Article Legaltech and Lawtech: Global Perspectives, Challenges, and Opportunities

Esther Salmerón-Manzano

Faculty of , Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR), 26006 Logroño, Spain; [email protected]

Abstract: Legaltech refers to the application of new technologies to the world of law, to carry out tasks that, until recently, were performed by or other personnel working in law firms. From 2015 onwards the Lawtech alternative has emerged. In this work, the concepts of Legaltech and Lawtech have been analyzed by searching the two main scientific information databases such as Scopus and Wed of Science (WoS). There has been a clear trend to use the concept of Legaltech against Lawtech. Six clear research lines have been detected from the whole of the published documents regarding these concepts. These are the related to Computer Science, , Legal profession, Legal design, Law firms, and . It is proposed to use the term Legaltech to include all technological advances in the legal field. From the point of view of opportunities, the irruption of Legaltech will be able to offer accurate legal advice to the public, reducing the price of this and on the other hand, analyze large amounts of data that law firms and legal advisors will use to improve their management and increase their productivity. In short, Legaltech and Lawtech are opening up new opportunities in the legal sector encouraging technological innovation, giving greater access to legal services, even try to achieve the goal of universal access to justice.

Keywords: legaltech; lawtech; justice; legal profession; legal design; law firms; legal education

 

Citation: Salmerón-Manzano, Esther. 1. Introduction 2021. Legaltech and Lawtech: Global The advance of information and communication technologies has led to changes in Perspectives, Challenges, and the way in which we relate to each other and to the administrations (Fang 2002). Law is no Opportunities. Laws 10: 24. exception to these changes, its mandatory duty to modernize points to a new concept called https://doi.org/10.3390/laws10020024 Legaltech, which, despite its difficult conceptualization, has positioned itself as a relevant advance in the way in which law is conceived, through the inclusion of technological tools Received: 23 March 2021 (Pasquale and Cockfield 2018). These days, legal technology such as software solutions Accepted: 4 April 2021 for the delivery of legal services have become the key element in the current competition Published: 9 April 2021 among the players in the legal market (Hongdao et al. 2019). It should be noted that, although the concepts of Legaltech may seem recent, as early Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral as 1873 Shepard developed a citation index following the codification that applied to with regard to jurisdictional claims in federal judgments in the United States. This is even the background for the proposed published maps and institutional affil- importance of citations in bibliometrics and the impact of scientific papers (Garfield 1955). iations. Another great example of how the legal services is a pioneer of bibliometrics is the West- law database, founded in the early 1970’s and acquired by Thomson Corporation (now Thomson Reuters) in 1996. As is known, Thomson Reuters owns Web Of Science (WoS). In the early 1970s, the US company Lexis Nexis was a pioneer provider of computer- Copyright: © 2021 by the author. assisted services. It introduced the world’s first terminal with a telephone Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. dialer that connected the very few law firms that could afford it to the law and This article is an open access article databases of some U.S. libraries. Initially they offered full text search of Ohio and New York distributed under the terms and (Dale 2019). In the last 40 years, much progress has been made in legal technology, conditions of the Creative Commons and the concept of technology applied to the supply or business of legal services has Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// certainly become more popular from 2008 onwards (Mandel 2017). creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

Laws 2021, 10, 24. https://doi.org/10.3390/laws10020024 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/laws Laws 2021, 10, 24 2 of 9

