Holocaust of Native America an Introduction George Ann Gregory, Ph.D

Holocaust of Native America An Introduction George Ann Gregory, Ph.D. Chahta/Ani-yun-wiya Biakakshush/Illustrator Ho Anumpoli! Published by Ho Anumpoli! 1700 A Coal Avenue SE Albuquerque, NM 87106 Copyright©2002 by Ho Anumpoli! All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher. ISBN: 0-9726411-0-6 ii — Holocaust Holocaust — iii I dedicate this book to the memory of my two grandmothers —Sarah (Chahta) and Estelle (Ani-yun-wiya).

Acknowledgements I want to thank Susan Willmarth for asking me to write it and Ted Jojola for introducing me to Native American Studies. I extend a special thanks to the late L. Ron Hubbard whose theories on group histories helped me put it together, Geary Hobson for encouraging me, and Lila Bird for her discussions about common law and its effects on Native America. I also wish to acknowledge the Business Graphics Department of Albuquerque Technical Vocational Institute for providing assistance with the layout and especially Nicole Schairer, who did the work. I extend a special thanks to Tanya Bibeau for editing and to Don McIver for proofreading.

ii — Holocaust Holocaust — iii iv — Holocaust Holocaust — v Table of Contents

Preface ...... vii Introduction ...... 1 Chapter One ...... 3 Contact Chapter Two ...... 9 Some Good Advice Chapter Three ...... 11 Growing Pains Chapter Four ...... 15 Prisoners of War Chapter Five ...... 21 Expansion Consumes First Nations People Chapter Six ...... 25 Manifest Destiny Completed Chapter Seven ...... 27 Coming into Present Time Chapter Eight ...... 35 Final Thoughts Appendix A ...... 37 Letter from Governor Mitchell Appendix B ...... 39 Removal Act Appendix C ...... 41 Treaty with the Sioux-Mdewakantaon and Wahpakoota Bands, 1851 Appendix D ...... 45 Circular No. 1665, Dept. of the Interior, Office of Indian Affairs My Teachers ...... 47 Sources and Suggested Readings ...... 49 List of Non-Federally Recognized First Nations ...... 51 List of Federally Recognized First Nations ...... 55 List of First Nations Organizations ...... 64

iv — Holocaust Holocaust — v vi — Holocaust Holocaust — vii Preface

Susan Willmarth approached me in 1994 about writing a book about the holocaust of Native America, a book intended to serve as an introduction for those who were first embarking on a study in this area. I completed the original manuscript within three months for a small publisher. Unfortunately, that publisher had financial difficulties and never published the book. In 2000, I revised the manuscript for another small publisher that subsequently also experienced financial difficulties and couldn’t publish it. In the meantime, I had used the original manuscript with introductory Native American Studies classes and had received many favorable responses from both Native Americans and non-Native Americans with requests for copies. Finally, I decided to take the plunge into the world of publishing. Studying the history of the United States without also studying its effects on its indigenous people paints an extremely narrow view of what happened. Occasionally, one incident or another gets mentioned, leaving the reader with the impression that these were isolated. They weren’t. The devastation began before the main body of exploration of the Americas. Spanish slavers and possibly Portu- guese fisherman brought virulent viruses and bacteria with them—small pox, measles, and cholera, for example. These diseases killed so many people that whole villages were sometimes abandoned. The epidemics spread along trade routes and quickly moved into the interior. Essentially, these diseases disrupted the economy and culture in the Americas in much the same way that epidemics like the Plague had virtually halted the economies of Europe by killing 75% of the European population in 1334 and in London in 1665. Indeed, one reason the population of North America appeared so low was because European diseases had already greatly reduced populations prior to exploration by Europeans. In fact, this germ warfare became an effective way to reduce populations prior to the occupation of an area. In addition to this strategy, slavery and wars further diminished the indigenous populations until 98% of the original numbers were gone. The people of the Americas have had to recover from this devastation and continuous occupation. The fact that they have and are growing in numbers indicates the inherent abilities of the members of the First Nations of America. I hope that this reading will just be the beginning of your journey in discovering the various histories of the indigenous inhabitants, the great naturalists, of the Americas.

vi — Holocaust Holocaust — vii viii — Holocaust Holocaust — 1 America’s Holocaust

Introduction Have you heard of Pocahontas, Geronimo, or Crazy Horse? Did you know these were once real people? Have you heard of the Cherokee, Navaho, or Sioux? Maybe you have because they are the names of automobiles, but have you ever heard of the Taino? Holocaust means “any widespread destruction.” The word comes from the Greek holokaustos, meaning “burnt whole.” This is the story most American history books leave out. It is the story of millions and millions of people who were living here when Columbus strayed into the Caribbean Ocean. It is the story of people who achieved some of the most unique cultures on this planet. It is the story of what happened to us after the Europeans came. It is my story too because I am the descendant of some of those people. This book focuses primarily on the events that took place within the continental United States. The cultures that evolved in this area remain unique in the history of earth. Further south, indigenous people built great empires, but theirs is a different history. I tell this story from my own viewpoint. I have listened to many and read a great deal to get this information. Yes, we made mistakes. Yes, we make mistakes. Yes, we may make mistakes in the future. Some of our leaders might say the biggest mistake we ever made was in helping the Europeans when they first arrived. Several terms have been used to refer to the indigenous people of the Americas. Each group, of course, had names for themselves. Whenever possible, those names will be used. Until the eighteenth century, we were simply called Americans. This book generally refers to us as First Nations people or First Nations. Too many emergency situations too close together for America’s First Nations created this holocaust. These emergency situations have been created through the mechanism of arbitrary rules imposed by various governments—European, U.S., and tribal—upon First Nations people. In order to begin to undo this trauma, we, the First Nations people, must be allowed to communicate fully and examine completely our own histories. This book attempts to begin this process.

viii — Holocaust Holocaust — 1 2 — Holocaust Chapter One — Holocaust — 3 Chapter One — Contact

There is evidence that people from Europe, Africa, Apparently, neither Columbus nor Isabella knew this. and possibly Asia had visited the Americas before the Columbus left Spain with three tiny ships because it was 1400s (Jack Forbes). To support this claim, there are the all Isabella could afford. After finding currents that would writings of a 4th Century Irish monk and the writings carry them across the Atlantic, Columbus and his crew of the Vikings in the 10th Century. Additionally, there is finally saw land. This was their first meeting with people evidence of widespread European-based plagues prior from the continents now called the Americas. The name to the Spanish landing in many areas. This suggests that America, by the way, comes from another explorer named other Europeans, perhaps fishermen, had visited North Amerigo Vespucci, who explored a part of South America America (Geary Hobson). Additional archaeological evi- now called Venezuela. dence suggests cultural exchanges between African and How did Columbus describe these people? Were they Asian peoples as well (Jack Forbes). However, most U.S. the “blood-thirsty savages” in Hollywood-made movies? history books begin with Columbus’ voyage because that No, Columbus found these people, who called themselves event sets the stage for the development of this country. Taino, meaning “good and noble people”, to be “well formed, That is not the beginning of history in the Americas. with handsome bodies and good faces...All alike have very Most of our stories say we have been here since before straight legs and no belly...very gentle” (Diario, pp. 67-71). the time that animals and people could still talk to each Perhaps because of this perception of innocence, he called other. Most of our origin stories say that we either came them yndios (De las Casas, p. 63). Many of our elders trans- from the stars or from within the earth (Geary Hobson). late this term as “in God.” In actuality, the Indo-European These stories are our history, and we consider them as roots of the Spanish en and dios do suggest this meaning. valid as any written in a history book. We also consider The English word Indian comes from this. Columbus knew that we are native or indigenous to these continents. That that he had not arrived in Asia but believed that he must is the origin of the term Native American. be close. At that time, the modern country of India was called Hindustan and the majority of Asia was called India. The Spanish and First Nations People Columbus was very confused. We did not call ourselves Indians or Native Ameri- cans. Most of us simply called ourselves people. The first There are many such myths surrounding the “discovery” of people that Columbus met when he arrived in the Western America. In actuality, the inhabitants of the Americas had Hemisphere were the Taino, who had been living on the “discovered” it first. islands in the Caribbean Ocean fifteen hundred years. The year was 1492, and Columbus sailed for Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand—the rulers of Spain. When the Spanish arrived here, they were close to Isabella and Ferdinand had just united the different starvation. The Taino, who speak an Arawak language, provinces of Spain after fighting many long wars against welcomed the Spanish into their villages and fed them. the Moors, Muslims from North Africa. Because Ferdi- At that time about eight million Taino lived on the islands nand and Isabella were Roman Catholics, they wanted all in the Caribbean Ocean (Ward Churchill). This is more of Spain to be members of that religion. At the same time than most history books report. Most history books under that they sent the Moors back to North Africa, they also identify the numbers of people living here to hide the expelled all the Jews or forced them to become Roman crimes of the conquerors. Catholic. They saw themselves as the protectors of Chris- The Taino like other indigenous peoples of the Ameri- tianity in the entire world. This also was the time of the cas had developed “sustainable agriculture” (Ted Jojola). Spanish Inquisition. That means they developed ways to plant and grow crops Since Ferdinand and Isabella had just completed a that would feed all their people. This was basic survival long and expensive war, they needed money. This is prob- for the group—to have all its members well fed. They ably why Isabella gave money to Columbus for a voyage cultivated corn or maize, manioc, sweet potatoes, yams, across the Atlantic Ocean. Trade with Asia would mean and cotton. They fished the waters around them. They more money for the rulers of Spain. While maps of that ate shellfish, crabs, and sea turtle. Taino also kept tame time were not very accurate, most educated Europeans parrots and small, yellow barkless dogs. knew there were continents between Europe and Asia. While the Spanish wanted money and wealth, the After all, writings by Europeans who had previously vis- Taino put most of their energy into producing food ited the North American continent did exist (Gordan). (Bigelow et al). Whereas Columbus described them as 2 — Holocaust Chapter One — Holocaust — 3 poor because they wore little or no clothes, the Taino Five hundred of the best Taino were shipped to Spain. enjoyed a life rich in many other ways. The largest island Three hundred more were given to the men who sailed Gaunahani—now the modern countries of Haiti and the with Columbus. The rest fled to the hills. Of the original Dominican Republic—was the center of Taino culture. The five hundred shipped off, only three hundred lived to Taino had organized a confederacy of five kinship nations. see Spain. There the remainder died within a few short A cacique, who inherited his title from his mother, ruled years (Barreiro). Fortunately, Isabella forbade any further each nation. When a cacique died, a son from one of his shipment of slaves to Spain. Instead, Columbus’ men and sisters became the next cacique. This class of people was those who came after made quotas of gold for each Taino. called taino. Later, this name was extended to include all Seeing that some Taino wore small gold nuggets found members of these nations. in streams as ornaments around their necks, the Span- Each province or nation was subdivided into districts ish assumed large deposits of gold on the islands. The and villages. A typical village had between 200 to 500 Spanish coveted this gold. However, there were no large families. Village councils consisted of nataino. The priests deposits of gold on the islands. came from this group. Their rich ceremonial life included both songs and dances called areitos. The priests oversaw the spiritual life of each village. In order to maintain their high levels of personal cleanliness, most Taino bathed several times a day. Certain Taino were trained in diagnosis and treatment of physical illnesses. As with many First Nations people, the Taino did not separate the spiritual from the physical aspects of life. For them, life was a balance of many elements, and their culture operated on the theme of cooperation. They built their villages inland and on high ground. Their houses made from natural materials were perfect for Since there was not much gold on the islands, the poor the climate, keeping the sun and rain out but letting the Taino could never find enough to satisfy their Spanish con- cool ocean breezes come through. Each round house held querors. For punishment, the Spanish unleashed vicious about fifteen families. Each person had a hammock made dogs. The dogs, bred specifically for bringing down large from cotton or woven palm strands for sleeping. They kept game, hunted the Taino. When they caught these gentle personal belongings on a wooden platform hanging from people, they shredded and ate them. Often, the Spanish the ceiling. Also, the Taino were master canoe builders. cut off a foot or a hand of a person who did not bring in The word canoe comes from the Arawak word canoa. They the quota. The person then bled to death. In one incident carved their canoes from a single tree with some canoes alone, the Spanish captured 700 Taino—men, women, and measuring as long as seventy feet. With these canoes, they children—and stabbed them to death for not meeting their had migrated from the coast of South America throughout demands for gold. Under such brutality, many Taino soon the Caribbean. Their only enemies were other Arawak lost all desire to live (Barreiro). speakers, called Caribs. The Caribs were a warrior society and more aggressive than the Taino (Jacobs). In the Americas, the Spanish brought with them the encomienda, a system of tributary labor originally While having several classes of people, all people were used with the Moors that distributed whole villages to allowed to contribute and be productive. This pattern of Spanish conquerors to work gold mines and till the soil. cooperation is part of the reason why First Nations people Along with the horrors of slavery and gold quotas, the lived so well. In comparison, the Europeans had developed Spanish brought new diseases—small pox, cholera, and a system where some people lived off the production of measles to name a few. Again, First Nations people died others. This is the basis for our current social class system. by the thousands. Hundreds jumped to their own deaths Within this system, often the most productive people get the from cliffs rather than live under Spanish rule. Hundreds least. This inequity was part of the reason for the rampant more took poison. By 1496, just four years after Columbus starvation in Europe at the time. Most of the Spaniards landed, only one-third of the Taino were left on the island who came with Columbus would rather die than till the soil of Española (Ward Churchill). because only the lowest social strata of Europeans did this. One Taino cacique, Guarionex, offered to feed all of Europe Hundreds fled to the mountains to hide while hun- if only the Spanish would go home. What had the Spanish dreds more tried to defend their lands and their people done to make the Taino want them to go home? The Spanish from the Spanish. In fact, the first defenders fought against kidnapped Taino to take to Spain to sell as slaves. In fact, the Spanish because the Spanish had raped Taino women Columbus was the first to enslave First Nations people of (Barreiro). According to European accounts, rape was the Americas. Because of their gentleness, he thought they unheard of among the First Nations: First Nations have would make fine servants (De las Casas). always valued their women and children. After forty years 4 — Holocaust — Chapter One Chapter One — Holocaust — 5 of genocide, the Spanish began importing slaves from Apache in Arizona, Sonora, Chihuahua, and Texas, who Africa to mine and to work the land. Indeed, one thing openly refused the benefits of Christianity and Spanish we can give Columbus credit for is beginning the slave civilization. Spanish wars against the Apaches, resulting trade in the Americas. Only a few hundred descendants in wholesale slaughter and slavery of hundreds of women of the Taino now live in the Caribbean, most of them in and children, reduced these peoples to the few bands the country of Cuba and in Puerto Rico. Some Puerto remaining in the United States. Whole groups, such as Rican Taino have relocated to New Jersey and formed a the Muno, Jacome, and Jumano in Chihuahua, apparently community there. have disappeared (Forbes). The Spanish throughout Central and South America, Mexico, and the U.S. Southwest repeated this pattern of conquest and thievery. Las Casas, a Spanish monk protested the treatment of First Nations people under the encomienda system. Later the encomienda was replaced with other policies, but none really benefited First Nations people. As the Spanish moved north from the valley of Mexico, they encountered people who were used to determining their own futures. Theses smaller groups fought fiercely against any invaders. The Mexica or Aztecs called all these people Chichimeca. In reality, dozens of different groups lived in northern Mexico and the U.S. Southwest. For these people, the Spanish turned to the estab- Criminals are people who take what others produce. They lishment of missions and presidios. The Spanish also do not produce anything themselves. This is what the established the practice of moving large groups of previ- Spanish did in the Americas. ously Christianized Indians into these frontier areas. For example, much of northern Mexico and northern New Mexico was originally colonized by Tlascalans from central Mexico (Bannon). As a result of this Spanish policy, The British and First Nations People many First Nations people living in these frontier areas lost their traditional identities. Their descendants became The British who came to the Americas differed in two the mestizos of Nuevo Leon, Chihuahua, and Sonora in respects from the Spanish. First, they usually paid First Mexico and the Hispanic Americans of New Mexico, Nations people some token amount for the land they oc- Texas, Arizona, and California. cupied. Second, they came for the land itself. Within the British class system, land equaled position and power. These missions were not benign. In California, To encourage others to come, the Protestant leaders new evidence shows that those people brought by the used images and language from the Bible to justify their soldiers to the Spanish missions and forced to live and taking the land and lives of First Nations people. They work there not only died of disease but also malnutrition. made taking the land from First Nations people a holy The largest percentage of those who died were children. mission and portrayed themselves as God’s chosen people Possibly over ninety percent of all First Nations people to populate this “paradise” (Hietala). of California were destroyed by this system (Churchill, Indians are Us). Revolts during this period were frequent. The first successful British settlement was at James- The Pueblo Revolt of 1680 is a good example. Following town, Virginia. This small colony, located in a swampy almost a hundred years of abuse beginning with Oñate’s area, only made it because of the help of their neighbors, enslavement of several hundred Acoma in 1598 for their members of the Powhatan Confederacy. This powerful audacity in refusing Catholicism, the Pueblos along with Confederacy represented many different nations and their Apache and Navajo neighbors united under the lead- had a hierarchical de-centralizing governing structure. ership of Popé and attacked the Spanish. Consequently, Each village had a representative on the council although the Spanish retreated hastily to El Paso and were unable all, including women and children, could and often did to return for thirteen years (Bannon). participate. Women had a strong voice and owned the property. A man’s position and status was inherited from In the meantime, the Spanish had softened their poli- his mother. Religious leaders had great power and served cies toward First Nations people. The new policies came as advisors to the council. too late and did too little to stop the destruction. The numbers of Pueblo people living in New Mexico today This group had about 30,000 members before the is about one-tenth of those living there when the Span- establishment of the Jamestown Colony. They were an ish first came (Terry Abeita). The Spanish attempted to Algonquin-speaking people. The Confederacy included exterminate all people, such as the Serí in Sonora and the approximately thirty nations, including the Pamunky, 4 — Holocaust — Chapter One Chapter One — Holocaust — 5 Mattapony, and Chickahominy—now primarily remem- gardens of corn, beans, and squash and to hunt. Both ac- bered because the local rivers bear their names. Earlier, tivities were new to the British: Only royalty and nobility the Spanish had visited Virginia and taken slaves. One of were allowed to hunt in Britain (Rountree). these escaped and returned with stories about Spanish How did the British colonists repay the kindness of cruelty in the Caribbean. Because of these stories, the their Powhatan neighbors? After the success of this first Powhatan viewed the British with caution. The first step colony, Britain sent more people to live on the North in learning is observing; consequently, the Powhatan American continent. Unlike the Spanish, who wanted observed the British. mostly gold and silver, the British wanted land. As the Pocahontas was a member of the strongest nation in British always took the best land for themselves, the Pow- the Powhatan Confederacy. Her father was an exceptional hatan began to have to defend their territory. Like the leader and had spent the previous thirty years building Taino many Powhatan died from disease; many also died and consolidating the confederacy to make it stronger in wars with the newcomers. For the Powhatan, fighting against the encroachment of the Iroquois. The British became their only chance for survival. called him a “King” and called Pocahontas a “Princess.” Actually, First Nations people never had any princesses. The next time you meet someone who is descended from In 1970, 3,000 or 1/10 of the original population of the an Indian Princess, you will know that is a hoax. Powhatan still lived in eastern Virginia.

What became of Pocahontas? In 1611, Samuel Argale kidnapped her and took her to Jamestown. There she received a British name—Rebecca—and eventually was persuaded to marry John Rolfe. In fact, marrying Rolfe was part of the terms for her release. John Rolfe, who receives the credit for beginning the tobacco industry in this country, took Pocahontas, whose Powhatan name was Matoak, to Britain. She never returned to her home. She died in 1617 at age 21 in Britain of tuberculosis (Rountree). Today many First Nations people still die of this European disease.

