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INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION STUDY TOURS .ÀBRO.AD STUDENTS' PROFESSION-AL GROWTH AND PERSON.AL DE\ ELOPNIENT IN RELATION TO INTERNATIONAL, GLOBAL .AND INTERCULTUR.AL PERSPECTIX'ES

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree Doctor of Philosoph) in the Graduate

School of The Ohio State Uni\ ersit\'

B>-

Marsha Mitchell Hutcliins, B..A,, M.A. *****

The Ohio State Uni\'ersit\‘

1996

Dissertation Committee: .Appro\ ed b\ Professor .Antoinette Miranda, .Adxisei^ Pi'ofessor E\el\ n B. Freeman Professor Mern' MemTield .Ad\ iser College of Education UMI Number: 9710583

UMI Microform 9710583 Copyright 1997, by UMI Company. All rights reserved.

This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.

UMI 300 North Zeeh Road Ann Arhor, MI 48103 Copyright

Marsha Mitchell Hutchins

1996 ABSTRACT

This study investigates the impact of international education study

tours abroad on American students. The inquiry focuses on how an

overseas education program impacts international, global, and

intercultural perspectives of the student, and whether the professional growth and personal development of the participants reflects these

changes.

Students who go abroad experience new cultures, personal growth,

and academic learning. Study tours abroad provide an introductory educational opportunity to enhance international and global perspectives.

The study tour fosters the context and occasion for cross-cultural living

and potential growth and development in intercultural perspectives.

This qualitative inquiry utilized a purposeful sample from The Ohio

State University Social Studies Education Study Tours Program for the

selection of participants in this study. The maximum variation sample of

six participants provided representation in each of the following areas in

proportion to the total study tour population; age. gender, minority, level of education, and vocation. The methods for data collection included

interviews, focus groups, and study tour group diaries.

The study applied qualitative methods of analysis with a pragmatic

perspective of process/outcomes to investigate the impact of a study abroad program upon the participants.. The research analysed the ii participants experiences by cross-interview comparisons to determine commonalities and differences that characterized the individuals and the impact of the study tour program.

The findings of the study indicated that the participants experienced changes in their professional growth and personal development in the themes of international, global and intercultural perspectives relating to the individual participant and the program design. Key factors influencing the impact of study tours abroad related to the maturity of the student, participation in multiple study tours, minority experiences, geographic location of the study tours, level of immersion, and the focus of the study tour program.

Implications and recommendations for international education overseas study tours include further research into study tours abroad to understand the impact of geographic locations. The influence of study tour abroad programs on the professional growth and personal development of minority participants also needs further research. I suggest continuing examination of the influence of overseas study tours on international, global, and intercultural perspectives of the participants including an additional focus of mature students.

Ill Dedicated to m\ family Especiall}' .Amy, Jay, Marg\', and B. J.

IV ACKNOWIEDGN ENTS

I thank ni\ adxisor, Antoinette Miranda, for her continuous support, conunitinent. and contact that made the completion of iii\ study possible. I wish to thank m\" doctoral stud\^ conmiittee member. Jolm Greisberger. for his expertise, support, and ad\1ce in international education. 1 thank Meny Meny field for guiding m\ qualitath'e research methodology and for ad\ising my global education study. 1 wish to acknowledge and thank M. E. Gilliom in proxiding access and opportunity to study o\ erseas study tours and for assisting my graduate studies. I wish to thank Denise Ng and Betty Kasoff for their support, rexiews. and discussions as fellow researchers. I am grateful to Ex elyn B. Freeman Ph.D. for her participation in my doctoral oral defense. I also wish to thank the staff at the Office of International Education for their cooperation and support during my internship at OIL VITA

March 8, 1946...... Bom - Columbus, Ohio 1968 ...... B.A. - Ohio VVesIe\ an University, Delaware, Ohio 1968 -1 9 6 9 ...... Teacher, Hillcrest Middle School Ft. W ashington, Pennsv Ivania 1969 -1 9 7 5 ...... Teacher, Northland High School Columbus, Ohio 1973 ...... M.A. The Ohio State University" Columbus, Ohio 1990 -1 9 9 3...... Graduate Teaching .Assistant The Ohio State Universitv", Department of Education 1993 -1 9 9 4...... \Tsiting Instructor Capital University", Columbus, Ohio 1995 -1 9 9 6 ...... Internship The Ohio State Universitv', Office of International Education

VI PUBLICATIONS

1. Hutchins, M M Research .Article, ''Multicultural Education." Phi Delta Kappa Newsletter, The Ohio State University Chapter, March, 1993.

FIELDS OF STL'DV

.Major Field: Education Studies in Social Studies and Global Education

Minors: Studies in Multicultural Education Studies in Professional Development

\ ' i i T.\BLE OF CONTENTS

Page Abstract...... ii Dedication ...... i\' Acknowledgments ...... \ \ ita ...... Ai List of Tables...... JA

List of Figui e s ...... aa I Chapters: 1. INTRODUCTION .AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM...... 1 1.1 Intioduction ...... 1 1.2 Context of the Problem ...... 2 1.3 Rationale for the Stuck ...... 7 1.4 Significance of the Study ...... 16 1.5 Definition of the Tenns ...... 16 1.6 0\enie\v of tlie Stud) ...... 24 1.6.1 Themes------26 1.6.2 Inquiiy Process ...... 27 1.7 limits of the Study ...... 29 1.8 Organization of tlie Study ...... 31

2. IITERATURE RE\'IBV...... 33 2.1 Introduction ...... 33 2.2 International Education-Stud\' Abroad ...... 33

\"iu 2.2.1 Pi’Ograiu ...... »...... 40 2.2.2 Diu*ation. of Stud)' ...... 41 2.2.3 Le\'el of Im m ersion ...... 42 2.2.4 International Domestic Perspecti\ e ...... 46 2.2.5 Program Goals — ...... 48 2.2.6 Futuie Expectations ...... 50 2.2.7 Personal Development of the Participants 51 2.3 Stud) Abroad—Stud)' Tours Abroad ...... 58 2.3.1 Multicultural ...... 69 2.3.2 Geographic Balance ...... 67 2.3.3 International and Gobal Connections...... 69 2.4 Global Education - Global Perspectiv e ...... 71 3.5 Intercultural (Cross-Cultural) Education ...... 79 3.5.1 Intercultural (Cross-Cultural) Development 89

3. METHODOLOGY...... 95 3.1 Introduction ...... 95 3.2 Section 1-Rationale for Qiialitative Inquir)' ...... 96 3.2.1 Personal Interests and Qualitative Inquir)' 98 3.2.2 Description of Qiialitative Inquir)' ...... 10 5 3.2.3 Qualitative Research Themes...... 114 3.2.3.1 Research theme 1: Naturalistic Inquir)'. 114 3.2.3.2 Research theme 2: Inductive .Analysis .108 3.2.3.3 Research theme 3: Holistic Perspective. 111 3.2.3.4 Research theme 4: Qualitative Data 113 3.2.3.5 Research theme 5: Personal Contact and Insight ...... 116 3.2.3.6 Research theme 6: D)'namic, Developmental Perspective ...... 131 3.2.3.7 Research theme 7: Unique Case Orientation ...... 123 3.2.3.8 Research theme 8: Context Sensitivit)'...... 124 3.2.3.9 Research theme 9: Empathie Neutralit)'...... «...... 128 3.2.3.10 Research theme 10: Design Flexibilit)' .129 3.3 Section 2-Process of the Inquiry ...... 132 3.3.1 Introduction ...... 132 L\ 3.3.2 Major Research Decisions ...... 135 3.3.2.1 Pilot Stiid>- ...... 136 3.3.2.2 Participants' Selection ...... 137 3.3.2.3 Access...... 139 3.3.2.4 Site Selection ~ Natural Setting ...... 140 3.3.2.5 Data Collection Acti\ities ...... 142 3.3.2.G Role of the Researcher...... 142 3.3.2.7 Intemeuing ...... 145 3.3.2.8 Predetenuined Research Question 146 3.3.2.9 Focus Group Iiitenlews ...... 147 3.3.2.10 Predetermined Focus Group Question ...... 148 3.3.2.11 Document .Analysis ...... 151 3.3.2.12 Paiticipant Experiences ...... 152

3.4 Section 3-Document .Analy sis Procedure ...... 157 3.4.1 Ex aluation Reseaich. Program Process ...... 157 3.4.2 Coding of the Data ...... 158 3.4.3 Categoiizing tire Data ...... 159 3.4.4 Transciipts and .Analy sis ...... 160 3.4.4.1 Researcher's Reflection...... 162 3.5 Section 4-Construction of the Participant Experiences ....166 3.6 Section 5-Enliancing Qualit} and Credibility' ...... 172 3.6.1 Techniques for Enhancing the Quality of .Analysis...... 172 3.6.2 Integrity in .Analysis: Testing Rival Explanations ...... 173 3.6.3 Triangulation ...... 174 3.6.3.1 Triangulation of Metliods ...... 174 3.6.3.2 Triangulation of Data Sources ...... 175 3.6.B.3 .Analyst Triangulation ...... 180 3.6.4 Credibility of the Researcher...... 181 3.6.4.1 Ethical Concerns ...... 181 3.6.4.2 Reflexi\e Journal ...... 183 3.6.4.2.1 Research Trail...... 183 B.6.4.2.2 1. Confusion: Two Days at the Beginning ...... 185

X 3.6.4.2.3 6. Focus of Intenleus ...... 186 3.6.4.2.4 8. Presentation-Pi'epai'ation ...... 187 Emerge in .Analy sis 3.6.4.2.5 10. Wilson-American Foiiun 1994 ...... 188

3.6.4.2.G 11. De\elopmental Sequencing ....189 3.6.4.2.T 12. Peer Re\ ie\v Debriefer 190 3.6.S.3 Peer Debriefer...... 191 3.G.5.4 Pi'olonged Engagement ...... 193 3.7 The Paradigm Debate and Credibility.' ...... 194

4. PARTICIP.AVr EXPERIENCES...... 196 4.1 Introduction ...... 196 4.2 Program description ...... 198 4.2.1 Academic Credit ...... 198 4.2.2 History and Geographic Destinations ...... 200 4.2.3 People In\'ol\ ed in the Progimii ...... 200 4.2.4 Program Design and Goals ...... 201 4.2.5 Focus of the Study T our ...... 203

4.3 Participant Experience of Lad ...... 204 4.3.1 Biography...... 204 4.3.1.1 Personal Background of the Participant ...... 205 4.3.2 Impact of the Study Tour Abroad ...... 205 4.3.2.1 Iimnersion Experience ...... 206 4.3.2.2 Focus of the Study Tour ...... 209 4.3.2.3 Implications of Multiple Study Tours ...209 4.3.2.4 Implications of Gender ...... 210 4.3.2.5 Academic Requir em ents ...... 211 4.3.2.6 Duration of Time Since the Study Tour .213 4.3.2.7 Geographic Locations ...... 214 4.3.2.8 \'ocational Implications ...... 215 4.3.2.9 huplications of a Minority Experience Connect with the X'ocational Implications ...... 215 xi 4.3.2.10 Unintended Results ...... 219

4.4 PcUticipLUit expenence of Jen a ...... 220 4.4.1 Biograph>'...... 220 4.4.1.2 Personal Background of the Participant ...... 221 4.4.2 Impact of the Stud) Tour Abroad ...... 221 4.4.2.1 Immersion Experience ...... 222 4.4.2.2 Implications of Multiple Stud}' Tours ...226 4.4.2.3 Focus of the Stud} T o u r ...... 226 4.4.2.4 Implications of the Gender ...... 227 4.4.2.5 Implications of the Minorit}' ...... 228 4.4.2.6 Academic Requirements ...... 230 4.4.2.T Duration Since the Stud} Tour ...... 231 4.4.2.8 Geograpliic Location ...... 231 4.4.2.9 \ocational Implications ...... 234

4.5 Paiticipant Experience of Dan ...... 235 4.5.1 Biogmph}' ...... 235 4.5.1.2 Personal Background of the Participant ...... 236 4.5.2 Impact of the Study Tour Abroad ...... 236 4.5.2.1 Immersion Experience ...... 237 4.5.2.2 Focus of the Study T o u r ...... 238 4.5.2.3 Implications of Multiple Stud} Tours ...238 4.5.2.4 Academic Requirements ...... 239 4.5.2.5 Implications of Gender ...... 241 4.5.2.6 Geographic Location ...... 241 4.5.2.7 \'ocational Implications ...... 243 4.5.2.8 Global and International Perspecti\ es ..244 4.5.2.9 Diuution Since the Stud} Tour ...... 246 4.5.2.10 Implications of Minorit} Experience ....247

4.6 Paiticipant Experience of Sara ...... 249 4.6.1 Biograph}' ...... 249 4.6.1.1 Personal Background of the Participant ...... 250 4.6.2 Impact of the Stud}' Tour Abroad ...... 251 4.6.2.1 Immersion Experience ...... 252 xii 4.6.2.2 Focus of the Study Tour ...... 255 4.6.2.3 Influence of multiple Stud\ Tours ...... 257 4.6.2.4 Implications of Gender ...... 2 59 4.G.2.5 Implications of Minority Experience ...... 260 4.6.2.6 Academic Requirements ...... 262 4.6.2.T Duration Since the Study Tour ...... 264 4.6.2.8 Geographic Location ...... 265 4.6.2.9 \'ocationaI Implications ...... 265

4.7 Paiticipant experience of Kelly ...... 267 4.7.1 Biograph\' ...... 267 4.7.1.1 Personal Background of the Paiticipant ...... 268 4.7.2 Impact of the Study Tour Abroad ...... 269 2.7.2.1 Iimiiersion Experience ...... 270 2.7.2.2 Focus of tlie Study Tour...... 272 2.7.2.3 Implications of Multiple Stud\' Tours ...273 2.7.2.4 Implications of Gender ...... 275 2.7.2.5 Implications of Minorit) Experience ...... 277 2.7.2.6 Academic Requirement ...... 277 2.1.2.1 Duration Since the Stud}' Tour ...... 279 2.7.2.8 Geograpliic Location ...... 279 2.1.2.9 l ocational Implications ...... 280 2.7.2.10 Increase in the Global Perspective ...... 281

4.8 Participant Experience of .Mi ...... 2 84 4.8.1 Biograph} ...... 284 4.8.1.1 Personal Background of the Paiticipant ...... 285 4.8.2 Impact of the Stud}' Tom* .\b ro a d ...... 285 4.8.2.1 Focus of the Study Tour ...... 285 4.5.2.2 Iimuersion Experience ...... 286 4.8.2.3 Imphcations of Multiple Study Tours ...290 4.8.2.4 Implications of Gender ...... 292 4.5.2.5 Implications of Minorit}' Experience ....293 4.8.2.6 .Academic Requiiem ents ...... 296 4.5.2.7 Duration Since the Study Tour ...... 300 4.8.2.8 Geograpliic Locations ...... 301 4.8.2.9 l ocational Implications ...... 302 xiii 4.9 Participant Experience Comparisons ...... 304 4.9.1 Impact of the Stud\' Tour Abroad ...... 304 4.9.1.1 Immersion Experience ...... 304 4.9.1.2 Focus of the Study Tour ...... 308 4.9.1.3 Implications of Multiple Stud\ Tours ...309 4.9.1.4 Implication of Gender ...... 313 4.9.1.5 Implications of Minorit) Experiences ...314 4.9. l.G Academic Requiiements ...... 316 4.9.1.7 Duration Since the Stud) Tom's ...... 320 4.9.1.8 Geographic Locations ...... 323 4.9.1.9 \ ocational Implications ...... 325

5. SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS. IMPLICATIONS. .AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 328 5.1 Inh'oduction ...... 32 8 5.2 Sunmiaiy of tire Study ...... 328 5.3 \ lajor Findings ...... 331 5.3.1 Inmrei-sion Experience ...... 332 5.3.2 Focus of the Stud)' Tour ...... 335 5.3.3 Implications of Multiple Stud)' Tours ...... 337 5.3.4 Implications of Gender ...... 339 5.3.5 Implications of Minorit)' Experience ...... 340 5.3.6 Academic Reqmiements ...... 342 5.3.7 Lkiration Since the Study Tour ...... 343 5.3.8 Geograpliic Locations ...... 344 5.3.9 l ocational Implications ...... 345 5.4 Implications ...... 346 5.4.1 Immei-sion Expeilence ...... 347 5.4.2 Focus of the Stud)' Tom' ...... 348 5.4.3 Implications of Multiple Stud) Tours ...... 348 5.4.4 Impact of the Nfinorit)' Experience ...... 349 5.4.5 Dm'ation Since the Stud)' Tour ...... 349 5.4.6 Geographic Locations of the Stud) Tours 349 5.5 Recommendations ...... 350

XIV BIBLOGRAPHY______375

APPENDICES...... 380 A. Consent for Participation in Social and Behavioral Research...... 380 B. Predispositions of Quantitative and Qualitative Modes of Inquiiy ...... 382 C. Study Timeline ...... 385 D. The Impact of an International Experience, Angene H. Wilson, 1993 ...... 390 E. Utilization of Internationally Experienced Persons, Angene H. Mlson, 1993 ...... 393 P. Coding the Data and Categories ...... 395 G. Approval Document of Human Subjects Research .....398 H. Interview Questions for Participants of Study Tours ..400 I. Agenda Focus Group and Focus Group Interview Questions ______403 J. Agenda Focus Group II and Focus Group Interview Questions ...... 406 K. Peer Debriefer's Proofs, Ng ...... 409 L Research Proposal ...... 415

XV LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Data Anal) sis Cross Reference ...... 165 3.2 Data .\nal\ sis Cross Reference ...... 165

XVI CRAPTER 1

IXTRODUCÏIOX .-VVD STATEN ENT OF THE PROBLEM Introduction This stud} im estigates and ex aluates the o\ erseas experiences of graduate students in Social Studies and Global Education participated in The Ohio State L'nh'ersit}' Social Studies and Global Education Stud} Tours Abroad. The stud} examined the connections between the students' experiences abroad and their professional growth and personal de\ elopment, as interpreted b} the students themseh es. This stud} benefits international and global education researchers, educators, and administrators b} examining the impact of stud}' tours abroad upon students. The graduate students selected for tliis stud} were six teachers emplo\ ed at secondar} and elementan , urban and suburban school districts in central Ohio. Chapter I presents the context of the problem, describes the rationale for the stud}, gh'gs definitions for ke} terms, and pro\'ides an o\ eniew of the stu d \. Context of the Problem During the past two decades, the world has experienced rapid changes in interconnections and interdependence botli international!} and local!}. Our technological, political, cultural, economic, and ecological s} stems pro\ide connections among peoples and cultures worldwide. Intemational and global education is needed now more th an e\*er. In a 1992 speech to the American people. President Clinton also emphasized these ideas: "W e must de\ elop a world awareness... [t]liis means understanding the interconnectedness of world s} stems as well as different \alues and points of \iew" (Clinton, 1992, p. xi), Anderson (1992) a long-time adx ocate of global education, describes these changes b} stating that "the United States is becoming an increasing!} globalized societ} embedded in a world that as a whole is increasing!} interconnected and interdependent" (x\ii). According to intemational educators .Altbach and deW'it (1995), intemationalism, or the combination of understanding other societies and cultures and the connections between these societies, is a central focus of higher education worldwide. In an international sun e}, the Carnegie Foundation (1994) found "a deep comiction among facult} that liigher education is, in fact, an intemational enteiprise and that the academic profession is becoming a global communit} ” (Bo} er, -Altbach, & Wiiitelaw, 1994, p. 20). Spom (1994) perceh es that higher education is becoming increasing!}' internationalized. Focusing on a macro le\ el, Spom (1994) argues that such reseaich should concentmte on economic, societal, and cultiucil influences of student and facult}' exchange. At the micro le\ el, one reseai ch topic for intemational education could address "policy making of uni\ersities and [their] departments for the practices of facult} and staff (Spom, 1994, p. 69) and students for im oh-ing them in intemational experiences. The United States go\ emment demonstrates fuither recognition and support for intemational and global education. The United States Congress created the Fulbright Program in 1946 "to foster mutual understanding among nations through educational and cultural exchanges.... [and to enable] U.S. citizens to gain intemational competence m an increasingl} interdependent world " (Fulbright Mission, 1996-97, p. 5). hi 1991, the United States Congress passed the National Security Education Act (NSEA) which stressed the need for college graduates to understand the world, its languages, and cultures. Inspite of these pieces of federal legislation and an increased emphasis on international studies b} colleges and unh ersities, fiscal problems ha\ e pre\ented full hnplementation (Altbach & deVVit, 1995). Some state gox emors recognize the importance of economic competith eness and identif} intemational education and global connections as a ke} component. The U.S. Southem Gox emors' Association reported the "intemational illiterac} " that puts the United States "at a disad\ antage with other countries in business and political affairs" (1986). Gox em or Gei'ald Baliles, chair of the conference's panel on intemational education, identified the increasing economic moti\ ation that exists for ".Americans to understand and be knowledgeable about foreign customs and business procedures" (cited in Sorti, 1990, p. x\ ). Many educational organizations support the stud\' of intemational education and global interdependence and recommend practical experiences to augment the stud\ (e.g.. The Xational Council for the Social Studies in their Cun iculum Standai'ds for Social Studies [1994]; The Gov'emors' Task Force on Intemational Education [1989]; the .Association for Supenision and Cun iculum De\ elopment [1986, 1989], the .American .Association of College Teacher Education [1983]). Reseai ch supports the imporiance of unh ersities helping students dex elop the skills and attitudes which will allow them to function successful!) in an interdependent and mterconnected world (e.g., Caiison, & W'idaman, 1988; Wilson, 1984, 1993; Bum, 1980,1985). The goals of foreign stud)', according to Caiison and Widaman (1988), aie "consistent with and complementaiy to the traditional goals of liigher education" (p. 1 ) and encompass its general puipose. Unix ersities reflect the increased awareness of, and changes in, intemational education. Bonfiglio (1993) notes that more and more institutions of higher education are integrating and

4 promoting o\'erseas education for their students as preparation for the e\'er-expandmg global realities of our world. More specificalh', international education reflects an increased number of stud} abroad participants, the number of programs offered, and the number of countries participating. Howe\*er, onl}' 76,302 American students receh ed academic credit for stud} in another coimtr}-about 1 percent of the undergraduates at four- } ear colleges and 7 percent of that total are graduate students (Open Doors 1994-1995: Report on Intemational Educational Exchange 1995). Researchers acknowledge the complex interrelationsliips between students' academic leammg, professional growth, and personal de\ elopment wliile stud} ing abroad ( e.g., Koester, 1987: Gochenour & Janeway, 1993; Paige, 1993; and Wilson, 1993a). Consequent!}, efforts to identif} the components and processes which also facilitate students' increased intemational and global understanding through stud} abroad and stud} tours abroad ha\ e met with mixed results. Howex er, Abrams (1960) links "the goals of liigher education [to] include intellectual and professional dex elopment. general education, personal growtli, and the furtherance of mteraational understanding" (cited in Carlson & Widaman, 1988, p. 1). Students who are abroad experience a new cultuie wliich often facilitates increased personal grow th, and academic leaming. These all flow together and lead to a wa} of knowing that changes their thinking and beha\1or (Kaufftnann. Martin, and Weaver, 1992). Piaget and Inlielder (1958) \iew change as the matnration process occurring during the resolution of discrepancies between known and new experiences. M. Bennett (1993) also presents a de\ elopmental model of intercultural sensithit) with sojourners mo\'ing from an ethnocentric to an ethnorelath e stage of cultural understanding after experiencing cross-cultural contact. M. Bennett defines intercultural sensithit} in tenns of personal growth and placed it on a continuum "of increasing sophistication in dealing with cultural differences" (p. 22). Ox erseas studx tours proxide access to international experiences. Two components emerged as central to the present resemrh of studx tours abroad: 1) the program itself and 2) the participants (Kauffmann, Martin, & Weax er,1992). The focus of this research studx is students’ inteipretations of the impact of an international studx tour program. The studx* is based on participants' perceptions of their experiences and their reflections relating to changes in their professional growth and personal dex elopment. Inteiviews with the participants rex ealed x arious self-identified changes. Tliis studx focuses on the aspects of the studx tour abroad program that influenced participants’ responses. The data presentation in "participant experiences" permits an idiosx ncratic exposition of specialized responses. Issues common to participants’ experiences are then analx zed to detennine similarities and differences. I begin the rationale for in\’ stud\ b\ identih ing the need for further research into the contexts and purposes of international and global education. Next. I focus on the need for reseai'ch concerning how stud\ abroad, and specifically how study tours abroad, sen e as a potentially powerful introductoiy learning tool.

