SDG

Country Evidence and PolicyCountry Recommendations Evidence and Uzbekistan in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Ensuring lifelongEnsuring learning for all

Ensuring Lifelong Learning For All in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations UNESCO UNESCO Sector The Global Education 2030 Agenda Education is UNESCO’s top priority because UNESCO, as the United Nations’ specialized it is a basic human right and the foundation agency for education, is entrusted to lead on which to build peace and drive and coordinate the Education 2030 Agenda, sustainable development. UNESCO is the which is part of a global movement to United Nations’ specialized agency for eradicate poverty through 17 Sustainable education and the Education Sector provides Development Goals by 2030. Education, global and regional leadership in education, essential to achieve all of these goals, has its strengthens national education systems and own dedicated Goal 4, which aims to “ensure responds to contemporary global challenges inclusive and equitable quality education and through education with a special focus on promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.” gender equality and Africa. The Education 2030 Framework for Action provides guidance for the implementation of this ambitious goal and commitments.

Published in 2020 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France and UNESCO Almaty Office 303 Baizakov Street, Building 1, 050040 Almaty, Kazakhstan © UNESCO 2020 ISBN 978-92-3-100368-4

This publication is available in Open Access under the Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO (CC-BY-SA 3.0 IGO) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/igo/) By using the content of this publication, the users accept to be bound by the terms of use of the UNESCO Open Access Repository (http://www.unesco.org/open-access/terms-use-ccbysa-en). The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors; they are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization. Author: Arne Carlsen Project co-ordinators: Lina Benete and Meirgul Alpysbayeva Copy-editor: Aliénor Salmon Cover photo: Nickolai Repnitskii/Shutterstock.com Graphic design, layout and inside infographics: Warren Field

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES...... 3 ABBREVIATIONS...... 4 FOREWORD...... 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... 6 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...... 7 1 INTRODUCTION...... 9 1.1 Global Context: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development...... 10 1.2 Conceptual Understanding of Lifelong Learning...... 13 1.3 Aims and Target Audiences of the Sub-regional Report...... 13 2 CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING IN CENTRAL ASIA...... 15 2.1 Impact of the Socio-economic and Political Context on Lifelong Learning...... 15 2.2 Transforming Education Systems into Lifelong Learning Systems...... 17 2.3 Key Drivers for the Development of Lifelong Learning...... 21 3 CURRENT POLICIES AND PRACTICES FROM A LIFELONG LEARNING PERSPECTIVE...... 23 3.1 Capacity of Education Systems...... 23 3.2 Pre-school Education...... 23 3.3 Primary and Secondary Education...... 24 3.4 TVET Systems...... 26 3.5 Higher Education...... 30 3.6 Adult Learning and Education...... 32 3.7 Online Provision and Blended Learning...... 37 4 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF EDUCATION FROM A LIFELONG LEARNING PERSPECTIVE...... 39 4.1 Training and Development of Adult Educators and Teachers...... 39 4.2 Gender Equality...... 41 4.3  National Qualifications Frameworks...... 43 4.4   Recognition, Validation and Accreditation of Non-formal and Informal Learning Outcomes...... 45 4.5 Transitions to the Labour Market...... 47 4.6 Career Counselling and Guidance...... 48 4.7 Financing...... 49 4.8 Governance...... 50 5 POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS TO ENSURE LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL IN CENTRAL ASIA...... 53 5.1 Policy Recommendations and Education System Reform...... 53 5.2 General Recommendations for Sub-regional Collaboration...... 58 6 REFERENCES...... 61

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Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Table 1 Sustainable Development Goal 4 Targets...... 11 Table 2 SDG 4 Global Indicators...... 12 Table 3 Key Socio-economic Facts and Figures...... 16 Table 4 Pre-school Education Enrolment (2018)...... 23 Table 5 Gross Enrolment Rate at Different Education Levels in Central Asia...... 24 Table 6 Initial TVET Providers in Central Asia...... 27 Table 7 Higher Education Systems in Central Asia (2017–2018)...... 30 Table 8 Range of Providers of and Learning in Central Asia...... 33 Table 9 Percentage of Students in Upper Secondary Education Enrolled in Vocational Programmes by Gender (%)...... 42 Table 10 Expenditure on Education in Central Asia (% of GDP)...... 49 Table 11 Selected Policy Documents Setting the Legal Foundation for Lifelong Learning...... 52

Figure 1 Kazakhstan: Structure of the Education System ...... 17 Figure 2 TVET Formal, Non-formal and Informal Systems...... 26 Figure 3 Gross Enrolment Ratio and Gender at Tertiary ...... 42 Figure 4 Gross Enrolment Ratio at Tertiary Education Level in Kyrgyzstan...... 42 Figure 5 Gross Enrolment Ratio at Tertiary Education Level in Tajikistan...... 43 Figure 6 Gross Enrolment Ratio at Tertiary Education Level in Uzbekistan ...... 43

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ABBREVIATIONS

ACBS Academic Credit Bank System ADB Asian Development Bank ALE Adult Learning and Education BFA Belém Framework for Action CA Central Asia CLC Community Learning Centre DVV DVV International (German Adult Education Development Cooperation) EFA Education for All ЕTF European Training Foundation ЕU European Union FDI Foreign Direct Investment GIZ German Agency for International Cooperation HEI Higher Education Institution ICT Information and Communication Technologies ILO International Labour Organization ISCED International Standard Classification of Education KAAE Kyrgyz Association for Adult Education MELR Ministry of Employment and Labour Relations MNE Multi-National Enterprises NCE National Chamber of Entrepreneurs (Atameken) NFE Non-formal Education NIS Nazarbayev Intellectual Schools NGО Non-Governmental Organization NQF National Qualifications Framework NQS National Qualifications System OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development OER Open Educational Resources PPP Public-Private Partnership RVA Recognition, Validation and Accreditation TVET Technical and and Training SDG Sustainable Development Goals SES State Educational Standards UIL UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization WB The World Bank

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Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

FOREWORD

In 2015, the United Nations adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. As part of this agenda, the global community committed to Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4), which aims to ensure inclusive and quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all by 2030. As the lead UN agency for education, UNESCO supports countries to achieve SDG 4, as well as strengthen and reform their education systems at all levels – from early childhood through primary, secondary, and post-secondary to higher education. This also includes all education settings – whether formal, non-formal or informal – for all children, youth, and adults. UNESCO’s programmes and activities strive to support countries in ensuring equal opportunities, better access to education, and learning throughout life. Among its initiatives, it also offers expertise in the planning and management of education systems in order to improve the quality of education. This involves strengthening capacity at country level and offering technical support in the formulation and implementation of education policies that can respond to today’s challenges and socio-economic demands, as well as all aspects of life. Sound education strategies for lifelong learning play a vital role in developing sustainable societies, and in our case, a sustainable future for Central Asia. Ever since 1991, the four Central Asian countries – Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan – have undergone significant socio-economic reforms. These countries also face a number of issues that have an inevitable impact on education, such as a diversity in languages, identities, cultures, and religions; varying levels of , financial resources, and age; as well as uneven distribution between urban and rural locations. These issues have all led to increased demand for lifelong learning opportunities in order to improve the quality and readiness of the workforce. Significant educational reforms have taken place at all levels from pre-school to postgraduate education in recent decades. In the aim of proposing a systemic approach with regard to future education reforms, the UNESCO Cluster Office to Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan (UNESCO Almaty) initiated this sub-regional study to provide a broader picture of lifelong learning, as well as evidence and policy recommendations in Central Asia. This publication draws upon the results of four country reports, as well as studies by various international organizations. It is also based on a review of education policies and practices with a lifelong learning perspective in order to provide an understanding of the current situation across different educational levels. The comparative analysis presented in this report intends to provide a systemic overview, while placing a special emphasis on Technical and Vocational Education and Training, Adult Education and Learning, and the different linkages and pathways between the different levels and sub-sectors of education. It also highlights the major challenges in achieving SDG 4, as well as best practices in building a lifelong learning system in the sub-region. It is my hope that the policy recommendations proposed in this report will contribute to providing lifelong learning opportunities for all in these four countries, as well as in the region of Central Asia as a whole.

Krista Pikkat Director of UNESCO Almaty Cluster Office and Representative of UNESCO in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The UNESCO Cluster Office in Almaty for Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan gratefully acknowledges the time and effort spent by all those involved in preparing and producing the publication ‘Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations’. This sub-regional report was prepared under the overall guidance of Krista Pikkat, Director of UNESCO Almaty, with the direct supervision of Lina Benete, Education Programme Specialist, and coordination support of Meirgul Alpysbayeva, Education National Professional Officer. The report was written by Arne Carlsen, International Consultant and former Director of the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, based on desk research and country reports. The country reports were prepared by Valentina Belosludtseva (Kazakhstan), Tatyana Tretyakova (Kyrgyzstan), Jamshed Quddusov (Tajikistan), and Nodir Rakhimov (Uzbekistan). The Erasmus+ National Office in Kazakhstan coordinated the preparation of the country reports as well as this sub-regional report. Our special thanks goes to DVV International (German Adult Education Development Coopera­ tion) for their cooperation in designing the research framework and reviewing the initial country findings at the 2017 DVV-UNESCO Central Asian Adult Education Forum entitled ‘Community Learning Centers: International Trends and Best Practices’, as well as their continuous guidance in the development of the report at its various stages. This work would not have been possible without the guidance of UNESCO experts who provided their inputs and participated as members of the peer review panel, namely Borhene Chakroun, Francesc Pedró, Hiromichi Katayama, Keith Holmes and Emma Rohan from UNESCO Headquarters; Raul Valdes Cotera, Rika Yorozu, Madhu Singh, Margarete Sachs-Israel, Alexandru Gaina, Rakhat Zholdoshalieva and Mo Winnie Wang from the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning; Eunsang Cho from UNESCO Bangkok; Bakhtiyor Namazov (UNESCO Tashkent); and Aisulu Sulaimanova (UNESCO Almaty). Peer reviewers from other organizations also brought valuable contributions in preparing this publication, namely Thekla Kelbert, Levan Kvatchadze, Ravshan Baratov, and Irina Razilova from DVV International in Uzbekistan, and Christine Hemschemeier from the European Training Foundation. We would like to express our gratitude for the crucial support from UNESCO Almaty colleagues, namely Gaukhar Yessentayeva, Education Programme Assistant, and Mingshun Xu, Education Programme Trainee, who provided administrative support and research assistance. This publication was edited by Aliénor Salmon, while Warren Field ensured the layout of the publication and designed the graphics.

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Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Lifelong Learning is at the heart of the Global Agenda for Sustainable Development. Adopted by the United Nations in 2015, it is made up of 17 Goals and 169 Targets, all to be achieved by 2030. Among these goals, Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4 has the ambition to ‘Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.’ As the lead agency for education, UNESCO is mandated to support Member States in implementing SDG 4 through the Education 2030 Framework for Action. All four Central Asian countries – Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan – are committed to achieving the SDGs by 2030, including SDG 4, and have taken several actions in this regard. With fast-paced socio-economic changes, as well as the constant need for upgrading skills and competencies for life and work, UNESCO Almaty and DVV International have taken the initiative to conduct a sub-regional study on lifelong learning within the framework of SDG 4. Given the high level of policy attention paid to pre-school, primary, and secondary education in recent years, this report has a special focus on Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET), Higher Education, and Adult Education. A number of issues have been identified in terms of access, affordability and quality of these three areas of education. While most of these educational activities take place within the formal education system, individuals also acquire skills for life and work informally throughout life. This includes, for instance, informal settings and contexts such as through the family, community, and the workplace. Fundamental education reforms have taken place in Central Asia in recent years, and there is now an important need to improve the status of TVET to make it more attractive, as well as to ensure that it leads to qualifications at higher levels. These reforms have also sought to ensure that learners obtain the right qualifications in relation to labour market needs, especially in rural areas. Non-formal educational institutions not only provide community members with knowledge and practical skills, but they also organize educational, cultural, recreational, environmental, and other activities for urban and rural populations of all ages. Such institutions play a significant role in improving the quality of life for the local community based on their needs, the changing socio-economic situation, in addition to serving as a bridge to formal education. This study was developed based on an analysis of different policies and systems of lifelong learning in four Central Asian countries: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.1 This included a desk study as well as field research at country-level. Country reports were prepared to provide specific recommendations to strengthen lifelong learning in each country, and were then compiled into this sub-regional synthesis report to allow for comparative analysis. This report aims to identify priorities taking into account national, regional, and international development contexts, while also proposing monitoring and evaluation mechanisms. It also aims to provide policy recommendations that can transform education systems, so that they can better equip learners with transversal competencies,2 as well as respond to changing labour market needs. Overall, this report seeks to provide Member States with evidence and policy recommendations in order to strengthen lifelong learning in Central Asia.

1 References to ‘Central Asian countries’ throughout this report refer to Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, based on their sub-regional grouping under the UNESCO Almaty Cluster Office. 2 The term ‘transversal competencies’ is used throughout this report. They are also known as non-cognitive skills, 21st century skills or soft skills. Transversal competencies include: critical and innovative thinking, inter-personal and intra-personal skills, global citizenship, media and information literacy, curiosity, initiative, perseverance, self-control, adaptability, leadership as well as social and cultural awareness.

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This study analyzed various programmes and initiatives in relation to SDG 4 and the Education 2030 Agenda in Central Asia. It has also considered socio-economic forecasting and developments, as well as labour market and skills development for youth and adults. This sub-regional report has also built upon the four country reports to include regional and international surveys, trends, and statistical data. It recommends that Central Asian countries build upon their achievements in recent years to improve the quality of their education systems, and strive to transform them into holistic lifelong learning systems that can support sustainable socio-economic development. This requires integrating formal, non-formal and informal learning and education, with a special focus on sustainable development as outlined in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. In order to ensure the quality of a lifelong learning system, it must include transversal competencies in curricula at all levels and sectors of education, quality assurance mechanisms, competent teachers, a programme for the training of adult educators, National Qualification Frameworks (NQF) and systems for Recognition, Validation and Accreditation (RVA) of learning outcomes in non-formal and informal learning. It would also require partnerships between government, employers, and civil society organizations, in order to enhance the content of education programmes, funding mechanisms, and skills forecasts. In order for adult learners to better access all levels of the education system, improved Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) are needed to ensure distance-based education, more flexible programmes, and smooth pathways for the transition between education and work, as well as between sub- sectors of education. Inclusive and equitable access to education also requires a strategy for the inclusion of vulnerable groups, learners from rural areas, women, the elderly, and those with disabilities. The development of ‘Learning Cities’3 would also support the development of an inclusive and sustainable strategy for urban development through lifelong learning. Learning Cities promote lifelong learning for all within the framework of UNESCO’s Global Network of Learning Cities (GNLC) – an international policy-oriented network providing inspiration, know-how and best practice. Cities that join the network work to enhance individual empowerment and social inclusion, economic development, cultural prosperity, and sustainable development. At a national level, this report suggests that each of the four establish a ‘National Coordination Committee for Lifelong Learning’, with multi-stakeholder participation representing different ministries, local government, teachers, employers, employees, academia, and civil society organizations. The mandate of the Committee should be to make recommendations on developing national strategies that strengthen lifelong learning within the framework of SDG 4 targets and indicators, while also taking the other SDGs into consideration. UNESCO should play a supporting role, along with the involvement of other international organizations. At a sub-regional level, this report identifies common challenges faced by Central Asian countries. It also suggests regular sub-regional meetings for policy learning and continued cooperation . This would allow for the sharing of best practices, either at country or international level, as well as the consideration of common policy recommendations and frameworks, and potentially, a common programme for training of lifelong learning professionals.

3 UNESCO defines a learning city as a city that effectively mobilizes its resources in every sector to promote inclusive learning from basic to higher education, revitalizes learning in families and communities, facilitates learning for and in the workplace, extends the use of modern learning technologies, enhances quality and excellence in learning, and fosters a culture of learning throughout life. To learn more, see: http://uil.unesco.org/lifelong-learning/learning-cities

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Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

1 INTRODUCTION

Lifelong learning is of growing importance across the globe. The fast development of science and technology, the global value chain’s highly specialized industries and services, and increased competition have all led to changing global, regional and national labour markets, as well as their need for new and higher level skills. The demand for lifelong learning has also increased based on issues related to social cohesion and inclusion, leading to various international organizations in the field of education contributing to addressing this development. UNESCO published two landmark reports in the twentieth century – ‘Learning to Be: the world of education today and tomorrow’ in 1972 and ‘Learning: The Treasure Within’ in 1996 – that sought to anticipate the future needs of education systems. UNESCO, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the European Union (EU), each made significant contributions to developing lifelong learning policies in order to match socio- economic reforms in the 1990s. For instance the OECD and EU declared 1996 as the Year of Lifelong Learning, while the EU gave joint European education programmes the overarching title of ‘Lifelong Learning 2007–13’. The Asia-Europe Meeting of Ministers for Education (ASEM) have also been meeting regularly since 2008 and have chosen lifelong learning as one of their four joint priorities. Since 2015, their work has increasingly focused on the SDGs and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The ASEM Education and Research Hub for Lifelong Learning was established in 2005 and organizes comparative research between Asian and European in five research networks dedicated to the following topics: 1) Development of ICT skills, 2) E-learning and the culture of e-learning in lifelong learning, 3) Workplace learning, 4) Professionalization of adult teachers and educators in ASEM countries, 4) National strategies for lifelong learning with regard to citizens’ motivation and barriers to continuous education and training, and 5) Lifelong learning core competencies (ASEM, 2018). The UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) enlarged its focus from adult education to include lifelong learning in 2006. Its activities have since taken a new direction towards lifelong learning governance in the form of UNESCO’s Global Network of Learning Cities, inter-sectoral relationships between Adult Learning and Education (ALE) and health and well-being, as well as NQF and RVA for learning outcomes of non-formal and informal learning. UIL’s journal entitled ‘International Review of Education’ took the sub-title of Journal of Lifelong Learning in 2013 and opened up new research areas such as learning cities, measurement of lifelong learning, and inclusive education. In 2016 the journal also adopted a profile of lifelong learning within the framework of the SDGs. In 2013, the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO) established the SEAMEO Regional Centre for Lifelong Learning, and in 2018 published a report with UIL on lifelong learning development in 11 South-East Asian countries. In 2019, the International Labour Organization (ILO) launched the report ‘Work for a brighter future’, which was developed by their Global Commission on the future of work. They state that their ‘approach goes beyond human capital to the broader dimensions of development and progress in living standards, including the rights and enabling environment that widen people’s opportunities and improve their well-being’ (ILO, 2019).