As a Powhatan woman, Pocahontas was free to make many decisions for herself. Perhaps, her father asked her to observe, or more likely she decided she wanted to learn more for herself. At any rate, she and other Powhatan women brought the colonists gifts of food so that they would not starve during their first winter. The British colonists were dependent on supplies from Britain. The crossing of the Atlantic from Britain was a long trip, and they had no precise way to navigate. Earlier attempts at planting a colony on the Atlantic coast had failed partly because of this inability to get supplies to the colony. Hence, the British colonists welcomed the help. Undoubtedly, the Powhatan viewed the British with some contempt because they could not take care of themselves. Like the Spanish, the British settlers had This pattern of relationship between First Nations never farmed before. They were primarily city dwellers— people and British colonists repeated throughout the es- merchants and skilled laborers. In addition to bringing tablishment of the British colonies. Most of New England food, the Powhatan taught these first settlers how to plant was inhabited by Algonquin-speaking people. The British took the best lands and gave First Nations people disease 6 — Holocaust — Chapter One Chapter One — Holocaust — 7 in return. Those who did not die of disease died in wars, ing,” a traditional harvest festival they celebrated with sometimes between two European nations. their new British neighbors. In 1637, the British colonists attacked a friendly Pequot village. William Bradford in his History of the Plymouth Like the Spanish, the British too used First Nations people Plantation records this description. as slaves although not in as large of numbers. In fact, First Those that scaped the fire were Nations people were legally kept as slaves in the United slaine with the sword; some hewed to peeces, others rune throw with their ra- piers, so as they were quickly dispatche, and very few escaped. It was conceived they thus destroyed about 400 at this time. It was a fearful sight to see them thus frying in the fyer, and the streams of blood quenching the same, and hor- rible was the stincke and sente there of, but the victory seemed a sweet sacrifice, and they [the British attackers] gave the prayers thereof to God, who had wrought so wonderfully for them, thus to inclose their enemise in their hands, and gave them so speedy a victory over so proud and insulting an enimie. Cotton Mather, an American Puritan clergyman, wrote States long after people of African descent had been freed. this of the same incident. “It was supposed that no less Some may have been kept as slaves until the late 1800s and than 600 souls were brought down to Hell that day”. early 1900s (Geary Hobson). Metacom or King Philip, a name given to him by the British, was a Wampanoaq, an Algonquin-speaking people living in what is now Massachusetts. While they already had been reduced by disease, they still occupied over The French and First Nations People thirty villages in 1675. The colonists in New England Many history books portray the French as the most deliberately instigated war so that they could eliminate benign of all the Europeans to colonize this continent. the Algonquin people living in southern New England. This idea rests largely on the fact that the French were soon Consequently, the Algonquin were forced to fight for their driven out of the Americas. While it is true that the French way of life, their land, and their families. The Nipmuck and were more ethical in matters of trade, when it came to actual Narragansett joined the Wampanoaq in this war. In August conquest of land they were completely ruthless. 1676, King Philip along with his wife and son were killed. The British had King Philip’s body drawn and quartered, In the beginning, the French were interested primarily that is dismembered by being pulled apart by four horses. in only one thing—fur trade. Because of this, they probably They placed his head on a pole in Plymouth (Salisbury). contacted more First Nations on the North American con- This war destroyed these people and their way of life and tinent than any of the other two major European powers, made way for complete settlement of Massachusetts by Spain and Britain. These Frenchmen traded in the Great the British. In addition to war, pestilence, and famine, Lakes region, up and down the Mississippi and Missouri the British also brought their notion of law. This idea Rivers, and across the plains into Colorado and Texas. was to become one of the most crippling weapons ever The French traded guns and liquor along with things used against First Nations people (Lila Bird). Despite like pots and pans, cotton cloth, and metal fishhooks to this treatment, close to a thousand descendants of the First Nations people for furs. Soon First Nations people Wampanoaq still live in Massachusetts. became dependent on the new things. As a result of this trade, First Nations people over-hunted their territories. Some common words in American English come from When they had killed all the game in one area for their Algonquin languages: opossum, raccoon, chipmunk, pelts, they moved into new territory. One result was more skunk, toboggan, moccasin, and tomahawk. Early Virginia warfare among First Nations. colonists, such as John Rolfe, also became rich raising and exporting tobacco, one of the plants given them by their Like the Spanish and the British, the French also Powhatan neighbors. Among other gifts, First Nations brought diseases. They also brought priests. The inter- peoples of this area gave the United States “Thanksgiv- ference of the priests with the traditional ways of First

6 — Holocaust — Chapter One Chapter One — Holocaust — 7 Nations people sometimes cost First Nations people their Some First Nations people living in the Louisiana lives. In 1626, Father Jean de Brébeut, a Jesuit priest, estab- area at that time were the Bayagoula, Houma, Mugulasha, lished a mission among the Huron, an Iroquois speaking Natchez, Toensas, Tunicas, and the Yazoos. people living on the shores of Lake Ontario in the present The Natchez had a highly advanced way of life. Like state of New York. He convinced them to lay aside their the Taino, they had four classes of people. They called hostilities with their traditional enemies. The combination their leader “Great Sun.” They built their villages around of cultural change and devastation by disease carried a ceremonial mounds. Their settlement at Natchez, Missis- high cost for the Huron. After losing three-quarters of their sippi, spread across three miles. Like other groups in the population to a series of small pox epidemics, the Huron same vicinity, they had many cornfields and built houses were completely over-run by their hostile neighbors. The with mud-covered walls and thatched roofs. The Natchez few hundred who survived fled into Canada where their were renowned basket makers. Additionally, they enjoyed descendants still live today. an abundance of deer and even woodland buffalo. France like Spain and Britain often used the armies On the mound in the center of the village, the Natchez of First Nations to fight each other. Such was the case kept a ceremonial fire going for most of the year. They of the French and Indian Wars in the British colonies. had a calendar, which may have been as sophisticated Many people died during these wars, wars that had only and accurate as the Aztec calendar. Periodically, based to do with the balance of power among European na- upon their calendar, they extinguished the old fires and tions. The Mohecans, for example, lost many members rekindled new fires. The time in between was spent in of their nation fighting for their French “friends.” Con- prayer and fasting. The priests were in charge of this sequently, literature declared them extinct. Today, the ceremony. While the average height of a European male federal government has once again given recognition to at the time of contact was five and a half feet, the Natchez the Mohecans. This is not the case, however, for over averaged six feet tall. The French found them a very hand- two hundred First Nations who have petitioned to gain some people. They also admired the Natchez for their federal recognition. sophisticated battle strategies. European nations fought whenever these powers came Like the Powhatan, the Wampanoaq, and the Pueblos, into contact with each other on this continent, mirroring First Nations people of Louisiana also revolted. In 1729, on-going conflicts on the European continent. An instance the Yazoos and the Natchez attacked the French. As a of this occurred in 1686 when France sent Chevalier de result of this revolt and their on-going refusal to sign Troyes with a handful of Frenchmen and their Mohawk treaties with the French, the French destroyed whole vil- and Mohecan allies to drive the British from James lages of Yazoo and Natchez men, women, and children. Bay in Canada. From there, they took the British Fort Those who managed to escape death were sent as slaves Pernaquid in Maine. In 1690, the French dipped down to the Caribbean. Some Natchez fled as far away as to to Schenectady, New York, to destroy the British there. the Cherokee in the Carolinas and Georgia. This very Officially, the Treaty of Ryswick (1697) had ended these ancient civilization of the Natchez had been completely wars. In reality, the fighting between the French and the destroyed (Woods). British continued until 1763, just eleven years before the Declaration of Independence. These wars destroyed many First Nations not only The last speaker of the Natchez language died among the in New England but also in the South. In 1682, La Salle, Cherokee in Oklahoma in the 1970s (Geary Hobson). a Frenchman, explored the mouth of the Mississippi. In 1699, Iberville, a Frenchman from Canada and the victor at Schenectady, established a colony in Louisiana. This colony put the French just adjacent to the Spanish colony in Florida and eventually brought them in contact with the British in the Carolinas. The French, like the Spanish, refused to work at all. Instead, they raided the cornfields of their neighbors to feed themselves. Since there were few French in comparison to the Spanish and the British, France relied heavily on their First Nation allies to help them. They persuaded both the Chickasaw and the Choctaw, for example, to trade only with the French. The Choctaw, in particular, were an important military ally. They had dispatched DeSoto and the Spanish from their territory some hundred and fifty years earlier.

8 — Holocaust — Chapter One Chapter Two — Holocaust — 9 Chapter Two — Some Good Advice

Prior to European contact, an estimated 18 to 25 United States are ours. Actually, the U.S. Constitution is million people lived in the area now called the United based upon the Iroquois Constitution. Benjamin Franklin States (Ward Churchill). Close to a million-and-a-half consulted with some of the Iroquois leaders and began people lived in Florida alone and around six million in advocating a union modeled on this constitution as early the Southeast (Geary Hobson). First Nations people had as the 1750s. Consequently, Franklin proposed that the learned to live comfortably with the land and its various new colonies form a union similar to the Iroquois League. environments. They valued the care of people above any- Thomas Jefferson, the primary author of the Constitution, thing else. Even when our ancestors signed treaties with is another well-known U.S. leader who acknowledged a the different European nations, they believed they were debt to the ideas of First Nations people. doing what was best for their own people to survive. The Iroquois League consisted of five nations original- We have been called tribes because we were seen as ly—the Onandaga, the Mohawk, the Oneida, the Cayuga, primitive. The Europeans believed that their way of life was and the Seneca. Later the Tuscarora were allowed to join superior or better than ours. Of course, they never could but had no vote. Totally surrounded and out-numbered have survived here if we had not helped them. The Taino by Algonquian-speaking people, they formed this league fed the Spanish when they were hungry, and the Powhatan several hundred years before the British arrived. After helped the British farm and hunt. The French were com- the forming of the league, they were able to expand their pletely dependent on Indians to feed them and guide them territory. They survived better. In fact, the pattern of First through our lands. Our way of life suited us and helped us Nations forming confederacies for mutual survival can to survive. In reality, most of what is truly American are be seen throughout the Atlantic colonies. gifts from First Nations people. Some familiar gifts are Within this constitution, there are many ideals found in corn or maize, potatoes, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, beans, the U.S. Constitution. Interestingly, the Iroquois Constitu- peanuts, sunflower seeds, blueberries, tobacco, chocolate, tion guaranteed an equal voice for women and men. Even vanilla, Thanksgiving turkey, rubber, and plants that are today, Iroquois chiefs are selected by the Clan Mothers. the basis for 80% of modern pharmaceuticals. This constitution embodied the ideas of leaders as servants of the people, freedom of religion, two government houses, and a standing army. It provided the idea of states within a state. When comparing the two constitutions, it is easy to see the similarities (Fenton). The Iroquois Constitution also provided the model for the United Nations. Both contain the idea of nations coming together to ensure lasting peace. The following two statements echo similar intent.

Iroquois Constitution

I am Deganwidah and with the Five Nations confederate lords I plant the tree of the Great Peace....Roots have spread out from the Tree... and the names of these Roots is the Great White Roots of Peace. If any man or any nation outside the Five Nations shall show a desire to obey the laws of the Great Peace...they may trace the Roots to their source...and they shall be welcomed to Another gift we gave the world was the concept of de- take shelter beneath the tree. mocracy. Most history books talk about democracy coming from the Greeks. It is true that the word comes from the Greeks, but the ideas as enacted in the formation of the

8 — Holocaust — Chapter One Chapter Two — Holocaust — 9 United Nations

We, the peoples of the United Na- tions, determined to save succeeding nations from the scourge of war...and to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights... and to establish conditions under which justice and respect for law can be maintained...do hereby establish an international organization to be known as the United Nations. The Iroquois League broke up during the Revolu- tionary War as its member nations chose different sides. Despite this division, the Iroquois have reinstated their Confederacy. Today the Iroquois Nations remain nations within a nation. The Onandaga in New York, for example, issue their own passports. Their men are exempt from compulsory duty in the U.S. military. During W.W.I, the Iroquois League, as an independent entity, declared war on the Axis Powers (Momaday, et al). The Mohawk Nation now lies across international borders with part in Canada and part in the United States. Some of the Iroquois have moved to other places. For example, some Oneida now have land in Wisconsin while some Seneca and Cayuga removed to Oklahoma. Although the numbers of First Nations people have been reduced to only 5% of their original numbers, their contribution to the formation of the United States has been tremendous. As said by C. Elmore Reaman, a historian, Any race of people who provided the prototype for the Constitution of the United States, and whose confederacy has many of the aspects of the present-day United Nations should be given their rightful recognition (1967) (Johansen, p. 17). According to another historian, Bruce Johansen, First Nations people are the forgotten “co-founders” of American heritage. Sadly, while borrowing the ideas of democracy from First Nations people, the founders of the U.S. were already planning their genocide (Hietala). Indeed, part of the quarrel between the colonists and King George was over the occupation of First Nation lands. King George forbade the colonists from moving into these territories, calling First Nations people “my people.” These were the very lands that the new United States first colonized.

The formation and expansion of the United States included the planned and systematic extermination of the original inhabitants of this country.

10 — Holocaust — Chapter Two Chapter Three — Holocaust — 11 Chapter Three — Growing Pains

The Revolutionary War The Revolutionary War, which gave the United States Prior to European contact, villages had been surrounded its start as a nation, destroyed its First Nations. Britain, by forests and palisades. These acted as walled communi- France, and Spain continued to court the loyalties of ties, and the fields were some distance from the village the First Nations through trade agreements. When the itself. When attacked, women and children could retreat Colonists decided to separate from Britain, they too inside the protection of the village. This pattern had courted First Nations. While some Patriots worked hard gradually changed. Many nations had cleared fields sur- to keep First Nations neutral, traders and frontiersmen rounding their villages, and some First Nations people became opportunists. For example, American traders had built their houses next to their fields—not within the increased their trade in rum. This increase was so great protection of the palisades. that the Choctaw had about a thousand deaths to exces- When the Patriot forces came, the women and children sive drinking within eighteen months. During the same had to run through open fields where they were slaugh- period, some frontiersmen vowed to kill any Indians on tered. The Patriots also burned all the crops, stores of food, sight (O’Donnell). and houses. Any people who had not been killed then Most First Nations wished to remain autonomous and starved (Calloway). This became a standard policy for the stay out of this fight, but they had already become de- United States in dealing with First Nations people. Only a pendent on trade for survival. Because of this, some First few Patriots stood honorably by the rights of First Nations. Nations wanted to stay with Britain because the British Governor Benjamin Harrison from Virginia, who worked were better able to supply trading needs than the rebels. to obtain a treaty with the Cherokee, wrote this: Also, European and colonial immigrants, often called Indians have their rights and our frontiersmen, continued to invade the lands protected by Justice is called upon to support them. King George’s edict, thereby creating continuous upsets Whilst we are nobly contending for lib- with the First Nations inhabitants. erty, will it not be an eternal blot on our In the end, the American troops destroyed all First National character if we deprive others Nations in their paths whether they were friend or foe of it who ought to be free as ourselves (Calloway). Many First Nations people fled to the plains, (quoted from a letter from Harrison to to Canada, to the Florida Everglades, and even into Governor Martin of North Carolina in Mexico to get away from the destruction of this war. At O’Donnell, p. 128). the same time, the British deserted their Indian allies as How right Harrison’s comments have proven to be. they retreated and abandoned their holdings from Florida, turned over to Spain, to New Hampshire. Taking sides split communities; taking sides exploded the fragile cohesion of newly rebuilt nations. The First Nations affected by this war never regained their original populations, economies, or political integrity. These nations include the Miami, Potawatomi, Kickapoo, Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Penobscat, Abnaki, Oquaga, Cataw- ba, Mohecan, Wyandotts, Ottawa, Mingoes, Chippewa, Peqout, Caughnawaga, Iroquois Confederacy, Sauk, Fox, Mdewanton, Wahpaton, Delaware, and the Shawnee.

The beginning of the United States was the end for First Nations people as nations.

The Effects of Trade Ironically, part of what made First Nations so vulner- Part of the success of the United States was its ability able to the Patriot forces was the adaptation of European to export more than it imported. In its infancy, the U.S. styles in farming and the building of homes and villages. exported herbs, lumber, tobacco, and furs. While the 10 — Holocaust — Chapter Two Chapter Three — Holocaust — 11 French had opened fur trading with many of First Na- tionally, men spent more time hunting for the traders than tions people, the British, Spanish, Russians, and ultimately providing for their families and villages. Sometimes they the U.S. followed suit. This economic shift toward a trade traded for liquor, and their families went hungry. Whereas economy greatly affected all First Nations people, includ- in the past First Nations people worked in cooperation, ing those living in Canada and Alaska—the Blackfoot, helping one another with survival, people—particularly Cree, Yu’pik, and Inuit. the men— within a nation learned to compete with each Originally, the Blackfoot and Cree were allies, but as other for individual survival. This competition split com- the result of the fur trade—in this case the British owned munities. This new pattern of behavior created more dis- Hudson Bay Company—the Cree were pushed into tra- integration of First Nations people as nations as well as ditional Blackfoot territory and given more arms. At the individual degradation. same time, the Kutenai, traditional Blackfoot enemies, First Nations women lost much of their traditional were also better armed. Essentially, the traders acted as status during this time. Originally, women had equal a third party—for any conflict to continue there must be status to men. They were the carriers of life in all senses an unknown third party who promotes it. of the word. Women had the babies, which represented At one time, the Blackfoot, consisting of the Piegan, the future. They gave their men everything—food, clothing, Blood, and Siksiska, had been a very numerous people. and shelter. They had their own societies and their own They hunted, trapped and lived in an expansive terri- medicine. For example, women have a means of natural tory filled with everything they needed for survival. They cleansing, menstruation. Menstruation and birthing are were gradually pushed south by the Cree, a group trading women’s medicine. with the Hudson Bay Company. The Blackfoot, who had Men had to construct sweat huts to emulate the natural strongly resisted trade and its dependency, were now in- cleansing process of menstruation. Sweating for men was fringing upon other people. These other people already the counterpart to the woman’s natural medicine. Addi- had traded and obtained guns (Lewis). tionally, First Nations men valued women as counselors. The Blackfoot, who had once declared their indepen- They sought the advice of their women for all important dence to the representatives of the Hudson Bay Company, decisions but most importantly that of making war. now found themselves completely surrounded by groups who All this changed when the Europeans came. Christian had traded. Consequently, the Blackfoot wound up without missionaries particularly targeted reducing the status of any allies and totally dependent on the British for everything. women. In letters, they stated that the status of women was This dependency then shifted to the United States when the an impediment to conversion. Consequently, they preached U.S. claimed part of their traditional territory. Essentially, that women were inferior, this aberration having been intro- the Blackfoot had become what they had resisted. duced into Christian philosophy by Paul—not Jesus—during the First Century. Since the Europeans only traded with the men, trading also enforced the growing inequality. Originally, Europeans had not brought their women to this continent and made it very clear that they felt treating and trading with women was contemptible. While many First Nations people resisted these changes, the Europeans were the winning personalities: It seemed that the only way First Nations people could survive would be to emulate whites. Hence, many First Nations people forgot who they were and began to act like whites. The French and the Spanish had been the first to contact and trade with the Plains tribes, such as the Lakota, Today, there are three small bands of Blackfoot, two Cheyenne, Pawnee, Comanche, and Apache. The Spanish in Canada and one in the United States. horse and the French rifle brought these warrior societies to their zenith and also sealed their doom. In the late Most First Nations communities operated on the prin- 1800s, the United States government would launch a cruel ciples of cooperation and balance for survival. Killing to gain and bitter war against these people. These Indian Wars wealth upset this balance. One result was that the balance would give this country the phrase, “The only good Indian between women and men changed in favor of men. Due to is a dead Indian.” Ironically, Abraham Lincoln, hailed as hunting and trapping for trade, women and children were a humanitarian for freeing African slaves, is the president more frequently left unprotected for longer periods of time. who vigorously enforced this policy. Because of increased warfare, there were fewer men. This may have been the time that First Nations people The Removal Period of the Plains adopted the custom of multiple wives. Addi- In the beginning, the United States was small but 12 — Holocaust — Chapter Three Chapter Three — Holocaust — 13 ambitious. The fledgling government used the continuous fighting among the major European countries to its own Treaties between the U.S. and First Nations recognized advantage. During this time, the U.S. experienced a series them as nations. This practice, begun by the British, was of rebellions and affairs as it began to define itself. Part of continued by the U.S. These treaties along with the their this definition included where its boundaries should be. indigenous status still serve as the basis for the special status of First Nations people today. In these treaties, First When the U.S. fought and won the War of 1812 against Nations people are referred to as Indians. the British, it acquired more western territories. Since the population of the U.S. was still small, the U.S. fought this war with the help of armies from First Nations. The Through a series of treaties, the Choctaw had already Choctaw Nation under the leadership of Pushmataha given up twelve million acres, or one-half of their land. was one of these. Some historians give Pushmataha as This land was needed to expand slavery. Beginning with much credit as Andrew Jackson for winning the War of the Treaty of Doak’s Stand in 1820 and ending with the 1812 in the southern states. The Cherokee under John Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek in 1830, the Choctaw Ross also supplied a large number of troops. Both chiefs were persuaded to trade all their land in Mississippi for served with distinction as officers in the American Army. land in the newly formed Indian Territory. In the same Pushmataha was a well-loved national hero. When he year, Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act. died of pneumonia in Washington, D.C., in 1824, Andrew (See Appendix B for a copy of this Act.) This law required Jackson gave him a general’s funeral. His funeral proces- the re-settlement of all First Nations people to west of sion was a mile long. Pushmataha is buried in the Old the Mississippi. One primary purpose of the law was to Congressional Cemetery. open land for expansion of slavery (Hietala). The new The British also used armies from First Nations. In the state of Mississippi pressured the U.S. government very southern states, for example, the Creeks, known for their hard for a land swap. The Choctaw still owned some of ferocity and warfare, fought for the British. Choctaw and the richest bottom land in Mississippi, making them one Chickasaw armies fought and defeated them for the United of the richest nations in North America. Most of this land States. As a result, the Creek Confederacy was broken for- later wound up in the hands of speculators who made a ever. (See Appendix A for a description of the plight of the fortune off its sale and, then, reinvested in slaves for their Creek Confederacy.) Further north, some of the Iroquois own plantations. Nations had sided with the British. The Mohecans helped In those days, states had more power than they did the U.S. army fight them. This was also the time of the today: They had their own armies, or militia. To persuade Louisiana Purchase (1803). This purchase was made without the Choctaw to leave, the state of Mississippi passed a consulting First Nations people who were already living series of anti-Indian laws and used their militia to seize there. Such is the history of the formation of the countries Choctaw land illegally. The U.S. government did nothing of the Americas. Even as the U.S. was forming itself, its to protect the Choctaw. The Choctaw would have been leaders had decided that they could not live with First Na- forced into a war if they had not decided to leave. Since tions people (Hietala). Settlers into the new territories also the Choctaw leaders did not want to see their people demanded First Nations people be removed. killed, they agreed to move west (De Rossier). Originally, the Choctaw Nation had occupied two- The Choctaw were only the first of many nations thirds of the present state of Mississippi, the eastern part to be removed. Soon most First Nations people living of Alabama, and a section of Louisiana. By the time the east of the Mississippi River, an estimated 70,000, were U.S. had formed itself, 90% of First Nations people living pressured to move to Indian Territory. Some groups such in these areas had died of disease and war. At the time of as the Onandaga in New York managed to hang onto removal, the Choctaw Nation contained three districts; their land. Most of the New England groups had already each district had an elected leader called a mingo and its changed to the European style of settling into townships own council. Each Choctaw also had membership in a clan with individual ownership of land. This gives the appear- inherited matrilineally. In fact, Choctaw women owned ance that there are very few First Nations people living virtually all real property, such as land and houses. Men today in many of these states. only owned personal property. This system was also true for many Southeastern nations, such as the Creek and According to the terms of the 1830 treaty, one-third the Cherokee. Because of this close friendship between of the Choctaw Nation were to be ready to remove by Pushmataha and Andrew Jackson, the Choctaw were both the fall of 1831. Approximately 4,000 Choctaw gathered surprised and hurt to learn that Jackson had targeted them in October to begin the 550 mile journey to Indian Terri- for removal from their ancestral homes. The Choctaw, tory. What followed has to be one of the ugliest betrayals who had never fought against the U.S., became the first in U.S. history. The U.S. government had promised the to be removed from their ancestral lands. Choctaw wagons, blankets, and food for their journey. The U.S. Army conducted the removal of this first group of Choctaw. First, the Army did not have enough wagons. 12 — Holocaust — Chapter Three Chapter Three — Holocaust — 13 Consequently, many Choctaw were forced to march into relocated to Florida. When Florida had belonged to Spain, the worst blizzard the South had ever seen. that protected them for awhile from slavers. To gain their freedom, many runaway slaves went to Florida and mar- ried into the Seminole Nation. Armed slavers and sometimes soldiers forced Seminole of African descent back into slavery. Many Seminole hid in the swamps to keep their freedom. In fact, hunting the Seminole proved to be one of the most expensive wars ever fought by the U.S. Those who were caught were shipped to Indian Territory in chains. One of these was Osceola, who had fought the U.S. because the soldiers took one of his wives of African descent to be sold into slavery. The Cherokee, although well-educated, prosperous, They had been issued only one blanket per family. As and peaceful, were forced off their ancestral lands in it was the custom of the Choctaw for the elderly and the North Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee at gun point children to stay indoors in “hot houses” during the winter, when gold was discovered there. The Cherokee call their most of the children were barefoot and the younger ones removal “The Trail of Tears.” An estimated one-third to were naked. Believing that each would be issued a blanket, one-half of the Cherokee died during this removal (Paul the Choctaw were completely unprepared for cold weather. White Eagle). The only major Southeastern group to All the extra blankets, all the tents, and most of the food avoid these tragedies were the Chickasaw, who removed had been sent on to Fort Smith, Arkansas, at the end of themselves at their own expense in 1836 (Geary Hobson). their journey. Meanwhile, two hundred Choctaw were The Choctaw and Cherokee rebuilt their nations in Indian caught without food and blankets while standing chest Territory. They published newspapers and built schools. high in freezing water in Louisiana swamps. This pattern The treaties promised them the land for “as long as the repeated itself with subsequent removals of Choctaw. grass grows” or forever. It turned out “forever” was just around the corner for these First Nations. Because of poor planning, many Choctaw, mostly the old and the young, died. An estimated one-third to two- In 1907, the U.S. admitted the once Indian Territory thirds of the Choctaw Nation perished during removal. as the state of Oklahoma. By this time, the number of Interestingly enough, Secretary of War John C. Calhoun, whites and blacks out-numbered First Nations people. who oversaw the removal of First Nations people, also This pattern for admission of new states was repeated for advocated the removal of all people of African descent both Arizona and New Mexico. Except in those cases, to Africa or South America. Some Choctaw remained in they weren’t admitted until the number of English speak- Mississippi. Most of them were cheated from owning land ers out-numbered the Spanish speakers. by an Indian Agent named John C. Walker. Walker told The U.S. simply legislated some of the greatest na- many Choctaw that he was writing their names on the tions of North America out of existence. Despite these list when he was not. Those Choctaw who did get their efforts to eradicate First Nations people, Oklahoma has names on that list later lost their land when the state the second largest First Nations’ population in the U.S. of Mississippi passed a law forbidding any Indian from The Cherokee have the largest enrollment of any Indian inheriting property. group in the U.S., and Choctaw was the seventeenth larg- Until the early part of this century, the Choctaw in est language group in this country (1980 census). Mississippi lived as sharecroppers. They applied for and received federal recognition during the twentieth century and have a small reservation in Philadelphia, Mississippi. Today, the Mississippi Choctaw are recovering and are the single, largest employer in that state (Shelby Tallchief). After the peaceful removal of the Choctaw, the Creek were next. They had already been decimated by wars with their white neighbors for a couple hundred years and forced off their ancestral lands by white slave-owners. The same men who had forced them off their lands handled their removal. About a thousand drowned in icy waters when a drunken pilot ran the steamboat transporting them into some rocks (Geary Hobson). The Seminole, another Southeastern group, had originally been part of the Creek Confederacy but had