In fact, the Legaltech landscape has grown so large and extensive that competing concepts such as Lawtech have emerged and the definition of what Legaltech does or does not mean has been widening or narrowing depending on the case and the context (Dubois 2020). Legaltech is the acronym for Legal Technology, although at first it was used as legal tech (separate), it was undoubtedly the first way to talk about legal technology. In that sense, Legaltech is commonly understood to refer to the use of technology to provide legal services (Munisami 2019). That would be Legaltech, which could be defined as the use of technology in legal services to create: - Online services that reduce or eliminate the need to go to the legal sector in its most traditional form; - Online services that accelerate the procedures and the management of tasks of the lawyers themselves, reducing the cost and time that a professional must invest in many of their tasks; - Online services that simplify and modify the form of contact between legal profes- sionals and potential clients. The objective of this work is to analyze the two terms described, Legaltech and Lawtech in the main scientific databases, Scopus and WoS, to determine their possible differences if any, and on the other hand to determine which are the main lines of research in which scientific works related to this discipline are being developed. Note that the advantages and disadvantages of the technology’s uses is not the focus of this study. It is about seeing how the concepts have arrived on the scientific agenda and how those concepts have taken shape. The roadmap of this article has been, first, to review the background of both concepts in the scientific literature. Secondly, to see the relative importance of both terms in the two main scientific databases, Scopus and WoS. Thirdly, analyze the scientific fields and their temporal evolution in which the term Legaltech is being used, to try to identify the challenges and opportunities of research in this area.

2. Background: Legaltech or Lawtech The transformation that the legal industry is suffering with the introduction of tech- nology is driving the emergence of these new concepts. Since the emergence of Legaltech in 2017, the concept has continued to grow in popularity and variety, and it is when new versions of it have begun to emerge. For example, in the U.S. and U.K., the term Lawtech is also appearing. In fact, for The Law Society of England and Wales there is only Lawtech, not Legaltech. The Law Society of England is the professional body representing in England and Wales. For example, there are those who understand Legaltech as solutions for lawyers who do their work cheaper and efficient (Bues and Matthaei 2017), while Lawtech would be legal self-services for small companies and without the need for lawyers. In line with the above, there are those who propose the differentiation of how Legaltech implies the digital transformation of the legal profession, emphasizing the idea of Legaltech as tools for lawyers (Navas 2019). Lawtech, on the other hand, is the concept of tools that replace lawyers, and also feature a high component of artificial intelligence and other computer science techniques. Regarding the legal profession, lawyers skilled in technology, willing to adapt to the opening of new or specialized legal markets by technological changes, could also find lucrative market opportunities by pursuing low-level litigation that can be more easily and cheaply resolved through legal technology (Caserta and Madsen 2019). For other researchers (Susskind 2008), Lawtech is a broader concept since Legaltech is associated with back-office technologies such as systems, and less with new technologies such as artificial intelligence or expert systems related to lawyers, online , etc., which was the focus of the 1980s (Susskind 1986). Finally, they consider Legaltech to be more used and applied by the legal sector, while Lawtech would be more inclusive and open to technologists from any field (Susskind and Susskind 2015). However, this is not what the data obtained show, in fact the opposite is the case. Lawtech is the Laws 2021, 10, 24 3 of 9

term used to describe technologies that aim to support, supplement, or replace traditional methods for delivering legal services, or that improve the way the justice system operates (Webley et al. 2019). So, Lawtech covers a wide range of tools and processes, such as: • document automation; • advanced chatbots and practice management tools; • predictive artificial intelligence; • smart legal ; • knowledge management and research systems. The Lawtech sector consists of law firms delivering legal services through technology, and the vendors that develop and supply technology solutions to those firms. Other authors consider that Legaltech would be the appropriate term as it describes the activities of the legal sector, as does RegTech, the technology that helps to com- ply with , for example helping to reduce the large amount of time and high costs that banks spend on regulatory compliance (Butler and O’Brien 2019), InsurTech as technologically-based insurance service (Gramegna and Giudici 2020), or FinTech as finance and technology to accelerate the digitalization of both the financial and insurance sectors (Rundo et al. 2019). Wealthtech can also be considered a subcategory of Fintech, given that its objective is to manage and grow people’s financial wealth through techno- logical advances (Chishti and Puschmann 2018). Therefore, all these sub-concepts can be understood to fall under the term Legal since we are talking about the legal industry, the legal market, and the legal sector, i.e., they are included in the broad concept of Legaltech. Both concepts, Legaltech and Lawtech benefits legal services by: • increasing efficiency, productivity, and growth; • reducing costs; • better outcomes for clients and organizations. Nowadays there are systems that can draft documents, conduct legal research, dis- close documents in litigation, conduct due diligence, provide legal guidance, and resolve litigation online. Note that only in 2018, USD 1663 million has been invested in legal tech (Caserta 2020). In summary of this section, it is noted that the two terms and their respective merits are not always clearly distinguished in the reviewed scientific literature.