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Their first new proposal is: a universal entitlement to lifelong learning that enables people to acquire skills and to reskill and upskill. Lifelong learning encompasses formal and informal learning from early childhood and basic education through to adult learning. Governments, workers and employers, as well as educational institutions, have complementary responsibilities in building an effective and appropriately financed lifelong learning ecosystem (Ibid).

Many cities around the world organize annual lifelong learning festivals, lifelong learning weeks or adult learners’ week in order to inform citizens about lifelong learning opportunities. This includes cities in China, Ireland, Republic of Korea, and Slovenia, among others. Some countries have also opened up flexible accreditation systems like the Academic Credit Bank System (ACBS), which is an open educational system that recognizes diverse learning experiences gained not only in-school but also out-of-school. When the learner accumulates the necessary ACBS-approved credits, they can be awarded with a degree. The success of the Open in the United Kingdom for instance, also provides opportunities for flexible learning, and as with distance education in general, is also testimony to the demand for lifelong learning at the global level.

1.1 Global Context: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

Among the 17 SDGs adopted in 2015 by the United Nations General Assembly, SDG 4 called upon all countries to ‘ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.’ As the lead agency for education, UNESCO was mandated to support Member States in reaching the ten targets of SDG 4. Together with partners and Member States, UNESCO developed the Education 2030 Framework for Action – the implementation plan providing indicative strategies for each target of SDG 4. With its vision to ‘transform lives through education’, SDG 4 recognizes the crucial role of education, not only as a main driver of development, but also in achieving the other SDGs (UNESCO, 2015). As UNESCO Member States, countries in Central Asia are committed to achieving all 17 SDGs and their 169 targets by 2030.4 Within the education sector in particular, countries are working to reach SDG 4 and its 10 targets (Table 1) by focusing their efforts on access, equity, and inclusion, as well as quality and learning outcomes by using a lifelong learning approach.

4 For more information about the SDGs, see: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/

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Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

Table 1: Sustainable Development Goal 4 Targets SDG 4: Targets and indicators

Target 4.1 Target 4.7 By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire complete free, equitable and quality the knowledge and skills needed to primary and secondary education promote sustainable development, leading to relevant and effective including, among others, through learning outcomes. education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, Target 4.2 gender equality, promotion of a culture By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys of peace and non-violence, global have access to quality early childhood citizenship and appreciation of cultural development, care and pre-primary diversity and of culture’s contribution to education so that they are ready for sustainable development. primary education. Target 4.а Target 4.3 Build and upgrade education facilities By 2030, ensure equal access for all that are child, disability and gender women and men to affordable and sensitive and provide safe, non- quality technical, vocational and tertiary violent, inclusive and effective learning education, including university. environments for all. Target 4.4 Target 4.b By 2030, substantially increase the By 2020, substantially expand globally number of youth and adults who have the number of scholarships available relevant skills, including technical and to developing countries, in particular vocational skills, for employment, decent least developed countries, small jobs and entrepreneurship. island developing States and African countries, for enrolment in higher Target 4.5 education, including vocational training By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in and information and communications education and ensure equal access to all technology, technical, engineering and levels of education and vocational training scientific programmes, in developed for the vulnerable, including persons countries and other developing countries. with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations. Target 4.c By 2030, substantially increase the Target 4.6 supply of qualified teachers, including By 2030, ensure that all youth and a through international cooperation for substantial proportion of adults, both teacher training in developing countries, men and women, achieve literacy especially least developed countries and and numeracy. small island developing States.

Source: adapted from UNESCO (2015)

Following several rounds of global consultations with UN Member States and a range of relevant organizations, a list of 11 global indicators to measure SDG 4 was formally adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2017. As shown in Table 2, SDG 4 indicators are markers of change or continuity, which enable countries to monitor their progress in relation to each specific target (UIS, 2018). Lack of data, limited use of existing data, and a lack of adequate monitoring procedures are acute problems in Central Asia. It is therefore hoped that this set of indicators may provide an opportunity for countries to develop new methodologies, definitions, and calculation methods for national data systems.

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Table 2. SDG 4 Global Indicators

INDICATOR

Preparation of children and young people in (a) Grade 2 or 3; (b) at the 4.1.1 end of primary education; and (c) at the end of lower secondary education achieving at least a minimum proficiency level in (i) mathematics, by sex

Proportion of children under 5 years of age who are developmentally  4.2.1 on track in health, learning and psychosocial well-being, by sex

Participation rate in organized learning (one year before the official primary 4.2.2 entry age), by sex

Participation rate of youth and adults in formal and non-formal education  4.3.1 and training in the previous 12 months, by sex

Proportion of youth and adults with information and communications 4.4.1 technology skills, by type and sex

Parity indices (female/male, rural/urban, bottom/top wealth quintile and  4.5.1 others such as disability status, indigenous peoples and conflict-affected, as data become available) for all education indicators on this list.

Proportion of population in given age group achieving at least a fixed level 4.6.1 of proficiency in functional (a) literacy (b) numeracy skills, by sex

Extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) education or sustainable development, including gender equality and human rights are  4.7.1 mainstreamed at all levels in: (a) national education policies, (b) curricula, (c) , (d) student assessment.

Proportion of schools with access to: (a) electricity; (b) the internet for pedagogical purposes; (c) computers for pedagogical purposes; (c) adapted 4.a.1 infrastructure and materials for students with disabilities; (e) basic drinking water; (f) single-sex basic sanitation facilities; and (g) basic handwashing facilities (as per the WASH indicator definitions)

Volume of official development assistance flows for scholarships  4.b.1 by sector and type of study

Proportion of teachers in: (a) pre-primary education; (b) primary education; (c) lower secondary education; and (d) upper secondary education who have  4.c.1 received at least the minimum organized teacher training (e.g. pedagogical training) pre-service or in-service required for teaching at the relevant level in a given country, by sex.

Source: adapted from UIS (2018) p.19

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Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

1.2 Conceptual Understanding of Lifelong Learning The 1990s witnessed a shift from ‘lifelong education’ to the ‘lifelong learning’ concept, which implies a broader ‘lifelong and life-wide’ approach rather than merely an extension of education in time that is confined to a sequence of schooling and formal education. The concept of lifelong learning is characterized by its flexibility, diversity, universality and dynamism. It therefore requires alternative arrangements for acquiring learning and a variety of learning styles, modalities, and techniques to suit the varying needs and interests of individuals at different points in time (Carlsen and Haddad, 2013). UNESCO’s definition of lifelong learning is based on a humanistic approach that focuses on human rights and dignity, and in particular, the for personal development and fulfilment, and a socio-economic approach emphasizing the needs of our knowledge society and human capital development. Globally, lifelong learning is increasingly seen as adaptation to economic and technological changes, empowerment of individuals in social structures, and as a continuous ‘process of forming whole human beings – their knowledge and aptitudes, as well as the critical faculty and the ability to act’ (Delors et al., 1996). The relevance of lifelong learning is further recognized in today’s increasingly interconnected and fast-changing world. Exponential growth in, and the changing nature of, information in the digital age signal the need for learners to develop transversal competencies that are required for knowledge-based economies. Demographic shifts and increased mobility, as well as the growing concern for unsustainable patterns of consumption and production, are also underlining the relevance of lifelong learning as the conceptual framework and organizing principle of all forms of education in the twenty-first century (Yang and Valdés-Cotera, 2011; Carlsen and Haddad, 2013). UNESCO defines lifelong learning as: rooted in the integration of learning and living, covering learning activities for people of all ages (children, young people, adults and the elderly, girls and boys, women and men) in all life-wide contexts (family, school, community, workplace and so on) and through a variety of modalities (formal, non- formal and informal) which together meet a wide range of learning needs and demands (UIL, 2013).

Lifelong learning should enable people to develop an awareness of themselves and their environment, and encourage them to fulfil their social role at work and in the community. Therefore, education systems that promote lifelong learning should adopt a holistic and sector-wide approach involving all sub-sectors and levels to ensure the provision of learning opportunities throughout life for all individuals. Though lifelong learning is not a new idea when it comes to sustainability and development, it has now become a key strategy to meet the challenges of the twenty-first century (English and Carlsen, 2019).

1.3 Aims and Target Audiences of the Sub-regional Report Building on the results of the Education for All (EFA) era, as well as ongoing attempts and commitment of Central Asian governments in achieving SDG 4, UNESCO Almaty, in cooperation with DVV International, took the initiative to conduct national studies on lifelong learning policies and practices in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. These country reports have served as the basis for the preparation of this sub-regional report. The aim of this report is to provide evidence and policy recommendations for strengthening and promoting lifelong learning opportunities for these four Central Asian countries.

12 13 Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

It therefore provides a cross-country comparative analysis of current lifelong learning policies and practices, and proposes policy recommendations for achieving SDG 4 and all of the SDGs in general. Although the report adopts a whole-system approach, within its limited scope it mainly focuses on providing evidence and policy recommendations to build a lifelong learning system in terms of the following areas: 1)  Access and provision of education at different levels and sub-sectors, with a special emphasis on TVET and ALE, 2)  Quality enhancement for adult teacher training, gender equality, NQFs, RVA learning outcomes in non-formal and informal learning, as well as transitions to the labour market, 3) Financing, and 4) Governance. The priorities and recommendations for further development that are proposed in this report were developed in response to the socio-economic realities of Central Asian countries, as well as their national development visions and strategies regarding education and lifelong learning. The key reasons for the emphasis on TVET, tertiary education and ALE are twofold. First, these three sub-sectors affect a large proportion of the youth and adult population of working age in these four countries. Second, the Education 2030 Framework for Action states that:

TVET and tertiary education, including universities as well as adult learning, education and training, are important elements of lifelong learning. Promoting lifelong learning requires a sector-wide approach that encompasses formal, non-formal and informal learning for people of all ages, and specifically adult learning, education and training opportunities. It is necessary to provide opportunities for equitable access to university for older adults, paying particular attention to vulnerable groups (UNESCO, 2015).

This sub-regional synthesis report is therefore intended for national education policy-makers, practitioners, and international development partners who work on the development, implementation, and evaluation of lifelong learning policies and practices in Central Asia. More specifically, the target audience includes ministerial officials, representatives of public authorities responsible for lifelong learning, quality assurance agencies and other bodies with a public mandate. It also includes donors and sponsors, leaders of educational establishments, adult educators and teachers, researchers, private education providers and stakeholder organizations, such as those representing learners, civil society, and employers. This report was built upon the country reports, which provided statistical data for each of the countries. Given limitations in data collection and quality in Central Asia, its validity cannot be verified and it should therefore be seen as indicative to provide an overall picture. In order to strengthen this analysis, this report also benefits from extensive policy reviews, published data from sources such as the OECD, European Training Foundation (ETF), UIS, UIL, the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the World Bank, and the European Commission, in addition to hands-on experiences and evidence-based analysis by the author. With regard to the research methodology used, aside from secondary data obtained from desk research, the country reports included first-hand data from surveys and semi-structured interviews conducted with relevant ministries and other government organizations, universities, research centres, institutes, TVET colleges, Community Learning Centres (CLCs), education partners, teachers and learners. The interviews were conducted in local languages and the sample was selected by UNESCO Almaty, DVV International and the national consultant teams. However, this sub-regional report incorporates additional published sources and presents meaningful comparative analyses where reliable data is available.

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Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

2 CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING IN CENTRAL ASIA

2.1 Impact of the Socio-economic and Political Context on Lifelong Learning The four Central Asian countries examined in this report – Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan – have each followed different but also partly similar trajectories, especially when it comes to political and economic transformation since achieving independence from the former Soviet Union in 1991. Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan began market-oriented reforms shortly after their independence, while Tajikistan began similar reforms only after the end of its civil war (1992–1997), and Uzbekistan resisted market transformation to retain many instruments of a command economy for much longer (Batsaikhan and Dabrowski, 2017). Overall, the major common challenge for these countries is the economic liberalization and adoption of a broad spectrum of socio-economic and political reforms. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, many industries in Central Asia lost their previous trade relations and markets. These four economies excessively depend on exports of natural resources, such as oil, natural gas, aluminium, and gold. With the exception of Kazakhstan, the other three countries also rely heavily on remittances from migrant workers. For example, personal remittances accounted for 33 per cent of Kyrgyzstan’s GDP in 2017 (ADB, 2018), and 27 per cent of Tajikistan’s GDP in 2016 (OECD, 2018). During the recent decades of transition, the annual GDP increased by 5–8 per cent on average among the four countries (Belosludtseva, 2018; Quddusov, 2018; Rakhimov, 2018; Tretyakova, 2018). However, this growth was driven by lending capital invested in infrastructure projects, rather than by technological change and higher labour productivity. Having experienced the sharp decline of commodity prices in 2014, as well as falling remittance inflows and rising annual inflation, the four countries launched various structural transformation and industrial modernization programmes for economic diversification, private sector development, and job creation. For instance, in Kazakhstan, in addition to the traditional agriculture export such as cotton, grain and livestock, the government has also attempted to diversify its economy by targeting sectors such as transport and logistics services, pharmaceuticals, telecommunications, petrochemicals, and food processing (Anderson et al., 2018). Similarly, in Kyrgyzstan trade, finance, transport, communications, hospitality and health care sectors have all created more jobs. Tajikistan has also identified high-potential sectors including agro-food processing, textile and garments, mining and quarrying, and animal farming to diversify its export products (ADB, 2016). Uzbekistan focuses more on development of the home appliances manufacturing industry and the export of fresh fruits and vegetables, while reducing raw cotton exports and increasing cotton fibre processing to develop its textile industry (OECD, 2017). Consequently, structural reforms have changed the demands of the labour market, which has led to a shortage of qualified workforce in all four countries. Such political and economic reforms have had a profound impact not only for legal institutions, but they have also raised expectations for education systems and human resources to ensure a workforce with relevant new skills. In other words, these reforms have increased the demand for and supply of lifelong learning for improving the responsiveness and quality of the workforce in these countries.

14 15 Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

Other factors that also influence lifelong learning policies and practices include languages, identities, cultures, religions, literacy, financial resources, age structure and geographical locations (urban, rural) as depicted in Table 3. The four Central Asian countries under study have a mix of indigenous and imported cultures as well as identities – a consequence of their collective and individual histories. While the Uzbek, Kyrgyz and Kazakh languages belong to the Turkic language family, Tajik belongs to the Persian language family. Nonetheless, Russian continues to play the role of regional lingua franca, especially in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Language policies in Central Asia should therefore be part of lifelong learning policies concerning equal and inclusive opportunities for all. Although the four economies have been growing relatively fast, urban-rural disparities persist in terms of learning opportunities, employment and economic prosperity, which poses significant challenges in terms of equal opportunities and social cohesion. Furthermore, the large proportion of youth and people of working age (see Table 3) implies that there is a high demand for initial education as well as for ALE. The main accomplishments of Central Asian education systems have been near universal enrolment at primary and secondary levels as well as literacy. Their main weakness and inherited challenge, however, has been the inflexibility of the education system, as well as its inability and limited resources in adapting to the diverse needs of learners and rapid changes in education and learning. In brief, the four countries have adopted a pragmatic approach to modernization that prioritizes the development and liberalization of the economy and the improvement of the social sector. In this context, lifelong learning is less about leisure time activities for post-retirement populations as it may be in China, the Republic of Korea, and other aging societies. Instead, it can be seen as an effective way to enhance the skills and productivity of the workforce to build a cohesive and equal society that can achieve more stable and inclusive economic growth.

Table 3. Key Socio-economic Facts and Figures

Literacy GDP per Age Official Languages level (popu­ Population Major Ethnic Religions capita Countries Structure (*) and widely used lation over (***) Groups (*) (*) (USD, 2017, (***) languages 15 years old) WB) (**) in 2015 (*)

18 million 22% (1-14) Kazakh 63%, Kazakh (official) 74% Muslim 70%, 9,030 99.8% Urban: 58% 71% (15-65) Russian 24%, Uzbek 2.9% and Russian (official) 95% Christian 26% Kazakhstan Rural: 42% 7% (over 65) Ukrainian 2.1%, (2017) (2016) Others 8% 6.1 million *30% (0-14) Kyrgyz 73%, Kyrgyz (official) 71.4%, Muslim 75%, 1,220 99.5% Urban: 34% 64% (15-65) Uzbek 15% Russian (official) 9%, Christian 20% Kyrgyzstan Rural: 66% *6% (over 65) Russian 6%, Uzbek 14.4% (2017) (2018) Others 6% 8.9 million 60% (0-25 ) Tajik 84%, Tajik (official) 84%, Muslim 97%, 801 99.8% Tajikistan Urban: 27% (2018) Uzbek 12% Uzbek 12% Christian 1.6% Rural: 73% Others 4% (2018) 32.7 million 30% (0-15) Uzbek 84%, Tajik 5%, Uzbek (official) 74% Muslim 88%, 1,534 100% Urban: 51% 61% (16-59) Kazakh 2.5%, Russian 14% Christian 9% Uzbekistan Rural: 49% 9% (over 60) Russian 2.3% (2018) (2018) other 6.2%

Source: Arne Carlsen, based on *CIA (2019), **World Bank (2019a), *** Belosludtseva (2018), Quddusov (2018), Rakhimov (2018), Tretyakova (2018).