14 — Holocaust — Chapter Three Chapter Four — Holocaust — 15 Chapter Four — Prisoners of War

For the next hundred years, First Nations people Our warfare too was governed by the same general continued to suffer degradation and further devastation. principles. For the most part, warfare was a game of skill It seemed First Nations people could do nothing to win. as much as anything else. With only a few exceptions, Whatever it cost, some white Americans intended that excessive killing, like excessive wealth, was considered the United States would belong solely to them. Again, an aberration. Where there were heavier concentrations First Nations people died by the hundreds. Those who of people, more conflicts occurred. However, warfare was survived had their land swindled, their children stolen, primarily used to maintain a balance of power among vari- and their spirit crushed. As a result, the 1920s found First ous nations living in the same region. Prior to European Nations people at their lowest ebb. Our numbers fell to contact, First Nations people were more likely simply to about a quarter million, and most of us lived in poverty. move rather than engage in long term fights over territory. This period starts with what is often called the Indian Among some groups, disputes might be decided by ball Wars and ends with the Indian New Deal. games. European history, on the other hand, is littered The roots of the on-going conflict lay in the dim past with centuries of blood feuds, holy wars, enslavement of of both peoples. White Americans are descended from people, and genocide. Europeans who long ago had developed the philosophy of “hit them as hard as you can.” They are the offspring of people who had to fight their way into every inch of land they had ever occupied as they swept westward from the Ural Mountains. Wave after wave of refugees flowed before some new conqueror or war until they spilled into the ocean and landed here. These new people had a lust for land that none of the First Nations people could possibly understand. Europeans also brought with them a way of life that allowed a few to live off the production of many. These Europeans brought with them cultures laden with excesses. One of these was drinking. First Nations people, whether sedentary or nomadic, had developed survival strategies that balanced work with play and sport. The concepts of balance and harmony are basic to most First Nations. Within our cultural frame- works, all First Nations people are allowed to contribute In 1848, the United States began the completion of its and participate. Among First Nations people, giftedness “Manifest Destiny,” a phrase coined by John O’Sullivan is defined as sharing an expertise with others (Mary about 1787 and preached by all the leading political lead- Romero). Within this context, for example, a woman ers after that. This doctrine represents a conversion of the who makes good piki bread will be asked to prepare it religious beliefs of the promised land to civil purposes. for a special feast. A good story-teller will be invited Within this concept, the leaders of this country envisioned to tell a story; a good singer will be asked to sing in a the United States occupying at least all of North America ceremony. Traditionally, leaders were those who took and possibly South America as well. the most responsibility for their own people, who con- Parts of this vision were later abandoned for vari- tributed the most, and who lived their lives in balance. ous reasons. One reason was that the Canadians had These leaders, however, had no power to command. In a no interest in becoming American. For another reason, true democratic fashion, they served the decisions made only twenty percent of the land in Mexico is arable. by the majority. With the notable exception of the isthmus of Panama, For First Nations, all aspects of living involved spiritu- Central and South America seemed too remote and had ality. Spirit is senior to physics. This was and remains at no abundance of known natural resources (Hietala). To the core of our ability to survive. It is part of remembering create this “manifest destiny,” the U.S. annexed Texas in who we are. In some respects, our cultures are more simi- 1845 after a handful of Americans and mostly Hispanic lar in principle to Asian cultures than European. However, Texans had defeated the Mexican army for control of we differ in one main area, the sense of having been given that vast territory. These Hispanic Texans were for the a special and ancient trust to care for the land and to keep most part the descendants of First Nations people who the universe whole (Donna Pino-Martinez). had been missionized by Spanish priests. 14 — Holocaust — Chapter Three Chapter Four — Holocaust — 15 The U.S. then seized California and the Southwest Most of the land occupied by First Nations people was at the end of the War with Mexico (1846-48). During the rich in natural resources. Because of this and racism, First same time, it resolved its boundary dispute with Great Nations people became on-going targets of suppression and Britain and gained the Pacific Northwest. While it had genocide. Seward, Secretary of State, under Lincoln and gained vast territories rich in mineral deposits, particularly Johnson stated the position of White America in 1854. gold, First Nations already occupied this land. This was ...the nation that draws the most ma- a problem to a country eager to build itself into a world terials and provisions from the earth, power. The U.S. solved this problem by encouraging Eu- fabricates the most, and sells the most ropeans to immigrate and sending the new immigrants of productions and fabrics to foreign immediately to the newly acquired territories. nations, must be, and will be, the great Because of this unyielding drive for expansion, the power of the earth (Paolino). next thirty to forty years were to be some of the saddest for First Nations people. This is the time of the Indian Wars. This was the “manifest destiny” of this new nation. First This is the time we were held as prisoners of war, starved, Nations people had to be contained, removed, reformed, and forced-marched to concentration camps. This is the or annihilated so that the U.S. could prosper. The U.S. was time when our great leaders were tricked and murdered also in a fever to legitimize their title to the land by having or imprisoned. The United States itself was engaged in a First Nations people give up their claims and to settle for bloody civil war during this period. First Nations people money instead of their traditional stewardship. were seen as just another impediment to making a great Consequently, generals were ordered to expedite and united country. First Nations people simply did not treaty negotiations (Ellis, 1970). Territorial Governors fit into the political and economic scheme. wanted all problems with First Nations people handled The driving political force was gaining territory for the quickly and permanently. To make this happen, the U.S. purpose of making the U.S. a world commercial power. continued its previous policy of taking land by force after Following this plan, the period between 1820 to 1920 saw tricking some First Nations people into signing treaties. the U.S. gain vast territorial holdings, including islands Any First Nations people who opposed the U.S. were in the Caribbean and Pacific. The U.S. favored rapid con- killed or imprisoned. Once the U.S. had a treaty, First struction of a transcontinental railroad, a coast-to-coast Nations people were placed on small pieces of land, often telegraph, government subsidies to shipping companies, under guard, and allowed to starve slowly to death. a policy of cheap lands, and liberal immigration and naturalization laws—all of which spelled the end of very Governments that rule another country or colony are called workable indigenous technologies. imperialistic. Imperialism as policy is how the U.S. became During the early 1800s, racism governed internal poli- a world power. tics. Some politicians, particularly Southern, argued for the removal of all “people of color.” Additionally, Robert J. Walker, Senator from Mississippi, made a fortune off the The reservation system was the preferred manner for Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek and Choctaw land and handling the “hostiles.” Under this system, First Nations had re-invested it in African slaves. At the same time, some people had limited land. It was often land that no one else unknown number of Choctaws and other First Nations wanted. This policy allowed the U.S. and private industry people were held in bondage in the South. Walker had and business to own the better land. Additionally, First Na- this to say in the 1840s about the future of this country tions people who managed to survive the sweeping epidem- if slaves were freed. ics of small pox, cholera, whooping cough, and typhus were ...the poor house and the jail, the asy- to be pushed rapidly into the current culture of the U.S. as lums of the deaf and dumb, the blind, Christian farmers. Most of their sovereignty and dignity as the idiot and insane, would be filled to a people was systematically stripped from them. overflowing if indeed, any asylum could This process began in the Pacific Northwest with the be afforded to the millions of the negro Walla Walla Council of 1855. At that time, Isaac I. Stevens, race whom wretchedness and crime Governor of the Northwest Territories negotiated a treaty would drive to despair and madness with the Nez Perce, Cayuse, Yakima, Walla Walla, and (quoted in Hietala). Umatilla. He originally proposed two reservations. The Additionally, these same politicians complained that first in Nez Perce country would include the Spokane—not the lands belonging to First Nations people and First at the treaty negotiations, Cayuse, Walla Walla, and Uma- Nations people themselves prevented them from expand- tilla. The second reservation was to include all tribes along ing as they needed. Basically, the Democrats looked to the Columbia River from the Dalles to the Okanogan an expanding western frontier as a dumping ground for and Colville Valleys. Most of the groups included in this First Nations people. second reservation were not invited to the council . 16 — Holocaust — Chapter Four Chapter Four — Holocaust — 17 Delegates were pressured to “hurry up” and sign. First all First Nations people be removed from Minnesota. Nations men who the U.S. had designated as chiefs, such Minnesota had been the traditional home of the Sisseton, as Lawyer—a Christianized Nez Perce, were bribed with Wahpeton, Mdewakanton, Wahpekute, Ojibwa, Sauk, Fox, special concessions. Many details of the treaties were Winnebago, and the Iowa, some of whom had already re- never translated for the signers. In the end, however, moved earlier. The U.S. government conceded. Sadly the the Umatilla managed to negotiate their own reserva- Sisseton, Wahpaton, Mdewakanton, Wahpekute, and the tion separate from the others. The remainder—the Cour long peaceful Winnebago had to leave their homes. D’Alene, Jusa, Tutinti, Alesea, Tenino, Spokane, Kalespel, The U.S. government placed some of the Sisseton, Methow, Palus, Cowlitz, Chehalis, Quinault, Nisqually, Wahpaton, Mdewakanton, and Wahpekute on a reser- Squamish, and Makah to name some—were rounded up vation at Crow Creek on the Missouri River in South and removed from their homes. Dakota and others at the Devils Lake Reservation in In 1851, 6,500 Sisseton, Wahpaton, Mdewakanton, North Dakota. Some managed to stay in Minnesota, and Wahpekute—collectively known as the Santee—under and a fourth group gathered at the Flandeau Colony in Little Crow had agreed to live on a reservation ten miles South Dakota. The Crow Creek Reservation proved very wide in the valley of the Minnesota River. This treaty unsuitable, and many died from malnutrition, starvation, cleared title to about 24 million acres. However, by 1862, and disease. Those that survived moved to land near the conditions had became intolerable. This band of Sioux or mouth of the Niobrara River in Nebraska (Ellis, 1970). Dakota had given up their traditional hunting patterns and agreed to stay on their designated land. In return, the U.S. government was to supply them with food, blankets, and Dividing us is still one of the strategies other necessities to live on until they could become self- the U.S. uses to keep us weak. sufficient farmers. Additionally, they were to receive cash payments. (See Appendix C for a copy of the treaty.) For two years, Thomas Galbraith at the Redwood At the same time in the territory of New Mexico, the Agency, the Indian Agency for that reservation, had United States became embroiled in a centuries-old dis- refused to release their supplies until their annuity or pute between the Spanish New Mexicans and the Navajo cash payment also came in. Because most of the money or Diné. For a long time, the New Mexicans had been went to local traders to pay their debts, the Santee did stealing Diné women and children to be used as slaves. not understand why the local traders also refused to issue A teenage Diné boy or girl would sometimes sell for as credit to the starving group. When Little Crow complained much as $200. These Diné were not just sold in New that his people were starving, Andrew Myrick, a trader, Mexico, but many were taken into Mexico and sold there. callously said, “Let them eat grass and dung.” Hundreds of Diné children had been taken. On August 4, hungry Santee broke into the agency Indians remained as slaves in parts of New Mexico warehouse for their provisions. On August 17, a group through the end of the nineteenth century. At the same of young hunters from the reservation killed five whites. time, some Diné raided the farms of the New Mexicans Fearing reprisals, feeling betrayed, and watching his people and the Pueblos. They raided all the way from Questa starve, Little Crow—at the prompting of his warriors—led and Rio Costillo and Tesuque Pueblo in the north to a retaliation against the white population. Their intention Corrales and Isleta Pueblo in the east. While they took was to restore some of the balance, to get enough food to mostly horses and corn, they occasionally took women feed themselves, and draw some attention to their plight. and children as well. The Diné felt their actions were Because most of the immigrants in Minnesota were Scandi- justified to restore balance among the groups. navian with no understanding of frontier life, the Sisseton, The U.S. sent James Calhoun to be the new governor Wahpaton, Mdewakanton, and Wahpekute easily swept of the territory of New Mexico. James was cousin to the through their settlements, burning and killing and forcing same John C. Calhoun who had cheated the Choctaw and the remainder to flee. This hostility lasted about a month. advocated removal of all people of color. James Calhoun After this bloody melee, the bulk of the Santee surrendered took the side of the New Mexicans against the Diné. To because the women and children were still suffering. make matters worse, he used militia made up of the very General Sibley, who claimed $145,000 from the men who had enslaved the Diné. In 1849, Calhoun met moneys promised the Sisseton, Wahpaton, Mdewakan- with several Diné leaders and told them that they would ton, and Wahpekute (Utley), wanted to punish them and have to stop raiding. In return, he promised he would stop make them afraid to ever attack an American again. He the New Mexicans from stealing Diné children. tried and convicted 306 Santee warriors for the crime of The Diné, meaning People, are organized around a murder. However, President Lincoln insisted on reviewing dual clan system. A child’s primary clan comes from his the court records personally. In the end, 36 were hanged mother. His secondary clan comes from his father. A Diné for the crime of fighting back. The Minnesotans, most of introduces him/herself by saying, “I am born to (the name whom had just recently come from Europe, insisted that of mother’s clan) people and I am born for (the name of 16 — Holocaust — Chapter Four Chapter Four — Holocaust — 17 father’s clan) people. This tells the other person many killed men, women, and children indiscriminately. His things, including whether or not they were related to each troops trampled, burned, or consumed all Diné crops. other. In the Diné way, all members of the same clan are They burned every hogan. They slaughtered every head related. Clan membership and families constituted the of sheep. At the same time, Carson allowed the Ute to primary organization for Diné. continue to steal Diné women and children. In those days, usually the women owned the hogan, During the winter, Diné warriors retaliated, stealing the sheep, and the fields. Men owned personal property, many of Carson’s horses and killing some of his men. which often included jewelry and horses. Husbands Unfortunately, the warriors were not able to feed the managed their wife or wives’ property. The Diné also women and children. When the Diné finally began to sur- occupied a large area, and they had no single governing render, they were starving and freezing. All their hogans body. Diné highly value and respect each individual’s and crops had been destroyed, and they were without right for self-determination. Not all Diné lived the same winter clothing. This treatment of the Diné eventually way, and raiding for some Diné was an important part of destroyed the careers of both Kit Carson and General their survival. The U.S. wanted to treat Diné as a nation Carleton (Trafzer). Once the Diné realized they would and get the signature of a few men on a treaty. In reality, not be shot when they surrendered, about 8,000 or half these men could only speak for themselves and no one surrendered. Upon surrender, they became prisoners of else. The Diné tried to tell the Biligáánas or white people war (Leonard Tsosie). this, but they would not listen. During the negotiations, It was winter. As usual the U.S. government had un- the soldiers, made up of mostly New Mexicans, fired on derestimated the numbers of First Nations people and the Diné delegation. They killed Narbona, one of the most did not have enough supplies to feed and clothe them. respected of the Diné. There was little or no shelter. Many Diné died of exposure. When the food came in, it was often spoiled. This caused Killing or imprisoning our strongest leaders more deaths and suffering. Epidemics of small pox, chol- is another of the strategies the U.S. still uses era, and other diseases swept through the malnourished to keep First Nations people under control. Diné. In the spring, the Diné were removed in groups of 400 and forced-marched under guard for over 300 miles. Stragglers were shot. New Mexicans continued to steal After this, the Diné went home. Most of the Diné prob- children even as they marched. Along the way, the Diné ably knew nothing about the agreements made between died of malnutrition, dysentery, and disease—there were the U.S. and some of the leaders. While the peace lasted epidemics of small pox. for a short while, the New Mexicans and Diné soon con- The Fort at Bosque Redondo was too small for the tinued their previous activities. The U.S. did not stop the large number. There, they lived behind barbed wire fences New Mexicans from stealing Diné children, and some under armed guards. They were constantly underfed. They Diné continued to raid. had no firewood for cooking so the bacon and meat they By the 1850s the New Mexican population had grown received had to be eaten raw. The water was not suitable and fanned out westward and northward from the Rio for drinking. The land could not be farmed. About one- Grande corridor. This put some of them close to the ter- third to one-half the Diné died during this time. Today at ritory traditionally belonging to Diné. For fifty years, the Bosque Redondo—now a state monument—there is little Diné had successfully contained the westward expansion. mention of this travesty. The number of Diné who died Both New Mexicans and Pueblos complained loudly to the there is under reported. new U.S. government about the Diné. Consequently, the U.S. established Fort Defiance in the heart of Diné land in 1851. This seemed to be working for awhile. More and more Diné drifted in to find out what the Biligáána were about. The Indian agent, Captain Henry Linn Dodge, trav- eled among them without fear and persuaded them to keep the peace. Also, the new territorial governor, Meriwether, Some Diné refused to surrender. Manuelito was the was able to see all sides of the issues. This fair treatment most famous of these. Because the Holy People had persuaded most Diné to honor the treaty. given the land to the Diné, he said he could not leave This peace was shattered, however, when the Territo- it. However, his relatives were starving, and finally even rial Congress decided that there was no Indian land in Manuelito took the long walk to Hwééldi, the Diné word New Mexico, thus allowing the New Mexicans to move for Bosque Redondo. After five years of confinement, their flocks onto traditional Diné land. Again when First a group of Diné head men—Manuelito, Narbancito, and Nations people tried to fight back, they were punished. others—went to Washington, D.C. to talk to Andrew John- In 1863, General Carleton ordered Kit Carson to “hunt son. They wanted to go home. In June, 1868, the treaty and kill” all Diné. This Carson did. He and his troops was finally signed, and the Diné began their long walk 18 — Holocaust — Chapter Four Chapter Four — Holocaust — 19 home. Part of the stipulation of the treaty was that the Diné would send their children to schools. Even today, the Diné have not forgotten that they had to give up their children to get to go home.