3. Significance of Both Terms in the Scientific Literature: Results In this section the indexing of scientific articles with the terms Legaltech and Lawtech in the two major scientific databases, Scopus and Web of Science, will be briefly analyzed. Table1 summarizes these terms according to the database consulted. It can be seen that both databases show a higher number of documents for Legaltech. To make a comparative view, a word cloud has been elaborated with all the keywords of both terms used in the scientific literature, obtaining Figure1 for Lawtech and Figure2 for Legaltech. In Figure1 , from the first place, the term human in Lawtech is remarkable, and analyzing the issue a more in depth, these documents focus on the impact of new technologies on the rights of individuals, such as the cyberhate (Blaya 2019), the impact of biotechnology as an example in reproductive medicine (Griffiths 2016), or Genetic Intervention and Bioethics (Conti 2017). Undoubtedly, the latter perspective is far from the object of this research.

Table 1. Legaltech and Lawtech del 2000 al 2020.

Database “Legal Tech” or “Legaltech” “Lawtech” or “Law Tech” Scopus 54 10 WoS 45 10

Figure2, for Legaltech, shows the predominant terms used as techniques: Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, or Natural Language Processing Systems. As well, on the other hand, the target application is Legal Education or Law Students, Legal Profession, Laws 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 10 Laws 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 10

Laws 2021, 10, 24 Table 1. Legaltech and Lawtech del 2000 al 2020. 4 of 9 Table 1. Legaltech and Lawtech del 2000 al 2020. Database “Legal Tech” or “Legaltech” “Lawtech” or “Law Tech” Database “Legal Tech” or “Legaltech” “Lawtech” or “Law Tech” Scopus 54 10 Scopus 54 10 Legal Services, Legal System,WoS or Access to Justice. As an45 important and shared keyword10 WoS 45 10 related to both terms, the following is Laws and .

Figure 1. Cloudword of keywords in Lawtech. FigureFigure 1.1. Cloudword of of keywords keywords in in Lawtech Lawtech..

FigureFigure 2. Cloudword of of keywords keywords in in Legaltech Legaltech.. Figure 2. Cloudword of keywords in Legaltech. In a more detailedFigure analysis 2, for ofLegaltech these keywords, shows the in predominant the two previous terms figures, used as Tabletechniques:2 is Artificial Figure 2, for Legaltech, shows the predominant terms used as techniques: Artificial obtained. In thisIntelligence, Table2 the topMachine 10 keywords Learning, appearing or Natural in Language the cited Processing documents Systems. are listed, As well, on the Intelligence, Machine Learning, or Natural Language Processing Systems. As well, on the in which the searchother terms hand, (Legaltech the target andapplication Lawtech) is Legal have Education been excluded. or Law Students, Legal Profession, other hand, the target application is Legal Education or Law Students, Legal Profession, Legal Services, Legal System, or Access to Justice. As an important and shared keyword Legal Services, Legal System, or Access to Justice. As an important and shared keyword Table 2. Main keywordsrelated relatedto both to terms, Legaltech the following and Lawtech. is Laws and Legislation. related to both terms, the following is Laws and Legislation. In a more detailed analysis of these keywords in the two previous figures, Table 2 is RankIn “legal a more Tech” detailed or “Legaltech” analysis of these keywords “Lawtech” in the or two “Law previous Tech” figures, Table 2 is obtained. In this Table 2 the top 10 keywords appearing in the cited documents are listed, obtained. In this Table 2 the top 10 keywords appearing in the cited documents are listed, 1in which the Legalsearch Education terms (Legaltech and Lawtech) have Human been excluded. 2in which the Artificial search Intelligence terms (Legaltech and Lawtech) have Technology been excluded. 3 Laws and Legislation Humans 4 Legal Services Law 5 Law Laws and Legislation 6 Legal Profession Information Systems 7 Machine Learning Innovation 8 Natural Language Methodology 9 Processing Systems Bioethics 10 Access to Justice Blockchain Laws 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 10

Table 2. Main keywords related to Legaltech and Lawtech.