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Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

2.2 Transforming Education Systems into Lifelong Learning Systems All four Central Asian countries have undertaken important educational reforms from pre-school to postgraduate levels in the past decades. However, these reforms have taken place at separate levels and sub-sectors of education rather than establishing a holistic lifelong learning approach. Such an approach would encourage learning, and recognize learning outcomes in the form of increased knowledge, skills, and attitudes attained from inside and outside the formal education system. In order to meet SDG 4 targets by 2030, Central Asian countries need to revisit their education policies and redesign their current practices with a view to developing lifelong learning systems. All four countries have similar education systems which consist of the following levels: 1. Pre-school education (2–3 years), 2. General primary and lower secondary education (9 years), 3. General vocational and technical upper secondary education (2–4 years), 4. Tertiary education: Bachelor’s degree or post-secondary professional diplomas (3–4 years), and 5. Post-graduate education: specialist diploma, candidate of science, Master and Doctoral degrees (1–5 years). In order to better understand the structure of these four education systems, Kazakhstan’s system is illustrated in Figure 1 as an example bearing resemblance to the other countries.5

Figure 1. Kazakhstan: Structure of the Education System

AGE POSTGRADUATE EDUCATION

Doctoral courses: research Universities, academies, scienti c and research institutions (3-year courses)

Postgraduate courses Universities, academies, scienti c and research institutions (3-year courses)

HIGHER EDUCATION

Master’s degree Universities, academies (2-year programmes)

Bachelor’s degree Diploma of specialist Universities, academies (4-year programmes) Universities, academies, institutes (4/5-year programmes)

Secondary Colleges (2/3-year courses)

17-18 SECONDAR COPLETE EDUCATION

Comprehensive Vocational Comprehensive schools, lycea, gymnasia Vocational schools, vocational lycea, 10,11, (12) forms higher vocational gymnasia (2/3-year courses) 15-16

Basic comprehensive

Comprehensive schools, gymnasia, basic schools (Grades 5–9) 10-11

10-11 Primary comprehensive

Comprehensive schools, elementary schools (Grades 1–4) 6-7

6-7 Pre-school education , crèches (day nurseries)

Source: adapted from UNESCO (2011).

5 For an analysis of Kazakhstan’s education system taking into account recent reforms, please see: https://www.nuffic.nl/en/publications/education-system-kazakhstan/

16 17 Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

All four countries offer 11 years of general school education (4+5+2) which is one year shorter than many other countries in the world (OECD and World Bank, 2015). Uzbekistan offers free and compulsory school education for 11 years, whereas the other three countries provide for only 9 years. Between 1998 and 2017, Uzbekistan offered 12 years of compulsory school education. From 2017 however, the country changed back to 11 years of compulsory school education (4+5+2). The majority of students in Grades 10 and 11 have one day per week of vocational education, where they focus on a specific profession within a college attached to that particular industry. The minority of students who aim at entering university usually move to an academic lyceum for Grades 10 and 11 (UNESCO, 2018). The duration of free education offered, and the type of school (vocational or academic), can influence access to higher levels of education as well as cause unequal opportunities in terms of lifelong learning in adulthood. Recently, Kazakhstan has been extending its schooling system from 11 to 12 years in pilot projects, and this extension is scheduled to be implemented nationwide from 2020 (OECD and World Bank, 2015). However, most schools still offer an 11-year curriculum. Currently, only a small number of ‘experimental’ schools offer a 12-year curriculum (5+5+2), such as the Nazarbayev Intellectual Schools (NIS), which were set up in 2010. Tajikistan has also made ambitious plans to change to a 12-year schooling system in its National Strategy for Education Development 2020. The strategy foresees significant changes in the education curriculum starting from pre-school to upper secondary education. NIS are a relatively new phenomenon in Kazakhstan, and are currently made up of a network of 20 schools targeting ‘gifted’ pupils where admission is extremely competitive. There is at least one NIS per region, and two in larger cities such as Almaty, Nur-Sultan, and Shymkent. These schools piloted a 12-year curriculum in Kazakh, Russian, and English to approximately 15,000 pupils in 2018 alone, out of the national total of over 2 million. NIS are well-equipped schools that are funded by the government and provide almost all pupils with a full scholarship (NIS, 2018; Nuffic, 2018). In contrast, the small-class schools (ungraded classrooms) in remote areas receive far less resources. Approximately 50 per cent of all public schools in Kazakhstan are considered small-class schools and account for 11 per cent of the total student population. In some regions the vast majority of schools are small-class, notably in North Kazakhstan (86 per cent), Akmola (81 per cent), Kostanay (76 per cent) and West Kazakhstan (74 per cent). Small-class schools are confronted with particular challenges, such as very small class-sizes, poor infrastructure (especially poor heating in the winter), lower quality teachers and staff shortages, which has resulted in a lower quality of education (OECD and World Bank, 2015). Recent policy efforts by the Ministry of Education and Science have focused on establishing resource centres to enhance the capacity of these small schools and support alternative boarding facilities and transportation services for pupils. The three other countries face similar challenges with regard to small schools in rural areas, though to a lesser extent. Such educational experiences have negative consequences for school attainment and for the potential lifelong learning of children in these disadvantaged schools. Policy Recommendations: NIS schools are designed to serve as an innovative model for future school reforms, and can be seen as an example of enhancing the quality of school education. However, they receive more funding than other schools in the country, which may contribute to widening the gap between levels of resources, and thus, pupil achievement across the country – as shown in PISA 2012 and in the 2013 Unified National Test results (OECD and World Bank, 2015). Therefore, investing in selected schools should be avoided, as it does not benefit the majority of pupils. Evidence from many countries show that investing as early as possible

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Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

in high quality basic education for all, particularly in supporting pupils from disadvantaged backgrounds, yields higher returns because early cognitive development makes it easier to acquire skills and knowledge later in life, as well as to engage in lifelong learning in adulthood. Furthermore, providing equal opportunities for all individuals to gain the foundational skills necessary to prosper at later educational stages is particularly important in an economy that is in transition. It is especially important when there is a relatively small workforce in order to sustain more stable and inclusive growth. This is the case in most Central Asian countries due to the large number of children and early retirement age in the sub-region. The labour participation rate stands at 71 per cent in Kazakhstan, 61 per cent in Kyrgyzstan, 44 per cent in Tajikistan, and 65 per cent in Uzbekistan.6 When it comes to higher education (tertiary and postgraduate education), Kazakhstan is the only Central Asian country that became a member of the Bologna Process in 2010. The three other countries have undergone significant reforms in their higher education structures over the last decades that align them closely with the Bologna model of three cycles (Bachelor, Master, and Doctorate). Such Bologna-inspired reforms serve as a means of modernizing their higher education sector and creating the Central Asian Higher Education Area, which is modelled after the European Higher Education Area. The reforms in all four countries have mainly followed a top-down approach and Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) still have rather limited autonomy in important matters, such as designing new courses or managing their own finances. This situation therefore hinders the responsiveness of HEIs to labour market and other social demands, while also limiting the educational offerings to young and older learners. One of the significant reforms in all four countries is the introduction of Unified National Tests (mainly based on multiple choice questions) at Grade 9 and Grade 11 (and for university entrance in the case for Uzbekistan). At the end of Grade 9, the test intends to certify the graduation of general secondary education, and at the end of Grade 11 it intends to determine entrance to higher education and access to state education grants. The national tests are administered by the National Testing Centres under the auspices of the , the Ministry of Education and Science of Kazakhstan, and the Cabinet of Ministers in Uzbekistan respectively. In Kyrgyzstan, however, the national tests (ORT) are conducted by the independent Centre for and Teaching Methods, which was founded with USAID support (ADB, 2015; EACEA, 2017b, 2017d, 2017c, 2017a). Generally, such centralized tests were aimed at enhancing the quality of merit-based and transparent results, radically improving fairness of access to higher education and limiting widespread corrupt practices. However, the unified test can limit the opportunities of many learners by posing challenges and barriers for progression and pathways between different levels. Therefore, if Central Asia is to promote lifelong learning and inclusive development, an alternative or parallel policy option should be in place in order to create opportunities and flexible pathways for learners. Centralized tests, however, have caused the phenomenon of ‘shadow education’ and supplementary private tutoring paid for by families. The increase in private tutoring is mainly due to the following key reasons: a) mismatch between centralized tests and the school curricula, b) family’s capacity to increase private spending on education, c) shifting status of the teaching profession and underpaid jobs in the formal system, d) changing quality of education in mainstream schools, and e) increasing demand for higher education. On

6 For an overview of the labour participation rate per country, see: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.ZS

18 19 Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

the one hand, private tutoring has been perceived as a more efficient, flexible, and prompt response to students’ needs. This social phenomenon, however, has also had a number of negative consequences, such as increasing social inequities, distorting curricula, inviting corruption, and depriving the state of tax revenues (Silova, 2010). In the TVET sector, the economic and demographic challenges in all four countries have highlighted the role of vocational education and training, but their TVET systems have developed differently. In Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan for instance, there are two levels of TVET (known as initial or primary TVET, and secondary TVET) which correspond to different qualification levels. There are two possible entry points to TVET: after Grade 9 and after Grade 11 (see Figure 1). In terms of financial support, only some students benefit from state grants in these three countries, and the majority have to pay for their own studies. In Uzbekistan, after Grade 9 pupils enter either into an academic lyceum or a professional college, with the majority (over 90 per cent) of pupils oriented towards TVET (UNESCO, 2018). All students in TVET are funded by the state as part of the compulsory education system. These two distinct approaches have led to varying levels of enrolment in TVET at upper secondary level among the four countries. Enrolment rates range from 93 per cent (2015) in Uzbekistan, to 41 per cent (2015) in Kazakhstan, 37 per cent (2014) in Kyrgyzstan, and 6.4 per cent (2013) in Tajikistan (ETF, 2017). Consequently, the number of TVET providers varies significantly across these four countries. With regard to governance, the TVET sector and its sub-levels are also managed by different ministries in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, while in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, only the Ministry of Education is responsible for TVET. From 2012 onwards, all four countries set up new bodies, such as skills or business councils at national, sub-national and sectoral levels, and are currently in the process of building up the capacity of these new organizations to improve links with employers and the private sector in particular. Since 2010, they have participated in the Torino Process supported by ETF to improve TVET policies through evidence-based assessment of progress, cross-country peer learning, common understanding of medium-term vision, priorities and strategy for an impact-oriented TVET sector. Across all four countries, the linkages between different levels of the education system are mainly linear and confined to formal testing, while TVET policies continue to focus on youth and first-time learners (16–24 year-olds). Furthermore, the quality of adult education has been largely neglected, even though these countries have had active labour market measures and training initiatives for the unemployed in place for at least the last 10 years. Having recognized this situation, recently these Central Asian countries have made efforts and progress in developing adult education, such as the adoption of the law on Adult Education in October 2016 in Tajikistan. With support from various international development agencies such as UNESCO, ETF, DVV International, ADB, and the World Bank, adult education is now high on the reform agenda. Policy Recommendations: In order to develop a lifelong learning system, it is necessary to a) create multiple and flexible pathways between all levels to widen access, b) redesign teaching and learning processes where learners are at the centre and develop curricula with a learning outcome approach, c) institutionalize adult education and recognize it as part of the lifelong learning system, and improve the coordination between different governing bodies and providers of adult education.

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Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

2.3 Key Drivers for the Development of Lifelong Learning The economies of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan rely overwhelmingly on commodity exports or on remittances – making communities vulnerable to external changes. Economic restructuring and diversification, as well as job creation, are key strategies for development. One of the pressing issues in all four countries is the shortage of a skilled workforce to cope with the changing demands of the market-oriented economies and technological advancement. While the official unemployment rate is relatively low, many people work in low-paid jobs, as well as in informal and insecure businesses. Many face high risks of falling into poverty and exclusion. The governments of Central Asian countries are also aware of the crucial role of human capital in attracting Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) for the economic development. Multi-National Enterprises (MNEs) seek quality labour force equipped with knowledge, skills, and work ethics. It was evident in the World Bank’s large-scale study in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan in 2013 that employers need more workers with transversal competencies. This is because these competencies matter for labour market outcomes – whether in terms of employability, productivity, and job satisfaction (World Bank, 2013; GIZ and World Bank, 2017). Further studies supported by ADB in 2014 and by ILO in 2015 were conducted in Tajikistan in order to assess the needs for specialist knowledge and competencies in energy (oil and gas), as well as construction and manufacturing industries. The results of these studies highlighted the shortage of professional skills and knowledge to handle new technologies, tools and materials. Employers also reported a lack of transversal competencies, such as learning to learn, the ability to understand documents and write clearly, teamwork, greater aspiration for professional development, a sense of initiative, as well as the ability to interpret and use text, numbers, and tables (World Bank, 2013; Quddusov, 2018). In March 2016, the World Bank launched a 5-year project entitled ‘Kazakhstan Skills and Jobs’ aimed at improving employment outcomes and skills of people in Kazakhstan and increase the relevance of TVET and higher education programmes under the Ministry of Labour and Social Protection of the Population (World Bank, 2019a). In an era of globalization and competition, Central Asia can no longer rely on cheap labour in order to gain competitiveness. Given their geographical disadvantage as landlocked countries, the key to improving competitiveness in Central Asian economies lies in enhancing their human resource capabilities by making appropriate investments in education and professional training for their people. In other words, to increase and create better lifelong learning opportunities for adults so that they can update their knowledge and skills as well as expand their capabilities. The formation of skills and capabilities occurs throughout the life cycle, and although adult learning is the longest part of working life, it has been largely neglected. The term ‘adult education’ has been largely absent in legislative documents, and has only started to appear in policies recently as a result of inputs from international development partner organizations. The term ‘continuous professional education’ was used, which only covers some of the elements of the term ‘adult education’. Noticeable progress has been made in legislation on adult education in some countries. For instance, in October 2016, the law ‘On Adult Education’ was adopted in Tajikistan, which recognized, validated, and promoted informal, non-formal and self-education, as well as the science of .7 However, more work needs to be done in order to implement this law, such as raising awareness among

7 Andragogy refers to the profession of teaching and training adult educators.

20 21 Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

authorities about adult education and lifelong learning, defining validation processes and procedures, setting standards for the andragogical profession of ‘adult education teachers’, and creating a system to collect and use statistics. The validation procedures developed by the Ministry of Labour, Migration and Employment of the Population were approved by the Government of Tajikistan in December 2017. Given Central Asia’s ethnic diversity, there have been tensions between some ethnic groups. Social cohesion is crucial in providing a structure for collective life, as well as creating a sense of responsibility for peacebuilding and community development among individuals. The Tajik civil war in the 1990s, ethnic riots in Osh (Kyrgyzstan) in 1990 and 2010, the popular uprising in Andizhan (Uzbekistan) in 2005, and two revolutions in Kyrgyzstan in 2005 and 2010 – have all engendered the need for community-based lifelong learning. This would contribute to creating convergence across different groups in society as well as to developing a community of shared values, challenges and equal opportunities (Esenaliev et al., 2016). Overall, the key drivers for lifelong learning in Central Asia are to improve skills among the workforce, boost economic development, and build peace and social cohesion. Lifelong learning contributes to all the SDGs, and at an individual level, numerous international studies such as the UIL Global Report on Adult Learning and Education have shown evidence of the wider benefits of adult and lifelong learning for health and well-being, the quality of social and cultural life, positive attitudes and behaviours, as well as crime reduction (UIL, 2016).

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Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

3 CURRENT POLICIES AND PRACTICES FROM A LIFELONG LEARNING PERSPECTIVE

3.1 Capacity of Education Systems This chapter aims to review education policies and practices from a lifelong learning perspective as well as to provide a broader picture of the current situation at all levels of education from pre-school to higher education in Central Asian countries. While this comparative analysis gives a systemic overview, it will place emphasis on TVET, higher education, and adult education, as well as the pathways and linkages between different levels and sub-sectors of education. It highlights good practices and major challenges in achieving SDG 4, while also focussing on the capacity to build lifelong learning systems in Central Asian countries.

3.2 Pre-school Education The provision of pre-school education varies widely across the four countries in Central Asia. Pre-school education is neither free nor adequately available in the sub-region – characterized by low enrolment, uncertain quality, and unevenly distributed resources across regions. Although there has been a fast increase of pre-school provision through Private- Public Partnerships (PPPs) in all four countries in recent years, there is still a gap in access to pre-school education between urban and rural areas. Tajikistan has the lowest level of enrolment (Table 4) as most of the population lives in rural areas (73 per cent). In comparison to other Central Asian countries, Kazakhstan has a higher level of enrolment. It is also the first country that has made the final year of pre-school education (equivalent to age 6) compulsory in order to address low levels of enrolment among those that are 3–5 years old in pre-school education. Kyrgyzstan has also introduced a 480-hour pre-school preparation programme for almost 100 per cent of children aged 5.5–7 years old who did not previously attend any pre- school education. Uzbekistan has piloted projects to introduce a free year of pre-school education in schools. These projects all aim to include children who are not enrolled in pre-school education.

Table 4. Pre-school Education Enrolment (2018)

Enrolment Kazakhstan * Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Uzbekistan**

3–6 year-olds 95.2% n/a 12% 29%

3–5 year-olds n/a 21% n/a n/a

Source: Arne Carlsen, based on Belosludtseva (2018), Quddusov (2018), Rakhimov (2018), Tretyakova (2018), * IAC. 2018, ** Government of Uzbekistan (2018).

22 23 Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

Challenges to achieving SDG 4 Targets 4.2 and 4.5 Low levels of enrolment in pre-school education in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan may have the following negative implications: a. Lack of readiness for primary education due to poor preparation, b. Continued urban/rural divide in school performance, which will continue to increase at primary and levels, and c. Increased gender inequality as child care duties limit opportunities for women to participate in the labour market and in adult learning.