Rationale for the Stud\ The world is changing in such a \\a\ that we need people who are interculturalh* competent, sensith e, and knowledgeable. International educators identih the need for .Aniericans to ha\e cross-cultural knowledge that equips them to li\ e and work in an increasingh interdependent world (Bennett, M. 1993: Bum, 1985: Paige, 1993). faculty’, administrators, and students increasingh' recognize the \ alue of international education on unh ersity and college campuses. Howe\'er, Trimble (1991) indicates "[o]n tlie uni\ ersit} campus, prox incial and sometimes stereoty pical attitudes about 'foreigners' and foreign lands are held among students as well as some facultx' members" (p. 20). At Hanover College, Trimble reports that tliree-fourths of the facultx* had no experience with international education, altliough such experiences were included as goals for their students. .Altbach and deWit (1995) note that "in a recent Carnegie Foundation sun ey of faculty- in 14 countries, American professors are the least inteniationalh' minded. U.S. facult>' go abroad for research or sabbatical less than do their peers in other major coimtries, and the}' seldom read journals or books published elsewhere" (p. 1). Tra\*el and stud}' tours abroad can benefit facult} b}' encouraging a more international outlook. Such experiences expose them to global issues and pro\*ides a foundation for infusing global perspecth es into their cuixiculum. The literature concerning international stud} tom s for facult}' represents a dh ei'se academic spectmm including the ar eas of education (Gilliom, 1993), librar} science (White, 1994), business— specificall}' in Executh e MBA programs (Schertzer, Schuster, & Ziimneiinan, 1993) and social studies social sciences (Weiss, 1992). Students attending institutions of higher leai'ning ha\ e similar needs for increased international and global education. Today's U.S. college students demonstrate a profound ignorance of global and cultural awar eness (Charles, 1991). In a sui'x e}' of global understanding administered to coUege students at 197 institutions of liigher education, Baixows (1981) finds that a sizable proportion had "attitudes, feelings and perceptions that ar e unenlightened or unpi oducth e from the perspecth e of global miderstanding" (p. 135). Furthermore, Vobejda (1988) reports U. S. students between the ages 18 and 24 ranked last in an

8 international comparison of geograpliic know ledge (cited in Chai'Ies, H. 1991, p. 9). Students enrolled in teacher education programs tend to be bound to the knowledge and \ alues of the wiiite middle class, and man} lack significant know ledge or experience with people from other cultural backgrounds to bring to bear on classroom interaction and cuniculum. Onl\ a small percentage of education students claim Huenc} in a language other than English. Most ha\ e not \ entured more than 100 miles from their home. (Zimpher, Rate, 1989) .-Vmerican uni\ ersities are "notorioush poor" in foreign languages and an infinitesimal number of students take important but "non-mainstream" languages (.Albach & deW it, 1995). The second rationale for this stud} is the need to educate students for understanding a rapidh changing and increasing interdependent world. These global changes require rethinking education in order to emphasize a more global approach to teaching and learning. Global education relates global issues to a changing world (Alger and Haif, 1986; .Anderson, 1979; Han\e}, 1976; Kniep,1989; and Lamy, 1991). Global education involves knowledge, perceptions (Case, 1991), and gaining a global perspecth e (Thorpe, 1992; Wilson, 1992). Global education is a means to prepare students to be citizens of a global, as well as a national, societ} (Banks, 1994; Bennett, C., 1990; Lamy, 1991). Meriy field (1993 a) asserts that s} stematic reflection is a major component of the global education process for preser\1ce and inser\ice teachers. In addition, Merr\ field (1995) emphasizes the importance of linking local and global perspecti\*es. She suggests that students must understand their global connections and appreciate the \ oices of the people on the margin both in their own communities and in other paits of the world (Mem field, 1995, p. 22). The tliird rationale for tliis stud\ is the "international unh ersit) " and the rapid increase in the pai ticipation in international education programs. As the trend of "inteiTiationalizing the campus" becomes an increasingly common institutional goal, education-abroad acthities need to be more full} recognized and documented. "Stud\ abroad is one of the most powerful tools a\ ailable for internationalizing the cuniculum in .\merican colleges and uni\’ersities" (Kauffmann, Martin, & Weaver, 1992, p. 1). Cooper and Grant (1993) point out that "[cjonsiderable data exists on foreign students in the United States, but until recenth , little research has been done on U.S. students abroad and students enrolled in stud}-abroad programs" (p. 83). More research on U.S. students abroad and their impact on U.S. liigher education at the indi\idual, institutional, and national le\ els is needed. The percentage of students from public institutions interested in stud}. tra\ el, and work abroad increased during the last ten } ears (Cooper & Grant, 1993). In

10 the last fi\ e \ ears, this accelerated interest and pai ticipation in international education programs. The Ohio State Unh ersit}', the institution with which I am affiliated, has taken numerous steps to address the increased interest and need for international and globally- oriented programs. For example. Tire College of Education's Department of Educational Studies philosoph) statement emphasizes that as a democratic societx in an interdependent world, the United States "needs to der elop citizens who har e knowledge and understanding of the world ber ond our borders—its peoples, nations, cultures and problems—and who understand how the world affects us and how we affect the world" (Department of Educational Studies College of Education, 1991). Changes at the Office of hrtemational Education proride further recognition of the increasing international and global connections at Tire Olrio State Unir ersitr. hr 1992, the Office hrtemational Students and Scholars aird the Office of Studr Abroad united, hrtemational student enrollment at The Olrio State Unir ersitr' increased thiitr - trvo percent betrveen 1989 aird 1995. The international student enrollment countrr representation rose from 116 to 124 countries during the same time period. The number of paiticipairts in The Olrio State Unir'ersity Education Abroad Prograirrs increased hr the last fir e r ears br" 163 percent (269 to 708: between 1990 aird 1994). During the last three r ears, the

11 number of stud\' tour abroad participants increased 20 percent (99 to 118). The fourth rationale for this stud\' is the lack of research on short-term study abroad programs. Recent trends indicate students in the United States tend to participate in shorter international education sojourns abroad (Hoffa, Pearson, & Slind 1992). Ho\ve\'er, research related to stud}' tours abroad is extremel}' limited. Gilliom & Annink (1993) report relati\*ely little research had been done in this area. Thorpe (1992) concludes research on stud} tours is ’Mituall} non-existent" with the exception of Wilson's (1984) explorator} sur\ e}' research. Most international education programs, focus their work on insen ice teacher preparation and cumcula dissemination because teachers continue to pla} a ke}' role in the instructional process (Thorpe, 1993). Wilson (1993) identifies a \ariet} of wa} s that teachers ma} gain intemationed cross-cultural experiences including student teaching ox erseas, x olunteering for the Peace Corps, or participating in a Fulbright exchange. For teachers who want to see and learn about the world, a short-term sojourn of 2-10 weeks ma} be the most feasible. "[TJeachers in the field [professional!}' actix e] often find it difficult to be away from responsibilities at home for long periods of tune" (Gilliom, 1992, p. 2).

12 The fifth rationale for this stud\ is to in\ estigate the professional grow th and personal de\ elopment experienced b\ participants of international stud\ tours abroad Teachers cannot teach soinetliing the\ do not know (W right and \'an Deai* cited in Grossman, 1990). Re\ie\vs of educational research indicate an inadequate, reseairh-based knowledge concerning factors affecting the international know ledge and attitudes of social studies educators (.\nderson, 1992; Torne\ -Purta. 1986; Massialas, 1991). Reseaichers (Ball & Goodson, 1985; W oods, 1986; Zeicliner & Grant, 1981) argue teachers' prior know ledge and experiences mfluence their beliefs and actions. Wilson's stud) (1986) inx'ohing preserxice and inserx ice social studies teachers reports that "cross-cultural experiences lead to global perspectix es necessai*)' for global education to happen in the schools" (p. 105). An inx estigation into how students gain an intercultural and global perspectixe is needed. C us liner (1988) found that "an intercultural or intemational perspectix e does not come automaticallx with cognitix e dex elopiiient or phx sical maturit)'; certain experiences at specific time in one's development are critical to attitude, knowledge fomiation" (p. 161). The abilitx to understand others and effectix elx" interact with people from other cultures includes projecting oneself into the other's mind. C ushner (1988) discusses the abilitx" to "xrexv the world from a perspectix e outside oneself, [as] essential to nioxing from the

13 local-traditional le\'el to national-modern le\ el" (p. 160). Students who begin at a liigher le\*el of niaturit}'. are more likeh to reach a sopliisticated le\nl of intemational understanding after participating in stud\ abroad (Kauffmann, Martin, and Wea\er, 1992). A sixth rationale for this stud\' is to im estigate a program de\ eloped in response to an identified need to proxide extensix e training in global education and international studies. The Social Studies Education Program Abroad component of the Social Studies and Global Education program in the Department of Humanities and Teclmological Education proxldes learning opportunities for students while thex participate in a trax el and studx abroad course for academic credits. The short-term international program has existed for ox er twenty-fix e x ears and has inx olx ed m ore th an 468 participants in ox er txxentx -six countries (Gilliom, 1992, 1995). These statistics reflect an ox erall increase in both the numbers of students participating and the number of countries xisited between 1989 through 1996. During the same time frame, connections between studx abroad programs at Tlie Ohio State Inix ersitx' and other intemational programs increased from elexen to fiftx-three countries (Annual Statistical Report. Autumn Quarter, 1995, Office of International Education, The Ohio State Unix ersitx ).

14 Open Doors' (1986) reseai'chers detennined that near!) lift} thousand students recei\*ed academic credit for stud\ outside of the United States. In 1993 94, the\' reported an increase to 76,302 students (Open Doors 1994-1995: Report on Intemational Educational Exchange 1995). Increased paiticipation makes research studies which explore the effects of stud} abroad experiences upon students essential. Yet, it is important to keep the identified growth rates in stud) abroad programs in perspecth e: it is still a marginal acthtt}'. At public institutions in wliich more than half of all .American undergraduates are em olled, less than 1 percent of the total population stud} abroad. In an attempt to investigate these issues, this stud} has concentrated on answering the following questions: 1. .Assuming stud} tom* abroad participants experienced changes in their professional grow th, w hat were the changes in relation to the indhidual? What changes were identified b} the participants in relation to the design of the program? 2. .Assuming some changes in personal development, what changes did individual participants report in relation to th eir experiences in the stud}* tour abroad program? What were these changes in relation to the design of the program?

15 Significance of the Stud\^ Education-abroad acthities need to be recognized and docum ented m ore full}'. Research on the unpact of stud\ ab ro ad and inquin into who is \ enturing abroad, where they come from, what the\ seek, and how the\" fare would be of interest to administrators, facult} , education abroad ad\isors. and teachers. .Also, reseai'ch on how nontraditional students, as defined in relation to matuiit} (age o\ er 25 \ ears), etlmic identification, and special needs, inteipret their o\ erseas experiences would be of interest to unix ersit}' administrators, facult}'. education abroad directors, and progi-am coordinators. Finall}' studies concerning the impact of cross-cultural experiences in relation to increasing intercultural perspecth es of the pai'ticipants would be of interest to intemational educators, facult}', administrators, teachers educators, graduate students and teachers.

Definition of the Terms For the purposes of this stud}. the following definitions applied: Education Abroad This stud}' relies upon the definition of education abroad recognized b}' NAFSA: Association of International Educators as it proxides recognition and support of the broadest principles in the

16 field In this definition education abroad encompasses all \ aneties of li\ ing and learning abroad that have genuine and lasting educational \alue. (Hoffa, 1993,) Global Education The defuiition of global education is integrated from leading resources in the field of social studies education. According to the National Council for the Social Studies (1982),

global education refers to efforts to culth ate in \ oung people a perspecth e of the world wliich emphasizes the interconnections among cultures, species, and the plants. The puipose of global education is to de\ elop in \ outh the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to live effecth eh in a world possessing limited natural resources and characterized by ethnic dh ersit}', cultural pluralism and increasing interdependence, (p. 46) T\ e and T\ e (1992) pro\ide an additional component to the aforementioned definition relex ant to this stud} ...

those problems and issues which cut across national boundaries and about the interconnectedness of s\ stems im oh'ed-economic, emiromnental, cultural, political and technological. (T\ e & T\ e, 1992, p. 6)

These autliors conclude the definition of global education with ...

[it] in\ ol\'es the cultivation of cross-cultuial understanding, wliich includes de\ elopment of the skill of perspective taking— that is, to see life from someone else's point of \iew . (T\ e & Tye, 1992, p. 6) Global Perspecth e A global perspecth e as defined b\’ Hanvey (1987) is one of the major elements of global education. His definition identifies

17 global perspecth e as the process \vhereb\- one recognizes that "one's \ie\v of the world is not uni\ersall\ shared: one's \iew of the world has been and continues to be shaped b\ influences that often escape detection; and others' \lews of the world profoundh differ from one's own" (p. 114). Further elaboration of the definition of a global perspecth e is helpful. According to Mem field ( 1995), it is the increased understanding of cultural Liiih ersals and human dh ersit}. She explicates "[c]ontemporan mox ements for self-detennination. democratization, and the protection of human and chil rights (belonging to women, cliildren, indigenous people, and others)" and identifies a global perspecth e as being transnational (Mern field & Rem\, 1995, p. 26). Agreement in the definition of a global perspective b\' educators pro\ iding further rele\ ance to tliis stud\ includes \iewing the historical e\ ents and people through the e\ es and pliilosopliies of others (e.g., Bemiett, C, 1990; Jolmson, 1993: Menv field, 1995; ). Culture The definition of culture utilized in this stud} reflects the complexit}' of the concept. Kennai'd ( 1990), in a document of the Foreign Service Institute of the Department of State, defines culture as the

totaht} of the behavior of an\' particular group of people, whether the\' be tribes, \illages, or nation-states .... A [technical] definition of culture is the configuration of learned behaiior and the results of behavior whose component elements are shared and transmitted by 18 members of a particulai' societ}... .The \ arious aspects of culture that can be anah zed and described—economic, teclmological, political, social, and ps\ chological-ai*e all delicatel} inter-linked.” (Social Studies Background paper, no. 33, p. 65 ) Gillioni's (1989) definition of cultuie includes tlie dmiension of change. He defines culture as the integrated changing patterns of learned human beha\ ior and the products of that beha\ior that are shared and transmitted to succeedmg generations b\ members of a pai ticular societ}. Spradle} and McCurd} (1975), from cUi anthropological perspecth e, define culture as the acquired knowledge that people use to inteipret experience and to generate social behaxior. Goodenough, (1964, cited in Bennett, C„ 1990) identifies it as "whatex er it is one has to know or beliex e in order to operate in a manner acceptable to its members and do so in an} role that the}' accept for an} one of themselxes" (p. 46). C. Bemiett (1990) presents a more conteniporan' conception of culture: "A s}'steni of shared knowledge and belieffs] that shapes human perceptions and generates social behaxior is more atuned to the definition of multicultural education as the dex elopiiient of multiple standards for perceixing, behexing, doing and ex aluating” ( p. 47). This stud} uses the broadest definition of culture including people's x alues, assumptions, communication st} les, wa} s of perceixing and inteipreting the xxorld ai'ound them (Honig, 1994, p. 15),

19 The multiple definitions of culture are linked to cross- cultural and intercultural interactions as the\ relate to the study's participants changing perspectives. Hoopes and Pusch (1981) refer to both intercultural and cross-cultural as "interaction, communication and other processes (conceptual anal) sis, education, the implementation of public polic)', etc.) w hich im'oh'e people or entities from two or more different cultures" (p. 6). The\ find that the terms are used more or less "s\ non) mousl) " and distinguishing between them so that intercultural refers onl) to interacth e and cross-cultural onl) to comparathe or conceptual simpl) "doesn't hold" (Hoopes & Pusch, 1981, p. 6). Intercultural Intercultural as defined in this stud)' is an interaction with people in an unfamiliar culture (Gochenour & Janewa), 1993, p. 1). Brislin (1981) explains th at... in the .analysis of cross-cultural contact, two aspects are considered: (1) the actual people with whom one will interact and (2) the more abstract components related to people's beha\ior, ideas, and \ alues. Identif) ing distinctions of outward appearance, language, cuisine, dress, stature, or demeanor and other customs of culture that exist in- between persons from one culture and another is more readily a\ ailable. Triandis (1972) further explains this process of making distinctions between two components of culture: the objective and subjectix e culture. "Objecth e components of culture are the

20 tangible, \ lsible aspects of a culture and include such things as the artifacts people make, the clothes they wear, and the names the\ gi\ e things The subjecti\'e components, on the other hand are the intangible aspects of culture attitudes, values, norms of behaxior and social roles" (pp. 23-24). Cushner McClelland and Safford (1992) identih cross-cultural interactions as occurring "[\v]hen indhiduals who ha\ e been socialized b\ groups with different subjecth e cultural patterns come into contact, a cross-cultural interaction occurs. Cross-cultural interactions occur between not onl\ indi\ iduals of different national or ethnic heritage, but also between individuals of the same nationality or ethnicity who have been socialized in different ways" (Cushner et al., 1992, p. 24). Intercultural Education The definition of intercultural education used in tliis stud\- is "educational acti\it\ which helps the student dex’elop skills in intercultiu al coimnunication and which aids the student to \iew the world from perspecth es other than one's own" (Pusch, 1981, p. 6). The resulting learning b\’ the students may refer to learning the "principle characteristics of another culture or the way in which the learner progresses from the ethnocentrism to an acceptance and appreciation of another culture" (Hoopes & Pusch, 1981, p. 7).

21 Intercultural sensiti\it\' Intercultural sensitMt\' is defined in tenus of stages of personal growth as "the construction of realit) as increasingh capable of acconmiodating cultural differences that constitutes de\ elopm ent.... One's own cultui e is experienced as but one of a \ariet} of world \tews" (Bennett, M., 1993. p. 24 - 25). Intercultural sensiti\it\' increases as people experience themselx es as members of more than one culture. An interculturalh sensith e person may hax e the abilitx to lix e and work effectix elx in cultures other than his or her own. International Education CuiTent definitions of international education reflect recent changes in the world. International educators (Rembert, 1993: Wong. 1985; and Falk. 1988) identifx the change from preparing American students to be defenders against coimnunism to prepaiing .American students for their role in the post-Cold War world. -According to Rembeit's (1993) defmition of international education, the one utilized in this study, it is the process of prepaiing

-American students to act as informed world citizens. Such education means, among other tilings, that students should grow in then knowledge and understanding of other peoples, cultures and nations, and that students should come to imderstand the interdependent character of world ex ents. Such education would prompt students to grow in empathx and to dex elop an educated unagination [in reference to world peace and appreciation of cultural differences]. It is a process of preparing students not just as

22 potential customers or economic competitors, or onl\ as friends or foes but as fellow citizens of the world, (p. 6) Falk's tenn of "citizen pilgrim" (1988, p. 106) adds the travel and stud) component to tlie definition of international education. The puipose of international education, according to Rembert ( 1993), is "to prepare people to be communit) builders in an interdependent world" (p. 6). Other recognized perspectives of international education rele\ ant to this stud) include: 1. Preparing students in economic tenus "for global competition" (Edwards, 1987, cited in CAS ID Connection, 1993, p. 4): 2. Preparing students in cognith e concepts, with emphasis on non-W'estem cultures knowledge and understanding "because these cultures often represent greater dh ersit) of perspecth e, and therefore a greater challenge to our empathie abilit), than we would find closer to home" (Rembert, 1993, p. 3); and lastl)', 3. Preparing students for the realit) of the world toda), when "we interact with other people in other cultures-our li\ es are linked with theirs-and intemational education must also help prepare us for this inescapable fact of life" (Rembert, 1993, pp. 3- 4). Internationalizing the Campus The definition of intemationalizmg the campus, rele\ ant to this stud)', is the process of infusing global perspectix es into the campus experience so that the campus communit)' can "[a]cquire new intemational knowledge, dex elop new intrapersonal skills in dealing with people from other cultures" and arrh e at a new wa) 23 of thinking global!) (Forousesh & Gunatilake, 1990, cited in Chaiies, 1991, p. 2). Stud\ -Abroad Students Stud) -abroad students are identified in this stud)’ in accordance with the definition used b)’ the Institute of Intemational Education: Stud)'-abroad students receix e academic credit from their home institution for the successful completion of an academic program abroad. (Cooper & Grant, 1993, p. 85) Studx Tour Abroad For the puiposes of this stud)’, a stud) tour abroad is defined as a program for students who receix e limited academic credit, 2-6 quarter hours credit or its equix alent, from their home institution for the successful completion of a program incorporating phases of academic stud), group participation, and indixidual reflection during a serious educational trax el experience abroad for a duration of 1-5 weeks.