Rank “legal Tech” or “Legaltech” “Lawtech” or “Law Tech” 1 Legal Education Human 2 Artificial Intelligence Technology 3 Laws and Legislation Humans 4 Legal Services Law 5 Law Laws and Legislation 6 Legal Profession Information Systems 7 Machine Learning Innovation 8 Natural Language Methodology

Laws 2021, 10, 24 9 Processing Systems Bioethics 5 of 9 10 Access to Justice Blockchain

From Table 2 it is remarkable that Legal education occupies the first position, this is due toFrom the fact Table that2 it a is low remarkable number thatof documents Legal education makes occupiescollective the works first position,such as books, this is whichdue to are the indexed fact that by achapters, low number significantly of documents increase makes the number collective of documents works such compared as books, towhich the rest, are e.g. indexed, the book by chapters, “Modernizing significantly Legal increaseEducation the” number(Denvir of2020). documents compared to the rest, e.g., the book “Modernizing Legal Education” (Denvir 2020). 4. Discussion: Main Clusters on Legaltech 4. Discussion: Main Clusters on Legaltech To analyze in which scientific fields or research clusters Legaltech-related works are Toanalyze in which scientific fields or research clusters Legaltech-related works are present, present, a scientific community detection software, vosviewer, has been used (Van Eck a scientific community detection software, vosviewer, has been used (Van Eck and Waltman and Waltman 2010). This software has proven to be useful in the analysis of many fields 2010). This software has proven to be useful in the analysis of many fields of knowledge such of knowledge such as medicine (Garrido-Cardenas et al. 2020), social sciences (Muyor- as medicine (Garrido-Cardenas et al. 2020), social sciences (Muyor-Rodriguez et al. 2019) or Rodriguez et al. 2019) or engineering (Salmeron-Manzano and Manzano-Agugliaro 2018). engineering (Salmeron-Manzano and Manzano-Agugliaro 2018). Thus, Figure3 was obtained. ThusThis, figureFigure shows3 was 4obtained. different This clusters figure that shows currently 4 different exist in clusters the scientific that currently literature, exist which in thecan scientific be distinguished literature, according which can to the be differentdistinguished colors ofaccording each one. to The the clusters different are colors linked of by eachthe commonone. The clusters keywords are of linked all the by documents the common analyzed. keywords For eachof all cluster,the documents the main analyze associatedd. Forkeywords each cluster, are summarized the main associated in Table3, keywords and finally, are a name summarized is given in to encompassTable 3, and the finally, topic ofa nameeach cluster.is given to encompass the topic of each cluster.

Figure 3. Main clusters detected on Legaltech documents. Figure 3. Main clusters detected on Legaltech documents.

Table 3. Main clusters detected on Legaltech documents.

Cluster Main Keywords Name Algorithms, artificial intelligence, law, legal tech, legal Red technologies, legal tech, machine learning, natural language Computer Science processing Green Access to justice, design thinking, law students, Justice Legal profession, legal services, neo-liberalism, professional Blue Legal profession regulation Yellow Blockchain, legal design, smart Legal design Purple Law firms, legal technique, legal technology Law firms Cyan Legal education, legal regulation, vocational training Legal Education

