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Professional knowledge competency achievement of agricultural teachers with and without preservice teacher preparation in Peninsular Malaysia
Nazri, Mohd Ibrahim, Ph.D.
The Ohio State University, 1988
UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106 PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE COMPETENCY ACHIEVEMENT OF
AGRICULTURAL TEACHERS WITH AND WITHOUT
PRESERVICE TEACHER PREPARATION
IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate
School of the Ohio State University
By
Mohd Ibrahim Nazri, B.S., M.S.
*****
The Ohio State University
1988
Dissertation Committee: Approved by
Dr. R.K. Barrick
Dr. J .D . McCracken Adviser Department of Dr. L.E. Miller Agricultural Education To All in My Family
ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
There are a number of people to whom I owe my gratitude upon the successful completion of this study. First, Dr. R.
K. Barrick who plays a dual role, as my academic adviser and as the chair of my dissertation committee. It was through his guidance and insight that this study was initiated and finally completed in the present form.
Next, Dr. J. D. McCracken and Dr. L. E. Miller who both play a dual role, as a member of my graduate study committee and as a member of my dissertation committee. It was through their comments and suggestions that this study became a finished document.
I extend my sincere thanks to David Doerfert, Kathy
Escolme and Dan Munson (Kinnear Road Center) for helping me to become familiarized with data analysis programs.
My gratitude also is due to the Public Services
Department of Malaysia and University of Agriculture,
Malaysia, for their generosity in sponsoring my graduate study at The Ohio State University.
To my wife, Saudah, I am indebted for her patience and encouragement throughout my graduate study. VITA
Jun 6, 1955 ...... Born - Parit, Malaysia
1977 ...... Diploma in Agriculture, University of Agriculture, Malaysia
1979 ...... B.S. in Vocational Agriculture Education, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
1981 ...... M.S. in Continuing and Vocational Education, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin
1981-Present ...... Lecturer, Department of Education, University of Agriculture, Malaysia
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Agricultural Education R. K. Barrick
Studies in Research and Statistics L. E. Miller
Studies in Curriculum J. D. McCracken
Studies in Teacher Education D. R. Cruickshank TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION ...... ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... iii
VITA ...... iv
LIST OF TABLES ...... ix
LIST OF FIGURE ...... xi
CHAPTER PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1
Introduction ...... 1 Statement of the Problem ...... 8 Purpose and Objectives of the Study...... 9 Hypotheses ...... 10 Definition of Terms ...... 13 Limitations of the Study ...... 14 Need for the Study ...... 15 Summary ...... 17
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... 18
Teacher Competence ...... 19 Assessment of Teacher Competence ...... 22 Professional Competencies ...... 28 Variability in Teacher Competence ...... 43 S u m m a r y ...... '...... 49
III. PROCEDURES ...... 50
Research Design ...... 50 Instrument Development ...... 52 Population ...... 56 Data Collection ...... 57 Data Analysis ...... 58 Summary ...... 59
v TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
IV. FINDINGS ...... • 60
Background Characteristics and Knowledge Achievement ...... 60 Race ...... 61 Age ...... 62 Gender ...... 63 Teacher Qualification ...... 63 Teaching Experience ...... 65 Location of Teaching...... 65 Teaching Specialty Areas ...... 67 Inservice Courses Completed ...... 68 Professional Knowledge Achievement .... 68 Comparison Between Professional Knowledge Achievement and Background Characteristics ...... 71 , Knowledge Achievement by Race ...... 71 Knowledge Achievement by Age ...... 72 Knowledge Achievement by Gender ...... 72 Knowledge Achievement by Teaching Experience ...... 74 Knowledge Achievement by Teaching Location ...... 74 Knowledge Achievement by Teaching Specialty Areas ...... 77 Knowledge Achievement by Inservice Courses Completed ...... 77 Comparison Between Teacher Qualification and Background Characteristics ...... 80 Teacher Qualification by Race ...... 81 Teacher Qualification by Age ...... 82 Teacher Qualification by Gender ...... 83 Teacher Qualification by Teaching Experience...... 84 Teacher Qualification by Teaching Location ...... 85 Teacher Qualification by Teaching Specialty Areas ...... 86 Teacher Qualification by Inservice Courses Completed ...... 88 Professional Knowledgement Achievement by Teacher Qualification ...... 90 Summary ...... 91
vi TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 97
Summary ...... 97 P r o b l e m ...... 97 Purpose and Objectives ...... 98 Hypotheses ...... 98 Procedures ...... 100 Findings ...... 102 Conclusions and Implications ...... 103 Recommendations ...... 109 Need for Further Research ...... Ill
APPENDICES
A. Aims of Teacher Education in Malaysia ...... 112
B. Reviewers for Content Validity of the Instruments ...... 114
C. Approval Letter From Educational Planning and Research Division, Ministry of Education, Malaysia ...... 117
D. Approval Letter From Technical and Vocational Education Division, Ministry of Education, Malaysia ...... 120
E. Approval Letter From Training and Career Development Branch, Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia ...... 123
F. Letter to Teachers and Their Principals ...... 127
G. Questionnaire on Background Characteristics of T e a c h e r ...... 131
H. Questionnaire on Background Characteristics of of Teacher (Malay Translation) ...... 135
I. Test Items by Content Areas ...... 139
J. Professional Knowledge Competency Test ...... 144
vii TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
K. Professional Knowledge Competency Test (Malay Translation) ...... 162
L. Frequency Distribution of Raw Scores ...... 181
LIST OF REFERENCES ...... 183
viii LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1. Population Estimates of Malaysia, 1985 ...... 4
2. Race of Teachers ...... 61
3. Age of Teachers ...... 62
4. Gender of Teachers ...... 63
5. Teacher Qualification Earned ...... 64
6. Teaching Experience ...... 66
7. Location of Teaching ...... 67
8. Teaching Specialty Areas ...... 68
9. Inservice Courses Completed ...... 69
10. Professional Knowledge Achievement ...... 70
11. Professional Knowledge Achievement by Race .... 72
12. Analysis of Variance of Professional Knowledge Achievement by Age ...... 73
13. Professional Knowledge Achievement by Gender ... 74
14. Analysis of Variance of Professional Knowledge Achievement by Teaching Experience ...... 75
15. Analysis of Variance of Professional Knowledge Achievement by Teaching Location ...... 76
16. Analysis of Variance of Professional Knowledge Achievement by Teaching Specialty Areas ...... 78
17. Professional Knowledge Achievement by Inservice Courses Completed ...... 79
ix LIST OF TABLES (continued)
18. Teacher Qualification by Ra c e ...... 82
19. Teacher Qualification by Age ...... 83
20. Teacher Qualification by Gender ...... 84
21. Teacher Qualification by Teaching Experience ... 85
22. Teacher Qualification by Teaching Location ..... 86
23. Teacher Qualification by Teaching Specialty Areas ...... 87
24. Teacher Qualification by Inservice Courses Completed ...... 89
25. Professional Knowledge Achievement by Type of Teacher Qualification ...... 91
26. Summary of Relationship Between Extraneous Variables and Knowledge Competence ...... 93
27. Summary of Relationship Between Extraneous Variables and Type of Teacher Qualification .... 95
x LIST OF FIGURE
FIGURE PAGE
1. Agricultural Education and Training System in Malaysia ...... 6
xi CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
By the standards of developing countries, Malaysia is
considered as a country with a strong and prosperous economy
(Gullick, 1981). In 1984, the GNP per capita for Malaysia
was estimated at US$1,980 (The World Bank, 1986). The
average annual growth for the 1965-84 period was calculated
at 4.5 percent. With these economic indicators, Malaysia was
placed in the upper middle-income group of developing
countries together with Singapore, Republic of Korea and
Hong Kong.
Malaysia has a total land area of approximately 128,570
square miles. This land area covers two distinct geographical regions: Peninsula Malaysia and the states of
Sabah and Sarawak. The former is generally known as West
Malaysia whereas the latter is usually referred to as East
Malaysia. The two regions are separated by 400 miles of the
South China Sea. West Malaysia is bounded by Thailand to the north and the island of Singapore to the south. East
Malaysia has its borders with Brunei and Indonesia's
Kalimantan. Malaysia has an equatorial climate that is
1 characterized by high temperature and high humidity during most of the year.
Prior to the present state of existence, Malaysia has gone through a series of historical events. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Malay Peninsula became a center of attraction for traders and sailors who traded at the port of Malacca. The port of Malacca later became a target of foreign powers. The Portuguese and the Dutch successively captured Malacca in 1511 and 1641. The British had their first settlement in 1786. The Japanese occupied the Malay
Peninsula during the second world war. However, the British managed to regain control over the peninsula in 1945. They remained in power until Malaya became an independent nation on August 31, 1957.
The British colonial era was marked by many changes.
One of the noted changes was associated with the population composition. The population of the Malay Peninsula changed from a predominantly Malay society to a multi-racial community as a result of the influx of the Chinese and
Indian immigrants. During the British colonialization the people of Malaya were segregated by the place of living and by occupation. The Malays, for instance, tended to be concentrated in the rural areas where they earned a living by being farmers and fishermen. The Chinese lived in the town area where they worked as tradesmen. The Indians, on the other hand, used to live both in the rubber estates and the town where they made a living by being plantation
workers and businessmen. Under the British colonial
education policy, the schools were sharply divided into four
systems: Malay vernacular schools, Chinese vernacular
schools, Indian vernacular schools and English schools. Each
school system has its own curriculum and medium of
instruction.
The period after independence was a period of nation-
building in which national unity became the prime goal. As a
part of achieving this goal, the Federated States of Malaya,
Singapore and two British colonies of Sabah and Sarawak
formed a federation called Malaysia in 1963. However, two
years later Singapore withdrew from the Federation and
formed its own government. The educational system also was
geared toward national unity with the transformation of the multi-media school system to a single medium, a national
school system in which each pupil was required to follow a
common curriculum and a common medium of instruction.
The present population of Malaysia is well-noted for
its ethnicity. In 1985, the total population of Malaysia was estimated at 15.8 million (Government of Malaysia, 1986). A
large percentage (approximately 82.1%) of the total popula tion, as table 1 shows, resides in Peninsular Malaysia. 4
Table 1
Population Estimates of Malaysia in 1985
Peninsular Malaysia Sabah Sarawak Total
1985 13.0 mil. 1.3 mil. 1.5 mil. , , 15.8 mil. (82.1%) (8.1%) (9.8%) (100%)
Population Composition of Peninsular Malaysia
Ethnic Groups Malays Chinese Indians Others Total
1985 7.3 mil. 4.3 mil. 1.3 mil. 0.09 mil. 13.0 mil. (56.5%) (32.8%) (10.1%) (0.6%) (100%)
Note. Adapted from Fifth Malaysia Plan; 1986-1990 fp. 149) by the Government of Malaysia, 1986, Kuala Lumpur: Govern ment Printing Office.
Agriculture plays a major role in Malaysia's economy through its contribution to the gross domestic product
[GDP], foreign exchange earnings and employment. Agriculture accounted for 20.3 percent of the GDP in 1985. In the same year, major agricultural commodities (palm oil, rubber, timber, sawlogs, cocoa and pepper) had 29 percent share of the total export value. In terms of employment, the agricultural sector alone provided 1.95 million jobs which represented 35.7 percent of the total labor force in 1985
(Government of Malaysia, 1986)'.'
The Present System of Agricultural Education
The agricultural education and training system in
Malaysia carries an important mission of preparing agricultural manpower for various levels of the public and private sectors. In order to accomplish this mission successfully, the present system of agricultural education and training has been designed to be multi-dimensional as
Figure 1 shows, so as to cater to a large enrollment. In
1985, there were more than 4,000 enrollees at various levels of the agricultural education system (Government of Malay sia, 1986).
Technical preparation of agricultural manpower. The present system of technical preparation of agricultural manpower is distinctly divided into four main levels: (a) professional or degree level, (b) subprofessional or diploma level, (c) operative or certificate level, and (d) suboperative or skill level. The first two levels are generally referred to as the education for high- and middle- level agricultural personnel. They are also regarded as university-level education meant for preparing agricultural administrators, scientists and supervisors. The third and fourth levels are more appropriately described as secondary- level education designed for preparing agricultural technicians, extension agents, field assistants and highly skilled workers for specific job performance. They are also regarded as the levels with the most differentiated programs since they constitute the levels at which the need for trained agricultural manpower is thought to be great.
The Ministry of . Education has three types of agricultural education programs: academic school program, technical school program and vocational school program. 6
Age
23
22
21 UNIVERSITY
20
19 Teacher Agricul Training tural 18 Post- Technical College Institutes Secondary Schools 17 Upper Voca Skill 16 Secondary Technical tional Training Schools Schools Schools Centers 15 Nonformal 14 Lower Institutions Secondary 13 Schools
12
11
10 Primary 9 Schools
8
7
6
Figure l. Agricultural Education and Training System in
Malaysia. Agricultural science is offered as an elective subject at
the lower- and upper-secondary level of the comprehensive
academic schools. Agricultural science is also offered as a
technical subject in the secondary technical schools. The
secondary vocational schools, however, offer agricultural
science as an area of specialization. In spite of these
differentiated programs, the agricultural science curriculum
for schools under the Ministry of Education is highly
centralized according to type of schools and instructional
levels. This type of curriculum is said to be generic,
scholar-dominated and implemented as directed (Short, 1983).
The Ministry of Agriculture produces yet another type
of agricultural education program. This ministry provides
generic, secondary-level instruction in agricultural science
at its agricultural institutes. The same ministry also
•provides instruction for suboperative-level workers at its
regional agricultural training centers. A similar type of
program is also available in other government and private
agencies. However, the training provided by these agencies
is mostly "in-house" or tailor-made to the need of that
particular agency.
Preparation of agricultural teachers. With regard to
preservice preparation for agricultural teachers, there are
two kinds of teacher education programs currently in full
operation. The first kind is called the graduate teacher
education program. This program is a four-year baccalaureate program at the completion of which teacher trainees are awarded a bachelor's degree in agricultural education to enable them to teach agricultural science at the upper- secondary schools. The program is offered at the University of Agriculture.
The second program is generally called a nongraduate teacher education program. This program is a three-year program at the completion of' which teacher trainees are awarded a teacher's certificate to enable them to teach agricultural science at the lower secondary schools. This program is offered at the teacher training college under the administration of the Ministry of Education.
Preservice teacher education programs are not the only route by which prospective teachers gain entry into the teaching profession. In many cases, graduates of diploma programs in technical agriculture or related sciences are recruited as teachers. These teachers receive their pedagogical training in the form of inservice courses.
Statement of the Problem
This study was primarily concerned with the profes sional knowledge competence of agricultural teachers with and without preservice teacher preparation. In a regional survey on agricultural education, the United Nations
Educational, Social and Cultural Organization (1971) found that agricultural teachers in Malaysia possessed a variety of qualifications. Some teachers possessed a degree in agricultural science with a postgraduate diploma in education; others either held a teacher's certificate or a diploma in technical agriculture.
The variation in teacher qualification still holds true today, and it is even more noticeable as a result of the embarkation of a baccalaureate program in agricultural education. Educators, on the other hand, have contended that there is a uniform body of knowledge which prospective teachers need to acquire prior to admission into the teaching profession. This professional knowledge has been incorporated into the aims of teacher education in Malaysia
(Wong & Chang, 1975). Clearly, there is a dilemma as to how teachers ought to be certified— regular, preservice teacher education programs versus alternative programs. The study addressed this dilemma in part by assessing the present professional knowledge competence of agricultural teachers whose training had already occurred either through preservice teacher education programs or alternative programs.
Purpose and Objectives of the Study
The purpose of the study was to compare agricultural teachers with and without preservice teacher preparation. The specific objectives of the study were:
1. To describe the agricultural teachers on the follow
ing characteristics: race, age, gender, teacher
qualification, teaching experience, teaching
location, teaching specialty areas, and inservice
courses completed.
2. To compare the teacher's knowledge competence with
the following characteristics: race, age, gender,
teaching experience, teaching location, teaching
specialty areas and inservice courses completed.
3. To compare teachers with and without preservice
teacher preparation on each of the following
characteristics: race, age, gender, teaching
experience, teaching location, teaching specialty
areas, and inservice courses completed.
4. To compare the professional knowledge competence of
agricultural teachers with and without preservice
teacher preparation.
Hypotheses
Since the research was designed to be an ex post facto type of research, two types of hypothesis were set and tested (Kerlinger, 1973). The first hypothesis was a major hypothesis which stated the relationship between the dependent variable (professional knowledge competence) and the major independent variable (teacher qualification). The 11 second hypothesis, alternative or "control" hypothesis stated the relationship between the dependent variable and the remaining independent variables (race, age, gender, teaching experience, teaching location, teaching specialty areas and inservice courses completed). The remaining in dependent variables also were considered as extraneous variables. The alternative hypotheses also were set in terms of the relationship between the major independent variable and the extraneous variables.
Maior Hypothesis
Teachers with preservice teacher preparation have sig
nificantly higher professional knowledge competence
than those teachers without such preparation.
Alternative or "Control" Hypotheses
1. Teachers of different race differ significantly in
professional knowledge competence.
2. Teachers of different ages differ significantly in
professional knowledge competence.
3. Teachers of different gender differ significantly
in professional knowledge competence.
4. Teachers of different duration of teaching expe
rience differ significantly in professional know
ledge competence.
5. Teachers from different teaching location differ
significantly in professional knowledge compe
tence . 12
6. Teachers of different teaching specialty areas
differ significantly in professional knowledge
competence.
7. Teachers who have completed inservice courses
(by areas) differ significantly in professional
knowledge competence with those who have not
done so.
8. There is a significant relationship between
teacher qualification and race.
9. There is a significant relationship between
teacher qualification and age.
10. There is a significant relationship between
teacher qualification and gender.
11. There is a significant relationship between
teacher qualification and teaching experience.
12. There is a significant relationship between
teacher qualification and teaching location.
13. There is a significant relationship between
teacher qualification and teaching specialty
areas.
14. There is a significant relationship between
teacher qualification and inservice courses
completed. Definition of Terms
Professional Knowledge competence
Knowledge and understanding measured by percent of
items correct in a multiple-choice test o'n teacher's
professional knowledge.
Agricultural teachers
Teachers whose prescribed capacities are to be fully
involved in planning, implementing and evaluating
formal instruction in agricultural science at the
upper-secondary level.
Teachers with preservice teacher preparation
Teachers who hold a preservice teacher gualification
from an accredited teacher training institution.
Teachers without preservice teacher preparation
Teachers who hold a qualification from an alternative
program other than the regular preservice teacher
education programs.
Professional knowledge competencies
A domain of competencies which stresses the cognitive
ability to comprehend specific facts related to the job
of teaching agricultural science in the classroom.
These competencies include the competencies underlying
the practice of teaching as a profession (e.g.,
understanding about human growth and development) and
the competencies for the actual performance of teaching
(e.g., planning of instruction, implementation of 14
instruction, evaluation of instruction and other
related functions).
Limitations of the Study
There were four limitations of the study. First, the
study was limited to the domain of professional knowledge
competence. This limitation was necessary to enable the
researcher to give particular attention and adequate
treatment to a single domain rather than multiple domains of
teacher competence which, if taken, would become a massive undertaking within a short time period.
Second, the study focused on the teachers who were serving the agricultural training institutions in Peninsular
Malaysia at the time of the study. Agricultural teachers in
East Malaysia were excluded from the study.
Third, the study was confined to the teachers who were fully involved in the planning, implementation and evaluation of formal instruction in agricultural science.
Teacher assistants such as laboratory demonstrators and field technicians were excluded from the study.
Fourth, the study was limited to those teachers who were working at major agricultural training institutions where agricultural science was taught at the upper-secondary level. Teachers who taught agricultural science at the lower-secondary level or in nonformal settings were omitted from the study. 15
Need for the Study
Teachers with different teaching qualification are commonly found in vocational education. Miller (1982) found a considerable amount of variance of certification criteria of vocational teachers within and across the United States of America. Honeybone (n.d.) noted marked changes in teacher education in many post-world war developing countries. With particular reference to Malaysia, Wong (1977) and Abdullah
(1986) noted several changes that occurred in teacher training at the college and the university level. While acknowledging the changes in teacher training, Wong (1977) asserted that there was a critical need to evaluate the relative success of each change. Hence,, the present study was undertaken to fulfill this critical need, in part, by assessing the professional knowledge of teachers with different teaching qualification.
Malaysia's education is undergoing a period of change.
Changes in education are inevitable as the country seeks to become more economically, socially and politically independent. However, changes in education, as Collins and
Mercurio (1977) have noted, also resulted in the change of teacher education. Hence, there is a critical need to keep teacher education up-to-date with the current development in education in general. The currentness in teacher education may be achieved by getting empirical data on present teacher competencies. It is worth noting that the significance of 16 teacher competency studies in improving teacher education curriculum in agriculture is well founded (Swanson &
Persons, 1968). Thus, the present study was potentially beneficial in maintaining the currentness of teacher education curriculum in Malaysia.