Ox erxiew of the Study M) research explored the effects of stud) tours abroad as a potential!)’ powerful educational technique. I inx estigated the wa)’ the design of the program mfluenced the mipact experienced b) the pariicipants. My stud)’ elucidated the relationship between research findings in stud) abroad literature and the indixidual participants' reflections on the changes in their professional growth and personal dex elopiiient. M)’ study

24 examined the interconnections between participants' self­ identified changes in global awai'eness and intemational perspecth es of then host countries and home cultures, as well as participants' perceptions of changes in their beha\iors resulting from their experiences with the program. The phenomenological approach im oh es how people describe things and experience them through their senses; this theon is based on Husserl's (1962) assumption that "we can only know what we experience" (Patton, 1990, p. 69). Plienomenolog) undergirds the research and theoreticéil foundations of this stud}'. The phenomenological approach pro\'ides a framework for understanding how participants put together the phenomena the} experienced and in so doing, de\ eloped a woiid\1ew. Participants' views, according to Patton (1990). are what they perceive their experiences were and meant. In this stud}, I approached the participants' views of theii' experiences in intemational settings phenomenologicall} in an attempt to describe and interpret what the}' experienced. I attempted to describe and intei-pret how the}' integrated their academic and experiential learning into their professional growth and pei*sonal development. The core meaning or essence of the stud} tour experience for each participant was the final dimension, essential to a quahtative inquir}. to evolve in mv studv.

25 Them es The following themes of qualitatix e inquin (Patton, 1990) guided the study's reseai'ch methodolog}' incorporating pragmatism and paradigm of choices.

1. Naturalistic inquin': Study ing real-world situations as the\ un-fold naturalh. 2. Inducth e analysis: Immersion in the details and specifics of the data to discox er important categories, dmiensions, and inten elationships. 3. Holistic perspectix e: The whole phenomenon under studx is understood as a complex sx stem that is more than the sum of its parts. 4. Qualitatix e data: Detailed, tliick description: inquin in deptli: diiect quotations capturing people's personal perspectix es and experiences. 5. Personal contact and insight: The researcher has direct contact with and gets close to the people, situation, and phenomenon under study: researcher's personal experiences and insights are an hnportant part of the inquirx' critical to understanding the phenomenon. 6. Dx namic sx stems: Attention to process, assumes change is constant and ongoing vx hether the focus is on the indix-idual or an entire culture. 7. ITiique case orientation: Assumes each case is special and unique. 8. Context sensitixitx : Places findings in a social, liistorical, and temporal complex: dubious of the possibilitx or meaningifulness of generalizations across time and space. 9. Empathie neutralitx': Complete objectixltx* is impossible, ... but understanding: the researcher includes personal experience and empathie insight as part of the relex ant data, while taking a neutral nonjudgmental stance toward whatever content may emerge. 10. Design flexibility : Open to adapting inquiiy as understanding deepens and or situations change. (Patton, 1990, pp. 40-41) 26 Chapter 3 prox ides a more in-depth \ ersion of the themes and implications of the research methodologx as related to tliis studx.

The Inquirx Process I decided to design a studx using methods of qualitatix e inquin- in a pragmatic approach. This studx’ progressed with a cross-question analx sis guided bx reflectix e ex alnation (Patton, 1990). Data were gathered from mteniews, focus group inteniews. and pai ticipants' study tour group diaiy documents. Participant Interxiews Participants were inteniewed after their studx tour programs. The inteniews combined predetermined questions with open-ended questions in each inteniexv. The number of inten iew s x aried from fix e to ten during the nine-month research timetable. The inteniexv schedule was clustered into two segments. Different starting dates resulted from participants' conflicts between their professional responsibilities and scheduled inteniews. In the cases of fewer mteniews conducted, the participant and researcher extended the inteniexv time to include txxo inteniexv sessions in a single time frame. The ax erage inten iexv time xvas three quarters of an hour, xxliile the extended inteniexv time xvas approxhnatelx one and a half to two hours.

27 Focus group inteniews Two group interviews were conducted near the conclusion of the stud}. The predetermined interv iew questions were deriv ed from themes wliich emerged during the individual inteniew sessions and W ilson's ( 1992) "Impact of Intemational Experiences" design (p. 14). Each session was conducted for a specific time period at the same location. Focus group inteniews provided a pragmatic use of inteniew time; increased confidence in the data through a comparison of public and priv ate answ ers to inteniew questions: and provided participants with an opporiunitv to interact. Pai'ticipants' studv tour group dian document Individual recordings compiled in a group diarv were pai t of the academic requirement to gain course credit. Participants were asked to select a portion of their studv tour group's dian that represented a significant experience during their studv' tour program. These documents entailed written inteipretations of what participants considered important during the studv* tour program. The data gathered during the studv' were analv zed using cross - question analv ses guided bv reflectiv e evaluation. In this studv. the six participants represent a purposeful sampling of the total studv* tour program population. 1 used "infonuation-rich cases" (Patton, 1990, p. 181) for in-depth studv* from wliich I could illuminate the questions under study. The insights gained

28 from the cross-question anal} ses represented possible a\*enues for further exploration of commonalities and differences of the participants' intemational. global and intercultural perspecth es follow ing a stud} tour abroad program. Identification and description of outcomes in relation to participants' professional grow th and personal de\ elopment and the logical linkages to the stud}' tom' abroad programs are presented as interpretations of the data. The stud} concludes with suggestions and assertions concerning the hnplications of a stud} tour abroad program upon participants' professional growth and personal development.

Limits of the Stud}' The limits of this stud}' relate to those t}'picall} associated with case stud} and qualitatix e research. 1. Self-reported facts are intentions and reflections. The} do not necessaril}' describe what the pai'ticipants actually did or what the}' learned. 2. The six participants represent a small portion of the total participants in The Oliio State Unix ersit}' Social Studies and Global Education Study Tour Program between 1969 and 1994. Consequentl}'. generalizing be} ond the parameters of these participants' perspectix es is not recommended. Participant limitations in relation to the stud}' include: Participants who agreed to participate in the stud}' were selected as a pui'poseful sample from the names of participants pr ox'ided

29 b\ the Director Professor of the program within a central geographic area Ihuited b\ tlieir continued accessibilit} o\ er a period of se\ en months. These participants ma\ not represent the perspectix es of the total population of studx tour participants from other geographic areas outside The Ohio State Unix ersitx' enxirons. In addition, a participant w ho agreed to become inx olx ed in the intensix e interviewing process max hax e indixidual perspectix es not shared bx the total studx tour program population, due to unique intemational experiences on their tours or other contributing personal experiences relatixe to professional dex elopment and international studx tour programs. 3. The study manifested limited confidentialitx . Pai'ticipants waix ed their rights of confidentialitx during the group inteniew s w ith other participants. Each participant was gix en the option to pai'ticipate in the two group inteniew sessions. AH six pai'ticipants signed a consent form waixing their anonx initx within the group for the group inteniew sessions. A second example of limited confidentiality pertained to enhanced professional dex elopment for the participants. Two of the studx''s participants presented their learning experiences tlii'ough international study tour programs at the National Council of Social Studies .Annual Meeting, 1994. The presentation was a collaboration between the reseaicher and the two participants. Throughout the research, I attempted to maintain confidentialitx for the project's participants. .At the inception of

30 the stud} and at each group inteniew, I \ erball}' emphasized the need to respect others' right of pri\ ac} and to maintain strict confidence. The self-disclosure of an indMdual's participation in the research stud}' could permit eas} access to identification. Therefore, paiticipants were cautioned not to share or disclose other participants' im oh ement in the stud}'. This right of pri\'ac}' for other group members seemed to be respected b} all paiticipants.

Organization of the Stud}'

This stud} was designed to examine how participants who went on international stud} tours abroad interpreted what happened to them and reflected upon the connection between their experiences and their professional and personal de\'elopment. The stud} im'estigated the impact participants' experienced relath e to international, global and intercultural perspecthes. Chapter 1 pro\1des the introduction to the study, context of the stud}', outline of the rationales, definitions of ke} terms, and an o\ er\iew of the stud}'. The literature that applies to this stud}', an o\ er\iew of the research methodolog} and the limitations of the study conclude the chapter. Chapter 2 examines the related literature in international education stud}' abroad and stud} tours abroad, global education

31 with the specific focus relath e to the stud} of global perspecth'es, and intercultural (cross-cultural) education. Chapter 3 presents the methodolog} of tlie stud}. including the rationale for qualitath e inquir}' as a basis for stud} ing students’ perceptions and reflections concerning international education o\ erseas stud} tom's and the connections to the participants and program design. Chapter 4 presents a description of the program and the paiticipants' experiences. Tlie pragmatic approach to the research utilizes themes incorporated from international education tenninolog} and participants' experiences. Chapter 5 concludes the stud} with miplications and suggestions for fuither research related to international education stud\ tours abroad.

32 CRYPTER 2

LITERATURE RE\TE\\

The purpose of this chapter is to present a re\1e\v of the lileratLire relexant to this stud\ and the cuirenl research effort in the field of international education, and study abroad in particular. The chapter begins with a brief histoiy of the field and some of the earh related research. The literature re\ie\v continues with a narrowing of the focus to stud\ tours abroad. Literature relex ant to global education with a focus on global perspectix es is examined in the second section. The chapter concludes with a description of the literature in intercultural (cross-cultural) education as it relates to studx abroad. International Education—Study Abroad O xen iew In the 1980s and 90s, changes in the political landscape transform ed manx of the goals of .American foreign policx which existed for more than fortx years. The National Task Force on Undergraduate Education, 1990 found:

abundant exidence that our citizens are not well prepai ed for the international realities ahead... .There is growing

33 acknowledgment that education must pro\ide more international content and lead to greater sensitMt} and understanding. For undergraduates at our uni\ ersities and colleges, a serious educational experience in another countn’ brings cross-cultural understanding and international learning not achiex ed through almost any other approach, (p. 262) Fulbright (1946), recognizing the need for international understanding, established a means of connecting people in the I'nited States and other countries through an exchange of scholai's, knowledge, and skills. Fulbright Fellowships were created in 1946, to foster mutual understanding among nations tlu'ough educational and cultural exchanges. Recognition of the importance of tliis alteraatix e means of contact resulted in funding b\' Congress of the Mutual Education and Cultural Exchange Act of 1961. Through an annual appropriation made each year, 800 Americans study or conduct reseai ch in ox er 100 countries under the Presidentiallx-appointed Board of Directors. Senator J. William Fulbright, sponsor of the legislation, "saw it as a step toward building an altematix e to armed conflict" (Fulbright Mission, p. 5). According to Fulbright (1976):

International educational exchange is the most significant cuiTent project designed to continue the process of humanizing mankind to the point, we would hope, that men can leam to lix e in peace-ex'entually even to cooperate in construetix e actixities rather than compete in mindless contest of mutual destruction.. .We must try' to expand the boundaries of human wisdom, empathx' and perception, and

34 there is no \\a\ of doing that except through education. (Speech on the 30th Anni\ ersar\ of the Fulbright Program)

The Institute of International Education (HE) founded in 1919 to promote peace and cultural understanding through cultural and educational exchange is the largest and most acth e nonprofit organization in the field of international educational exchange. Since 1964, it has assisted the U.S. go\ ernment in the administration of the Fulbright Graduate Fellowship program and numerous other programs. IIE’s annual research report. Open Doors, compiles data from surce\ s of foreign students, foreign scholars, foreign students in Intensiv e English Programs (lEP's), and U.S. students in studv abroad programs. According to Lambert (1989), "[A] few U.S. colleges have had studv -abroad programs since the earlv twentieth centun, [but] it was not until the 1950s and 1960s that students were sent abroad in significant numbers" (cited in Hoffa et al., 1993, p. 87 ). These students were primarily from notable private colleges and univ ersities. Burn (1990) repoits that the Liniv ersitv of Delaware and Smith College dev eloped study abroad programs in 1920 to enable students to studv' in Western Europe. The International Student Exchange Program (ISEP) founded bv- the American government was:

introduced for the purpose of supporting reciprocal student exchanges between the LIS.A and manv other countries, also building on arrangements whereby Ainerican students pursuing part of their degree programs abroad normallv

35 continue to be eligible for any federal or financial aid to wliich the\- are entitled at their home institutions. (Bums, 1990, p. 13)

According to Bum, research in international education is of social importance and pro\ides rich and challenging opportunities for scientific inquhy. In the cuiTent Open Doors. 1994-1995 (IIE's research sun ex ), researchers recognize the necessity for an international dimension in higher education due to profound changes in global economics, social and political sectors, and developing technology. "To compete successfulh now and in the future requires that indi\1duals and nations ha\ e the capacit) to coimnunicate know ledgeabh' with partners and competitors around the world" (Da\is, Ed., 1995, p. 157). Davis (1995) finds language training is just one part of the component: "A deep awareness of the histoiy, culture, and political and economic systems of those with whom we interact is essential" (p. 157). Goodwin and Nacht's (1988) finn conviction that study abroad is a subject of great importance to American higher education todav. Tliis conviction is also found in the research studv' sponsored by HE (1995). In order to understand the impact of studv abroad more fullv, it is important to document who is ventuiing abroad, where thev are going, what thev seek, and how long thev are staying. Therefore, the following surv^ev statistics taken from IIE's 1994- 1995 report are included as in integral part of this literature review.

36 CuiTent statistics on the number of students stud\ ing abroad include:

A total of 76,302 students receh ed academic credit for stud\ in another countn in 1993 94, almost 5,000 more than the 71,154 reported in 1991 92. Part of the increase ma\ be due to the higher response rate 5 [percent] o\ er 1991 92, Study abroad actMty reported to HE has expanded substantialh since 1985 86 when 48,483 students were reported as ha\ ing completed part of their studies in another countn . (Open Doors 1994-1995, 1995, p. 159)

Graduate students "ha\ e remained a \ en small proportion (7.0 percent) of all stud\ abroad enrollments. Most stud\ abroad students are female (63 percent) and white (84 {percent)" (Open Doors. 1994 95, p. 158). These cuirent statistics confinn the findings of the National Task Force on Imdergraduate Education Abroad that "such experiences abroad are still confined to a small fraction of American undergraduates, mainh upper-middle class, and still focus predominateh' on Western Europe and on stud}' of the humanities and social sciences" (Hoffa et al., 1993, p. 262). Destinations of students stud} ing abroad has changed slightl} :

As in the past few \ ears, Europe was b\ far the favorite destination for Americans who studied abroad in 1993 94: 67 [percent] .... .After Europe was Latin .America hosting 13 [percent] of .Americans stud} ing abroad. Asia attracted 7 [percent], Oceania and the Middle East about 3 [percent] each, Africa 2 [percent], and North .America (Canada) less than 1 [percent]. The most noteworth} change since

37 1985 86 is that the share of .Americans study ing in Europe has fallen 12 [percent] while the share to W in .\nierica has risen by 6 [percent] The United Kingdom hosted 22 percent, France 10.4 percent, Spain 9.1 percent, ltal\ 8.4 percent, Mexico 6.2 percent, German}' 4.6 percent, Australia 3.1 percent, Japan 2.9 percent, Israel and Austria 2.7 percent, Costa Rica 2.3 percent, and Russia 2.0 percent... Western European nations enrollment either remained le\ el or declined and Mexico, Australia, Japan, Costa Rica, and Russia saw an increase in popularit} . (Open Doors 1994- 1995, p. 160)

Americans abroad had hoine-campus majors largeh' in the humanities and social sciences with relath eh few in engineering and hard science fields: social science and humanities 37 percent, business 14 percent, foreign language 11 percent, business and management 12 percent, engineering and math and computer sciences 9 percent (Open Doors 1994-1995, p. 166). The length of sojourn reported between 1994-1995 is still rather brief: "50 percent of students stud} abroad for one semester or less, onl} 14 percent for an academic } ear" (Open Doors, Dax-is, Ed. 1995, p. 158). Tlie "'junior year abroad’model dominates: -10 percent of study abroad participants go during that} ear.... 0\ er a third (37 percent) of students stud} ing abroad did so for a duration of one semester or less [between 1985-1994], the most popular sojourn was summer temi (31 percent)... comparable to the time span spent b}' students in 1985 86" (Open Doors, Da\is, Ed. 1995 p. 167). Tlie sur\ e} rex ealed that "the proportions of students who spent a semester or less abroad increased, and that the proportions who recei\ ed

38 credit for stud\ abroad for longer or shorter time periods declined (Onen Doors. Da\is, Ed. 1995, p. 167). According to HE figures, "the number of students who receh ed credit for studying abroad in 1987-88 was onh 63,341... it ne\'ei4heless documents that onl\ a tin\ fraction of America's more than 12.5 million college and uni\ ersity students ha\ e a stud\ -abroad experience" (Hoffa, 1993, et al„ p. 266). Looking at stud\ abroad from an international perspecth e, the Xational Task Force on Undergraduate Education Abroad (1990) found the goals of ERASMIIS, the European Communitx Action Scheme for the Mobilit} of University Students impressh e. The program's goals in 1992 were to enable 10 percent of the European Community (EC) unh ersity students to ha\ e a significant studx-abroad experience in another EC countiy, "ERASMI'S will prepare European students not only for the professional, conmiercial, teclinical, linguistic, academic, and diplomatic needs of a united Europe, but also for perfomiing effectix elx in the world mai ket of ideas and trade" (Opper, Teicher & Cailson, 1990, p. 264). Research reported by Burn, Cen ch, and Smith (1990) in the Studx' Abroad Ex aluation Project (SAEP) examined a comparath'e assessment of foreign language and international studies in Europe and the United States. The project was designed to prox ide a comprehensix e approach and a comparatix e perspecth e inx olx ing a number of different countries. SAEP cox ered 82 studx abroad programs offered bx 51 higher

39 education institutions in four European countries (the Federal Republic, France, Sweden, the UK) and the United States. SAEP sought to identif}' organizational arrangements for these programs, as well as their impact on the participating students in terms of language competence, learning patterns and perfonnance, knowledge and perception of home and host countr\' cultures, and the subsequent entn of graduates into the labor market. The decentralized research effort for SAEP in the United Slates included the Uni\ ersit\ of Massachusetts at Amherst, the Unh ersit} of California, the Unh ersit}' of Colorado at Boulder, mid Kalamazoo College (Micliigan). Of pm ticular interest is the extent to which stud\" abroad programs can be judged successful and the background sketch of the participants: their academic achie\ ements, extra-curricular activities and internationally oriented interests, information on their living situations at home and abroad, and highlights of their experiences abroad (Opper & Teichler, 1990 p. 17). In order to assess program "success" in the realm of student experiences, stud\ abroad participants were asked questions on whether the\ considered the period(s) abroad stmiulating and generallv' worth the investment of time and other resources.

Program Hansel’s (1984) re\iew of the literature found several significant differences in the sojourn experience: length of the

4 0 sojoura, the frequence and qualit} of the contact with the host nationals, the nationalit) of the sojourner and the U pe of connnunit}' he or she is from, the countn and size of conununit} in which the sojourn takes place, the age and gender of the sojourner, the activities of the sojourner while in the host countrv. and the attitudes of the sojourner prior to the experience (Hansel, 1984, AFS, pp. 12-13). For pLiiposes of claritv, the literature review in international education-study abroad is organized under the following headings: duration of studv , level of immersion, international domestic perspective, program goals, future expectations, and personal development of participants.

Duration of Studv Studv abroad varies in length of time from a few weeks to several v ears. "The optimum length of time clearlv varies with circumstances and objectives. Mainstreaming, or serious studv" in the Tliird World, requires a v ear or more. Experiential learning of various types in the developed world can be accomplished effectivelv in a semester, intensive language studv completed in as little as six weeks (Goodwin & Nacht, 1988, p. 88). Opper (1990) repoits "[lijow long students stav’ abroad in order to derive maximum benefit from the experience is a much debated issue" (p. 45). The great majoritv of programs involve more than one term or semester abroad. Study abroad programs with a single subject focus are prevalent in foreign languages,

41 business studies, engineering, and law. Often, this period abroad is coinpulson for all students of the con esponding field. A phase of work placement is im oh ed in nearl) all business study abroad programs, a third of the programs in natural sciences, and a quarter of those in foreign languages (Opper, 1990). Program success is measured in the realm of student experiences. Slud\ abroad participants were asked questions on whether the\ considered the period(s) abroad stimulating and generalh' woith the im estment of time and other resources (Opper, & Teichler, 1990). Sanders, W ard and Perkins (1970) find some \ ariations in the duration of the programs. During their stud\\ 35.8 percent were sunmier programs of \ ar\ ing length: less than 11 percent were just for a semester, while 0.5 percent were longer than a year. Reseai ch data on the impact of the duration of stay, as reported b\ Koester (1987) in the Annual Report of the Council for International Exchange of Scholars, finds that "[i]n 1982, about 38 percent of the awaids made to Americans were for periods of less than 6 months: In 1987, short-tenn awards accounted for 44 percent of the total" (cited in Bum, 1992, p. 5).