The first cluster is focused on computer science as verified by the main keywords involved: Algorithms, artificial intelligence, law, legal tech, legal technologies, machine learning, natural language processing. Regarding Artificial Intelligence, the first paper in this regard was “Can the mechanization of law triumph over lawyers?” from 2017 (Fortuit and Hamidou 2017), should be highlighted. The use of machine learning (ML) Laws 2021, 10, 24 6 of 9

techniques for legal analysis and decision making in the U.S. judicial system has recently been analyzed (Delgado 2019), concluding how ML came to be adopted as a standard tool for automating fact discovery for high-stakes civil litigation. Regarding natural language processing (NLP), there are five areas of legal activity where NLP is playing an increasing role (Dale 2019): • Legal research: Finding information relevant to a legal decision; • Electronic discovery: Determining the relevance of documents to an information request; • Contract review: Checking that a contract is complete and avoids risk; • Document automation: Generating routine legal documents; • Legal advice: Using question-and-answer dialogs to provide tailored advice. The second cluster is focused on Justice, as evidenced by the main keywords involved: Access to justice, design thinking, law students, rule of law. Within this topic there are works within what one could classify as philosophy of law, who argue that advances in equal access to justice and the rule of law lie primarily in the introduction of lawyers’ own cognitive operations in contexts where human lawyers cannot be deployed for purely economic reasons (Gowder 2018). The third cluster is focused on the legal profession, as can be seen from the main keywords involved: Legal profession, legal services, neo-liberalism, professional regulation. Within the field of legal services, it is worth mentioning the analysis of automated Online (ODR), where 3 cases can be identified (Barnett and Treleaven 2018): • Consumer ODR, which seeks to facilitate the resolution of disputes between parties to electronic commerce, typically online suppliers, and consumers; • Judicial ODR, involves means of resolving “ordinary” disputes where a hearing is held (using technology) but outside the courtroom, such as divorce or personal injury cases; • Corporate ODR, focused on managing the resolution of any contractual disputes that may arise from large multipartner projects or financial transactions. The fourth cluster is focused on Legal design as evidenced by the main keywords involved: Blockchain, legal design, smart contract. The blockchain technology has several legal consequences and the one with the greatest need for legal regulation are cryptocurrencies such as bitcoins (Salmeron-Manzano 2017). Legal design aims to apply human-centered design to the world of law, to make legal systems and services more human-centered, usable, and satisfying (Hagan 2017). In short, legal Design is an interdisciplinary approach to apply human-centered design to prevent or solve legal problems. The legal design manifesto is available on-line (LeDA 2021). On the other hand, “smart contract” means the specific use of the use of software code to formulate, check and enforce an agreement between contracting agents (Salmerón-Manzano and Manzano-Agugliaro 2019). The fifth cluster is centered on Law firms as evidenced by the main keywords involved: Law firms, legal technique, legal technology. Law firms are increasingly adopting digital technologies to make their work more efficient as opposed to traditional work methods. The business model of many law firms, like the legal professions as a large whole, will face a significant paradigm shift, as the work provided by law firms in the form of billable hours largely consists of services that do not require higher legal training, but involve mere data processing (Kerikmäe et al. 2018). The sixth cluster is focused on Legal Education as evidenced by the main keywords involved: Legal education, legal regulation, vocational training. Anticipated changes in the training needs of lawyers and solicitors present a challenge to law schools to revise their curricula (Ryan 2020). Thus, as the legal profession begins to seriously deploy digital technology in the delivery of services and information, more law schools are including technology education in their curricula (Jackson 2016). The evolution of the concepts related to Legaltech are shown in Figure4. The colors represent the evolution over time, with blue being the oldest and red the most modern. It can only be seen in the last two years of the study, observing how it evolves from law firms and rule of law at the beginning of 2018, to artificial intelligence or machine learning, Laws 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 10