Ginzberg (1971) analyzed the manpower dimensions of development in 27 countries which included Malaysia. He noted that, "... the false belief, so widely held in developing world that there is a high correlation between education and competence . . . But the developing nations are learning that in addition to educational preparation, competence requires aptitude, motivation, the opportunity to work and supervision. Without these correlates, the educated man is unable to produce, or will produce at only a low level" (p. 5) . In this regard, there is a need to broaden the present strategy of assessing teacher competence which places so much emphasis on student achievement. This need is especially true in Malaysia where teacher competence is heavily measured in terms of student achievement in the public examinations. The present study was undertaken to fulfill, in part, the need for broadening the strategy of assessing teacher competence by making alternative use of test to measure teacher's knowledge in the domain of profes sional competencies. Summary
As a rapidly developing country, Malaysia is known for its diversified economy, population and education. Diversi fication also has been the characteristic of the teaching profession as evidenced from different qualification held by teachers. The research was primarily concerned with the comparison of the professional knowledge competence of agricultural teachers with and without preservice teacher preparation. CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Educators in the United States and Malaysia, including
Awang (1986), Egbert (1984), Howsam (1982) and Smith,
Silverman, Borg and Fry (1980) have articulated their
concerns about teaching being a genuine profession. Perhaps
this concern prompted the Holmes group (1986) to recommend a
complete reform of teacher education in the United States.
The joint International Labor Organization/United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization committee
of experts on the application of the recommendation concerning the status of teachers (1984) went even further by recognizing teachers as professionals just like doctors and lawyers.
What does it take for teaching to be considered as a profession? A profession is generally viewed as a vocation whose practice is founded on scientific inquiry (Cogan,
1953; Whitehead, 1933). Such view distinguishes the practice of a profession from the practice of a craft (Whitehead,
1933). Lee (1981) reiterates, "Professionalism refers to how individuals or groups of individuals conform to the characteristics expected of them by virtue of their
18 19 profession” (p. 3). In essence, a profession requires a well-defined body of knowledge. In teaching, this body of knowledge may be expressed in relation to teacher competencies. Further, these teacher competencies need to be constantly evaluated as the practice of a profession also is founded on licensing and testing (Case, Lanier, & Miskel,
1986).
The review of the related literature serves five basic purposes: (a) to review commonly held conceptions with regard to teacher competence, (b) to review issues related to teacher competency assessment, (c) to review the concept of professional competencies as a domain in teacher competency testing, (d) to review specific professional competencies in teaching, and (e) to review factors contri buting to the variability of teacher competence.
Teacher Competence
Teacher competence has long been identified as a critical dimension of teacher effectiveness. Mitzel (1957) introduced a model which later became a widely accepted framework for studying teacher effectiveness. His model made use of three variables: presage, process and product.
Teacher competence was listed under presage variable. Medley
(1979) noted a general shift in the trend of defining teacher effectiveness from teacher personality traits to teacher mastery of a repertoire of competencies. This shift 20
was influenced by the general conception of education as a
technically oriented science (Johnson, 1984).
What is actually meant by "teacher competence"? How is
teacher competence being conceptualized? What constitutes
the accepted domains of teacher competence? The review that
follows will address these important questions.
Conception of teacher competence. Over the years compe
tence has been conceptualized in different ways. Grant
(1979), who examined the competence movement in the United
States, found that the term "competence" was defined in
accordance to theoretical orientation, scope of role, reform
intention and disciplinary focus. Short (1984) made a clear
distinction between teacher competence and teacher competen
cies. Teacher competencies refer to specified attributes
that a teacher may possess. Teacher competence, on the other
hand, refers to a quality or state of being competent. As
Short (1984) elaborates, "It is one thing to say that
someone has competence in conversing in Spanish; it is quite
another thing to say that someone has mastered the
competency of using the subjunctive mood in Spanish, . . . 11
(p. 201).
Medley (1982) conceptualized teacher competence as a matter of repertoire. The knowledge, skills and beliefs in a
teacher's repertoire are. referred to as "competencies" that
the teacher possesses and they are defined in terms of
effective teacher behaviors (Medley, i977). Pearson (1984) 21 and Short (1984) share a normative view about teacher competence. In Pearson's view, competency does not describe a level of performance somewhere between just knowing and knowing very well how to do something, but rather it indicates the level at which a person's performance becomes commendable. Under this conception, competency is indeed a value judgment.
Short's view with regard to teacher competence also is normative as he reiterates that one's definition of compe tence depends on his or her definition of teaching. Under this normative view, teacher competence is conceptualized in four ways: (a) competence as a very specific and limited behavior or performance, (b) competence as a command of pertinent knowledge or skills, (c) competence as a degree or level of capability, and (d) competence as a quality of a person or a state of being. The fourth conception seems to be most preferred on the ground of utility, fairness and accuracy. Under the fourth conception, a person is thought to possess or not to possess a particular quality which has been identified and designated as desirable. The present study subscribes to the fourth conception of teacher competence.
Domains of teacher competence. The literature on compe tence and competencies seems to reveal different domains of competence. However, the domains of competence are generally defined in relation to the domains of learning— cognitive, affective and psychomotor (The National Center for Research in Vocational Education, 1977). Borich (1980) and Cooper,
Jones, and Weber (1973) describe three types of teacher competence. The first type, knowledge competence, refers to cognitive abilities— understanding, recall, paraphrase, or summarize— which are usually measured by pencil-and-paper tests. The second type, performance competence, refers to the actual teacher behavior in a real or simulated environment. The third type, consequence competence, refers to the teacher's ability to cause learning to occur, and this is generally measured by student achievement.
Henderson and Lanier (1973) propose a structure of teacher competence which is composed of knowledge and per formance dimensions. Miller (1983) seems to be in agreement with this structure when he articulates that, "Competence implies that the teacher must have sufficient technical knowledge in the field of agriculture, and sufficient skill at imparting that knowledge to others" (p. 3) . In essence, he stresses the importance of both knowledge and performance dimensions as prerequisites for agricultural teacher competence. The present study, however, focuses on the knowledge dimension of teacher competence.
Assessment of Teacher Competence
A teacher's level of cognitive ability has been identified as one of the critical dimensions of teacher 23 competence. In an extensive review of research pertaining to teacher training and student achievement in developing countries, Husen, Saha, and Noonan (1978) found enough evi dence to support the conclusion for the positive relation ship between teacher's knowledge and student performance, especially for those students who came from disadvantaged backgrounds.
How do we assess the knowledge competence of teachers?
The review that follows will address the common issues related to the assessment of teacher's knowledge competence.
Some of the common issues include: (a) general conception about teacher competency assessment, (b) the case for teacher competency testing, and (c) domains of teacher competency tests.
Conception about teacher competency assessment. The literature on teacher competency assessment tends to indicate that teacher competency assessment is viewed from broad perspectives. From the legal standpoint, teacher certification is viewed as a "process of legal sanction, authorizing the holder of a credential to perform specific services in the public schools of the state" (Kinney, 1964, p. 118). Roth (1985) views teacher certification as a means of protecting the public from either incompetent or immoral
(legally defined) individuals who can cause both intellectual and emotional damage to students. In other words, from the legal standpoint, teacher certification is 24 regarded as a means of protecting the teaching profession from any form of malpractices. Thus, teacher assessment is held accountable for the safe practice of teaching, a con sequence of which is better public education.
The American Association of Colleges for Teacher
Education task force on teacher certification (1984) views teacher certification as a means the practicality of which is judged on the following circumstances: the situation where incompetent practice of teaching may lead to harm or injury to the client, the complexity of the teaching itself, and the proven superiority of fully certified teachers over those who are not certified. Further, teacher assessment is viewed as a means of serving, in many ways, the interest of teacher educators, state departments of education, teacher education students, and the teaching profession itself (Kay,
1978).
There has been a tremendous improvement being made in the assessment strategies of teacher competence. Dubraveic,
Chinien, and Pratzner (1986) point out that traditional teacher certification involves a simple verification to ascertain whether a person has completed the training program. In the case of agricultural education, McCracken and Warmbrod (1976) state that the technical competence of agricultural teachers used to be determined in terms of credit hours earned and the years of work experience in an occupation. However, over the years the determination of 25
teacher competence has been based on multiple sources,
including: (a) competency testing, (b) interviews, (c)
classroom observation, (d) student ratings, (e) peer review,
(f) self-evaluation, and (g) student achievement (Dubraveic,
Chinien, & Pratzner, 1986).
The case for competency testing. There have been mixed
views with regard to the use of tests as a means of
assessing teacher competence. Educators and researchers
(Gallegos, 1984; Smith, 1984; Soar, Medley, & Cooker, 1983)
are strongly opposed to the idea of assessing teacher
competence by means of tests. Their points of opposition are
grounded on the poor correlation between teacher performance
in the exams and the rating of their on-the-job performance
(Quick, Witten, & Weinberg, 1973) . At the same time there
are a number of educators (e.g., Flippo, 1986; Hathaway,
1980; Hyman, 1984; Madaus & Pullin, 1987) who tend to be
supportive, with some cautions, of the idea of teacher competency testing.
How does teacher competency testing come into being?
The idea about teacher competency testing evolves from the general belief that there is a positive correlation between teacher performance and student achievement (Sandefur,
1985). Following this belief, the problem related to the decline in students' test scores can be partly traced to the teacher's failure. Under this circumstance, teachers are also subject to testing as are their students. Case, Lanier, and Miskel (1986) present a strong case
for teacher competency testing. According to them, when
testing is used in combination with accredited preparation
programs, it provides some forms of confidence, trust and
assurances to the public that teachers can perform without
immediate supervision. Also, a case may be made for teacher
competency testing by relying on the presumed strengths of
the test, itself. According to Borow (1980), tests can
measure trait differences between people and predict
performance level in some nontest setting on the basis of
the present test scores. Furthermore, properly written tests
can validly and reliably test understanding of concepts and
principles, and problem-solving skills (McCracken &
Warmbrod, 1976).
By definition, a teacher competency test is a test
developed to measure the minimum knowledge and skills deemed
necessary for adequate performance in the classroom (Flippo
& Foster, 1984). A competency test, in view of its clarity,
objectivity, and externality of control, is considered as
the only means to ensure an acceptable level of teaching
competence (Hathaway, 1980). Also, testing is viewed as a means of enhancing the professional image of the teaching profession (Ishler, 1985).
Realizing the potential benefits of competency tests, many states in the United States opt for using teacher 27 competency tests for at least two purposes: teacher certifi cation and student admission into teacher education programs
(Sandefur, 1985). Flippo (1985), who updated the information on competency testing activity in the United States, found three levels at which competency testing took place: prior to acceptance into teacher education, prior to state certification, and prior to state renewal.
The case for teacher competency tests is clearly founded on its objectivity, validity, reliability, rele vance, comprehensiveness, and professional image. Apparent ly, teacher competency testing has become an important tradition in teacher performance assessment.
Domains of teacher competency tests. ;nat do teacher competency tests measure? Apparently, there are at .least five separate domains on which teachers who seek certifi cation are being assessed (Pugach & Rath, 1983). The domains are: (a) basic skills, (b) general knowledge, (c) knowledge of specific content, (d) professional knowledge and skills, and (e) the job performance. Teacher competencies in four domains, except the job performance, are generally measured by pencil-and-paper tests. The job performance domain is usually measured by a performance test or by direct observation.
The core battery tests of the National Teacher Exam covers three competency areas: communication skills, general knowledge, and professional knowledge (Educational Testing 28
Service [ETS], 1984). The test on communication skills includes questions related to listening, reading, and writing skills. The test on general knowledge includes items concerning literature and fine arts, mathematics, science, and social studies. The test items on professional knowledge cover the knowledge and cognitive processes of classroom teaching.
The teacher occupational competency test measures the knowledge and performance domains of teacher competence
(National Occupational Competency Testing Institute, n.d.).
The test on the knowledge domain covers important aspects in factual knowledge, technical information, understanding of principles and problem-solving abilities related to an occupation. The test on the performance domain involves the actual demonstration of occupational skills. Other kinds of tests, particularly the ones developed by the states of
Connecticut, Oklahoma and Texas, include test areas in basic, technical and professional competencies (National
Evaluation Systems [NES], Inc., n.d.).
Professional Competencies
Conception
Moss (1971) refers to professional competencies as those competencies which distinguish teachers from other professions. Professional competencies are associated with the professional education component of an instructional 29 program. These competencies are needed for the successful practice of a particular occupation. In teacher education, this form of competencies is generally referred to as pedagogy or the art and science of teaching (Cruickshank,
1985).
What constitutes professional competencies? Smith
(1985) advocates three components of pedagogical knowledge needed for the successful practice of teaching. The first component is what he refers to as the generic component which encompasses teacher performances that are common to instruction in all disciplines. The second component, content-specific component, is the one unique to a particular subject of instruction. The third component, theoretical component, refers to the concepts by which teacher performances and the processes of learning and development are sorted and explained. Basically, the first and the second components refer to performances in the practice of teaching itself whereas the third component refers to the undergirding • principles of the practice of teaching. In a similar manner, Moss (1971) categorizes professional competencies as "training skills" and
"understanding."
Following the standards of the National Council for
Accreditation of Teacher Education [NCATE] (1982), the theoretical component of pedagogy is derived from humanistic and behavioral studies, and teaching and learning theory 30 with laboratory and clinical experiences. Humanistic and behavioral studies are commonly referred to as foundations of education or foundational studies in education
(Cruickshank, 1985) . These studies are to enable student teachers to study educational problems in relation to history, philosophy, psychology, sociology, anthropology, economics and political science (NCATE, 1982).
The teaching and learning theory is generally studied in relation to studies in curriculum and methods (Kluender,
1984). This practice is recommended for the reason that teaching and learning theory forms the basis of effective performance of teaching (NCATE, 1982). It is through the teaching and learning theory that prospective teachers may acquire competencies with regard to the understanding of the underlying principles of teaching performance.
Competencies with regard to both general and special methods of teaching are essential for effective performance of teaching. General methods of teaching refer to general tasks pertaining to basic planning, implementation and evaluation of instruction, whereas special methods of teaching are the ones tailored to the particular need of a teaching discipline (Houston & Newman, 1982). The competen cies related to classroom instruction, school laboratory management, supervision of occupational experience programs and advisement of Future Farmers of America are considered 31 as unique to methods of teaching agriculture in the United
States (Newcomb, McCracken, & Warmbrod, 1986).
Specific Professional Competencies
Essentially, professional competencies refer to the pedagogical knowledge and skills needed for the successful practice of teaching (Watts, 1982). Realizing the fact that teaching is a complex process, a wide variation of competencies is certainly needed for the successful operation of teaching. Medley (1982) presents eight interacting variables influencing the definition of teacher competencies. The variables are: preexisting teacher characteristics, teacher performance, pupil learning experiences, pupil learning outcomes, teacher training, internal context, external context, and pupil learning characteristics. Hence, the notion of teacher competencies takes various forms. The review that follows will address various forms of teacher competencies.
Competencies underlying the practice of teaching. The competencies underlying the practice of teaching refer to those competencies which are needed to explain an educational phenomenon. Such competencies may be illustrated by the following abilities: to justify an educational practice both empirically and philosophically (Birkel,
1974), to interpret and solve classroom problems (Smith,
Cohen, & Pearl, 1969), and to illuminate the complexities of 32
teaching individuals and groups in school setting (Houston &
Newman, 1982). Scannel, Denemark, and Dieterle (1982) assert
that the following competencies are underlying the practice
of teaching:
1. Understand the principles and modes of inquiry that
illuminate human behavior, cultural influences,
social institutions, and significant political,
economics and philosophical systems.
2. Understand the major human and technological factors
that foster and inhibit effective communication
among individuals and social groups.
3. Have a sense of the disciplinary roots of profes
sional practice shared by teachers and other human
service professionals.
Moss (1971) refers to competencies underlying the practice of teaching as the recognition of the underlying reasons for the existence of public education, vocational education and the teaching profession. These reasons are acknowledged for their interpretive value. The competencies underlying vocational education may include: understanding of career opportunities within a specified field, experi ence in knowledge of the vocation, and communication skills
(Woodin, 1965).
Competencies underlying the practice of teaching are usually associated with studies in the social science disciplines (Birkel, 1974). Egbert (1985) labels these disciplines as foundations and education-related science which include courses such as educational philosophy and human development. Lanier and Little (1986) observe that studies in educational foundations are common to the pedagogical studies component of teacher education in the
United States. Dumas and Weibel (1984) report that the professional requirement for elementary teachers include the following foundation courses: educational psychology, educational media, educational measurement, general curriculum, social foundations, classroom management, school organization, multicultural relations, exceptional child, community relations, and children's literature.
Competencies in instruction. It is widely known that the major role of a teacher is to provide instruction.
Classroom teaching consumes the greatest portion of an agriculture teacher's time and energy (Juergenson, 1967).
Perhaps instructing is the primary job of the early teachers of agriculture. The early teachers of agriculture taught by reciting, questioning, and supervising (Hamlin, 1950). Yazid
(1948) provides a first account of the instructional duty of an agricultural teacher in British Malaya:
It will be seen that a village school teacher has no easy task to perform in the organization and general management of his school garden. Often he has a piece of waste ground to plan out and develop into vegetable, fruits, and flower gardens. He first prepares a plan of the school ground and defines on it the allotment of space for vegetables, fruit, flowers, etc., the division of the plots for individual and communal work, and so on. On this plan he subsequently marks the 34 progress of cultivation during the course of months and years. He himself works in the garden, thereby setting a personal example to the pupils. Twice a year he awards marks both for the individual and communal plots, (p. 54)
The evidence for the emphasis on the instructional role
of a teacher is further substantiated by the research on
teacher effectiveness. Most contemporary research in teacher
effectiveness is organized under the framework of the
process-product paradigm (Doyle, 1977). Under this
framework, teacher effectiveness is defined in terms of the
relationship between measures of teacher classroom behaviors
(processes) and measures of student learning outcomes
(products). Even in descriptive research (e.g., Bode, 1972;
Rawls & Fatunsin, 1985; Rheault & Miller, 1986), instruc
tional competencies seem to receive high ratings in terms of
their importance from agricultural educators.
What kinds of competencies are needed for successful
performance in instruction? As early as 1945, Allen,
Hambrecht, and Welch outline the tasks of an occupational
teacher: (a) determining what to be taught, (b) classifying what must be taught, (c) establishing an effective
instructional order, (d) determining methods of instruction,
(e) preparing lesson plans, and (f) managing instruction.
What is the present knowledge about teacher competen
cies? Many research reviewers, including Berliner (1985),
Brophy and Good (1986), Cruickshank (1986), and Dunkin and
Biddle (1974) strongly believe in the existence of a body of 35
knowledge about the effectiveness of teaching which
prospective teachers ought to acquire. They support their
beliefs with the accomplishment of research in defining
teacher effectiveness criteria. Rosenshine (1986) writes
that effective teachers consistently perform the following
tasks:
1. Begin a lesson with short statements or goals
2. Begin a lesson with a short review of previous,
prerequisite learning
3. Present new material in small steps with student
practice after each step
4. Give clear and detailed instruction and explanation
5. Provide a high level of active practice for all
students
6. Ask a large number of questions, check for student
understanding, and obtain responses from all
students
7. Guide students during initial practice
8. Provide systematic feedback and corrections
9. Provide explicit instruction and practice for seat-
work exercises, and, where necessary, monitor
students during seatwork
In an earlier review of research in which Rosenshine
(1971) collaborated with Furst, eleven groups of teacher variables were found to be consistently related to student
achievement: (a) clarity, (b) variability, (c) enthusiasm, 36
(d) task-oriented behaviors, (e) student opportunity to
learn criterion materials, (f) use of student ideas and
general indirectness, (g) criticism, (h) use of structuring
comments, (i) types of question, (j) probing, and (k) level
of difficulty of instruction.
Bloom (1982) presents the result of a study which he
and his colleagues did on master teachers of piano and
swimming. Master teachers in both disciplines were found to possess very unique characteristics, including: having a
symbiotic relationship with their students and having strong effect on how their students view their present abilities and potentials to develop further. Hedges and Papritan
(1984) report that Ohio master teachers view teaching excellence in vocational agriculture in terms of the
following characteristics: keeping technically up-to-date, being motivated, being interested, setting directions, evaluating performance, developing a positive attitude, using community resources, and a high quality supervised occupational experience program.
What kinds of instructional methods are being emphasized in the delivery of occupational knowledge and skills? Parmley and Newcomb (1980) report the greatest emphasis on demonstrations, instructional aids, guidance, and problem-solving procedures as topics in teaching and management skills in vocational teacher education programs.
The same researchers also report that all sample 37
agricultural educators in their study address student
discipline, basic methods of teaching, lesson planning,
problem solving, and teaching/learning process as topics for
their methods courses.