Le\ el o f Im m ersion With special attention to the impact of stud}’ abroad, a rex’iew of the literature b\ Sanders and Ward (1970) conclude that the most \ alid purpose for these programs is "the

42 broadening of students through their total immersion in another culture" (p. 78). The authors express concern that "too man\ stud)-abroad programs treat participants as tourists.. .and [are] not acliie\ing the cultural inmiersion which should be their priman goal" (Sanders & Ward, 1970, p. 79). The authors attiibute this to the following impediments:

[LJack of sufficient language prepaiation, the brevit\' of the time spent abroad, the ox ercrowding of certain popular unix ersitx centers to the point where United States' students associate with each other and not with the local people, and the failure of manx foreign unix ersities to accept more .Americans as regular students because thex do not hax e enough places for their own nationals. ( Sanders & Ward, 1970, p. 79)

.Abrams (1979) reports that when students were asked how thex best gained understanding of people in a foreign societx , a preponderant number refened to family sta> s, work experiences, and relations with students of that countiy. Further trax el and studx was mentioned, but onlx bx‘ a third of the respondents. Students’ determination of the degree of immersion in another culture was described bx 28 percent of the respondents as a "sense of belonging" (.A.brams, 1979). Specific reference by 16 percent of the students concluded that the high point of the study- abroad experience was interactions with a foreign indixidual (e. g., some students' contact led to cross-cultural marriages). Recognizing the difficulty in ex aluating the learning outcomes of studx abroad, Abrams (1979) analx zed

43 questionnaires from Antioch students who participated in education abroad twehe \ ears earlier (330 returned the thirteen page questionnaires, control group of 94). The .Antioch education abroad program's inno\ ation is a work experience. Of the research sample, 70 percent of the students participated in this additional dimension of experience in the life of another countn "as a participant, not mereh obsen er, guest or tourist" (.AEA Manual, 1962, Antioch). When asked about the le\ el of imporiance of their participation, 53 percent considered it "one of the most important experiences of m\ life," another 26 percent regcU'ded it as "a great experience... onl\ 4 percent consider[ed] the experience disappointing" (p. 179).

[\\']hat seems to be the case is the more immersion, the more satisfaction and the more impact... .[or] tlie more a program o\ erseas encourages im olvement with the host culture in a \ ariet} of roles, with that of worker in the societ) \ er\ important among them, the more we can expect to find enduring attitudes and behaxior. (.Abrams, 1979, p. 185).

Other factors relating to the degree of participant satisfaction in stud} abroad be\ ond the combination of work-stud\ include that those: "least satisfied were less likeh to haxe been abroad more than six months, to hax e trax'eled extensix elx, or to hax e taken courses regulaiix' taught for students in the host countrx " ( Abrams, 1979, p. 185). In adx'ocating more cultural immersion, Sanders and Ward (1970) called for the preparation of "the kind of student who can

4 4 handle an international experience with a greater degree of independence" (p. 96). Language was another ex aluation criteria to determine the lev el of participation in another culture. Coimnunication with people in the host societx was found to be xalued and 80 percent of students at Antioch learned a foreign language ex en in the English speaking countries (Abrams, 1979). Paige (1993) explains the importance of kinguage: "[Ljanguage is the major mechanism bx which culture-group members communicate and share meaning... the abilitx to speak the target langmige is not alwax s absolutely essential, nor does it assure whollx effectix e intercultural communication or cross-cultural adjustment, but lack of language skills can lead to socicil isolation and frustration" (p. 7). Sensitix'itx to people of another culture max' hax e enabled many to dev elop closer relationsliips with people at home. People-oriented groups, rather than acadeniicallx-oriented ones, are more likelx to acknowledge other people (peers, co-workers, and facultx ) as having something to do with the changes thex perceix ed in themselves (Office of Educational Evaluation and Research, June 21, 1971, .Antioch). Churcliill's studx (1959-60) analx zes the impact on the students of .Antioch's program of education abroad (.AEA). The studx focuses on students' attitudes and feelings rather than on academic studx*. After a year long program, students studx ing in Europe reflected a more balanced outlook on their countiy. The

4 5 students who described the stud\ as a "good experience" are distinguished as ha\ing abo\ e-a\erage scholastic abilit) in contrast to those who described the stud\ as a "poor experience" as ha\ing axerage scholastic abilitx (p. 1).

International Domestic Persoectix e Caiison and W'idainan's (1988) rese^iich study analyzed a quasi-experimental design questionnaire sent to 450 students who spent their junior \ ear abroad bind 800 students who remained on their home campus during their junior year at the I'nix ersitx of California, Rix erside. Generated bx the necessitx of unix ersities to help students dex elop the skills and attitudes wliich will allow them to function successfullx in an interdependent and interconnected world, the researchers found that study ing and lixing in a foreign country leads to heightened lex els of international understanding. Reseaich results detennined that the study abroad group showed higher lex els of international political concern, cross-cultural interest, and cultural cosmopolitanism. Thex also cultix ated more positix e and more critical attitudes toward their own countiy. .Antioch Education .Abroad students were found to make fewer value judgments and, when compared to the resident group (not participating in education abroad), showed increased complexity of thought and were more extrox erted in their thinking (Churchill, 1959, p. 60). Carlson & Widaman's (1988) findings, wliich rex ealed that a x ear of studx ing abroad at a European

46 unh ersiU' leads to a more critical as well as a more positix e attitude toward the United States, is consistent with other studies (e.g.. Caiison & Jensen, 1984: Klineberg & Hull, 1979). Abrams (1979) reports that students' changed some of their conceptions of .America. Students discoxered their countrx's flexibilitx and heterogeneitx' when compared to other countries' political positions after their .Antioch study abroad program. The author found this especiallx significant as it was reported during a period of political tunnoil due to the \ietnam conflict. Other research (Brislin, 1981) has shown that a greater know ledge of foreign or host countries is reflected in enhanced lex els of international understanding (cited in Cai ison & Widaman, 1988, p. 14); howexer, this research was not substantiated bx the present data. Burn, Ladislax', and Smith (1990) find:

[Cjenti al to process of and policies for internationalization in the higher education sector as elsewhere, remains the mox ement of people—students, teaching staff, researchers and administrators—from one countrx to another for the purpose of acquiring first-hand experience of lixing and working in another historical, cultural, social, economic and political enxiromnent. (p. 10)

This leads to the next identified area of international education- studx abroad, progium goals.

47 Prograin Goals Bum, et al. (1990) suggest that the "comparath e success or failure of a stud) abroad program cannot be adequateh assessed w ithout refening first and foremost to its effects (in the short, medium and longer term) on the participating students" (p. 244). Numerous aspects of the program identified in this assessment include "[Qor example, to what extent are the programmes accessible to a broad range of students? To w hat extent can the siLid>' abroad be pro\ ed to be an integral component of the course of stud\ ?" and not a prolongation of studies as a result of the sta\- abroad (p. 244). Financial considerations proxide an extenuating influence. "The problems in the financing of the period of stax abroad, in spite of existing measures of support, were indeed identified bx the programme directors as the greatest problem to which students were exposed" (Burn, et al., 1990, p. 244). The influence impacts who goes abroad. "More than half the programme directors estimated that the additional costs led to a ceitain limitation of the number of pai ticipants and to certain social selection" (p. 245). According to Bum, et al., (1990), detemiining factors for the success and failure of programs include:

(1) Statements on the objectix es of programmes seem to be more than mere declamations. (2) The institutional context and the basic administratix e conditions of the studx' abroad prograimnes appear to exercise the least influence on theii* outcomes. (3) The profile of the student participants play s a certain- but bx no means preponderant-role in the results. Student

4 8 moth ation ma\ therefore be regarded as an important element to be taken into account in the planning of prograimnes. (4) In man\' respects, the design of the study abroad programmes pro\ es to be a significant factor in detemiining the 'success' and 'problems',.. .the high degree of recognition of the stud}' abroad after the students' return, and of ax oiding prolongation of the ox erall length of stud} in consequence of the sta} abroad are more likeh to be achiex ed when participation is coinpulson', duration of the sta} is comparatix eh long, the program of courses to be followed is largeh predetermined, and when the prograimne ma} be described as being higlil}' organized in man} other respects, (pp. 246-47)

Kline (1987) determines that the "[injost important elements of foreign stud} cumculum are "a sense of the mission of the program,' disciplinai^ and institutional configurations, and the abilit} to control what happens in the program" (p. 5). Bum, et al. (1990) finds that the dix erse effects were the most desirable considerations for the program:

Onh for a x en' few of the stud} abroad programmes- certainh less than one-fifth—does the academic dimension hax e a clear priorit} or, on the other hand, are cultural experiences and general personalit} dex elopment so much in the foreground that the questions of scientific learning are clearh subordinate... ..Anglo-Saxon unix ersit} tradition results in cultural education and personalit}" development being more highh rated in these countries than in the other countries analyzed and for Swedish and .American programs, the professional utilit}' of stud}' abroad is not rated so highl}. One particular!}' interesting objectix e appeal ed to be to produce a form of international generalists, (p. 241)

49 The c oncept of intemational generalists leads to questions about tlie participants, their profiles, and the \va\ s in which the influences of intemational education-study abroad are determined. The criteria for the selection of students in programs with competitix e prcx edures imd high numbers of applicants include: "general academic perfonnance, competence in foreign language, demonstrable motixation and predicted abilitx to adapt to c hanges in lixing conditions ... directed at a new transnational sx nthesis of qualifications" (Rum, et ah. 1990. p. 24R).

Future Expectations Bum (1992) predicts four trends that will affect U.S. exchanges with the rest of the world bx the x ear 2000: (1 ) Demographic projections point to a decline in the number of college-age indixiduals in the United States (by 20 perc ent or greater): (2) The demand for post-secondaiy educational exchanges exceeds the supply of places ax ailable in manx countries: (3)The qualitx quantitx' issue is shifting priorities towai'd ensuring the qualitx and societal relex ance of that education: (4) Tlie trend for American scholai s. especiallx- in science and engineering, to take shoiter sojoums abroad than some X ears ago. Shorter temi (one month or less), a trend identified bx Zinberg (1980), also applied to scholars in the sciences, social sciences, and humanities in official exchanges between the U.S. and Germanx 1978-1985. In the Fulbright

50 Senior Scholar program this pattern was noted and attributed to other continuing trends (the falling dollar, two-career families, etc.) (Bum, 1992, p. 13).

Personal De\ elonment of Participants Kauffman, Martin, andWea\*er (1992) theorize that "study abroad is one of the most powerful tools ax ailable for internationalizing the cuniculum in American colleges and unix ersities" (p. 1). The am hors identih txx o kex x ariables which detennine the "degree to which a sojourn abroad affects students: the student’s maturitx and extent to which the student is immersed in the host culture"( Kauffman, et al., 1992, p. 2). Identification of three basic wax s in which students change include: (1) perceptions thex hax e of the host culture and their understanding of it; (2) the wax thex perceive their own culture; i,md ( 3 ) global imderstanding. Potential impact of study abroad on students’ ^lersonal dex elopment in the following areas include: (1) intrapersonal understanding; (2) interpersonal relations; (3) x alues; and (4) life direction x ocation. Comparisons between Kauffman, Martin, and Weaxer’s (1992) research and the liteieture concerning personal dex elopment led the authors to conclude:

The studx abroad research suggests that students who can be described as less dexelopmentallx mature before thex- begin their study abroad are more likely to experience a greater magnitude of personal change than those who are more mature. Students who begin at a higher

51 le\ el of niatuiiU aie more likeh’ to reach a sophisticated Ie\ el of international understanding. Also, the less de\ elopmentalh' mature person who has onh superficial contact with the host culture exhibits little change in either personal dex elopment or intemational awareness, (pp. 91- 92)

The authors proxide an extensix e synthesis of salient findings from research about study abroad, which used existing instruments and specialh designed instruments. These findings prox ide a basis for compaiison for m\ current studx betxxeen students' studx tour abroad and students' studx abroad. The area of inteipersonal dex elopment, including self-awareness, self- confidence, and autonomx , were applicable to the study. The intrapersonal dex elopment or integration of the self with others relatix e to studx abroad is associated with an increase in inteipersonal skills, or increased tolerance of people who are different than oneself. The insight from Piaget and Inhelder is "that personal dexelopment is stimulated bx the interaction between the person and his or her enxiromnent, between self and world" (cited in Kauffmann, et al., 1992, p. 127). Kauffmen, et al., proposes a model of the Transfonnation Process inx olx ing stages of growth that includes: autonomx, belonging, x alues, cognition, x ocation, and worldxiew. Jurasek (1991) suggests that "sojourners haxe learned to distinguish between preconception and the process of perception or that students hax e been disequilibiized (Piaget) and hax e begun to explore another culture's epistemologx " (p. 9). Tlie

52 students following stud\ abroad ha\e de\eloped greater cognitixe flexibilitx- and liigher tolerance o f ainbiguitx’ and differentness and relatixitx, according to Jurasek as a result of the "core learning exent off-campus"( 1991, p. 9). Kauffmann (1984) focused his earlier research on "The Impact of Studx Abroad on Personalitx Change" in a pre- and post- studx abroad questionnaire for Goshen College undergraduates. His findings include:

The [studx abroad] experience appears to hax e had the most impact on three dimensions of personalitx functioning: ( 1 ) changed world xiew and an increased interest in reflectix e thought as in the arts, literature and language. (2) increased interest in the welfare of others and (3) greater interpersonal dex elopment (increased self confidence, self esteem, independence, appreciation of sensual reactions and feelings), (p. 141, cited in Racette, 1996, p. 41)

The research describes the perceix ed benefits for American students inxolxed in study abroad programs: ".Although I appreciated the cultural broadening I receix ed, what was most important xxas what I learned about mx self.. .We were treated as adults, so we acted like adults, I'x e come back much more grown up, much more responsible" (Sanders & Ward, 1970, p. 89). I discuss the benefits relative to the participant experiences in Chapter 4 of this studx. "One of the best xxax s of learning what students gained from the ox erseas experience is to ask them what thex think a good progmm should be like" (Sanders & Ward. 1970, p. 92). Reseai'chers clearlx' note recognition of how to

53 determine the impact of a study abroad program upon the paiticipants. Opper, Teichler, and Carlson (1990) focus on the impact upon paiticipants in the Stud\ Abroad Exaluation Project (SAEP). Their study analx zes studx abroad programs which promote mobilitx betxxeen institutions of higher education in the United Kingdom, France, the Federal Republic of Gennanx, Sweden, and the United Stales. The students suived ranged in age from 19-25 X ears. Opper et al., notes discrepancies between the students' profiles in studx abroad programs and the ox erall student population. Students whose parents hax e completed a higher education degree or who hax e more highlx qualified occupations constitute a higher percentage of participation. Students with prex ious international experiences, either their o x x t i or those of their pcirents or siblings, were much more likelx to participate in a study abroad program. Student motix ation is cleaiix a factor also noted bx Burn ( 1988) in xolume I of the study. Opper, Teicliler, and Caiison (1990) research unequix ocallx shows that for the majority of participants the prospect of spending a period of studx abroad powerfully influenced the field of studx and their choice of home institution. The research identifies:

The desire to acquire an enhanced knowledge of foreign languages, as well as first hand experience of lixing in another countrx and thus of becoming acquainted with a countrx and its people are quoted as being the students'

54 most important reasons for participating in stud\ abroad. (Opper, et al.,1990. p. 204)

Thi'ough outside (out of class) contacts, between students and people in the host countn. "stud\ abroad proxides a x erx good oppoitunitx' to get to know the host countn % its inliabitants, their wax of life, mentalitx, and culture" (Opper, et al., 1990, p. 205). The extent to which tliis contact with people from another culture brought about changes in the students' "self-appraisal" was not conducix e to the quantitatix e analx sis as measured bx a pre- departure and post-sojourn assessment questionnaire. Howex er, the authors note that a substantial number of students "were of the opinion that studx abroad had made a significant impression on the dex elopment of their personalitxwhich con esponded to written responses bx program directors (Opper, et al., 1990, p. 211). The authors conclude:

emphasis is laid on other effects of studx abroad upon personalitx, work stxie, and social competencies, which are of more general importance professionallx tlian on impacts directlx attributable to job-related knowledge during studx' abroad: studx- abroad seems to promote the abilitx to adjust to unfamiliar situations, to deal with different kinds of people, to be prepared to take on new duties and new working conditions, to get to know prexiouslx unknown subject matters, to manage in unaccustomed circmustances and to leant from comparisons. (Opper. et al., 1990, p. 213)

Caiison and Widaman (1988) report that such concepts as woiid-mindedness (Brislin, 1981) and the dexelopment of positix e attitudes toward other countries is directly related to extended, posith e contacts.. .with host nationals such as those that can dexelop through stud> abroad. Based on a re\ lew of the literature, study abroad participants also reflect the tendency to travel abroad more than the control groups, 64 percent had two to fix e hips abroad since graduation compared to the 54 percent control group (Abrams, 1979. p. 183). In addition, study abroad participants demonstrated an increased awareness of international connections—detennined bx participants describing ouïrent events outside of the United States, reading foreign newspapers, magazines, or books in a foreign language and participating in international actixities at the community, national, or world lex el (Abrams, 1979). Abrams (1979) detennines that "ft]he experience abroad had an important influence upon subsequent behaxior of the alunmi both in their educational and job cai'eers" (p. 182). These findings corroborate Oldt (1969): wiio reports that stud) abroad pai ticipants tend to be an academically oriented group.. .(finished college, went on to graduate school, and earned Ph.D.s). Abrams (1979) determines that during the first six x eai'S after the experience there is little or no specific influence; howex er, increased time for reflection found 21 percent of the sample's choice of graduate school and 39 percent their choice of graduate field were influenced bx .Antioch Education Abroad, AEA,. Fifty-one percent felt it strengthened their academic interests and motiv ation.

56 With regard to job histories, Abrains (1979) re\ erses his 1964 slud\, wiiich found that short!} after the stud} there was little or no influence on vocational life. Abranis (1979) reports that 39 percent of participants were influenced b} their stud} abroad program in selections of specific fields of work and jobs. " Almost half of them tliink that 'marketable skills or background' gained from AEA. helped them obtain a job. The specific tools [to which] the} refen ed ... include kinguage, self-confidence, cultural knowledge, and experience abroad" (Abrams, 1979, p. 183). De\ eloping sustainable educational linkages through technolog} is another wa} for participants to extend the stud} abroad experience (Ste\ ens, 1987: and Jenkins, 1996). Demoe (1987) suggests combining a field work model and a course in daih chics, famih and kinship relations, propert}, gox ernance, or "hidden agenda stud}' of chilization relationships" in order to maintain the academic integrit} and personal impact of short-term study abroad programs (p. 96), Salisbuiy (1991) describes combining class work and tra\el ulth a research field experience during a short-term tra\ el to maintain academic and experiential learning. Short-tenn stud}' tours abroad intensifies the concern to maximize learning and maintain academic integrity during study abroad. Limited time, makes it difficult to achieve significant le\ els of cultural iimnersion, meaningful contact with host nationals, and language dex elopment, each which requires

57 extensix e longitudinal sequencing to enable learning and diminish "culture shock" (DuBois, 1951: Oberg, 1960). Studx tours max offer one possibilité’ for introducing students to more extensix e studx abroad experiences.

Study Abroad—Study Tours Abroad Kidd (1977) in his text How Adults Learn commented. "[EJducators sometimes assume that since the stimulus in an enxironment outside the classroom is strong, that interest or excitement or tension are conditions to insure good learning ... \x here there are fewer opportunities for controlling the enxironment. greater, not less attention to enxironmental factors needs to be paid” (p. 241). The author suggests proxlding places and planned opportunities where learners can "pause, reflect, obtain feed-back, seek further clarifx ing infoniiation or experiences, begin to sort out and assess what has been happening to them" (Kidd. 1977. p. 241). Wilson (1984) claims that short-tenn international traxel has a positix e effect and improx es adults' teaching about the countries xlsited. "Teachers who hax e been short tenn international sojourners teach more accuratelx’. authoritatix elx’. creatix elx’. and enthusiastically and with more understanding about places thex have xlsited" (Wilson. 1984. p. 155). Bonfiglio (1993) reflects on the wax s in which her ox erseas travel experiences has increased her perceptions. The impact of her actions on others, and how them actions affect her rex eals the

5 8 world as \ en small and interconnected. As an educator promoting international education, she explains, "1 think it is important that I assist tra\'elers to explore their reasons for trax el and guide them to reflect on what their experiences teach them about the world and its people"(Bonfiglio, 1993, p. 8). Bonfiglio (1993) agrees "with Lmtliropologist Gregorx Bateson, who contends that it is through compailson with others that we lem n about ourselx es and our own culture" (p. 8). Pearce (1984) reports that ex en a txvo-to-three-week package tour can ciffect the tourist, as detennined in a study of British trax elers touring Greece and Morocco . Salisbun (1991) describes a studx tour in an academic setting. The four-week tour serx es as an intensix e study program offered during the intersession through The Unix ersitx of Wisconsin-Green Bay. The three-credit hour program in the Yucatan, in existence for the past 12 x ears, proxides inexpensix e (including air fare, room, board, and local-trax el fees) warm weather studx abroad for students (betxxeen 25-45). The author’s academic course structure proxides lectures, field trips, discussion sessions, and an inx estigation project to proxide them cross-cultural experiences with the host culture. The structured classroom learning (cultural and language instruction) is combined with small group immersion experiences. Student performance on tests and essax s rex eal:

that they retained the material they learned in the actix'e exercises better than the lecture material. Furthermore,

59 the material explored in this manner formed an excellent background both in content and method for students to call} out their own projects during the last week of the course. (Salisbur), 1991, p.115)

Goodwin and NTacht (1988) report criticism of stud) tours abroad. The IlE-sponsored study found faculty- members "most dubious" of this category of study abroad (Goodwin & Nacht, 1988, p. 44). The authors determine that stud\ tours abroad are most coimnon in public institutions with lar ge enrollments geared to the Iiigher education to the "masses" rather than to the educated "elite" such institutions often possess a "shading in the coimnunily college into technical, remedial, adult and e\’en secondary education" (Goodwin & Nacht, 1988 p. 45). Tliere were some comments accusing faculty who conduct tours of doing so for personal gain with the goal of "tourism" rather than education. Pejoratix e terms were used to describe the experiences (e.g., "bubble da\ -car*e for adults", "surface"). Further concern expressed by faculty related to participants' gaining tax deductions for trax el (Goodwin & Nacht, 1988). Abrams (1979) notes that the "increasingly popular* but often acadernicallx suspect studx-tours, [were found bx ] onlx' one [percent] of our alunmi" (p. 179) to be the major focus of their pr ogram, although 98 percent reported that thex had trax eled while abroad. As prexiouslx noted in Chapter 1, an acknowledged gap in resear ch and attention in the literature exists concerning studx

60 tours abroad (e. g., Gilliom & .Aiuiink, 1993: Thorpe, 1992: Goodwin & N'acht, 1988). Goodwin and Nacht (1988) suggest that stud\ tours abroad pro\lde conectable programs affording opportunities of focused stud\ and experiences with cai'efully designed details to ensure legitimacy. Such requhements might include keeping a log, preparing projects, and carefulh combining tours with course work (Goodwin & Nacht.1988). Goodwin imd Nacht (1988) an^il\ ze policies cind progrmns for American students \ enturing ox erseas. In an attempt to catalog all of the different pui"poses for study abroad and wax s to implement programs, the authors xlsited approximatelx forty- colleges mid unix ersities in four states plus relexant institutions and organizations. Thex conclude: "An educational experience ox erseas max be the best wax to dex elop the culturallx sensitix e person at anx lex el and anxixhere" (Goodwin & Nacht, 1988, p. 118). Goodwin and Nacht suggest:

First, studx abroad should be related closelx to other international actixities on campus, especiallx area studies, international affairs programs, technical assistance and foreign students on campus.... Second, studx abroad must be integrated fuUy into the educational process and not be treated as an uncomiected dix ei*sion. (Goodwin & Nacht, 1988, p. 120)

The authors conclude that it is huportant to increase the legitimacx' of the programs bx aiding students in planning eaiix, counseling language studx', and detenuining career cuiTicular opportunities. Other suggested possibilities include proxlding

61 pre-depciitLire orientations appropriate for the t\ pe of stud\ contemplated, as well as enabling returnees additional foreign experiences to strengthen in e\ er\ way the study tour abroad (Goodwin & Xacht, 1988). Burn's Study Abroad Articulation Project (1991) concludes: "R)r studx abroad to contribute to the internationalization of students' home campus programs, it should not be an isolated or 'encLixe' experience. Students' pre-studx abrocid period should relate to and help prepare students for the academic learning in the studx abroad countiy " (p. 126). She suggests students undertake coursexxork in the held of their majors xxhile abroad to help integrate the experience into their college career. A semester of intensix e studx in a program abroad should be equix aient for institutions xxith a txvo-x ear language requirement. In demonstrating the inteirelationship betxxeen studx abroad and studx tours abroad, Goodxxln mid Nacht (1988) catagories are useful. Goodxx in and Nacht integrate studx abroad programs into categories representing increasing intensitx of a studx abroad experience. Thex illustrate this on a continuum of experiences to proxide easier comparisons. Their continuum indicates that adx ocates of one model speak "scomfuUx' of others and ecstaticallx of their oxxn" (p. 33). The program categories include: ( 1 ) Total immersion xxith full participation in an indigenous experience. Students are educated thorouglilx in the use of a

62 foreign language and culture, and selected through a rigorous application process including an inteniew and essa\ . When sent into a country, students take a full course load for an entire academic \ eai" in a "highly qualified indigenous institution" (Goodwin & Nacht, 1988, p. 34). Coacliing and special treatment for slLidents is considered counteiproductix e. Anangemenls for the transfer of credit to the home institution is the student's responsibilit}. (2) The second approach is less strenuous immersion that places American students "in schools for foreigners" abroad which are "free standing institutions connected or not with institutions or a local uni\ ersit} but operated w ith the special problems of non- nath e speakers in mind" (Goodwin & Nacht, 1988, p. 38). The institutions' primary^ purpose is language and culture and they ma\ specialize in an intensix e language program. The student bod\ is multinational and the staff and faculty is sensitive to the needs of foreign students. Some programs pro\ ide assistance with a "resident adxisor" hom the home college or prox ide "circuit riding" assistance from staff duiing the studx abroad experience (Goodxxin & Nacht, 1988, p. 39). (3) Attend a special facilitx abroad xxith occasional and selective immersion xxith the hom e institution setting up a special program. The "enclax e" approach maintains exposuie to the foreign liigher education system from afar. The primaiy purpose is studx- of culture and artifacts of the region xvhere they are located. The centers ai e comfortable bases xxith the personalized

63 education and the growth of communit} among a relath eh small group of faculty and students of major importance (Goodwin & N'acht, 1988, p. 43). (4) Limited immersion programs are extensions from the home uni\ ersit\ or the "stud\ tour," intersemester special projects, summer sojourns, and other forms of fl\ ing \isits to a foreign area with little or no preparation required. Growth is traced to the home institution's courses for which another countiy provides the laboratoiy. Goodwin and Nacht (1988) identih 10 program purposes in their research relev cmt to tliis studv : (1) Pi'ovide a ‘Tinisliing school" and or "ginnd tom " (2) BroLiden the intellectual elite (3) Internationalize the educated citizeniy (4) Fulfill a distinctiv e institutional mission (5) Explore our roots (6) Master a foreign language (7) \'iew the world as a laboratory (8) Know ourselv es (9) Leam from others (10) Improv e international relations

Multicultural Charges of discrimination against studv abroad programs exist in four aieas: (1) intellectual; (2) economic; (3) racial and or etlmic; and (4) age, marital status, and physical handicap. Studv'

64 abroad programs are limited, in some cases, to the intellectual!} liighl} gifted. Goodwin and Nacht (1988) repoii ”[\v]ide agreement that stud} abroad should not be a\ ailable to the intellectual!} inferior student." Ho\ve\ er, researchers find increases in adaptabilit}’, independence, and innox ation when compaiisons aie made between qualified students and the "elite" (academical!} ax erage students who participate in programs and those demonstrating high lex els of scholastic aptitude) (e. g.. Burn 1990). Economic discrimination is einother accusation. "In simple tenus it is pointed out that poor students cannot afford most forms of stud} abroad" (Goodwin & Nacht, 1988, p. 75). Discrimination on racial and ethnic grounds include charges that the "cuiTent structure is large!} the creation of upper-middle-class white Americans of Western European extraction, it is unattractixe to minoiities. Neither the st} le or the content is like!} to appeal to persons of different socioeconomic background and geographic origin. Those with Asian, .African, Middle Eastern, and Latin .American ancestors, and especial!} those from working class backgrounds" (Goodwin & Nacht, 1988, p.76). Goodxxin and Nacht's responses to these criticisms include sex eral points: 1) There is a core of truth and it needs to be taken into account in future program construction and administration. 2) Third xxorld programs are difflcult to operate due to chaotic conditions. It is difficult to guarantee the academic integrit} of an} program ox er an extended tenu. Ph} sical

65 hazards are also undeniable, crime in some third-world cities exists, especial!) against foreigners. Political turmoil can quick!) turn into anti-American action, as in Iran. 3) Those who charge discrimination on the grounds of marital status, age, and disabilit)' make the point that relath el) few stud) abroad programs ha\ e been constructed so that it is practical for persons with families (especial!) single parents), older persons, the persons with disibilities, or e\ en mm ried persons to take pail. Timing. li\ing an angements, miscellaneous requirements, ail seem geared to the ) oung, unattached, high!) mobile students with few conmiitments, responsibilities to others, or inhibitions (Goodwin & N'acht, 1988, p. 77),

Bliiti (1985) identifies changing attitudes concerning stud) abroad as mo\ing from an elitist position to an awareness of the "increasing need for Americans to have cross-cultural knowledge that equips them to li\ e and work in an increasing!) interdependent world" (p. 48). In a further study. Burn, Ceiy ch, and Smith (1990) state that "as labor market and emplo) ment stmctures e\ olve, higher education is called upon not on!)' to cater to the needs of e\ er increasing percentages of respective age cohorts undergoing initial higher education and training, but also to proxide enhanced opportunities for acquiring more adx anced training and for retraining to facilitate career adaptations and change in response to technological adx ance" (p. 10).

66 The Third World proxides studx and senice opportunities to proxide a geographic balance xxith European studies.

Geographic Balance Ox erseas programs in countries wiiich are unfamiliar to Vmeiicans or with images of increased risks perceixed bx American academia hax e fewer studx abroad participants. World media cox erage, especiallx of the dex eloping countries, is often limited and largely negatixe.

Readers, listeners, and xiexxers are reminded incessantlx of riots and rex olutions, drug cultixation, famine, disease, and anti-Americanism. One result is prex ailing distaste and fear among students and their parents for residence in these countries.... [Ironicallx ] although the x ast majority^ of American studx abroad is in Europe this is the part of the globe xvhere cultural difference is least and should be grasped most easilx xx ithout on-site residence. (Goodwin & Nacht, 1988, p. 86)

Goodxxin and Nacht (1988) identify Mexico as a neighbor rich in cultural heritage, an excellent training ground for Spanish, xxith remarkablx loxx costs, and proxlding an opportunity to cement international relations of enormous significance to the United States (p. 86). Hoxvexer, negatixe perceptions result in the few studx abroad programs targeted for Mexico. Zikopoulos (1993) finds onlx a small percentage of studx abroad participants choose to study in locations outside the

67 industrial world. Da\ is (1995) confirms this, \ et indicates increase in student enrollment in Latin America (6 percent). Racette (1996) reports that ”[t]o date, research on stud) abroad issues has consistenth been conducted under the assumption that all stud}' locations outside of the United States pro\ide students with comparable experiences" (p. 33). She suggests that experiences gained during a period of stud} abroad, parliciilarl} in a non-industrial countn, result in skills that address both national and international needs for cross-cultural understanding" (p. 49). Racette also proposes stmcturing future programs with an increased focus on emironmental and structured political insights in order to take full adx antage foreign experiences ( e. g., pox ert}, class dixisions, and race). Racette (1996) cilso suggests that programs:

(1) Proxide st udents with improx ed opportunities to structure their daih obserx ations and to draw their own conclusions; (2) Increase emphasis on significance of a coherent extracuiTicular structure.. . (peers' actixities and infomiational exchanges); (3) Establish writing requirements, either during or after the foreign stud}' experience, should be emphasized more strongl}'... (e.g., formal essa} or journal to be handed in at the end of the semester); (4) Emphasize insights concerning social issues of the host countrx'; (5) Share experiences and insights gained from the experience abroad with the communit}' in the home countn*. (p. 45)

68 International and global connections The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (XCATE) now mandates international and global education. International and global education is defined b\ XCATE as "education that dex elops the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are the basis for decision making and pai'ticipation in a world characterized b\ cultural plumlism, interconnectedness, and international economic competition (Mem field, 1995). Tlie connections between international and global education aie an essential part of the success and future of studx abroad programs. Students surx ex ed in the Studx Abroad Ex aluation Project demonstrated a high global awai eness prior to their program abroad and maintained it upon re-entn' to their home institution (Opper, et al., 1990). The researchers conclude this was a motix ating factor in students' interest in studx ing abroad. Proxlding another connection between studx abroad and global education, Jurasek (1991) describes Earlham's PAGS series. The program, designed as prepai ation for studx abroad, proxides some measure of perspectix e training. The four tx pes of awareness integrated into the humanities courses include (1) perspectix e consciousness; (2) understanding of global dx namics; (3) awareness of human choices; and (4) substantix e knoxx ledge of problems in our global societxx Returnees are proxlded with opportunities to contemplate questions of perspectix e and perception. These obserx ations \xere used in focused topic

69 testimonies to share the "transformation (the collision with other perceptual cultural s\ stems)" (p. 19) with their sta\ -at-home peers. These bridge actixities were designed to link studx abroad with on-campus studies to promote the integration of international education and global education in both locations. Racette (1996) proposes that

education of x oung .Americans in countries outside the W estern world is therefore of greater importance than prexiouslx assumed. Study abroad programs, unlike anx other short-term academic experience, has the potential to gix e students an intensix e understanding of the enxironmental and social problems mounting in the non- industrial world as well as of their global implications, (p. 32)

Merrx field (1995) identifies the "dx namic nature of todax's cultures, global diffusion and mixing of ideas, and the acceleration of knowledge diffusion contribute to local, regional, and global debates ox er what is taught in schools"(p. 22). Students need to be prepared to lix e in an interconnected world and if thex are to change and improx e societx, thex must understand and appreciate different cultures and perspectives. Researchers find experiences during a semester abroad to lead to significant changes in personal x alues, often including a more critical stand towards the .American lifestx le as well as a more positix e xiew of some aspects of the United States (e. g., Racette, 1996; Carlson & WTdamann, 1988; and Carlson, Bum, Useem, Yachimowicz, 1990). ".As numbers of participants in

70 foreign stud\ programs increase, know ledge of conditions outside the westeraized world ma\ pro\ e an asset in the process of modify ing international relations on the wa\ to a more humane global societ} " (Racine, 1996, p. 48).

Global Education This section re\ iews the global education literature that is relex ant to this inquirx. In the past two decades, the literature describes increasing interconnections and complex relationships tliroLighout the world. The National Council for Social Studies (XCSS) identifies technological adxances, increased trade, tourism and cultural exchanges, enxiromnental concerns, competition for markets, scarce resources, and mcreased human interactions across national and continental boundaries as examples of the increasing connectedness. (NCSS Position Statement on Global Education, 1982), The Cuniculum Standards for Social Studies (1994) demonstrate cuirent awareness of this increasingly interdependent and connected world:

The realities of global interdependence require understanding of the increasingly important and dix erse global connections among world societies before there can be analysis leading to the development of possible solutions to persisting and emerging global issues. (Cuniculum Standards for Social Studies, NCSS, 1994, p. 29)

While x arious definitions of global education exist, most leaders in global studies emphasize learning about "those problems and issues which cut across national boundaries and

71 about the interconnectedness of s\ stems—cultural, ecological, economic, political and technological" (Tye, & Kniep, 1991, p. 47). Global education also invoK^es learning to understand and appreciate cultural backgrounds different from our own, to see the w orld through the e\ es and minds of others, and to realize that all people of the w orld need and w ant man\ of the same tilings (Tye & T\ e, 1992, p. 6). Global education, according to Men} field (1995), connects human dhersit} [and] equity with global issues that ar e critical to the sur\i\ al of life on the planet (p. 24). Tye and T\ e (1992) report that powerful groups such as the N'ational Go\ ernor's Association ha\ e spoken out in "fa\ or of a global perspectix e in the cuniculum of our nations' schools" (p. 7). The policx statements in ".America in Transition: the International Frontier" (1989) and the "Studx Commission on Global Education in The United States Prepares for Its Future: Global Perspectix es" ( 1987) demonstrate the goxenors' commitment. L F. .Anderson (1990) presents a three-fold rationale for global education. First, the world's social structure changed during the last tw o decades. He distinguishes the first change as the accelerating grow th of global interdependence. .Anderson identifies this interdependent growth in a x arietx of disciplines (e.g., liistorx, geography, economics, politics, sociology, demographx', ecologx*, and culture). Tlie second demarcation is the erosion of western dominance of the world, the reemergence of

72 old cultures, the decline of economic imperialism and an increase in the global importance of the Pacific Basin. The third and final change .Anderson identifies is the decline of .American hegemon). Anderson's second rationale is the globalization of American societ) in the econoiu) , political life, people, and global consciousness. The third and final rationale prox ided b) .Anderson is the social and educational change occuning toda). Societ) is drixing the changes in the educational s) stem (.Anderson, 1990). HcUtx e) (1976) prox ides one of the initial definitions of global education. He delineates fix e interdisciplinar) dimensions to global education: perspectix e consciousness, state-of-the- planet awareness, cross-cultural awareness, knowledge of global d) nanties, and awareness of human choices (Hanx e) , 1987). Perspectix e consciousness proxides an important focus for this stud). Perspectix e consciousness means the recognition of awareness that:

1. one's xiew of the world is not unix ersall) shared, 2. one's xiew of the world has been and continues to be shaped b) influences that often escape detection, 3. others hax e x iews of the world profoundl) different from one's own. (Hanxey, 1987, p. 114)

Other global education researchers proxide further claiit). Meny field describes perspectix e consciousness as occuring when "people see the world from different perspectix es in global education. Students need to understand the multiple

73 perspectix es imohed" (lecture notes 12 3 94). McNergney (1994) defines a global perspectix e as a means to help students "abandon their oxvn positions, at least temporarilx, and to consider ex ents from other points of xiew—through xideocases depicting education in other countries ’makes the strange familiar and .. . the fainiliai' strange bx studx ing other cultures x eiy different from our own we leam -to reflect creatix elx on our own culture'" (pp. 298-299). Fix e basic themes related to connections between global and local communities include x alues, transactions, actors, procedures and mechanisms, and issues (.Alger & Harf, 1986). Alger points out the "dx namic growth in linkages between human beings located in distant places.. .local citizens are taking action on international issues, in worldwide economic inx olx ement- throLigh trade, foreign inx estment, and in exchange programs" (.Alger, 1989). Despite the state s\ stem ideologx, .Alger identifies sustained, dix erse international sx stems which operate in most local communities. Three global networks proxide relief and aid, exchange programs, and international education. The slogan "Tliink Globallx and .Act Locallx " captures the world relations of cities between social science paradigms and ex erx dax human experience (.Alger, 1990). .Alger continues by clarifxing that the relationships of the nation-states emerge and change, and the "self conscious and organized responsix eness of people to these changes is growing" (.Alger, 1990, p. 514).

74 Becker's (1990) recommendations, grounded in social slLidies, adv ocates preparing students for the 21st centurv tlirough:

a more pluralistic, intertwined, international sv steni requiring new competencies and skills that are interdisciplinar} and not culture and time bound. Students need to be exposed to related perspectives. The\ also need opportunities to learn skills that will enable them to anal} ze problems, evaluate contending polic} positions, and take effective action to change conditions that threaten life on planet Earth. (Becker, 1990, p. 70)

Lani}' (1988) recognizes that avoiding controvers} is impossible because of the different images of international s} stems. Consequentl} , he recommends global education programs structure their effoits aiound:

1. substantive and verifiable infoniiation that represent the findings of international scholarsliip in all disciplines.. . these studies should represent man}' cultural, historical, gender-related, and ideological perspectives. 2. provide participants with opportunities to explore the core assumptions and values that define their worldview and compare it with worldviews held b} individuals in communities across the international s}*stem.. .[examine] images of the world as the} evaluate critical international issues and prepare to respond to them. 3. introduction and development of anal} tical and evaluation skills. 4. Agreement with Hanvey (1976) introduce students to strategies for pai ticipation and involvement in local, national and international affairs. (Lamy, 1990, p. 55)

Illustrating the significance of cultural diversit} to global education, Kniep (1987) advocates that universal and diverse hmiiaii x alues exist in the world and, therefore, educators witliin a global education cuiTicuIum are encoui'aged to see a x ai ietx of w orld x alues and gain a heightened self understanding. Kniep proposes four essential elements of studx in a global education that set the boundaiies for the social studies curriculum.

1. The study of systems—including the economic, political, ecological, and teclmological dominating our interdependent world. 2. The studx of human x alues—unix ersal x alues defining what it means to be human and dix erse x alues derix ed from group membersliip and contributing to unique xxorld x iews. 3. The studx of persistent issues and problems— including peace and securitx issues, national and international dex elopment issues, local and global enxironmental issues, and human rights issues. 4. The studx" of global historx —focusing on the ex olution of unix ersal and dix erse human x alues, the historical dex elopment of contemporary' global systems, and the antecedent conditions and causes of todax's global issues. (Kniep, 1989, p. 400)

Key elements in a global perspectix e, according to Case (1993), constitute elements of txxo dimensions: the substantix e dimension and the perceptual dimension wiiich acts as the lens for the substantix e dimension. Case offers fix e elements related to the perceptual dimension of global perspectix es, : open- mindedness, anticipation of complexitx', resistance to stereotx ping, inclination to empathize, and non-chauxinism. Case (1993) considers open-mindedness the crucial feature of the perceptual dimension and defines the concept as "a willingness to

76 form one’s opinions on the basis of impartial consideration of a\ ailable e\ idence" (p. 10). Wilson (1993a) finds in her research that international experience " ciearK contributes to a gain in the perceptual understanding of an indhidual” (p. 20). She identifies how de\ eloping self and relationships "ox eiiaps” with gaining a global perspectix e. Internationaux experienced persons (e.g.. Peace Coips x olunleers) become cultural mediators because of these inteipersonal connections (Wilson, 1993a). Wilson also states the increased international knowledge relatixe to the host countrx is another identified impact of an international experience. Becoming a cultural mediator (Bodmer, 1982; Biislin, 1981; and Wilson, 1993a) is to "enable indix iduals who haxe lixed in another countrx to act as guides for sojourners in their own countrx and people who mediate between cultures bx creating (opportunities for inonocultural indix iduals to communicate with their counteipai ts in other countries" (Wilson, 1993a, p. 28). In summarx, global education is distinctlx different from traditional education in the United States. Global educators teach how people around the world effect students' lix es and their local conmiunitx', and how students’ choices, judgments, and decisions affect other people and the planet (Algers, 1990). The interconnected netxxork of human x alues, global sx stems, global issues and problems, global historx, cross-cultural awareness and awareness of human choices is increasingly more complex. Skills for aneilx'zing, exaluating and using the complex multifaceted

77 information in a global world are an essential part of global education. Global educators recognize that enxiromnental, economic, technological, and political issues go bex ond the boundaries or control of anx one nation or region (.Anderson, 1990: Kniep, 1989). Global educators promote the acceptance of the global complexitx leading students to dexelop strategies for participation and inxolxement. The rapidlx expanding access to the Internet facilitates technological communication and educational linkage. Bradshaw ( 199b) describes global education topics and themes axailable on the "infonnation highwax " as well as illustrations of the "users" finding their own connection to international experiences and contiicts. W'olanskx (1992-1993) adxises educators to infuse global education into the curriculum using first-hand experiences in international actixities. Of particular interest in this inquirx is the connection linking globcil education and cross-cultural perspectix es. Hanx ex (1987) states, "Yes, cross-cultural awareness does matter, for the following major reason if for none other-Sexeral million years of ex olution seem to hax e produced in us a creature that does not easilx recognize the members of its own species. Human groups commonlx hax e difficulty in accepting the humanness of other human groups" (p. 91). Gilliom (1981b) identifies the need for cross-cultural experiences for effectix e teaching and learning of global perspectix es and affinus that, as kex agents in introducing global

78 education, teachers should ”.,.ser\ e as lixing examples of the globally concerned citizen the\ m e.. .attempting to produce" (p. 171). Gilliom (1992) suggests international travel and stud\ as inx aluable for exploring other ways of life and for collecting teaching materials for the classroom and promoting global cilizensliip for teachers. First-hand contacts with other cultures and international experiences can help alle\iate limited experiences, according to Gilliom, and proxide a natural incentixe for examining the literature in intercultural (cross-cultural) education. International trax el proxides access to direct intercultural educational opportunities for interacting with others in their home enxiromnent. The increase of intercultural interactions in rapidlx expmiding trax el is identified in Chapter 1. The need to better understand the rmnifications of these interactions is closelx related to intercultural education.