centered, usable, and satisfying (Hagan 2017). In short, legal Design is an interdiscipli- nary approach to apply human-centered design to prevent or solve legal problems. The legal design manifesto is available on-line (LeDA 2021). On the other hand, “smart con- tract” means the specific use of the use of software code to formulate, check and enforce an agreement between contracting agents (Salmerón-Manzano and Manzano-Agugliaro 2019). The fifth cluster is centered on Law firms as evidenced by the main keywords in- volved: Law firms, legal technique, legal technology. Law firms are increasingly adopt- ing digital technologies to make their work more efficient as opposed to traditional work methods. The business model of many law firms, like the legal professions as a large whole, will face a significant paradigm shift, as the work provided by law firms in the form of billable hours largely consists of services that do not require higher legal training, but involve mere data processing (Kerikmäe et al. 2018). The sixth cluster is focused on Legal Education as evidenced by the main keywords involved: Legal education, legal regulation, vocational training. Anticipated changes in the training needs of lawyers and solicitors present a challenge to law schools to revise their curricula (Ryan 2020). Thus, as the legal profession begins to seriously deploy dig- ital technology in the delivery of services and information, more law schools are includ- ing technology education in their curricula (Jackson 2016). The evolution of the concepts related to Legaltech are shown in Figure 4. The colors represent the evolution over time, with blue being the oldest and red the most modern. It can only be seen in the last two years of the study, observing how it evolves from law firms and rule of law at the beginning of 2018, to artificial intelligence or machine learn- ing, i.e., incorporating technologies from computer science. The most occurrence of Le- Laws 2021, 10, 24 galtech related terms is mostly in 2019. See for example, legal profession, professional7 of 9 regulation, legal services, legal regulation, vocational training, access to justice or law students. Regarding the concept itself, it can be seen that at the beginning it was legal technol- i.e.,ogy, incorporating later legal tech, technologies and finally fromit has computer been coined science. as a term The mostin itself occurrence Legaltech. of Legaltech Legaltech relatedappears terms as an is author mostly keyword, in 2019. See according for example, to WoS, legal in profession, 2017, with professional no previous regulation, records legalfound. services, legal regulation, vocational training, access to justice or law students.

Figure 4. Evolution of subjects related to Legaltech. Figure 4. Evolution of subjects related to Legaltech. Regarding the concept itself, it can be seen that at the beginning it was legal technology, later legal tech, and finally it has been coined as a term in itself Legaltech. Legaltech appears as an author keyword, according to WoS, in 2017, with no previous records found.

5. Conclusions, Challenges, and Opportunities In short, from the comparison of the two terms studied, there is no clear difference between the two terms, although it has been observed that there is a greater tendency to use Legaltech in the USA and Lawtech in the UK. According to the databases analyzed and summarizing everything studied above, Legaltech is the most widespread and oldest concept; its most common use refers to the use of technology to provide legal services and aims to increase the effectiveness of the services provided. From 2015 onwards the variant of Lawtech arises. Legaltech as reflected in the scientific literature is a considerably more holistic concept and is associated with the incorporation of new technologies such as artificial intelligence or machine learning, while Lawtech is more focused on the legal sector itself. Thus, it is common to associate Lawtech to technologies or tools that aim to help the legal sector, while Legaltech also encompasses the development of tools such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, or natural language processing. In view of the results found in the scientific literature, and for better searchable indexing in scientific databases related to this scientific field, it is proposed to use the term Legaltech to include all technological advances in the legal area, i.e., Legaltech is a concept that encompasses Lawtech. The greatest challenge of this study is that the legal professions are undergoing major changes with the introduction of the new technologies, which will transform the sector, requiring it to become reinvented. In addition, legal knowledge has a number of features that facilitate its digitization and automation, in fact, it has been seen to be the precursor of scientific fields such as bibliometrics, and even bibliometric indicators of citation index measurements. It is therefore not understandable how this issue has been left aside for so long, perhaps because now with the era of communications is the right time. Laws 2021, 10, 24 8 of 9

As drawbacks, one can cite that on the one hand legal technology tools can also pose risks, especially because of the biases perpetuated by algorithms. As well, from a legal perspective, ensuring that the ethical issues surrounding legal technology are fully considered. As in other sectors, there is a potential for a dangerous concentration of Legaltech in high-tech industries. As in other sectors, there could be a dangerous concentration of Legaltech in high-tech industries that consider it a great business potential, therefore it is necessary that the law continues to ensure antitrust regulation as it does in the USA and the European Commission. From the point of view of opportunities, artificial intelligence-based systems can provide accurate legal advice and analyzing large amounts of data that law firms and legal advisors will use to improve their management and increase their productivity. Therefore, this technology should be applied in the administrative and civil fields, as well as in those that speed up the administrative process. Like other technological advances, these will reduce legal costs and thus improve universal access to justice. In short, Legaltech and Lawtech offer us the opportunity and challenge to promote a just and equitable society, and to empower individuals. Thus, giving greater access to legal services and the possibility of achieving the goal of universal access to justice.

