of an Introduc- tory Psychology course at the Uni- The Laboratory, during the cur- versity of Louisville. rent year, received publicity from interviews concerning its activities, A typical class of blind school summaries of which were published in children is characterized by extra- Behavior Today and Psychology Today. ordinary diversity in readiness for Descriptions of its activities were on the course of instruction . They show also included in programs broadcast more than usual variability in intel- radio stations WHAS and WFPL. Recent- ligence, prerequisite learning, sever- ly, the Director of the Laboratory was ity of handicapping condition and so interviewed by Grahame James , a doc- forth. As a result, no single in- toral candidate at Warwick University, structional experience, arranged by a who visited the Laboratory in order to teacher, can be expected to be effec- become more familiar with its program tive for more than a few class members, of research. The interview was record- and the individualization of instruc- ed, and an edited version of this re- tion becomes a necessity. Audio- cording is scheduled for broadcast on tutorial instruction offers an attrac- BBC. tive solution to this problem, particu- larly since blind school children have already had considerable experience in reading by listening.

300 . .

REFERENCES

Foulke , E. A multi-sensory test of for the Blind, 19 71, conceptual ability. The New 1-8. Outlook for the Blind, 1964,

58(3) , 75-7. Nolan, C. /., and Kederis, C. J. Perceptual factors in braille word recognition Foulke, E. Perceptual basis for New York: American Founda- mobility. Research Bulletin tion for the Blind, Research No. 25, American Foundation Series No. 20, 1969

301 . ,

AN INFRARED SEEING AID: INQUIRY REPLY AND BRIEF DESCRIPTION

January 5, 1973

Dear Sir:

Thank you for your inquiry about be significantly increased by reduc- the Seeing Aid, a miniature infrared ing transmitter beam divergence or travel aid for the blind. This de- increasing receiver lens area. A vice is described more fully in the pulse rate modulated eyeglass com- attached information sheet. In the municator having a range greater past 60 days several hundred inquiries than 100 meters and capable of inter- have been received from more than 20 ference-free, covert voice transmis- countries, and the late reply to some sions is now being designed. This inquirers is regretted. The delay device will be mounted completely was unavoidable as my secretary and on eyeglasses. The concept can also I have been occupied full time on a be adapted to intrusion detection book I have just authored. systems , counting and detection schemes, automobile "radar," and Hopefully this letter will ans- other applications. Inquiries about wer some of the questions which have these secondary applications are wel- been received. The Seeing Aid is not comed . yet commercially available, but two prototypes purchased from me for $225 each are currently undergoing prelimi- Some inquirers have asked about nary test and evaluation by the Vet- Sensory Aids Research. This com- erans Administration and I am working pany is non-existent, and the name with a third. The Southwest Research was created to ease the procurement Institute has agreed to seek funding of prototype aids by the Veterans to permit them to complete develop- Administration. It should be noted ment and comprehensive testing of the that I am a professional science concept. If test results warrant, the writer and consultant by occupation, aids will be made commercially avail- and the Seeing Aid is a part time able by an as yet unselected manufac- development for which I have re- turer. Inquirers interested in re- ceived no financial assistance. ceiving information about the intro- Since 1966 I have developed a series duction of commercial Seeing Aids are of electronic aids for the blind asked to write a brief note explaining including several light sensitive their interest. All such inquiries probes and a urinanalysis machine will be retained and information will with audible output for blind dia- be forwarded as developments warrant. betics. Specific inquiries are welcomed. I am prepared to consult While many inquiries have been with inquirers about aids for the received from blind persons , univer- blind and the secondary applications sities , and medical personnel, a sub- which require a comprehensive knowl- stantial number have also been re- edge of optical radar and communica- ceived from organizations with no tions range equations , near infra- obvious interest in aids for the blind. red reflectance measurement tech- The Seeing Aid has secondary applica- niques and data, and the design tions which may interest some of these of detection and communication inquirers. For example, the existing systems incorporation LEDs , injec- device has a aommuniaations range in tion lasers , and other infrared excess of 100 meters. This range can sources

Sincerely

/s/ Forrest M. Mims

Forrest M. Mims

F^4M/mc

302 : : .

PROTOTYPE SPECIFICATIONS

Transmitter

Peak Optical Power 70 milliwatts

Wavelength of Emission 9 50 nanometers Beam Divergence 0.08 radian M.6») Pulse Width 20 microseconds Pulse Repetition Rate 120 Hertz Power Supply 6.8 volts (TR175) Current Drain 5.5 mi 11 lamps Dimensions 0.54" X 3.6"

(1. 4cm X 9 . 1cm)

Receiver Sensitivity (Optical) 70 nanowatts Frequency Response 20 kilohertz Rise Time 10 microseconds Gain 95 db (voltage) Field of View 0.08 radian (4.6°) Power Supply 6.8 volts (TR175) Current Drain 3.0 milliamps Dimensions 0.54" X 3.6" (1. 4cm X 9 .1cm)

REFERENCES

F. Mims , An infrared eyeglass mo- F. Mims, An infrared mobility aid bility aid for the blind, for the blind, ProaeediKss Proceedings of the Southwest of Electro-Optics '72, IEEE Conference , April 1972. September 1972.

F. Mims, Eyeglass mobility aid for F. Mims, Lighz emitting diodes.

the blind. Journal of the Howard W. Sams & Co. , Inc. American Optometria Associa- to be published tion , June 1972, 673-6. Spring 1973.

The Seeing Aid is an independent development conceived and designed by Forrest M, Mims, a professional science writer and engineering

consultant . Inquiries are welcome

Forrest M. Mims, 6901 Zuni SE A-12 , Albuqueraue, New Mexico 87108. Phone: (505) 256-9281.

303 DIRECTIVE INFORMATION IN EDUCATIONAL MEDIA

Mats Myrberg

Abstract

Directive information in educa- The study showed that figures tional media; its effect on the legi- with directive information give bility of abstract figures, and the about 45 percent more information possibilities of conveying visual than figures without directive material to media accessible to the information. This result had visually handicapped. also been predicted from knowl- edge of the importance of direc- The concept directive informa- tive information in other contexts. tion was borrowed from an analysis It had also been predicted that of general information systems and the directive information would applied to educational media in an be more important the more complex attempt to determine how textbook a figure was. This was however illustrations are structured for the not confirmed by this study. No reader. An experiment was made to difference in efficiency between measure the importance of the direc- different kinds of directive in- tive information in abstract figures. formation (color vs. black and The results were related to the dif- white for example) could be ficulties of the visually handicapped found. to understand verbal descriptions and tactile sketches of figures in text- books .