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Trail of Tears 18 — Holocaust — Chapter Four Chapter Four — Holocaust — 19 20 — Holocaust — Chapter Four Chapter Five — Holocaust — 21 Chapter Five — Expansion Consumes First Nations People

Loss of Sovereignty The new nation was building itself and nothing would from small pox, which the first whites brought with them stop it. By 1871, Congress decided to stop negotiating new in the 1820s and 1830s. Entire communities of the Assini- treaties with First Nations as nations. From that time for- boine, Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara were already gone. ward, First Nations people were to be subject without their This left the land vacant for the new people to come in. consent to one law after another (Leonard Tsosie). Because of this devastation, First Nations were forced to surrender and agree to reservations. In many places, First Nations were not allowed to keep their homes. By 1859, Governments who pass laws without the consent of the Texas had emptied itself of all the remaining People—Co- people they govern are called tyrannies. The U.S. became a manche, Tonkawa, Lipan, Apache, and Llanero, forcing world power through the use of tyranny. them north to Indian Territory. Many like the Waco, Tawakoni, Alakapa, and Karankawa, for example, had already been annihilated as groups. Their descendants Any group will survive to the degree that its individual became the Hispanics of Texas (Mapitzmitl). members are self-determined. On reservations, First Na- In other places, men, women, and children were held tions people as individuals had become degraded and as prisoners of war, and their leaders jailed or hanged. made dependent on hand-outs from whites. No longer In the Southwest, the famous Chiricahua Apache, were they allowed to produce and contribute to their own known for their raiding and warring, along with their survival. Consequently, many starved, drank too much, most famous medicine man, Geronimo, were loaded into killed each other, and learned to forget who they were. box cars—every man, woman, and child—and shipped to The pattern of planned destruction through starva- Florida. There over half died of disease and malnutrition. tion, disease, warfare, imprisonment, and relocation was They were held without shelter in an old fort built for half repeated throughout the west. In California, Kintpuash, or their number. After about a decade, the survivors were Captain Jack, a famous Modoc war leader with only sixty then shipped to Alabama where they continued to die. men held off an army of about a thousand. When he and Finally, the few survivors, approximately 196, were sent his men were finally persuaded to negotiate a peace, his to Indian Territory. warriors refused to follow him. Instead, they killed the peace negotiators. Because General Canby, one of the negotiators, was a national hero, white America rose up in a fury of revenge. This sealed the fate of the Modoc. Kintpuash and three others died on the gallows, and his head was cut off and sent to the Army Medical Museum. The remaining Modoc were exiled fifteen hundred miles to the east to Indian Territory. They have never been allowed to return to their ancestral homes (Ellis, 1972). Everywhere First Nations people were starving, even in the frozen north. In 1879, 80% of the Inuit or Eskimo people living in Alaska Territory starved when all the walrus were slaughtered to feed growing commercial en- In the early part of the twentieth century, the Chir- terprises. On the great plains, First Nations people were icahua were given the choice of remaining in Oklahoma starving. With the adaptation of the horse and rifle, they as farmers on individual plots of land or joining the had become great buffalo hunters. However, by 1883 due Mescalero in New Mexico. However, they were never al- to the commercial killing of buffalo, only two hundred lowed to return home. Geronimo, their powerful medicine buffalo could be found in the West. During this time, man, refused to teach his medicine to anyone else and white hunters often killed buffalo simply for the hides, died at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, in 1906. The U.S. had used leaving the carcasses to rot. Sometimes, sportsmen from maximum force against him, but he was never caught. passenger train cars slaughtered whole herds. Indeed, the war against Geronimo had cost the U.S. dearly. He surrendered because he believed that the Chiricahua Many, many First Nations people had already died people could go home. He was betrayed. His surrender 20 — Holocaust — Chapter Four Chapter Five — Holocaust — 21 on September 4, 1886, ended the period known in U.S. saw this as a way to further their anti-Catholic purposes. history as the Indian Wars. This policy of asking the churches to become involved While the U.S. was busy rounding up First Nations came about because the Quakers protested the corruption people, one lone man changed history forever. In 1879, of Grant’s presidency. Consequently, different denomina- Standing Bear and thirty other Ponca returned from Indian tions were asked to submit candidates for Indian Agents. Territory to their traditional land on the Niobrara River. This did not eliminate all corruption or bring about last- At that time, no First Nations people could travel legally. ing peace. Conditions for some of First Nations people They had to get permission from the U.S. government. did improve, however, according to white standards. The Yakima in the Northwest were one of these groups. Under General Crook was ordered to arrest Standing Bear and the tutelage of the Methodists, the Yakima became farm- his people. He did, and the Ponca were kept at Fort Omaha. ers and built schools. They were able to once again feed Fortunately, the Ponca had many friends in Nebraska. With themselves (Utley). Now is a good time to recall that First the help of these friends, including General Crook, Stand- Nations people began starving when the U.S. government ing Bear filed a lawsuit against the U.S. The U.S. claimed forced them to give up their traditional ways. For many that Standing Bear was not a person nor a citizen and, groups, this did not change. First Nations people were therefore, could not bring a case against the U.S. forbidden to practice their own religions. This was the Standing Bear appeared in court in his traditional expressed policy of the Department of Indian Affairs dress and spoke eloquently on his own behalf. In the that was enforced by the U.S. Army. end, Judge Dundy rendered this decision. If an Indian Any custom that conflicted with accepted Christian must obey the laws, he must also be protected by the doctrine of the time often became law. For instance, law. Also, the term person in legal terms was meant to dancing has always been an integral part of the spiritual, exclude no one, and the Ponca were being illegally de- ceremonial, and community lives of First Nations people. tained and must be freed. This marked the beginning of Unfortunately, many Christian groups believed that danc- the Indian Rights Movement in this country. This victory ing was evil. Because of this, dancing was particularly came years after people of African descent had achieved forbidden. Some groups, such as the Comanche, Kiowa, the same status. Southern Arapaho, and Cheyenne, lost this tradition completely for a while. Others, such as the Cherokee, Re-Forming US Choctaw, and Pueblo, had to hold their traditional dances Those who had survived and agreed to live on reserva- in secret. During this time, a new religion swept across the tions found their culture further assaulted through two plains. Based upon the vision of a Paiute medicine person, institutions, churches and schools. Christian missionaries it promised its practitioners hope of returning to former had been active in the territories even before the terri- affluence and balance. This was the Ghost Dance religion. tories had become part of the U.S. By the 4th Century, The Ghost Dance religion incorporated the Christian idea Christianity had defined itself as the only true religion. of the Holy Ghost along with traditional practices. Consequently, the spiritual beliefs and practices of First Nations people were labeled heathen. The presence of missionaries divided First Nations people between the Christian or progressives, meaning those who believed in learning white ways, and the traditionals, meaning those who wished to continue their old style of living to whatever extent they could. This division can still be seen today on many reservations. Even today, religious freedom remains a problem. Sandra Day O’Conner, a Supreme Court Justice, in a minority opinion stated that guarantee of Religious Freedom only applies to large, organized religions. While white People who danced the Ghost Dance hoped to gain ranchers go unpunished for killing eagles who take live- great enough spiritual strength to allow them to over- stock, First Nations people are persecuted and jailed for come many common phenomenon experienced in the taking eagles to use in their religious ceremonies. First physical universe, such as starvation and disease. The Nations people had to go to Congress to get special laws Ghost Dance gave its practitioners a sense of hope. It at- to protect their spiritual and religious beliefs because they tempted to restore the spiritual base of the lives of First are not automatically covered under the U.S. Constitution Nations people. The last great massacre of First Nations (Terry Abeita). people happened because they were dancing the Ghost Dance. That is the massacre at Wounded Knee in 1890. From 1870-1882, the U.S. government enacted a policy Over 380 men, women, and children were slaughtered of dividing Indian territories among various Christian that day as they practiced their own religion. Because missionary groups. For the most part, Protestant groups 22 — Holocaust — Chapter Five Chapter Five — Holocaust — 23 of a blizzard, their bodies lay frozen to the ground for days afterwards. (See Appendix D for a copy of letter regarding dancing.) Perhaps the single strongest destroyer of the spirit of First Nations people has been the advent of schools. In an attempt to indoctrinate First Nations people, children sometimes as young as six were forcibly taken from their homes and sent to boarding schools as far away as Pennsylvania. Once there, their hair was cut and their traditional clothing burned. They were given new names, Curriculums in schools for First Nation children re- Christian names, white names. They were punished, some- flect the ideals of white America. The same values that times whipped, for speaking their own languages. destroyed First Nations people are the same values that continue to suppress them. History books talk of First Brainwashing can be defined as “ forcing an identity Nations people in the past tense as if all were dead while beyond reason.” This is exactly what First Nations people suggesting that the U.S. was right to kill First Nations have experienced in schools. people or it was simply an unfortunate mistake. In one on-reservation school run by a non-Indian school district, I watched a third-grader peering intently Many never survived this force and died without their at a chart of U.S. presidents. I noted that there was not families ever knowing what happened to them. Many ran one Indian face among them. He agreed and looked back away from schools. Many returned to their own people at the chart with a sigh. By only portraying the viewpoint and practices, “returning to the blanket” as the whites of the conquerors, schools teach our children that the said. Some who returned to their own people became “only good Indian is a dead Indian.” alcoholics, thieves, and prostitutes in the border towns. Few actually entered white society. A few, however, did return to help assimilate more of First Nations people. Our children commit suicide in alarming numbers. They felt that the old ways were gone forever and the only way to survive was to become as much like the whites as possible. This is not a surprising conclusion given the amount of force that had been used against them. Accelerating Our Demise Today, schools remain one of the strongest political No sooner had all First Nations people been rounded weapons the U.S. has for destroying First Nations people. up and herded onto reservations or removed to Indian In this century, psychiatry and psychology have trans- Territory than Congress changed its mind. At the urging ferred the racist policies of early Christian missionaries of Christian missionaries, Congress decided what First to public education, furthering the forced indoctrination Nations people really needed was to be assimilated as of First Nations children. As recently as ten years ago, I soon as possible. This was the heyday of the Industrial saw a white school counselor and a white teacher corner Age, a time of territorial and commercial expansion. To a six-year-old Laguna/Lakota boy, screaming at him that feed the growing industrialization and expansion, im- he was lying. Following the teachings of First Nations migrants continued to flood the U.S. people that all life is related, he had called his dog “his To make room for this planned expansion, Congress brother.” The child lay with his arms over his heads, curled enacted the Dawes act in 1887. This divided the land al- up against the wall sobbing. lotted to various First Nations into individual allotments Excessive numbers of First Nation children are labeled of 160 acres per adult and 40 acres per child. This too emotionally and learning dysfunctional (Citizens Com- was the beginning of enrollment and blood quantums. mission on Human Rights). Because traditionally First Blood quantum is perhaps one of the most insidious Nation children have been raised to be self-determined racial policies ever enacted against a people (Nantinki and responsible, they have been particularly targeted for Rose). Under this system, a person is labeled according increasing suppression. Consequently, thousands of First to the perceived quantity of “blood” inherited from a Nation children are drugged in schools—the only good First Nations ancestor. This system has further divided Indian is a quiet Indian. Teacher education programs teach First Nations people along racial lines. These policies that First Nations people cannot learn the same way as have worked as a double-edged sword, reducing both white middle-class children and that we cannot and should our land base and officially our numbers. As a result, not achieve at the same level as our white counterparts. First Nations people are the only U.S. citizens who have Teachers coming from these programs have extremely low to prove racial identity and are required to have special expectations for First Nation students. Not too surprising, ID or papers to verify that. these students do not perform well. 22 — Holocaust — Chapter Five Chapter Five — Holocaust — 23 In 1887, the Five Civilized Tribes—the Cherokee, Choc- to purchase tools and equipment for farming the land. taw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole—sent delegates to Finally, First Nations became a minority surrounded by Congress to lobby against this legislation, arguing that a hostile and dangerous majority. Linda Hogan portrays this would completely undermine the economic future of this situation in her novel Mean Spirit. First Nations people. Because of their eloquence and perceived level of “civilized state,” they had been originally exempt. In 1898, however, the Curtis Act corrected this oversight, and the U.S. government began the dismantle- ment of these nations. After allotment, any excess land was to be sold, thus opening more land for white and black settlers. The U.S. government was moving First Nations people further and further under the law for the common good. They were moving them from their treaty status as separate nations to a status similar to resident alien. This dual attitude continues to create imbalance in the lives of First Nations people. To further erode the land base of First Nations, Con- gress allowed leasing of Indian land in 1891. This meant that the land would no longer be held in trust for First Nations people. In 1902, Congress authorized Indians to sell inherited lands. In 1906, the Burke Act enabled the Secretary of the Interior to decide when Indians were com- petent to receive title to their allotments and manage their own affairs (Ellis, 1972). All this plunged First Nations people into landlessness and poverty. Most of the land First Nations people held was no good for farming and would not support them. Among the Santee—the Sisseton, Wahpaton, Mdewakanton, and Wahpekute—for example, only one-third of the land would support the families living on it. During this same period, the Lakota in South Dakota lost two-thirds of their reservations. Many First Nations people had no concept of individual ownership, did not read, did not understand taxes or white laws. One good example of the devastation created by this legislation is the case of the Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho. Originally, they had been given a small reservation in Kansas in 1859. When gold was discovered in 1861, they were pushed into a small, barren reservation in Southeastern Colorado. In 1869, they moved and settled on the North Canadian River in Indian Territory. When the Dawes Act was passed, most of them still practiced their traditional ways, including having multiple wives, medicine making, and group property. Each adult received an allotment of 160 acres and each child an allotment of 40 acres. These allotments were held in trust for only 25 years. The U.S. then purchased the surplus lands for one and a half million dollars. One million was deposited into the U.S. treasury at 5% interest and the rest was to be distributed to members in two payments. However, by 1901, whites had acquired 2,000 of 3,293 allotments (Ellis, 1972). This pattern was repeated all over the former Indian Territory. As an additional burden, land belonging to First Nations people was assessed higher for tax purposes than land owned by whites. They also paid higher interest rates for loans. Without funds, First Nations people were unable 24 — Holocaust — Chapter Five Chapter Six — Holocaust — 25 Chapter Six — Manifest Destiny Completed

By the 1920s, only about a quarter million First Once there, they did not receive the help they had Nations people were left, at least according to the U.S. been promised. For one thing, no housing had been pro- Many First Nations people were recorded on censuses vided. Consequently, they were forced to live together in as “mulatto” during this time. Most of the survivors had worse squalor than they had previously known on their been reduced to abject poverty. First Nations people still own land, where at least they could garden and hunt. died in great numbers of disease. The drunk Indian with Eventually, her father finished his training, got a job, and his slovenly squaw had become stereotypes. Segregation found them a place to live. laws in the South with separate bathrooms and drinking In schools, Wilma experienced racism for the first fountains for Colored created continuing discrimination time. Without the support of community, Wilma soon against First Nations people. Even where there were no felt dejected and alienated. She spent years regaining laws, First Nations people had to wait in stores for white her own identity. N. Scott Momaday in his novel, House customers to be served first. Many restaurants would Made of Dawn, portrays the bewilderment of a Pueblo not serve First Nations people, placing NO INDIANS man who also has been relocated. This story deals with ALLOWED signs in their windows. this traditional man’s inability to reconcile the richness During the next thirty or so years, First Nations people of Pueblo life to the barrenness of city life where he is were subjected to a number of changes in policy regarding disconnected from all his relatives. His reality becomes their future. One such change was the granting of U.S. shattered, resulting in a shattered spirit. citizenship. For all practical purposes, this eliminated In the 1950s, Dillon S. Myer, Commissioner of Indians any further need for an Indian policy as most First Na- Affairs, particularly pushed the policy of relocation. His tions people could now become totally subjected to U.S. previous experience had been with holding the Japa- laws. However, to facilitate a complete loss of identity nese in concentration camps in the U.S. (Ellis, 1972). as a people, more policy was enacted. Two of the most Thousands and thousands of First Nations people were devastating policies were Relocation and Termination. moved to cities where they became disassociated with Relocation was the policy of offering First Nations people their languages and cultural values. Today the Bay Area incentives to leave their lands and move into cities. Once along with the Twin Cities in Minnesota have some of again, this freed up more land for whites. Once in the the largest Indian populations in the U.S. In fact, only cities, many First Nations people became ghettoized. 25-40% of First Nations people still live on reservations. Wilma Mankiller, Principle Chief of the Oklahoma As a result, many First Nations children grow up without Cherokee for two terms, described this experience for knowing who they are. Relocation attempts forever to her and her family. In Oklahoma, she had grown up in a sever First Nations people’s ties to the land, a traditional close knit family among other Cherokee. She knew who trust. In the end, many First Nations people lose them- she was. While the family was poor, they felt no stigma selves among the many brown faces of the city. because of this. The U.S. convinced her father that his family would be better off economically by moving to San Francisco, where he would receive training, housing, As long as First Nations people live and still know who and subsequently a job. they are, their presence mocks a government that says it is of the people, by the people, and for the people.

At the same time, Commissioner Myer targeted certain groups for termination. Under this proposal, the lands of this group would no longer be held in trust but would come under State and County jurisdiction. The targeted group was to become a business corporation. Essentially, this act intended to and did terminate the long-standing trust relationship between the U.S. and First Nations. It also served the purpose of once again opening up Indian land for white commercialism. The Menominee of Wisconsin were one of these groups. The Menominee may have become the target 24 — Holocaust — Chapter Five Chapter Six — Holocaust — 25 for termination because they had expelled Mormon missionaries. The senator pushing their termination was Watkins from Utah (Ellis, 1972). First Nations people do not see forests as a resource for short-term private exploitation. The Menominee, for example, had the last expansive tract of virgin hardwood forest. It was almost a quarter of a million acres that had been carefully cultivated by the Menominee based upon traditional wisdom to allow cutting while enhancing its natural wealth. Under their management, they had more trees than when they started. Outside their land, almost all the forests are second growth with heavy soil erosion and massive reduction in wildlife. Within a decade of termination, the county formed from the former Menominee Reservation became the poor- est in the state. The Menominee had borrowed heavily to build their timber business. Because they now had to pay land taxes, they were unable to meet their payments. Termination effectively demonstrated that First Nations people could not survive if their property is taxed.

The sole purpose of taxation is to slow productivity, and this weapon has been used repeatedly against First Nations.

Ada Deer with a group called DRUMS led a drive for reinstatement of tribal status that finally succeeded in 1974. Today the Menominee also have a gambling casino along with their forest industry and have been able to provide much needed housing, roads, education, and health care for themselves.