3.3 Primary and Secondary Education In Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, compulsory school education consists of 9 years. At the end of Grade 9, pupils can then continue to upper secondary education either in general or vocational schools, or enter the labour market. From 1998 to 2017, Uzbekistan increased compulsory education to 12 years, which indicated the government’s desire to invest in the provision of both general and vocational upper secondary education. However, from 2017 Uzbekistan reduced compulsory school education to 11 years. The last two years of compulsory education (Grades 10–11) are provided in two types of upper secondary school based on performance. The top 10 per cent of Grade 9 graduates attend academic lyceums, while the remaining pupils attend vocational or professional schools for the remaining pupils (UNESCO, 2018).

School education in Central Asia is provided mostly by state schools as well as some private schools. While public school education is still predominant throughout the sub-region, private schools are mainly concentrated in large cities and are less common in rural regions. Both public and private educational organizations must undergo the procedure of state licensing in order to offer educational programmes. The classical education attainment pyramid often shows decreasing participation in formal education at higher levels. This is also the case in Central Asia, where access to formal education generally decreases as the level goes up. The challenge is to create more learning opportunities, as well as multiple and flexible pathways between different levels and types of education. This will increase the participation and attainment rate at higher levels in the long term. Table 5 presents the gross enrolment rate by country at different levels of education.

Table 5. Gross Enrolment Rate at Different Education Levels in Central Asia

% School-leavers Gross enrolment rate Grade 10–11 Vocational upper Grade 1–9 entering higher (academic lyceums) secondary education Country education (2017) Kazakhstan 106%**** (2016) n/a **41% (2015) *50% Kyrgyzstan 98.4% (2014) 53.4% **37% (2014) *44% Tajikistan 99% (2017) n/a **6.4% (2013) *31% Uzbekistan ***97% (2016) ***10% (2018) ***90% (2018) *9%

Source: Arne Carlsen, based on Belosludtseva (2018), Quddusov (2018), Rakhimov (2018), Tretyakova (2018), *UIS (2019), **ETF (2017). Notes: ***Government of Uzbekistan (2018), **** Gross enrolment includes students of all ages. In other words, it includes students whose age exceeds the official age group (e.g. repeaters). Therefore, if there is late enrolment, early enrolment, or repetition, the total enrolment can exceed the population of the age group that officially corresponds to the level of education – leading to ratios greater than 100 per cent (World Bank, 2019b).

One of the key performance indicators of compulsory school education in Central Asia is access to education that ensures the constitutional rights of each citizen to free education.

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Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

However, there is a high risk of school drop-out before the completion of compulsory education, which is linked to poverty and a considerable gap between access to and quality of school education. A critical analysis of the four country reports highlights the following main issues: a large gap in achievement between students from rural and urban schools, a weak infrastructure, schools operating in two or three shifts, schools in emergency conditions, a large number of ungraded or multigrade classrooms,8 shortage of highly qualified teachers and school administrators, low level of teacher training, and insufficient school funding. For example, about two-thirds of schools in Uzbekistan operate in multiple shifts, and this is more prevalent in semi-urban and urban areas, which shows limited capacity to accommodate the increase in enrolment. Schools that are required to operate in shifts often face challenges that affect the quality of learning, such as the need to: a) condense class time to accommodate for two or more shifts; b) share classrooms and furniture among students of different age groups, and c) eliminate extracurricular activities (Government of Uzbekistan, 2018). These issues are likely to lead to negative school experiences, which may then deter learners from continuing learning in adulthood. Good Practice in Kazakhstan: At basic school level (Grades 1–9), school admission is determined (in addition to entrance exams) by the pupil’s home address, and enrolment is decided by the school leader. The maximum class size is of 25 pupils. As of 2016, in Kazakhstan 45 per cent of state general schools offered inclusive education to children with special needs. There is also a growing number of evening schools that offer supplementary and equivalency education programmes for young adults, who have dropped out from schools (Belosludtseva, 2018). To support the improvement of educational quality in small ungraded or multigrade schools (which account for 70 per cent of rural schools and almost half of all schools in Kazakhstan), special resource hub-centres have been set up across the country. Each resource centre supports 3–4 small schools. In 2015 there were 160 hub- centres operating across the country (OECD and World Bank, 2015). In partnership with the University of Cambridge, Kazakhstan has also started a new scheme for teacher professional development consisting of three levels. Upon successful completion of each level of training, teachers are entitled to a pay rise of 30 per cent, 70 per cent and 100 per cent respectively (Torebekova and Shamshieva, 2016). Non-formal Education (NFE) for children of school age is often referred to as ‘out-of-school educational opportunities’ or activities in Central Asia, which is supplementary to school education and not compulsory. This type of education mainly serves the educational and developmental needs of children and adolescents in music, arts, and sports, as well as to assist in organizing their free time and recreation. The provision of this kind of NFE is relatively good in urban areas but limited in rural areas. It is also increasingly privatized, often in the form of PPPs.

Challenges to achieving SDG 4 Targets 4.1, 4.7 and 4.c Despite high gross enrolment rates at the compulsory school education level, Central Asia still faces issues with regard to the quality of education, which then results in unequal opportunities. This includes the shortage of quality teachers, outdated school curricula, limited activities for developing transversal competencies that are needed to promote sustainable development, poor quality and shortage of textbooks, multiple shifts in school, rural and urban divide, patchy career guidance and counselling services, as well as poor facilities for inclusive education.

8 An ungraded or multigrade classroom refers to pupils of different ages and grades learning in one classroom.

24 25 Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

3.4 TVET Systems This section focuses on Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET). The term ‘TVET’ is understood in this report as consisting of education, training, and skills development for a wide range of occupational fields, production, services, and livelihoods. TVET also includes a range of skills, notably transversal competencies, that are attuned to national and local contexts. In this section it mainly refers to formal education and training that leads to qualifications, whereas non-formal TVET, as part of continuous learning and education, will be examined later in this report. In Central Asia, TVET systems have developed differently. Given that Uzbekistan offers longer compulsory education (11 years) than the other three countries (9 years), after Grade 9 Uzbek students progress either to general upper secondary education or to vocational education and training. The vast majority (93 per cent) are directed towards TVET, where all study places are state-funded as part of the compulsory education system (ETF, 2017; UNESCO, 2018). While many TVET institutions in rural areas have been closed in Central Asian countries, they still operate in the case of Uzbekistan, as well as in some rural areas in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, as reforms in the agricultural sector have sought to avoid closing down established institutions. However, these institutions face significant challenges in providing quality education. TVET is often placed under various ministries such as the ministries of labour, health, and culture, among others, in addition to education. This indicates the need for cooperation among ministries in order to formulate national lifelong learning strategies.

Figure 2. TVET Formal, Non-formal and Informal Systems

TERTIARY EDUCATION

Tertiary Tertiary (ISCED 5–8)

General Secondary Vocational Vocational Vocational Education Education Education Training 2 years 3 years 2 years 1 year (ISCED 5–8) Secondary

Basic Secondary Education 5 years

Primary Education 4 years Primary (ISCED 5–8)

Source: UNEVOC (2015), p.7

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Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan require nine years of compulsory education, while enrolment in TVET is relatively lower in Tajikistan and exceptionally high in Uzbekistan (see Table 5). After Grade 9, students can enter TVET institutions at Initial (Primary) level upon completion of the basic education certificate (with the exception of Kyrgyzstan where no certificate is needed).9 After Grade 11, there is also the opportunity to attend professional or vocational colleges (known as Secondary TVET level – or as part of tertiary education) corresponding to different qualifications. Although TVET does not consist of compulsory education, there are opportunities to receive state funding to study at TVET institutions. In Kyrgyzstan for instance, initial TVET is fully state-funded, while secondary TVET is not. In Kazakhstan both levels tend to be privately funded by students and their families, however the introduction of the ‘TVET for All’ initiative has steadily increased the number of state-funded scholarships for specific professions to get working professions (for the equivalent of initial TVET in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan). At the Initial TVET level, professional lyceums and vocational technical colleges in Central Asia provide three types of courses as shown in Figure 2:

a. Three-year course: a combination of vocational and general education including academic components necessary to apply to HEIs, b. Two-year course: aimed at graduates of upper secondary education (Grade 11) and includes a combination of vocational education and specific disciplines, and c. Short courses of up to six-months or one year: purely vocational education for youth and adults.

The Secondary TVET level is made up of post-secondary, tertiary level vocational training, including Bachelor level, and is provided by TVET institutions. The size of the formal TVET system varies across the four countries in terms of enrolment rate and number of providers.

Table 6. Initial TVET Providers in Central Asia

Country Kazakhstan* 2015 Kyrgyzstan* 2015 Tajikistan* 2015 Uzbekistan** 2018

Initial TVET providers 780 231 127 1,422

Data sources: *ETF (2017), **UNESCO (2018). Note: TVET providers here refer to the number of professional lyceums and vocational colleges

Despite some differences between TVET systems in the four countries, they face similar challenges, namely the need for developing labour market information systems, conducting skills forecasts and analysis of skills gaps, labour market mismatch, as well as involving employers in training and content development, among other issues. In Kazakhstan, legislative changes made in 2014, as well as the adoption of NQFs in 2012, led to reforms of the TVET system. This included the adoption of a dual approach (work-based learning) and the development of professional standards. While the dual approach provided broader opportunities for enterprise-based training, it only reaches 10 per cent of TVET

9 This policy in Kyrgyzstan was in response to high dropout rates in basic education.

26 27 Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

students. The government also established the National Council for Vocational Education, 16 regional, and 14 sectoral councils in order to work with businesses and industries on plans for training of personnel, forecasting the needs for specialists and developing professional standards. For example, in the framework of the project ‘Modernization of technical and vocational education’ (2012–2014), 147 professional standards and educational modular programmes were developed in 11 business-related professions in cooperation with business organizations. At the time, the practice of involving employers in defining TVET content and skills was still a large-scale pilot, but has since been implemented at a system-wide level. More and more efforts are being made to increase the prestige of TVET and to attract more students to colleges. For instance in 2014, Kazakhstan entered in the World Skills International Competition and held its first national championship. There has also been progress with regard to vulnerable groups of students, and certification for facilities with access for people with special needs has been implemented. By 2019, the percentage of TVET organizations that have equal opportunities and access for students with disabilities is planned to reach 40 per cent (ETF, 2017). In Kyrgyzstan, there are approximately 100 occupational specializations at the initial TVET level, many of which are outdated and of poor quality due to lack of funding, insufficient involvement of employers, and mismatch with labour market needs. The majority of TVET programmes are for manual occupations such as welders, cooks, drillers, mining operators, electricians, plasterers, plumbers, restorers, and surveyors’ assistants. Some 230 Initial and Secondary TVET providers, including state and private professional lyceums (initial TVET) and private vocational colleges (secondary TVET) operate throughout the country without coordination of the specializations offered, contents, or standards. In rural areas, they have no mechanisms in place to ensure such coordination. There have been a number of attempts to reform the TVET system up until 2017, where efforts mainly focused at initial TVET level, including the shift towards learning outcomes as well as employer and private sector involvement. In December 2017, however, the Ministry of Education and Science launched a project supported by ADB, which envisaged the possibility of integrating both initial and secondary vocational education, as well as ‘establishing educational trajectories for vocational education’ – designed to ensure continuity and progression pathways of initial and secondary vocational education. The project intends to create model ‘Training Centres of Excellence’ in several professions within integrated primary and secondary vocational schools for complex and in-demand occupations. Kyrgyzstan has also made progress in terms of inclusive TVET by providing access for people with special needs and students from vulnerable groups. Nonetheless, there remains a need to further strengthen the capacity of the formal education system to increase access for groups with special needs. Good Practice in Kazakhstan: Due to low scores in national exams for higher education, many vocational college graduates are unable to continue their education at a HEI. In 2016, the Ministry of Education and Science of Kazakhstan amended the admission rules, which simplified the transition to higher education. According to these amendments, TVET graduates are permitted to retake the Comprehensive Test in August and then in January of the following year. The new format of higher education entrance exams for TVET college graduates was then implemented from 2017. These new rules, in essence, have created flexible pathways between different levels and sectors of the education system, and hence promote lifelong learning.

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Good Practice in Tajikistan: the concepts of initial and secondary TVET are similar to Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, but with some differences. Initial TVET is offered at vocational lyceums in two types of courses: two-year courses in 50 professions (after Grade 9), and one-year courses (after Grade 11) in about 90 professions. 85 per cent of students receive state grants and only 15 per cent pay for their education. Secondary TVET is offered at professional colleges where students can be enrolled in a four-year course after Grade 9 or in a two-year course after Grade 11. More than half of the students (55 per cent) study on a contractual basis and pay for their education. The full-time courses enrol 78 per cent of students. Graduates of TVET institutions (vocational lyceums and professional colleges after Grade 9), who have received a professional qualification without completing secondary education, cannot move to a higher level of education. Graduates with a certificate of completed secondary education can continue their studies either in the system of vocational technicums or pursue higher education as in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Good Practice in Uzbekistan: From the academic year 2019/2020 onwards, Grade 11 graduates will be able to enrol into TVET courses of six months to two years instead of the strictly defined three-year TVET programmes. This decision demonstrates the government’s desire to build a new, flexible TVET system accessible to all groups of the population and responsive to labour market demands (UNESCO, 2018). Another example of the government’s desire to build a modernized TVET system is the decision to bring national vocational education standards in line with the requirements of the UNESCO International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED), international qualification frameworks, organization of modular training, and recognition of national qualifications. Potentially, this decision will make the vocational education system more comparable with the systems of other countries, and will also lay the foundations for introducing a mechanism for RVA of learning outcomes and non-formal learning. Kazakhstan is attempting to follow these standards by adopting a NQF and has started to work on validation mechanisms. The Presidential Decree was also issued upon the establishment of a National Commission which is responsible for further improvement of the vocational education system and reorganization of over 1,400 vocational colleges to maximize their effectiveness (Ibid).

Challenges to achieving SDG 4, Targets 4.4 and 4.b Action needs to be taken in all four countries to develop labour market information systems, skills forecast, analysis of skills gaps, and mismatch. There is also a need to offer more state grants for initial TVET (with the exception of Uzbekistan), in order to increase opportunities for youth, especially those from rural provinces. This will enable them to acquire adequate knowledge and skills to obtain jobs in various business sectors (services and manufacturing), rather than agriculture, as well as to involve more employers in improving the relevance of curricula and skills sets. All this is crucial to enable economic diversification, productivity growth, and ultimately raise the quality of life of the population as a whole.

28 29 Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

3.5 Higher Education Admission to Bachelor programmes in Central Asia is based on the results of the Unified National Test for upper secondary school graduates and the Comprehensive Test for mature students and graduates of secondary vocational schools. These tests are managed by the State Testing Centres, with the exception of Kyrgyzstan where they are administered by an independent testing centre (ADB, 2015). Applicants to Master’s programmes must also take entrance examinations and show competence in one foreign language (English, French, or German), in addition to the language of instruction.

Table 7. Higher Education Systems in Central Asia (2017–2018)

Kazakhstan: Kyrgyzstan: Tajikistan: Uzbekistan: Higher Education Levels Bologna Process Non-Bologna signatory, Non-Bologna signatory, Non-Bologna signatory, member since 2010 Bologna compliant Bologna compliant not Bologna compliant

Bachelor 4 years 4 years 4 years 3–4 years Bakalavr 5 years (law, architecture) 5 years (law, architecture) 5 years (architecture) Specialist Diploma 6 years (medicine) 6 years (medicine) 6 years (medicine) 6 years (medicine) Master 1 or 1.5 or 2 years 2 years 2 years 2 years Magistr

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) 3 years 3 years 2–3 years *2 years

Candidate of Science 2–3 years 3 years 6 years (medicine) Being phased out. Kandidat Nauk (being phased out)

Doctor of Science 3 years At least 3 years At least 3 years 3 years Doktor Nauk (being phased out)

*Number of HEIs (total universities, institutes, 125 55 39 **85 academies, and foreign university branches)

*Number of HEIs 55 31 38 n/a (State-owned)

*Number of HEIs 70 24 1 n/a (Private, Corporatized)

Source: Arne Carlsen, based on EACEA (2017a, 2017b, 2017d, 2017c) and *Government of Uzbekistan (2018). ** Including 8 branches of foreign universities operating in partnership with public institutions.

The Ministry in charge of higher education awards state degree diplomas at all levels regardless of the type of institution. Generally, in Central Asian countries there are three types of HEIs – universities, academies, and institutes – each with overlapping functions. Universities provide education programmes, conduct fundamental and applied research, and offer retraining and upgrading of specialists and scientific personnel. Academies provide education programmes in specialized fields and offer retraining and upgrading of qualifications, such as tax, banking, and finance, as well as public administration. Institutes are often managed vertically by specific ministries and provide specialized programmes to carry out fundamental research (EACEA, 2017d, 2017c, 2017a, 2017b). The overlap in specialized training programmes among these HEIs should be further analyzed and avoided.