A synthesis of nearly 3,000 investigations on the productive factors in learning reveals twenty-six aspects and methods of instruction, reinforcement being the greatest
in terms of the overall average effect on student achieve ment (Walberg, 1984). With the availability of a great variation of instructional methods, some judgment is certainly needed for making a wise selection on the best possible method. The selection of an appropriate instruc tional method is dependent on several factors, including: the purposes of the instructional program, the clientele, the organization and content of the subject matter, psychology of learning, and the knowledge and skills of the teacher (Newcomb, McCracken, & Warmbrod, 1986). Clearly, competencies in instructional methods are not confined to the mastery of knowledge and skills in instructional methods, but of equal importance is the ability to make the best selection and judgment on the best instructional method.
What competencies are associated with the evaluation of instruction? The literature tends to emphasize testing as a competency area in instructional evaluation. The National
Commission on Excellence in Education (1983) stresses the use of standardized tests as a measure of student achievement in the United States. Conant (1963) considers the knowledge on testing and measurement as an essential component of teacher education programs. In practice, do teacher education programs really require testing as part of the minimum competency for teacher certification? Weibel and
Dumas (1982) find that 15 out of 39 states (38%) specify competencies in the area of test and measurement as part of the minimum requirement for secondary teacher certification.
For certification of elementary teachers however, only 11 out of 46 states (24%) require course work in the area of educational measurement (Dumas & Weibel, 1984).
Heck and William (1984) and the National Commission on .
Secondary Vocational Education (1984) recommend the use of test as an approach in combination with other approaches of student assessment. Stiggins, Conklin, and Bridgeford (1986) recommend that teacher training priorities ought to include: measuring high-order reasoning skills, writing quality pencil-and-paper test items, integrating assessment and instruction through oral questioning strategies, and designing quality performance assessment based on observation and professional judgment. Clearly, intructional evaluation takes many competencies, ranging from testing of knowledge and performance to questioning ability. 39
What are the competencies essential to testing and
measurement? Ebel (1961) advocates the following measurement
competencies:
1. Know the educational uses, as well as the limita
tions of educational tests
2. Know the criteria by which the quality of a test
should be judged and how to secure evidence relating
to these criteria
3. Know how to plan a test and write the test questions
to be included in it
4. Know how to select a standardized test that will be
effective in a particular situation
5. Know how to administer a test properly, efficiently,
and fairly
6. Know how to interpret test scores correctly and
fully, but with recognition of their limitations
Education professors and school teachers are agree able with the above competencies as both groups give high priority to three areas of measurement competencies: preparing exams, administering and scoring tests, and general assessment information (Gullickson, 1986). In actuality, do teachers really practice testing and measurement in their classrooms? How competent are teachers at performing the task of testing and measurement? These two questions will be addressed next. Evidently, testing has great influence on the educa tional system (Goslin, 1982). Both teachers and students view tests positively (Kellaghan, Madaus, & Airasian, 1982).
In a survey on testing practice used by elementary and secondary teachers of South Dakota, Gullickson (1982) found that teacher-made objective tests play a major evaluative role across all grade levels and curricular areas. Stiggins and Bridgeford (1985) also arrive at the same conclusion in their review of research. Elementary teachers, however, seem to place more emphasis on nontest evaluation techniques
(Gullickson, 1985). Overall, teachers do indeed practice some form of testing and measurement in their classrooms.
In a rather extensive review of research pertaining to perceived problems of beginning teachers in different countries, Veenman (1984) notes that assessing student's work is the fourth most frequently mentioned problem.
Gullickson, Farr, and Griffin (1978) indicate that teachers are lacking in concepts of measurement related to normative data and standardized tests. Gullickson and Ellwein (1985) revealed that elementary and secondary teachers who participated in their study did not analyze test results in the manner espoused and prescribed by measurement specialists. Mayo (1967) measured teacher knowledge in four aspects of measurement competencies. He found that prospective teachers did not possess a high degree of knowledge and skills in measurement. Even two years after 41
graduation, teachers showed only a little improvement in
measurement skills. Teachers' problems in testing and
measurement can be' traced from the following weaknesses
(Ebel, 1961):
1. Subjective standards in judging educational
attainment
2. Last minute preparation of test
3. Poorly planned, too short or too insufficient test
4. Too much emphasis on trivial or ephemeral details in
test
5. Underestimation of sampling errors
6. Absence of statistical analysis on tests
Other professional competencies. Even though instruc
tion-related competencies are central to the teaching
profession, there are other competencies that teachers need
to acquire in addition to the routine teaching function. The
wide range of teacher competencies might arise from the
increase in public demand for the expanded roles of teachers
as an institution builder, an interactive being, an inno vator, and a scholar (Joyce, 1972). In Malaysia, teachers
are expected to play a multiple role as manager and
facilitator of learning, psychologist, counselor and
consultant, curriculum planner, professional and life-long
learner, innovator, researcher and evaluator, agent of social change, and leader in professional and social occupations (Sai, 1983). The identification and verification of professional competencies has long become a focus of research in vocational teacher education. Research topics pertaining to teacher competencies seem to have dominated research in agricultural education. Researchers such as Bode (1972),
Oktahi and Welton (1985), Rawls and Fatunsin (1985),
Rheault and Miller (1986), Shippy (1981), and Witmer (1979) focus their work in the area of professional competencies of agricultural teachers. A major competency study in vocational teacher education was undertaken by Cotrell and his colleagues in 1971. Their study initially yields eight categories of professional competencies (Cotrell & Miller,
1969). Currently, the number of competency categories has expanded to thirteen, ranging from planning of instruction to teaching adults (The National Center's Catalog. 1988).
These competencies have been widely accepted as the content for performance-based teacher education curriculum in various vocational areas.
Most professional competencies identified through research are better acquired through systematic training. As
Brophy and Good (1986) point out, "Although it may be true that most adults could survive in the classroom, it is true that most could not teach effectively. Even trained and experienced teachers vary in how they organize the classroom and present instruction" (p. 370). Thus, teacher competen cies do not occur naturally. These competencies need to be 43 acquired through formal courses. However, there are cases where teachers, as the review that follows will indicate, do not necessarily acquire competencies through regular, preservice teacher education programs. In this regard, the logical question to ask is what really makes teachers differ in professional competence?
Variability of Teacher Competence
Research findings have shown that teacher competence tends to vary according to several factors including: entry qualification, demographic, and background factors of teachers.
Entry Qualification
Over the years there has been more than one route by which a person can enter the teaching profession. The traditional or regular route is through a standard four-year teacher education program. Sometimes, this route is also called the professional route. As the demand for teachers increases, several alternative routes by which a person can be certified to teach, have been subsequently created. Those who enter the teaching profession via the alternative route, are not professionally trained to become teachers. They are recruited based on their possession of an academic qualification in a chosen teaching subject or on their occupational experience. Evidently, the teaching profession is populated by teachers with and without preservice teacher 44 preparation. Given this situation, educators are confronted with this issue: can teachers without preservice teacher preparation peform as well as those with preservice teacher preparation?
Apparently, there has been a mixed reaction with regard to the idea of allowing persons without preservice teacher preparation to teach in the public schools. Strong propo nents of vocational education, Prosser and Quigley (1950) seem to approve the admission of persons without preservice teacher preparation into the teaching profession. As they clearly articulate, "Admittedly, no teacher training program on a pre-employment basis can turn out a completely equipped teacher any more than any other vocational program on a pre employment basis can turn out a thoroughly occupationally competent worker" (p. 521) . Arguments in favor of employing persons without preservice teacher preparation can be cited in the writings of Culver, Eicher and Sacks (1986), Kindschy
(1974), Knight (1980), and Phipps (1974). For whatever reasons, there has been a substantial increase in the number of teachers without preservice teacher preparation in the public schools (Haberman, 1986; Parramore, 1986; Tanner &
Ebers, 1985).
The potential of teachers without preservice teacher preparation, however, has been only marginally proved through research. Popham (1968) compares the teaching performance of career and noncareer teachers in automechanics and electronics. Based on student pretest and
posttest scores, he concludes that there is no significant
difference between career teacher and noncareer teacher
classes in automechanics. However, in electronics classes,
career teachers have significant difference over noncareer
teachers after student pretest and posttest scores have been
computed. Ellson (1968) investigates the potential of
paraprofessionals as teachers of reading in first grade
classes. He finds that paraprofessionals can make a real
contribution to the teaching profession. In a rather limited
review of literature, Ereckson and Barr (1985) do not find
any conclusive evidence as to whether provisionally-
certified teachers are as effective as traditionally- vprepared teachers.
A number of people have argued against the idea of
allowing persons without preservice teacher preparation to
teach in the public schools. Roth (1986) and Watts (1986)
fear that the nontraditional route for teacher entry might
jeopardize teaching as a profession. Moore (1980) argues
against the idea of employing nondegree teachers in
agricultural education because such practice might affect
the quality, professionalism, Future Farmers of America
membership, and the overall image of vocational agriculture.
The same author supports his argument by his own
dissertation research in which he finds four-year 46 provisional certificate holders are more effective than one- year vocational teaching certificate holders (G. E. Moore,
1975). Even in more descriptive types of research, professionally-trained teachers are found to be more proficient than those trained in alternative programs (E. A.
Moore, 1974; Feck, 1971).
Bledsoe, Cox, and Burn (1967) compare provisionally- and professionally-certified beginning teachers on selected personality characteristics and teaching performance. They find that, overall, professionally-certified teachers are more competent than the provisionally-certified ones. In the context of Malaysia, Beebout (1973) finds that trained teachers are generally associated with high student achievement.
In comparing methods by which beginning-level teachers may acquire subject matter and professional competencies in vocational education, Moss (1971) seems to show his preference toward standard teacher education programs rather than the alternative routes. Greenberg (1983) presents a strong case for the professional preparation of teachers. As he rationalizes:
A person seeking to teach, to become professional, must become knowledgeable about the nature of the client and the nature and tasks of the teacher's role, must become a critical and informed analyst of the micro- and macro-contexts in which teaching occurs, and must develop refined skills in applied settings. The case for teacher education is built on recognition of these needs and the conviction that they best be met through 47 an organized program that facilitates the necessary preparation and development, (p. 2)
In an international review of research, Saha (1983)
•concludes that better trained and more experienced teachers
produce higher academic achievement in students. Overall,
professionally-trained teachers can make a difference in
student achievement. Further, it is worth noting that
students of teaching have been proved to be as good as other
students in terms of academic achievement (Fisher, 1985;
Olsen, 1985; Wardlow, 1986). This evidence tends to indicate
that trained teachers are not only making a difference in
student achievement, but their own academic achievement
compares favorably with students in other occupational
areas.
Based on the preceding evidence, it could be hypo
thesized for the present research that teachers with
preservice teacher preparation would have higher profession
al knowledge competence than those teachers without such
preparation.
Demographic and Background Factors
Demographic and background characteristics of teachers have long been recognized as factors which can explain the variation of teacher competence. Ryans (I960), who conducted
an extensive study involving more than 6,000 teachers in
1,700 schools in the United States, found significant differences in teacher classroom behaviors with respect to 48 variables such as teacher's age, gender, teaching experi ence, and academic success in college. He even recommended further research which included national, political and cultural background of teachers as independent variables.
In a review of research, Husen, Saha, and Noonan (1978) concluded that teacher effectiveness in developing countries varied with the following demographic and background factors of teachers: sex, age, socioeconomic background, level of cognitive ability, qualification, teaching experience, teaching location, knowledge competence, and participation in inservice courses. Meanwhile, another review of research shows that teacher effectiveness varies with class, subject matter, group size and specific instructional objectives being pursued (Brophy & Good, 1986).
Based on the preceding evidence, it could be hypothe sized for the present research that there would be a significant difference in professional knowledge competence with respect to the demographic and background variables of teachers. As Husen, Saha, and Noonan (1978) say, "There is sound reason to suspect that demographic characteristics such as [sex and age of teachers] might be important in
LDCs. For example, in societies where age and sex roles are clearly defined, the relationships between students and teacher could be seriously affected" (p. 13). The same argument could be made in selecting race as a variable. In a society such as Malaysia where occupational preference is 49
clearly defined by race, it could be expected that race
might account for the variation in teacher competence.
Summary
Teacher competence is indeed a complex phenomenon. In
the process of defining teacher competence and teacher
competencies, many interacting variables have to be taken
into account. However, educational researchers have been
successful, to some extent, in the identification of competencies which can distinguish good and poor teachers.
Educators also have been successful in developing alterna tive methods of assessing teacher competence, one of which
is teacher competency testing. With the availability of alternative teacher assessment strategies, researchers are able to compare professional competence with demographic and background variables of teachers. In many cases demographic and background variables are significantly related to teacher competence. CHAPTER III
PROCEDURES
This chapter describes the procedures for carrying out
the research. The procedures are described in relation to
the following aspects: (a) research design, (b) instrument development, (c) population, (d) data collection, and (e) data analysis.
Research Design
Primarily, the research attempted to compare the professional knowledge competence of agricultural teachers with and without preservice teacher preparation. Specifi cally, the research attempted to reveal whether or not the two groups of teachers differed significantly in terms of their professional knowledge competence as measured by their achievement in a multiple-choice test. For this purpose, the research was designed to be an ex post facto type of research. An ex post facto research is a kind of research in which the independent variable or variables which are presumed to be accountable for the dependent variable, have already occurred (Kerlinger, 1973). In the present research,
50 51
the major independent variable, type of teacher qualifica
tion which possibly accounts for the variation in profes
sional knowledge achievement, has already occurred.
The research utilized the third preexperimental design,
the static-group comparison (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). This
design may be diagrammed as follows:
Xi Oi
x2 02 Oi and 02 symbolize measures of professional knowledge
achievement whereas Xi and X2 symbolize type of teacher
qualification. X^ stands for teachers with preservice
teacher preparation while X2 stands for teachers without
preservice teacher preparation. Teachers with preservice
teacher preparation refers to those teachers who hold a
teacher qualification from an accredited teacher training
institution. Teachers without preservice teacher preparation
are those teachers who do not have a teacher qualification
on a preemployment basis. The major hypothesis was stated in
terms of the nature of relationship between type of teacher preparation and professional knowledge achievement. It was
expected that teachers with preservice teacher preparation would have higher professional knowledge competence than those without such preparation.
An ex post facto research is generally known for its weakness in controlling the independent variables. However, this weakness can be overcome by setting up and testing
alternative or "control" hypotheses (Kerlinger, 1973). The
investigator set and tested hypotheses which took other
independent or extraneous variables into account. The
independent variables were: race, age, gender, teaching
experience, teaching location, teaching specialty areas and
inservice courses completed. Each of these independent
variables was tested for its relationship with knowledge
achievement and type of teacher qualification. It was
expected that each test would support the hypothesis of in
significant difference between the "control" variables and
the dependent variable. Also, it was expected that the test would support the hypothesis of independence between the
"control" variables and the major independent variable, type
of teacher qualification.
Instrument Development
The development of the instrument was guided by two purposes. First, the instrument was developed for measuring the dependent variable, professional knowledge achievement.
Second, the instrument was developed for gathering information about the independent variables (race, age, gender, teacher qualification, teaching experience, teaching location, teaching specialty areas, and inservice courses completed). Measure of dependent variable. The dependent variable was the professional knowledge achievement of teachers. The professional knowledge achievement was measured by a profes sional knowledge competency test. A test is appropriate for measuring the present proficiency, mastery and understanding of general and specific areas of knowledge (Kerlinger,
1973) . Furthermore, a test is functional in discriminating individuals according to specific background and experiences
(Glaser & Klaus, 1962). Since the present research attempted to investigate the differences in professional knowledge competence between two groups of teachers, an achievement test would serve this purpose very well.
In the course of developing a knowledge competency test, the researcher adhered to certain procedures. The researcher began by reviewing the literature on the subject of teacher competence and competencies. The review of literature was reported in the preceding chapter. The researcher also reviewed study guides for established teacher competency tests (J. Bobrow, Nathan, Fisher, Covino,
B. Bobrow and Weber, 1987; NES; ETS, 1984).
Based on the review of literature, the researcher identified the content areas for the test. The content areas included knowledge and understanding pertaining to educa tional foundations, adolescent growth and development, principles of instruction, principles of learning, planning 54 of instruction, implementation of instruction, and evalua tion. These content areas were used as a guide in preparing test items.
initially, seventy-five items were prepared for the test. Each item had five-answer choices. Many of the items were taken (with permission) from three sources: Bobrow et al. (1987), ETS (1984), and NES. The test was then submitted to dissertation committee members in the Department of
Agricultural Education, The Ohio State University, for their review and approval. The test was further reviewed by a panel of Malaysian experts in the month of April, 1988. The panel members consisted of three teacher educators, a federal inspector of school, and three education officers
(Appendix B). Mostly, all panel members were former teachers themselves. They reviewed the test for its content validity and clarity. The aims of teacher education in Malaysia
(Appendix A) were adhered to throughout the review process.
In the review process, the test items were improved by means of either one of the following tasks: deletion, replacement, or correction. Sixty-seven items were developed for the pilot test.
Ten teachers with preservice teacher preparation and ten teachers without such preparation were selected for the pilot test. All teachers who participated in the pilot test were teachers in subject areas other than agricultural science. Their answers were machine-scored and used for item 55
analysis. The test also was checked for its concurrent
validity by confirming the test results with the judgment of
the school principals under whom the teachers worked.
The item analysis procedure was used for determining
the item difficulty, discriminating power, and internal
consistency. The item analysis procedure also was used to
show items correlation which formed the basis for
determining construct and predictive validity (Guilford &
Fruchter, 1973). The internal consistency was calculated using Kuder-Richardson formula 20 (Kuder & Richardson,
1937). The KR20 value for the 67-item test was 0.64 with a standard error of measurement of 3.09.
The test went through a second review process in which
items were either replaced or improved based on the results
of the item analysis procedure. Finally, fifty items were selected for the actual study (Appendix J) . The items were distributed as follows (Appendix I): educational foundation
(13 items), adolescent growth and development (5 items), principles of instruction (10 items), principles of learning
(6 items), planning of instruction (3 items), implementation of instruction (6 items), evaluation of instruction (7 items). The test was administered in the Malaysian national language (Appendix K). The KR20 value for the final test was
0.67 with a standard error of measurement of 3.13.
Identification of independent variables. The indepen dent variables were first identified through the review of 56 literature on the subject of teacher competence and competencies. The independent variables were: race, age, gender, teacher qualification, teaching experience, teaching location, teaching specialty areas, and inservice courses completed. Teacher qualification was identified by means of qualification titles. Teaching experience was measured in terms of years of teaching. Teaching specialty areas were defined in terms of subjects taught. Inservice courses were identified in terms of whether or not the respondents had completed a given area of inservice courses. The rest of the independent variables were identified in a straight-forward manner.
A questionnaire was developed for the purpose of gathering information about the independent variables
(Appendix G). The questionnaire was submitted to disser tation committee members in the Department of Agricultural
Education, The Ohio State University for their review and approval. The questionnaire was further reviewed by a few selected Malaysian education officers and teachers for its accuracy. The actual administration of the questionnaire was done in the Malaysian national language (Appendix H).
Population
The target population was teachers who taught agri cultural science at the upper-secondary level of instruction at the time of the study. The teachers involved were those 57
who taught at the academic schools, technical schools,
vocational schools, and agricultural institutes. The
teachers were identified according to their teacher
qualification, with or without preservice teacher
preparation.
The total number of teachers who taught agricultural
science at the upper-secondary level of instruction was 143.
However, two teachers could not be accessed at the time of
the study. This left a total number of 141 teachers
acccessible for the study. The generalizability of the study
was therefore limited to the accessible population.
Data Collection
Information pertaining to the current listing of
agricultural teachers was obtained from the Division of
Technical and Vocational Education, Ministry of Education,
Malaysia. The same kind of listing also was secured from the
Training and Career Development Branch, Ministry of
Agriculture, Malaysia. Both ministries gave their approval
for the research project (Appendices C, D and E).
Upon the approval of the Ministry of Education and the
Ministry of Agriculture, the teachers and their respective
school principals were notified about the upcoming research
(Appendix F). The researcher met the teacher individually as well as in groups in administering the test. Each teacher was given a questionnaire, a test and a machine-scored 58
answer sheet. The researcher made prior arrangement with
each teacher about the most convenient time for answering
the test. There was no preset time limit for the test.
However, the teachers were encouraged to complete the test
while the researcher was present. The questionnaires and
answer sheets were collected during the visit.
Data Analysis
The selection of procedures for data analysis was
guided by three purposes. The first purpose was to describe
the teachers on both the independent and dependent
variables. The independent variables were described in terms
of frequencies, percentages, and means. The dependent
variable was measured in terms of percent of items correct.
One point was given for each item correct and zero for each
incorrect response. The total percent of items correct was
described in terms of frequencies, percentages, and means.
The second purpose was to compare each independent
variable with the dependent variable, professional knowledge
achievement as measured by the percent of items correct. The
comparisons were made in terms of frequencies and means. The
procedures of data analysis to test the difference between
the mean percent of items correct for each independent variable, were t-test and one-way analysis of variance at a predetermined .05 level of significance. 59
The third purpose was to compare teachers with and without preservice teacher preparation on both the dependent and independent variables. The comparisons were made in terms of frequencies and percentages. The test statistics used to test the null hypothesis were chi-square and t at a predetermined .05 level of significance.