*Pedogogiska Institutionen , LHU, 0. Agatan 9, 75322 Uppsala, Sweden

30 4 . ,.

ELECTROMECHANICAL BRAILLE COPIER*

I. M. Neou** W. F. Erwin, Jr.

West Virginia University Morgantown, W. Va. 26506

INTRODUCTION in which a plastic or plaster master plate must first be prepared from the In typing on conventional type- original braille copy. writers, several "carbon copies" can be produced simultaneously as by- The Electromechanical Braille products of the typing operation. Copier, Model BC 10, (Fig. 1) is an In braille embossing on braillewriters automatic dot-to-dot facsimile copying no copy other than the original can be machine which operates without the use obtained. One method of duplicating a of heat, vacuum, special papers, mas- limited number of copies from a braille ter plates, etc. The machine has in page is by using a vacuum forming proc- its traveling duplicating carriage or ess. In the thermoform vacuum forming copying head three sensing styli to machine (price $450) , made by American scan the raised dots on the braille Thermoform, Inc., a sheet of plastic paper, and three embossing pins to paper is placed over the braille mas- make corresponding raised dots on a ter copy dot side up, and locked in blank paper. Embossing by the dupli- the forming machine to be processed in cating carriage, in both its backward a heated vacuum supplied by a heating and forward passes, and simultaneous oven and a vacuum pump. There are oth- advancing of the braille and blank er processes , such as the American papers are electromechanically con- Printing House for the Blind's vacuum- trolled without human intervention formed plate system, the French Aquerin except in the initial stage of insert- process, the Uformite process, etc.. ing and aligning the papers. The machine works with ordinary papers and takes about seven minutes to copy a standard braille page jiz>.:u- z'cs. operator' s attention while the m.achir.e is working. The cost of the m.achine were it to be produced in large quan-

tities , would be approxim.ately SIOO.

Beyond making extra copies for record-keeping and classroom, uses, the machine may also be modified and used as an automatic com.posinc m.a-

chine , employing the embossed braille copy as a source of actuation instead of setting the pins manually. Figure 1. Automatic Braille Copier (Covers Removed) THE TRAVELING DUPLICATING CARRIAGE

The duplicating carriage (2) *The project was supported by the (Figs. 2 and 3) consists of three units. Office of Education, Department of separate sensing-emtossing Health, Education, and Welfare (Grant The three dot-sensing styli (3) unde: No. OEG-0-9-58127-3739-032) neath the carriage are held in their respective pivoted arms (4) and nor- the (5) **Professor of Mechanical Engineering, mally rest on braille paper

305 ,

Figure 2. Exploded View of Automatic Braille Copier

(A)

Figure 3. Left Side View of Duplicating Carriage

On going over a raised dot (about 1/16 PROGPAMMED ACTUATION inch in diameter, and from 1/32 to AND DRIVE SYSTEMS

1/16 inch high) , the stylus is forced to rise, and its pivoted lever swings Electricity from a 110 Vac house- upward to close a microswitch (7) hold line (Fig. 4) supplies power to leading to a solenoid (8) , Electro- the three solenoids (8) for emboss- mechanisms, Inc. Model P.O. 75 110 Vac ing, a reversible motor (15) to move pull-type. The energized solenoid the duplicating carriage (2) back and pulls a bell-crank (9) to raise a forth across the copying machine, and spring- returned embossing pin (11) a timing motor (16) to drive a timing and (12) into the blank paper (5) disc (17) and the gear trains for against a stationary rubber-faced simultaneously advancing the master flat platen (13) and (14). Because and the blank papers. of the close formation of the braille dots in a braille cell (3/32 inch Solenoid Powered Embossing Pins apart) and the relatively large size of the solenoids (1/2 inch in diame- The traveling carriage (Fig. 4) ter) , the two side bell-cranks have has two copper brushes (36) and (37), their levers offset on the fulcrum kept in constant contact with the two pin (10) (Fig. 3B) . printed circuits (38) and (39) on a

306 crossbar (40) in the rear of the left stationary timing disc Q8j is mount- and right supporting brackets (30) ed on the bracket (32) v/ith a bore and (31). The brushes serve as slid- for the passage of the timing shaft, ing contacts between a stationary ac and has two circular (142.5'' arc) source and the three solenoids in the conducting segments (43) and (44) moving carriage. which are connected to the positive (red wire) and negative (v/hite v/ire) poles of the Hurst motor, respective- Bidirectional Movement of ly. As the disc (17) turns, its brusr the Duplicating Carriage (42) keeps in seauential contact v/ith the conductors (43) and (44) and thus A reversible Hurst synchronous connects the neutral terminal of the motor (15) , Model GA 300 rpm, 110 Vac, Hurst motor cyclically to its posi- 600 in-oz torque, is used to drive tive and negative poles except v;hen the two leadscrews (2 3) (3/8 inch in the brush (42) sweeps over the insu- diameter and four threads-per-inch) lated gaps between the two conducting through gears (34) (PIC 65-32) and segments. The switching of the po- (35) (PIC 65-48) (Figs. 2 and 3). larities of the motor causes cyclic Four spring-loaded ball locks (24) reversals of the directions of rota- in the carriage housing (2) engage tion of the twin drive leadscrev;s the carriage loosely to the twin lead- and hence the movements of the du- screws so that the carriage can be plicating carriage across the papers. shifted manually to any position on the lead-screws and stopped while the embossing pins hit the paper without Automatic and Simultaneous causing damage to the machine. Line Advancing of the Braille Master and the Blank Paper The reversible rotations of the motor and the twin lead-screws are On the back of the rotating disc controlled by a programming timer (17) is a modified gear (19), PIC (Figs. 2 and 3) which consists of a Gll-48, which has all its teeth re- Haden synchronous motor. Model moved, except two groups of five GA 366 LA5-71, 2 rpm 110 Vac, a teeth in diametrically opposite lo- rotating timing disc (17) and a sta- cations, with one middle tooth posi- tionary annular timing disc (18) . The tioned opposite the brush (42) on rotating disc is driven by the timing the disc (17) . When the carriage motor (16) and has a full conducting reaches the end of its right-ward ring to conduct electricity from its travel and the brush (42) sweeps brush (42) to a stationary brush (41) across the insulated (bottom) gap leading to the neutral terminal between the conductors (43) and (44) (black wire) of the Hurst motor. The to cut off the electric current to

uovnc

Figure 4. Schematic Wire Diagram of Actuators and Timer

307 .