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Besides the competitive entrance examinations at each level, student access to higher education programmes (whether academic or vocational) has been severely affected by the increasingly self-financing education policy in public HEIs in Central Asian countries. Tuition fees are paid either by state grants or on a contract basis (i.e. self-paying students). State grants are awarded by the government based on the results of the Unified National Test and in accordance with the state order for specific disciplines and subject areas. In Kazakhstan, 70 per cent of Bachelor students have to pay tuition fees, in Kyrgyzstan 76 per cent, in Tajikistan 65 per cent, and in Uzbekistan 67 per cent (EACEA, 2017b, 2017d, 2017c, 2017a). While at Bachelor level, roughly one third of students receive grants, at Master’s level almost half of the students receive grants, and at doctoral level nearly all participants receive grants either from the state or from employers. The number of national state scholarships is higher for teachers, and state scholarships can also be used for studies in private universities or institutes. Although student loans are available for students who study on a contract basis through commercial banks, the annual interest rate set by national banks is still high – for instance 9.5 per cent per annum in Uzbekistan as of 2015 (EACEA, 2017d). This self-financing policy is the biggest obstacle for students from poor families to access higher education. In Tajikistan for instance, the number of students from well-off families entering higher education is eight times higher than the number of students from poor families, therefore widening social inequality and hindering the implementation of SDG 4. The difference in the participation rate in higher education is remarkable across all four Central Asian countries. As shown in Table 3, Uzbekistan has the largest population (32.7 million) yet has the lowest proportion of school leavers entering higher education at just 9 per cent (see Table 5). The term ‘higher education’ here refers to post-upper secondary level (beyond Grade 11) including vocational training colleges and Bachelor programmes. There are several reasons for this low participation rate. Firstly, the government limited enrolment by applying strict quotas until 2017. Moreover, admission is restricted to one HEI and to one discipline only. This is because HEIs accept only original documents of previous education for review, meaning that they cannot be presented at two or more HEIs at the same time. These documents confirm the right for benefits and privileges. Secondly, almost half of Uzbekistan’s 85 HEIs are located in the capital city. This high concentration of HEIs in one location, in addition to higher living costs and tuition fees, all present additional obstacles to access higher education for rural students (Ruziev and Rustamov, 2016). This is an important consideration given that 49 per cent of Uzbek population live in rural areas (Table 3). Good practice in Kyrgyzstan: Higher education programmes are also provided in Uzbek language for the Uzbek minority population. Good practice in Uzbekistan: To reduce the financial burden for students, the Uzbek government has introduced several policies: interest-free loans for orphans and students with disabilities, students from low income families receive a 50 per cent discount on student loan interest, parents have tax exemptions equivalent to the amount spent on education for children under the age of 26, students receive subsidized monthly tickets for public transport, and students from rural areas can be offered free accommodation in student dormitories. Uzbekistan is also opening a number of university branches in rural areas in facilities that were former vocational secondary schools.

30 31 Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

Challenges to achieving SDG 4, Targets 4.3 and 4.7 Lack of flexible pathways between education levels, widening inequality, and shortage of affordable higher education offerings.

3.6 Adult Learning and Education

Adult education is mainly understood among Central Asian countries as vocational and continuous education in the form of professional development, upskilling, and retraining in both formal or non-formal settings. In practice, only limited provision of state-funded adult education in the form of ‘continuous education’ or top-down planned ‘further training and retraining of personnel’ is available. In the past decade, formal and non-formal Adult Learning and Education (ALE) has received more attention, and provision has increased. In addition, specific trainings related to different sectors of the labour market have become more popular and in demand. For example, the Kyrgyzstan Skills Development Fund covers upskilling for adults, while in Kazakhstan, there is a growing number of evening schools that offer second-chance equivalency education for young people who left school without completing secondary education (Belosludsteva, 2018). In all four Central Asian countries, vulnerable groups such as the unemployed, orphans, and people with disabilities receive state support for education and training. Non-formal Education (NFE) is institutionalized, intentional, and planned by an education provider. The defining characteristic of NFE is that it is additional, alternative and/or complementary to formal education within the process of the lifelong learning of individuals. It is also often provided to guarantee the right of access to education for all. NFE caters for people of all ages, but does not necessarily apply a continuous pathway-structure. It may be short in duration or low intensity, and it is typically provided in the form of short courses, workshops, or seminars. NFE mostly leads to qualifications (certifications) that are not formally recognized by the relevant national educational authorities, and sometimes leads to no qualifications at all. Ideally, the recognition of NFE as learning outcomes would lead to formal qualifications or at least contribute towards them. NFE can cover programmes contributing to adult and youth literacy and education for out-of-school children, as well as programmes on life skills, work skills, and social or cultural development.10 The range of NFE and ALE providers across the four countries is quite broad, and in many cases are inherited from Soviet times. Informal learning results from daily life activities related to work, family or leisure. It is not structured (in terms of learning objectives, learning time, or learning support), and typically does not lead to certification. Informal learning may be intentional but in most cases it is non- intentional, ‘incidental’, or random. Informal adult learning – such as museums, libraries, book clubs, theatre, TV programmes, inter-generational learning at home, among others – has only recently been recognized as part of ALE in Central Asia. It has become increasingly acknowledged that learning takes place on a continuum and that the boundaries between different forms of education and learning are porous. Therefore, the definitions of the terms quoted above are not intended to suggest a rigid separation between them.

10 For a definition of NFE according to ISCED, see: http://uis.unesco.org/node/334726

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National Adult Education Associations are found in three countries – Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan – but not in Kazakhstan. For instance, the Kyrgyz Association for Adult Education (KAAE) was founded in 2006 and unites 13 main members and 10 associate members from across the country. The main purpose of the organization is to provide continuous education, including vocational training and personal development courses. KAAE has also implemented several projects aimed at increasing accessibility of continuous education for socially vulnerable groups of the population. Challenges faced with regard to ALE among Central Asian countries include the lack of legal and strategic frameworks for it to be adequately strengthened, adult educator trainings, and very little to no state funding for non-formal adult education.

Table 8. Range of Providers of Adult Education and Learning in Central Asia

Non-formal Providers of adult education Formal education education

Vocational colleges ✓ ✓ HEIs (Universities) ✓ ✓ Institutions, centres, faculties and courses for professional training and retraining ✓ ✓ Centres for vocational training and retraining of the unemployed ✓ ✗ Non-governmental educational institutions ✓ ✗ Non-governmental non-commercial institutions (including unions and associations) ✓ ✗ Centres of culture and leisure for the population ✓ ✗ Museums, libraries, theatres, cinemas, and art galleries ✓ ✗ International organizations and projects ✓ ✗

Source: Arne Carlsen, based on Belosludtseva (2018), Quddusov (2018), Rakhimov (2018), Tretyakova (2018).

Kazakhstan The huge potential of additional (non-formal) education for young people and adults is not yet sufficiently recognized, yet positive developments can be observed with short-term professional training of workers provided by non-formal vocational education organizations. There are various public associations and non-profit organizations in adult education, thousands of training centres in the NFE sector, in addition to some CLCs. The general lack of data concerning NFE, in addition to the fact that many NFE institutions are not licensed, makes it difficult to estimate the quality and outcome of these activities. Most of the time, these activities do not receive state funding, and are generally provided based on a fee. Nonetheless, the multitude of NFE providers makes NFE competitive and therefore reasonably priced. Kazakhstan continues to face a shortage of qualified workers who, in addition to technical skills, also have foreign language skills, management skills, and transversal competencies. The law On Education regulates the activities of supplementary education organizations, and mentions conditions for lifelong learning. It also states rules for additional education for adults in order to meet their lifelong learning needs. The relation between formal education and NFE is also reflected, whereas activities for adults are restricted to professional development. Programmes in culture, personal development, and for vulnerable groups are not mentioned. These groups face issues of inadequate access, weak personal support, as well as limited opportunities for

32 33 Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

continuous professional development. There is no funding for non-formal adult education, with the exception of training opportunities for the unemployed, professional development for teachers, as well as civil servants, which is paid for by employers, government, and NGOs. However companies are increasingly sponsoring employees’ professional development, while training at the workplace also has elements of a dual vocational training system. Improving the quality of TVET has become a national priority for Kazakhstan. Transversal competencies are receiving increased attention as part of this. These competencies all contribute to active citizenship, productivity and positive participation in the workplace. Moreover, these competencies are not addressed at ALE level and government reforms are lacking in this regard. Most initiatives in Kazakhstan tend to focus more on access rather than quality of education. This includes the State Programme for the Development of Productive Employment and Mass Entrepreneurship (2017–2021), as well as the adoption of the ‘Free Training Project in TVET’ within the framework of this programme. Graduates of Grades 9–11 who did not enter colleges and universities, young people looking for work in a difficult life situation, members of low-income families, and other categories of citizens from socially vulnerable groups, have been targeted as its participants. Short-term professional training is also offered by educational organizations with elements of a dual model of training through mobile training centres, and even though their curricula include skills in digital literacy, English, and entrepreneurship, it should still consider the inclusion of transversal competencies. The duration of short-term vocational training is from one to six months depending on the characteristics of the profession.

Kyrgyzstan The law On Education stipulates the importance of continuous adult education for further improvement of professional skills, which is organized by general and vocational education organizations. There are continuous education organizations in non-formal adult education in music and art that are open to adults of all ages. Compensatory education is offered in evening schools and distance education schools for vulnerable groups. NFE providers and organizations need to be licensed in order to provide continuous education, and need to involve government stakeholders in order to provide their services to vulnerable groups. KAAE also provides continuous education for vulnerable groups. Continuous education programmes in vocational training are also offered by universities and secondary vocational schools. These focus on continuous education programmes for university lecturers and teachers at vocational colleges, and also offer short-term courses in subjects such as cooking, driving, and computer skills. A number of corporate training centres also offer short-term courses for adults. The Skills Development Fund, which is supported by ADB, provides trainings for the unemployed and vulnerable groups, as well as specific training at the request of private sector enterprises. However, there is very limited data available about these courses and non- formal adult education in general.

Tajikistan The 2016 law On Adult Education gives all adults the right to return to education throughout life and also recognizes non-formal education. It is intended that the implementation of this law will make it possible to implement the principles of lifelong learning in the field of ALE.

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In Tajikistan, almost all educational institutions in vocational education offer short-term paid courses where the enrolment stands at 2.5 per cent of the adult population. The ‘Adult Training Centre of Tajikistan’ (ATCT) has four branches and almost 20 partner organizations, and was established in 2008 following the initiative of the Ministry of Labour and Social Protection of Population. This network of state providers helps widen access to vocational education for both youth and adults. In 2016, the ATCT network expanded to 33 training centres and 20 branches, offering youth and adults (aged 15+) short-term training in 56 professions and adult literacy programmes. These centres also provided training for the unemployed which are sponsored by the Agency of Labour and Employment. Of almost 19,000 unemployed adult learners, 60 per cent were women who received short-term training in 2016. Vocational lyceums and adult training centres within the ATCT system, however, only function to 50–70 per cent of their capacity as there is a fee for employed people. The studies can be short-term, and include both literacy courses as well as courses for completion of general education (Quddusov, 2018). Additionally, more than 260 non-state educational institutions and training centres offer fee-paying short-term training services throughout the country with a license granted by the Ministry of Education and Science. The courses offered include language courses, driving courses, vocational training, among others. However, quality assurance is weak and no statistical data are collected. Nonetheless, a positive development can be observed in that an increased number of adults participate in retraining and on-the-job training.

Uzbekistan In 2017, a roadmap for the implementation of SDG 4 was approved. While the term adult education is not mentioned in legal texts, continuous education is. Adult education, however, is mentioned in the Education Sector Development Plan 2019–2023 (Government of Uzbekistan, 2018). There are many organizations for ALE in the formal education system, as well as a significant number of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and cultural centres in the NFE sector, and vocational colleges which provide training for the unemployed. There are many providers of formal adult education for tax officers, medical staff, pedagogical staff, among others. While licensed NGEIs offer non-formal training in foreign languages, dancing, painting, etc., the programmes are not able to function as compensatory or complementary education. Although there is a national adult education association that offers courses, the lack of statistics does not make it possible to estimate the level of participation, scope, and quality. In Uzbekistan, as in other Central Asian countries, there is no adult educator training, and almost no state funding in general for non-formal adult education. There have been many efforts to train, retrain and improve skills of the unemployed through financing short-term training programmes. For example, the Centre for Training, Retraining and Improving Qualifications of the Unemployed Population in Tashkent has been operating for many years under the auspice of the Ministry of Employment and Labour Relations (MELR). Currently, MELR is responsible for training and retraining courses for the unemployed in more than 200 vocational colleges throughout the country. This system, however, is currently undergoing reform.

34 35 Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

In 2017, the Cabinet of Ministers adopted a resolution ‘On measures to establish Vocational Training Centres for unemployed citizens in the territory of Uzbekistan’. The main tasks of these centres are: • Free retraining and advanced training in vocations that are in demand by the labour market. Training can take place for up to one year for persons with secondary specialized vocational education, those who are unemployed, and temporarily unemployed, including those who are not in permanent employment. • Organization of short-term training courses for improving qualifications on a paid basis, for job seekers who are not registered as unemployed with labour authorities for vocations that are in demand on the labour market, as well as for employees – at the request of employers. There are also training courses funded by employers, yet these are limited to 15 per cent of total enrolment (Decree of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan from April 10, 2017 No.199.)

Decree No.199 also announced a plan to establish 11 vocational training centres for the unemployed in all regions of the country. Based on this decree, which is entitled ‘On measures of creation of centres of professional education of unemployed citizens in the Republic of Uzbekistan’, as well as the Presidential Decree No. 5252 of November 2017, further centres will be established in each of the eleven regions by 2020, providing approximately 2,640 places per year. These will be funded through the State Fund in Support of Employment supported by developments. For instance KOICA provides grants and loans, and the German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ) offers training for managers including study trips to Germany, whereas the Swiss Development Corporation and DVV International are conducting vocational training courses for out-of-work adults on the premises of vocational colleges. MELR runs two large centres for retraining of unemployed citizens, with a yearly participation of 1,000 students per year per centre. Training is provided in a broad variety of occupational areas, the most popular being accounting, handicrafts, welding/locksmith, and management. MELR also offers short-term training lasting between one and three months in 200 smaller regional centres for around fifty occupations. All MELR courses are attended by both men and women (60 per cent and 40 per cent respectively) and are free of charge (UNESCO, 2018).

Challenges to achieving SDG 4 Central Asian countries have made significant progress since 2010 in formulating their medium- to long-term vision for TVET and in translating this vision into policies. However, these policies continue to focus mainly on young learners, while ALE, lifelong learning or pathways to other education levels are only starting to gain attention from policy-makers and other relevant stakeholders. The shift towards a lifelong learning perspective remains difficult to achieve due to limited inter-ministerial cooperation, funding mechanisms, quality issues, and a lack of statistics for non-formal ALE.

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Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

International perspective ALE has been an important theme in international discourse since 1949 when the first International Conference on Adult Education (CONFINTEA) was held in Elsinore, Denmark. Held every 12 years, it sets the global agenda in adult education for governments and civil society organizations. CONFINTEA VI was held in 2009 in Belém, Brazil, where 144 countries committed to the Belém Framework for Action (BFA). The BFA calls for progress in literacy as well as in six action areas of adult education: 1) Policy, 2) Governance, 3) Financing, 4) Participation, inclusion and equity, 5) Quality, and 6) Monitoring the implementation of the BFA. Progress is monitored by UIL in the form of regional CONFINTEA follow-up meetings and reports, and through the Global Report on Adult Learning and Education (GRALE), published every three years.11 GRALE 1 (2010) was a state-of-the-art report, GRALE II (2013) focussed on literacy, and GRALE III (2016) took an inter-sectoral approach with regard to the impact of ALE on health and well-being, employability and the labour market, and social, civic and community life. It analyzed the contribution of ALE to SDG 3 (good health and well- being for people), SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth), SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities), as well as SDG 4 (quality education) Target 7 on global citizenship and sustainable development. GRALE IV (2019) will focus on participation in relation to inclusion and equity, and how participation is measured, in particular in non-formal ALE. This could contribute to making it possible to establish statistics in the field of non-formal ALE in Central Asia. CONFINTEA VI was entitled ‘Harnessing the power and potential of ALE for a viable future’, and pointed towards sustainable development and the important role of ALE towards lifelong learning. CONFINTEA VII will take place in 2022. A Review Meeting in 2017 took stock of the progress made in implementing commitments from CONFINTEA VI in preparation for CONFINTEA VII, and presented regional reports that reveal how lifelong learning has become increasingly prominent in education policy in the Asia-Pacific. Despite these developments, however, ALE still remains largely unrecognized. At a global level, UNESCO adopted the Recommendation on Adult Learning and Education in 2015 – the only normative instrument at the global level for ALE and with guiding principles for the Member States. Prepared by UIL, it promotes the three main areas of ALE: literacy, professional development, and liberal education. At a sub-regional level, there is currently no form of collaboration on ALE, though inspiration for sub-regional cooperation could be taken by the Nordic Folk Academy, now in the shape of the Nordic Network for Adult Learning.

3.7 Online Provision and Blended Learning Distance education supported by ICTs has recently started to be implemented in Central Asia and shows great potential in building lifelong systems. Indeed, e-learning could expand access to quality learning at all levels of education, especially with regard to the large number of small schools (ungraded classrooms) in Central Asian countries. E-learning systems also have a positive impact on the learning process and on the quality of teaching, paving the way for lifelong learning through its usability. Moreover, ICTs can promote inclusion and equity by providing adults from vulnerable groups with access to learning opportunities, such as those with disabilities (UIL, 2015).

11 For more information on GRALE, see: http://uil.unesco.org/adult-education/global-report

36 37 Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

In Kazakhstan, the e-Learning system is a large-scale governmental project outlined in the ‘State Programme for Education Development for 2016-2019’ and are aiming to: • Improve the quality of secondary education based on modernization of education contents and technologies. • Develop high-quality educational services to enhance the learning process by using up-to- date telecommunication facilities and digital technologies. • Ensure wider access to educational services through implementing new learning tools.