Funding: This research was funded by University of Almeria. “COLLABORATIVE R&D PROJECTS TRANSFIERE-2018”. Advanced certification and authentication technologies for justice and law. Ref. 001363. Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. This study not involving humans or animals. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. Data Availability Statement: Not applicable. Acknowledgments: The author would like to thank Francisco Manzano-Agugliaro, professor at the University of Almeria, for his help and support in this research. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

References Barnett, Jeremy, and Philip Treleaven. 2018. Algorithmic dispute resolution—The automation of professional dispute resolution using AI and blockchain technologies. The Computer Journal 61: 399–408. [CrossRef] Blaya, Catherine. 2019. Cyberhate: A review and content analysis of intervention strategies. Aggression and Violent Behavior 45: 163–72. [CrossRef] Bues, Micha-Manuel, and Emilio Matthaei. 2017. Legaltech on the rise: Technology changes legal work behaviours, but does not replace its profession. In Liquid Legal. Cham: Springer, pp. 89–109. Butler, Tom, and Leona O’Brien. 2019. Understanding RegTech for digital regulatory compliance. In Disrupting Finance. Cham: Palgrave Pivot, pp. 85–102. Caserta, Salvatore. 2020. Digitalization of the Legal Field and the Future of Large Law Firms. Laws 9: 14. [CrossRef] Caserta, Salvatore, and Mikael Rask Madsen Madsen. 2019. The legal profession in the era of digital capitalism: Disruption or new dawn? Laws 8: 1. [CrossRef] Chishti, Susanne, and Thomas Puschmann. 2018. The WealthTech Book: The FinTech Handbook for Investors, Entrepreneurs and Finance Visionaries. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. Conti, Adam. 2017. Drawing the Line: Disability, Genetic Intervention and Bioethics. Laws 6: 9. [CrossRef] Dale, Robert. 2019. Law and word order: NLP in legal tech. Natural Language Engineering 25: 211–17. [CrossRef] Delgado, Fernando A. 2019. Machine Learning in Legal Practice: Notes from Recent History. Paper presented at 2019 AAAI/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society, Honolulu, HI, USA, January 27–28; pp. 557–58. Denvir, Catrina, ed. 2020. Modernizing Legal Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dubois, Christophe. 2020. How do lawyers engineer and develop Legaltech projects? A story of opportunities, platforms, creative rationalities, and strategies. Law, Technology and Humans 2. [CrossRef] Fang, Zhiyuan. 2002. E-government in digital era: Concept, practice, and development. International Journal of the Computer, the Internet and Management 10: 1–22. Fortuit, Philippe, and Farah Nemira Hamidou. 2017. Can the mechanization of law triumph over lawyers? Revue Internationale de Droit Economique 31: 103–9. [CrossRef] Garfield, Eugene. 1955. Citation Indexes for Science. Science 122: 108–11. Available online: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1749965 (accessed on 21 March 2021). Laws 2021, 10, 24 9 of 9