the Hurst motor, the other five plate (47) , and the left edge of the teeth on the gear (19) come to mesh paper is pressed against the edge- with the gear (20), PIC Gll-48, and line guide (54) between the plates turn the gears (20) and (21), PIC (47) and (48) . Since the three guide Gll-160, through 360 x 5/48 degrees. lines are exactly five line spaces

The gear (21) then turns the four from the three sensing styli (3) , we satellite gears (22), PIC Gll-64, are assured that the braille cells on the spindles of the four rubber imder the duplicating carriage must rollers (26) and (27) , each having all lie in the paths of the sensing a diameter of 0.4 89 4 inch. The low- styli. If the machine is to be oper- er and upper pairs of the rubber ated by a blind person, the three rollers thus advance the master and white guidelines could be replaced the blank paper respectively through by three fine wires spanning an

(2ti X 5/48) (160/64) ( .4894/2) = 0.4 opening in the top guide plate (47) inch, which is the standard space between braille lines. As soon as Next, the blank paper is fed the last of the five teeth band on through a clearance between the platen the gear (19) is out of mesh with and the dupxicating carriage and ad- the gear (20) and the papers stop justed to have its left and top edges moving, the brush (42) comes into aligned respectively with the right contact with the conductor (44) and and rear edges of an edge-line guide turns the motor on, running in the (55) on the left bracket (30) below opposite direction. The carriage is the top rollers. Finally, the link- thus compelled to move left-ward age (29) is released to let the pres- until the brush (42) enters the top sure rollers press the braille copy insulated gap between the conductors and the blank paper firmly on their (4 3) and (44) and the second group respective rollers. of teeth turn the gear trains to advance the papers another line. REMARKS AND SUGGESTIONS As the timing motor runs at 2 rpm and copying action takes place The line-at-a-time braille copi- in both backward and forward passes er takes about seven minutes to com-

(10-inch travel) , the machine can plete a 25-line braille page, includ- copy four lines-per-minute , includ- ing the time needed for inserting ing the time for line advancements. and adjusting the papers, and is thus good only for making a few duplicates, but it has the advantages of being FEEDING AND ALIGNMENT inexpensive, easy to operate, and OF PAPERS taking ordinary papers, in contrast to conventional processes. The copy- In preparation for the entrance ing process can be greatly accelerated of the braille copy and the blank by increasing the speed of the drive paper, one must first lift the three motor propelling the traveling carri- sensing styli off the crossbar (49) age , and using more powerful solenoids by turning a lever (46) in front of for "impact" embossing. Another way the carriage, to make way for the to speed up the duplicating process passing of the braille copy between is by using a traveling carriage hav- the duplicating carriage and the ing a column of 25 copying heads crossbar. The pressure rollers (28) (each has three sensing-embossing

can be moved away from the rear up- units) , so that it covers all the per and lower rollers simultaneously rows of a braille page in a single by swinging back the top pivoted pass without the need of reciprocat- link of the paper release linkage ing scanning and line advancements

(29) . of the papers. However, the cost of such a device will be much higher The braille copy is first fed than the single-head duplicator. into a narrow opening between two transparent guide plates (47) and The braille copier may also be (48) until its top edge passes the modified and used as a composing ma- rear lower roller. Now the paper is chine for setting up braille galleys. adjusted so that the three rows of Instead of making raised dots in a the raised dots in the fifth braille blank paper, the three embossing pins line lie directly below the three of the machine may serve as push- white guidelines on the top guide rods for transferring the steel

30 8 braille pins from the font containing moved to allov? the transferred pins a matrix of braille pins to the chase in the holes of the chase to fall above the traveling carriage (taking down on the barrier plate. The the place formerly occupied by the raised pins, appearing 1/16 inch blank paper and the stationary plat- above the face of the chase, form a en) . The transferred pins can be braille galley from v/hich an unlim- temporarily retained in the holes of ited number of braille copies can be the chase by a removable magnetic re- produced. The transferred pins cari taining plate 1/16 inch above the later be returned to the font after chase. A barrier plate is then in- completing the production by reirioving serted between the font and the chase the barrier plate so that they fall and the magnetic retaining plate re- back into home bases in the font.

REFERENCE

Zickel, V. E. Small scale braille Congress on Teohnology and Blind- production and duplicating sys- ness. New York: American Founda- tems. In L. L. Clark (Ed.) tion for the Blind, 1963, Vol. 3, Proceedings of the International 121-9.

309 ,

PROGRESS AFTER VISUAL RESTORATION: TWO PRELIMINARY CASE REPORTS AND A REQUEST FOR COMMUNICATION

Linda J. Anooshian* David H. Warren* Pat Apkarian-Stielau**

The past several years have pro- In view of the increasing number duced significant progress in devel- of cases of visual restoration, and oping and refining operations designed of the likelihood that the techniques to restore vision. Sight-restoration will continue to be refined so that operations are not new of course, iso- visual restoration may be attempted lated cases have been reported in the with new categories of blindness, it medical literature for centuries. The seems important to begin to develop realization that there may be severe a technology of postoperative per- problems of adjustment to the visual ceptual training and psychological world is also not new, although be- treatment. This quest will become cause of the limited number of cases especially important as more restora- very little in the way of a typology tion operations are done with chil- of problems, let alone tested ways to dren . deal with the problems, has been de- veloped. Such a technology depends on adequate answers to at least two Recently Valvo (1971) has pro- general and related questions. First, vided a detailed review of the pro- what types of problems occur? How gress of several patients whose vi- do the types of problems vary in oc- sion was restored monocularly by means currence and severity with various of the osteo-odonto-keratoprosthesis individual characteristics of patients operation developed by Strampelli. such as history of preblindness vi- Valvo 's report provides an important sion, age, mobility, and various per- model, since in a single paper, he sonality characteristics? Second, how reviews not only the neurological can the various types of problems be and perceptual progress of the pa- handled successfully? What approaches tients, but also their psychological are most successful with different progress. He notes, for example, types of patients? various types of depression that have also been reported in previous litera- For such a technology to be de- ture. Some patients become depressed veloped, communication among many peo- because of the suddenness of the de- ple working with many cases of visual mands on them to operate as sighted restoration is necessary. Not only people, relative to the slow, arduous would such communication increase the process of learning to use vision. pool of cases whose characteristics Another problem relates to disillu- are known, but it would also increase sionment with the greater difficulty the available information about the in making use of visual information, successes and failures of the various compared to the habitual, well-learned approaches that will surely be repre- modes of unsighted perception. It is sented. Each person involved in vi- not surprising that in many cases a sual restoration cases would then not resistance to the difficult process have to work through many mistakes of visual learning occurs. that others have made, but instead could use a pool of common informa- tion to *University of California, Riverside, develop optimal training pro- cedures . **Smith-Kettlewell Institute of Visu- al Sciences.