The learning platform and its e-library provide digital educational resources – interactive demonstrations, simulations, games, multimedia sources – in various disciplines. These are included in the curricula of secondary schools and TVET institutions. Currently, digital education resources are presented in Kazakh, Russian, and English ​​in accordance with the language of teaching and are available to learners, teachers, parents, education institutions, and government management organizations. Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan both participated in the large-scale TEMPUS project funded by the European Commission and entitled Introduction of Quality Management in e-learning at Central Asian Universities (QAMEL). The project was focused on the development of e-learning at HEIs and aimed at developing curricula and implementing e-learning programmes. The main outcomes were that participating universities developed national quality standards, e-learning regulations, and created e-learning centres at each pilot university while also disseminating best practices through a catalogue on e-learning. In Tajikistan, ICT-supported distance learning is still underdeveloped and needs to be introduced in higher and secondary vocational education. The importance of online learning for all learners, including adults, was shown in a recent European study that concluded that ‘the provision of online education as the main mode of distance education fulfilled most adult learners’ requirements for more flexible learning opportunities’ (Carlsen et al., 2016). In Uzbekistan, multimedia resources and portals are being created in different subjects in accordance with educational standards. All educational institutions are connected to a network, and a distance learning system is currently being established (e.g. MOODLE). While training is being carried out and support given to the formal sector, there is no support for the non-formal sector. Further development of ICT-supported distance learning programmes will hugely improve access, equality and inclusion.

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4 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF EDUCATION FROM A LIFELONG LEARNING PERSPECTIVE

4.1 Training and Development of Adult Educators and Teachers In order to ensure quality lifelong learning, a number of measures could be taken to further promote the development of ALE. This includes the process of ‘training, capacity building, employment conditions and the professionalization of adult educators’ in addition to other benchmarks such as adequate curriculum and its delivery, use of ICTs and Open Educational Resources (OERs), adequate infrastructure, establishing quality assurance mechanisms, and enabling learners to acquire necessary skills and qualifications (UIL, 2015). This section will therefore examine the state of training and professional development for adult educators in Central Asian countries.

Kazakhstan There are various NFE training centres in Kazakhstan. However they mainly offer vocational training programmes. Transversal competencies cannot only be developed in the formal system, and therefore need to be provided in non-formal and informal learning as they are crucial to promoting active citizenship and productive participation in work. In order to facilitate this process, adult educators and teachers should receive training on mainstreaming transversal competencies. However, there is no clearly established system for andragogy – the training of adult educators – nor for their upskilling. In general, training takes place on an ad-hoc basis based on the specific needs of educators – with the exception of certain sectors such as education and the civil service. These exceptions are state funded and have established a system for in-service and distance learning for teachers, teacher educators, civil servants, diplomats, among others. The lack of training and professional development opportunities for adult educators is common not only in Kazakhstan, but also in other Central Asian countries. Lack of data has meant that there is little visibility of the role of non-formal youth and adult education. While there is not yet a full understanding of lifelong learning, in 2013 standard rules for the activities or organizations providing additional adult education was approved, and in the law On Education (updated in 2015), additional education for adults and lifelong learning was recognized. Nonetheless the main focus remains on professional development. Education related to culture, self-realization, for people with disabilities, rural residents, pensioners, immigrants, and other vulnerable groups, however, remain outside of this framework. There are numerous activities offered by the non-formal sector, yet the quality and results are not known. There is neither an association of non-formal education nor is it foreseen in current education legislation. Although there are some university lecturers in NFE, the main challenges faced include a lack of highly qualified teachers to teach the different social groups, as well as the fact that there is no centralized training of qualified trainers for NFE programmes and courses.

38 39 Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

Kyrgyzstan There is no law on adult education in Kyrgyzstan, but the ‘Education Development Concept Note’ mentions continuous education, including personal and social development, and a Coordinating Committee was created in 2016 to implement the SDGs. A taskforce to implement SDG 4 has also been established with 35 representatives of several Ministry of Education and Science units and from civil society organizations (Tretyakova, 2018). Changes in the country’s economic structure, lack of skilled labour, combined with the predominance of children and young people (33.6 per cent of the population), call for reforms in the education system so that it can equip learners with both cognitive skills and transversal competencies (Tretyakova, 2018). A number of action plans for the education sector have been released, and currently competency-based standards for all levels have been developed or are under development. KAAE has been providing continuous education, and while there is a good system for advanced training and retraining of pedagogical staff across the country, this is not the case for continuous education. Some NGOs carry out seminars for adult educators, but there are no university level studies available in andragogy.

Tajikistan Although the law On Adult Education was adopted in 2017, there is a lack of formal studies and qualifications in order to become an adult educator. In addition, the title of adult educator is not yet recognized. As of 2017, the country’s Adult Training Centre of Tajikistan had 34 centres and 25 branches offering short-term training courses since it was opened in 2008. The courses that are most in demand include literacy and the completion of general education, and 60 per cent of course participants are female. There are many NGOs and private sector actors offering training and retraining (Quddusov, 2018). Tajikistan is also taking steps towards the institutionalization of in-service trainings within HEIs starting from 2017–2018. There are already a number of HEIs that train specialists who are able to both teach and be on-the-job training instructors. There are also several projects focused on the training of teachers in TVET, which are supported by international organizations with the involvement of the Adult Education Association. Lifelong learning as a system in Tajikistan is still in its infancy. The lack of statistics is a significant obstacle in obtaining a broader overview of the situation. Nonetheless, based on interviews conducted as part of this study, it is estimated that more and more adult educators are involved in training activities. Uzbekistan In 2018, the Uzbekistan reviewed the law On Education to add both adult education and lifelong learning. However, insufficient policy frameworks for adult education has caused significant challenges to management and funding, promotion of partnerships between providers, quality, and access. There are a number of providers of adult education, with training and retraining of pedagogical staff taking place at universities, institutes, academies, and specialized institutions in all regions. The Association for Harmonious Development of Adults and Youth was also established 2010. Unlike in Southeast Asian countries, there are still no CLCs (UIL and SEAMEO CELLL, 2017). Moreover, there is no specific university department for adult education or studies in andragogy in Uzbekistan. However, there are specialized projects in this field such as Curriculum GlobALE 2013–2015, which was supported by DVV International, as well as

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Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

resource centres for andragogy in the Institute for Advanced Training and Retraining. The programme consists of five compulsory modules and comprises a total of 660 academic hours – with a recommended number of additional hours for beginners. Another initiative of DVV International in this direction has been the project ‘Training of andragogs-practitioners for the system of professional development of pedagogical personnel of the secondary specialized vocational education (SSVE)’. This was conducted within the framework of the ‘Resource Centre for Andragogy’, which was established in 2011 on the basis of the Institute for Advanced Training and Retraining of Personnel in the SSVE (Rakhimov, 2018). There are five pedagogical universities that are directly involved in the training of teachers for the education system – located in Tashkent, Kokand, Djizakh, Navoi and in the autonomous area of Karakalpakstan. Many of the country’s 27 universities also have a department of . The largest institution for the training of teachers is the Tashkent Pedagogical University (Rakhimov, 2018). The faculty of pedagogy and psychology, for instance, has various specialized departments: the department of practical psychology, department of pedagogy, department of psychology, and primary education. However, none of these pedagogical HEIs have a separate faculty or department to train specialists in adult education.

Challenge to SDG 4 There is no recognized profession as an adult educator and no studies in andragogy available at universities in Central Asia.

4.2 Gender Equality The country reports indicate that at formal compulsory education level, female and male enrolment rates are almost equal. However, the issue of gender inequality becomes visible at higher levels of education. In Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan, female and male enrolment in TVET is almost equal, whereas in Tajikistan female participation in TVET is significantly lower than male enrolment as shown in Table 9. Furthermore, all countries demonstrate a strong gender bias in the choice of profession or specialization made by female or male students, with female students prevailing in education, healthcare, textile and garment sectors – all sectors that are usually characterized by low salaries.

40 41 Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

Table 9. Percentage of Students in Upper Secondary Education Enrolled in Vocational Programmes by Gender (%)

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Total 39.0 35.3 35.3 34.5 39.0 40.5 40.1

Kazakhstan Female 37.0 32.8 33.0 32.9 37.0 38.2 37.8

Male 41.0 37.8 37.6 36.7 41.0 42.8 42.5

Total 29.2 30.7 33.5 36.3 37.2 35.0 missing data

Kyrgyzstan Female 24,6 26.8 30.0 33.6 34.1 31.6 missing data

Male 33.8 34.5 37.0 38.9 40.3 38.4 missing data

Total 10.7 10.3 6.5 6.4 missing data missing data missing data

Tajikstan Female 6.5 5.7 5.0 1.3 missing data missing data missing data

Male 13.4 13.5 7.5 10.0 missing data missing data missing data

Total missing data missing data 92.7 93.1 93.1 93.0 93.1

Uzbekistan Female missing data missing data 93.7 94.1 94.0 93.8 93.8

Male missing data missing data 91.7 92.2 92.3 92.3 92.4

Data source: UIS (2017).

At the tertiary education level, the gender imbalance appears to change. Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan show a higher proportion of female students than male, whereas Tajikistan and Uzbekistan show a higher proportion of males than females as illustrated in Figures 3–6.

Figure 3. Gross Enrolment Ratio at Tertiary Figure 4. Gross Enrolment Ratio at Tertiary Education Level in Kazakhstan Education Level in Kyrgyzstan

Tertiary Education by Se Tertiary Education by Se 60 60 55 55 50 50 45 45 40 40 35 35 30 30 25 25 Percentage (%) Percentage Percentage (%) Percentage 20 20 15 15 10 10 5 5 0 0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Data source: UIS (2019). Data source: UIS (2017).

In terms of employment, Tajik women appear to be the most disadvantaged group. In 2013, the involvement of women in the workforce stood at only 27 per cent compared to 63 per cent of men. Women are employed mostly in the public sector, and almost 25 per cent of women are involved in unpaid work in family businesses compared to 13 per cent of their male counterparts.

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Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

Figure 5. Gross Enrolment Ratio at Tertiary Figure 6. Gross Enrolment Ratio at Tertiary Education Level in Tajikistan Education Level in Uzbekistan

Tertiary Education by Se Tertiary Education by Se 40 20

35 18 16 30 14 25 12 20 10 8 Percentage (%) Percentage

15 (%) Percentage 6 10 4 5 2 0 0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Data source: UIS (2019). Data source: UIS (2019).

Challenge to SDG 4 Gender inequalities should be addressed in all four countries both for male and female learners.

4.3 National Qualifications Frameworks National Qualifications Frameworks (NQF) and Recognition, Validation and Accreditation (RVA) of learning outcomes in non-formal and informal learning have been considered as two cornerstones of lifelong learning strategies and policies. Over 150 countries around the world are developing or implementing NQF. At a macro level, a NQF is a learning-outcomes- based instrument for supporting reforms as a way to improve transparency, relevance and quality of qualifications, as well as adjust the education system supply to the demand for qualifications of the labour market (CEDEFOP, ETF, UNESCO, UIL, 2017). At an individual level, a NQF helps learners to make informed decisions about the qualifications that they need. They can compare the levels of different qualifications and identify clear progression routes for their chosen career. A NQF can also offer opportunities for validation and recognition of learning outcomes obtained in non-formal and informal education, thus offering flexible pathways to different levels of qualification and widening access to learning. A key purpose of NQF is to support learning across different areas and throughout life. Therefore, the full name of the European NQF is the European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning. In Central Asia, transition from the Soviet system to the new national systems has meant that international education institutions also offer degree programmes. It is hoped that NQFs could bring coherence and clarity to the various qualifications systems that co-exist in each country. In all four Central Asian countries, reforms in qualifications standards have taken place in line with a shift towards a learning outcome-based approach and in cooperation with different stakeholders – especially employers’ representatives. This forms part of their national strategies to modernize education systems and to guarantee recognizable quality standards. However, only two countries have developed and adopted NQFs: Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.

42 43 Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

In Kazakhstan the NQF was jointly developed by the Ministry of Education and Science and the Ministry of Healthcare and Social Development. Its NQF is consistent with the European QF consisting of eight levels, and was updated in 2016. This NQF was built on the 2012 National Qualification System (NQS), including the sectoral qualifications framework and occupational standards as components of a NQF. Since 2016, according to the Labour Code occupational standards have also been developed by sectoral associations – such as the Tourism Association, KazEnergy, and the Mining Industry. Such occupational standards are approved by the National Chamber of Entrepreneurs (NCE) known as Atameken (Belosludsteva, 2018). The NQF aims to bring together all qualifications issued by different organizations by using level descriptors that define competencies and learning outcomes. However, informal learning is still not recognized in the NQF. Although the Kazakh NQF is considered the most advanced in Central Asia, efforts are still needed in order to eliminate inconsistencies and duplication in occupational standards across sectors, as well as discrepancies between qualifications and requirements of the labour market. Kyrgyzstan adopted its NQF on 17 March 2016. Its objectives are to: enhance the transparency of qualifications, facilitate mobility of citizens to other countries (between 650,000 to 1 million Kyrgyz citizens are migrant workers abroad),12 structure and integrate education and training systems in the country, enhance employability, boost lifelong learning, and improve the links between qualifications and the labour market. All qualifications – TVET, general, and higher education – are included in the NQF as it specifies 10 levels including sublevels 7a, 7b and level 9 for post-doctoral qualifications and the old Soviet ‘Dr Nauk’. Level 7a also includes former Soviet qualifications, while 7b covers Master’s degrees, as in the European Qualifications Framework or the Bologna Framework of Higher Education. One of the objectives in the Education Development Strategy 2012–2020 is to ‘implement the NQF for vocational education to ensure quality and recognition of qualification levels both in the domestic and external labour market’. Despite its adoption, Kyrgyzstan’s NQF is not yet fully operational. However, it is perceived as having an impact on the quality of education and serving as an important mechanism to ensure flexible pathways between education levels, even though more solid evidence must be gathered over time. Nonetheless, one visible impact is that the NQF has led to the creation of the Teacher’s Professional Standards. While Tajikistan and Uzbekistan do not yet have a NQF, they have worked towards the creation of favourable conditions for the construction of a NQF through several projects that provide a regional perspective and international support such as the EU Programme Central Asia Education Platform (CAEP). The programme aims ‘to support policy dialogue between the EU and Central Asian countries and within the Central Asia region in order to reinforce education sector reforms in Central Asia’, with issues including NQF and quality assurance.13 In Tajikistan, no political decision has been made to establish a NQF, yet many pilot projects have taken place at sectoral level. Some have made a clear reference to EQF or to the objective of establishing a Regional Qualifications Framework for cross-border recognition of qualifications (Quddusov, 2018). For instance the 5-year ADB-funded project ‘Strengthening vocational education and training’, which began in 2016, develops competence standards and assessment tools in accordance with the European Qualifications Framework in 17 professions.

12 For more information about on the topic, see: https://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/rapport_kyrgyzstan_ru-web.pdf (Russian only) 13 For more information about the CAEP, see: https://www.caep-project.org/project-presentation/

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Furthermore, with the adoption of the National Education Development Strategy toward 2020, there has been a transition towards competence-based education (or learning outcomes- based education). This includes a modular structure for education programmes at all levels in accordance with the emerging descriptors of qualifications for creating a draft NQF Concept and NQF Manual in Tajikistan. This concept paper has emphasized the need to establish a special institution responsible for vertical and horizontal structuring of qualifications in the country. The manual on the other hand, defines the following: terms and concepts related to NQF, the purpose and objectives of the NQF, techniques and principles of NQF design, and the structure of sectoral qualifications framework, qualification levels, and descriptors (Quddusov, 2018). In Uzbekistan, the NQF has so far been developed for higher education level only. The country has also substantially updated its State Educational Standards (SES) and has promoted dialogue on qualifications with employers at sectoral level. For example, the Centre of Secondary and Specialized Professional Education monitors emerging skills needs in cooperation with employers of different industries. The National Classifier, which was updated in 2017, serves as a national register listing and describing 8,362 occupations and positions (including 430 new occupations) with corresponding required levels of education and subject areas: 2,120 occupations with higher education qualifications, 585 with secondary specialized education, and 384 without tertiary or secondary specialized education. All qualifications are assigned a code, which is then used to determine the relevant SES for each specific profession. For instance teaching plans at universities – consisting of a series of modules and the number of hours allocated for each module – must be composed in accordance with the SES and other relevant policy documents in order to be approved by the university Rector. The transition to a learning outcome-based approach is well underway. An outstanding example is the change to SES for foreign languages, which defines three competence areas:

1. Linguistic competence: knowledge of grammar, reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills. 2. Sociolinguistic competence: knowledge of the cultural context of the language, culturally- informed communication skills, and the ability to find appropriate language and structures for communication. 3. Pragmatic competence: communication, debate, discussion, and dialogue skills.

The SES describes what a student should know, and to what extent each skill should be mastered at each level of education. Moreover, international references are given to each level of (equivalent to The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages with levels A1, A2, etc.).

4.4 Recognition, Validation and Accreditation of Non-formal and Informal Learning Outcomes According to UIL, RVA is a mechanism of integrating learning outcomes achieved in non- formal and informal learning into national, regional and global qualifications frameworks (UIL, 2012). RVA helps to increase opportunities for widening individuals’ access to education and employment. Despite much preparatory work in the pipeline, however, RVA is yet to be fully established in Central Asia.

44 45 Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

In Kazakhstan, recognition of non-formal and informal learning is not legally and practically supported, although certifications are provided for short courses and trainings. The absence of RVA and interest of employers was considered an obstacle for young people and adults to participate in non-formal education. Several projects are therefore underway in order to address this issue. As part of the state programme for the ‘Development of Labour Skills and Job Stimulation for 2016–2020’, there is a plan to establish independent centres in industry associations that will be able to validate and recognize learning outcomes attained outside the formal education system. Next steps include to develop assessment tools, levels, methods, and procedures for recognizing learning outcomes of non-formal learning in consultation with employers and in agreement with their standards. The following concrete suggestions have been put forward by the state programme: • Clearly define NFE and RVA. • Establish legal frameworks and administrative procedures for RVA which should be conducted by competent authorities. • Collect reliable data for all training providers and their NFE services throughout the country (e.g. NCE or the Atameken register of training centres for TVET, professional development, etc.). • Develop quality standards for NFE based on ‘ISO 29990’ (a quality assurance system for organizations): 2010 ‘Training services in the field of non-formal education and vocational training. Basic requirements for services providers’. • Make the information on procedures and possibilities for RVA widely available, especially for vulnerable groups. • Create an internet portal on RVA and NFE services (Belosludsteva, 2018).