26 — Holocaust — Chapter Six Chapter Seven — Holocaust — 27 Chapter Seven — Coming Into Present Time

The Continuing Suppression In recent years, First Nations people have been the as a mixed-blood Chippewa (Ojibwa) and infiltrate AIM. target of several special actions which have contributed This man had been fired from the police force for alleged to further genocide and degradation. Three of these are involvement in prostitution and fencing stolen goods. He (1) the FBI covert operations through COINTELPRO, (2) eventually rose to the rank of AIM security director and increased racism through psychiatric and psychological positioned himself as chief advisor to AIM leader Dennis abuses primarily through schools, incarceration, and Banks. This put him in a position to influence any decision Indian Health Services, and (3) increased environmental making of the group as well as keep the FBI informed of pollution on reservations. any of the group’s plans. The elders of Pine Ridge and Rosebud Reservations in South Dakota had invited AIM to help them with problems Ward Churchill observes that whatever can be or has been they were having. Frequently, governments on reserva- done to First Nations people can be done to others as well. tions have been set up and endorsed by the Bureau of The actions taken against First Nations people are often Indian Affairs. These entities rarely have anything to do repeated with other groups. with traditional socio-political structures. Such was the case on the Pine Ridge and Rosebud Reservations. Both these reservations were experiencing wide-spread poverty, COINTELPRO is an acronym for an FBI Counter poor sanitation, high unemployment, and high incidences Intelligence Program. For fifteen years, it had infiltrated of alcoholism. These were some of the problems AIM groups, enacted illegal wire tappings, committed burglar- wanted to eradicate. At that time during the early 70s, ies, arson, murder, and spread libelous misinformation Dickie Wilson, a mixed-blood, and his political appoin- against many Americans. On April 27, 1971, the FBI told tees, also mixed-bloods, who called themselves GOONS the American people that it had terminated this program. (Guardians of the Oglala Nation) were administering the After this date, however, the same tactics used by COIN- Pine Ridge reservation. Their tactics were similar to the TELPRO caused terror to reign on Indian reservations KKK. Over 200 unsolved murders or disappearances across the country. Several components contributed to happened on the Pine Ridge Oglala Lakota Reservation the actions that culminated in the second Wounded Knee, alone (Whitte). This brought the murder rate to eighteen the death of two FBI agents, hundreds of uninvestigated times the national average. deaths, the jailing of Leonard Peltier, and the discrediting of the American Indian Movement—AIM. Those being murdered were those who spoke against the deplorable poverty and health conditions. Often those Inspired by Martin Luther King, Jr.’s success on behalf speaking out were the elders and women. Our women have of African Americans, the members of AIM wanted to always been at the forefront of resistance. Most of these better conditions for First Nations people. It attracted both murders and disappearances remain uninvestigated or young people and elders and represented most of the First unsolved. One of the better known murders was of Anna Nations found in North America. AIM has never been one Mae Pictou Aquash. Anna Mae was a Micmac, who had large organization but has consisted of many grassroots come down from Canada to help women and children organizations around the United States. The supporters with health issues. The FBI had pulled her in on numerous of AIM included not only members of the First Nations occasions for questioning. Despite this fact, FBI agents but people of various ethnic backgrounds, including ex- claimed they were unable to identify her body. According Vietnam veterans, African-Americans, and Chicanos. to the FBI, they had cut off her hands and sent them to Demonstrations were often spur of the moment and Washington, DC. for fingerprint identification. She was communication about these were by word of mouth. buried as a Jane Doe. The FBI report stated that she died One of its leaders was Dennis Banks, an Ojibwa/ of exposure. Once exhumed, she was found to have died Chippewa. Dennis Banks had been responsible for orga- of gunshot wounds. nizing a program for the youth of First Nations people In March 1973, several thousand people came to in Detroit. This program kept many off drugs and alco- Wounded Knee, the site of the 1890 massacre. The gath- hol. He and other leaders of AIM became the target of ering was intended to be peaceful and to commemorate planned discrediting. In order to bring this about, the the first Wounded Knee. The demonstrators were soon FBI recruited a former Des Moines policeman to pose 26 — Holocaust — Chapter Six Chapter Seven — Holocaust — 27 surrounded by the FBI and GOON Squads. Later, U.S. and became convinced that he never received a Marshals also joined the other two groups. Some of the fair trial. Even the government now admits that participants at Wounded Knee were Vietnam veterans. the theory it presented against Mr. Peltier at trial One of them described the scene this way. was not true. After 24 years in prison, Leonard Wounded Knee is in a little valley. Peltier has served an inordinate amount of time There are three roads coming in. The and deserves the right to consideration of his FBI had one road; the Goons had this clemency request on the facts and the merits. other road; and the U.S. Marshals had The FBI continues to deny its improper con- this one over here [pointing at a map on duct on Pine Ridge during the 1970s and in the board]. Back over this hill, the U.S. the trial of Leonard Peltier. The FBI used Mr. Army was waiting. The Goons would Peltier as a scapegoat and they continue to do run back and forth creating cross-fire so today. At every step of the way, FBI agents so that the FBI was always a little jumpy and leadership have opposed any admission (Bob Anderson). of wrongdoing by the government, and they have sought to misrepresent and politicize the Many people left Wounded Knee voluntarily, but a meaning of clemency for Leonard Peltier. The few hundred stayed. While the U.S. thought they had ev- killing of FBI agents at Pine Ridge was repre- eryone safely pinned down, the elders of Pine Ridge were hensible, but the government now admits that it slipping in and out with supplies at night. Even the AIM cannot prove that Mr. Peltier killed the agents. people came and went. Finally after twenty-two months, Granting clemency to Mr. Peltier should not be the occupants of Wounded Knee surrendered because viewed as expressing any disrespect for the cur- they were out of bullets and food. rent agents or leadership of the FBI, nor would In the meantime, the U.S. had brought its most sophis- it represent any condoning of the killings that ticated weaponry to combat First Nations people. First took place on Pine Ridge. Instead, clemency for Nations people, who had been defending their women Mr. Peltier would recognize past wrongdoing and and children from wanton violence, were armed with the undermining of the government’s case since hunting rifles and some semi-automatics. The U.S. retrial. Finally, it would serve as a crucial step in sponded with small tanks and short range rockets. There the reconciliation and healing between the U.S. was so little media coverage of this event that many of Government and Native Americans, on the Pine the white occupants of the surrounding area never even Ridge Reservation and throughout the country. knew what was going on. [signature] AIM stayed on these two reservations; people con- Don Edwards (D-CA), ret. tinued to die. Two years after Wounded Knee, two FBI Member of Congress, 1963-1995 agents were killed by an unknown person. The FBI tried to frame AIM members Leonard Peltier, Dino Butler, and Despite this breach of U.S. law acknowledged by more Bob Robideau with these murders. All three had previous than one federal judge, Leonard Peltier has never been convictions, and that formed the basis of the FBI’s evi- allowed a retrial. To date, not one piece of conclusive dence. Both Dino Butler and Bob Robideau were acquitted evidence implicates Leonard Peltier in these murders. because of lack of evidence. Eventually Leonard Peltier The only evidence the FBI ever had is that Leonard was received a conviction, but only after the judge refused to let in the area at the time of the murders. There is some his lawyers launch an effective defense (Matthiessen). evidence, however, that suggests one of the FBI’s own provocateurs may have been involved. In present time, 12/14/00 an unidentified person has confessed to these murders. Hon. Don Edwards To this date, Leonard Peltier remains jailed. At the same P.O. Box 7151 time that violence was occurring on Pine Ridge, Diné too Carmel, CA 93921 were dying mysteriously. Both areas have rich mineral deposits. Thomas G. Whitte (1986), journalist, concludes As a former Congressman from California “that government and industry have been in collusion in for over thirty years, a former FBI agent and a case of outright destruction of cultures and people.” a citizen committed to justice, I wish to speak out strongly against the FBI’s efforts in oppos- In addition to these efforts, the multi-million dollar ing the clemency appeal of Leonard Peltier. I mental health industry has taken its toll among First Na- served as Chairman of the Subcommittee on tions people. This attack has primarily been launched Civil and Constitutional Rights in the U.S. through the educational system. Since the introduction House of Representatives. of ideas promoted by this industry, literacy rates for mi- I took a personal interest in Mr. Peltier’s case norities have plummeted. This is true for First Nations people as well. In the 1880s among the Five Civilized 28 — Holocaust — Chapter Seven Chapter Seven — Holocaust — 29 Tribes, literacy rates were ten times greater than among Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) recommended that their white neighbors. In the 1930s, First Nation children school curriculums should be designed to “bend the read as well as white children. Today, First Nations people student to the realities of society” (see definition of brain- have the lowest literacy rates in the U.S. Our children are washing) and “to promote mental health as...a means our future. We can ill afford to lose them. About 44% of of altering culture” (Citizens Commission on Human First Nations people are between ages 0-19. This is the Rights, p. 2). The national curriculum movement intends population that has been specifically targeted by the to do just this. Additionally, we have the opinion stated mental health industry. by Ernst Rodin, American Psychiatrist, in 1971 when In 1965, the U.S. Elementary and Secondary Edu- he advocated pychosurgery to control violence. “The cation Act established “special education.” This new castrated ox will pull his plow” and “human eunuchs, program, fueled by the pseudo-scientific rhetoric of although at times quite scheming entrepreneurs, are not psychiatry and psychology, costs about 31 million dol- given to physical violence. Our scientific age tends to lars a year. Through this program, education has been disregard this wisdom of the past... “(Citizens Commis- turned into a “medical problem” with disastrous results: sion on Human Rights, 1995, p. 13). 70% of special education students drop out, “age out” By contrast, Luther Standing Bear reminds us that we (reach their 22nd birthday), are expelled, or leave school are spirits. He goes on to say that each of us has a body, with unearned diplomas. First Nations children are almost but that we ourselves are that which animates the body. twice as likely to be labeled “retarded” as white children. He concludes by noting, that most people nowadays Compare this with the actual statistics of high school have that confused. Dr. William Tutman of the African graduates on reservations, 43%, and the answer to the American Coalition for justice in Social Policy, states: failures becomes apparent. Additionally, many of our “To oppress a race, and then label its reactions as ‘mental children are given drugs, the same drugs that consistently illness,’ is not only morally wrong, it is criminal and a produce violent and suicidal behaviors. First Nations fraud” (Citizens Commission on Human Rights, 1995, people are more likely than any other group, with the back cover). While speaking of his own race, the same exception of African Americans, to die violent deaths can be said for First Nations people. or commit suicide, especially between the ages of 16-25 Referrals from social service agencies and incar- (Citizen’s Commission on Human Rights). ceration also cause First Nations people to fall prey to The U.S. government pays for these mental health psychiatric abuses. Instead of improving after receiving workers not only in the schools but also through the treatment, the arrest rate of patients almost doubles and Indian Health System. On many reservations, Thorazine, one-third commit suicide. At the same time, First Nations advertised as a chemical lobotomy by its manufacturer, communities are torn apart by gang violence, fractured has been the drug often prescribed to cure marijuana and families, rising arrest rates among youth primarily for drug alcohol addiction. Since the release of Thorazine, pharma- abuse, violent crimes, and thefts, rising unemployment, ceutical companies have released a slew of newer drugs, and more signs of cultural stress. This disintegration of all of which cause permanent neurological damage. culture correlates positively with the rise in funding and John Trudell, former Chairman of AIM and Ward implementation of mental health programs. Churchill, faculty of University of Colorado in Boulder, Instead of giving malnourished children meals, the both cite the use of drugs as chemical warfare against First U.S. now gives them drugs. Instead of shooting First Nations people. Trudell specifically cites the spread of Nations people who complain, the U.S. now gives them LSD as an example of this, believing that drug addictions “mental treatment.” First Nations people, especially the among First Nations people best suit the purposes of the men, are jailed at much higher rates than their white coun- U.S. government. The use of psychotropic drugs funded terparts. Drug abuse and alcoholism are the two problems by the U.S. further insures the chemical destruction of that precipitate these encounters. While 60% of all street First Nations people. The theories fueling such abuses drugs are being consumed by White America, 80% of are the opposite of a traditional beliefs. At the core of those being jailed are non-Whites—African Americans, these theories is that people are soulless, that they are Hispanics, and First Nations people. Such targeting is the biologically preprogrammed, hence having genetic limi- direct result of the influence of psychiatry and psychol- tations (cf. the two most pervasive learning theories in ogy on the politics of this nation (Citizen’s Commission education—Behaviorism and Piaget Developmentalism), on Human Rights). The advancement of commercialism and that certain races are genetically inferior is evidenced and industry have been the primary motivations for the by their continued primitive states, i.e., not emulating extermination of First Nations people. Mental health white middle-class culture. and pharmaceutical companies are two of the largest Jim Cummins, himself an Educational Psychologist, commercial enterprises in this nation. labels these “medical” approaches to education particu- Chemical warfare against First Nations people also larly destructive to First Nation children as well as to comes from environmental pollution. The land designated their cultures. To further these goals, the U.S. National for First Nations people has been targeted by commercial 28 — Holocaust — Chapter Seven Chapter Seven — Holocaust — 29 enterprises as sites for garbage dumps, incinerators, and receive any compensation until almost thirty years later nuclear waste repositories. The land held by First Nations (Schwab). Today there is still a gigantic pile of uranium people also contains one-third of the low-sulfur coal, 37% tailings in the Shiprock area. When the wind blows, the of the uranium, and substantial deposits of oil and gas lo- tailings spread not just across the land of the Diné but cated within the borders of the U.S. Many U.S. companies into surrounding areas occupied by whites and Hispan- want First Nations people to let them come onto their land, ics. The same is true for uranium tailings on Laguna land strip it, and leave poisonous wastes. This has been the case outside of Grants, NM. with uranium mining on both Diné and Laguna lands. On July 16, 1979, at Churchrock, Dinetah–Navajo After the Diné returned to the land given them by Nation, New Mexico, 94 million gallons of radioactive con- the Holy People, they prospered. Today they occupy 17 taminated materials and toxic chemicals spilled into the million acres or land about the size of West Virginia. Rio Puerco. This was one of the largest spills in the U.S., There are over 143,000 people living on that land. In 1993, yet virtually no one heard of it. This spill contaminated approximately half the population had housing without 100 miles of the Rio Puerco, the only source of water in complete plumbing. The median annual family income this desert region. A Diné woman who was in the river was less than $10,000. Only about 20% had telephone bed with her livestock died of severe radiation burns. More service, and about half had electricity (1980 statistics). importantly, no one could or still can use the water. In a Unemployment ran about 30% with 56% living in poverty. desert, water is vital for survival for both people and their There were only about 2,000 miles of paved roads. Most livestock. Even ten years later, radiation levels were 100 information had to go out via radio broadcasts. While times higher than the maximum allowed under Arizona economic improvements still lag, the Diné suffer from laws, which are stricter than New Mexico’s. increased drug usage and violence. Mining on the land held by First Nations people often follows the pattern of opening the land of First Nations for commercial enterprise—the continuation of “Manifest Des- tiny.” Getting tribal leaders to sign the necessary agreements followed the historical patterns of bribery, the use of whiskey, and negotiating with the more “progressive leaders,” often appointed by the government. In 1948, the Three Affiliated Tribes—what was left of the Mandan, Arikara, and Hidatsa—at Fort Berthold signed away their best land for the construction of Garrison Dam. George Gillete, chairman of the business council for Fort Berthold, cried at the signing. The dam destroyed a way of life for other First Nations as well. It totally ruined the pasture land and economy of the Yankton, Lower Brule, and Crow In the 1930s, the U.S. government came onto Diné land Creek Sioux. Many people had to be relocated. and forcibly reduced their livestock, mostly sheep and This unexamined plan for commercializing resources goats. Because of the depression, the government could has destroyed centuries-old ways of life in Arizona and not find enough buyers. The livestock was subsequently created a bitter dispute between the Hopi and Diné. For shot, and their carcasses left to rot. This was the second hundreds of years, these people had co-existed in the such devastation of the traditional Diné way of life. After same area, using the same land for grazing, planting this reduction, many Diné were forced to work as laborers. crops, and religious ceremonies. Many Hopi and Diné When the uranium mine in the Four Corners area opened families are related through marriage. Unfortunately, the in the 1950s, nearly 3,000 Diné worked there. joint-use land contains a great deal of coal. In order to The Diné lived in worker-built housing constructed get exclusive mining rights, a disagreement was provoked of Celotex, made from compressed sugar cane pulp and between these two nations. In the end, Congress awarded usually used for insulation and sound-proofing with cor- the Hopi exclusive usage of the land. As a result, all Diné, rugated metal atop a wooden frame. Better housing was whose families had lived in the area for centuries, are provided for the non-Diné workers. The workers were sent being forcibly removed (Schwab). The benefactor, no into the mine immediately after dynamite blasts while doubt, has been the Peabody Mining Company. the air was still thick with radioactive dust. One Diné These atrocities continue into present time. On July supervisor was informed of the risk but was warned not 14, 1996, the Albuquerque Journal reported that New to tell the workers. Mexico had approved the strip mining of 9,000 acres Many, many Diné died of lung cancer. Birth defects northwest of Quemado. The mine will be operated by in that area have increased sharply as have alcoholism the Salt River Project to save money for Arizona rate and drug abuse: One of the side effects of radiation poi- payers. This mining operation is only twelve miles from soning is depression. Dependents of the victims did not the sacred salt lake belonging to Zuni Pueblo. All First 30 — Holocaust — Chapter Seven Chapter Seven — Holocaust — 31 Nations people of that area, including Diné and Apache, Everywhere, First Nations people are creating cultural consider the lake sacred. The lake is the home of Salt renewal. One of these areas is language. Out on Hualapai Woman, a main character in Zuni origin stories. Donald land, Philbert and Lucille Watahomogie, working from Eriacho, governor of Zuni, had asked the state to turn scratch, were able to create an award-winning curriculum down the request, citing the destruction of a religious for Hualapai children. The Watahomogies worked with site. Despite this plea, the plans were not altered. This the elders and community to develop an orthography for mining operation will take place in an area of extreme their language and eventually written materials. Today fragile ecology. Additionally, it will disrupt the way of life Hualapai children can learn to read and write in their own of First Nations people for at least fifty years. language. At the University of Arizona, Ofelia Zepeda, Tohono O’odham, worked tirelessly many years to establish the American Indian Language Development Institute. The Zuni were there when Coronado marched into New Every summer, people from as far away as Alaska, Hawaii, Mexico five hundred years ago. and even New Zealand come to learn how to teach their languages. In Oklahoma, Margaret Mauldin, Muskoke, has offered language lessons in her living room. She also travels to Florida and Texas to work with speakers The Renaissance of Muskoke languages there. In Wisconsin, the Oneida Despite the on-going suppression, First Nations have opened their own language schools. people continue to survive. While an estimated 10% of Americans are descended from First Nations people (Jack Forbes), only two million still claim that identity. That there are so few of us speaks to the effectiveness of the holocaust. That our numbers are growing speaks to our spirit. Our identity comes to us through family, community, and tribal/national memberships. We do not need a U.S. ID to affirm us. In the midst of the suppression, our own integrity has carried us through. Today we are experiencing a quiet renaissance. This renaissance takes many forms. For example, Grace Thorpe, daughter of Olympian Jim Thorpe, leads the fight against environmental abuses. The Sak’n’Fox in Iowa offer classes in their language. She lobbies tirelessly on behalf of First Nations people. Many California groups now have language classes. On In the southwest, Lila Bird from Santo Domingo Pueblo Santa Ana Pueblo, Donna Pino-Martinez requested space has a non-profit research organization called Southwest and recruited teachers to begin teaching classes in Keres. Environmental Research, Inc., which gathers the latest In fact, most First Nations now offer classes in their own data on environmental pollution not just on Indian land languages. Tribal colleges, such as Sinte Gleske College but all over the world. Lehua Lopez, native Hawaiian, has or Salish Kootenai College offer courses in both language a non-profit organization entitled Native Lands Institute and culture as well as a variety of degree programs. Urban which focuses on preventing commercialization of Indian Indian Centers too offer classes in native languages. In lands and educating the public about traditional uses. the southwest, Albuquerque Indian Center has offered a Martin Vigil, from Tesuque Pueblo and the first Indian variety of language classes, including Lakota, Cherokee, EMT (Emergency Medical Technician), leads programs to and Navajo. State universities in states with large First insure that First Nations people have emergency medical Nations populations, such as the University of New attention on reservations. Mexico and the University of Oklahoma, offer classes In growing numbers, First Nations people are regain- in First Nation languages. ing control of the education of the children, either by In addition to our languages, we are rediscovering taking them out of schools and educating them at home other aspects of our cultures. Dance has always been or through direct control of curriculums. Two such edu- central to our religious practices, and traditional dancing cators are Lorene Legah of Window Rock, co-author of is enjoying a revival. Traditional dance is often an integral the Beauty Way curriculum, and Herbert Lee, teacher/ part of traditional ceremonies. One of these revivals is the educator. Both use traditional Diné wisdom for the teach- plains Sun Dance. Leonard Crow Dog, Lakota medicine ing of Diné children and adults. Laguna Pueblo recently man and a participant at the second Wounded Knee, has started a private middle-school that is creating a cur- has been instrumental in reinstating this ceremony. His riculum that reflects Laguna philosophy. In Milwaukee, Cousin Phil Crazy Bull conducts the Sun Dance through- a group of urban people have come together to start the out the Southwest and world wide. Likewise, dancing has Indian Community School. always been integral to the ceremonies of the Pueblos. 30 — Holocaust — Chapter Seven Chapter Seven — Holocaust — 31 Unfortunately, interest among the young people in danc- Americas to recognize this contribution by First Nations ing had dropped so that participation had become almost people. WordCraft headed by Lee Francis, who grew up nil in some pueblos. This too has changed, particularly in outside of Laguna Pueblo, offers mentoring to unpublished those Pueblos that have casinos. The plazas are now full writers. While membership is not limited to First Nations of dancers, ranging from toddlers to elders. people only, this organization has encouraged many young In Albuquerque, a Purepecha Indian named Mapitzmitl First Nations people to write and publish. and his dance group Ehecatl bring performances of Mexica/Chichimeca Warrior style dance to audiences all over the nation. This dance, also known as Aztec dance, in the U.S. serves to remind “Hispanics”—this term more accurately denotes the language of a person than the racial origins—of their First Nations roots. Part of the mission of this group is to build a community around the dance. As a result of his efforts, a dozen or so Aztec groups have sprung up in New Mexico, coming together for ceremonies. John Jaramillo, trained in both modern dance and traditional dance, trains children at Isleta Pueblos. The number of performing groups continues to grow. While interest in the priesthood of the Catholic church wanes, we are still training medicine men and medicine women. Paul White Eagle–Ani-Yun-Wiya, Hlanatubbe– Chahta, and many others still provide spiritual guidance for First Nations people. Just recently, Phil Crazy Bull after a vision began and has now completed his training to conduct yuwipi ceremonies. This ceremony is designed to enable the medicine man to locate the owners for repatriated sacred objects. Both the physical remains of First Nations people as well as their personal items First Nations people have excelled in other art areas are held by museums around the world, including both as well. Will Rogers, Cherokee, enchanted audiences in the Smithsonian and the Vatican. These include scalps, the earlier part of the twentieth century. Many others mummified babies and children, clothing, and, of course, have followed him. For example, John Trudell, Lakota, is feathers and other sacred items. Anna Lee Walters writes a fine musician and poet. He masterfully combines these about this issue in her novel, Ghost Singer. AAllll thisthis isis partpart two talents on his album A.K.A. Graffiti Man. Bob Dylan of the dehumanization— the depersonalization —that First called this album the “best he had ever heard.” Buffy St. Nations people have had to endure. Marie has been strumming out tunes since the sixties. First Nations people have been publishing in Euro- Joanne Shenendoah has produced a masterful collection pean languages since the 1600s. Some of the finest writing of traditional Iroquois women’s songs. Paul Ortega from being produced today in the United States is being written the Southwest adds a country twang to his songs. by First Nations people. Leslie Marmon Silko’s Ceremony From New York City, three Kuna women have put to- is beyond a doubt one of the finest works ever produced gether an incredible act, entitled Spider Woman’s Theater. by an American author. Leslie is a member of the well- Using their own creative works and talents, they poke fun known Marmon family from Laguna Pueblo where she at stereotypes of First Nations people as well as enact- grew up. N. Scott Momaday, Kiowa, won a Pulitzer prize ing some of the discrimination they have experienced. for his novel House Made of Dawn. Momaday, whose First Nations people have always used humor to relieve father was a well-known Kiowa painter and his mother a tension and stress. Spider Woman’s Theater is the best of Cherokee writer, grew up outside of Jemez Pueblo. Louis that tradition. Another humorist is a talented Diné named Owens, Choctaw-Cherokee from Mississippi, intertwines Vincent Craig , creator of the cartoons entitled “Mutton the stories of the Choctaw in his novels, which are set Man.” Some of my personal favorite painters include in San Francisco. These are just a few examples. There Sam English, Carl Gorman—now deceased and one of are literally so many fine novels written by First Nations the Navajo Code Talkers of World War II, and Mapitzmitl. people that they are too numerous to mention. These are, of course, only a sample of the talent. More Two of my favorite poets are Joy Harjo, Muskoke, and complete lists can be found on the World Wide Web. Fur- Simon Ortiz, Acoma. Joy is a master of metaphor, and thermore, First Nations people have inspired thousands of Simon captures the language and images of life. Like novel- images via poetry, novels, music, and movies. Just as First ists, poets among First Nations people abound. Joe Bruchac Nations people played themselves in Buffalo Bill’s Wild and Geary Hobson started the Native Writers Circle of the West Show, today they portray First Nations people on 32 — Holocaust — Chapter Seven Chapter Seven — Holocaust — 33 screen. Also, they portray First Nations people in stories written by First Nations people. Any example of this is the film Smoke Signals based upon a novel by the same name written by Sherman Alexie. This movie captures the spirit and humor of First Nations people in the midst of continuing tragedies. First Nations people, using traditional values and structures, have proven to be good business people also. The Menominee and their forest industry is one example of that. Other examples include Laguna In- dustries (Laguna Pueblo), All Pueblo Cultural Center (owned and operated by the All Indian Pueblo Council), Inn of the Gods (skiing resort owned and operated by Mescalero), and Chemehuevis tourist operations on Lake Havasupai (one of the most popular retirement sites for snowbirds—retired people from the rest of the U.S. and Canada who only come during the winter). The case of the Mississippi Choctaw is another excellent example. Their enterprises include assembling wire harnesses for Ford and Navistar, telephones for AT&T, and audio speakers for Chrysler, Harley-Davidson, and Boeing. They own a greeting card plant that hand-finishes 83 million cards each year. They operate one of the largest printing plants for direct-mail advertising in the South. It has full employment for its own members. Fifty percent of their employees are other Mississippians. Intended to provide “seed” money to build other indus- tries, casinos have brought both economic and spiritual revival to First Nations people. In virtually every Pueblo that has casinos, participation in traditional activities has increased. Additionally, these communities have been able to improve housing, roads, schools, and health care facili- ties. Essentially, the money from gambling has increased the ability of First Nations people to have. It has increased our ability to really be self-determined. However, gambling, which has always been a part of the culture of First Nations people, flies in the face of Christian beliefs and threatens existing economic/political structures.