310 The intent of this report is two- tions, like those of her parents, in- fold. First, we would like to encour- dicate that SM generally uses vision age the communication necessary for to guide her locomotion only in 'un- developing the technology described familiar environments. Hcr/zever, she briefly above. Second, we hope to always efficiently orients her eyes initiate this communication by pre- to, and tracks auditory stimuli, be- senting preliminary reports on two fore reaching for the sound producers. cases of visual restoration with children. Both cases will be re- There appear to be specific spa- ported more fully in subsequent pa- tial deficits v/hich cannot be attri- pers . buted to poor visual acuity. Although SM can correctly follov/ instructions that make reference to the labels for CASE 1: SM specific geometric forms, this ability does not transfer to other forr.s v;ith Perceptual training and testing the same shapes. Training efforts sessions were initiated with SM two have revealed that SM has great dif- months after bilateral cataract op- ficulty acquiring generalized con- erations, performed in August, 1972, cepts of the dimensions of shape. ?£- when SM was 3-1/2 years old. Prior lated to this is a deficit in under- to the operation, SM could differen- standing simple spatial terms such as tiate only brightness extremes. Her on, in, top, etc. visual acuity, as measured by opto- kinetic-mystagmus techniques, has Capabilities within different gradually improved from (postopera- modalities vary considerably. Form, tive) 20/200 to approximately 20/80 board and tactual identification task (April, 1973), and it is expected to performances are characterized by an improve eventually to approximately absence of coordinated tactual ex- 20/40. ploration. SM also shows poor m.otor control in copying tasks. Yet, loco- Training sessions have been held motion is efficient and is not typic- twice a week, for 15-30 minutes a ses- ally characterized bv slow or cautious sion, in the home. However, the sched- movement. Auditory localization is ule has been somewhat variable because fairly good. of varying attentional and motivation- al states of SM, her parents' sched- Although these conclusions must ules, and some sickness in the home. remain tentative because of atten- The number and variety of specific tional and m.otivational variables, and types of tasks has been somewhat lim- because of lack of performance measures ited because of the necessity for ex- before the cataract removal, our ob- tensive familiarization with the ma- servations definitely indicate that terials before adequate assessment of SM shows specific types of deficits abilities could begin. Observations which cannot be attributed solely to have been made on form board, shape poor visual acuity. Perhaps not sur- discrimination, spatial language, au- prisingly, she tends to persist in ditory localization, and copying task habits acquired during her blindness, performances. Despite performance and she has not made good progress variability and the difficulty of as- toward integrating vision into modes sessing the role of attentional in- of performance that were already suc- volvement in task performance, several cessful during blindness. Although tentative conclusions about SM ' s ca- overtly this may be interpreted as pabilities seem justified at this time, "resistance" to visual learning, we are optimistic about her future prog-

SM does not use her visual ca- ress , partly because she was well- pabilities to aid performance on form adjusted and mobile before the opera- board and copying tasks. She gener- tion, and partly because she does not ally does not orient visually to the show overt sians of the depression shapes that she handles or to the pa- typically reported in case studies of per on which she is copying. In ad- older patients. dition, although she can visually identify familiar geometric forms (square, circle, rectangle, oval), CASE 2: CM she shows no deterioration of form board performance when her sight of CM is a 12 year old girl who was these forms is blocked. Our observa- brought to the Pacific Medical Center,

311 . .

San Francisco, from the Azore Islands come to San Francisco more often. in October, 1971. She was known to Her progress is painfully slow, not have functional vision since the though her entire world has been age of 3 months. On April 14, 19 72, expanded visually as well as via she was operated on her left eye. other modalities. It appears that The operation was successful, but the paramount problems with CM are no spontaneous utilization of the her lack of motivation and the lack new visual abilities developed. CM of reinforcement in her home environ- was referred to the Smith-Kettlewell ment. She does not use her newly ac- Institute of Visual Sciences, San quired visual abilities. Objective Francisco, for visual training which examination (VER) with pattern stimu- began on June 15 li has provided suggestive evidence of central nervous system visual pat- Visual training, as well as tern processing; however, CM reported training for perceptual limitations no subjective visual response. of other modalities , consisted of shape perception, object recognition, An extended report of this case size discrimination, eye-hand co- is being prepared by the staff of ordination, etc. Practical tasks the Pacific Medical Center and the such as picking flowers and baking Smith-Kettlewell Institute of Visual were also incorporated into testing Sciences and training procedures. Though CM performed well in laboratory tasks, it was soon apparent that in conjunc- tion with visual training, CM was We invite comments and discus- sorely in need of occupational and sion on these cases, and we request physical therapy, as well as psycho- communication about other cases, es- therapy. pecially cases of children, who have been or are currently being studied.

To date (April, 19 73) , CM has Such communication should be di- been visually trained for approxi- rected to David H. Warren, Depart- mately 10 months. Training sessions ment of Psychology, University of have been limited to 2-4 per month California, Riverside, California because of her family's inability to 92502.

PEFERENCE

Valvo, A. Sight restoration after rehabilitation. New York: long-term blindness: the problems American Foundation for the and behavior patterns of visual Blind, 1971.

312 .

RESEARCH BULLETIN SUPPLEMENT

Name: Acoustic Beacon

Source: Sam L. Sparks, Ph.D. Sensory Engineering Laboratory 17505 - 68th N. E. Bothell, Washington 98011

Availability: In production

Price: $38.00

The Acoustic Beacon is a small, self-contained unit operated on a single 9-volt battery. The circuit is designed to have a very low current drain, giving the battery an exceptionally long life. It has been evaluated by mo- bility instructors for the blind as a training aid in direction orientation, as a homing beacon, and as a tracking trainer. The Beacon can be heard easily at distances up to three hundred feet, even with a fair amount of background noise

Name: Audio Ball

Source: Columbine Council of the Telephone Pioneers of An^erica Colorado Springs Colorado

Availability: From Telephone Pioneers of America

A therapy recreational device for the blind. The ball emits a constant beeping sound from a battery-operated sound chamber in the center of its pro- tective stuffing.