Intercultural (Cross-Cultural) Education The tliird section of the literature rexiexx suivex s the resemch and writing concerning intercultural (cross-cultural) education as it relates to students' studx abroad—studx tours. Kidd (1977) recognizes that men and xxomen haxe alxxax s trax eled to other lands for religious, political, humanitmian, or commercial reasons. The number of these sojourners has increased, originating from not just a few countries, but from all count ries, and manx \xork together as members of an

79 inlemeitional leain. How the> leam from each other, how the\ leam to get along as colleagues, tmd how the\ leam to deal with the new culture in which all are working, is a matter of great fascination. "E\ en if a new skill or resource [introduced b\ sojourners] results in better health or income, it will not be accepted if it mns counter to cultural \ alues. This is an example of the more general case that new leaming must enhance the self, or it mns the risk of rejection or distortion" (Kidd, 1977, pp. 230- 231). Students who cross into another land begin the educational process of lemming that is necesscUA to li\ e, work, and interact w ith others from another culture.

Hoopes (1980) identifies a ke\ point in this process: De\ eloping cultural awareness is a process of looking inward, ’[ijntercultural leam ing'.. .is a similar and parallel process but is focused outward on the leaming of other cultures, (p. 17)

Research describes intercultural educationas an intense, im oKing area of stud\. The intensitx of the experience comprises one of the main factors of intercultural experience (Biislin, et al., 1983). According to Paige (1993), numerous reasons for this intensitx inx olx e: ( 1 ) content that ma\ be difficult to grasp as it requires students to reflect upon matters with which the\ ha\ e had little first-hand experience: (2) personalized beha\ioral and affecth e learning, self- reflection, and direct experience with cultural difference;

80 (3) process-oriented pedagog) as a major goal: and (4) epistemological explorations regarding altemati\ e \va\ s of knowing and \ alidating what we know. Kohls (1984) ckuifies differences among four learning modes-education, training, orientation, and briefings of cross- cultural prepaiedness in adults. He suggests education for relating "large bodies of content knowledge and de\ eloping in- depth maslerx of one or more subjects, whereas training LLSualh focuses on 'process' and or de\ eloping competence' in performing specific skills or meeting specific objecta es" (Kohl. 1984. p. 91). Orientation prepares a person to understand and function effecti\el\ in a new or radicalh different enxironment. and briefings pro\ ide an o\ eie iew with the most essential infonnation in a \ en limited time span. Kidd (1977) further articulates this learning process across cultures:

[I]t is assumed that tra\ el is broadening and if people will trax el the\ will grow in understanding of other people. In general tliis max' be true. But it happens in no direct or certain wax. There is notliing inexitable about good human relations.... There are also the people xxho traxel but seem to be touched not at all bx their experiences, or who max' actuallx have had all their prejudices confirmed— .The goals of cross-cultural education and the goals of comparatix e education are similar: to help the learner sx stematicallx explore the x alues of another culture and better understand Mmself, his own xalues. and socletx'. (p. 2 3 0 )

81 Pusch, SeeK e, and Wasilewski (1981) note the "origins of cross-cultural training la\ in the effort to prépaie people for immediate entn into other cultures" (p. 87). In the broad ox erview of the wide range of issues and problems im oh ed in cross-cultural encounters, Brislin (1993) finds that there are extenshe commonalities in the experiences of people who interact with cultural differences across man\ fields (e.g., education, business, language, politics, and de\ elopment). Brislin de\ eloped a "culture-general assimilator" entailing 100 incidents which attempt to capture experiences, feelings and thoughts that \ iriualh all sojourners encounter. A \ alidation sample composed of sixt) people extensix el\ experienced in the field of international and cross-cultural education reached a consensus of the appropriateness of the selections chosen and the groupings into themes imd categories. The critical incidents' ceitegories include: emotional experiences, knoxx ledge area, and the bases of cultural differences. (College students who tested these 100 critical incidents were found "to make better adjustment to a new culture, and \xere more effectix e in identifx ing reasonable outcomes to the experience" (Brislin, 1993, p. 296).) Brislin (1993) suggests the "culture general assimilator" be used xxith reentrx students, supporting O'Brien, Fiedler, and Hexxlett (1971) who found that "training can be more effectix e for people xxho hax e alreadx had some cross- cultural experiences" (p. 297).

82 In the field of business. Hams and Moran (1991) suggest that life is an intercultural experience. The issue is how to effecti\ el\ cope with cultural differences, and how to create s\ nerg>. The authors recommend Redden's (1975) Cultural Shock ln\ enton to determine the abilit} to cope with intercultural experience—"the degree of direct experiences with [leople from other countries, through working, tra\ eling, and com ersing; also learned skills, such as kmguage cmd culture studies" (p. 224). Hanis and Moran define cultural s\ nerg\ as existing onl\ in relation to a practical set of circumstances, and occuiing b\ necessity when t^vo or possibh more culturalh different groups come to the mutueil conclusion that the\ must unite their efforts to achie\ e their respecth e goals" (p. 92). Their concept of cultural s\ nergy builds upon the \ er\ differences in the world's people for mutual growth and accomplishment b\ cooperation. Cultural s\ nerg\ tlnough collaboration emphasizes simiku'ities and common concerns, integrating differences to enrich human acti\ ities and s\ stems. Linking global perspecth es with their cross-cultural management, Hants and Morgan (1991) state, "[F]or organizations to flourish, let alone suntve in the decade of the 1990s, their perspecth e must be global" (p. 25). John S. McClenhen, Senior International Editor of Industry Week reports ". . .in order to capitalize on the globalization of commerce.. ..American managers will have to think bex ond the borders of the United States" (cited in Hanis & Morgan, 1991, p. 3). Hanis and Moran conclude,

83 with "[Rjemember, Uie consensus is becoming 'tliink global!). act local!) ■••(p. 25). Hall (1981) indicates that the stud) of cultures and the consideration of ethnicities is especial!) important for Americans because the) are general!) intolerant of differences and ha\ e a lendenc) to consider something different as inferior. Nh ers, d ps) chologist, and Kelle), human relations consultant, (1992) de\ eloped The Cross-cultural Adaptabilit) Inxenton to determine mi easil) obtainable self-assessment training instrument on cross-cultural adaptabilit) . The fift) -item tests are anal) zed using four scales: emotional resilience, flexibilit) openness, perceptual acuit), and personal autononi). Citing Hawes and Kealel) (1981), M) ers and Kelle) (1992) agree that a "sense of identit) " is one of the three global characteristics and describe it as "remaining open to experiencing local people and culture without feeling threatened b) the differences, nor desiring to abandon [one’s] own identit) in fa\ or of theirs" (p. A-

11). The concepts of intercultural competence, cultural s) nerg), or worldmindedness indicate an acquired lex el of axx areness, expertise, and abilit)' to interact cross-cultural!), the goals of intercultural education. Thorpe's (1992) research examines how foreign trax el and the significant association with "enhanced teacher international knowledge and xxorldmindedness impacts teachers. Each summer the Honolulu-based East-West Center’s Consortium for

84 Teaching Asia an d Pacific in the Schools (CTAPS) sends teacher groups on cuiTiculum stud\ tours to Asia" (p. 2). CTAPS has conducted three tours to Japan (1990, 1991, and 1992), two to Indonesia (1991), and one to the People's Republic of China (1992). Thoipe's qualitati\e research focuses on the program and the participants. He detennines that the participants' pnmai"} goal was to gain more accurate knowledge about a host countr\ through first-hand experiences in the countn . Ethnic origin was a second moth ating factor...

Precise demograpliic descriptions are challenging in Hawaii because inter-ethnic marriages have led to multi-etlinic backgrounds: howe\ er, as a priman heritage is usually designated, 62 percent of the participants of the Japimese tours were of Japanese descent, 31 percent of the Chinese tour were of Cliinese descent, and [tjhus, the CTAPS re\ eal that ethnicit} was a key factor in the choice of tour. (Thoipe, 1992, pp. 9-10)

Reflecting on participants' cultural identity Thoipe to concludes that, "these Asian-Americans, based on their tour experiences, more clearly identified their cultural values as well as those of the host country that the\ \lsited" (p. 11). Thoipe (1992) also concurs with findings in International Education, that the .Asian- American participants on the CTAPS tours who possessed good know ledge of the local language and local culture had a major impact on the tours" (p.ll) due to the cultural linkages to the target countiy. Prexious international experience and "tour

85 \eierans" had a posili\ e impact in pre-trip orientation, in comparathe perspecthes and in host countr\ leadership. Curriculum stud\ touis for CTAPS constitute important cross-cultural experiences for participants. The program design enhances the experience by pro\iding extenshe pre-trip orientLitions and post-lrip meetings enabling participants to gain maximum benefit from their experiences. "Cross-cultural experiences offer lour members opportunities to interdict with citizens from the host countiy as well as simulations wliich constitute cross-cultural training " (Thoiyxi, 1992, p. 15). Burn (1992) indicates the importance of this interaction, "Especialh essential to successful relations with people from other countries are the cross-cultural skills that are learned through direct interaction with foreign cultures and people" (p.2). Cross-cultural awaieness includes the awaieness of a dh ersit} of ideas and practices to be found in human societies around the world. This concept also includes how such ideas and practices compare and offers some limited recognition of how one's own societ\ might be \iewed from other \ antage points ' (Han\ e \, 1987, p. 89). Cross-cultural commonh' signifies the interaction of persons from two or more cultures (Mern field, 1986). Wilson (1993b) regards the interaction between American and international students on campus as cross-cultural experiences. The research by Shanna and Jung supports tliis position and is further described as the "acceptance of cultural

86 pluralism, suppoil of iiilematioricilism, a cosmopolitan world outlook, and worldmindedness subsumed under perceptual global perspecth es" (W ilson, 1993b, p. 23). A cross-cultural experience "an experience in which a person from one culture is immersed in another culture. The second culture could be within the United Stales or in another coLintn " (Wilson, 1983, p. 185). Cross- cultural, from Wilson’s perspecth e, can refer to not onl\ international but also multicultural interactions. Cushner's (1988) imestigation rex eals that intercultural effectixeness is multidimensioiml. Tlie components "integrate cognit h e, affect h e and behaxioral processes" (p. 161). A intercultural perspectixe according to Cushner does not come "automaticallx with cognith e dex elopment or phx sical maturitx ; certain experiences at specific times in one’s dex elopment are ciitical to attitude and knoxxledge fomiation" (p. 161). The author refers to Piaget’s stages of dex elopment to explain the phenomenon. In support of utilizing the dex elopmental theorx to explain international socialization, studies indicate that political Linderstcmding and learning are initiated at an earh age. Remx, N’iithan, Becker, and Tornex (1975) conclude that tx pes of experiences encountered affect subsequent attitudes regarding nationcil and international identitx and perception. Furthermore, Wilson’s (1983a) research on the effects of cross-cultural experiential learning finds

that teaching is itself a cross-cultural encounter; that cross- cultural experience aids self-dex elopment; that cross-

87 culturalh effectix e persons hax e characteristics desirable for effectixe teachers; and that cross-cultural experiences leads to the abilitx to teach from a global perspecthe. (p. 2)

Gochenour and Janewax (1993), at the School for International Training of the Experiment in International fixing, design training on the "belief that an indixiducil inxohed in cross-cultural interaction is central to the success of that interaction" (p.l ). The authors consider a cross-cultural approach to be interactix e and to "build a closer human coimnunitx " and is an end unto itself (p. 2). The sex en elements of their conceptuiil framework include: ( 1 ) Establishing contact and essential communication: (2) Establishing bona-fides imd accepting (i.e., billowed to exit): (3) Observing what is going on and sort out meanings: (4) Establishing a role within the role definitions of the host societx : (5) Conscioush acknovxledging oneself—as a center, as a cultural being, and as one taking responsibilitx : (6) Conscioush' dex eloping needed attributes and skills-mental, emotional, and phx sical: (7) Conscioush establishing self-sustaining and meaningful relationsliips within the host culture. (Gochenour & Janevxay, 1993)

88 Inlercullural (Cross-Cultural) Dex elopiiient M. Bennett (1993) interprets the need for intercultural education b\ stating that pre\ious " natural" behaxior during cross-cultural contacts "usualh has been accompanied b\ bloodshed, oppression, or genocide" (p. 21). He suggests that learners dexelop skills to transcend ethnocentrism and to explore new relationships across cultural boundaries. His dex elopmental or personcil-growlh models present a continuum mox ing toward increasing sophistication in dealing with cultural differences (Bennett, M., 1993, p. 22). The stages identified bx M. Bennett tire delineated bx ones' worldxiew. Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own culture is central to all realitx. Through persoticil growl h one mox es toward "etlinorelatixism" defined as a stage when ones knows that cultures can onlx be "understood relalixe to one another and that particular behaxlor can onlx be understood within a culture context" (Bennet, M. , 1993, p. 46). " Ethnocentric stages [include] denial, defense, and minimi/ation, and the etlinorelatixe stages [include] iicceptance, adaptation and integration" (Bennet, M., 1993, p. 29). ((A more detailed description is prox ided in the interpretation of the data. Chapter 4).) Hoopes' (1981) agrees with a continuum in intercultural learning and proxides similar identifiable stages: "ethnocentrism, awareness, understanding, acceptance respect appreciation xaluing, selectixe adoption, and assimilation- adaptation-biculturalism-niulticulturalism" (p. 18). Hoopes

89 c'onnecls I he importance of a sense of self or idenliu with continuons cultural reinforcement. "When these cultural reinforcements are remo\ ed or when this cultural identit} is threatened or denied, the indi\idual ma\ be deepK affected" (Hoopes. 1981, p. 36). Hoopes explains that differences which are normal to cross-cultural relations cire aggra\cited e\en further with minorit}' culture groups and suggests the "antidote is the expansion of identitx through cultural learning iind the de\ elopment of skills in intercultural communication and cross- cultural hunuin relations" (p. 36). Hoopes and Risch (1981) pro\ ide teaching strategies and techniques of cross-cultural training in a pluralistic societx. In preparation for cross-cultural experience. Ratchelder (1993) adx ises that no single fonnula meets all the needs, \ et a useful approach is to respond to the following fixe questions and to conduct a series of exercises, actixities, and discussions at pre­ departure. Thex include:

(1) Who am I? (Self-awareness) (2) Where do I come from? (Axxareness of U.S. culture, beliefs, xalues) (3) Where am 1 going? (Area infonnation. the host culture, its expectations) (4) What for? (Purposes: learning growth, language, interest in host countrx. self motix ation . . . (5) Wliat am 1 willing to attempt? (Self-image, xxillingness. o^Tenness to paiticipation, responsibilitx , effort, standards of perfonnance. motixation. (Batchelder. 1993. p. 59)

90 The lime related process entails the emphasis on lecu ning how to learn through experience, how to stud\. obsen e, record, and categorize. Cushner (1988) presents an interpersonal component, one's abilit) to understand and communicate efrecth el) with individuals from other cultures. He identifies commonalities to the objectives of international, global, intercultural, and multicultural education programs and explains how this perspective de\ elops in \oung people. Intercultural interaction ciccording to Brislin, Cusliner, Chen ie, and i'ong (1986) are grounded "in the realization that people have similar t\ pes of experiences and similar reactions to their cross-cultural encounters regmdless of whom the) are interacting with, where the) are, or their own role in a new setting" (Cushner, et al„ 1992, p. 41 ). The authors present three categories for understanding intercultural interactions: emotional experiences, know ledge areas, and the basis of cultural differences. Within the first categor) of emotional experiences the fiv e themes include: anxiet), disconfirmed expectations, belonging, ambiguit), and confrontation with one’s prejudices. Within the second categor) of knowledge, the seven themes include: work, time and space, language, roles, importance of the group v ersus the imporiance of the individual, rituals and superstitions, social hierarcliies-class and status, values. The final categoiv, bases of cultural differences, includes fiv e themes: categoiization, differentiation, ingroup-outgroup distinctions,

91 learning su les and attribution. Based on data from three controlled studies, the authors conclude that the training increased cultural concepts learned, increased le\ els of em path\, decreased cullure shock, and increased demonstrated skills in soKing interpersonal problems in an intercultural setting (Cusliner, et al. ,1992). Gro\ e mid Torbiora (1993) introduce another conceplLiali/iUlon of intercultural adjustment empUn ing the ps\ chologiciil constmcts of applicabUit} of behavior, claritx of the mental frame of reference, and le\ el of mere adequac} . The researchers illustrate their theorx using four stages of the adjustment cxcle moving from the highh unfamiliar toward increased adequacx in an unfamiliar em ironment with comprehensixe intercultural training. The training tlieon stresses the normal and inexitable process of cultural adjustments in a "1" curxe which is decreased in duration and depth tillough intensixe intercultural training (Groxe & Torbiom, 1992, pp. 73-108.). Martin (1992) proxides a rexiexx of theoretical contributions and reseaich findings to understand the interiicil process of adaptation in an intercultural enxironment. She identifies cognitixe dissonance theorx-, expectancx -xalue model, and communication-centered approach. Martin (1993) concludes that "[rjeseairh shows that for adolescent sojouniers, communication xxith familx can be helpful in reentrx (Martin,

92 1986a ,1986b). Sludenls should also seek opportunilies for sharing experiences vvilh friends and others” (p. 316). Martin (1993) also asserts that reentn orientations should go be\ ond assisting students with adjusting ps\ chologicalh and basic functioning and extend into ”[integrating their experience ov erseas w ith the on-canipus program of stud\ (see Mail in 1989b; LaBrack 1986) or their professional goals (Pusch and loewenthal 1988)" (p. 317). Pusch, Seelye and W asilewski (1981) suggest one method of integration of the intercultural competencies from stud\ abroad is suggested b\ extending intercultural competencies into the educational ( urriculum to be applied in the face-to-face cross- cultural encounters. The traditional approaches to things cross- cultural

has been to study about them, to learn about other countries, other peoples or other groups within one's own societx. Even when the imperative became social justice, one learned about empathv , prejudice, discrimination and ethnocentrism, but thex remained abstractions. little was done to relate them to the real attitudes, behaviors and experiences of the students (or teachers) themselves. (Pusch, et al., 1981, p. 87)

Pusch provides clarification to the literature regarding the identification of a cross-cultural goal. The developmental stages and intercultural education process idecillv leads the student to become interculturally competent:

93 The o\ erall goal of cross-culUiral training is to pro\ ide a frainework within which people can de\ elop skills and acquire the knowledge that increases their abiht} to function effecti\el\ in a hi- or multi-cultural emironment and to den\ e satisfaction from the intercultural experience. It fosters sensithity to, appreciation of and respect for all cultures. It is an affinning experience and this affiimations works to reinforce the role and position of minority groups in a pluralistic society,(Pusch, et al., 1981, p. 95)

In summaiy, the intercultural education literature re\lew indicates the importance, intensity', and necessity of direct cross- cultural experiences. Training, reflection and direct inten ention pro\ ide resources to increvise intercultural competence and the de\ elopment of intercultural skills according to the research studies. The learning process in\ol\es multidisciplinaiy and multidimensional dexelopmental stages.

94 CRAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

Inlroduction

The purpose of (he slud\ was lo inquire into the imparl (hat study lours abroad had on participants. The guiding focus for ihe imestigation was how an oxerseas education program impacted participants' international, global and intercultural perspectixes and whether these changes were reflected in the participants’ professional growth and personal dex elopment. This chapter presents the methodological process of the research stLidx mid clarifies the inquirx process, including the selection of study focus and research paradigm through report xxriting. The first section presents the rationale for choosing qualitatix e inquiiy approach. The second section describes the process of inquiry . Choosing to write from the resear cher's personal x iewpoint (Mer'iy field, 1986) enables clarity in explication of the major research decisions, actixities, and utilitx of the methodologx. 1 infuse personal reflections and insights

95 inlü the stud\. The third section identifies the criteria for selecting pariicipanls' experiences to write up the research findings. The fourth section contains a rexiew of the procedures that contribute to the qualitx cind credibility of the stud\.

Section I Rationale for Qiialitathe Inquin A multitude of factors often determine the selection of a research question. Changing exents in one’s field, the axailabilitx of resources, as well as the personal interests and x alues of the researcher are a few of the manx ascribed factors. As noted in Chapter 1, the rationale for this study includes recognition that the world is changing in such a wax that people need to become inlerculturallx competent, sensitixe, and knowledgeable to lixc in this climate of change. The need for Americans to haxe intercultural and global perceptions of life in an increasinglx interconnected world is w idlx supported in the literature. Studx abroad programs proxide direct international experiences for students and proxide access to international education. The access to The Social Studies and Global Education Studx Tour progi-am at The Ohio State Unix ersitx’ made the selection of its parik ipants a pragmatic choice for this study. This description begins with m\ rationale, based on personal x alues and interests, for adhering to the epistemological basis for qualitatixe inquiiy.

96 Patton (1990) describes the qualitath e methods b\ wliich participants' responses are orgcmized, presented, cind anah zed so that the oxerall patterns become clear. The emphasis throughout the slud\ was "letting the pcirticipants sjieak for themseh es" (Campbell & Patton. 1990, p. 450) witliin the persoiuil experience, or self-stoiA, b\ using "ke\ phrases and statements that directh speak to the phenomenon in question" (Den/in, 1989, p. 55). Qiialitathe anaKsis ma\ present "solid descriptix e data in such a wax that others reading the results can understand and draw their own interpretations" (Patton. 1990. p. 875). According to Patton (1990), "Focus in analx zing qualitatix e data comes from the ex aluation of research questions generated at the x erx beginning of the inquiix process, during the conceptual, question-focusing phase of the studx " (p. 375). The data collection is designed to answer questions concerning patterns of change that cut across the specifics of indix idual lixes and circumstances. The data analx sis leads to inteipretation of human situations as emergent and uncertain, filled with multiple, often conflicting meanings and interpretations (Geertz, 1973; Denzin, 1988; and Patton, 1990). This study focuses on par ticipant perspectixes (Erickson, 1986 cts cited in Bogdan and Biklen, 1992) in relation to the studx tour abroad pr ogram. Tliis studx explores the impact of international experience during an ox er seas studx tour pr'ogram on indixiduals' perspectix es and interpretations of their world. Cross-cultural intercultural research is compatible with a holistic approach that is open to multiple \va\ s of understanding human behaxior, multiple constructions of knowledge, and multiple perceptions of realitx . Patton's (1990) description of holistic thinking clarifies this point bx explaining that a s\ stem as a whole is both greater than and different from its parts: the discrete entities of the inquin are interconnected and interdepiendent so that an\ "cinah sis of cause and effect distorts more than illuminates" ( p. 79). The participants of this study shared similai' national origins, but differed in gender, ethnic, cultural and racial identities. The experiences proxided opportunities for the participants to interact with host nationals who differed nationally, etlinicallx, culturally, and mcially from them during their oxerseas studx tours.