While the U.S. passes laws to protect the gambling interests of whites, gambling operations run by First Nations people have been vigorously opposed.

32 — Holocaust — Chapter Seven Chapter Seven — Holocaust — 33 34 — Holocaust — Chapter Seven Chapter Eight — Holocaust — 35 Chapter Eight — Some Final Thoughts

Official history wants us to believe that the holocaust of Native America is over. It is not. Economic and educational levels remain exceedingly low and far behind other groups, only 9.3% have a Bachelor’s degree compared to 114% for African Americans and 22.0% for White Ameri- cans. Additionally, the planned genocide continues. We are being poisoned through chemical warfare: environmental pollution, street drugs, psychiatric drugs, and alcohol. We are dying from biological warfare: diet-related and life-style diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and AIDS. As long as we survive, our existence questions the very legitimacy of the U.S. government.

Members of the St. Croiz Band found this pinned to the bulletin board of Tombstone Plaza, Medford, Wisconsin. It had been circulated among Montana, Idaho, and Washington anti-Indian groups. (Southern Poverty Law Center, 1994)

Leonard Peltier is still jailed. In fact, the FBI has launched a media campaign to prevent his release. In states with heavy Indian populations, hate crimes against First Nations people continue. In New Mexico, Diné have been kidnapped, tortured, and brutally murdered in towns bordering their nation. Even when caught, those commit- ting the crimes have received unusually light sentences. These crimes make a mockery of the basic premises most Americans purport to believe in—life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. These crimes mock the U.S. Constitution. As long as these things can be done to First Na- tions people, there is no freedom; there is no justice in this country.

34 — Holocaust — Chapter Seven Chapter Eight — Holocaust — 35 36 — Holocaust — Chapter Eight Appendix A — Holocaust — 37 Appendix A

Creek agency, 6 Sept. 1813 Govr. Mitchell, Milledgeville, GA. I have a runner from Cowetau. Our chiefs are still under the influence of fear. Four towns have fortified; Tallahassee, Cowetau, Tookaubatchee and Cufsetau. The Chiefs are apprehensive that Indian people of Fowltown/ Kinnards settlement/ are preparing to join the “red club men”. The Chiefs meet today at Ooseoochee to ascertain the fact; as well as whether any of the settlements low down on Flint and Chattahoochee will join the prophets [a reference to Prophet, a Shawnee urging all Indians to unite and fight against the U.S.]. Peter McQueen’s people have joined the aultosus(?) they are dancing “the dance of the Indians of the Lakes”.- The Chiefs are in great need of powder, flints, lead and guns; and very desirous some troops would march for Chattahoochee to build some blockhouses there to “keep the ground and have all clear in front and behind them.” To the first of this month they have taken for the war party 200 cattle and some horses, and several parties were still out. Mr. Barnard informs me he has communicated to you an outrage committed by some people of Hartford on two sons of Perrimans. I wish it could be examined into that justice may be done. I am informed some scout parties on horse, said to be from Jones, have been out above me and reported their orders were to kill every Indian they saw who had not something white about their heads. I do not know who could have given such an order. The Chiefs have stated the mark by which the prophets party [this is apparently a reference to Tecumseh] may be known. The Chiefs among the hostile party are exerting themselves to get the government of the prophets; but hitherto with but little success. I hope by this you have something definitive from Government. I have nothing. I am respectfully Dear Sir yours Benjamin Hawkings

36 — Holocaust — Chapter Eight Appendix A — Holocaust — 37 38 — Holocaust — Appendix A Appendix B — Holocaust — 39 Appendix B

The Removal Act 28 May 1830 An Act to provide for an exchange of lands with the the improvements so valued and paid for, shall pass to Indians residing in any of the states or territories, and for the United States, and possession shall not afterwards their removal west of the river Mississippi. be permitted to any of the same tribe. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Represen- And be it further enacted, That upon the making of tatives of the United States of America, in Congress as- any such exchange as is contemplated by this act, it shall sembled, That it shall and may be lawful for the President and may be lawful for the President to cause such aid and of the United States to cause so much of any territory assistance to be furnished to the emigrants as may be belonging to the United States, west of the river Missis- necessary and proper to enable them to remove to, and sippi, not included in any state or organized territory, and settle in, the country for which they may have exchanged; to which the Indian title has been extinguished, as he may and also, to give them such aid and assistance as may be judge necessary, to be divided into a suitable number of necessary for their support and subsistence for the first districts, for the reception of such tribes or nations of year after their removal. Indians as may choose to exchange the lands where they And be it further enacted, That it shall and may be now reside, and remove there; and to cause each of said lawful for the President to cause such tribe or nation to be districts to be so described by natural or artificial marks, protected, at their new residence, against all interruption as to be easily distinguished from every other. or disturbance from any other tribe or nation of Indians, And be it further enacted, That it shall and may be or from any other person or persons whatever. lawful for the President to exchange any or all of such And be it further enacted, That it shall and may be districts, so to be laid off and described, with any tribe lawful for the President to have the same superintendence or nation of Indians now residing within the limits of any and care over any tribe or nation in the country to which of the states or territories, and with which the United they may remove, as contemplated by this act, that he is States have existing treaties, for the whole or any part now authorized to have over them at their present places or portion of the territory claimed and occupied by such of residence: Provided, That nothing in this act contained tribe or nation, within the bounds of any one or more of shall be construed as authorizing or directing the violation the states or territories, where the land claimed and oc- of any existing treaty between the United States and any of cupied by the Indians, is owned by the United States, or the Indian tribes. the United States are bound to the state within which it lies to extinguish the Indian claim thereto. And be it further enacted, That for the purpose of giving effect to the Provisions of this act, the sum of five hundred And be it further enacted, That in the making of any thousand dollars is hereby appropriated, to be paid out of such exchange or exchanges, it shall and may be lawful any money in the treasury, not otherwise appropriated. for the President solemnly to assure the tribe or nation with which the exchange is made, that the United States (Italics have been added for emphasis.) will forever secure and guaranty to them, and their heirs or successors, the country so exchanged with them; and if they prefer it, that the United States will cause a patent or grant to be made and executed to them for the same: Provided always, That such lands shall revert to the United States, if the Indians become extinct, or abandon the same. And be it further enacted, That if, upon any of the lands now occupied by the Indians, and to be exchanged for, there should be such improvements as add value to the land claimed by any individual or individuals of such tribes or nations, it shall and may be lawful for the Presi- dent to cause such value to be ascertained by appraise- ment or otherwise, and to cause such ascertained value to be paid to the person or persons rightfully claiming such improvements. And upon the payment of such valuation, 38 — Holocaust — Appendix A Appendix B — Holocaust — 39 40 — Holocaust — Appendix B Appendix C — Holocaust — 41 Appendix C

TREATY WITH THE SIOUX–MDEWAKANTON AND WAHPAKOOTA BANDS, 1851. Articles of a treaty made and concluded at Mendota, breaking land, and for such other beneficial objects as in the Territory of Minnesota, on the fifth day of august, may be deemed most conducive to the prosperity and hap- eighteen hundred and fifty-one, between the United States piness of said Indians, thirty thousand dollars ($30,000.) of America, by Luke Lea, Commissioner of Indian Af- The balance of said sum of one million four hundred and fairs, and Alexander Ramsey, governor and ex-officio ten thousand dollars, ($1,410,000,) to wit: one million, superintendent of Indian affairs in said Territory, com- one hundred and sixty thousand dollars ($1,160,000) to missioners duly appointed for that purpose, and the Med- remain in trust with the United States, and five per cent ay-wa-kan-toan and Wah-pay-koo-tay bands of Dakota interest thereon to be paid annually to said Indians for and Sioux Indians. the period of fifty years, commencing on the first day of ARTICLE 1. July, eighteen hundred and fifty-two (1852,) which shall be in full payment of said balance, principal and interest: The peace and friendship existing between the United said payments to be made and applied, under the direc- States and the Med-ay-wa-kan-toan and Wah-pay-koo-tay tion of the President as follows, to wit: 3d. For a general bands of Dakota or Sioux Indians shall be perpetual. agricultural improvement and civilization fund, the sum ARTICLE 2. of twelve thousand dollars, ($12,000.) 4th. For educational The said Med-ay-wa-kan-toan and Wah-pay-koo-tay purposes, the sum of six thousand dollars, ($6,000.) 5th. bands of Indians do hereby cede and relinquish all their For the purchase of goods and provisions, the sum of ten lands and all their right, title and claim to any lands whatev- thousand dollars, ($10,000.) 6th. For money annuity, the er, in the Territory of Minnesota, or in the State of Iowa. sum of thirty thousand dollars, ($30,000.) [*592]

ARTICLE 3. ARTICLE 5. [Stricken out.] The entire annuity, provided for in the first section of the second article of the treaty of September twenty-ninth, ARTICLE 4. eighteen hundred and thirty-seven, (1837,) including an In further and full consideration of said cession and unexpended balance that may be in the Treasury on the relinquishment, the United States agree to pay to said first of July, eighteen hundred and fifty-two, (1852,) shall Indians the sum of one million four hundred and ten thereafter be paid in money. thousand dollars, ($1,410,000,) at the several times, in ARTICLE 6. the manner and for the purposes following, to wit: 1st. To the chiefs of the said bands, to enable them to settle their The laws of the United States prohibiting the introduc- affairs and comply with their present just engagements; tion and sale of spirituous liquors in the Indian country and in consideration of their removing themselves to the shall be in full force and effect throughout the territory country set apart for them as above, (which they agree hereby ceded and lying in Minnesota until otherwise direct- to do within one year after the ratification of this treaty, ed by Congress or the President of the United States. without further cost or expense to the United States,) and ARTICLE 7. in consideration of their subsisting themselves the first Rules and regulations to protect the rights of persons year after their removal, (which they agree to do without and property among the Indian parties to this Treaty, further cost or expense on the part of the United States,) and adapted to their condition and wants, may be pre- the sum of two hundred and twenty thousand dollars scribed and enforced in such manner as the President ($220,000.) Provided, That said sum shall be paid, one- or the Congress of the United States, from time to time, half to the chiefs of the Med-ay-wa-kan-toan band, and shall direct. In witness whereof, the said Luke Lea and one-half to the chief and headmen of the Wah-pay-koo-tay Alexander Ramsey, Commissioners on the part of the band, in such manner as they, hereafter, in open council, United States and the undersigned Chiefs and Headmen shall respectively request, and as soon after the removal of of the Med-ay-wa-kan-toan and Wah-pay-koo-tay bands of said Indians to the home set apart for them as the neces- Dakota or Sioux Indians, have hereunto set their hands, sary appropriations therefor shall be made by Congress. at Mendota, in the Territory of Minnesota, this fifth day 2d. To be laid out, under the direction of the President, for of August, Anno Domini, one thousand eight hundred the establishment of manual-labor schools; the erection of and fifty-one. mills and blacksmith shops, opening farms, fencing and 40 — Holocaust — Appendix B Appendix C — Holocaust — 41 L. Lea. Headmen Wa-soo-mee-tchash-ta-shnee, (Wicked or Alex. Ramsey. ‘Bad Hail,”) Med-ay-wa-kan-toans. Oan-ketay-hee-dan, (Little Water-God or “Little Whale,”) Chief Ta-oya-te-duta, (his scarlet people, or “Little Crow,”) Tcha-noon-pay-sa, (The Smoker,) Headmen Wa-kan-o-zhan, (Sacred Light, or Medicine Bottle,) Ta-tay-to-kay-tcha, (Other wind,) Tee-tchay, (Top of the Lodge or “Jim” or “Old Thad”) Ka-ho, (The Rambler about,) Ta-tchan-h’ pee-sa-pa, (His “Black Tomahawk.) Chief Ta-tchan-koo-wash-tay, (Good Road,) Ma-ka-na-ho-toan-ma-nee, (At whose tread the earth Headmen Ta-tay-o-wo-teen-ma-nee, (Roaring Wind resounds,) that walks,) H’-da-ee-yan-kay, (he runs rattling,) O-yay-tchan-ma-nee, (Track Maker,) Too-kan-a-hena-ma-nee, (Walker on the Medicine Boul- Ta-shoark-ay, (His Dog,) ders or Stones,) Chief Sha-k’pay, (“Six,”) Wa-m’dee-doo-ta, (Scarlet War Eagle,) Headmen A-no-ghee-ma-zheen, (He that stands on Na-ghee-yoo-shkan, (He moves the Ghosts or Shadows,) both sides,) Shoank’-a-ska, (“White Dog”) Hoo-ya-pa, (Eagle Head,) Hoo-sa-nee-ghee, (one leg yellow or orange colored,) Ta-tay-mee-na, (Round Wind,) Wa-keen-yan-wash-tay, (“Good Thunder”) Ka-t’pan-t’ pan-oo, (He comes pounding to pieces,) Chief Wa-pa-sha, (The Standard, or “Red Leaf”) Ma-h’pee-ya-henda-keen-yan, (Walking across a cloud,) Headmen Wa-kan-hendee-o-ta, (Many Lightnings,) Wa-pee-ghee, (The orange red speckled cloud,) Tchan-h’pee-yoo-ka, (He has a war club,) Ma-za-wa-menoo-ha, (Gourd shell metal medicine rattle,) Heen-han-doo-ta, (Red Owl,) Chief Hay-ee-tcha-h’moo-ma-nee, (Horn whistling walking,) Ma ka-ka-ee-day, (He sets the Earth on fire,) Headmen Pay-pay, (Sharp,) Ee-a-hee-herday, (He bursts out speaking,) Ta-wo-ta-way-doo-ta, (His Scarlet Armor,) Chief Wa-koo-tay, (The “Shooter”) Hay-pee, (Third Son,) Headmen Ma-h’pee-ya-ma za, (Metal cloud,) A-pay-ho-ta, (Grey mane or crest,) Ta-ma-za-ho-wash-tay, (his good iron voice,) Ho-tan-een, (His voice can be heard,) Ma-ka ta-na-zheen, (He stands on the earth,) Ma-h’pee-ya-shee-tcha, (Bad Cloud,) Ee-wan-kam-ee-na-zhan, (He stands above,) Ta-wa-tcheen, (His mind,) Wa-kan-ta-pay-ta, (The Spirit’s Fire,) Han-yay-too-ko-kee-pa-pee, (Night which is feared,) Na-ghee-mee-tcha-keetay, (He kills the Ghosts,) In presence of Thomas Foster, Secretary. Een-yan-sha-sha, (Red Stones,) Nathaniel McLean, Indian Agent. Ee-day-wa-kan, (Sacred Blaze,) Alexander Fariboult, P. Prescott, G. H. Pond, Interpreters. Ta-sag-yay-ma-za, (His metal Staff,) David Olmstead; W. C. Henderson; Alexis Bailly; Richard Chute; A. Jackson; A. L. Larpenteur; W. H. Randall, Sr.; A. Chief Ma-h’pee mee-tchash-tay, (man of the sky,) S. H. White; H. L. Dousman; Frederic B. Sibley; Marten Headmen Wee-tchan-h’pee, (The Star,) McLeod; Geo. H. Faribault. Ta-tay-na-zhee-na, (Little standing Wind,) To the Indian names are subjoined marks.

Headmen Hoak-shee-dan-doo-ta, (Scarlet Boy,) SUPPLEMENTAL ARTICLE Am-pay-sho-ta, (Smoky Day,) 1st. The United States do hereby stipulate to pay the Ha-ha-ka-ma-za, (Metal Elk,) Sioux bands of Indians, parties to this treaty, at the rate of ten cents per acre, for the lands included in the reservation Ta - tay - h’moo - he - ya - ya, (“Whistling Wind”) provided for in the third article of the treaty as originally Wa-pa-ma-nee, (He strikes walking,) agreed upon in the following words:

Ma-h’pee-ya-wa-kan, (Sacred Cloud,) ARTICLE 3. Ta-tchan-h’pee-ma-za, (His Iron War Club,) “In part consideration of the foregoing cession and Chief Ma-za-ho-ta, (Gray Metal,) relinquishment, the United States do hereby set apart for the future occupancy and home of the Dakota Indians, 42 — Holocaust — Appendix C Appendix C — Holocaust — 43 parties to this treaty, to be held by them as Indian lands are held, a tract of country of the average width of ten miles on either side of the Minnesota River, and bounded on the west by the Tchaytam-bay and Yellow Medicine Rivers, and on the east by the Little Rock River and a line running due south from its mouth to the Waraju River; the boundaries of said tract to be marked out by as straight lines as practicable, whenever and in such manner as the President of the United States shall direct: Provided, That said tract shall be held and occupied by said bands in common, and that they shall hereafter participate equally and alike, in all the benefits derived from any former treaty between said bands, or either of them, and the United States,” which article has been stricken out of the treaty by the Senate. The said payment to be in lieu of said reservation; the amount, when ascertained under instructions from the Department of the Interior, to be added to the trust fund provided for in the fourth article. 2d. It is further stipulated that the President be authorized, with the assent of the said bands of Indians, parties to this treaty, and as soon after they shall have given their assent to the foregoing article, as may be convenient, to cause to be set apart by appropriate landmarks and boundaries, such tracts of country without the limits of the cession made by the first article of the treaty as may be satisfac- tory for their future occupancy and home: Provided, That the President may, by the consent of these Indians, vary the conditions aforesaid if deemed expedient.