Name: Audiographic Learning Facility

Source: Vladimir Slamecka School of Information and Computer Science Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta, Georgia 30332

Availability: Experimental prototype

A computer-based system storing the voiced and kinetic-graphic contents of live blackboard lectures in the form of homogeneous, randomly addressable learning units (lessons) . The audio and graphic signals are recorded on the right and left tracks of standard audio tape, respectively. The graphic com- ponent of the lesson is recorded from a standard telewriter. The rem.ote terr nals, which can serve optionally a single learner or a classroom, consist

313 :;:

principally of telewriter receivers. These units receive the line graphics signal over a standard business telephone line. A second standard telephone line terminated with a touchtone dialing unit is equipped with a speaker out- put. The video-graphic terminal used in the system can be replaced by a tactual/kinesthetic device when the learner is visually impaired.

Name : Auditory Braille

Source Worcester Polytechnic Institute Worcester Massachusetts

Availability: Experimental system.

Coding system consists of indicating dot positions in each braille cell by means of tones to the user's ears. Tone frequency indicates position of dot in the vertical plane. Tones corresponding to dots in the left column of the braille cell are presented to the left ear, those representing dots in the right column to the right ear.

Name : Braille Display System

Source Clarke & Smith Manufacturing Co. , Ltd. Melbourne Works Wallington, Surrey, England

Availability: Laboratory prototype

The device displays material encoded on magnetic tape as Grade 1 braille, one line at a time. It consists of three sections: the playbacl: deck for the magnetic tape, the control electronics and the braille display unit. Originally developed as a personal reading machine it could also function as a computer terminal.

Name : Braille Strip Printer

Source Peter Grisafi Multiplex Communications, Inc. Hauppaug, Long Island, New York

Availability: From Multiplex Communications, Inc.

The braille strip printer translates communication data into braille-on- line to teletype equipment, time sharing systems or the off-line units. Pro- duces 60 to 100 words-per-minute output on paper tape in Grade II braille.

314 , ,

Name: Braille Teaching Aid

Source: Donald F. DeKold Santa Fe Junior College 723 West University Avenue Gainesville, Florida 32601

Availability: Feasibility model

A hardware system comprising a conventional stereo tape recorder and auxiliary electromechanical apparatus intended to present simultaneously a tactual stimulus to the fingertips and audible naming of the braille character presented.

Name: Braillomat-Series

Source : Thiel 6104 Jugenheim a.d.B. Postfach 88, West Germany

Availability: From Thiel

The original Thiel Teleprinter Unit for the Blind (listed in the AJ"B Inter- national Catalog of Aids and Appliances for the Blind) has been augmented by a series of variations on the Braillomat theme. In addition to the Standard device, allowing fast braille printing, and the Telex variation, permitting teletransmission of braille characters, there are now: the Braillomat TBK meant especially for the deaf-blind as a telephone aid; the Braillomat Korres- pondenz, using an IBM Model 73 machine for inkprint typewriting, along v.'ith a Braillomat device for simultaneous braille embossing of the same text for office work; and the Braillomat EDV, used in conjunction with an IBM Model 735, producing number characters for those working in electronic data processing. Specially produced furniture suitable for office and data processing center installation is provided by the firm for use with these several systems, througr the cooperation of C. u H. LeuthaUsser, 8631 Wisenf eld-Coburg. Further details and prices will be provided upon request by the Ingenieur-Buro, Thiel.

Name: Braillophon

Source: Werner Boldt Padagogische Hochschule Ruhr, Abt. f. Heilpadagogik 46 Dortmund-Eichlinghofen Baroper Str. -AVZ Geschossbau 4 West Germany

Availability: Experimental prototype

A device for programmed learning. The blind student and the Braillophon system are linked communicatively through two input and two output channels

(presentation--response) . The output of the teaching machine is acoustic, through headset or loudspeaker and/or in braille. The student's response (input) can be in the form of braille, by means of a keyboard, or of answers to multiple-choice questions.

315 .

Name: Briall (Braille-All-Output)

Source: Electronic Processing Center, Inc. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Availability: Through Honeywell's application sharing system

A software package which allows blind programmers to verify their own pro- grams. It is used with a plastic strip fitted over printer hammers.

Name: Communication System for the Deaf-Blind

Source: Prof. Dr. W. L. van der Poel Technische Hogeschool Delft Julianalaan 132, Delft-8 The Netherlands

Availability One-off working model

A system of communication devices including a telephone connection.

Name: Compressed Speech Cassette Recorder

Source: Magnetic Video Corporation 23434 Industrial Park Court

Farmington , Michigan 48024

Availability: Magnetic Video Corporation

Using a tiny solid-state module called Variable Speech Control (VSC) smaller than a sugar cube, C-103, a new tape-playback system compresses speech up to two-and-a-half times normal speed with no change in pitch or tone. The speed at which the listener receives information is comparable to visual read- ing rates; with training, the listener may learn to "speed listen" just as he learns "speed reading." In addition to "VSC" this recorder makes duplicates of other cassettes, edits, can make two recordings at once, and serves as a standard rpcorder-player

Name: Deaf Alert System

Source: Southwest Research Institute 8500 Culebra Road San Antonio, Texas 78284

Availability: Experimental prototype

The system is based on a NASA-developed accelerometer. The sensor can be attached to a doorway, doorbell or telephone. Attention is called to a signal from any of these by means of vibration or a flashing light.

316 :

Name: Digital Position Readout System for the Blind

Source: Elm Systems, Inc. Arlington Heights, Illinois

Availability: One-off working model

The device could be hooked up to any binary-coded digital output. The tac- tile readout unit provides BCD information for each of seven digits and indicates polarity. Each digit is represented by a line of four holes containing a sole- noid-operated pin. The pin positions are BCD-weighted as 1, 2, 4, and 8. The actual number is the sum of the weighting of raised pins.

Name Digital Voltmeter

Source: American Foundation for the Blind 15 West 16th Street New York, New York 10011

Availability: Pre-production prototype

The device is a digital voltmeter with tactile readout.

Name: Double-Electrode Wet Sensor

Source: Sam L. Sparks, Ph.D. Sensory Engineering Laboratory 17505 - 68th N. E. Bothell, Washington 98011

Availability: In production

Price: $60.00

The Double-Electrode Wet Sensor performs a dual activity in the toilet training process. First, it informs the patient and therapist of the release of the first drops of urine. Second, it provides the therapist with a powerful two- level logic system which can be a useful tool in altering wetting behavior. The unit consists of a small box containing electronics, batter%', speaker, and switch, and a long cable terminating in specially designed electrodes. The electrodes are taped to the outside of the diaper near the source of urine flow. When the primary electrode is moistened by the first drops of urine released, a steady, high-frequency tone is emitted, warning the child and the therapist. If the child ignores the warning and saturates the diaper, the secondary' elec- trode is activated causing the speaker to emit a high-pitched warblinc sound. With proper training, this double sound capability can be made an effective stimulus for the child.