Personal Interests and Qualitatix e Inouirx M\ doctoral studx in social studies global education prox ided a wax for me to inx estigate the changing interconnections in the world. I delxed into studx ing the interrelationships between people in the United States through a minor focus on multicultural education. One of the requirements of the doctoral program was to engage in cross-cultural experiences, if possible abroad^and if not, domestically. After initially participating in an independent study for academic credit inx olxing domestic cross-cultural interactions in

98 Coluinbiis, Oliio (1992), I extended ni\ doctoral stud\ to participate in the stud\ lour abroad program to Ecuador and the Galapagos IsUmds in 1992. M\ ensuing interest, enthusiasm, and questions concerning how this impacted me and m\ fellow sojourners led me to consult with M.E. Gilliom, director of the program and m\ graduate stud\ Lid\1sor. The literature a\ailable at The Ohio State I'nh ersit} re\ ealed an increase in the number of students who stud\ abro^id. Yet, there was a lack of research concerning how stud\ tours abroad relate to the changing trends in global and international education. 1 initiated a pilot stLid\ to detennine if undergraduate or graduate students in education were interested in participating in my research stud) . Onl) the graduate students had completed the stud) lour abroad at the time of m\ im estigation. I met and inleiA iewed other social studies doctoral students at The Ohio State I'nix ersit) who had completed stud) tours abroad. After consultation with ni) ad\ isor and drafting m) proposal, I launched m) stud). M) thesis proposal for m) research committee was accepted on August 25, 1993. (See Appendix L for a cop) of the acceptance.) An initial inteniew with six graduate students led me to conc lude that a working knowledge of global education and direct contact in a professional capacity proxides a richer and thicker description of the experience during the inteniews. As a result, I decided to select a purposeful sample representative of

99 the loi 111 stud\ tour pai-ticipant population but that focused on those cunenth enipIo\ ed in education. A fuller description of the participant selection process will be included in the section on research design in this chapter. The inteniew s progressed, w hile I gathered data that was pre\ iously unknown. During data anaK sis I identified \ ariations in the answers that 1 receixed to common questions (Patton, 1090). Differences emerged in ihe data between participants with only one studx tour experience and those who had multiple studx tour experiences. I explored the dexelopmental impact inxolxing personiil and professional grow th. I questioned and identified the importance of inxestigating how the integration of multicultui-al and intercultural perspectixes related to increased global and international perspectives. I determined, using the combination of an interx iew guide approach (Patton, 1990) and standardized open-ended questions, that indixidual interxiew s rexealed differences between male and female participants concerning their expeiiences in the same geographic locations, but on different tours. The cultural identitx of participants who identified themseh es as in the minoritx in the U. S. appeared to be impacted during their ox erseas study tours. According to Patton(1990): Scholarship inx olx es an ongoing dialogue w ith colleagues with particular questions of scholarh interest. The focus derix es from what one has learned that will make a contribution to the literature in a field of inquirx. The literature w ill likelx hax e contributed to the initial design

100 o f Ihe si Lid} (implicit!} or explicit!} ), so it is appropriate to re\ isit tbal Üteratiire to he!p focus the ana!} sis. (p. 376)

In this stud}, I consuited with Angene Wilson and utilized her research lool. Impact of Internationa! Experience Chart (1993, p. 16), to proxide a framework for the design of ni} standardized open-ended inten iew questions during the focus group sessions (Patton, 1990). The standardized questions aided tile de\ elopment of im cross-inten iew ana!} sis (see Appendixes H, I, & J). Continuing refiectixe exaluation led to flirt lier questions. Qtiestions arose inx olx ing the changes experienced b} participants after a stud} tour. How did multiple stud} tour experiences impact the pmt ici pant? Did the clianges occur immediate!} after a stud}' tour abroad or later, and if later, how mail} } ears later? Did participants sustain their international awareness and global perception? How did the} identifx' the changes? Did the lex el of immersion with the indigenous people impact the lex el of cross-cultural intercultural awareness? Did this awareness impact participants' multicultural or intercultural perspectix es? Did the awareness impact the actions of the participants professional!} or personally after the tour? In order to better define ni}' research problem and further explore the impact of multiple experiences, I participated in a second stud} tour experience to China in 1994. I was fortunate

101 lü be able to take m\ daughter with me, she proxided an undergraduate perspecthe of the tour. On return, I continued m\ analy sis, literature rexiew and writing- As my studx progressed, I realized the research focus was not consistent with the data clusters emerging from the dat^i. Data clusters were dex eloped from raw data segm ents that "fit" together and rexealed patterns and reoccuriing themes. I shifted m\ focus lo Include a greater emphasis on studx abroad, rather than limiting my studx to social studies teachers. I realized the educators were participating in the studx tours as students and mx study related to the impact of the experience as thex perceix ed it. The literature in studx abroad proxided another lens with which I could xiew my data. With this broadened focus, the issues, categories and questions dex eloped a more focused and logical pattern. Patterns of simikiiities and differences emerged, where there had been just random exceptions and not fitting into the research focus. Now the data showed flow and progression, and seemed to make sense. "A utilization focused approach to analx sis" can help keep the findings from becoming too abstract (Patton, 1986). 1 consulted xxith colleagues in the field of international education as a continuing dialogue intended to focus mx analx sis. My interxiexxing process started xxith mx peer debriefer, Denise Ng, xxiio is a program coordinator for reciprocal exchange programs and an adxisor for international students and scholars

102 al Ihe Office of Tntem-ational Education (OIE). We airanged to iiieel bi-\veekl\ during the autumn quarter (1995) to continue our consultation. The contact with Ng led to interviews with other members of the OIE staff. The staff at the Office of International Education present intercultural ediu ation programs to students at The Ohio Slate I ni\ ersit}. The education abroad adxisors arrange and facilitate oxerseas programs for students and coordinate the programs with the faculty. The international student advisors’ constant contact with international students and increase their awareness of cross-cult ural adjustments for students attending The Ohio State Unix ersitx . I consulted with these adxisors to gain a perspectixe on the dax to diix interactions in studx abroad. The intenlexv schedule was as follows: Grace Johnson, Ccxu'dinator — Education Abroad: 8 11995 Kexin Hai tx, Assistant Director of the Office of International Education : 8 8 1995 Denise Ng, Coordinator - -International Students & Scholars and Education Abroad: 10 20 1995, 10 25 1995, 11 3 1995 Sherif Barsoum, Coordinator— International Students & Scholars: 1 28 1996 John Greisberger, Director of the Office of International Education: 9 22 1995

103 Cai'lo Colecchia, Coordinator - Education Abroad: 1 28 1996 Ccuina Hansen, Coordinator - -Education Abroad: 8 19 1996, 12 19 1995 Crescencia Ricca, Coordinator - International Students & Scholars: 2 19 1996 Melissci Rychener, Graduate Associate, International Students & Scholars: 8 19 1996 I inleiA iewed and consulted with other members of the Ohio International Consortium and local members of the Great lakes College Association to pro\ide additional information concerning international education programs. The administrators and educators inteiA iewed include the following: Carolyn H. Abels, Director of International Education, International Students, Study Abroad, ESL Capital Universit>-. 9 19 1995 Charles I,, \ edder. Director of International Student Programs, Otterbein College: 9 12 1995 George Hertiich, Director of International Student Progi-ams, Ohio Dominican College: 9 19 1995 Paula Spier, retired dean of Antioch College's international programs and, NAFSA's board of directors, and committees for Great Lakes Colleges Association: 8 18 1996

104 Blake Michael, Director of Off-Cainpiis Studx. Oliio Weslex an Unixersitx : 9 13 1995

In order to achiex e a better understanding of program design for ox erseas education and to parlicipale in education abroad from an adxisoiy capacitx, I completed an internship at The Office of Inlemalional Education under the guidance of Denise \g . Mx focus concerned reciprocal exchange programs in oxerseas studx and educational programs. The internship enabled me to attend staff meetings, orientation meetings, and workshops for domestic and foreign nationals (txxelx e hours per week betxxeen October, 1995 through April, 1996).

1 decided to use qualitatix e research methods based on the appropriateness for the inquin and their consistency xxith m\' worldxiew. As stated bx Patton (1990), "[T]he methods of qualitatix e inquin now stand on their own as reasonable xxax s to find out xxhat is happening in programs and other human settings" (p. 90).

Description of Qualitatix e Inquirx A qualitatix e inciuiiy strategx builds on, interconnects xxith and emphasizes major themes (Patton, 1990). Each of the ten them es in the folloxving discussion connect the strategies xxith the research process xxith exam ples from mx study.

105 (Ccinsideralion for the usefulness cind appropriateness of the reseanit choices in relation lo the pragmatic design of the study guided the focus of the reseairh to help me sta\ grounded in the empirical world.) Major themes in qualitath e reseairh guided the research design, data collection, anah sis and presentation of the daita identified by Patton (1990, pp. 39-63). I adhered to the pragnicilic {X3ispecti\ e that different paradigm s aie appropriate for different situations (Patton, 1990). My position enabled situational responsixeness in the stud\ design and pro\ ided appropriate research strategies. Pragmatism and practice of "people working to make the world a better place (and wondering if what the\ 're doing is working) can be answered w ithout placing the studx in one of the theoretical frameworks" (Patton, 1990, p. 89). With this in mind, the following qualitatixe research themes framed this study.

Naturalistic Inouin. Patton (1990) describes naturalistic inquin as ”[s]tud\ ing real-woiid situations as the\ unfold naturalh " (p. 40) with the research setting being a "natumlh occLining ex ent, program, communitx , relationship, or interaction that has no predetennined course established by and for the researcher" (p. 41). The process "minimizes inxestigator manipulation of the studx setting and places no prior restraints

106 on w hal the oulcoine of the research will be " (Patton, 1990, p. 41 ). The natLiicillstic inquin process "replaces the Rxed treatment outcome emphasis of the controlled experiment with ad\ ivamic, process orientation" (Patton, 1990, p. 42). The research questions e\ ol\ ed throughout the stud\ ; intermediate and final fonns appear in section 2 of this chapter (p. 21). The questions combined standardized open-ended inten iew questions and an inten iew guide in the indi\ idual inteniews. The studx tour program was naturallx occuning program in the sense that it was alreadx in place at The Ohio State Tnixersitx in the Department of Educational Studies, College of Education (School of Teaching and Learning, Section: language. Literacx and Culture as of 6 1 1990). The participants were students on studx tours rather than resemch specimens in a controlled treatment experiment. Indixidual inten iexxs xxere non-manipulatixe occuring in natural "real-world" (Patton, 1990, p. 40) settings and using open-ended questions that elicited naturallx occun ing ansxxers from the participants. Tlie focus group intenlews allowed naturallx occuning participant interactions and discussions to flow that expanded upon the standardized in ten lew questions. I shared ex;ieriences and insights from m\ studies and trax els with the participants in natural participant researcher interactions. The research foc used on the impact of participants’ experiences without predetermined constraints on the outcomes to the research

107 quest ions. Specific examples of these interactions and nat ural flow are included in my journal and in the presentation of fcx'us group and inteniew methods.

Inductix e anah sis. Qiiitlitatixe methods are "padicularh oriented toward exploration, discox eiy and inductix e logic" (Patton, 1990, p. 44). Lincoln and Cuba (1985) and Patton (1990) define naturalistic inquirx as a "discox eiy- oriented approach." Inquirx is xalue-bound bx the nature of the process. Lather(1986) identifies interest-free knowledge as logicalix impossible. According to Lincoln and Cuba (1990), all inquiries are x alue-bound In: (1) the x alues and influences of the inquirer in the selection of the research topic; (2) the frame of t he problem: the choice of paradigm: and (3) the methodologx selected for the collection and analx sis of data. Inductix e design strategies "allow the important analysis dimensions to emerge from patterns found in the cases under studx without presupposing in adxance what the important dimensions will be" inductixe approach to exalimtion "means that an understanding of program actixlties and out-comes emerges from experience with the setting (Patton, 1990, p. 44). Mx studx's. focus on indixidual participant's expeiiences made the use of an inductix e approach most appropriate. Patton (1990) explains that inductix e approaches inx'olx'e beginning w ith the experiences of those indixiduals without "pigeonholing

108 or delimiting ... those experiences . . . in adx ance of fieldwork” (Patton, 1990, p. 45). The selection of open-ended inteniews and inten iew guide contrasts with to a deductix e approach in which one would select a multiple-choice questionnaire with predetennined items based on preordinate criteria of program goals. The flow from inductixe approaches "to find out whal the imporiant questions are" (Patton, 1990, p. 46) and deductix e exploralon work is common practice in the fonnation of some exaluation questions. In mx studx, for example, the identification of a participant's age, span of time since the international experience, professional x ocation, and gender in the purposeful sample were pail of the deductixe exploratorx work. The research process continued with mx immersion in the deUiils and specifics of data to discox er important categories, dimensions and interrelationsliips from answers to the open- ended questions. I included an example of data with content representing the connections between local and host countries to demonstrate this inten elationship. This excerpt is in response to a question identifying and connecting local and global economic, political, and enxironmental similaiities or differences during the studx tour. One paiticipant described how a medical student in Tashkent (1983) in the Soxiet Union questioned him about America:

109 He wanted to know wh\- Jews in America were so persecuted. B> this point, we began to realize some of the misconceptions that So\ iets ha\ e of .America. Later on we were made \ en aware of the fact that most .Americans were [seen as] fascists and teirorists, because of some of the propaganda that we were exposed to in the aii-ports and at the Houses of Friendsliip. (Dan, document, p. 22)

In this example, the participant describes the political perception that host nationals ha\ e of .Americans. During the tour, the participant found other e\ idence of how propagandci promoted tills opinion. W'liile recognizing the inherent \1olence in the local societx, he connects the misconception to a political agenda b\ the go\ eniment in the host countn. According to Patton (1990), "[T]he stiateg) of inductixe designs is to allow the important anah sis dimensions to emerge from patterns found in the cases under study without presupposing in adxance what the import mit dimensions will be" (p. 44). In relation to a program, Patton finds that the "understanding of program actixlties and outcomes emerges from experiences with the setting. Theories about what is happening in a setting are grounded in direct program experiences rather than imposed on the setting a priori tlii'ough hx pothesis or deductix e constmctions" (p. 44). .An example from mx studx occurs in relation to intercultural identitx after a

110 suid\ toLir program. One pai'ticipanl describes her conception of I he link between global experience and intercultural identitx :

We are a worldcoinmunitxx But, I tliink we ha\e to. especially like [10 y ou are a minority, see where y ou ai e as part of the world. Not only study,... for me the ancient Egyptians and finding out about that, but other people of color around the world that were not presented to me in my learning of wcMid histoiy.. Tliat [is] to me of increasing importanc e. (Jena, focus group II)

In this example, the partic ipant identifies herself as a member of a minority in the local culture and connects herself with other people of color in the world cc^nununity. An identification of the importance of continuing to learn about the global connections through histon is also identified. The inductixe cJata analysis c onnects the emergent patterns in the data as well as grounds it in the original data source. In this example, the emergent pLitterns are intercultural identity and minority experience in relation to intercultural and global perceptions.

Holistic Persnectix e. "Ex aluators using qualitatix e methods strix e to understand a phenomenon or program as a whole" (Patton, 1990, p. 49). Inquiry often raises more questions than it answers; multiple realities can only be studied holistically in

111 order to achiex e an emerging le\ el of understanding. "There is no realitx except that created b\ people as the\ attempt to make sense of their surroundings" (Guba & Lincoln. 1989, pp. 12-13). The Linifx ing nature of a particular set t ing, according to Patton (1990). ".. .is a complex system that is greater than the sum of its parts” (p. 49). Patton continues, "Tlie adxanlage to using qualitatixe port rax als of holistic settings and impacts is that greater attention can be gixen to nuance, setting Interdependencies, complexities, idiosx ncrasies. and context" (p. 51). In mx studx. each participant's responses xaried according to idiosx ncnasies of their experiences, perceptions and cultural backgrounds. The holistic perspectix e demonstrated the multiple realities presented during the interx iews. As the studx progressed, the liolistic perspectixe presented the participants' changing xiews when explaining the impact of the same experience oxer time. One of the female participants' description of her 1975 studx tour in China illustrates the multiple concepts of realitx. On x isiting the apartment of a host countiy national she found it interesting as representatix e of the ox ercrowded lixing situations. She described that she found nine people sharing a two-room apartment, with facilities shaied bx the other six apartments on the same floor. She expressed "dismay w hen I compared mx reaction to a male's [sojourner's] interpretation of the xisit as Chinese propaganda" (Sara.

112 inten iew. 11 10 1993) to impress them with the le\el of modern construction in China. The female participant's reflection on her initial reaction, described abo\'e. and her later reaction b\ comparing her trip to another sojourner's \isit to China, who was led to a \ en similar site on a subsequent stud\ tour represents wa\ s in which perceptions change o\er time. "Perhaps we were being guided to specific places with moti\ es 1 had not an tic i pelted," she commented (Sara, focus group, 2 17 1994). M\ stLidx 's reseai'ch design offers another example of holistic perspectixe. The puiposeful sample was selected to proxide information-rich experiences. The length of time since the studx tour experience sen ed as one criterion. Pariicipants included both people who had returned from a program just a few months prior to the interxiews and people who had not experienced a study tour program for nine \ ears. I wanted to represent perspectix es which reflected x arious spans of time between program and its impact. Other considerations for participant selections are presented in tliis chapter in further detail (p. 147).

Qualitatix e data. Reseaichers utilize qualitatix e methods because these methods are often more adaptable in dealing with multiple realities. Tlie nature of the relationship and the

113 assessment are im estigated with more sensiti\ it} and adaptabilit} when using qualitatix e methods. Glesne and Peshkin (1992) contrast quantitatix e and qualitatix e predispositions of methods to proxide claritx and understanding of the two modes, (See Appendix B for the table and letter of pennission bx the publisher.)

" Description and quotations ai e essential ingredients of qualitatixe inquin" according to Patton (1990, p. 429-430) This studx is designed to produce detailed tliick description. Denzin (1989) explains that thick description goes bex ond mere fact and surface appearance: It presents detail, context, emotion and the webs of social relationships that join one person to one another. Tliick description ex okes emotionalitx' and self-feeling. It inserts histon into experience. It establishes the significance of an experience or the sequence of ex ents, for the person or persons in question. In thick description, the x oices, feelings, actions and meanings of interacting indix iduals are heard. (Denzin, 1989, p. 83 cited in Patton, 1990, p. 430) Jena’s discussion of her intercultural perspectix e offers one example of thick description from mx studx :

Well, I am a minoritx so, I know how I feel. Being a minoritx xxitliin a minoritx [ex e sight]. Being that, I max not look like an African .American, but I am. Some of us look a little different. The other African-American in our group [studx tour group] obxiouslx looks .African-American 114 and she fell \ en much at home o\ er there. I al\va\ s wanted to sa\, I am too. Yea, right. But, that has been that wa\ all m\ life, so, it is no big deal. It was me tn ing to find out about the histon of m\ people, too. E\ en though I was born here [United States], the\ aie m\ people. But I also work at J.C. Penm Portrait Studio. When foreign people come there, now 1 am ven' recepth e to them. I also leach Special Ed., so I'm enlightened. Bui, I think I am more than I was before [the studx.' tour to Egx pt] When it comes to immigration pictures, thex don't know how to read the fonns.... (Jena, Focus Group II, intercultural impact)

Thick description sets up and makes possible inteipretation of the data. It connects indix idual experiences with larger issues. The pai'ticipants identifies her personal dex elopment following the studx tour program as making her more aware of foreign nationals: ".. .now, I am xeix receptix e to them" (Jena, Focus Group II). The participant describes her intercultural identitx , as a member of a minoritx, including insight into how she feels about this identification. She also discusses her personal liiston' as an African-American whose "look" is not readilx identified bx others in Egx pt or in the United States. The literature concerning intercultural perspectixes rexeals that the identificalion of "1- xxe-they" demonstrates differences in inclusix eness (with the

115 Egxptians) and exclusixeness ("foreign people") from groups when distinctions of we or the\ are made. Multiple wa\ s of describing the data ai e found in this sample. Jena's professional idem it} as being "enlightened" (Focus Group 11), due to expertise as a Special Education teacher is presented in the data. Tlie themes emerging in the data sample's "thick description" (Patton, 1990, p. 40) include personal dex elopment, minoritx experience, professional growth, intercultural perspectixe and intercultural identitx.

Personal Contact and Insight. According to Patton (1990), "The reseairher has direct contact with and gets close to the people, situait ion, Lind phenom enon under studx " (p. 40). Lincoln and Guba (1990) add that the inquirer and the pai ticipant of the inquii} "interact to influence one another: knower and known are inseparable" (p. 37). (Tualitatix'e reseairh often requires building rapport and trust between the researcher and pariicipants (Bogdan and Biklen, 1992). The background and interests of the researcher influence the relationsliip (Bogdan and Biklen, 1992). The researcher tries to interact with her subjects in a natural and nonthreatening manner. Richness of inteipretation and data is derix ed fiom the mutual shaping and reciprocal influencing nature of the relationship.