42 — Holocaust — Appendix C Appendix C — Holocaust — 43 44 — Holocaust — Appendix C Appendix D — Holocaust — 45 Appendix D

Department of the Interior understanding and agreement with the Indians to con- Office of Indian Affairs fine their dances and ceremonials within such bounds Circular No. 1665 as he may with reasonable conscience approve; and ar- Washington rangement for careful supervision at such gatherings...as April 26, 1921 far as possible for auxiliary dance places with decent surroundings, and something in the way of wholesome, To the Superintendents: educational entertainment that will tend to divert interest An examination of the latest reports of the Super- from objectionable native customs. The moral influence intendents on the subject of Indian dances reveals of our schools must of course go far toward fixing the encouraging conditions. Apparently, they are growing standards of individual virtue and social purity that should less frequent, are of shorter duration, and interfere less prevail in all forms of amusement or symbolism’s and our with the Indian’s farming and domestic affairs, and have field workers should be able to strengthen cooperation’s been better supervised than formerly. One a number of with missionary activities in the attractions of the Indian reservations, however, the native dance still has enough to a higher conception of home and family life, and to the evil tendencies, to furnish a...ing influence and at times dignity and satisfaction of his personal labor and attain- a troublesome situations which daily for careful consid- ment. It seems to me quite necessary to Indian progress eration and right-minded efforts. that there should be no perversions of those industrial and It is not the policy of the Indian Office to denounce economic essentials which underlie all civilizations, and all forms of Indian dancing. It is rather its purpose to be that therefore meetings, or convocations for any purpose, somewhat tolerant of pleasure and relaxation sought in including pleasurable and even religious occasions, should this way or of ritualism and traditional sentiment thus be directed with due regard to the every-day work of the expressed. The dance per se is not concerned. It is Indian which he must learn to do well and equal to the recognized as a manifestation of something inherent in tests that await him. human nature widely evidenced by sacred and profane These suggestions are offered with a view to drawing history, and as a medium through which elevated minds the attention and efforts of our Service towards a better may happily unite art, refinement, and healthful exercise. control of Indian dancing insofar as it retains elements of It is not inconsistent with civilization. The dance, however, savagery or demoralizing practices. I feel that it is within under most primitive and pagan conditions is apt to be our power to accomplish more than we are doing for the harmful, and when found to be so among the Indians Indian’s social and moral elevation, not by offending his we should control it by educational processes as far as communal longings or robbing his nature of it rhythm, possible, but if necessary by punitive measures when its but by encouraging these instincts to serve his higher degrading tendencies persist. powers and directing his desires and purposes towards The sun-dance and all pagan similar dances and the things he needs to make him strong and capable and so-called religious ceremonies are considered “Indian fit to survive in the midst of all races. Offenses” under existing regulations, and corrective I shall hope that Superintendents will give some spe- penalties are provided. I regard such restrictions as ap- cial thought to this subject, with a view of developing a plication to any dance which involves acts of adultery line of action that will in the next few years reduce to the and immoral relations between the sexes, the sacrificial minimum all objectionable conditions attending Indian destruction of anything or other useful articles, the reck- dances or ceremonial gatherings. less giving away of property, the use of injurious drugs or intoxicants, and frequent or prolonged periods of cel- Respectfully, ebration which bring the Indians together from remote CHAS. H. BURKE points to the neglect of their crops, livestock, and home Commissioner interests; in fact, any disorderly or plainly excessive performance that promotes superstitious cruelty, licen- tiousness, ..., danger to health, and shiftless indifference to family welfare. In all instances, the regulations should be enforced, but only through the exercise of thoughtful restriction and mature judgment, after patient advisory methods have been exhausted. Among these methods should be the efforts of the superintendent to read an 44 — Holocaust — Appendix C Appendix D — Holocaust — 45 46 — Holocaust — Appendix D Holocaust — 47 My Teachers

Abeita, Terry—Isleta Pueblo Jaimes, M. Annette—Mission/Yaqui Abeita, Ulysses—Isleta Pueblo Jaramillo, Odell—Zuni Pueblo Anderson, Bob—Vietnam Vet Jojola, Ted—Isleta Pueblo Bad Cob, Reed—Oglala Lakota Knight, Lona—Lakota Barker, Angela Belone—Diné Lee, Herbert—Diné Bee, Tom—Lakota LaBoueff, Steve—Blackfeet Begay, Cynthia—Diné Lopez, Lehua—Hawaiian Begay, Nelson—Diné Loretto, Irene—Jemez Pueblo Biakakshush (Matthew Gregory)—Choctaw/Cherokee Loretto, Rachel—Jemez Pueblo Bird, Lila—Santo Domingo Pueblo. Manuel, Maxine—Cherokee Bird, Penny—Santo Domingo Pueblo Mankiller, Wilma—Cherokee Bolin, Patrick—Cherokee Mapitzmitl—Purepecha/Pueblo Bolin, Winona—Cherokee Marmon, Harriet—Laguna Pueblo. Botone, Barnie—Blackfeet/Kiowa Mauldin, Margaret—Muskoke Boyd, Paula—Diné Miller, George Eugene—Choctaw Miller, Sarah—Choctaw Mina, Anna Marie—Santo Domingo Pueblo Carmona, Aureliana—Maya Momaday, N. Scott—Kiowa Chambers, Cynthia—Professor of Education, University Mondragon-Lujan, Rose—Taos Pueblo of Lethbridge Montes, Claudine—Southern Ute. Chavez, José—Quechua Nahgahnub, Esther—Ojibwa Churchill, Ward—Muskoke Ocelo—Mexica Corrigan, Buck—Blackfeet Ortega, Paul—Apache. Cramer, Maia—Lakota Owens, Louis—Choctaw/Cherokee Crazy Bull, Phil—Lakota Pecos, Regis—Cochiti Pueblo. Deloria, Sam—Lakota Pino-Martinez, Donna—Santa Ana Pueblo. English, Sam—Chippewa/Ojibwa Quiver, Robert—Oglala Lakota Elijah, Mary Joy—Oneida Red Elk, Lenora C.—Assinoboine/Gros Ventre Ellis, Richard—Historian Romero, Mary E.—Cochiti Pueblo Fiscus, Carolyn—Winnebago Romero, Robert—San Juan Pueblo Forbes, Jack—Delaware. Rose, Richard—Cherokee Frank, Della—Diné Rose, Nantinki—Pasmaquodi Goodstriker, Evelyn—Dakota. Sanchez-Benitez, Gabino—Mexica Gorman, Carl—Diné Sergio—Mexica Grammie—Cherokee Shade, Arlene—Blackfeet/Cree. Hill, David—Choctaw/Chickasaw Shade, Bobbie—Blackfeet Hill, Gerald—Oneida Shirley, Bert—Diné Hlahantubbe—Chahta Ikbi Smiley, James—Diné Hobson, Geary—Cherokee/Quapaw. Tallchief, Shelby—Choctaw Hubbard, L. Ron—philosopher Tecumseh, Ki—Winnebago Jacques, Frieda J—Onandaga. TaloaIkba (James I. Smiley)—Diné/Choctaw/Cherokee 46 — Holocaust — Appendix D Holocaust — 47 Thompson, Freddie and Pauline—Diné Toya, Doris—Jemez Pueblo Two Wolves, David—Onandaga Trudell, John—Lakota. Tsosie, Leonard—Diné. Tzen—Mexica Walking Elk, Mitch—Cheyenne/Hopi Watahomogie, Lucille and Philbert—Hualapai Whirlwind Horse, Devona—Oglala Lakota White, Verine—Oglala Lakota White Eagle, Paul—Ani-yun-wiya Willie, Mary Ann—Diné. Zamora, Rita—Diné, descendent of one of the stolen children Zepeda, Ofelia—Tohono O’odham.

48 — Holocaust Holocaust — 49 Sources and Suggested Readings

Bannon, John Francis. The Spanish Borderlands Frontier: Dumas, Jennifer. How Native Women View Themselves. Unpub- 1513-1821. University of New Mexico Press, 1974. lished paper, University of New Mexico, 1996. Barreiro, José, ed. View from the Shore: American Indian Ellis, Richard N. General Pope and the U.S. Indian Policy. Albu- Perspectives on the Quincentenary. Cornell Univer- querque: University of New Mexico Press, 1970. sity: Akwe:kon Press, 1992. Ellis, Richard N. The Western American Indian: Case Studies Bigelow, Bill, Miner, Barbara, and Peterson, Bob, eds. in Tribal History. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Rethinking Columbus. Milwaukee: Rethinking Press, 1972. Schools, Ltd., 1992. Fenton, William N. Parker on the Iroquois. Syracuse: Syra- Brown, Dee. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee. New York: cuse University Press, 1968. Holt, Rinehart & Winter, 1971. Forbes, Jack. Apache, Navajo, and Spanish. Norman: Uni- Calloway, Colin G. The American Revolution in Indian versity of Oklahoma Press, 1960. Country. New York: The Cambridge University Gordon, Eric Valentine. An Introduction to Old Norse. New Press, 1995. York: Clarendon Press, 1981. “Census Finds Many Claiming New Identity: Indian,” The Green, Rayna. Women in American Indian Society. New New York Times, Tuesday, March 5, 1991, p. A1. York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1992. Churchill, Ward. Cages of Steel: The Politics of Imprison- Hietala, T.R. Manifest Design: Anxious Aggrandizement in ment for the U.S. Washington, D.C.: Mainsonville Late Jacksonian America. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992. Press, 1985. Churchill, Ward. The COINTELPRO Documents from the Hodgkinson, Harold. “The Current Condition of Native FBI’s Secret Wars Against Domestic Dissent. Boston: Americans”, Eric Digest, Sept. 1992. South End Press, 1990. Hogan, Linda. Mean Spirit. New York: Ivy Books, 1992. Churchill, Ward. Indians Are Us? Culture and Genocide Hubbard, L.R. Los Angeles: Bridge in Native North America. Monno, ME: Common All About Radiation. Courage Press, 1994. Publications, 1989. Jacobs, Francine. Citizens Commission on Human Rights. Psychiatry’s The Taino: The People Who Welcomed New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1992. Betrayal. Los Angeles: Citizens Commission on Columbus. Human Rights, 1996. Jaimes, Annette, Ed. The State of Native America: Genocide, Boston: South End Citizens Commission on Human Rights. Psychiatry’s Colonization, and Resistance. Press, 1992. Betrayal: Creating Racism. Los Angeles: Citizens Commission on Human Rights, 1995. Johansen, Bruce. Forgotten Founders. Harvard & Boston: The Harvard Common Press, 1992. Cohen, Felix S. “Americanizing the White Man,” The American Scholar, vol. 21, pp. 177-191, 1952. Lewis, Oscar. The Effects of White Contact upon Blackfoot Cummins, Jim. Preventing Pedagogically-Induced Learn- Culture. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1942. ing Difficulties among Indigenous Students, Journal of Navajo Education, Spring 1991, pp. 3-9. Lyons, Oren, Mohawk, John, Deloria, Jr., Vine, Hauptman, Laurence, Berman, Howard, Grinde, Jr., Donald, Davis, William T. ed. Bradfords’s History of the Plymouth Planta- Berkey, Curtis, and Venables, Robert. tion, 1606-1646. New York: Barnes & Nobles, 1946. Exiled in the Land of the Free: Democracy, Indian Nations, De las Casas, Fray Bartolomé. The Diario of Christopher and the U.S. Constitution. Santa Fe: Clear Light Columbus’ First Voyage to America: 1492-1493. Oliver Publishers, 1992. Dunn and James E. Kelly, Jr., Ed. & Trans. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989. Middlekauft, Robert. The Mathers: Three Generations of Puritan Intellectuals, 1596-1728. New York: Oxford De Rossier, Arthur H., Jr. The Removal of the Choctaw Indians. University Press, 1971. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1971. Matthisesson, Peter. In the Spirit of Crazy Horse. New York: Dozier, Edward P. The Pueblo Indians of North America. Viking Press, 1991. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1970. “Mine Near Zuni Gets OK: Tribe Fears for Sacred Sites, Lake,” Albuquerque Journal, Sunday, July 14, 1996, C6. 48 — Holocaust Holocaust — 49 Momaday, N. Scott, Warriner, Gray, Denke, Conrad, Wright, Ronald. Stolen Continents: The Americas Through Camera One Productions. More Than Bows and Indian Eyes Since 1492. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Arrows. (videorecording). A Production of Camera Company, 1992. One, Gray Warriner, director, a film by Conrad Denke, 1994. Morrison, James D. Schools for the Choctaw. Durant OK: Southeastern Oklahoma State University, Choctaw Bilingual Education Program, 1978. Native Americans’ Growing Pride, Christian Science Moni- tor, Friday, March 22, 1991, p. 13. O’ Donnell, James H.,III. Southern Indians in the Ameri- can Revolution. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1973. Paolino, E.N. The Foundations of the American Empire: Wil- liam Henry Seward and U.S. Foreign Policy. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1973. Paredes, J. Anthony, Ed. Indians of the Southeastern United States in the Late 20th Century. Tuscaloosa: Univer- sity of Alabama Press, 1992. Rountree, Helen C. Pocahontas’ People: The Powhatan In- dians of Virginia through Four Centuries. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990. Salisbury, Neal. The Indians of New England: A Critical Bibliography. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982. Schwab, Jim. Deeper Shades of Green. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1994. Southern Poverty Law Center. “The Hidden Victims: Hate Crime Against American Indians Under-Reported,” Intelligence Report, 75, 1-4. Special Subcommittee on Indian Education. Indian Educa- tion: A National Tragedy–A National Challenge. 1969 Report on the Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, United States Senate. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969. Trafzer, Clifford E. The Kit Carson Campaign: The Last Great Navajo War. Norman: University of Okla- homa Press, 1982. Utley, Robert M. The Indian Frontier of the American West: 1846-1890. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1991. Weatherford, Jack. Native Roots: How the Indians Enriched America. New York: Crown Publishers, 1991. Weyler, Rex. Blood of the Land, the Government and Cor- porate War Against the American Indian Movement, New York: Vintage Books, Random House, 1984. Whitte, Thomas G. “War Against the Indians,” Freedom Magazine, September 1986. Woods, Patricia Dillon. French-Indian Relations on the Southern Frontier, 1699-1762. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1980.

50 — Holocaust Holocaust — 51 U.S. Federally Non-Recognized Indian Tribes by State

This is a partial list. ALASKA 12.Dunlap Band of Mono Indians 1.Tlingit communities left out of the Alaska Native Claims 13.Federated Coast Miwok Tribe Settlement have no land and no subsistence rights. 14.Gabrielino/Tongvah Nation 2.Tsimshian Tribe 15.Hayfork Band of Nor-El-Muk Wintu Indians ALABAMA 16.Hownonquet Community Association 1.Cherokees of Jackson Co. 17.Indian Canyon Band of Coastanoan/Mutsun Indians 2.Cherokees of N.E. Alabama 18.Ione Band of Miwok Indians 3.Eagle Bear Band of Free Cherokees 19.Juaneno Band of Mission Indians 4.Echota Cherokee Tribe of Alabama 20.Kern Valley Indian Community 5.Star Clan of Muskogee Creek Tribe of Pike Co. 21.Maidu Nation 6.Prinicipal Creek Indian Nation East of the Mississippi 22.Melochundum Band of Tolowa Indians 7.Machia Lower Creeks of Alabama 23.Mono Lake Indian Community 8.Cherokees of S.E. Alabama 24.Mukwema Ohlone tribe 9.United Cherokees 25.Northern Maidu Tribe 10.Langley Band of Chickamogee Cherokee Indians in the Southeastern United States 26.Nor-El-Muk Band of Wintun Indians ARIZONA 27.Northfolk Band of Mono Indians 1. Yaqui 28.Ohlone/Coastanoan Muwekma Tribe ARKANSAS 29.San Luis Rey Band of Mission Indians 1.Revived Ouachita Indians of Arkansas & America 30.Salinan Indian Nation CALIFORNIA 31.Salinan Tribe of Monterey County 1.Amah Band of Ohlone/Coastanoans 32.Shasta Tribe 2.American Indian Council of Mariposa Co. 33.Tehatchapi Tribe 3.Antelope Valley Indian Community 34.Tsnungwe Council 4.Atahun Shoshones of San Juan Capistrano 35.United Hourma Nation, Inc. 5.Big Meadows Lodge Tribe 36.Wintoon Indians 6.Calaveras Co. Band of Miwok Indians 37.Wintu Indians of Central Valley 7.Choinumni Tribe 38.Wintu Tribe of Northern California 8.Chukchansi Yokotch Tribe 39.Wukchunmi Council 9.Coastal Band of Chumash Indians 40.Washoe/Paiute of Antelope Valley 10.Coastanoan Band of Carmel Mission Indians 41.Wintoon Indians 11.Death Valley Timba-Sha Shoshone Band 50 — Holocaust Holocaust — 51 42.Yokayo Tribe of Indians 3.Jena Band of Choctaws COLORADO 4.Choctaw- Apache Indian Community 1.Munsee Thames River Delaware 5.United Houma Nation

2.Council for the Benefit of the Colorado Winnebagoes MARYLAND CONNECTICUT 1.Piscataway- Conoy Confederacy & Sub- Tribes, Inc. 1.Nipmuc Indian Bands 2.Piscataway Indians 2.Scaticook Bands 3.Youghiogheny Shawnee Band

3.Schaghticoke Indian Tribe MASSACHUSETTS 4.Paucatuck Band of Pequot Indians 1.Nipmuc Tribal Council of Massachusetts

DELAWARE (Hassanamisco Band) 1.Nanaticoke Association 2.Nipmuc Tribal Council of Massachusetts (Chaubunagungamang Band) FLORIDA 3.Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe 1.Creeks East of the Mississippi 4.Narragansett Tribal Council of Indians 2.Florida Tribe of East Creeks MICHIGAN 3.Topachula Tribe 1.Lake Superior Chippewa of Marquette, Inc. 4.Oklewaha Band of Seminoles 2.Burt Lake Band of Ottawa & Chippewa Indians, Inc. 5.Tuscola United Cherokees of Florida & Alabama, Inc 3.Consolidated Bahwetig Ojibwas and Mackinacs GEORGIA 4.Grand River Band of Ottawa Indians 1.Cane Break Band of E. Cherokees 5.Gunlake Village Band of Grand Lake Ottawa Indians 2.Cherokees of Georgia, Inc. 6.Swan Creek and Black River Chippewa 3.Georgia Tribe of E. Cherokees MINNESOTA 4.Lower Muskogee Creek Tribe- East of the Mississippi 1.NI-MI-WIN Ojibways 5.Southeastern Cherokee Confederacy, Inc. 2.Kah-Bay-Kah-Nong (Warroad Chippewa) IDAHO 3.Sandy Lake Band of Ojibwas 1.Delawares of Idaho MISSISSIPPI INDIANA 1.Grand Village Natchez Indian Tribe 1.Miami Nation of Indiana MISSOURI 2.Upper Kiskopo Band of the Shawnee Nation 1.Dogwood Band of Free Cherokees 3.Northern Cherokee Tribe of Indiana 2.Northern Cherokee Nation of the Old Louisiana KANSAS Territory 1.Wyandot Nation of Kansas 3.Northern Cherokee Tribe of Indians 2.Delaware- Muncie Tribe 4.Northern Chicamunga Cherokee Nation of Arkansas 3.Swan Creek & Black River Chippewas and Missouri MONTANA 4.United Tribe of Shawnee Indians

LOUISIANA 1.Little Shell Tribe of Chippewas of Montana 1.Caddo Adala Indians, Inc. 2.Swan Creek & Black River Chippewa NEW HAMPSHIRE 2.Clifton- Choctaws 1. Abenaki Nation 52 — Holocaust Holocaust — 53 NEW JERSEY 4.N.E. Miami Inter- Tribal Council 1.Ramapough Mountain Indians NEW YORK 2.Nanaticoke Lenni- Lennapes of New Jersey, Inc. 1.Deer Council of Free Cherokees, Brooklyn, NY OKLAHOMA 3.Powhatan-Renape Nation 1.Cataba Tribal Association 4.Osprey Band of Free Cherokees

NEW MEXICO 2.Delaware Tribe of Eastern Oklahoma 1.Cañoncito Band of Navajos (Note: this is a Chapter 3.Yuchi Tribal Organization (governing unit) of the Navajo Nation but has peti- OREGON tioned for independent federal recognition) 1.Celilio-Wyam Indian Community 2.Piro/Manso/Tiwa Indian Tribe of the Pueblo of San Juan de Guadelupe 2.Tolowa- Tututni Tribe

NEVADA 3.Tchinouk Indians 1.Pahrump Band of Paiutes 4.N.W. Cherokee Wolf Band of S.E. Cherokee Confederacy , NORTH CAROLINA 1.Person Co. Indians 5.Chinook Indian tribe 2.Coree Indians 6.Chetco Tribe SOUTH CAROLINA 3.Cherokees of Hoke Co. 1.Summerville Indian Group 4.Meherrin Indian Tribe 2.Chicora-Siouan Indian People 5.Haliwa Saponi Indian Tribe 3 .Four Hole Indian Organization 6.Hattadare Indian Tribe TENNESSEE 7.Kaweah Indian Nation, Inc. 1.Cumberland Creek Indian Confederation 8.Faircloth Indian Tribe 2.Etowah Cherokee Nation 9.Cherokees of Robison & Adjoining Counties 3.Elk Valley Council Band of Free Cherokees 10.Coharie Intra- Tribal Council 4.Red Clay Band of S.E. Cherokee Confederacy

11.Waccamaw Siouan Tribe TEXAS 12.Hatteras Tuscarora 1.Creek Indians of Texas at Red Oak

13.Lumbee Tribe UTAH 14.United Lumbee Nation of North Carolina and America, 1.N.E. Band of Shoshone Indians 15.Cherokee Powhattan Indian Association 2.White Mesa Ute Council 16.Tuscarora Tribe 3.Cedar City Band of Paiutes 17.Tuscarora Nation of North Carolina VERMONT

NORTH DAKOTA 1.Abenaki Nation 1.Little Shell Band of the North Dakota Tribe 2.St. Francis/Skokoki Band of Abenakis of Vermont 2.Christian Pembina Chippewa Indians VIRGINIA

OHIO 1.Chickahominy Indian Tribe 1.Alleghenny Nation (Ohio Band) 2.Monacan Indian Tribe 2.Shawnee Nation United Remnant Band 3.Nansemond Indian Tribal Association 3.Piqua Sept of Ohio Shawnees 4.Upper Mataponi Tribe 52 — Holocaust Holocaust — 53 5.United Rappahannock Tribe

WASHINGTON 1.Mitchell Bay Band 2.Snoqualmoo Tribe of Whidbey Island 3.Duwamish Indian Tribe 4.Steilacoom Tribe 5.Chinook Indian Tribe, Inc. 6.Snohomish Tribe of Indians 7.Noo-Wha-Ha Band 8.Cowlitz Tribe of Indians