The data analysis was made possible through a software program, Statistical Package for Social Sciences [SPSSPC+] which was available at the Department of Agricultural
Education, The Ohio State University.
Summary
The research was designed to be an ex post facto type of research with one dependent variable and eight independent variables. The research utilized the static group-comparison design. The two groups being compared were agricultural teachers with and without preservice teacher preparation. The dependent variable was measured by a 50- item, multiple-choice test. Information concerning the independent variables was collected by means of a questionnaire. The test was reviewed for its content validity by dissertation committee members and a panel of
Malaysian experts. The internal consistency of the test was calculated by using Kuder-Richardson formula 20. Data analysis was performed by using SPSSPC+. CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS
This chapter presents the findings of the research. The findings are presented in the order of the preset research objectives. The findings pertaining to the background characteristics and the professional knowledge achievement of teachers will be presented first, followed by findings related to the statistical analysis for comparing teacher's knowledge achievement with their background characteristics.
Findings related to the statistical analysis for comparing teachers with and without preservice teacher preparation with respect to their background characteristics will be presented next. Findings pertaining to the comparison of professional knowledge achievement for teachers with and without preservice teacher preparation will be presented last.
Background Characteristics and Knowledge Achievement
The first objective of the research was to describe the background characteristics and professional knowledge achievement of participating teachers. Eight background characteristics were identified for the subjects. For the
60 61
purpose of presentation, the background characteristics are
arranged in the following order: race, age, gender, teacher
qualification, teaching experience, teaching location,
teaching specialty areas, and inservice courses completed.
Race
The teachers were divided into two major groups. The
Malays formed the major group with 108 teachers who
represented 76.6 percent of the total number of subjects in
the study. The Chinese and Indian teachers were grouped under nonMalays. Within this group, the Chinese were very dominant with 32 teachers compared to only one Indian teacher (Table 2).
Table 2
Race of Teachers
Race n Percent
Malay 108 76.6
NonMalay
Chinese 32 22.7
Indian 1 0.7
Total 33 23.4
Total (Both groups) 141 100.0 62 Aae
The teachers were divided into five age groups. The 28-
31 and 32-42 age groups had almost an equal number of teachers. There were 41 teachers who belonged to the former while 42 teachers were in the latter. Both groups represented 29.1 percent and 29.8 percent, respectively, of the total number of teachers in the study. Six teachers were
40 years or older. The youngest teacher was 24 years of age while the oldest teacher was 48. The mean age for the participating teachers was 31.06 (Table 3).
Table 3
Age of Teachers
Age n Percent
24-27 36 25.5
28-31 41 29.1
32-35 42 29.8
36-39 16 11.3
40 or older 6 4.3
Total 141 100.0
M= 31.06 SD= 4.52 Range= 24-48 63
Gender
Male teachers clearly far outnumbered female teachers.
Out of 141 teachers who participated in the study, 106 (75.2 percent) were male. There were 35 female teachers representing 24.8 percent of the total number of subjects
(Table 4).
Table 4
Gender of Teachers
Gender n Percent
Male 106 75.2
Female 35 24.8
Total 141 100.0
Teacher Qualification
As table 5 shows, the teacher qualification was highly differentiated. In general, the teacher qualification was classified into two types, "with preservice teacher preparation" and "without preservice teacher preparation."
Each type was further differentiated by various qualifica tion titles. There were five qualification titles listed under "with preservice teacher preparation" compared to three titles under "without preservice teacher preparation."
There were sixty-four teachers whose qualification titles 64
Table 5
Teacher Qualification Earned
Teacher Qualification n Percent
With Preservice Teacher Preparation
B.Ed. (Agric. Sc.) 43 30.6
B.Sc. (Agric.) plus Dip. Ed. 14 9.9
B.A. (Geog.) plus Cert. Ed. 1 0.7
Specialist Cert. Ed. 1 0.7 in CO Cert. Ed . 12 •
Total 71 50.4
Without Preservice Teacher Preparation
B.S. (Agric. Sc.) 5 3.5
B.S. (Agrbus.) 1 0.7
Dip. Agric. 64 45.4
Total 70 49.6
Total (Both Groups) 141 100.0 65 began with the letter B, indicating that they held a bachelor's degree. There were seventy-seven teachers whose qualification was below the degree level. In total, there were 71 teachers with preservice teacher preparation and 70 teachers without preservice teacher preparation.
Teaching Experience
Teaching experience was measured in terms of years of teaching. As table 6 shows, the highest number of years of teaching for the subjects was 20 while the lowest number was one. The largest group of teachers fell within 5-8 years of service. This group represented 36.9 percent of all teachers in the study. The smallest group had seventeen teachers with thirteen or more years on the job. The mean number of years of teaching was 7.29.
Location of Teaching
Table 7 shows the numbers and percentages of teachers according to teaching location as well as the number of schools they represent. By a single location, the agricul tural institutes had the most number of teachers involved in the study. Out of 141 teachers, fifty-five (39.0, percent) were teaching at the agricultural institutes at the time of the study. There were fifty-two teachers from the academic schools. The number of teachers from the vocational schools 66
Table 6
Teaching Experience
Years of Teaching n Percent
-
1-4 41 29.0
5-8 52 36.9
9-12 31 22.0
13 or over 17 12.1
Total 141 100.0
M= 7.29
SD= 4.05
Range= 1-20 67 was 30. There were only four teachers from the technical schools.
Table 7
Location of Teaching
No
Location of Teaching Schools Teachers Percent
Academic schools 64 52 36.9
Technical schools 3 4 2.8
Vocational schools 3 30 21.3
Agricultural institutes 6 55 39.0
Total 76 141 100. 0
Teaching Specialty Areas
Teaching specialty areas were identified in terms of subjects taught. As table 8 shows, a majority (66.0 percent) of teachers had one specialty area in an agriculture-related subject. The areas ranged from general agriculture to more specialized areas, such as soil science and plant protec tion. Also, there were teachers who had one or more specialty areas in agriculture-related subjects plus one or more areas in nonagriculture-related subjects. However, their number was small, only seven out of 141 teachers (5.0 percent). 68
Table 8
Teaching Specialty Areas
Teaching Specialty Areas n Percent
One agriculture-related subject 93 66.0
Two agriculture-related subjects 23 16.3
Three agriculture-related subjects 18 12.7
One or more agriculture-related subjects plus one or more non agriculture-related subjects 7 5.0
Total 141 100.0
Inservice Courses Completed
Table 9 shows the numbers and percentages of teachers who had either completed or not completed inservice courses in the areas as listed. The table consistently shows a high number of noncompleters compared to completers. The area which had the most number of completers was teaching methods while the area with the least number of completers was classroom management.
Professional Knowledge Achievement
Table 10 shows the overall professional knowledge achievement of the subjects, as measured by percent of items correct in a 50-item, multiple-choice test. The percent of items correct was divided into four groups as derived from 69
Table 9
Inservice Courses Completed
Completers Noncompleters Total
Areas n % n % n %
Teaching Methods 58 41.1 83 58.9 141 100
Audiovisuals 49 34.8 92 65.2 141 100
Educational Philosophy 38 27.0 103 73.0 141 100
Educational Sociology 21 14.9 120 85.1 141 100
Testing and Evaluation 33 23.4 108 76.6 141 100
Principles of Teaching/Learning 37 26.2 104 73.8 141 100
Classroom Management 19 13.5 122 86.5 141 100
Adolescent Growth and Development 26 18.4 115 81.6 141 100 70 the distribution of raw scores (Appendix L). The percent of items correct ranged from 16 to 80. A majority (57.4 percent) of the subjects had percent of items correct between 55 and 74. Forty-eight teachers who represented 34 percent of all participating teachers had 35 to 54 percent of items correct. Seven teachers had 75 to 80 percent of items correct. The number of teachers whose percent of items correct fell within 16-34 was five. The mean percent of items correct for the subjects was 57.48. According to
Malaysian standards of grading where the minimum passing percent of items correct is 35, this percent is considered as a moderate level of achievement.
Table 10
Professional Knowledge Achievement
Percent of Items Correct n Percent
16-34 5 3.5
35-54 48 34.0
55-74 81 57.5
75-80 7 5.0
Total 141 100.0
M= 57.48 SD= 11.24 Range= 16-80 71
Comparison Between Professional Knowledge Achievement
and Background Characteristics
The second objective of the research was to compare professional knowledgement achievement of the subjects with their background characteristics. The professional knowledge
achievement was measured in terms of percent of items correct in a 50-item, multiple-choice test. The comparison was made in the following order: (a) professional knowledge achievement by race, (b) professional knowledge achievement by age, (c) professional knowledge achievement by gender,
(d) professional knowledge achievement by teaching experi ence, (e) professional knowledge achievement by teaching location, (f) professional knowledge achievement by teaching specialty areas, and (g) professional knowledge achievement by inservice courses completed.
Professional Knowledge Achievement By Race
Table 11 shows the results of a t-test on mean percent of items correct for Malay and nonMalay teachers. The mean percent of items correct for 108 Malay teachers was 56.70.
The mean percent of items correct for 33 nonMalay teachers was 60.0. The observed t value was -1.48. The observed probability was 0.14. The null hypothesis was therefore accepted at .05 level of significance. Thus, it appears likely that Malay and nonMalay teachers do not differ in professional knowledge achievement. 72
Table 11
Professional Knowledge Achievement bv Race
Race n Mean* SD t
Malays 108 56.70 11.08 -1.48 NonMalays 33 60.0 11.59
p>.05, two-tailed. *Mean percent of items correct
Professional Knowledge Achievement bv Aae
Table 12 shows the results of the analysis of variance
of the mean percent of items correct for five age groups of
the subjects. The F value was 0.43. The observed signifi
cance level was 0.79. The null hypothesis was therefore
accepted at .05 level of significance. Thus, it appears
likely that teachers of different age do not differ in
professional knowledge achievement.
Professional Knowledge Achievement bv Gender
Table 13 shows the results of a t-test on mean percent
of items correct for male and female teachers. The mean percent of items correct for 106 male teachers was 56.51.
The mean percent of items correct for 35 female teachers was
60.40. The t value was -1.79. The observed probability was
0.08. The null hypothesis was therefore accepted at .05
level of significance. Thus, it appears likely that both Table 12
Analysis of Variance of Professional Knowledge Achievement bv Age
Age Groups
24-27 28-31 32-35 36-39 40-48 n 36 41 42 16 6
Mean* 57.05 58.19 56.24 58.12 62.0
SD 13.60 9.79 11.42 9.25 10.35
Source SS df MS F P
Between Groups 221.47 4 55.37 .43 .79
Within Groups 17479.69 136 128.53
Total 17701.16 140
p>. 05
*Mean percent of items correct 74 male and female teachers do not differ in professional
knowledge achievement.
Table 13
Professional Knowledge Achievement bv Gender
Gender n Mean* SD t
Male 106 56. 51 11.81 -1.79 Female 35 60.40 8.84
p>.05, two-tailed. *Mean percent of items correct
Professional Knowledge Achievement bv Teaching Experience
Table 14 shows the results of the analysis of variance of mean percent of items correct for four durations of teaching experience. The F value was 0.42. The observed
significance level was 0.74. The null hypothesis was therefore accepted at .05 level of significance. Thus, it appears likely that teachers with different duration of teaching experience do not differ in professional knowledge achievement.
Professional Knowledge Achievement bv Teaching Location
Table 15 shows the results of the analysis of variance of mean percent of items correct by teaching location. The F value was 7.79. The observed significance level was less than .05. The null hypothesis was therefore rejected at .05 level of significance. Thus, it appeared unlikely that Table 14
Analysis of Variance of Professional Knowledge Achievement bv Teaching Experience
Teaching Experience in Years
1-4 5-8 9-12 13-20 n 41 52 31 17
Mean* 57.51 58.11 55.61 58.82
SD 12.14 10.25 11.93 11.18
Source SS df MS F P
Between Groups 159.79 3 53.26 .42 .74
Within Groups 17541.38 137 128.04
Total 17701.38 140
p>. 05
*Mean percent of items correct Table 15
Analysis of Variance of Professional Knowledge Achievement
bv Teaching Location
Academic Technical Vocational Agricultural School School School Institute n 52 4 30 55
Mean* 62.85ab 61.0 54.67a 53.67b
SD 8.58 2.58 14.58 10.08
Source SS df MS F p
Between Groups 2581.62 3 860.54 7.79 .0001
Within Groups 15119.54 137 110.36
Total 17701.16 140
Note. Means with the same superscripts differ significantly at p<.05.
*Mean percent of items correct 77 teachers from different teaching location did not differ in
professional knowledge achievement. The Tukey-HSD posthoc
analysis procedure revealed significant differences in mean
percent of items correct between academic school teachers
and vocational school teachers. The same analysis procedure
also revealed significant differences in mean percent of
items correct between academic school teachers and teachers
of the agricultural institutes. Academic school teachers had
significantly higher achievement in professional knowledge
than vocational school teachers or teachers of the agricul
tural institutes.
Professional Knowledge Achievement bv Teaching Specialty
Areas
Table 16 shows the results of the analysis of variance
of mean percent of items correct by teaching specialty
areas. The teaching specialty areas were identified by four groups of subjects taught. The F value was .81. The observed
significance level was .49. The null hypothesis was therefore accepted at .05 level of significance. Thus, it
appeared likely that teachers with different teaching
specialty areas did not differ in professional knowledge achievement.
Professional Knowledge Achievement bv Inservice Courses
Completed
Table 17 shows the results of a t-test on the mean percent of items correct for completers and noncompleters of Table 16
Analysis of Variance of Professional Knowledge Achievement bv Teaching Specialty Areas
Teaching Specialty Areas3
1 2 3 4 n 93 23 18 7
Mean* 58.24 55.91 54.55 60.0
SD 11.16 11.95 9.94 13.61
Source SS df MS F P
Between Groups 308.09 3 102.69 .81 .49
Within Groups 17393.07 137 126.96
Total 17701.16 140
p>. 05 a (1: one agriculture-related subject, 2: two agriculture- related subjects, 3: three agriculture-related subjects, 4: one or more agriculture-related subjects plus one or more nonagriculture-related subjects)
*Mean percent of items correct 79 Table 17
Professional Knowledge Achievement bv Inservice Courses
Completed
Teachers' Groups
Areas Completers Noncompleters
Teaching Methods n 58 83 - 1.20 M 58.83 56.53 SD 10.60 11.64 Audiovisuals n 49 92 .73 M 56.53 57.98 SD 11.25 11.27 Educational Philosophy n 38 103 -.84 M 58.79 56.99 SD 9.55 11.81 Educational Sociology
n 21 120 - 3.65 M 63.05 56.50 SD 6.62 11.62 Testing and Evaluation n 33 108 -1.77 M 60.48 56.55 SD 9.17 11.69 Principles of Teaching/ Learning n 37 104 -.36 M 58.05 57.27 SD 12.29 10.9 Classroom Management n 19 122 -3.4’ M 62.74 56.65 SD 6.29 11.63 Adolescent Growth and Development n 26 115 -1.62 M 60.69 56.75 SD 10.48 11.33
*p<.05, two-tailed. 80
inservice courses (by areas). The results of the t-test
clearly shows that the mean percent of items correct differs
significantly at p<.05 for inservice courses in educational
sociology and classroom management. The null hypothesis for
both courses was rejected at .05 level of significance,
indicating that the two groups of teachers had significant
difference in professional knowledge achievement. The
completers had significantly higher achievement in
professional knowledge than the noncompleters in the areas
of educational sociology and classroom management.
Meanwhile, the results of t-tests for other areas of
inservice courses showed no significant difference in mean percent of items correct for completers and noncompleters.
The null hypothesis was accepted at .05 level of signifi cance, indicating that completers and noncompleters did not differ in professional knowledge achievement in other areas of inservice courses.
Comparison Between Type of Teacher Qualification
and Background Characteristics
The third objective of the study was to compare type of teacher qualification and background characteristics. Type of teacher qualification was classified as "with preservice teacher preparation" and "without preservice teacher preparation." The comparisons were made in the following order: (a) type of teacher qualification by race (b) type of 81 teacher qualification by age, (c) type of teacher qualifi cation by gender, (d) type of teacher qualification by teaching experience, (e) type of teacher qualification by teaching location, (f) type of teacher qualification by teaching specialty areas, (g) type of teacher qualification by inservice courses completed.
Type of Teacher Qualification bv Race
Table 18 shows a crosstabulation between teacher qualification and race. Out of 108 Malay teachers, 45 (41.7 percent) had preservice teacher preparation and 63 (58.3 percent) did not have such preparation. Among nonMalay teachers, 26 (78.8 percent) had preservice teacher preparation and 7 (21.2 percent) did not have such preparation. The chi-square value of 12.49 was significant at p<.05. The null hypothesis of independence was therefore rejected at .05 level of significance, indicating that teacher qualification and race were unlikely to be independent. The phi coefficient was .31, showing that there was a moderate positive relationship between type of teacher qualification and race (Davis, 1971). Malay teachers tended to be associated with the group without preservice teacher preparation. Meanwhile, nonMalay teachers were , generally associated with preservice teacher preparation. 82
Table 18
Teacher Qualification bv Race
]Malays NonMalays Total Teacher Qualification n % n % n %
With preservice teacher preparation 45 41.7 26 78.8 71 50.4
Without preservice teacher preparation 63 58.3 7 21.2 70 49.6
Total 108 100.0 33 100.0 141 100.0
Chi-square= 12.49, p<. 05 Phi= .31
Type of Teacher Qualification bv Age
Table 19 shows a crosstabulation of type of teacher qualification by age. The age was divided into five groups.