Although Kyrgyzstan adopted its NQF in March 2016, RVA has not yet been operationalized in the country. Although KAAE initiated the Regulations on NFE and introduced the concepts and procedures for RVA, the regulation was not adopted. Nonetheless, the initiative created an opportunity to further examine possibilities for establishing an RVA system and proposal for amendments to the law On Education. The certificates awarded after each non-formal short training course are not related to RVA. The survey results showed that although adult continuous education providers acknowledge the need for coordinating and consolidating the development of adult education, they do not want to strengthen the centralized coordination by the Ministry of Education and Science (Tretyakova, 2018). In Tajikistan RVA has not yet been developed. In 2017, the adoption of the Concept of for 2017–2023 and the law On Adult Education, meant that the principles of lifelong learning were promoted, and the science of andragogy was recognized. The term validation was also introduced, although there lacks a framework to authorize validation of non-formal learning at present. The Ministry of Labour, Migration and Employment of the Population plans to establish a mechanism to recognize skills acquired outside the formal education system. The National Adult Training Centre also issues qualifications to adults whose work experience illustrates their skills equivalent to specified qualifications (Quddusov, 2018). Arguably, this preliminary effort could be seen as an important first step in establishing an RVA system. In Uzbekistan RVA does not yet exist and is not reflected in the country’s legislation. The National Classifier, which was updated in 2017, and the SES for continuous education adopted in 1998 serve as a basis for introducing RVA. However, awareness of RVA and its positive

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impact on lifelong learning has so far only been promoted by international organizations, in particular DVV International, UIL and the UNESCO Office in Tashkent (Rakhimov, 2018). RVA should therefore be included in Uzbekistan’s future lifelong learning strategy, in addition to legal frameworks, procedures, and competent staff who are trained to carry out the task.

Challenges to achieving SDG 4, Targets 4.1, 4.4, and 4.7 Central Asian countries have faced difficulties in moving from the traditional method of measuring qualifications levels by the duration of study programmes, rather than on the learning outcomes achieved. Shortage of expertise in defining and applying the learning outcome approach across different sectors causes significant challenges in integrating sub-sectors such as TVET and higher education into a common qualifications framework. This hinders the recognition of competencies as well as the transition of learners between these sub-sectors and levels. Furthermore, the involvement of employers and other stakeholders (industries and unions) are often not pertinent. Recognition of learning outcomes achieved through non-formal and informal learning (e.g. workplace learning) is still in a very early phase. The NQFs should also provide clarity for remuneration and incentives systems to promote career growth.

4.5 Transitions to the Labour Market In Central Asia, graduate employment is recognized as a key indicator for the relevance of TVET with regard to the demands of the labour market. Unemployment rates are relatively low in all four countries – ranging from 5.8 per cent in Kazakhstan at the lowest to 11.5 per cent in Tajikistan at the highest. However this is in a context where statistics are unreliable and where a high proportion of the population is self employed – 27 per cent in Kazakhstan, 39 per cent in Kyrgyzstan, and 48 per cent in Tajikistan (EFT, 2017).14 People who are self- employed or working in informal businesses may not be actively looking for employment. Youth15 unemployment rates in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan have been considered higher than the rates for the total population. In Kyrgyzstan for instance, 27.9 per cent of youth do not study or work, and in some provinces this figure can exceed 30 per cent (Tretyakova, 2018). However, since 2010, a slight decrease in youth unemployment has been observed, which may have been influenced by several factors such as decreasing youth populations, outward migration (with the exception of Kazakshstan), and overall economic growth. Central Asian countries also use different methods to track graduate employment. For instance Uzbekistan has a system to track graduate employment, while Kazakhstan uses pension fund data. Nonetheless, national authorities have started to recognize that this approach provides a systematic understanding and excludes graduates in informal employment. Good Practice in Kyrgyzstan the country’s adoption of a tracer study approach in 2016 has been perceived as considerable progress when it comes to TVET in Central Asia (ETF, 2017). All TVET providers are to use the approach, which was jointly initiated by the providers, the TVET agency, and the Ministry of Education and Science. The methodology was tested extensively before being adopted nationwide, and in 2016 it was being used by 30 per cent of initial TVET providers to collect feedback from graduates’ teaching and learning experience, transition to the labour market, and employment situation.

14 Data for Uzbekistan was not available in this report. 15 In this context, youth refers to individuals between the ages of 15 and 24 years old.

46 47 Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

There is growing awareness among Central Asian countries of the importance of data gathering and monitoring, and although there remains significant preparatory work, the key developments have already taken place. In Kazakhstan, an extensive report on the implementation of the education strategy (including TVET) is prepared and published on an annual basis. Furthermore, in order to support systematic evidence gathering, Kazakhstan developed an internet-based National Education Database (operational since 2014). Kyrgyzstan is also developing a similar tool for TVET.

4.6 Career Counselling and Guidance

Career counselling and guidance is essential at all education levels for quality lifelong learning. Studies suggest that career guidance has positive effects on learning outcomes, in particular career management skills and related motivational and attitudinal outcomes (UNEVOC, 2015). Moreover, they indicate that career guidance and orientation interventions are particularly important for TVET programmes so that they are more responsive to labour market demands and address its relationship to occupational flexibility (Ibid). Given this report’s focus on TVET and adult education, this section considers the importance of career counselling and guidance at these levels. Education providers should provide career counselling and guidance from early on in order to help students make informed decisions with regard to their future occupations and careers. It is also an effective way to motivate learners from early ages for self-growth and lifelong learning. Effective means of career guidance include individual and group counselling, computer- and class-based interventions, with individual counselling and computer-based interventions being considered the most effective (Ibid). Such interventions appear to be lacking in Central Asian countries, with existing initiatives remaining limited to work-based learning. The key policy development in Kazakhstan is the introduction of the dual approach (work placement as part of training), which is expected to improve the transition from training to work. However, this may not consist of career counselling and guidance, but rather an attempt to help students to have better occupational skills. A high retention rate is also expected as students develop closer links with enterprises in which they train. As part of its employment programme, Kazakhstan has also introduced special measures for enterprises that hire young TVET or higher education graduates. These measures could help improve graduates’ job placements, though may not necessarily ensure their employability or better management of their own careers and further learning. Kyrgyzstan adopted a career guidance strategy that includes advising final-year TVET students on the transition process. If this were to be expanded and replicated at other levels of education – such as basic and secondary education, higher education, or NFE – it could be an unprecedented approach in the sub-region. In Tajikistan, there are two state institutions engaged in professional orientation, one under the Ministry of Labour and another under the Ministry of Education. While all four countries have developed a number of new labour market information tools, there is a lack of proper career guidance or orientation systems. These systems would also require experienced career counsellors and computer-based programmes. This continues to represent a major bottleneck that prevents effective career choice and management for young people and adults, as well as a smooth transition from training to the labour market.

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In Uzbekistan, the retention rate of students in work placements is expected to rise significantly based on the introduction of a ‘four-party contract’ in 2015 (ETF, 2017). This is signed by the student, enterprise where the work placement takes place, the TVET college, and the local or regional authority. However, there continues to lack sufficient information to evaluate how far this scheme involves career counselling and guidance.

Challenges to achieving SDG 4, Targets 4.4 and 4.5 Efforts must be made to develop a network of professional career guidance counsellors, as well as computer-based interventions that can provide better assistance. This would enable learners to build career and learning pathways, and also support job-seekers in their transition from training to work, from inactivity to employment, and in the transition to a better job, while also placing a focus on the vulnerable working population.

4.7 Financing All four Central Asian countries have a common financing model whereby state budgets fund the formal education system. This includes compulsory school education, part of formal TVET and higher education, and formal continuous education for teachers (as part of the education sector budget), and for the unemployed (as part of budgets for labour and social protection). However, some learners in TVET (post-compulsory schooling), higher education, and adult NFE have to pay tuition fees privately or through sponsorships from employers or international organizations. As of 2017, education takes up 18 per cent of the state budget in Kazakhstan, 25 per cent in Kyrgyzstan, 17 per cent in Tajikistan, and 34 per cent in Uzbekistan (Rakhimov, 2018). In Tajikistan, 62 per cent of the education budget goes to general secondary education, 5 per cent to primary and secondary vocational education, and 18 per cent to higher education. In Uzbekistan, however, 56 per cent goes to compulsory school education, 21 per cent to secondary vocational education, 10 per cent to pre-school education, and 5 per cent to higher education.

Table 10. Expenditure on Education in Central Asia (% of GDP)

Country 2015 2016 2017

Kazakhstan 2.8% 3% n/a

Kyrgyzstan 6% 6.6% 7.2%

Tajikistan 5.2% n/a n/a

Uzbekistan 7.1% 6.9% 6.4%

Data source: UIS (2019)

The lack of statistical data available for non-formal education, including non-formal adult education, means that it is not possible to estimate the scope of funding of lifelong learning at present beyond this analysis.

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4.8 Governance Central Asian countries are undergoing a transition from centralization to decentralization with regard to governance. In all four countries under study, several ministries are responsible for pre-school, school education, TVET, higher education, adult education, and human resources development. The country reports also found that employers are acting as providers of ALE, with programmes partly funded by the government and partly by the employers themselves. Some companies or providers are also operating based on a quasi-market model, whereby they are partly owned by the government through shares (Belosludtseva, 2018; Quddusov, 2018; Rakhimov, 2018; Tretyakova, 2018). In Kazakhstan, the governance model is transitioning from a centralized to a decentralized type, democratic principles are being introduced in the implementation process, such as an increased role for partnerships with stakeholders, involvement at grass-root levels of the management system, local executive bodies responsible for the functioning and development of the education system, and local government. The country has also witnessed the establishment of various legal entities in the form of associations, unions, and councils that are actively functioning and influencing the formation and implementation of education policy. Arguably, these are examples of participatory governance. The Association of Colleges of Kazakhstan, which was established in 2013, actively participates in the discussion and approval of changes in TVET. Universities are also given more autonomy, and students’ self-governance and student-centred learning are increasingly becoming the norm in HEIs. In schools, general leadership is exercised by an elected representative body such as the School Council. There are also Boards of Trustees that supervise the work of educational establishments and monitor the incomes and expenditure of funds. Non-state educational institutions and NFE providers are governed independently on the basis of developed charters. The terms and procedures for managing the activities of non-state institutions are regulated by the law ‘On Non-Profit Organizations’. The overall strategies of such organizations are decided by meetings among its founders. Direct management is also exercised by the director (head or rector) who is appointed by the founders. One of the tangible results of democratization in education governance reform is the emergence of a new culture in which not only managers, but also students, parents, and other stakeholders of the education system, are actively engaged in shaping policies and practices (Belosludsteva, 2018). In Kyrgyzstan, adult education tends to be uncoordinated and increasingly market- regulated, while the coordination of TVET-related issues lies on national councils that were set up several years ago (ETF, 2017). There are many organizations of various types that offer different forms of education. The Ministry of Education and Science establishes only the framework requirements that enable it to offer licenses for the provision of continuous education services. Ministry regulations at present do not clearly identify a coordinating body on continuous education. According to the survey results compiled for this study, service providers in the continuous education sector unanimously responded that they do not feel the need for continuous education to be coordinated by the Ministry (Tretyakova, 2018). In Tajikistan, the management of education is a task shared across all levels of government. The government takes charge of overall planning, the Ministry of Education and Science monitors state policies and standards and establishes the curriculum. Meanwhile, the local governments supervise primary and secondary education. Coordination of the education system, including TVET and adult education, is shared between different state bodies, inter-ministerial working

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groups, and national skills-related councils. The working groups and councils consist of members from line ministries and employer organizations (ETF, 2017). The adoption of the law ‘On Adult Education’ further expands the scope of formal education because the state recognizes the right of adults to an equal access to education at any period of their life, satisfaction of various personal needs for knowledge and skills, development of knowledge and skills for productive participation in various social activities, and a free choice in terms of field of study and . However, it does not specify on which state body the overall governance and coordination lies for adult education. In Uzbekistan, education institutions are mainly managed by two ministries: the Ministry of Public Education (MPE) and the Ministry of Higher and Secondary Specialised Education (MHSSE). MPE is responsible for pre-school education, out-of-school education, primary, and secondary schools. In the 2016/2017 academic year there were 9,719 schools (including 97 special needs schools for pupils with disabilities and boarding schools), 211 out-of-school education centres, 26 orphanages, 304 music and arts schools for children, and 227 sports schools for children and youth (Rakhimov, 2018). MHSSE reports to the Cabinet of Ministers and manages higher and secondary professional education institutions, such as universities, vocational lyceums and professional colleges. Arguably, this demonstrates how centralized and decentralized modes of governance take place in practice. Efforts to create a mechanism for the implementation of the law ‘On Adult Education’ in Tajikistan continue to take place. However full implementation of this law requires a number of policy measures: establish a clear coordination system for lifelong learning, include adult education under responsible ministries, raise awareness among authorities about lifelong learning, define a validation procedure, amend the SES and accreditation procedures, include the profession ‘Androgog’ (specialist in the science of andragogy) in the Classification of Professions, develop teaching programmes for the preparation of such specialists, and to create a complete statistical system. In December 2017, the Government of Tajikistan approved the validation procedure developed by the Ministry of Labour, Migration and Employment of the Population to include it as part of the system. The following table lists selected legal frameworks and policy documents related to lifelong learning among the four Central Asian countries under study (see following page):

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Table 11. Selected Policy Documents Setting the Legal Foundation for Lifelong Learning

Country Policy Documents

The State Programme of Education Development for 2016–2019 (SPED) Kazakhstan 2030 Kazakhstan 2050 The law On Education (with amendments in 2007, 2015) Programme for the Development of Productive Employment and Mass Entrepreneurship (2017–2021) Kazakhstan State Programme for the Industrial-Innovative Development of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2015–2019) Plan for the Nation – 100 Concrete Steps (2015) Roadmap for Employment 2020 (2015) Roadmap for the Implementation of a Dual Education System (2014) ‘Free Vocational Education for All’ (2017) State Programme ‘Digital Kazakhstan’ for 2018–2022 (2017)

The law On Education (2003, 2015) The law On Teacher’s Status (2001, 2013) Concept for the Development of Education in Kyrgyzstan (2012) Kyrgyzstan Education Development Strategy 2012–2020 and corresponding medium-term action plans (2012–2015, 2016–2017, 2018–2019) National Sustainable Development Strategy for Kyrgyzstan 2013–2017 (2013) National Development Strategy of the Kyrgyzstan for 2018–2040

Law On Education (2013) Law On Higher and Postgraduate Education (2009) Law On Upper-secondary Vocational Education (2003) Law On Tertiary Professional Education (2015) Law On Training of Specialists for the Labour Market (2015) Law On Adult Education (2017) Tajikistan The State Labour Market Development Strategy Towards 2020 National Strategy for Education Development 2020 (2012) Programme for the Development of Vocational Guidance 2016–2020 (2015, Government resolution No. 794) Concept of Continuing Education 2017–2023 (2017, Government resolution No.28) In 2016, the National Development Strategy of Tajikistan was adopted until 2030 hereinafter, NDS-2030 National Strategy for the Development of Education of the Republic of Tajikistan to 2020 (2012) National Development Strategy of the Republic of Tajikistan for the period up to 2030

Constitution of the Republic of Uzbekistan Law On Education (1997) National Programme for Personnel Training (1997) Uzbekistan Welfare Improvement Strategy 2013–15 (2013) Strategy on Actions for Further Development of Uzbekistan for 2017–2021 Education Sector Plan of Uzbekistan for 2019–2023

Source: Arne Carlsen, based on Belosludtseva (2018), Quddusov (2018), Rakhimov (2018), Tretyakova (2018).

Challenges to SDG 4 Coordination and governance for lifelong learning, especially adult education, remains unclear in Central Asia, and further research should be done at the national level to provide a comparative overview. While there is some information about financing and responsibility between the central and local levels, more is needed. The development of Learning Cities by local governments could also be an important instrument for clarifying further governance issues.

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5 POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS TO ENSURE LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL IN CENTRAL ASIA

This sub-regional report on Lifelong Learning aims at providing evidence and developing policy recommendations to create lifelong learning systems in Central Asian countries – within the framework of SDG 4 ‘to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all’. This report highlights TVET, higher education and NFE, and takes a whole-system approach. Based on the main findings highlighted in this sub- regional report, this chapter aims at formulating policy recommendations within the context of SDG 4 for the development of lifelong learning strategies in each of the four countries and their specific national contexts, as well as formulating general policy recommendations from a sub-regional perspective.

5.1 Policy Recommendations and Education System Reform All four Central Asian countries – Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan – have each made important achievements in terms of their social and economic development over the past decades. They have also taken strategic measures for the development of their formal education systems and in creating opportunities for their young workforce. While they share similar experiences and challenges, the country reports have highlighted specific policy recommendations for education system reform at the national level.

Kazakhstan Although lifelong learning and ALE have recently been integrated into national strategic programmes, there is still a need to develop a holistic concept and strategy overall. A number of issues remain with regard to skill imbalance in labour supply and demand, the need for improvement of technological and managerial competencies, competencies of the engineering workforce, and the use of innovative technologies. There is relatively low labour productivity in a number of key economic sectors, and a large number of employees without the necessary qualifications demanded by employers. The formal education system, despite its achievements and strong state support, is not able to meet all modern education and learning needs of children, youth, and adults in the country on its own. There is therefore a need to further improve the level of general education, TVET, as well as learning opportunities throughout life in order to be able to respond to rapid changes taking place in the external environment. This also calls for a holistic approach with regard to the improvement of the whole infrastructure for formal, non-formal, and informal learning and education, including continuous education and ALE. Policy recommendations: • Create a national working group with multiple stakeholders to develop a national concept for lifelong learning, which could then be incorporated into the overall education strategy. Use the 2015 Recommendation on Adult Learning and Education to develop the conditions for adult education and lifelong learning in the country.