317 .

Name: Electromechanical Perforated Tape Reader

Source: J. Reszel & R. Sawa Computing Center of the Polish Academy of Sciences PAN, 10th Floor

Palac Kultury i Nauki , Warsaw

Availability: Pre-production prototype

The device consists of a standard, adapted, reader of eight-track perforated tape and a braille countershaft. The countershaft is a miniature console with two reader windows in which eight moving pins reproduce the characters on the perforated tape. (See Current Research Note in this issue for further details.)

Name: Heel Contact Sensor

Source: Sam L. Sparks, Ph.D. Sensory Engineering Laboratory 17505 - 68th N. E. Bothell, Washington 98011

Availability: In production

Price: $64.00

This instrument is designed to help children with neurological impairments, such as cerebral palsy, who toe-walk. It consists of a small box containing electronics, battery, speaker, and switch. A pair of pressure sensitive pads, which are plugged into the jacks at the bottom of the box, are taped to the child's heels in such a way that when the child steps on his left heel, a tone is heard. The right heel produces a higher tone, and both heels simultaneously sound a third tone, still higher.

Name: Intra-Ocular Projector

Source: National Institute for Rehabilitation Engineering 59 Hamburg Turnpike Pompton Lakes, New Jersey 07442

Availability: Experimental prototype

A microminiaturized battery-operated low-vision aid. It is worn on the chest, suspended by a neck strap, and the user looks down into the device. It is driven by TV camera output and can show indoor scenes, distant outdoor scenes or, with close-up lens, written material. The device can also be used for viewing regular TV programs

318 Name: Kinesthetic Terminal for Motion Graphics Source: Vladimir Slamecka School of Information and Computer Science Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta, Georgia 30332

Availability: Experimental prototype

The terminal, designed for blind persons using the Audiographic LeaminoLeaj Facility, is an electromechanical pantographtograph which performs its function by automatically guiding the user's hand. Its main components are a linkaae mechanism with a hand-held "pen," two servomechanisms , and associated elec- tronics. The input consists of two signals (x,y,) stored on an audio tape or generated live from a telewriter. The signals, transformed in the terminal's electronic circuits, control the servomechanisms. The reaction time of the latter is sufficiently fast to allow on-line reproduction of handwritina gen- erated by a sighted operator.

Name: Laser Cane for the Blind

Source: The Research Institute of the Swedish National Defence Ministry

Availability: Experimental prototype (possible future distribution through De Blindas Forening, Sandsborgswagen 50, S-122 33 Enskede, Sweden)

Long cane designed to give head and chest level protection in addition to its conventional function. The optronic device is located in the upper part of the cane and consists of an optical system including a pulsed GaAs-transmitter with a peak power of about 10 W and an optical wavelength of 900 nm. The re- ceiver, which picks up the optical laser signals when reflected from an obsta- cle and transforms them to an electrical current, consists of an analogous od- tical system and a Si-detector. VJhen the current produced exceeds a certain" value an audible warning signal is generated. The system includes a nickel- cadmium accumulator of 6 V, 100 mA as power supply and a dc voltaae transform.er for the transmitter.

Name: Minitimer

Source: Sam L. Sparks, Ph.D. Sensory Engineering Laboratory 17505 - 68th N. E. Bothell, Washington 98011

Availability: In production

Price: $17.50

The Minitimer is an easy-to-operate timer. It can be used by teachers to start and stop entire classes, or several of the instruments can be distributed to self-starting students to allow them to do their own timing in countina of specific actions over precisely timed intervals. After the instrument is 'turned on, the timing interval is initiated by pressing a button. A random tine passes after depressing the button, depending on how long the button is held down'.

319 .

before the first beep is heard as a starting signal. Following this initial tone, subsequent beeps occur at 60-second intervals (*2%). This acoustic method provides an accurate audible means of starting and stopping events without involving the child's or the teacher's visual channel in the timing process. It is powered by a 9-volt battery which is easily replaceable.

Name: Mowat Sonar Sensor (revised listing)

Source: Mowat Developments, Ltd. 37 Cliff Road St. Heliers, Auckland S. New Zealand

Availability: Mowat Developments, Ltd.

Price: C. I. F. $N.Z. 87-50; $U.S. 105-78

A small, self-contained device which indicates objects within its range by means of vibrations.

Name: Night Viewing Goggles

Source: Electron Tube Division of International Telephone & Telegraph Corp. 7635 Plantation Road Roanoke, Virginia 24019

Availability: Experimental prototype

Originally developed for military use, the device is being tested and adapted as an aid to low-vision night travelers whose rod vision has deterio- rated. The Goggles consist of electronic wafers in combination with highly specialized optics mounted in a plastic headset. The wafers include a photo- cathode deposited on a fiberoptic input window, a microchannel-plate current amplifier, and a green phosphor screen fabricated on an output window of twisted fiberoptics. Images focused on the input window are converted, by means of the photocathode , to electron images. These are amplified by the microchannel plate. The image is rendered visible by the phosphor and inverted for viewing by means of a fiberoptic twist in front of the output window.

Name: Paper Currency Identification Device

Source: Southwest Research Institute 8500 Culebra Road San Antonio, Texas 78284

Availability: Laboratory prototype

Bill is scanned by means of a light wand and phototransistor . Light and dark patterns from designs on different denominations are translated into tone differences

320 Name: Patient Assist Device

Source: Southwest Research Institute 8500 Culebra Road San Antonio, Texas 78284

Availability: Experimental prototype

The device enables the severely paralyzed patient to control conveniences such as motor lowering or raising bed, telephone, radio, etc. The apparatus utilizes solid state logic circuitry and solid state relays. It is controlled by the patient by means of a switch which responds to minimal voluntary move- ments, such as residual muscle function or eye movements.

Name: Philips TV Magnifier

Source: Instituut voor Perceptie Eindhoven Holland

Availability: Philips Nederland B.V. Groep Ziekenhuizen Eindhoven, Holland

The magnifier consists of a TV camera, a TV receiver and a two-level table. The lower table top has a sliding panel for the material to be viewed. The upper tabletop bears the TV set with the camera fitted underneath. Magnifica- tion is continuously adjustable between five and twenty-five. Contrast reversal is provided. (See Current Research Notes in this issue for additional details.)