The 28-32 age group had the roost number of teachers with preservice teacher preparation. The roost number of teachers without preservice teacher preparation fell within the 24-37 age group. All teachers with 40 or more years of age had preservice teacher preparation. The chi-square value of 9.38 was not significant at p<.05. The null hypothesis of independence was therefore accepted. It appeared likely that type of teacher of qualification and age were independent. 83
Table 19
Teacher Qualification bv Age l 13 36.1 23 56.1 21 50 8 50 6 100 71 50.4 2 23 63.9 18 43.9 21 50 8 50 0 0 70 49.6 Total 36 100 41 100 42 100 16 100 6 100 141 100 Chi-square= 9.38, p>.05 a (l: with preservice teacher preparation, 2: without pre service teacher preparation) Type of Teacher Qualification bv Gender Table 20 shows a crosstabulation of type of teacher qualification by gender. Out of 106 male teachers, 56 (52.8 percent) had preservice teacher preparation and 50 (47.2 percent) did not have such preparation. Among female teachers, 15 (42.9 percent) had preservice teacher preparation and 20 (57.1 percent) had no preservice teacher preparation. The chi-square value of 0.68 was not significant at p<.05. The null hypothesis was therefore accepted. Type of teacher qualification and gender were likely to be independent. 84 Table 20 Teacher Qualification bv Gender Male Female Total Teacher Qualification n % n % n % With preservice teacher preparation 56 52.8 15 42.9 71 50.4 Without preservice teacher preparation 50 47.2 20 57.1 70 49.6 Total 106 100.0 35 100.0 141 100.0 Chi-square= 0.68, p>.05 • TvDe of Teacher Qualification bv Teaching Experience Table 21 shows the results of a t--test on mean number of years of teaching by teacher qualification . The mean number of years of teaching for 71 teachers with preservice teacher preparation was 7.49. The mean number of years of teaching for 70 teachers without preservice teacher preparation was 7.10. The t value of 0.57 was not signifi cant at p<.05. The null hypothesis of no difference was therefore accepted. It appeared iikely that teachers with and without preservice teacher preparation did not differ in mean number of years of teaching. 85 Table 21 Teacher Qualification bv Teaching Experience Teacher Qualification n M* SD t With preservice teacher preparation 71 7.49 4.24 .57 Without preservice teacher preparation 70 7.10 3.86 p>.05, two-tailed. *Mean number of years of teaching Type of Teacher Qualification bv Teaching Location Table 22 shows a crosstabulation of type of teacher qualification by teaching location. The most number of teachers with preservice teacher preparation were found in academic schools. Out of 52 teachers in the academic schools, 48 (92.3 percent) had preservice teacher prepara tion. The most number of teachers without preservice teacher preparation were found in the agricultural institutes. In fact, all teachers of the agricultural institutes had no preservice teacher preparation. In contrast, all teachers of the technical schools had preservice teacher preparation. The chi-square value of 98.3 6 was significant at p<.05. The null hypothesis was therefore rejected, indicating that type of teacher qualification and teaching location were unlikely to be independent. 86 The Cramer's V was .84, showing that there was very strong positive association between type of teacher qualification and teaching location '(Davis, 1971). Teachers with preservice teacher preparation were strongly associated with academic schools, technical schools and vocational schools. Teachers without preservice teacher preparation were strongly associated with the agricultural institutes. Table 22 Teacher Qualification bv Teaching Location Teaching Location*3 Teacher 1 2 3 4 Total Qualification3 n % n % n % n % n % X 48 92.3 4 100 19 63.3 0 0 71 50.4 Y 4 7.7 0 0 11 36.7 55 100 70 49.6 Total 52 100 4 100 30 100 55 100 141 100 Chi-square= 98. 36, p<. 05 • a (X: with preservice teacher preparation, Y: without pre service teacher preparation) k(l: academic schools, 2: technical schools, 3: vocational schools, 4: agricultural institutes) Type of Teacher Qualification bv Teaching Specialty Areas Table 23 shows a crosstabulation of type of teacher qualification by teaching specialty areas. Within the group of teachers with a specialty area in one agriculture-related 87 Table 23 Teacher Qualification bv Teaching Specialty Areas Teaching Specialty Areasb 1 2 3 4 Total Groups3 n % n % n % n % n % X 62 66.7 1 4.3 4 22.2 4 57.1 71 50.4 Y 31 33.3 22 95.7 14 77.8 3 42.9 70 49.6 Total 93 100 23 100 18 100 7 100 141 100 Chi-square= 35.20, p<.05. Cramer's V= 0.49 a (X: with preservice teacher preparation, Y: without pre service teacher preparation) b (l: one agriculture-related subject, 2: two agriculture- related subjects, 3: three agriculture-related subjects, 4: one or more agriculture-related subjects plus one or more nonagriculture-related subjects) 88 subject, 62 (66.7 percent) had preservice teacher prepara tion and 31 (33.7 percent) did not have such preparation. However, within other groups of teaching specialty areas, with the exception of the fourth group, teachers without preservice teacher preparation seemed to outnumber those teachers with preservice teacher preparation. The chi-square value of 35.20 was significant at p<.05. The null hypothesis was therefore rejected, indicating that type of teacher qualification and teaching specialty areas were unlikely to be independent. The value of Cramer's V was 0.49, showing that there was a moderate positive association between type of teacher qualification and teaching specialty areas (Davis, 1971). Teachers with preservice teacher preparation were moderately associated with a specialty area in one agriculture-related subject whereas teachers without preservice teacher preparation were associated with a specialty area in two or three agriculture-related subjects. Type of Teacher Qualification by Inservice Courses Completed Table 24 shows the results of the chi-square test on type of teacher qualification by inservice courses completed (by areas). The null hypothesis of independence was rejected at .05 level of significance only in the area of audio visuals. Type of teacher qualification and inservice course in audiovisuals were unlikely to be independent. The phi coefficient was 0.19, indicating that there was a low but significant and positive relationship between type of 89 Table 24 Teacher Qualification by Inservice Courses Completed Completers3 Noncompletersk Areas 1 2 1 2 Chi-square Teaching Methods n 28 30 43 40 0.06 % 48.3 51.7 51.8 48.2 Audiovisuals n 18 31 53 39 4.77* % 36.7 63.3 57.6 42.4 Educational Philosophy n 16 22 55 48 1.0 % 42.1 57.9 53.4 46.6 Educational Sociology n 13 8 58 62 0.83 % 61.9 38.1 48.3 51.7 Testing and Evaluation n 18 15 53 55 0.12 % 54.5 45.5 49.1 50.9 Principles of Teaching/Learningf n 14 23 57 47 2.50 % 37.8 62.2 54.8 45.2 Classroom Management n 11 8 60 62 0.21 % 57.9 42.1 49.2 50.8 Adolescent Growtht and Development n 14 12 57 58 0.03 % 53.8 46.2 49.6 50.4 *p<.05, phi= 0.19. a (l: with preservice teacher preparation, 2: without pre service teacher preparation) k(l: with preservice teacher preparation, 2: without pre service teacher preparation) 90 teacher qualification and inservice course in audiovisuals (Davis, 1971). The null hypothesis was accepted in other areas of inservice courses, showing that type of teacher qualification and other areas of inservice courses were likely to be independent. Comparison of Professional Knowledge Achievement With Type of Teacher Qualification The fourth and primary objective of the study was to compare professional knowledge achievement of teachers with and without preservice teacher preparation. Table 25 shows the results of a t-test on mean percent of items correct for the two groups of teachers. The mean percent of items correct for 71 teachers with preservice teacher preparation was 60.79. Meanwhile, the mean percent of items correct for 70 teachers without preservice teacher preparation was 54.11. The t value of 3.68 was significant at p<.05. The null hypothesis was therefore rejected, indicating that the mean percent of items correct for the two groups of teachers were unlikely to be the same. Teachers with preservice teacher preparation had significantly higher professional knowledge achievement than their counterparts who did not have such preparation. 91 Table 25 Professional Knowledae Achievement bv Tvoe of Teacher Qualification Teacher Qualification n Mean3 SD t With preservice teacher preparation 71 60.79 10.79 3.68* Without preservice teacher preparation 70 54.11 10.74 *p<.05, two-tailed. aMean percent of items correct Summary A typical teacher of agricultural science at the upper- secondary level of instruction was described as: a Malay, 31 years of age, male, having preservice teacher preparation, having seven years of teaching experience, teaching in the academic school, noncompleter of inservice courses, having moderate competence in professional knowledge. The findings with regard to the comparison between the dependent variable and the major independent variable, showed that teachers with preservice teacher preparation had significantly higher professional knowledge achievement than teachers without preservice teacher preparation. When the dependent variable was compared with the extraneous variables as shown in Table 26, significant differences were found for teaching location, inservice courses in edu cational sociology and classroom management. The results of the comparison between the major independent variable and the extraneous variables as summarized in Table 27, showed significant relationship between the former and race, teaching location, teaching specialty areas, and inservice course in audiovisuals. 93 Table 26 Summary of Relationship Between Extraneous Variables and Professional Knowledge Achievement Extraneous Test Level of Variables n Ma Statistics Significance Race Malay 108 56.70 t p>.05 NonMalay 33 60.00 Age 24-27 36 57.05 28-31 41 58.19 32-35 42 56.24 F p>.05 36-39 16 58.12 40-48 6 62.00 Gender Male 106 56.51 t p > .05 Female 35 60.40 Teaching Experience 1-4 41 57.51 5-8 52 58.11 F p>.05 9-12 31 55.61 13-20 17 58.82 Teaching Location Academic school 52 62.85 Technical school 4 61.00 F p<.05 Vocational school 30 54.67 Agricultural institute 55 53.67 Teaching Specialty Areas*3 1 93 58.24 2 23 55.91 F p>.05 3 18 54.55 4 7 60.00 94 Table 26 (continued) Inservice Courses Completed Teaching Methods Completers 58 58.83 t p>.05 Noncompleters 83 56.53 Audiovisuals Completers 49 56.53 t p>.05 Noncompleters 92 57.98 Educational Philosophy Completers 38 58.79 t p>.05 Noncompleters 103 56.99 Educational Sociology Completers 21 63.05 t p<.05 Noncompleters 120 56.50 Test and Evaluation Completers 33 60.48 t p>.05 Noncompleters 108 56.55 Principles of Teaching/Learning Completers 37 58.05 t p>.05 Noncompleters 104 57.27 Classroom Management Completers 19 62.74 t p<.05 Noncompleters 122 56.65 Adolescent Development Completers 26 60.69 t p>.05 Noncompleters 115 56.75 aMean percent of items correct b(l: academic school, 2: technical school, 3: vocational school, 4: agricultural institute) 95 Table 27 Summary of Relationship Between Extraneous Variables and Type of Teacher Qualification Qualification Type3 Extraneous 1 2 Test Level of Variables n %b n %b Stats. Sig. Race Malay 45 63 63 90 chi-sq. p<.05 NonMalay 26 37 7 10 Age 24-27 13 18 23 33 28-32 23 32 18 26 32-35 21 30 21 30 chi-sq. p > .05 36-39 8 11 8 11 40-48 6 9 -- Gender Male 56 79 50 71 chi-sq. p>.05 Female 15 21 20 29 Teaching Experience0 71 7.49 70 7.1( p>. 05 Teaching Location Academic school 48 68 4 6 Technical school 4 5 Vocational chi-sq. p<.05 school 19 27 11 16 Agricultural institute - - 55 78 Teaching Specialty Areasd 1 62 87 31 44 2 1 1 22 32 chi-sq. p<.05 3 4 6 14 20 4 4 6 3 4 Table 27 (continued) Inservice Courses Completed Teaching Methods Completers 28 39 30 43 chi-sq. p>. 05 Noncompleters 43 61 40 57 Audiovisuals Completers 18 25 53 44 chi-sq. p < . 05 Noncompleters 53 75 39 56 Educational Philosophy Completers 16 22 22 31 chi-sq. p > . 05 Noncompleters 55 78 48 69 Educational Sociology Completers 13 18 8 11 chi-sq. p>. 05 Noncompleters 58 82 62 89 Test and Evaluation Completers 18 25 15 21 chi-sq. p> . 05 Noncompleters 53 75 55 79 Principles of Teaching/Learning Completers 14 20 23 33 chi-sq. p>. 05 Noncompleters 57 80 47 67 Classroom Management Completers 11 15 8 11 chi-sq. p>. 05 Noncompleters 60 85 62 89 Adolescent Development Completers 14 20 12 17 chi-sq. p>. 05 Noncompleters 57 80 58 83 a (l: with preservice teacher preparation; 2; without pre service teacher preparation) ^percentages of respondents in' each category of the extra neous variables by type of teacher qualification cNumbers in the column labeled are mean number of years of teaching experience d (l: academic school, 2: technical school, 3: vocational school, 4: agricultural institute) CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter presents the summary, conclusions, impli cations, and recommendations derived from the findings of the research. Summary Problem The agriculture-teaching profession in Malaysia is currently populated with two groups of teachers; one group has preservice teacher preparation whereas the other group does not have such preparation. Meanwhile, educators have contended that there is a uniform body of professional knowledge which prospective teachers need to acquire before being admitted into the teaching profession. Do teachers with preservice teacher preparation differ significantly in professional knowledge competence with their counterparts who do not have preservice teacher preparation? The present study addressed this question by comparing the professional knowledge competence of the two groups of teachers. The professional knowledge competence was measured by a profes sional knowledge competency test. 97 Purpose and Objectives The purpose of the study was to compare agricultural teachers with and without preservice teacher preparation. The objectives of the study were: 1. to describe the agricultural teachers on the follow ing characteristics: race, age, gender, teacher qua lification, teaching experience, teaching location, teaching specialty areas, inservice courses com pleted, and professional knowledge achievement. 2. to compare the professional knowledge achievement of teachers with the following independent Variables: race, age, gender, teaching experience, teaching location, teaching specialty areas, and inservice courses completed. 3. to compare teachers with and without preservice teacher preparation on the following independent variables: race, age, gender, teaching experience, teaching location, teaching specialty areas, and inservice courses completed. 4. to compare the professional knowledge achievement of teachers with and without preservice teacher prepa ration. Hypotheses The following major hypothesis was tested: Teachers with preservice teacher preparation have significantly higher professional knowledge competence 99 than those without preservice teacher preparation. The "control" hypotheses were stated as follows: 1. Teachers of different races differ significantly in professional knowledge competence. 2. Teachers of different ages differ significantly in professional knowledge competence. 3. Teachers of different gender differ significantly in professional knowledge competence. 4. Teachers with different duration of teaching expe rience differ significantly in professional know ledge competence. 5. Teachers from different teaching location differ significantly in professional knowledge competence 6. Teachers with different teaching specialty areas differ significantly in professional knowledge competence. 7. Teachers who have completed inservice courses (by areas) differ significantly in professional know ledge competence with those who have not done so. 8. There is a significant relationship between type of teacher qualification and race. 9. There is a significant relationship between type of teacher qualification and age. 10. There is a significant relationship between type of teacher qualification and gender. 100 11. There is a significant relationship between type of teacher qualification and teaching experience. 12. There is a significant relationship between type of teacher qualification and teaching location. 13. There is a significant relationship between type of teacher qualification and teaching specialty areas. 14. There is a significant relationship between type of teacher qualification and inservice courses com pleted. Procedures The research was designed to be an ex post facto type of research, utilizing the static-group comparison design. Types of teacher qualification, with and without preservice teacher preparation, were the naturally occurring events. The dependent variable, professional knowledge competence, was measured by a 50-item, multiple-choice test. The independent variables (race, age, gender, teacher qualifica tion, teaching experience, teaching location, teaching specialty areas, and inservice courses completed) were identified by a questionnaire. Both intruments were reviewed for content validity and accuracy by dissertation committee members and a panel of Malaysian experts. The KR20 value for the test was 0.67 with a standard error of measurement of 3.13. The target population was teachers who taught agri cultural science at the upper-secondary level of instruction 101 at the time of the study. There were 143 teachers available for the study. However, 141 teachers were accessible at the time when the study was conducted. The target population were identified through a current listing provided by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia. Data analysis was performed for three purposes. The first purpose was to describe the teachers on each independent and dependent variables. The description of the independent variables was made in terms of frequencies, percentages, and means. The dependent variable was described in terms of percent of items correct, frequencies, percentages, and means. The second purpose was to compare the dependent variable with each independent variables by means of test statistics. The mean percent of items correct for each independent variable was compared statistically by means of a t-test and one-way analysis of variance at a predetermined .05 level of significance. The third purpose was to compare teachers with and without preservice teacher preparation on knowledge com petence and the remaining independent variables. The comparison was made by means of chi-square and t statistics at a predetermined .05 level of significance. All data analysis procedures were performed by means of a software program, SPPSSPC+ which was available at the 102 Department of Agricultural Education, The Ohio State University. Findings The findings showed that a typical teacher of agricultural science at the upper-secondary level of instruction could be described as: a Malay, 31 years of age, male, having preservice teacher preparation, having seven years of teaching experience, teaching in the academic school, noncompleter of inservice courses, having moderate competence in professional knowledge. The results of the comparison of dependent variable with independent variables showed significant differences in professional knowledge competence among teachers of different teaching qualifications, teaching locations, and inservice courses in educational sociology and classroom management. Teachers with preservice teacher preparation had significantly higher professional knowledge competence than those without such preparation. Academic school teachers had significantly higher professional knowledge competence than teachers of the vocational schools or the agricultural institutes. Teachers who had completed inservice courses in educational sociology and classroom management had significantly higher professional knowledge competence than those who did not complete such courses. The results of the comparison of type of teacher 103 qualification with other independent variables showed sig nificant relationship between the former and race, teaching location, teaching specialty areas, and inservice course in audiovisuals. Teachers with preservice teacher preparation tended to be associated with the following characteristics: nonMalays, academic schools, teaching specialty area in one agriculture-related subject, noncompleters of inservice course in audiovisuals. Teachers without preservice teacher preparation tended be associated with the following characteristics: Malays, agricultural institutes, teaching specialty area in two or more agriculture-related subjects, completers of inservice course in audiovisuals. Conclusions and Implications The following conclusions and implications are derived from the research findings. These conclusions and implica tions are applicable only to the subjects of the study. Conclusion 1 . Teachers of different race, age, gender, teaching experience, teaching specialty areas, and inservice courses completed (except in the areas of educational sociology and classroom management), were not significantly different in terms of their professional knowledge compe tence as measured by their achievement in a 50-item, multiple-choice test. Implication 1. Teachers of different race, age, gender, teaching experience, teaching specialty areas and inservice 104 courses completed (except in the areas of educational sociology and classroom management) were likely to have the same competence in professional knowledge. This implies that the professional knowledge competence of teachers who participated in the study, should not be distinguished on the basis of any of the independent variables stated above. It could be further implied that the independent variables stated above are not critical for assessing the professional knowledge competence of the subjects of the study. Since these independent variables were not significant, they did not pose threats to the internal validity of the major hypothesis of significant difference in professional know ledge comptence of teachers with and without preservice teacher preparation. Conclusion 2. Teachers who taught agricultural science at the academic schools had higher professional knowledge competence than their counterparts who taught agricultural science at the vocational schools or the agricultural institutes. Implication 2 . In the present study, the professional know ledge competence of teachers appears to be differentiated by the location of teaching. Academic school teachers had significantly higher knowledge competence than those teachers at the vocational schools or the agricultural institutes. Since teaching location also had significant relationship with type of teacher qualification, it could 105 pose a serious threat to the internal validity of the major hypothesis (Warmbrod & Miller, 1974). However, academic school teachers were strongly associated with those teachers who had preservice teacher preparation. Hence, there is a possibility that the differences in knowledge competence with respect to teaching location, is tied to type of teacher qualification. This implies that high knowledge competence of teachers who participated in the study is linked to teachers with preservice teacher preparation. Conclusion 3. Teachers who completed inservice courses in the areas of educational sociology and classroom management significantly differed in terms of professional knowledge competence. The former had higher professional knowledge competence than the latter. Implication 3. The professional knowledge competence of teachers appears to be differentiated by whether or not they have completed inservice courses in the areas of educational sociology and classroom management. However, the teachers who completed both courses tended to have the characteristic that linked with preservice teacher preparation. This implies that teachers with preservice teacher preparation had higher professional knowledge competence than those teachers without such preparation. Hence, the completion of inservice courses in the areas of educational sociology and classroom management did not pose threats to the major hypothesis of the study. Conclusion 4. Teachers of different age, gender, teaching experience, and inservice courses completed (except in the area of audiovisuals), were not significantly associated with type of teacher qualification. Implication 4. Teachers with or without preservice teacher preparation were not significantly associated with any of the following independent variables: age, gender, teaching experience, inservice courses completed (except in the area of audiovisuals). However, the levels of these independent variables that characterized teachers with preservice teacher preparation also tended to be the levels that accompanied high knowledge competence. Hence, it could be implied that in addition to being nonthreatening, these independent variables were, in effect, supporting the major hypothesis. Conclusion 5. Teacher's race was moderately associated with type of teacher qualification. Malay teachers tended to be associated with those teachers without preservice teacher preparation. NonMalay teachers were generally associated with those teachers who had preservice'teacher preparation. Implication 5. Since nonMalay teachers tended to have the characteristic that accompanied high professional knowledge competence, it could be implied that teachers with preservice teacher preparation had higher professional knowledge competence than those without such preparation. 