WISCONSIN 1.Brotherton Indians of Wisconsin

54 — Holocaust Holocaust — 55 Federally Recognized Indian Groups

ALASKA NATIVE VILLAGES 30. Ketchikan Indian Corporation 1. Akiachak Community 33. King Island Native Community 2. Akiak Community 34. Klawock Cooperative Association 3. Aleut Community of St. Paul Island 35. Knik Village Council 4. Allakaket Community 36. Levelock Village 5. Andreafski Tribal Council 37. Lime Village 6. Angoon Community 38. Lower Kalskag Village 7. Aukquan Traditional Council 39. Mentasta Lake Village 8. Beaver Village 40. Metlakatla Indian Community Council 6. Birch Creek Village 41. Mountain Village 7. Central Council of the Tlingit and Haida Tribes 42. Napaskiak Village Council 8. Chilkat Village of Klukwan 43. Nenana Native Association 9. Chilkoot Indian Association of Haines 44. New Koliganek Village Council 10. Chinik Eskimo Community 45. Newhalen Village Council 11. Circle Native Community 46. Newtok Village Council 12. Cook Inlet Tribal Council 47. Ninilchik Village Traditional Council 13. Craig Community Association 48. Nome Eskimo Community 14. Dillingham Village Council 49. Nondalton Village Council 15. Douglas Indian Association 50. Noorvik Native Community 16. Egekik Village Council 51. Nulato Village Council 17.Ekwok Village Council 52. Orutsararmuit Native Council 18. Gulkana Village Council 53. Oscarville Traditional Council 19. Healy Lake Village 54. Pedro Bay Village 20. Hoonah Indian Association 55. Perryville Village 22. Hughes Village 56. Petersburg Indian Association 23. Huslia Village Council 57. Pilot Station Traditional Council 24. Hydaburg Cooperative Association 58. Platinum Village Council 25. Igiugig Village Center 59. Point Hope Village Council 26. Inupiat Community of the Arctic Slope 60. Rampart Village Council 27. Iqurmuit Tribe 61. Red Devil Village 28. Ivanoff Bay Village 62. Seldovia Village Tribe 29. Kenaitze Indian Tribe 63. Shoonaq Tribe of Kodiak

54 — Holocaust Holocaust — 55 64. Sitka Tribe of Alaska 100. Village of Chanega 65. South Naknek Village 101. Village of Chefornak 66. St. George Island 102. Village of Chevak 67. Stebbins Community Association 103. Village of Chickaloon 68. Teller Village Council 104. Village of Chignik 69. Tetlin Village Council 105.Village of Chignik Lagoon 70. Tsimshian Tribal Council 106. Village of Chignik Lake 71. Tuluksak Native Community 107. Village of Chinita 72. Twin Hills Tribal 108. Village of Chistochina 73. Ugashik Village 109. Village of Chuloonawick 74. Umkumiut Village Council 110. Village of Clark’s Point 75. Valdez Native Association 111. Village of Crooked Creek 76. Venetie Village Council 112. Village of Deering 77. Village of Kokhanok 113. Village of Diomede 78. Village Arctic Village 114. Village of Dot Lake 79. Village of Afognak 115. Village of Eagle 80. Village of Akhiok 116. Village of Eek 81. Village of Akutan 117. Village of Eklutna 82. Village of Alakanuk 118. Village of Ekuk 83. Village of Alatna 119. Village of Elim 84. Village of Aleknagik 120. Village of Emmonak 85. Village of Algaaciq 121. Village of Evansville 86. Village of Ambler 122. Village of Eyak 87. Village of Anaktuvuk Pass 123. Village of False Pass 88. Village of Aniak 124. Village of Fort Yukon 89. Village of Anvik 125. Village of Gakona 90. Village of Atka 126. Village of Galena 91. Village of Atmautluak 127. Village of Gambell 92. Village of Atqasuk 128. Village of Georgetown 93. Village of Barrow 129. Village of Goodnews Bay 94. Village of Belkofsky 130. Village of Grayling 95. Village of Bill Moore’s Slough 131. Village of Hamilton 96. Village of Bravig Mission 132. Village of Holy Cross 97. Village of Buckland 133. Village of Hooper Bay 98. Village of Cantwell 134. Village of Iliamna 99. Village of Chalkyitsik 135. Village of Kake 56 — Holocaust Holocaust — 57 136. Village of Kaktovik 172. Village of Noatak 137. Village of Kalskag 173. Village of Northway 138. Village of Kaltag 174. Village of Nuiqsut 139. Village of Kanatak 175. Village of Nunapitchuk 140. Village of Karluk 176. Village of Ohogamiut 141. Village of Kasaan 177. Village of Old Harbor 142. Village of Kasigluk 178. Village of Ouzinkie 143. Village of Kiana 179. Village of Piamuit 144. Village of Kipnuk 180. Village of Pilot Point 145. Village of Kivalina 181. Village of Pitka’s Point 146. Village of Kluti-Kaah 182. Village of Point Lay 147. Village of Kobuk 183. Village of Port Graham 148. Village of Kongiganak 184. Village of Port Heiden 149. Village of Kotlik 185. Village of Port Lions 150. Village of Kotzebue 186. Village of Portage Creek 151. Village of Koyuk 187. Village of Ruby 152. Village of Koyukuk 188. Village of Salmantoff 153. Village of Kwethluk 189. Village of Sand Point 154. Village of Kwigillingok 190. Village of Savoonga 155. Village of Kwinhagak 191. Village of Saxman 156. Village of Larsen Bay 192. Village of Scammon Bay 157. Village of Manley Hot Springs 193. Village of Selawik 158. Village of Manokotak 194. Village of Shageluk 159. Village of Marshall 195. Village of Shaktoolik 160. Village of McGrath 196. Village of Sheldon’s Point 161. Village of Mekoryuk 197. Village of Shishmaref 162. Village of Minto 198. Village of Shungnak 163. Village of Naknek 199. Village of Skagway 164. Village of Nanwalek 200. Village of Sleetmute 165. Village of Napaimute 201. Village of Solomon 166. Village of Napakiak 202. Village of St. Michael 167. Village of Nelson Lagoon 203. Village of Stevens 168. Village of New Stuyahok 204. Village of Stoney River 169. Village of Nightmute 205. Village of Takotna 170. Village of Nikolai 206. Village of Tanacross 171. Village of Nikolski 207. Village of Tanana 56 — Holocaust Holocaust — 57 208. Village of Tatitlek 16. Salt River Pima-Maricopa 209. Village of Tazlina 17. San Carlos Apache 210. Village of Telida 18. San Juan Southern Paiute 211. Village of Togiak 19. San Xavier Papago 212. Village of Toksook Bay 20 Tohono O’Odham at Sells 213. Village of Tuntutuliak 21. Tonto Apache 214. Village of Tununak 22. Yavapai-Prescott Reservation 215. Village of Tyonek ARKANSAS 216. Village of Unalakleet None CALIFORNIA 217. Village of Unalaska 1. Agua Caliente Reservation 218. Village of Unga 2. Alturas Rancheria 219. Village of Wainwright 3. Augustine Reservation 220. Village of Wales 4. Barona Reservation 221. Village of White Mountain 5. Bear River Band of Rohnerville Rancheria 222. Village of Yakutat 6. Utu Utu Gwaitu Paiute 223. Village of Mary’s Igloo 7. Berry Creek Rancheria 224. Wrangell Cooperative Association

ALABAMA 8. Big Lagoon Rancheria 1. Mowa Band of Choctaw 9. Big Pine Reservation 2. Poarch Band of Creek 10. Big Sandy Rancheria

ARIZONA 11. Big Valley Rancheria 1. Diné Nation 12. Bishop Indian Tribal Council 2. Cocopah 13. Blue Lake Rancheria 3. Colorado Indian Tribes 14. Bridgeport Indian Colony 4. Colorado River Reservation 15. Buena Vista Rancheria 5. White Mountain Apache 16. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians 6. Fort Mojave Reservation 17. Cahuilla Band of Mission Indians 7. Quechan 18. Campo Band of Mission Indians 8. Gila Bend Papago 19. Capitan Grande Reservation 9. Gila River Reservation 20. Cedarville Rancheria 10. Havasupai 21. Chemehuevi Reservation 11. Hopi 22. Chicken Ranch Rancheria 12. Hualapai 23. Chico Rancheria 13. Kaibab Paiute 24. Cloverdale Rancheria Council 14. Maricopa 25. Cold Springs Rancheria 15. Pascua-Yaqui 26. Colusa Rancheria

58 — Holocaust Holocaust — 59 27. Cortina Rancheria 63. Pechanga Band of Mission Indians 28. Coyote Valley Reservation 64. Picayune Rancheria 29. Cuyapaipe General Council 65. Pinoleville Rancheria 30. Death Valley Indian Community 66. Pit River Tribal Council 31. Dry Creek Rancheria 67. Potter Valley Rancheria 32. Elk Valley Rancheria 68. Quartz Valley Reservation 33. Fort Bidwell Community Council 69. Ramona Band of Cahuilla Indians 34. Fort Independence Reservation 70. Redding Rancheria 35. Fort Mojave Reservation 71. Redwood Valley Rancheria 36. Greenville Rancheria 72. Rincon Band of Mission Indians 37. Grindstone Rancheria 73. Robinson Rancheria 38. Guidiville Rancheria 74. Covelo Indian Community 39. Hoopa Extension Reservation 75. Rumsey Rancheria 40. Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation 76. San Manuel Band of Mission Indians 41. Hopland Reservation 77. San Pasqual General Council 42. Inaja & Cosmit Band of Mission Indians 78. Santa Rosa Rancheria 43. Jackson Rancheria 79. Santa Rosa Reservation 44. Jamul Band of Mission Indians 80. Santa Ynez Band of Mission Indians 45. Karuk Tribe of California 81. Santa Ysabel Band of Mission Indians 46. Kashia Business Committee 82. Scotts Valley Band of Pomo Indians 47. La Jolla Band of Mission Indians 83. Sherwood Valley Rancheria 48. La Posta Band of Mission Indians 84. Shingle Springs Rancheria 49. Laytonville Rancheria 85. Smith River Rancheria 50. Lone Pine Reservation 86. Soboba Band of Pomo Indians 51. Lookout Rancheria 87. Stewarts Point Rancheria 52. Los Coyotes Band of Mission Indians 88. Sulphur Bank Rancheria 53. Lytton Rancheria 89. Susanville Rancheria 54. Manchester/Port Arena Rancheria 90. Sycuan Reservation 55. Manzanita General Council 91. Table Bluff Rancheria 56. Mesa Grande Band of Mission Indians 92. Table Mountain Rancheria 57. Middletown Rancheria 93. Timbisha Shoshone Tribe 58. Mooretown Rancheria 94. Torres-Martinez Band of Mission Indians 59. Morongo Band of Mission Indians 95. Trinidad Rancheria 60. North Fork Rancheria 96. Tule River Reservation 61. Pala Band of Mission Indians 97. Tuolumne Me-Wuk Rancheria 62. Pauma Band of Mission Indians 98. Twentynine Palms Band of Mission Indians 58 — Holocaust Holocaust — 59 99. United Lumbee Nation of NC & America 3. Tunica-Biloxi 100. Upper Lake Rancheria MAINE 101. Viejas Reservation 1. Aroostook Band of Micmac Indians 102. Winnemucca Indian Colony 2. Houlton Band of Maliseet Indians 103. Woodfords Community Council 3. Indian Township Passamaquoddy Tribe 104. Yurok Indian Reservation 4. Penobscot Reservation

COLORADO 5. Pleasant Point Passamaquoddy Tribe 1. Southern Ute MARYLAND 2. Ute Mountain Ute None ASSACHUSETTS CONNECTICUT M None 1. Wampanoag Tribal Council of Gay Head ICHIGAN DELAWARE M None 1. Bay Mills Executive Council

FLORIDA 2. Grand Traverse Band Tribal Council 1. Big Cypress Seminole 3. Hannahville Indian Community 2. Brighton Seminole 4. Saginaw-Chippewa Tribal Council 3. Miccosukee 5. Lac Vieux Desert Band of Lake Superior Chippewa 4. Seminole 6. Keweenah Bay Tribal Council GEORGIA 7. Sault Ste. Marie Chippewa Tribal Council

None MINNESOTA IDAHO 1. Fond Du Lac Chippewa 1. Coeur D’Alene Reservation 2. Grand Portage Chippewa 2. Fort Hall Reservation 3. Leech Lake Chippewa 3. Kootenai 4. Lower Sioux 4. Nez Pierce 5. Mille Lacs Chippewa 5. Northwestern Band of Shoshoni Nation 6. Minnesota Chippewa INDIANA 7. Nett Lake Chippewa None 8. Prairie Island Chippewa IOWA 9. Red Lake Chippewa 1. Sac and Fox 10. Skakopee Sioux KANSAS 1. Iowa of Kansas 11. Upper Sioux 2. Kickapoo of Kansas 12. White Earth Chippewa MISSOURI 3. Prairie Potawatomi 1. Eastern Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma 4. Sac and Fox of Missouri MISSISSIPPI LOUISIANA 1. Mississippi Choctaw 1. Chitimacha MONTANA 2. Coushatta 60 — Holocaust Holocaust — 61 1. Blackfeet 24. Yerrington Paiute Indian Colony 2. Crow 25. Yomba Reservation 3. Confederated Salish & Kootenai Tribe NEW HAMPSHIRE 4. Fort Belknap Reservation None NEW JERSEY 5. Fort Peck Reservation None 6. Northern Cheyenne NEW MEXICO 7. Rocky Boy’s Chippewa-Cree 1. Acoma Pueblo NEBRASKA 2. Cochiti Pueblo 1. Omaha 3. Diné 2. Ponca Tribe of Nebraska 4. Isleta Pueblo 3. Santee Sioux 5. Jemez Pueblo 4. Winnebago

NEVADA 6. Jicarilla Apache 1. Battle Mountain Band 7. Laguna Pueblo 2. Carson Indian Colony 8. Mescalero Apache Reservation 3. Dresslerville Indian Colony 9. Nambe Pueblo 4. Duck Valley Shoshone Paiute 10. Picuris Pueblo 5. Duck Valley Shoshone Paiute 11. Pojoaque Pueblo 6. Duckwater Shoshone 12. San Felipe Pueblo 7. Elko Indian Colony 13. San Ildefonso Pueblo 8. Ely Indian Colony 14. San Juan Pueblo 9. Fallon Reservation and Colony 15. Sandia Pueblo 10. Fort McDermitt Reservation 16. Santa Ana Pueblo 11. Las Vegas Indian Colony 17. Santa Clara Pueblo 12. Lovelock Indian Colony 18. Santo Domingo Pueblo 13. Moapa River Indian Reservation 19. Taos Pueblo 14. Pyramid Lake Paiute 20. Tesuque Pueblo 15. Reno-Sparks Indian Colony 21. Zia Pueblo 16. Ruby Valley (Te-moak) Western Shoshone 22. Zuni Reservation NEW YORK 17. South Fork Indian Colony 1. Seneca Nation Tribal Council 18. Stewart Indian Colony 2. Cayuga Indian Nation 19. Summit Lake Paiute 3. Oil Spring Reservation 20. Walker River Paiute 4. Oneida Indian Nation of New York 21. Washoe Tribe of Nevada & California 5. Onondaga Nation Tribal Council 22. Wells Indian Colony 6. Poospatuck Reservation 23. Winnemucca Indian Colony

60 — Holocaust Holocaust — 61 7. Seneca Nation of Indians 22. Ottawa Tribe of Oklahoma 8. St. Regis Mohawk 23. Pawnee Indian Tribe of Oklahoma 9. Tonawanda Band of Senecas 24. Peoria Indian Tribe of Oklahoma 10. Tuscarora 25. Ponca Tribe of Oklahoma NORTH CAROLINA 26. Quapaw Tribe of Oklahoma 1. Eastern Band of Cherokee 27. Sac & Fox Nation NORTH DAKOTA 28. Seminole Nation of Oklahoma 1. Devil’s Lake Sioux 29. Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma 2. Fort Berthold Three Affiliated Tribes 30. The Chickasaw Nation 3. Ojibwa of the Red River 31. Thlopthlocco Tribal Town 4. Standing Rock Sioux 32. Tonkawa Tribe of Oklahoma 5. Turtle Mountain Reservation 33. United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee OHIO 34. Wichita Tribe of Oklahoma None 35. Wyandotte Tribe of Oklahoma OKLAHOMA OREGON 1. Absentee-Shawnee 1. Burns Paiute Indian Colony 2. Alabama-Quassarte 2. Confederated Tribes of Coos Lower Umpqua & 3. Apache Tribe of Oklahoma Suislaw Indians 4. Caddo 3. Coquille Indian Tribe 5. Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma 4. Cow Creek Band of Umpqua Indians 6. Cheyenne-Arapaho 5. Confederated Tribes of the Grande Ronde Council 7. Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma 6. Klamath 8. Citizen Band Potawatomi 7. Siletz 9. Comanche Indian Tribe of Oklahoma 8. Umatilla 10. Creek Nation of Oklahoma 9. Warm Springs Reservation

11. Delaware Tribe of Western Oklahoma RHODE ISLAND 12. Fort Sill Apache Tribe of Oklahoma 1. Narragansett 13. Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma SOUTH CAROLINA 14. Kaw Tribe of Oklahoma 1. Catawba SOUTH DAKOTA 15. Kialagee 1. Cheyenne River Sioux 16. Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma 2. Crow Creek Sioux 17. Kiowa Tribe of Oklahoma 3. Flandreau Santee Sioux 18. Miami Tribe of Oklahoma 4. Lower Brule Sioux 19. Modoc Tribe of Oklahoma 5. Pine Ridge Oglala Lakota 20. Osage Tribe of Oklahoma 6. Rosebud Sioux 21. Otoe-Missouria Tribe of Oklahoma 7. Sisseton-Wahpeton Dakota 62 — Holocaust Holocaust — 63 8. Yankton Sioux 19. Skokomish TENNESSEE 20. Spokane None 21. Squaxin Island Tribe TEXAS 22. Stillaguamish 1. Alabama-Coushatta Tribe 23. Swinomish 2. Kickapoo Traditional Tribe of Texas 24. Tulalip 3. Ysleta Del Sur Pueblo 25. Upper Skagit UTAH 26. Yakima 1. Goshute Reservation WISCONSIN 2. Paiute Indian Tribe of Utah 1. Bad River Reservation 3. Skull Valley Indian Community 2. Forest County Potawatomi 4. Uintah & Ouray Reservation 3, Ho Chunk (Winnebago) 5. Washakie Reservation 4. Lac Courte Oreilles Reservation VERMONT 5. Lac Du Flambeau Reservation None 6. Menominee VIRGINIA 1. Cherokee Tribe of Virginia 7. Oneida 2. Pamunkey 8. Red Cliff

WASHINGTON 9. Sokaogon Chippewa Community 1. Chehalis 10. St. Croix Reservation 2. Colville 11. Stockbridge-Munsee Community 3. Elwha S’Klallam WYOMING 4. Hoh 1. Wind River Shoshone & Arapaho 5. Jamestown S’Klallam 6. Kalispel 7. Lummi 8. Makah 9. Muckleshoot 10.Nisqually 11. Nooksack 12. Port Gamble S’Klallam 13. Suquamish Tribal Council 14. Puyallup 15. Quileute 16. Quinault 17. Sauk-Suiattle 18. Shoalwater Bay Tribe 62 — Holocaust Holocaust — 63 If you would like to help First Nations people of the Americas regain their self-determination, you can contact one of these organizations.

American Indian College Fund (AICF) First Nations Development Institute (FNDI) 8333 Greenwood Blvd. 11917 Main Street-The Stores Building Denver, CO 80221 Fredericksburg, VA 22408 (303) 426-8900/(303) 426-1200 Fax (540) 371-5615/(540) 371-3505 FAX 1-800-776-3863 www.firstnations.org www.collegefund.org Helps tribes achieve self-sufficiency by promoting Helps fund tribally-controlled colleges. economic development and commercial enterprise. American Indian Graduate Center (AIGC) Ho Anumpoli! 4520 Montgomery Blvd., NE, Ste. 1-B 1700 A Coal Avenue SE Albuquerque, NM 87109 Albuquerque, NM 87196 505-881-4584 (505) 254-9826/(505) 254-9826 FAX Provides scholarship assistance. www.geocities.com/hoanumpoli Promotes survival of Native people through literacy American Indian Higher Education Consortium and Native languages and culture. (AIHEC) 121 Oronoco Street Leonard Peltier Defense Committee Alexandria, VA 22314 www.freepeltier.org (703) 838-0400/(703) 838-0388 Provides on-going legal efforts to free Leonard Peltier www.aihec.org Organization of tribally controlled colleges in the Catching the Dream United States and Canada. 8200 Mountain Road NE, Suite 203 Albuquerque, NM 87110 American Indian Library Association (AILA) (505) 262-2351 c/o American Library Association Provides scholarships for Native Americans 50 E. Huron St. Chicago, IL 60611 Native Writers’ Circle of the Americas Dedicated to providing assistance to Native Americans The University of Oklahoma in library services. 805 Dale Hall Tower 455 West Lindsey American Indian Research and Development (AIRD) Norman, OK 73019-0535 2233 West Lindsey, Ste. 118 Phone (405) 325-2312 Norman, OK 73069 Fax (405) 325-0842 405-364-0656/405-364-5464 Fax E-mail: [email protected] Seeks to improve the quality of education for the gifted Provides awards to Native American writers Native American student. Ramah Navajo Weavers Association Americans for Indian Opportunity (AIO) PO Box 153 681 Juniper Hills Road Pine Hill, NM 87357 Bernalillo, NM 87004 (505) 775-3253 (505) 867-0278 A group of 40 women who want to promote self- Helps in establishing self help programs in educa- sufficiency for the Ramah Navajo tion, health, housing, job development and training opportunities. WordCraft Circle of Native Writers and Storytellers www.wordcraftcircle.org Association of Community Tribal Schools (ACTS) Provides support for beginning Native American c/o Dr. Roger Bordeaux writers 616 4th Ave., W. Sisseton, SD 57262-1349 605-698-3112 Advocates Indian self-determination and tribally controlled schools.

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