Name: Pool Cue Aiming Aid

Source: Charles E. Leonard Electrical Equipment Engineering General Electric Co. Lakeside Avenue Burlington, Vermont 05401

Availability: Construction information from C. E. Leonard

The battery operated device locates the target by means of a photocell, and produces an audible signal. It requires the cooperation of the blind player's partner who must indicate the position of the ball by means of a penlight'.

321 :

Name: Record Reader

Source: William R. Behn Educational Testing Service Princeton, New Jersey 8540

Availability: Production prototype

The device is designed to permit reading of Hollerith-coded cards by blind persons. A photoelectric sensor scans a selected column to detect punches and transmits this information to a tactile indicator. Optional audio hook-up could allow teaching of braille.

Name: Remote Acoustic Beacon

Source: Sam L. Sparks, Ph.D. Sensory Engineering Laboratory 17505 - 68th N. E. Bothell, Washington 98011

Availability: Pre-production prototype

The Remote Acoustic Beacon (RAB) is designed to provide a source of sound which can be activated with a dog whistle or some other ultrasonic device. The unit, when activated, produces a warbling sound, thereby providing a point of reference for the blind traveler. An automatic timing circuit returns the beacon to the "off-listening" status after about 15 seconds. The RAB is auite small and, therefore, can be carried in a pocket or purse. If location needs arise while the traveler is away from his home, the RAB may be used to provide a loca- tion reference as, for example, during an outing to the seashore.

Name Single-Electrode Wet Sensor

Source: Sam L. Sparks, Ph.D. Sensory Engineering Laboratory 17505 - 68th N. E. Bothell, Washington 9 8011

Availability: In production

Price: $48.00

This instrument is designed to detect small amounts of urine. While the Double-Electrode model is probably more effective in difficult cases of modi- fiable incontinence, this version has also been used by skilled personnel to extinguish wetting behavior. The Single-Electrode type is used most frequently, however, in nontrainable cases where it is necessary to notify an attendant that wetting has taken place. The unit is equipped with a single small elec- trode which is taped to the diaper near the source. When contact with the electrode is made by the first few drops of urine, the speaker emits a high- pitched warbling tone. This acoustic signal can be heard from over a hundred feet away.

322 Name: Stereotoner (revised listing)

Source; Mauch Laboratories, Inc. 30 35 Dryden Road Dayton, Ohio 45439

Availability: Mauch Laboratories, Inc.

Price: $1,020 f.o.b. Dayton

Reading machine which translates letter shapes into stereophonic sound patterns. Training in the use of the device is provided for veterans at the V.A. hospitals at Hines , Illinois and Palo Alto, California. A course is also available from the Hadley School for the Blind, Winetka, Illinois.

Name: Swallow Reminder

Source: Sam L. Sparks, Ph.D. Sensory Engineering Laboratory 17505 - 68th N. E. Bothell, Washington 9 8011

Availability: In production

Price: $45.00

The Swallow Reminder is a precision electronic instrument designed to provide a gentle, persuasive reminder to children who tend to drool due to failure to swallow at regular intervals. The reminder is in the form of a quiet beep in the ear of the wearer at thirty-second intervals. With proper training, a non-swallowing child should learn very quickly to respond to this sound with a swallow. Subsequent training can then eliminate the' use of the Swallow Reminder.

Name: Syringe for Blind Diabetic

Source: Boers & Co. B. V., Schiedamse vest 148 Rotterdam, Holland

Availability From Boers & Co.

The glass cylinder of a regular 2cc syringe is encased in a metal cover which has a screw-thread on its exterior. Dosage is controlled by means of a nut moving along this thread and producing audible clicks at each"0.05cc in- crement. A brace attached to the nut in turn controls the movement of the piston and thereby the amount of liquid in the syringe.

323 Name: Tactile Speech Indicator

Source; Hugh L. Moore Assistant Dean Los Angeles Valley College

Van Nuys , California

Availability: Direct inquiries to:

Dr. Ray L. Jones , Center for Deafness, California State University, Northridge 1811 Nordhoff Street Northridge, California 91324

A communication device for the deaf-blind, enables the user to communicate by telephone.

Name: Talking Chess

Source: Arsen Surlan Dipl. Electro. Ing. Faculty of Electrotechnics University of Ljubljana Yugoslavia

Availability: Demonstration prototype

Chessboard and chessmen electronically equipped to speak out position when a chessman is lifted off a square or put down on one. All moves thus become both audible and verifiable.

Name: TEDI Bear

Source: Sam L. Sparks, Ph.D. Sensory Engineering Laboratory 17505 - 68th N. E. Bothell, Washington 98011

Availability: In production

Price: $162.00

The TEDI (Twinkling Eye Dialog Inducer) Bear consists of a stuffed toy bear with bright lights for eyes. The stuffed animal responds to sound by" flashing its eyes. The appearance of the toy appeals to children of many ages who are readily captivated by the lights. Once the child sees the correlation between his own voice and Bear's flashing eyes, a highly motivating reinforce- ment stimulus is established. The control box features a gain control which allows the teacher or therapist to adjust the sensitivity of the system, thus determining the intensity of the input stimulus required to produce a response, It also has a REJECT button which permits the therapist to select those utter- ances by the child to which the system will respond.

324 Name: Transicon

Source: The Scientific Research Foundation P.O. Box 3745 Jerusalem Israel

Availability: Pre-production prototype

An automatic braille transcriber which can be operated by a blind indi- vidual without external help. The device is an electro-optical character recognition machine which can handle input in the form of books or single pages, in the six major Latin fonts used in English language publications. The tracking system is automatic and self-focusing. Output in the present model is in Grade 1 braille embossed on paper tape at an average speed of 15 characters-per-second. The machine pauses between one inkprint line and the next, and the reader can vary line to line time from 4 to 8 seconds. The design has been kept compatible with future development to include coupling with a computer for the production of Grade 2 braille and/or with a page brailler, and the production of an output in the form of magnetic tape for subsequent use with other devices.

REVISED LISTING

Name: Sonar Sensor Cane

Source: Adams Enterprises, Inc. 6800 Southeast Boulevard Derby, Kansas 67037

Availability: The cane is no longer available as the manufacturer has gone out of business.