Garrido-Cardenas, Jose Antonio, Cristina de Lamo-Sevilla, María Teresa Cabezas-Fernández, Francisco Manzano-Agugliaro, and Miguel Martínez-Lirola. 2020. Global tuberculosis research and its future prospects. Tuberculosis 121: 101917. [CrossRef] Gowder, Paul. 2018. Transformative legal technology and the rule of law. University of Toronto Law Journal 68: 82–105. Gramegna, Alex, and Paolo Giudici. 2020. Why to Buy Insurance? An Explainable Artificial Intelligence Approach. Risks 8: 137. [CrossRef] Griffiths, Danielle. 2016. The (re) production of the genetically related body in law, technology and culture: Mitochondria replacement therapy. Health Care Analysis 24: 196–209. [CrossRef] Hagan, Margaret. 2017. Law by Design. Available online: https://www.lawbydesign.co/ (accessed on 21 March 2021). Hongdao, Qian, Sughra Bibi, Asif Khan, Lorenzo Ardito, and Muhammad Bilawal Khaskheli. 2019. Legal technologies in action: The future of the legal market in light of disruptive innovations. Sustainability 11: 1015. [CrossRef] Jackson, Dan. 2016. Human-centered legal tech: Integrating design in legal education. The Law Teacher 50: 82–97. [CrossRef] Kerikmäe, Tanel, Thomas Hoffmann, and Archil Chochia. 2018. Legal technology for law firms: Determining roadmaps for innovation. Croatian International Relations Review 24: 91–112. [CrossRef] LeDA. The Legal Design Alliance. 2021. The Legal Design Alliance. The Legal Design Manifesto. Available online: https://www. legaldesignalliance.org (accessed on 21 March 2021). Mandel, Gregory N. 2017. Legal evolution in response to technological change. In The Oxford Handbook of Law, Regulation and Technology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, vol. 225. Munisami, Kayal. 2019. Legal Technology and the Future of . Windsor Yearbook of Access to Justice/Recueil annuel de Windsor d’accès à la justice 36: 164–83. [CrossRef] Muyor-Rodriguez, Jesus, Francisco Manzano-Agugliaro, and Jose Antonio Garrido-Cardenas. 2019. The state of global research on social work and disability. Social Work in Health Care 58: 839–53. [CrossRef][PubMed] Navas, Susana. 2019. The Provision of Legal Services to Consumers Using Lawtech Tools: From “Service” to “Legal Product”. Open Journal of Social Sciences 7: 79. [CrossRef] Pasquale, Frank, and Arthur J. Cockfield. 2018. Beyond Instrumentalism: A Substantivist Perspective on Law, Technology, and the Digital Persona. Mich. St. L. Rev. 821. Paper No. 2019-03. Available online: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3327607 (accessed on 21 March 2021). Susskind, Richard, and Daniel Susskind. 2015. The Future of the Professions: How Technology Will Transform the Work of Human Experts. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Rundo, Francesco, Francesca Trenta, Agatino Luigi di Stallo, and Sebastiano Battiato. 2019. Machine learning for quantitative finance applications: A survey. Applied Sciences 9: 5574. [CrossRef] Ryan, Francine. 2020. Rage against the machine? Incorporating legal tech into legal education. The Law Teacher, 1–13. [CrossRef] Salmeron-Manzano, Esther. 2017. Necessary legal regulation of bitcoin in Spain. Revista de Derecho Civil 4: 293–97. Salmeron-Manzano, Esther, and Francisco Manzano-Agugliaro. 2018. The electric bicycle: Worldwide research trends. Energies 11: 1894. [CrossRef] Salmerón-Manzano, Esther, and Francisco Manzano-Agugliaro. 2019. The role of smart contracts in sustainability: Worldwide research trends. Sustainability 11: 3049. [CrossRef] Susskind, Richard E. 1986. Expert systems in law: A jurisprudential approach to artificial intelligence and legal reasoning. The Modern Law Review 49: 168–94. [CrossRef] Susskind, Richard. 2008. The end of lawyers. Rethinking the Nature of Legal Services 32: 50. Van Eck, Nees Jan, and Ludo Waltman. 2010. Software survey: VOSviewer, a computer program for bibliometric mapping. Scientometrics 84: 523–38. [CrossRef] Webley, Lisa, John Flood, Julian Webb, Francesca Bartlett, Kate Galloway, and Kieran Tranter. 2019. The Profession (s)’Engagements with Lawtech: Narratives and Archetypes of Future Law. Law, Technology & Humans 1: 6.