107 Conclusion 6. Teaching location was strongly associated with type of teacher qualification. Teachers with preservice teacher preparation were strongly associated with academic schools, technical schools and vocational schools whereas teachers without such preparation were strongly associated with the agricultural institutes. Implication 6. Since academic school teachers had signifi cantly higher professional knowledge competence than teachers in the vocational schools or the agricultural institutes, it could be implied that teachers with preservice teacher preparation had higher professional knowledge competence than those without such preparation. Conclusion 7 . Teaching specialty areas were moderately asso ciated with type of teacher preparation. Teachers with preservice teacher preparation was associated with one agriculture-related subject or one or more agriculture- related subjects plus one or more nonagriculture-related subjects. Teachers without preservice teacher preparation were associated with two or three agriculture-related subjects. Implication 7. Since teachers who taught one agriculture- related subject or one or more agriculture-related subjects plus one or more nonagriculture-related subjects tended to have the characteristic ' that accompanied high knowledge competence, it could be implied that teachers with 108 preservice teacher preparation had higher knowledge competence than those without such preparation. Conclusion 8. There was a low but significant association between the completion of an inservice course in audio visuals and type of teacher qualification. Teachers who had completed an inservice course in audiovisuals were those teachers without preservice teacher preparation whereas teachers who did not complete such a course were those with preservice teacher preparation. Implication 8. Since teachers who did not complete an in- service course in audiovisuals tended to have percent of items correct that characterized high knowledge competence, it could be implied that teachers with preservice teacher preparation had higher knowledge competence than those without such preparation. Conclusion 9. Teachers with preservice teacher preparation had significantly higher knowledge competence than those without such preparation. Since other independent variables did not pose threats to the internal validity of the major hypothesis, this conclusion was therefore supported. Implication 9. The findings of the present research were consistent with the findings of other research of the same nature (E. A. Moore, 1974; G. E. Moore, 1975; Feck, 1971; Bledsoe, Cox, & Burn, 1967) . The findings of other research indicated that teachers with preservice teacher preparation had better professional competence than those without such 109 preparation. High professional competence seemed to charac terize teachers with preservice teacher preparation. The findings of the present research provide an additional evidence which support the contention that teachers with preservice teacher preparation have higher professional competence than teachers without such preparation. Together, the findings of the present research and the findings of other research of the same nature form a knowledge base for teacher qualification type being the plausible explanation for the variation of teacher competence. Recommendations 1. The findings of the research indicated that high know ledge competence could be explained by preservice teacher preparation. It is therefore highly recommended that pre- service teacher qualification be a critical criterion in determining and assessing the difference in knowledge competence of teachers. It is further recommended that all prospective teachers be required to possess a preservice teacher qualification before they can be considered for a teaching job in agriculture. 2. The findings of the research indicated that profes sional knowledge competence of teachers could be distin guished by means of testing. Hence, it is highly recommended that testing be used as a measure of knowledge competence for the purpose of selecting and screening teachers. In 110 achieving this purpose, it is also recommended that the test be further refined for its validity, reliability, and accuracy. 3. Testing is one of several means for measuring profes sional knowledge competence of teachers. It is therefore highly recommended that the results of the test be compared and correlated with other assessment strategies such as observation, ratings by peers, school principals, super visors, and students. 4. The research compared the knowledge competence of teachers at the upper-secondary level of instruction. It is recommended that further study be carried out for comparing professional knowledge competence of teachers at the lower- secondary level. It is further recommended that the pro fessional knowledge competence of teachers at both levels be compared and correlated. 5. The research compared the professional knowledge competence of agricultural teachers in Peninsular Malaysia. It is recommended that further study be carried out for comparing the professional knowledge competence of teachers in East Malaysia. It is further recommended that the professional knowledge competence of teachers in both regions be compared and correlated. Ill Need for Further Research Considering the fact that the present research is exploratory in nature, further research is certainly needed for identifying and testing the significant relationship of independent variables particularly, teacher's socioeconomic background, marital status, academic achievement, grade level, region and setting (formal and nonformal) with professional knowledge achievement. APPENDIX A AIMS OF TEACHER EDUCATION .IN MALAYSIA 112 113 AIMS OF TEACHER EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA 1. To enable prospective teachers to have an understand ing of the basis of education— philosophical, social, psychological, spiritual, etc. (Theory of education). 2. To enable prospective teachers to have knowledge of the theories of learning in relation to child development (Learning process and child development). 3. To enable prospective teachers to gain sufficient knowledge to teach one of more subjects (Content). 4. To enable prospective teachers to have a thorough grasp of teaching methods to convey knowledge effectively to pupils (Teaching methods). 5. To enable prospective teachers to make satisfactory use of teaching aids and facilities (Teaching aids and techniques). 6. To enable prospective teachers to evaluate student performance and achievement as well as the effectiveness of teaching methods used (Evaluation). 7. To enable prospective teachers to organize and imple ment programs for extracurricular activity and to under stand and apply the administrative rules and regulations operating in schools (School administration). Note. Adapted from The changing pattern of teacher education in Malaysia (p. 90) by F. H. K. Wong and P. M. P. Chang, 1975, Kuala Lumpur: Heinemann Educational Books (Asia) Ltd. APPENDIX B REVIEWERS FOR CONTENT VALIDITY OF THE INSTRUMENTS 114 REVIEWERS FOR CONTENT VALIDITY OF THE INSTRUMENTS The Ohio State University R. K. Barrick Professor Department of Agricultural Education The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio J. D. McCracken Professor Department of Agricultural Education The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio L. E. Miller Professor Department of Agricultural Education The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio Malaysia Mr. Aziz Zakaria Head and lecturer Department of Education Faculty of Educational Studies University of Agriculture Serdang, Selangor Malaysia Dr. Azizah Abdul Rahman Lecturer Department of Education Faculty of Educational Studies University of Agriculture Serdang, Selangor Malaysia Mr. Zakaria Kasa Lecturer Department of Education Faculty of Educational Studies University of Agriculture Serdang, Selangor Malaysia Mr. Joseph Low Eng Guan Federal inspector of school Federal Inspectorate Ministry of Education, Malaysia Mr. Zulkefly Abd. Maulud Education officer Division of Technical and Vocational Education Ministry of Education, Malaysia Mr. Tsen Keng Pin Education officer Division of Technical and Vocational Education Ministry of Education, Malaysia Mrs. Nyiam Kiau Education officer Division of Technical and Vocational Education Ministry of Education, Malaysia APPENDIX C APPROVAL LETTER FROM EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND RESEARCH DIVISION MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, MALAYSIA 117 118 I 0A>"G1 All PEGA'-'CANGAU DAN W H l Pi.MUIjli.All I'/Ml! I'I/All, J KEMi'M [ RI All PEtlOILMk/N, /-J ) PAR AS {. i 0 AN 5, l-’JK J, Telefon: 2556900 '(-"•I P d M iA:l A'. PW'AIIV.nA, * Ol'OfM f.I.'AI.A 1 L'HPUR. Kawat : "PENDIOIKAN" Huj. Tuan: Rdj. Kami: KP(BPPPj 13/15/J11. 32U£ ) Encik Hohd. Ibrahim Nazri, Tarlkh : 65, Jalan Raja, j hb< April, 1988 Kampung Manjol, 30020 Ipoh, Perak. 7uan/’f>(/8W, Kebenaran Bagi Menjalankan Kajian ke Sekolah-Sekalah Adalah saya diarah untu!: memaklumkan bahawa permohonan tuan/pnan untuk menjalankan kajian ncngenai "Pencapaian Curu-Curu Sains Pertanian Yang Berkclayakan Dan Tanpa I lyakat: Pc.iJl.llR.iii G_ru ieutiun Miicimat lencang Pengctahuan Mereka Da lam Kecekapan Profesional Perguruan D1 Semenanjung Malaysia", telah diluluskan. 2. Kelulusan ini adalah berdasarkan kepada hanya ana yann terkandung di dalam cadangan ponyelidikan yang tuan/puan kemukakan ke Bahagian ini. Kebenaran bani menggunakan sampel Jtaj.ian jje,rlu dip erole hi d a r ipada Ketua Uaiiagian/Penqarafi f e n d id iknn Negeri yang berkenaan." ... . 3. Tuan/Puan juoa dikehrndaki memjhantar senaskah hosil kajian tuan/puan ke Bahagian ini sebaik sahaja selesai kelak. Sek ian. ' BLRKHIDMAT UNTUK NEGARA ' Saya yang menurut perintah. (* K. JECADEdA ) b.p.Penqarah Perancangan dan Pcnyelidikan pendidikan b.p. Pendaftar Besar Sekolah-3 (ENGLISH TRANSLATION) Educational Planning and Research Division Ministry of Education, Malaysia Level 2, 3 and 5 Pusat Bandar Damansara 50604 Kuala Lumpur Our Ref.: KP(BPPP)13/15/Jil.32(25) Date: 7th April, 1988 Mr. Mohd. Ibrahim Nazri 65 Jalan Raja Kampung Manjoi 30020 Ipoh Perak Re: Approval for Conducting Research in Schools Please be informed that your application for conducting a research entitled, ''Professional Knowledge Competency Achievement of Agricultural Teachers With and Without Preservice Teacher Pre paration in Peninsular Malaysia" has been approved. This approval is applicable only within the limit of the research proposal being submitted to us. The approval with regard to the samples of your study should be obtained from the concerned Head of Division/State Director of Education. You are requested to submit a copy of your disserta tion to this division upon the completion of your work. Signed K. Jegadeva for the Director of Educational Planning and Research Division Ministry of Education APPENDIX D APPROVAL LETTER FROM TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION DIVISION MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, MALAYSIA 120 121 BAHAGIAN PENDIDIKAN TEKNIK & VOKASIONAL KEMENTERIAN PENDIDIKAN MALAYSIA, PARAS 3, BLOK 'J\ PUSAT BANDAR DAMANSARA, Ttlefoni 2558653/2558655/2558657 50604 KUALA LUMPUR. KMtl "PENOIOIXAN" ftjj. Tuani fcij. Kanii KP(PTV)002/ll/Jld.l2 (50) TiibhQ/hb.Synabnn. 1400 En.Mohd.Ibrahim Nazri /yhb .April, 1988 507 Montgomery Ct. Coluirbus, Chio 43210, U.S.A. Tuan Permohonan Untuk Nendapatkan Kebenaran Berterru dengan Guru-Curu Sekolah Vokasional Pertanian Dan Pegawai- Pegawai Bahagian Pendidikan Teknik Dan Vokasional (Unit Pertanian) baoi Tuluan Penvelidikan Hazah Ph.D. Saya adalah diarah untuk menarik perhatlan tuan kepada perkara diatas bahawa Bahagian Pendidikan Teknik dan Vokasional tidak mempunyai apa-apa halongan untuk plhak tuan membuat kajian tersebut. 2. Sila bcrhubung dengan Unit Pertanian untuk menetapkan tarikh tenubual yang dimaksudkan. Sekian, terima kasih. •BERKHIDMAT UNTUK NEGARA' •CINTAILAH BAHASA KITA' Saya yang menurut perintah, ABD.HAULUD) b.p. Pengarah, Bahagian Pendidikan Teknik & Vokasional, Kementerian Pendidikan. ZAM/zy APPROVAL LETTER (ENGLISH TRANSLATION) Technical and Vocational Education Division Ministry of Education, Malaysia Level 3, Block J Pusat Bandar Damansara 50604 Kuala Lumpur Our Ref.: KP(PTV)002/11/Jld.12(50) Date: 14th April, 1988 Mr. Mohd. Ibrahim Nazri 507 Montgomery Ct. Columbus, Ohio 43210 U.S.A. Sir, Re: Request for Permission to Hold Meetings With Education Officers and Teachers Concerning PhD Research With reference to the above matter, the division gives you permission to conduct a research in our schools. Please contact the Agricultural Unit for scheduling the meeting. Thank you. Signed Zulkefly bin Abd. Maulud for the Director, the Division of Technical and Vocational Education, Ministry of Education, Malaysia APPENDIX E APPROVAL LETTER FROM TRAINING AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT BRANCH DIVISION OF AGRICULTURE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, MALAYSIA 123 KEMENTERIAN PERTANIAN MALAYSIA (BAHAGIAN PERTANIAN). CAWANGAN LATIHAN & KEMAJUAN KERJAYA. TINGKAT j-7, WISMA TANI. JALAN MAHAMERU. Itlefim: K L 2W2H11 5U632 KUALA LUMPUR Telrgram “aghicola" Ruj. Tutm: Hut K antt G. 10.97.03(92) T'i'iUi: is januari 1988 Mohd. Ibrahim Nazri 507 Montgomery Ct. CuiuiiiLiut, C.iio 4 3 2 1 0 - 1u25 O.S.h M e l a l u i : Dekan Fakulti Pengajian Pendidikan Universiti Pertanian Malaysia HK'J'.t: P C t r <■"" "•••••».*( 032,00 Sa.Vanq um. r:— ■. » V 3 :A SELANCO.l Tuan, Permohorian Untuk Menjalankan Penyelidikan di Institut-Institut Pertanian Malaysia .Adalah saya diarah merujuk kepada sura; cuan oertarikn iO Nova:rjer 1987. Mengenai perkara di atas, sukacita dimaklumkan banawa pi'hal: :ar;i ber setuj u memberi kebenaran untuk menjalan kan penyelidi.'-?n i».iy ui.,iaksudkan. 2. Bagi tujuan tersebut, adalah dimaklumkan bahawa di enam buah Institut Pertanian kami, terdapat sejumlah 68 orang pensyarah dan 29 orang Juruteknik Pertanian. 3. Sehubungan dengan penyelidikan itu juga pihak kami ingin mendapat satu salinan laporan kajian, untuk dijadikan bahan rujukan di dalam urusan pentadbiran cawangan ini. Sekian, terima kasih. "BERKHIOMAT I.INTI.IK NEfiAPA" Saya yang menurut perintah, (KM fitmiAmN ALIAS) P e tK p r'ah Latihan S Kemajuan Kerjaya b/p Ketua Pengarah Pertanian Ma l a y s i a APPROVAL LETTER (ENGLISH TRANSLATION) Training and Career Development Branch Division of Agriculture Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia Level 5-7, Wisma Tani Jalan Mahameru 50632 Kuala Lumpur Our Ref.: G.10.97.03(92) Date: 18th January, 1988 Mohd. Ibrahim Nazri 507 Montgomery Ct. Columbus, Ohio 43210-1025 U.S.A. Through: Dean Faculty of Educational Studies The University of Agriculture 43400 Serdang Selangor Sir, Re: Application for Conducting Research in the Agricultural Institutes of Malaysia With reference to your letter dated 27th November, 1987 concerning the above matter, we are pleased to give you permission to conduct a research in our agricultural institutes. For your information, currently, there are 68 lecturers and 29 technicians serving the six institutes of ours. 126 Upon the completion of the research, we would like to have a copy of the final report for administrative purposes. Thank you. Signed Kamaruzaman Alias Director of Training and Career Development for the General Director of Agriculture, Malaysia APPENDIX F LETTER TO TEACHERS AND THEIR PRINCIPALS 127 FWHkl ftapjka tadM ftn UMVERSITI PERTANIAN MALAYSIA SmUfli, S«lan|ar, Mtliyiia. 16 April. 1988 Guru/Pensyarah sains pertanian di Sak. Man. Akadeaik/Sek. Man. Taknik/ Sak. Man. Vokaslonal/Instltut Partanian Seaenanjung Malaysia Tuan/Puan, Kajian untuk Ijazah PhD bartajuk. "Professional Knowledge Competency Achievement of Agricultural Taachars With and Without Prasarvica Taachar Preparation in Peninsular Malaysia" Merujuk kapada perkara di atas, dengan horaatnya saya aeaohon kerjasaaa tuan/puan untuk aengaabil bahagian di dalaa ujian pengetahuan profasional parguruan. Ojlan ini dljalankan sabagal aeaenuhl kaparluan untuk ijazah PhD di The Ohio State Dnivarsity, Columbus, Ohio. 0.S.A. Saya aenggunakan ujian dengan tujuan untuk aangukur pengetahuan tuan/puan dalaa bldang padagogi atau sanl dan sains aangajar. Skor bagi ujian ini akan dlanalisa sacara kuapulan dan la akan dihubungkan dengan dri-dri latar belakang guru. Dalaa kontak kajian ini ujian adalah dlgunakan sabagal satu kaedah penguapulan data. la saaa sakall tldak akan dlgunakan untuk tujuan aanggrad atau aanilai. Olah yang daalkian. rahsia individu akan tatap terpellhara dengan rapi. Di saaping ujian. tuan/puan akan juga dlalnta aenjavab soalan-soalan yang barkaitan dengan clri-clri latar belakang tuan/puan. Clrl-drl latar belakang adalah aerupakan varlabel-varlabel bagi kajian ini. Segala javapan yang tuan/puan berlkan akan santlasa dlrahslakan. Kajian ini adalah sangat bermanfaat bagi aempertingkatkan pengetahuan kita tentang kecekapan profeslonal para guru. Oleh itu penyertaan tuan/puan sangat dlalu-alukan dan dl- hargal. Saya sendlri akan aeneaul tuan/puan untuk ■enyespurnakan kajian yang tersebut di atas dalaa bulan Mel. 1988. Atas penyertaan tuan/puan terleblh dahulu dlucapkan teriaa kaslh. Yang benar. Mohd. Ibrahla Hazri s.k.: Pengetua Sekolah/Institut 129 LETTER TO TEACHERS AND THEIR PRINCIPALS (ENGLISH TRANSLATION) Department of Education Faculty of Educational Studies University of Agriculture 43400 Serdang, Selangor 16th April, 1988 Teacher/Lecturer of agriculture of Academic school/Technical school/ Agricultural Institute of Malaysia Sir/Madam, Re: PhD study entitled, "Professional knowledge competency achievement of agricultural teachers with and without preservice teacher preparation in Peninsular Malaysia" With reference to the above matter, I am pleased to seek your cooperation in taking a professional knowledge com petency test. The test will be conducted in the month of May, 1988 in pursuance of a PhD degree in agricultural education at The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A. I am using a multiple-choice test as a method of measuring your knowledge in the area of pedagogy or the art and science of teaching. The obtained scores will be analyzed in groups and it will be correlated with the background characteristics of teachers. In this way the individual secrecy is fully maintained. As you may be aware, the test is neither used for grading nor for evaluation purposes. It is just a method of data collection. In addition to the test you also will be asked to respond to a questionnaire on your background characteristics. The information pertaining to the background characteristics of teachers form the variables for the study and it will be kept confidential. 130 I will visit you personally in conducting the above study. I am sincerely looking forward to your participation and our meeting. Thank you. Signed Mohd. Ibrahim Nazri c.c. The Principal of the school/institute APPENDIX G QUESTIONNAIRE ON BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS OF TEACHERS 131 132 BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS OF TEACHER Please honestly respond to the items below. Your responses will be strictly kept confidential. 1. Full name:______ 2. Race (please check one) Malay Chinese Indian Other (please specify) 3. Age:______years 4. Sex (please check one) Male Female 5. Teaching qualification (please check the highest) B. Ed. (Agric. Sc.) B. Agric. Sc. plus Dip. Ed. B.S. (Agric.) Dip. Agric. « Dip. Agric. plus Cert. Ed. Cert. Ed . Other (please specify) 133 6. Teaching experience:_____ years 7. Location of teaching (please check one) Academic Secondary School Technical Secondary School Vocational Secondary School Agricultural Institute 8. Area of teaching specialty (please check all that apply) General agricultural science Crop production Animal production Entomology Pathology Genetics Horticulture Weed science Agribusiness/Agricultural economics Farm mechanization Extension education Other (please specify) Inservice courses on teacher education completed (please check all that apply, if any) Teaching methods Audiovisuals Educational philosophy Educational sociology Testing and evaluation Principles of teaching and learning Classroom management Adolescent growth and development APPENDIX H QUESTIONNAIRE ON BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS OF TEACHERS (MALAY TRANSLATION) 135 136 CIRI-CIRI LATAR BELAKANG GURU Sila jawab soalan-soalan berikut dengan jujur. Segala jawapan yang anda berikan akan dirahsiakan. 1. Nama penuh:______ 2. Bangsa (sila tandakan satu sahaja) Melayu Cina India Lain-lain (sila nyatakan) 3. Umur:______tahun 4. Jantina (sila tandakan satu sahaja) Lelaki Perempuan 5. Kelayakan mengajar (tandakan kelayakan yang tertinggi) Bacelor Pendidikan (Sains Pertanian) Bacelor Sains Pertanian dan Diploma Pendidikan Bacelor Sains Pertanian Diploma Pertanian Diploma Pertanian dan Sijil Perguruan Sijil Perguruan Lain-lain (sila nyatakan) 6. Pengalaman mengajar:______tahun Tempat mengajar (sila tandakan satu sahaja) Sekolah Menengah Akademik Sekolah Menengah Teknik Sekolah Menengah Vokasional Institut Pertanian . Bidang tumpuan pengajaran (tandakan semua yang berkenaan) Sains pertanian umum Pengeluaran tanaman Pengeluaran ternakan Perlindungan tumbuhan Pembiakan tanaman Pembiakan haiwan Hortikultur Perikanan Perniagaantani/Ekonomi pertanian Mekanisasi ladang Pendidikan pengembangan Lain-lain (sila nyatakan) 138 9. Kursus-kursus pendidikan perguruan yang selesai diikuti semasa berkhidmat (tandakan semua yang berkenaan sekira- nya ada) Kaedah mengajar Alat-alat bantu mengajar Falsafah pendidikan Sosiologi pendidikan Pengujian dan penilaian Prinsip pen?ajaran dan pembelajaran m Pengurusan bilik darjah Pertumbuhan dan perkembangan remaja APPENDIX I TEST ITEMS BY CONTENT AREAS 139 140 TEST ITEMS BY CONTENT AREAS Educational Foundation 1. "Opportunity in educational opportunity" means . . . 