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• Define concepts of non-formal and informal education in legal documents, as well as advocate and promote public awareness of the need for lifelong learning. • Integrate formal and NFE programmes to provide flexible pathways within and between the formal and non-formal education sectors. • Integrate transversal competencies in curricula at all levels of formal education and NFE. • Strengthen legislation, procedures, and capacity for RVA of non-formal and informal learning outcomes, to be reflected in legal frameworks and policies. • Strengthen NQFs for lifelong learning, with professional standards and certification of specialists. • Improve inclusive and equitable access for people of all ages, including the elderly, people with special needs, the unemployed, rural residents, and other socially vulnerable groups. • Establish a national programme for training of trainers in NFE programmes. • Improve distance education provision via ICTs. • Establish a vocational career guidance and counselling system. • Promote learning in the workplace. • Establish a system for monitoring and evaluation, as well as statistics for adult education and lifelong learning.

Kyrgyzstan In order to implement the concept of lifelong learning holistically in the country, there is a need for it to be integrated throughout policy and programme documents, as a concerted inter-departmental collaboration of all stakeholders and parties. Institutions and mechanisms for policy implementation should be focused on beneficiaries, and a management system for lifelong learning should be put in place. It is important that stakeholders work together to develop an adequate policy in additional education, which takes into account all interested population groups. There is also a need to implement programmes for initial and secondary vocational education schools, universities, and NFE as a response to social issues such as labour migration. Overall, there is a need for a lifelong learning concept to be included as part of the wider education development strategy while also ensuring collaboration and coordination with all relevant stakeholders.

Policy recommendations: • Integrate lifelong learning into policy documents, with a focus on inter-departmental collaboration, as well as among different ministries, social partners, civil society, and local governments. • Improve the capacity of the formal education system to give access to groups with special needs, as it is difficult for non-formal continuous education to shoulder this responsibility without state funding, • Increase funding for NFE, which should be seen as an essential part of a holistic lifelong learning system and investment in development of human resources – not as a cost. • Collect and analyze data on non-formal education. • Integrate resources for formal and non-formal education, including continuous education, such as a joint monitoring system, shared buildings, teaching staff, teaching materials, and multi-stakeholder partnerships. • Raise awareness of the benefits of continuous education. • Establish a valid RVA for lifelong learning that includes NFE and ALE. • Align the TVET curricula so that it equips learners with skills that match the needs of the labour market.

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Tajikistan Legislation and policy documents in Tajikistan show an understanding of the need for educational continuity and prospects for lifelong learning. However, there is no effective lifelong learning system and key components are limited. This includes sustainable mechanisms for financing, management and advice, regulation, and quality assurance. The labour market is expected to expand due to the influx of a young labour force, but at the same time the capacity of the formal education system is limited. Therefore, the state is promoting the principles of lifelong learning and expanding learning opportunities. It is important to develop mechanisms for the implementation of lifelong learning through laws and regulations, statistics, as well as a monitoring system. Coordination could be carried out by the Coordination Council under the Government of Tajikistan, while also involving a wide range of stakeholders. A stronger link is needed between the education system and the labour market. This could be achieved through a work-placement system after completion of education, monitoring of graduates’ careers, developing apprenticeships, and making connections with employers to ensure compliance with the Labour Code norms for improving the qualifications of employees. It is important to also involve employers in creating qualification requirements for specific professions, as well as in developing professional standards. It would be recommended, therefore, to create a NQF together with the employers themselves. The main criterion for assessing the effectiveness of professional education at all levels should be the ‘quality of education’. Nationwide consultations with a wide range of experts should be organized in order to develop effective mechanisms for the implementation of lifelong learning principles at all levels and types of education. This would help to 1) establish connections between various sub-sectors of education, including pre-school education, primary and secondary education, TVET, higher education and adult formal and non-formal education, 2) create smooth transitions and flexible pathways between formal and non-formal education, and 3) to involve vulnerable groups including the elderly and people with disabilities. A competency-based approach should be introduced at all levels of vocational education. Students should not only receive professional development, but also transversal competencies that promote sustainable development. The list of competencies could be determined through joint consultations with employers and with a wide range of stakeholders. It should also be taken into consideration that, at an international level, there are various approaches to competency-based education. Nonetheless, the development of entrepreneurship in particular is likely to be an important priority. The development of flexible forms of training through the use of ICTs should also be considered as a priority at all levels of education. The creation of an education system based on ICTs can be one of the most effective mechanisms for expanding the scope of educational capacity for lifelong learning. Statistics on adult education also need to be collected, and a system could be developed based on the adult education statistical form that has been developed and piloted in Tajikistan in 2018. Further efforts and funding are needed, however, in order to improve the adult education statistical system so that it can track SDG indicators.

Taking into account the geographical situation of Tajikistan, particularly its many remote settlements, an expansion of access to adult education centres is necessary. It can be achieved through the development of a network of these centres and through the introduction of flexible forms of education. The creation of various CLCs could also be supported, while distance learning, independent learning, and online learning should also be introduced.

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Financing of the vocational education system also needs to take into account the modernization of vocational lyceums and colleges, and ensure that a share of budget expenditure for adult education is allocated. Given the lack of public funds, the development of PPPs could be an effective mechanism to expand access to education for all people, at different stages of their life. Large migration flows to Russia and Kazakhstan, as well as mobility across the borders of neighbouring countries in Central Asia, cultural and geographical proximity – all mean that there is potential for cooperation, training, and knowledge sharing, as well as the formation of a common educational space based on lifelong learning principles. However, this would require the recognition of skills and qualifications, as well as developing common approaches to qualifications frameworks and professional standards. Policy recommendations: • Raise awareness about lifelong learning among the public and policy-makers. • Define validation procedures for non-formal education. • Amend educational standards and accreditation procedures. • Include ‘andragog’ in the classification of professions, and create educational programmes for the study of andragogy. • Collect statistics on non-formal adult education. • Involve civil society in the development of education programmes. • Improve the quality of education, increase flexible pathways, and develop ICT in education as well as distance education in general. • Enrich higher education curricula to reflect entrepreneurship and innovation. • Improve funding, including public-private funding of formal and non-formal TVET, management and advice, regulation and quality assurance to develop a lifelong learning system. • Develop statistics and a monitoring system for TVET, NFE, and ALE. • Develop a National Qualifications Framework. • Establish a Coordination Committee with multiple stakeholders to develop a lifelong learning strategy, indicators for SDG 4 to structure statistics, improvement of transition from education to work, as well as transitions between education sub-sectors. • Widen access to adult education via ICTs in remote areas.

Uzbekistan There is an understanding of lifelong learning in existing legislation in Uzbekistan. However, it could be improved by including special sections and paragraphs that promote lifelong learning, as well as by developing a Lifelong Learning Policy. The terms could be standardized, and the meaning of lifelong learning and ALE could be based on generally accepted international best practices. They could also be used in licensing and accreditation of organizations and programmes. There is also an urgent need to conduct further research to support quality lifelong learning, but also to develop and promote andragogy as a scientific research area and profession in HEIs and universities. Mechanisms and instruments such as portfolios and lifelong learning passports could be implemented in order to promote lifelong learning. Financing of lifelong learning could also be improved by making funds available to private educational agencies (or non-governmental

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educational institutions) through open tenders, allocating targeted grants, and developing a multi-channel financing model. The law ‘On Social Partnership’ includes opportunities to develop cooperation between governmental and non-governmental actors for further development of ALE, both at the local and regional level. Uzbekistan, and Central Asian countries in general, are slowly developing standards for professions and trades as part of their NQFs. However, there is a need for well-functioning quality assurance mechanisms that could ensure the quality of all forms of lifelong learning. The outcomes of lifelong learning programmes can be recognized in various ways: 1) in relation to learning outcomes-based standards in a NQF, 2) by formal education institutions, making it possible for graduates from NFE to progress to further education and training. In addition, entry requirements for higher educational institutions can be made flexible to cater for potential lifelong learners graduating from non-formal learning programmes, and 3) in relation to occupational standards. There is also a need for an overarching framework for the monitoring, reporting, and evaluation of lifelong learning activities and programmes being conducted by various institutions and organizations. This overarching framework should contain guidelines for bringing all stakeholders together to coordinate, monitor, oversee, and evaluate these activities and programmes, while also providing the standards and indicators for the implementation of lifelong learning. A succinct and well-formulated lifelong learning policy will provide the necessary guidelines for all lifelong learning players to align their activities to the national agenda. Developing an ICT infrastructure is a crucial element of a lifelong learning strategy. So are training programmes for lifelong learning professionals and adult educators. There should be efforts from all sectors – small-scale enterprises, health services, and sports and cultural organizations – to increase functional literacy, including transversal competencies, orientation towards a market economy, critical thinking, active citizenship, and human rights. Adult learning – whether formal, non-formal and informal learning – should be included in the country’s statistics by developing participation, progress and outcomes indicators. These indicators should reflect the participation and completion level of the population in all forms of adult lifelong learning, especially for under-represented groups. Particular attention should also be paid to support vulnerable groups with a view to enhance their social adaptation and economic well-being. This includes recognizing the importance of literacy, social skills, ICT skills, and vocational education. Further studies should also be conducted on CLCs, including experiences from other countries, to see what role they can play as important institutions in a national lifelong learning strategy. In addition, the existing accreditation and licensing procedures for education providers could be amended to ensure transparency of procedures as well as its simplification by involving representatives of NGOs and non-governmental educational institutions.

Policy recommendations: • Create a cross-sectoral commission to develop lifelong learning policy and legislation. These would be developed as part of a national lifelong learning strategy based on the draft concept that has already been developed. • Provide financial support for adult education throughout life. • Promote partnerships between education and work. • Develop quality assurance mechanisms for all forms of lifelong learning.

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• Establish a monitoring and reporting system. • Upgrade ICT infrastructure and statistics systems for lifelong learning. • Improve access to lifelong learning for all through inclusive education and provision in different languages. • Ensure accreditation and licensing for lifelong learning programmes. • Increase public awareness of lifelong learning. • Include the profession of ‘andragog’ in the Classification of Occupations of ALE in statistics. • Bring national TVET standards in line with the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED), international qualifications frameworks and RVA for non-formal and informal learning.

5.2 General Recommendations for Sub-regional Collaboration Lifelong learning covers the entire formal education system, ranging from pre-school to higher education, as well as general education, TVET and adult education. Increasing access to quality education throughout life requires improving the quality of the formal school system, as well as increasing access for adults who wish to return to the formal school system later on in life. Lifelong learning therefore includes ‘second chance education’, complementary and equivalency programmes for adults at all levels. The development of transversal competencies should also take place in both the formal and non-formal education system, as well as through forms of informal learning in cultural institutions, organizations and other settings. Lifelong learning systems should also be founded upon the concepts of global citizenship and sustainable development, as well as the four pillars of learning as enshrined in the Delors report – learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together and learning to be (Delors et al., 1996). With fast levels of urbanization in Central Asian countries, some cities could also consider joining the UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities, which aims to develop inclusive and sustainable cities through lifelong learning (UIL, 2018). Provinces and regions can also join activities under the UNESCO International Research and Training Centre for Rural . The four countries under study have benefitted from various education projects, including through the EU and the ETF Torino Process, ADB, World Bank, the OECD, DVV International, UNESCO, UNICEF, and many other development partners. These partnerships should be strengthened, and knowledge gained from these experiences should also be disseminated so that results from pilot projects can be scaled up. In each of the four countries, there is a need to invest in more research on lifelong learning. This is both in terms of the national context, as well as cross-country comparative studies, so that they can inform policies and improve practices. Sound research methods are required in order to collect necessary statistics, especially with regard to the NFE sector. This could be supported by the establishment of studies in andragogy at university level, which could also establish the profession of adult educator. Finally, a number of common issues in relation to developing national systems for lifelong learning can be observed among Central Asian countries. Therefore joint sub-regional projects could be beneficial for countries to support one another with successful practices and common frameworks. The four countries under study also share a similar culture and values, religion, as well as common challenges. These similarities would enable them to join forces as they seek to transform into knowledge economies, modernize their education systems, and

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adopt policies, programmes, and strategies for continuous and non-formal education. As has been observed in earlier sections of this chapter, the country reports provide useful insights and policy recommendations with regard to developing strategies for lifelong learning at the national level. Comparative analysis of these findings, however, have also allowed for the identification of common challenges and policy recommendations at a sub-regional level.

Common challenges: • Transition to market-oriented economies and adoption of a broad spectrum of socio-economic and political reforms. • Shortage of qualified workers, inflexibility of education systems, limited resources, and ability to adapt to rapid changes with regard to learning needs throughout life. • Need to provide opportunities and flexible learning pathways to enhance skills and productivity, as well as build cohesive and more equal societies.

Challenges related to education levels and types: • Pre-school education: Low enrolment in Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan leads to weak readiness for primary school. It also reduces lifelong learning opportunities for women, as well as their participation in the labour market, mainly due to childcare. • Primary and Secondary Education: Despite high gross enrolment ratios, there is a shortage of quality teachers, with schools working in multiple shifts, a widening rural-urban divide, patchy career guidance counselling, and poor facilities for inclusive education. • TVET: Lack of quality in TVET has created challenges in terms of meeting labour market needs, skills, and qualifications. There is also a need for labour market information systems, more state grants for initial TVET in rural areas, involvement of employers in improving the relevance of curricula and skills sets, as well as career guidance counselling to support learners in the transition from education to the world of work. • Higher education: Flexible pathways between different levels of education are lacking, and have lead to widening inequality and shortage of affordable higher education provision. A top-down approach in higher education reforms, as well as limited autonomy of HEIs, have limited opportunities for adult learners. • ALE : There is a lack of non-formal adult education policies, with an important need for inter- departmental and inter-ministerial cooperation for ALE.

The Way Forward In each country, a National Inter-sectoral Committee for the Promotion of Lifelong Learning Opportunities for All should be established within the context of SDG 4. The Committee’s mandate should be to develop a National Strategy for Lifelong Learning, while ensuring the participation of relevant stakeholders. It would also address issues such as access, funding, quality, RVA, and NQS in order to promote flexible pathways both in formal and non-formal education. National Commissions for UNESCO in each of the four countries should take the lead in linking different stakeholders, creating inter-departmental synergies, and coordinating activities towards achieving SDG 4. They would base themselves in the basic principles formulated by the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and, more specifically, SDG 4. UNESCO frameworks would also serve as a basis for this, namely the Education 2030 Framework for Action, as well as a number of conventions and recommendations including the 2015

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Recommendation on Adult Learning and Education, and the Recommendation concerning Technical and Vocational Education and Training. In particular, the 2015 Recommendation on Adult Learning and Education outlines the general principles, objectives, and guidelines that each Member State should apply. It also takes into account socio-economic conditions, governance structures, and available resources in order to enhance ALE. The recommendation’s comprehensive and systematic approach identifies three main areas of adult learning and skills acquisition: 1) literacy and basic skills, 2) continuous improvement of educational and professional skills, and 3) community education and civic skills.

Policy Recommendations: • Raise public awareness and understanding of lifelong learning through media and communications channels (e.g. TV, video, digital media and news agencies). • Combine a top-down and bottom-up approach, while making concerted efforts to improve coordination among different ministries, government agencies and other development partners in the development of legal frameworks, policies, implementation of action plans, and statistical evaluation tools with a cross-sectorial, inclusion and lifelong learning perpective. • Increase support to lifelong learning, through the mobilization of various sources of funding and technical expertise, including from international development partners, donors and PPPs, in order to improve infrastructure, online learning platforms for all ages, equipment, learning materials, research environments and knowledge dissemination about the wider benefits of lifelong learning. • Integrate employability and life skills, including transversal competencies,16 entrepreneurship and digital skills, into policies, curricula, learning materials and activities, teacher training, and assessments at all levels in both formal and informal education. • Ensure the development of RVA systems and provide national and sub-regional training programmes within the field of ‘andragogy’ for adult educators and lifelong learning professionals. • Improve the status of TVET by making it more attractive and ensuring that TVET and workplace learning can lead to qualifications at higher levels, underpinned by transparent quality assurance mechanisms. • Strengthen the internationalization of higher education, including the mobility of teaching and learning, research collaboration, network policies (e.g. credit transfer systems), alignment with international normative instruments (e.g. Lisbon Convention and Tokyo Convention), and quality tools. • Develop Learning Cities for inclusive sustainable development through lifelong learning. • Organize regular regional seminars for policy learning and continued cooperation in order to share good practices and common policy recommendations.

16 Transversal competencies include: critical and innovative thinking, inter-personal and intra-personal skills, global citizenship, media and information literacy, curiosity, initiative, perseverance, self-control, adaptability, leadership, and social and cultural awareness.

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62 63 Education Sector Ensuring Lifelong Learning For All in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations Policy and Evidence Country Tajikistan Uzbekistan: and Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, in All For Learning Lifelong Ensuring

Ensuring lifelong learning for all in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan Country Evidence and Policy Recommendations

Lifelong Learning is at the heart of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its 17 goals. More speci cally, Sustainable Development Goal 4 is devoted to ensuring quality education and lifelong learning opportunities for all. As the lead agency for education, UNESCO is mandated to support Member States in implementing SDG 4 through the Education 2030 Framework for Action. Central Asian countries – Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan – have all shown their commitment to achieving the SDGs by 2030, including SDG 4, and have taken several actions in this regard. This sub-regional study aims to provide a broader picture of lifelong learning in Central Asia, supported by evidence and policy recommendations in order to propose a systemic approach for future education reforms.

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