325

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PUBLICATIONS OF NOTE

Allen, R. G., & Antonacci , R. A. A VU meter for the blind operator. Geldard, F. A. , & Sherrick, C. E. Journal of the Audio Engineering The cutaneous "rabbit": A per- Society, December 1972, 20(10), ceptual illusion. Science 845-7. 13 October 1972, 178, 173-9.

Berl^, E. P. Strategies in scanning Hermelin, B. , & O'Connor, N. Func- a tactual pseudomap. Education tional asymmetry in the reading of braille. Neuropsy of the Visually Handicapped oholoaia , 1971, 9, 431-5. March 1973, 5 (1) , 8-19.

Kahn, H. Berlin, C. I., Lowe-Bell, S. S., A., & Moorhead, H. B. Sta- Cullen, J. K., Thompson, C. L. tistics on blindness in the ^.odel

reporting area 1969-1370 . DHEV7 & Loovis , C. F. Dichotic speech perception: An interpretation of Publication No. (NIH) 73-427. right-ear advantage and temporal Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government offset effects. Journal of the Printing Office, Wash- ington, D. Acoustical Society of America C. 20402. Price: $2.10 March 1973, 53(3), 699-709. domestic postpaid, or $1.75 GPO Bookstore Stock Number 1740-00356. L. L. Clark (Ed.). International Kuck, J. H. TV Catalog: Aids and appliances for A reader uith some blind and visually impaired per- novel design features.* Silver sons. New York: American Founda- Spring, Maryland: The Johns tion for the Blind, 19 73. Hopkins University, Applied Physics Laboratory, December 1972. Cromwell, L. , Weibell, F., Pfeif- fer, E. , & Usselman, L. Biomedi- cal instrumentation and measure- Lee, F. F. Time compression and ex- ments. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: pansion of speech by the sampling Prentice-Hall, April 1973. method. Journal of the Audic En- gineering Society, November 1972, Dalrymple, George F. Development 20, 738-42. and demonstration of communication Linvill, system for the blind and deaf/ John G. Research and de- blind. (Project No. 14-P-55016/ velopment of tactile facsimile 1-0 3, Final Report) Cambridge, reading aid for the blind. Stan- Mass.: Sensory Aids Evaluation and ford Electronics Laboratories, Development Center, MIT, Febru- Stanford University, Stanford, ary 26, 1973. California, March 1973. (Final report. Project No. 142112, Grant El-Afandi, M. H. Educating blind No. OEG-0-8-071112-2995, U.S. Department of Health, Education, children : The adaptation of cur- and riculum at the primary level in Welfare, Office of Education, Bureau of Education for the Handi- the U.S.A. to meet the need of a child who is blind. Cairo: The capped. ) Anglo-Egyptian Bookshop, May, 1971. Price $3.95. Lorimer, J. A smTimar\' of research in braille reading. The Teacher Fish, R. M. A method of coding com- of the Blind, October 1972, 61(1), 15-24. plex shapes for the blind by audi- tory display. Journal of the Audio Engineering Society (Project Mims , F. Build a light probe: Elec- tronic help for the blind. .--ru- Notes/Engineering Briefs) , June lar 1973, 21(5) , 378-81. Electronics , March 1973, 42-3.

Editor's Note: This report has been published, and copies may be obtained upon request from IRIS.

327 . ,

Myrberg, M. Direktiv information i pictures which are motionless rela- laromedel (Directive information tive to the retina, analyzes the the movements in educational media) . 0. Agatan principles governing 9, 75322 Uppsala, Sweden: Pedo- of the human eye, and discusses the visual process. gogiska Institutionen , LHU , 1972 their role in (Report No. 33) Zachrisson, B., & Smedshammar, H. Nolan, C. Y. (coordinator). Eduaa- Typografi for Synsvaga. (Report 39, Project: PUSS XII.) Upp- tional Research J Development No. and Reference Group report on sala, Sweden: Grafiska Institutet, research and development activi- Pedagogiska Institutionen, Larar- ties-- fiscal 1972. Louisville, hogskolan, 1973. Text in Swedish, Kentucky: American Printing House 26 pages. for the Blind. (Copies available This report is intended to give Carson Y. upon request to Mr. a survey of early research in legi- Nolan, American Printing House bility for persons with normal and for the Blind, P.O. Box 60 85, partial sight; from its development Louisville, Kentucky 40206.) in the 1870s, when systematic re- search in the field was started, to Perrott, D. R. , & Higgins, P. Notes the present time. Methods used to on the electrophonic hearing ef- measure legibility for different fect. The Journal of the Acous- texts are described, and results tical Society of America, May obtained, which are now considered 1973, 53(5), (Letters to the reliable. Earlier research in Editor) , 1437-8. typography for the partially sight- ed is reviewed; and the need of Robinson, Robert L. (Ed.). Blinded careful categorization of the par- veterans of the Vietnam era. tially sighted is stressed. The American Foundation for the PUSS research projects are listed. Blind, 1973. (Report of a con- in Washington, D.C. ference held Zinchenko, V. P., & Vergiles, N. Yu. on April 6 and 7, 19 72.) Formation of visual images. (Trans- lated from Russian by Basil Haigh.) Safir, A., Julikowski , C, Crocet- New York, London: Plenum Publish- & ti, A. F. , Kuo, M. I. , ing Corporation, 19 73. 58 pages. Deuschle, K. A new method of Price $15.00. vision care delivery. Health Services Reports, May 1973, Investigating the intricate com- of behavior, this important 88(5) , 405-15. ponents work concentrates on the interac- Slamecka, V., Jensen, A. P., Va- tions between eye movements and The re- lach, M. , & Zunde, P. A computer- higher mental processes. aided multisensory instruction lationship between this external system for the blind. IEEE Trans- activity of the eye and the internal activity is thoroughly actions on Bio-Medical Engineering , intellectual March 1972, 19(2), 157-60. examined. From their experimental data, Zin- vi- Yarbus , A. L. Eye movements and chenko and Vergiles formulate a new sion. (Translated from Russian by hypothesis of how the mind and the Editor Basil Haigh; Translation eye, by a continuing feedback loop ) New York, Lon- Lorrin A. Riggs . system, translate visual images in- don: Plenum Publishing Corporation, to motor responses. Some experi- 1973, 222 pages. Price $19.50. mental methods used are recording Based on the experimental re- eye movements by means of an elec- sults obtained by the author, this tromagnetic detector and using book examines the perception of electroluminescent sources in in- vestigating visual perception.

328 c. 1 HV1571 RESEARCH BULLETIN R No. 27, April 1974

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