2. In recent years, political and legal decisions affecting education and schooling in Malaysia have resulted pri marily . . . 3. What is Malaysia's major educational accomplishment since independence? 4. Which of the following most accurately describes the primary reason for the introduction of vernacular school system during British colonialization of . Malaya? 5. Which of the following does not truly exemplify life long and life-span dimensions of learning? 6. Some values and goals for teaching agricultural science are . . . 7. Which of the following efforts is concerned with the development of a core curriculum in Malaysia? 8. Which of the following is generally considered as the first step in curriculum development? 9. Which of the following was the fundamental reason for the transformation of vernacular school system to national school system in Malaysia? 10. A subject-centered curriculum, in contrast to child- centered curriculum . . . 11. Which of the following concepts least reflects the philosophy of general education? 12. Teachers' meetings are usually most effective when they . . . 13. Extracurricular activities are . . . 141 Adolescent Growth and Development 1. When planning learning activities for students at form four and form five levels, teachers should be aware that . . . adolescents are . . . 2. Which of the following is true about the theory of mental growth? 3. Understanding adolescent individual perceptions of their environment is fundamental in . . . 4. Ali is an adolescent boy who often acts rebellious. As a normal adolescent, Ali most probably demonstrates his rebellion by . . . 5. Which of the following statements is true about the theory of intellectual growth? Principles of Instruction 1. Which of the following approaches, taken at the begin ning of the school year would be most helpful in diag nosing the needs of an agricultural student who appears to be weak in mathematics? 2. Good instructional planning is built around the idea that what learners will learn is most often determined by . . . 3. Teachers are most likely to help students overcome passive behavior by . . . 4. In order to be most effective, feedback to the students about their progress should be . . . 5. Which of the following questions or assignments would cause students to deal most directly with the affective domain? 6. Good teaching requires that teachers are most alert to 7. In improving student discipline in the classroom, a teacher should . . . 8. When a teacher passes back corrected papers to the students and then discusses the correct answers, the teacher is probably doing this . . . 9. Thinking ability can best be developed by . . . 142 10. A teacher presents a concept by lecture-method. The teacher then uses demonstration-method to present the same concept. Why was he doing so? Principles of Learning 1. Which of the following sets of educational goals for a unit of instruction would be at the advanced stage of cognitive development? 2. Which of the following factors are related to variation in student achievement? 3. Which of the following are principles of learning? 4. A teacher can tell learning has actually taken place when . . . 5. Which of the following statements is most accurate with regard to students' abilities to learn? 6. Which of the following is generally considered most essential to learning? Planning of Instruction 1. What is the primary purpose of a lesson plan? 2. The educational reason that teachers should incorporate behavioral objectives into daily planning is that . . . 3. Which of the following best describes a lesson plan? Implementation of Instruction 1. Given a class of thirty students at varying developmen tal levels, which of the following procedure, used over a period of time, would facilitate effective instruc tion? 2. Which of the following instructional practices would encourage students to use the highest level of’ cognitive processing? 3. Which of the following is not a proper reason for having student's practical work? 4. Which of the following audiovisual equipment would be appropriate for the projection of visual material in a class that is difficult to darken? 143 5. In helping students to learn problem-solving approaches, the teacher should . . . 6. Which of the following best reflects the proper use of demonstration-method in teaching agricultural science? Evaluation of Instruction 1. The term "criterion" in criterion-referenced test means 2. Which of the following is true about test? 3. What is the valid reason for having a pass-fail grading system? 4. Tests can be most effective if it is used . . . 5. Which of the following presents the best statement about the use of grades? 6. What is the median for the following set of scores? 27, 50, 13, 5, 46, 34, 63 7. One advantage of essay tests over multiple-choice tests is that essay tests . . . APPENDIX J PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE COMPETENCY TEST 144 145 PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE COMPETENCY TEST Direction This test consists of 50 multiple-choice questions with five answer choices. Read each question carefully and choose ONE best answer. Record your answer on the given machine- scored answer sheet by darkening the space that corresponds to the question with a number 2 pencil. After you have finished answering all questions, kindly return the answer sheet to the examiner. Thank you for your participation. Questions 1. Which of the following approaches, taken at the begin ning of the school year would be most helpful in diag nosing the needs of an agriculture student who appears to be weak in mathematics? A. Providing an individualized instruction to the student B. Administering a special mathematics test to the student C. Examining the student's score from the most recent administration of a mathematics test D. Studying the student's past mathematics grades E. Requesting the students to take a special course in mathematics 2. Good instructional planning is built around the idea that what learners will learn is most often determined by A. what they should know B. what their teachers know C. how and why they learn 146 D. who does the teaching E. what parents and administrators desire 3. When planning learning activities for students at form four and form five levels, teachers should be aware that A. individual competition is more important than individual cooperation B. adolescents are more concerned with intellectual growth than physical appearance C. the rate of intellectual maturation varies widely among adolescents D. adolescents are not interested in learning activi ties E. adolescents tend to segregate themselves into ethnic groups 4. Given a class of thirty students at varying developmen tal levels, which of the following procedures, used over a period of time, would most facilitate effective instruction? A. Administering a group pretest followed by group and individual instruction, posttesting and follow-up instruction for task mastery B. Dividing the students into groups according to achievement test results and varying instruction according to the needs of each group C. Individualizing instruction by having each student work through a sequence of learning tasks at his or her own rate of performance D. Providing group instruction followed by testing for achievement and systematic recording of grades E. Having students maintain personal progress charts reflecting results of an achievement test and having the students whose achievement is below average attend peer tutoring sessions 147 5. Equality of educational opportunity means A. every student must be taught the same subject matter B. every student has equal access to learning opportunities C. instruction must avoid the use of mono-cultural instructional materials D. every class must have a proportionate percentage of racial composition E. instructional strategies must be adapted to the individual students 6. Teachers are most likely to help students overcome passive behavior by A. urging their friends to help them to "come out of their shells" B. challenging them with tasks according to their abilities C. giving them respect for what they are D. appearing not to notice their behavior E. discussing their behavior with their parents 7. Which of the following set of behavioral objectives for a unit of instruction would be at the advanced stage of cognitive development? A. To synthesize and structure materials in a new way B. To listen to information and recite it correctly C. To read a set of directions and follow them in sequence D. To manipulate and classify materials on th'e basis of size E. To recognize the common elements in three-dimension al objects 148 8. In recent years, political and legal decisions affect ing education and schooling Malaysia, have resulted primarily in A. the increase of production of reading materials for secondary schools B. the reduction of the number of students per class C. the balance of the percentage of ethnic group composition in a class D. more individualized instruction E. more community involvement in the educational process 9. Which of the following factors are related to variation in student achievement? I. Teacher experience II. School size III. Type of textbooks IV. Student/teacher ratio V. Socioeconomic background of students A. I and II B. I, II and III C. I, IV and V D. I, III, IV and V E. I, II, III, IV and V 10. In order to be most effective, feedback to the students about their progress should A. be immediate, specific and positive B. focus on a single problem C. be primarily positive in nature 149 D. be moderated if negative E. be inclusive and general 11. Which of the following questions would cause students to deal most directly with the affective domain? A. What conclusions would you draw from this scientific experiment? B. What do you value most in agricultural development in Malaysia? C. List ten agricultural scientists and their major accomplishments D. Which of the following pictures is the best example of abstract art? E. Describe what you think agriculture would be in the year 2000 12. What is Malaysia's major educational accomplishment since independence? A. New curriculum for the primary schools B. Integrated curriculum for the secondary schools C. Comprehensive educational policy D. National education policy E. The inclusion of moral education in school curriculum 13. Which of the following instructional practices would encourage students to use the highest level of cognitive processing? A. Posing questions that stimulate critical thinking B. Making assignments that encourage reasoning from the particular to the general C. Presenting problems that require the sequential ordering of facts or objects 150 D. Assigning activities that offer practice in obser vational skills E. Introducing activities that reinforce classifying skills 14. Which of the following most accurately describes the primary reason for tfye formation of vernacular school system during British colonialization of Malaya? A. Awareness among the Malayan people that the system was beneficial to them B. External influences from neighboring countries C. Changing pattern of employment and economy within the country D. The vested interest of the colonial government E. The ethnicity of the population of Malaya 15. Which of the following does not truly exemplify life long and life-space dimensions of learning? A. A retired autoworker teaches youngsters how to repair cars B. A mathematics teacher learns how to farm C. A clerical staff follows an advanced course in office management D. A high school graduate learns farming while waiting for a permanent job E. An adult farmer seeks the advice of an extension agent 16. Which of the following is true about the theory of mental growth? A. The extent about an individual's mental growth is determined mainly by his or her heredity B. Environment is the main determinant of an individual's mental growth C. The potential of mental growth of any individual is unlimited 151 D. There is a fixed limit to the potential of mental growth of each individual E. The rate of mental growth is at its maximum when a person reaches the age of 45 17. Some values and goals for teaching agricultural science are I. to give a practical grasp of agricultural methods II. to enable the students to appreciate the signifi cant contribution of agriculture to society III. to understand agricultural science, its history and present prospects A. I B. II C. I and II D. II and III E. I. II and III 18. Good teaching requires teachers to be most alert to A. public concerns about education B. the sexual difference of students C. the family background of students D. inappropriate behavior and punishment E. appropriate behavior and proper rewards 19. Understanding adolescent individual perceptions of their environment is fundamental in A. diagnosing cognitive learning disabilities B. diagnosing psychomotor learning disabilities C. influencing adolescent behavior in learning D. judging learning aptitudes E. judging learning abilities 152 20. Which of the following efforts is related to the development of a core curriculum in Malaysia? A. Developing a computer literacy program for students in secondary schools B. Developing a course of study entitled "Social Responsibilities" C. Using teaching resources, textbooks and audio visual aids in curriculum planning D. Stressing moral, values and religous aspects in curriculum delopment E. There is no effort being made in core curriculum development at the moment 21. The term "criterion" in criterion-referenced test means A. validity B. standard C. a group average score D. the basic content of the test E. the answer sheet 22. What is the primary purpose of a lesson plan? A. To allow the teacher to evaluate a unit or topic of study B. To ensure continuous progress in learning C. To prepare a lesson in a logical and systematic manner D. To try out possible ways to teach E. To satisfy administrative requirement 23. Ali is an adolescent boy who often acts rebellious. As a normal adolescent, Ali most probably demonstrates his rebellion by A. demanding more previleges and independence 153 B. keeping himself in isolation C. completely rejecting his parent's and teacher's advice D. fighting with other boys E. running away from home 24. Which of the following are principles of learning? I. Learning is governed by the influence of rewards II. Punishment is effective in changing student's behavior III. A learner must be ready to learn IV. Learning depends on the consequences of behavior V. Learners learn by trying one response after another A. I and V B. I, II and III C. II, IV and V D. I, III, IV and V E. II and III 25. Which of the following is generally considered as the first step in curriculum development? A. Define the educational objectives B. Focus directly on the improvement of student learning experiences C. Identify limiting constraints D. Propose alternative objectives E. Initiate research 154 26. Which of the following is the best educational reason for incorporating behavioral objectives into daily lesson planning? A. To enable instruction to be based on definable learned behavior B. To enable school principals to determine teaching efficiency C. Teaching is a goal-oriented activity D. To enable teachers to evaluate student's performance E. Behavioral objectives enhance previous learning experiences 27. Which of the following is true about test? A. A test may be reliable even though it is not valid B. A reliable test is never valid C. A valid test is never reliable D. A reliable test is always valid E. None of the above is true 28. Which of the following statements is not a proper reason for having student's practical work? A. It allows students to work independently B. It allows the teacher to do other works C. It provides an opportunity for the student to sharpen their skills D. It allows students to work at a pace suited to their own abilities E. It helps to develop self-direction in learning 29. What is the valid reason for having a pass-fail grading system A. It allows students who do not excel in an academic course to retake the course 155 B. It encourages superior students to work up to their full capacity C. It eliminates the emphasis on memorization D. It increases motivation, learning and involvement in the educational process E. It overcomes the difficulty in assessing competence objectively 30. Which of the following audiovisual equipment would be appropriate for the px*ojection of visual material in a class that is difficult to darken? A. Opaque projector B. Film projector C. Slide projector D. Overhead projector E. Filmstrip projector 31. Which of the following was the fundamental reason for the transformation of vernacular school system to national school system in Malaysia? A. Intellectual motivation of the students was declining B. Technological development was demaging the social values C. Academic education did not fulfill the public demand for ideal educational values D. Fear of widening of racial gap E. To eliminate the British influence completely 32. Tests can be most effective if it is used A. to help the teacher understand statistical measures B. upon completion of a unit or topic of instruction C. unexpectedly 156 D. to determine the final grades E. without reviewing the materials to be tested 33. In helping students to learn problem-solving approaches, the teacher should A. guide and assist students when needed B. tell students to select their own problem to be solved C. keep the use of books to a minimum D. discourage students to solve problems without consulting the teacher first E. use programmed instruction 34. Which of the following statements is true about the theory of intellectual development? A. Intellectual development occurs in stages B. Intellectual development begins at home C. Almost all children are capable of learning most mathematical concepts at the age of five D. Intellectual development occurs through the absorption of knowledge presented to us E. Kindergarten will raise the intellectual level of children 35. A teacher can assure that learning has actually taken place when A. a correct response is given to a specific question B. all given assignments are finished in a specified time C. a student offers some form of academic assistance to other students 157 D. correct responses are given a number of times in a variety of context E. a student is able to work on assignments without further instruction 36. Which of the following statements is most accurate with regard to students' abilities to learn? A. They are primarily determined by home environment B. They vary little throughout life C. They are primarily determined by cultural and socioeconomic factors D. They are determined by a combination of hereditary and environmental factors, including home and schools E. They are primarily determined by genetic makeup and teachers' abilities to teach in a manner understood by the individual student 37. In improving student's discipline in the classroom, a teacher should A. first of all, examine all points of view B. discipline the students who are trouble-makers C. have open discussion with students who like to talk about classroom discipline D. highlight the special previleges that students can have if they behave well E. first of all, give special attention to overt behaviors 38. Which of the following statements best describes a lesson plan? A. A plan of instruction for a class period B. A plan of instruction for the school year C. A plan of instruction provided by the Education Office 158 D. A document teachers regularly turn in to the prin cipals so that educational progress can be evaluated E. A plan of learning signed by parents, teachers and students 39. A subject-centered curriculum, in contrast to a child- centered curriculum, A. emphasizes basic education B. fulfills public demands for ideal educational values C. requires stimulus mechanisms D. emphasizes knowledge about the student E. is built around student needs and interest 40. Which of the following concepts least reflects the philosophy of general education? A. Subject-centered curriculum B. Learning by doing C. Pragmatism D. Intrinsic motivation E. Equality of educational opportunity 41. Which of the following is generally considered most essential to learning? A. Motivation B. Reading skills C. Mental intelligence D. Good teaching E. High socioeconomic status 42. When a teacher passes back corrected papers to the students and then discusses the correct answers, the teacher is most probably doing-this A. to use time that should be spent on a new lesson 159 B. to provide students an opportunity to change in correct answers C. to provide students an opportunity to judge the adequacy of their responses D. as a step in lesson review which is an important concept in learning E. to allow students to compare answers with each other to get an idea where they stand 43. Teachers' meetings in the school, are most beneficial when they A. center on the problems of the school district B. concern themselves with problems of the PTA C. center on issues and problems pertaining to teaching and learning D. are concerned with behavioral problems of the students E. have a preset time limit 44. Thinking ability can best be developed by A. asking students to identify characters in a novel B. giving problems to be solved C. asking students to concentrate on creative questioning D. requesting students to develop a theoretical framework for an assignment E. asking students to identify problems to be solved 45. Which of the following statements best describes the use of grades? A. Grades should follow a class curve B. Grades should be used as an incentive C. Grades should reflect quality and quantity of performance 160 D. Grades should not serve as a communication channel for teachers and parents E. Grades should reward efforts 46. Which of the following best reflects the proper use of demonstration-method in teaching agricultural science? A. Demonstration-method can totally replace lecture- method B. Demonstration-method is more useful than inquiry- or discussion-method C. Demonstration-method is very valuable if used in a context of a lesson that relates observation to other information D. Demonstration-method should not be used at lower- secondary level of instruction since agricultural science at this level is an awareness type of program E. Demonstration should not be used in the context of nonformal education as adults do not like to be instructed 47. Student extracurricular activities are I. considered as a part of formal school curriculum II. centered on out-of-school activities III. performed independently by students with optimal teacher participation IV. beneficial for developing leadership and social skills A. I and II B. II and IV C. I, II and III D. I, II and IV E. I, II, III and IV 161 48. What is the median for the following set of scores? 27, 50, 13, 5, 46, 34, 65 A. 29 B. 5 C. 34 D. 35.4 E. 36.5 49. One advantage of essay tests over multiple-choice tests is that essay tests A. are easier to standardize B. allow for more creative responses C. can be completed in a shorter period of time D. are easier to score E. are the only means of testing high level of thoughts 50. A teacher presents a concept by lecture-method. He then presents the same concept by demonstration-method. What is the most likely reason for him to do so? A. To evaluate his presentation B. To reinforce his presentation C. To vary his technique of presentation D. To retain student attention E. To try out a new teaching method APPENDIX K PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE COMPETENCY TEST (MALAY TRANSLATION) 162 163 UJIAN PENGETAHUAN PROFESIONAL PERGURUAN Arahan Ujian ini mengandungi 50 soalan pelbagai pilihan. Setiap soalan xnempunyai lima pilihan jawapan. Anda di- kehendaki memilih cuma SATU jawapan yang terbaik. Catat jawapan pilihan anda dengan menghitamkan ruang berkenaan di kertas jawapan yang diberikan. Gunakan pensil 2B untuk mencatat jawapan. Setelah anda selesai menjawab semua soalan, sila kembalikan kertas jawapan kepada pemeriksa. Terima kasih di atas penyertaan anda di dalam ujian ini. Soalan-soalan 1. Mana satukah di antara tindakan-tindakan berikut jika diambil pada awal sesi pengajian, sangat berguna bagi menentukan keperluan seseorang pelajar pertanian yang lemah dalam matematik? A. Menjalankan pengajaran matematik secara individu bagi pelajar berkenaan B. Memberi ujian matematik khas untuk pelajar berkenaan C. Meneliti markat yang diperolehi oleh pelajar berkenaan di dalam ujian matematik yang terbaru D. Mengkaji pencapaian pelajar berkenaan di dalam ujian-ujian matematik yang lepas E. Menyarankan supaya pelajar berkenaan mengikuti satu kursus matematik 2. Perancangan pengajaran yang baik adalah berlandaskan konsep bahawa apa yang dipelajari oleh pelajar-pelajar kerapkali ditentukan oleh A. apa yang mereka perlu tahu B. apa yang guru-guru mereka tahu C. bagaimana dan mengapa mereka belajar 164 D. siapa yang mengajar E. apa yang diingini oleh ibu bapa dan pentadbir 3. Semasa merancang aktiviti-aktiviti pembelajaran untuk murid-murid di tingkatan empat dan lima, guru-guru harus menyedari bahawa A. persaingan di antara remaja adalah lebih penting daripada kerjasama di kalangan remaja B. remaja lebih pentingkan perkembangan intelek dari pada rupa fizikal C. kadar kematangan intelek berbeza di kalangan remaja D. remaja tidak gemarkan aktiviti-aktiviti pembelajaran E. remaja lebih cenderung berkumpul mengikut kumpulan etnik 4. Sekiranya anda diminta mengajar satu kelas yang terdiri daripada 30 orang pelajar pada berbagai peringkat per kembangan hidup, mana satukah di antara pendekatan-pen- dekatan berikut, jika digunakan dalam tempoh masa ter- tentu akan mempermudahkan proses pengajaran dan pembe- laj aran? A. Mengadakan ujian awalan berkumpulan, diikuti dengan pengajaran secara individu dan kumpulan, ujian sele- pas pengajaran dan pengajaran susulan untuk mempas- tikan penguasaan dalam sesuatu tanggungjawab pem belajaran B. Membahagikan pelajar-pelajar kepada beberapa kum pulan mengikut markat yang mereka perolehi di dalam ujian pencapaian dan menyesuaikan pengajaran mengi kut keperluan setiap kumpulan C. Menjalankan pengajaran secara individu dengan memin- % -.a setiap pelajar mengikuti satu susunan tanggung- jawab pembelajaran pada kadar keupayaan mereka D. Menjalankan pengajaran secara berkumpulan, diikuti dengan ujian untuk menentukan pencapaian pelajar dan seterusnya mengamalkan satu sistem merekod gred yang baik 165 E. Menyarankan supaya pelajar-pelajar menyimpan carta kemajuan tersendiri yang mencerminkan keputusan ujian dan menyarankan juga supaya pelajar-pelajar yang pencapaiannya di bawah purata menghadiri kelas bimbingan sebaya 5. "Persamaan peluang di dalam pendidikan" bermaksud A. setiap pelajar mesti diajar perkara yang sama B. setiap pelajar mempunyai hak yang sama ke arah pembelajaran C. pengajaran mesti mengelakkan penggunaan bahan-bahan pembelajaran yang berunsurkan perkauman D. setiap kelas mesti mempunyai komposisi kaum mengikut peratusan yang berpatutan E. strategi pengajaran mesti disesuaikan kepada individu 6. Seseorang guru berkemungkinan besar boleh mengurangkan perlakuan pasif di kalangan pelajar-pelajarnya dengan A. menggunakan pelajar-pelajar aktif sebagai penggalak bagi rakan-rakan mereka yang pasif B. menguji kebolehan pelajar dengan memberikan tang- gungjawab-tanggungjawab yang setara dengan keupaya- an mereka C. menghormati kebebasan individu untuk berkelakuan pasif D. tidak memperdulikan perlakuan mereka E. berbincang dengan ibu bapa murid tentang perlakuan anak-anak mereka 7. Mana satukah di antara perlakuan-perlakuan berikut ter- golong di dalam perkembangan kognitif di peringkat tinggi? A. Menggabung dan mengubahsuai struktur bahan-bahan dalam bentuk baru B. Mendengar maklumat dan melafaznya dengan tepat C. Membaca satu set arahan dan melaksanakannya mengikut urutan seperti yang disarankan 166 D. Mengkelaskan bahan-bahan mengikut ukuran tertentu E. Mengenalpasti unsur-unsur umum yang terdapat di dalam objek-objek tiga dimensi 8. Dalam tahun-tahun kebelakangan ini, penetapan politik dan undang-undang yang berkaitan dengan perkembangan pendidikan di tanah air, terutamanya telah A. meningkatkan penerbitan bahan-bahan bacaan untuk sekolah-sekolah menengah B. mengurangkan bilangan murid dalam sesebuah kelas C. mengimbangkan peratusan komposisi kumpulan etnik di dalam sesebuah kelas D. meningkatkan pengajaran secara individu E. meningkatkan penglibatan masyarakat dalam proses pendidikan 9. Manakah di antara faktor-faktor berikut mempunyai kaitan dengan perbezaan dalam pencapaian pelajar? I. Pengalaman guru II. Saiz sekolah III. Jenis buku teks IV. Nisbah di antara guru dan murid V. Latar belakang sosioekonomi murid A. I dan II B. I, II dan III C. I, IV dan V D. I, II, III, IV dan V 10. Adalah lebih berkesan sekiranya maklumbalas mengenai kemajuan murid A. disampaikan dengan cepat, khusus dan bernada positif 167 B. dipusatkan kepada satu masalah sahaja C. disampaikan dalam nada positif sahaja D. disampaikan melalui orang tengah sekiranya ia bernada negatif E. disampaikan secara rahsia tetapi menyentuh perkara-perkara umum 11. Mana satukah di antara soalan-soalan berikut, jika dikemukakan kepada pelajar-pelajar, mempunyai kaitan langsung dengan domain afektif? A. Apakah kesimpulan yang akan anda perolehi dari kajian saintifik ini? B. Apakah aspek yang paling anda hargai dalam pem- bangunan pertanian di tanah air kita? C. Senaraikan sepuluh ahli sains pertanian dan pen capaian mereka yang utama D. Mana satukah di antara gambar-gambar ini merupakan contoh terbaik bagi lukisan abstrak? E. Berikan pandangan anda tentang aktiviti pertanian dalam tahun 2000 , 12. Apakah pencapaian utama dalam bidang pendidikan di Malaysia selepas merdeka? A. Kurikulum baru sekolah rendah B. Kurikulum bersepadu sekolah menengah C. Dasar pelajaran anika jurusan D. Sistem pendidikan kebangsaan E. Keroasukan pendidikan moral dalam kurikulum sekolah 13. Mana satukah di antara kaedah-kaedah mengajar berikut memerlukan pelajar-pelajar menggunakan daya kognitif yang tinggi? A. Mengemukakan soalan-soalan yang meransang pemikiran kritis B. Memberi tugas yang menggalakkan penaakulan dari yang tertentu ke yang umum 168 C. Mengemukakan masalah yang memerlukan penyusunan fakta atau objek D. Memberi tugasan yang menekankan kemahiran memerhati E. Melaksanakan aktiviti-aktiviti yang boleh meneguhkan kemahiran mengkelas 14. Mana satukah di antara sebab-sebab berikut merupakan sebab utama wujudnya sistem sekolah vernakular di zaman penjajahan British? A. Kesedaran rakyat Malaya pada waktu itu tentang faedah sistem sekolah vernakular B. Pengaruh dari negara-negara jiran C. Perubahan bentuk pekerjaan dan ekonomi dalam negeri D. Penjajah British mempunyai kepentingan sendiri E. Wujudnya masyarakat berbilang kaum dan berlainan kebudayaan 15. Mana satukah di antara contoh-contoh berikut tidak merupakan amalan pendidikan berterusan? A. Seorang pesara melatih pemuda-pemuda cara membaiki kereta B. Seorang guru matematik mempelajari teknik-teknik pertanian rooden C. Seorang pekerja perkeranian mengikuti kursus lanjutan dalam pentadbiran pejabat D. Seorang pemuda lepasan sekolah tinggi belajar bertani sementara menunggu pekerjaan tetap E. Seorang petani dewasa mendapatkan khidmat nasihat daripada seorang ejen pengembangan 16. Mana satukah di antara teori-teori berikut boleh di- anggap benar mengenai perkembangan mental? A. Perkembangan mental seseorang ditentukan terutamanya oleh baka B. Persekitaran adalah penentu utama bagi perkembangan mental seseorang 169 C. Perkembangan mental bagi seseorang tidak ada hadnya D. Perkembangan mental bagi seseorang ada hadnya E. kadar perkembangan mental adalah maksimum setelah seseorang itu mencapai usia 45 tahun 17. Sebahagian daripada matlamat pengajaran sains pertanian adalah I. untuk memberi latihan amali dalam kaedah-kaedah pertanian II. untuk membolehkan pelajar-pelajar menghargai sumbangan pertanian kepada perkembangan hidup masyarakat III. untuk memberi kefahaman tentang pertanian sebagai satu sains gunaan, sejarahnya dan prospeknya A. I B. II C. I dan II D. II dan III E. I, II dan III 18. Pengajaran yang baik di dalam bilik darjah memerlukan guru-guru lebih sensitif kepada A. kesedaran masyarakat umum tentang pendidikan B. perbezaan jantina peiajar-pelajar C. latar belakang keluarga pelajar-pelajar D. tingkahlaku yang kurang baik di kalangan pelajar dan penggunaan dendaan E. tingkahlaku yang baik di kalangan pelajar dan penggunaan ganjaran 19. Pemahaman mengenai tanggapan seseorang remaja tentang persekitarannya adalah asas bagi usaha A. mengenalpasti kelemahan pelajar dalam pembelajaran kognitif 170 B. mengenalpasti kelemahan pelajar dalam pembelajaran psikomotor C. mempengaruhi tingkahlaku remaja dalam pembelajaran D. menilai bakat pelajar E. menilai keupayaan belajar 20. Mana satukah di antara tindakan-tindakan berikut, berkaitan dengan usaha membentuk kurikulum teras di Malaysia? A. menekankan kemahiran menggunakan komputer dalam pembentukan kurikulum untuk sekolah menengah B. Merancang kursus yang bertajuk "Tangggungjawab Sosial" C. Menekankan penggunaan alat-alat bantu dalam pembentukan kurikulum D. Menekankan aspek-aspek moral, nilai dan agama dalam pembentukan kurikulum E. Tiada usaha yang berkaitan dengan pembentukan kurikulum teras dijalankan masakini 21. Istilah "kriteria" dalam ujian rujukan kriteria bermaksud A. keesahan B. standard C. min kumpulan D. isi pelajaran E . kertas j awapan 22; Apakah tujuan utama membuat persediaan mengajar? A. Untuk membolehkan guru menilai sesuatu unit atau tajuk pengajaran . B. Untuk memastikan kemajuan yang berterusan dalam pembelajaran C. Untuk merancang pengajaran secara logik dan teratur 171 D. Untuk mencuba berbagai pilihan cara mengajar E. Untuk memenuhi arahan pentadbiran 23. Ali adalah seorang lelaki remaja yang selalu bersikap menentang. Sebagai seorang remaja biasa, besar kemung- kinan Ali akan menunjukkan penentangannya dengan A. menuntut lebih kebebasan dan keistimewaan B. mengasingkan dirinya C. menolak segala nasihat ibu bapa dan gurunya D. bergaduh dengan remaja lelaki lain E. lari dari rumah 24. Manakah di antara kenyataan-kenyataan berikut merupakan prinsip pembelajaran? I. Pembelajaran dipengaruhi oleh ganjaran II. Deraan sangat berkesan bagi mengubah tingkahlaku III. Pelajar mesti cukup bersedia untuk belajar IV. Pembelajaran bergantung pada akibat-akibat tingkahlaku V. Pelajar belajar dengan mencuba tingkahlaku satu persatu A. I dan V B. I, II dan III C. II, IV dan V D. I, III, IV dan V E. II dan III 25. Mana satukah di antara tindakan-tindakan berikut umum- nya dianggap langkah pertama dalam proses pembentukan kurikulum? A. Menentukan objektif-objektif pelajaran B. Menentukan aktiviti-aktiviti pembelajaran 172 C. Mengenalpasti batasan-batasan atau masalah-masalah D. Mencadangkan objektif-objektif pilihan E . memulakan kaj ian 26. Sebab utama guru-guru mesti mengambilkira objektif- objektif tingkahlaku semasa merancang pengajaran sehari-hari adalah A. untuk membolehkan pengajaran diasaskan kepada tingkahlaku-tingkahlaku yang telah ditentukan B. untuk membolehkan pengetua sekolah menilai kecekapan guru mengajar C. untuk menyelaraskan pengajaran sebagai satu aktiviti yang berorientasikan matlamat D. untuk memudahkan guru-guru menilai murid E. untuk menghalusi pengalaman-pengalaman pembe lajaran yang lepas 27. Mana satukah di antara kenyataan-kenyataan berikut dianggap benar mengenai ujian? A. Sesuatu ujian mempunyai kebolehpercayaan walaupun ia tidak dianggap sah B. Sesuatu ujian yang mempunyai kebolehpercayaan tidak pernah dianggap sah C. Sesuatu ujian yang dianggap sah tidak pernah mempunyai kebolehpercayaan D. Sesuatu ujian yang mempunyai kebolehpercayaan sentiasa dianggap sah E. Tiada satupun kenyataan di atas boleh diterima sebagai benar 28. Mana satukah di antara kenyataan-kenyataan berikut tidak sesuai dijadikan sebab bagi mengadakan kerja amali untuk pelajar? A. Kerja amali membolehkan pelajar bekerja secara bebas 173 B. Kerja amali membolehkan guru membuat kerja-kerja lain C. Kerja amali membolehkan pelajar-pelajar menghalusi kemahiran mereka D. Kerja amali membolehkan pelajar-pelajar bekerja pada kederasan yang sesuai dengan keupayaan mereka E. Kerja amali membolehkan pelajar-pelajar menentukan arah pembelajaran mereka sendiri 29. Sistem penggredan lulus atau gagal adalah bertujuan untuk A. membolehkan pelajar-pelajar yang berpencapaian rendah dalam sesuatu kursus akademik mengambil kursus tersebut sekali lagi B. menggalakkan pelajar-pelajar yang cerdas belajar mengikut keupayaan maksimum mereka C. menghapuskan penekanan ke atas hafalan D. mempertingkatkan motivasi, pembelajaran dan penglibatan pelajar dalam proses pendidikan E. mengatasi kesulitan dalam menilai kecekapan pelajar secara objektif 30. Mana satukah.di antara alat-alat bantu berikut sesuai digunakan untuk menayangkan bahan visual dalam bilik darjah yang sukar digelapkan? A. Projektor opaque B. Projektor filem C. Projektor slaid D. Projektor overhead E. Projektor filem jalur 31. Apakah sebab utama bagi penukaran sistem sekolah ver nakular kepada sistem sekolah bercorak kebangsaan di Malaysia? A. Motivasi intelek para pelajar makin menurun 174 B. Perkembangan teknologi menghapuskan nilai-nilai sosial C. Pendidikan akademik tidak dapat memenuhi tuntutan masyarakat terhadap nilai-nilai murni dalam pendidikan D. Kebimbangan tentang makin melebarnya jurang perkauman E. Untuk melenyapkan pengaruh British sepenuhnya 32. Ujian adalah paling berkesan jika ia digunakan A. untuk membantu guru memahami kaedah statistik B. setelah menyelesaikan satu tajuk pengajaran C. secara mengejut D. untuk menentukan gred akhir E. tanpa menyemak apa yang hendak diuji terlebih dahulu 33. Dalam usaha membantu pelajar-pelajar belajar dengan menggunakan pendekatan penyelesaian masalah, seseorang guru haruslah A. membimbing pelajar-pelajar sekiranya diperlukan B. menyuruh pelajar-pelajar memilih masalah yang hendak diselesaikan C. mengurangkan penggunaan bahan-bahan rujukan D. melarang pelajar-pelajar dari menyelesaikan masalah tanpa berhubung dengan guru terlebih dahulu E. menggunakan kaedah pengajaran terancang 34. Mana satukah di antara teori-teori berikut boleh di anggap benar mengenai perkembangan intelek? A. Perkembangan intelek berlaku secara berperingkat- peringkat B. Perkembangan intelek bermula di rumah C. Hampir semua kanak-kanak boleh mempelajari konsep- konsep matematik pada peringkat umur lima tahun 175 D. Perkembangan intelek berlaku melalui penerapan ilmu pengetahuan yang disampaikan kepada kita E. Taman asuhan kanak-kanak boleh menaikkan tahap intelek kita 35. Seseorang guru boleh menganggap bahawa pembelajaran telah benar-benar berlaku sekiranya A. jawapan yang betul diberikan oleh murid apabila satu soalan khusus dikemukakan kepadanya B. semua tugasan yang diberikan telah disiapkan dalam jangka masa yang ditetapkan C. seorang murid menawarkan pertolongan berbentuk akademik kepada murid-murid lain D. jawapan yang betul diberikan oleh murid beberapa kali dan dalam kontek yang berlainan E. seorang murid dapat menyiapkan tugasan tanpa memerlukan bimbingan tambahan 36. Mana satukah di antara kenyataan-kenyataan berikut paling tepat mengenai keupayaan murid-murid belajar? A. Keupayaan belajar ditentukan terutamanya oleh persekitaran rumahtangga B. Keupayaan belajar cuma berubah sedikit sepanjang hayat seseorang C. Keupayaan belajar ditentukan terutamanya oleh faktor kebudayaan dan faktor sosial D. Keupayaan belajar ditentukan oleh gabungan di antara faktor-faktor keturunan dan alam sekitar (termasuk rumah dan sekolah) E. Keupayaan belajar ditentukan terutamanya oleh faktor baka dan keupayaan guru mengajar mengikut cara yang difahami oleh seseorang murid 37. Dalam usaha memperbaiki disiplin dalam bilik darjah, seseorang guru haruslah A. terlebih dahulu, mengkaji pandangan dari berbagai sudut 176 B. mendisiplinkan murid-murid yang menjadi punca masalah C. mengadakan perbincangan secara terbuka dengan murid- murid yang gemar bercakap tentang masalah disiplin D. menegaskan tentang keistimewaan yang murid-murid boleh perolehi sekiranya mereka berkelakuan baik E. terlebih dahulu, memberi perhatian khusus kepada tingkahlaku-tingkahlaku yang boleh dilihat 38. Mana satukah di antara kenyataan-kenyataan berikut menjelaskan maksud persediaan mengajar? A. Persediaan mengajar adalah satu rancangan mengajar untuk satu waktu mengajar B. Persediaan mengajar adalah satu rancangan mengajar untuk satu sesi pengajian C. Persediaan mengajar adalah satu rancangan mengajar yang diberikan oleh Jabatan Pendidikan Negeri D. Persediaan mengajar adalah satu dokumen yang di- kemukakan secara tetap oleh guru kepada pengetua sekolah untuk tujuan penilaian pelajaran E. Persediaan mengajar adalah satu rancangan pembela jaran yang ditandatangani oleh guru, ibu bapa dan murid 39. Kurikulum yang berpusatkan mata pelajaran berbanding dengan kurikulum yang berpusatkan kanak-kanak, A. menekankan pendidikan asas B. memenuhi tuntutan masyarakat terhadap nilai-nilai murni dalam pendidikan C. memerlukan mekanisma ransangan D. menekankan pengetahuan mengenai murid E. dibentuk berdasarkan kehendak dan minat murid 40. Mana satukah di antara konsep-konsep berikut terlalu sedikit mencerminkan falsafah pendidikan umum? A. Kurikulum yang berpusatkan mata pelajaran 177 B. Pembelajaran melalui amalan C. Pragmatisma D. Motivasi dalaman E. Persamaan peluang dalam pendidikan 41. Mana satukah di antara yang berikut sangat diperlukan untuk pembelajaran? A. Motivasi B. Kemahiran membaca C. Kecerdasan akal D. Pengajaran yang baik E. Status sosioekonomi yang tinggi 42. Apabila seseorang guru memulangkan kertas-kertas jawapan yang telah diperiksa dan kemudian ia mem- bincangkan jawapan yang betul, kemungkinan besar guru berkenaan berbuat demikian A. untuk menghabiskan masa yang sepatutnya di- gunakan bagi pelajaran baru B. untuk memberi peluang kepada murid-murid menukar jawapan yang salah C. sebagai satu langkah yang bertujuan untuk memper- baiki kesilapan jawapan murid D. sebagai satu langkah mengulangkaji pelajaran E. untuk membolehkan murid-murid membandingkan jawapan supaya mereka dapat mengesani kedudukan masin-masing 43. Mesyuarat guru biasanya sangat bermanfaat sekiranya A. berpusatkan masalah di dalam sesebuah mukim atau daerah di mana sekolah berkenaan terletak B. berkaitan dengan masalah yang dihadapi oleh persatuan ibu bapa dan guru 178 C. berpusatkan isu-isu yang berkaitan dengan pengajaran dan pembelajaran D. berkaitan dengan masalah tingkahlaku murid E. mempunyai jangka masa yang telah ditetapkan 44. Kemahiran berfikir di kalangan murid-murid sangat sesuai dikembangkan dengan A. meminta murid-murid mengenalpasti ciri-ciri dalam cerita novel B. memberi masalah untuk diselesaikan C. meminta murid-murid menumpukan perhatian kepada aspek penyoalan kreatif D. meminta murid-murid membina asas teori bagi sesuatu tugasan E. meminta murid-murid mengenalpasti masalah 45. Mana satukah di antara kenyataan-kenyataan berikut menggambarkan cara yang seelok-eloknya menggunakan gred dalam penilaian murid? A. Gred mesti mengikuti kelok kelas B. Gred mesti digunakan sebagai peransang C. Gred mesti mencerminkan kualiti dan kuantiti pencapaian D. Gred tidak seharusnya digunakan sebagai saluran komunikasi di antara guru dan ibu bapa E. Gred berguna sebagai ganjaran bagi sesuatu usaha 46. Mana satukah di antara kenyataan-kenyataan berikut memberikan gambaran yang paling jelas tentang kegunaan tunjuk cara sebagai satu kaedah mengajar sains pertanian? A. Tunjuk cara boleh menggantikan sepenuhnya kaedah kuliah B. Tunjuk cara lebih sesuai daripada kaedah penemuan atau perbincangan 179 C. Tunjuk cara sangat sesuai digunakan dalam kontek pelajaran yang menghubungkan pemerhatian dengan maklumat-maklumat lain D. Tunjuk cara tidak harus digunakan di sekolah menengah rendah kerana pengajaran sains pertanian di peringkat ini cuma berbentuk kesedaran E. Tunjuk cara tidak harus digunakan dalam kontek tidak formal kerana orang-orang dewasa tidak suka diarah berbuat sesuatu 47. Aktiviti ko-kurikulum adalah I. dianggap sebahagian daripada kurikulum rasmi sekolah II. bertumpu kepada kegiatan di luar waktu rasmi sekolah III. dijalankan secara bebas dengan penglibatan maksimum daripada pihak guru IV. berguna bagi memperkembangkan kemahiran memimpin dan kemahiran sosial A. I dan II B. II dan IV C. I, II dan III D. I, II dan IV E. I, II, III dan IV 48. Apakah penengah bagi satu set skor berikut? 27, 50, 13, 5, 46, 34, 63 A. 29 B. 5 C. 34 D. 35.4 E. 36.5 180 49. Satu kelebihan ujian berbentuk esei berbanding dengan ujian pelbagai pilihan adalah A. ujian esei lebih mudah ditarakan B. ujian esei menggalakkan dayacipta dalam j awapan C. ujian esei boleh dijawab dalam jangka masa yang lebih singkat D. ujian esei lebih mudah dikira markatnya E. ujian esei adalah satu-satunya cara untuk menguji daya pemikiran yang tinggi 50. Seorang guru menyampaikan suatu konsep dengan mengguna kan kaedah kuliah. Kemudian guru berkenaan menyusuli penyampaiannya mengenai konsep yang sama dengan meng gunakan kaedah tunjuk cara. Mengapakah guru berkenaan berbuat demikian? A. Untuk menilai penyampaiannya B. Untuk meneguhkan penyampaiannya C. Untuk mempelbagaikan kaedah penyampaiannya D. Untuk mengekalkan minat murid E. Untuk mencuba kaedah mengajar yang baru APPENDIX L FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF RAW SCORES 181 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF RAW SCORES Percent of Items Correct f Percent 80.00 3 2.1 78.00 2 1.4 76.00 2 1.4 74.00 1 0.7 72.00 5 3.5 70.00 5 3.5 68.00 5 3.5 66.00 12 8.5 64.00 8 5.7 62.00 13 9.2 60.00 14 9.9 58.00 11 7.8 56.00 7 5.0 54.00 9 6.4 52.00 7 5.0 50.00 9 6.4 48.00 9 6.4 46.00 4 2.8 44.00 3 2.1 42.00 3 2.1 40.00 1 0.7 38.00 2 1.4 36.00 1 0.7 34.00 1 0.7 30.00 1 0.7 28.00 1 0.7 18.00 1 0.7 16.00 1 0.7 Total 141 100.0 LIST OF REFERENCES 183 184 LIST OF REFERENCES Books Allen, C. R. , Haxnbrech, G. P., & Welch, R. L. (1945). The instructor, the man and the job. Chicago: J.B. Lippin- cott Company. Bobrow, J., Nathan, H., Fisher, S., Covino, W. A., Orton, P. Z., Bobrow, B., Weber, L. (1987). Cliffs NTE preparation guide: Core battery. Lincoln, Nebraska: Cliffs Notes Inc. Brophy, J., & Good, T. L. (1986). Teacher behavior and stu dent achievement. In M. C. 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