116 Patton (1990) continues the explanation of the relationship with "researcher’s personal experiences and insights .. .[as] an important pai t of the inquin and critical to understanding the phenomenon" (p. 40). Mutual shaping and influences between myself and the six paiticipants varied Differing relationships emerged due to a \ ariet\ of factors including age. gender, ethnicit}. prex ious academic and social contact, and stud}' tour experiences. (More explanation concerning the influences during the inten lew process are included in Chapter 4 and in the next section of the methodologx.) Patton’s (1990) inten iew guide approach (pp. 28.4-284) prox ided a basis for insuring that the same infonnation was obtained from a number of people, (ox ering the same material regmdless of the preexisting relationship and the dex elopmental changes during the research process. During inten iew process, 1 utilized predetermined questions that "allow [ed] indixidual perspectix es and experiences to emerge" (Patton, 1990, p. 283). The two introducton inten iews illustrate the interaction betweem mx self and the participant. Lad (the first participant; 9 16 1993) welcomed me, proxided me with a cup of coffee, and seemed to want to talk casuallx for the first ten to fifteen minutes of the session. Progression was relatix elx easx and natural as I started to ask the research questions. The first question in Lad’s inteiviexx took ox er fixe minutes to complete. Jena (the tliird paiticipant) failed to show up for the first

117 scheduled inteniew for which I had secured a neutral location across town for her com enience. During the rescheduled inten iew, she sat stiffl\ at her desk and hurried through the opening information. Her answers to the first few questions were completed with limited or single word responses. Lad was known to me through prex ious social contacts, a prexious study tour shared experience, and a professional contact. Jena was unknow n to me, did not share the same academic area of studx , did not share a study tour countiy or experience with me, and differed ethnicalh from me. Chapter 4 proxides further identification and interpretation of my relationsliip with respondents in each of the case studies. "Fieldwork is the central actixity of qualitatixe inquiiy," according to Patton (1990), "fgjoing into the field means haxing direct and personal contact with people under studx in their own enx iromnents" (p. 46). This study was conducted in the natural setting, or context of the program which sened as the focus of the inquiry. Lincoln and Guba (1985) consider tills cmcial, due to the belief that obsen ation changes the enxironment and that the "contextual x alue structures are at least partlx determinatix e of what will be found" (p. 39). The natural enxironment of the studx receix ed careful consideration. Each participant self-selected the location for the Inteniew as detennined bx multiple considerations, including accessibility, comenience, or ax ailable connections to other

118 resources (e.g., food or office equipment) needed b\ the paiticipunt. The natural setting was a priman moti\ ation for the carefully chosen location of the group interxiews in accordance with the aforementioned considerations, as well as proxiding a neutral academic location. Mx responsibilities in the inteniew sessions fluctuated betxxeen the researcher seeking additional information bx probing for claritx, to researcher-moderator during the focus group sessions, to researcher-pariicipant when comparing similm* experiences with an indix idual participant o r with the focus group to prox ide emiched descriptions. Exchanging re lex ant infonnation concerning global and international studies and relating it directlx to studx tours abroad often "triggered" the interactions, wherebx participants asked questions concerning mx studies and research. The issue of children in Cliina triggered one such interaction. Sara described the generous and friendlx response to cliildren's sports in China during her tour in 1985. " The respect of cliildren culturalK is so different. It is almost a culture shock.... We went to sports games and the fans cheered for the girls’ basketball teams whether they were on the red or blue unifomis. It was friendlx and non-competitixe. I liked that" (Sara, Inteniew, 11 9 1993). Sara then asked about mx experiences with children in Ecuador. "Did xou see anx sporting exents[?]" (Sara, Inteniew, 11 9 1993).

119 Tills led to a comparison of competition and sports global!} with examples from New Zealand, the So\ iet Union and United States. The focus group sessions enhanced mutual shaping as conv ersation flow ed between the pairticipants and m\ self in eliciting answers to the predetermined questions. I stricth’ adhered to the closing time for each session was to due to consideration of paiticipants' other professional obligations. Howev er, participants often lingered and extended their sharing ev en after the inten iew sessions. The "extended" time augmented the holistic perspectiv e of understanding to document pmticipants' cross-cultural perceptions and global perspectives. I often stopped and made fonnal notations during or following the "more casual" discussions. Direct personal contact is crucial in the data-gathering process as it is extreme!} difficult to devise a non-human instrument to understand and interact in the vai iet} of realities encountered in the cross-cult uicil and international experiences of the pai ticipants' perceptions. M} perceptions of the inflection, enthusicism, hesitation or uncertaint} of the participants' reactions to questions during the interview process is virtually impossible to detennine with a non-human device. The liv e interaction often leads to further elaboration, claiification or reflection during the interview process. For example, in Lad's inteniew sessions m} notation identified... "This beginning social studies inteniew was especially interesting. 1 wanted to

120 probe \vh\ he did not use the stud\ tour's substanth e knowledge in the classroom. Vet, he is \ en concerned about his students and expressed a high le\ el of frustmtion that the> are not leaining" (MH, Researcher's InteiA iew Reflections, 9 16 1993). In the next inteixlew session I probed for more details. Lud idenlified he finds "Gilliom's classes imd tours proxiding the global perspectix e of looking at manx different perspectix es dining the tours and looking at me [lad] and each other as different and the same" (Inten iew, 9 24 1993). The increase in reflection and avxareness of what he x allied in the tours is proxided in tliis example of how the personal contact increased the understanding and interactions during in the research process. The insight of the reseai'cher in the combination of intuitIX e knowledge and propositional knowledge encourages appreciation of the nuances of multiple realities. The participant and the researcher interact at multiple lex els of knowledge and the intuitix e understanding of the researcher influences the research process. An example of this combination occurred in inteniew and focus group sessions concerning the minoritx perspectixe. When t\x^o participants used the same wording, "I am a minoritx, so 1 know.,.", it led me to probe further into the impact of being a minoritx paiticipant during an oxer seas tour. Mx awareness of the importance of tliis issue was based on my prexious studx in multicultural and global education.

121 Tacit knowledge proxided an integral role throughout this study. "It is not possible to describe or explain exerx tiling that one 'knows' in language form: some things must be experienced to be understood" (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 195). The experience, the intuition, and the propositional knowledge combined influence the insights, hypothesis, and resemch process. Heron (1981) describes the process of inquin' inx olxing "propositional," "practiCcil," and "experiential" components (p. 27). He suggests no empirical research can be canied out except by creating an interdependence through these three knowledge fonns. During the data gathering process, for example, I continuallx found mx self drawing on mx own studx tour experiences, mx years of graduate work in globiil studies, and mx training as an educator to gain the most from the interxiews. During the aiicilx sis, the integration of the d\ nanties of dexelopment, experiences and knowledge "fit" the data gathered to bring cohesix eness and understanding to the process. Categories emergied from the data and led to naming and identifx ing the intenelationship between the Ccitegories. I used concept webbing (Bishop, 1992) to connect tlie categories and understand the intenelationships because of mx experience in multicultural literature . An example of the influence of insight occuned when I compared the experiences of Jena and Dan after a studx tour. Both participants had been on onlx' one study tour, hoxxex er, 1

122 ciearK recognized Dan's growth cind dex elopment follow ing liis loLir. The lime lapse needed lo be able lo dex elop and grow professionallx (Dan's nine x ears) was an important emerging theme. 1 understood how the personal lex el of confidence he gained in his tour enabled him to proxide the opportunitx for slLidx tours for his oxxn students. This is another example of tacit knowledge, as a professional educator, to identifx how the participant displax ed a new sense of self and created new- educational experiences for himself.

rnkiLie Case O iientation. Qiicilitatix e inquiix assumes each case is special and unique (Patton, 1990, p. 40). Representatix e purposixe sampling was utilized to prox ide representation from the margins to the mainstream of data scope. Qiialitatix e inquirx offers focuses on relatix elx small samples in great depth. The power, according to Patton (1990), is in infomiation-rich cases "from which one can learn a great deal about issues of central importance to the purpose of the research" (p. 169). This studx utilized purposeful sampling with the "maximum xariation sample" (Patton, 1990, p. 172) strategx representing the total studx tour participant population to illuminate the questions under studxx The purposeful sample was to acliiex e representation in proportion to the total participcmt population with consideration of age, gender, ethnicitx, number of study tour abroad program experiences, and

123 length of time since the stud) tour experience. According to Patton (1990): when selecting a small sample of great dh ersil), the data collection and anal) sis will ) ield two kinds of findings: (1) high-qualit), detailed descriptions of each case, which are useful for documenting unictueness, cind (2) important shared pallems that cut across cases and derive their significance from hav ing emerged out of heterogeneil). (p. 172) Patton describes how the Siime strateg) can be used witliin a single program in selecting indiv iduals for stud). "R) including in the sample individuals the evaluator determines have had quite different experiences, it is possible to more thoroughlv describe the \ ariations in the group and to understand variations in experiences while also investing core elements imd shared outcomes" (Patton, 1990, p. 172). In mv study, the puipose was not to generalize findings to all people or cill groups, but to look for information that makes the program’s impact clear, as well as identif) significant common patterns within the v ariations. (Further elaboration of the sample will be provided in Section 2, p. 142 of this chapter and in Chapter 4 ). Context Sensitivity-. Patton (1990) describes context sensitivity as placing " findings in a social, historical, and temporal context; dubious of the possibility or meaningfulness of generalizations across time and space" (p. 40). "The v ariables measured are indicators of a larger context" (Patton, 1990, p. 49). This theme addresses critics claim qualitativ e-naturalistic ev aluation:

124 "(1) üx ersimplifies ihe complexities of real-world experiences, (2) misses major factors of importance that are not CcisiK quantified, and (3) fails to poi*tra\' a sense of the program and its impacts as a 'whole' " (Patton, 1990, p. 50). One example of sensiti\it> to the cultural context relates to changing pLitterns in the American and Soxiet relations. Dan described the initial reaction bx one of the members of his studx tour group in the Soxiet Union as "better dead than Red” (Dan, Inten iew, 10 14 1993). His oxxn personal reaction contrasted with this cultural reaction: "I nexer grew up hating Communists. So, when I \xas there I found it to be an ex e opening experience. So manx different places. . . and a xast difference in cultures." International education attempts to continue the education process upon reentrx to students' home countrx . One of the goals of this studx was to detennine the extent of the impact of the experiences upon the participants. The extenuating influences (iicademic courses, indixiduals, textbooks, media, and societal factors) continuousK shaped and changed the studx. The focus group was designed to increcise interaction between pai ticipants in the exchange of ideas and experiences. In lliis study, due to the multitude of influences, I \xas contextuallx sensitixe. The study's sampling strategies offer another example of context sensitix ilx. In mx study, infonnation-rich cases xxere selected to proxide a depth of pai ticipants' experiences. I selected cases xx it h long-term and short-term differences to

125 examine the impact of the duration of time since the studx tour exj^ierience (e.g.. three months-nine yecirs). The different geographic location of the participants’ tout's proxided a xxide range of experiences (e.g. . Afiica, Asia, Eastern Europe. South America, Australia and New Zealand). Participants’ ages also proxided an exlensix e range (e. g.. 2 participants ages 25-30; 3 participants ages 40-50; 1 participant ox er 50). Three kinds of siimpling eiTors can arise in qualitatixe research designs: (1) "distortions in the situations that \xere sampled for obsenation" as it is not jxtssible to obserxe all situations; (2) "there max be distortions introduced by the time periods of temporal sampling"; (3) "the finding max be distorted because of selectixitx in the people who \xere sampled" (Patton. 1990. p. 471). (These possible errors in research design were identified and addressed in Chapter 1. section titled "Limitations of the Studx ".) In order to address distortions introduced bx periods of temporal sampling. I asked the pcirticipants the same questions oxer the sexen-month period, in both indixidual and focus group interxiews. For example. Jena found the greatest impact of her studx tour', initrallx, was the px raniids. When she answered the same question in the focus group, she stated that the greatest impact was the cultui'cil identification xxith her people in Africa. She expanded her ansxxer xxith a description which included three pages of transcribed notes.

126 Context sensiti\itA is "dubious of the possibility or meaningfulness of generalizations across time and spcice" (Patton, 1990, p. 40). In the data anéil\ sis the tasks of organization and description "e\en the process outcomes matrix was aimed at pro\ iding a mechanism for organizing and describing the themes, patterns, acti\ ities and content of the stud\ rather than at elucidating causal linkages between processes and outcomes" (Patton, 1990, p. 422). The process outcomes maliix pro\ ides a wa\ to ask questions of the data. In qualitatix e inquirx research, "statements about which things appear to lead to other things, which pails of the program produce certain effects, and how processes lead to outcomes are areas of speculation, inteipretation, and h\ pothesizing" (Patton, 1990, p. 422). In this studx, 1 researched the program, participated in two studx tour programs, lixed with the data in the field, and reflected at length about the patterns emd themes that run across the data. A constant challenge in qualitatixe analysis is being context sensitixe and moxing between pai ticipants' descriptions and mx interpretations of their descriptions. The inteipretatix e nature of qualitatix e analysis "does not yield knowledge in the same sense as quantitatix e explanation. The emphasis is on illumination, understanding and extrapolation rather than causcil deteniiination, prediction, and generalization" (Patton, 1990, p. 424).

127 Empathetic N'eutraliU. The relationship between the researcher and reseairh strategy needs credibilily . "No credible research strateg} ad\ ocates biased distortions of data to sen e ihe researcher's \ esled interests and prejudices" (Patton, 1990, p. 55). In this stud}, I attempted to adopt a stance of neutralit} in regard lo ihe phenomenon under study. I did not attempt to pro\ e c\ pm I icular perspectix e or manipulate the data to airix e at a predisposed jxisilion. Means lo ensure Ihe tmslworthiness of the data include "s} stematic data collection, researcher's reflection, ligorous training, multiple data sources, triangulation, external rexiew s, and other techniques aimed at producing high qualit} data that are credible, accurate, cmd true to the phenomenon under stud} " (Patton, 1990, p. 56). Neutialitx does not mean detachment, according to Patton (1990). With these ciiteria in mind, the section 4 at the conclusion of this chapter describes in detail the procedures followed to ensure the credibilit}' of the stud}. The desire to understand and connect the learning in the lociil enx ironment with a greater world perspectixe through direct experience led me to inxestigate stud} tours as a possible disseitation topic. The practical experience and international perspectix es proxided during ni} internship with the Office of International Education was an additional influence upon me that included consultation with the director. The growth, renewal and increased commitment to learn about and interact with others

128 from differenl cultural backgrounds was an outgrowth of the stud) tour. I wanted to know if other participants shared the same perceptions of the impact of the study tours abroad. My \ allies and interests connected m> doctoral studies in global education and multicultural education with stud\ tours oxerseas. My dissertation adxisor facilitated the increase in mx understanding of mx own etlinic background and histon, and m\ knowledge and understanding of the ethnic and racial backgrounds and histories of ot hers tlii ough multicultural education. Mx studx of in global and multicultural education helped me inteipret the data during analysis from a multiple perspectixe.

Design Rexibilitw Tlie qualitatix e inquiiy design "cannot be completel) specified in adxance of fieldwork" (Patton, 1990. p. 61). Research actix ities emerge in order to permit rexisions and adjustments. Tliis alloxxs for continued ex o lut ion of the inquin, maximum benefits of research enxiromnents, and an increase in the mutual shaping between researcher and resemch participants. The inteniew schedule illustrates the emergent design of the studx in that pai ticipants were permitted to remain a pari of the studx bx making adjustments. For example, alternatix e locations for inteniews, adjustments in length of inten lews, and additional inteniews characterized the inteniew process.

129 Design flexibilit> ’’stems from the open-ended nature of qualitatixe inquirx as pragmatic considerations" (Patton. 1990. p. 62). The schedule txvo focus group interxiew sessions provides another example of design flexibilitx. A posit ixe benefit of focus groups is the abilitx to exchange infonnation with other participants who haxe shared experiences (Morgan. 1988). The pragmatic benefits resulted in saxing time, trax el. cmd locations in two sessions when compared to the alternat ixe txxelxe sessions of inten iews. In the data ancilx sis process, the design flexibilitx prox ided a means to adapt lo the emerging focus of direct international expeiiences of the participants who xxere students in the xocation of teacliing. I increased mx axxareness of the intenelationship betxxeen international, global and intercultural perspectixes as a result of the rex iew of the literature which connected global and multicultural perspectixes (C. Bennett. 1990; Bcinks. 1992; cind Mern field. 1995). intercultural and global perspectixes (CiOchenoLir. 1993; Cushner. 1992; cUid Goodwin & Xacht. 1988). international and global perspectixes (Wilson, 1993. 1984; and Gilliom & Annink. 1993). and international, global and intercultural perspectixes with maturity (Kauffmann, Martin, Weaxer. 1992). Patton (1990) also maintains that a credible qualitatixe studx needs to address the issues:

130 (1) Whal techniques and methods were used to ensure the integrit\. \ alidit\ , and accurac\ of the findings? (2) W hat does the researcher bring to the stud\ in tenus of qualification, experience, and perspective? (3) WTiat paradigm orientation and assumptions undergird the stud) ? (Patton. 1990. p. 461) These questions will be addressed in sections 2 and 4 of this chapter. ”Credibilit\ of the Research Stud\

A D\ namic. De\ elopmentcil Perspective . The qualilat i\ e approach to e\alnation concei\ es of programs as d\ munie, de\ eloping, with changing conditions (Patton. 1990). The "quaIitati\ e-naturalistic-fonnati\ e approach is especialK appropriate for de\ eloping. inno\ ati\ e. or changing programs where the focus is on program impro\ement. facilitating more effectu e implementation, and exploring a \ ariety of effects on paiticipants” (Patton. 1990, p. 53). This study focuses on the impact a program has on its partkipanls. The d\ namic and changing nature of the program e\ ol\ ed due changes in the world, interests of the program director, and participtmts' interests. "Change." according to Patton (1990). "is a natural, expected and inexitable part of human experience. Rather than tiying to control, limit, or direct change, naturalistic inquiry expects change, anticipates the likelihood of the unanticipated, and is prepared to go with the flow of change" (p. 52). Considering that the process of the inquiry naturally e\ ol\ es and changes, and that it is an expected and planned that

131 Ibis will happen, it is appropriate to document these changes in the inquin process. The next section of the methodologx desciibes the resemch process, documents its changes, identifies major research decisions and describes the role of the researcher during the stud\.

Process of the Inquin’ Section 2 The impetus of this stud\ came out of m\ doctoral program in social studies edu( ation and m\ desire to explore changes in the world and its people. In order to leam about the recent trends in international and global education, one must is address a \ ariet} of questions: How do students leam about the similarities and differences in the world? How is the awareness of similarities and differences integrated into students’ perceptions and actions? Is the learning process limited to local multicultural interactions or can it be expanded into cross- cultural interactions abroad? How long does this process of education need to be for changes to occur? How long are the changes sustained? What changes are experienced b\ students during the educational process? Do all students experience the same changes? To ad d clai'it> an d focus during the p relim in an stages of m\ study, 1 arranged these questions according to Wilson's (1993) model of "The Impact of an International Experience." 1

132 ackipted W ilson’s questions to ni\ stud\ tours abroad focus and used the re-structured open-ended inteniew questions for the focus group sessions (see Appendix I and J). The standardized questions included: 1. Substanti\e knowledge— A. Do study lours impact the partieipcmts’ understanding of international global education in relation to cultural underslcinding. historical perspecti\ e, geographic cind economic inlenelal iunships? B. How is the substantive knowledge transfeired into educatioiicil opportunities? 2. Perceptual understamding— A. Do study tours impact the wa\ the pm ticipants now perceh e cross-cultural interactions? R. How is the perceptucil understanding transferred into educational opportunities? 3. PeI SO mil growth— A. Do stud) tours impact participants’ self confidence, independence and sense of credibility ? B. How is the personal growth transfened into educational opportunities? 4. Interpersonal connections —

133 A. Do sUid\ tours impact pai ticipants' continued travel, international connections, conimunitv connections, and sense of world mindedness? B. Do stud) tours impact the forging of new links between global and multicultural education in setting up curricula? C. How do pai ticipants transfer inteipersonal connections into educational opjxirtunities for themselves and for [their students] others? The ( at ego lies and themes during the inithil data analv sis were grouped around ciforementioned questions (see Appendix D). The inquirv progressed bv building on inteix lews In a continuing process of cross-question analv sis. The descriptions of the experiences and the interpretation were so intertwined (Patton, 1990) that an awareness of the phenomenological approach is appropriate to gaining the understanding of how participants put together the phenomena Ihev experienced and in doing so developed a woiidv lew. The studv focus naturallv nai rowed in an attempt to describe and interpret participants' experiences, the integration of their academic and experiential learning with their professional and personal dev elopment, and gain a core meaning for studv tours abroad. New questions were fonned as the focus ev olv ed. Qualitativ e inquirv can clarifv multiple V iewpoints and identifv how thev facilitate or obstruct

134 iinpleinenlalion. This study concenlraled on answering the following questions: 1. Assuming stud\ tour participants experienced changes in their professional growth, what were these changes in relation to the indhidual? WTiat changes did the participants identif\ in relation to the design of the program? 2. Assuming stud\ tour participants experienced changes in their personal development, what were these changes in relation to the indixlducil? What were these changes in relation to the design of the program? Major Research Decisions The planning, discoveiy and exploration of the factors influencing the impact of the studv tour upon the participants evolved during the inquin process. Qiialitative methods prov ided the flexibilitv to adapt the research design to the pm ticipants' interviews and the constant cross-question comparisons. The learning process during the research sliifted the focus of the inquirv from social studies educators to students participating in mi international educational experience of ov erseas study tours. This section describes the process of inquirv and identifies the prominent aspects of the research design.

135 Pilot Stud\ . A pilot stud) was conducted from Januan - March 1993 to determine some of the limits and possibilities of the stud) tour experience based on pre- and post-stud) tour inleniews. Two participants were inten iewed to determine the impact of the le\ el of education completed and the age of pai ticipants. Two one-hour inten iews were completed for each participant. Each inteniew was transcribed and member checked for panic ipanl agreement. The data was anal) zed to determine hnpact of pre-trip expectations and le\ el of post-trip educatiomil opportunities a\ ailable. .Another categon of interest was participémts' reflections on experiences. Inten iew data indicated that insenice educators had more opportunities to share their experiences. Presen ice teachers, due to conflicting demands on their time and expenses, did not ha\ e as man) opportunities to complete their stud) tour experience. For this reason I decided to concentrate on insenice and "practicing" educators. Post-stud) tour reflections, perspecth es and applications revealed the richest data for showing the greatest impact of the study tour experience. Due to the pilot stud) , ad\ ice from im advisor, and peer consultation with graduate students who participated in other stud) tour programs, 1 decided to focus my stud) on post-stud) tour implications, reflections mid effects on participants.

136 Pcirticipanl Selection. I selected participants from the Ohio State l'ni\ersit\ Social Studies Education Program Abroad students who completed stuck tour abroad programs during 19G9-199S. The sample included pnjportional representation based on age, gender, ethnic group, number of stud\ tour experiences, and le\ el of educational attainment. Participants chosen were (at the time of the stud\ ) professional!} emplo\ ed in education. 1 eilso attempted to identif} participants interested in social studies education, as it ccjincided with m\ area of expertise of the researcher in humanities education. Recent and past stud) tour participation were factors for selection to aid in determining the longitudinal impact of stud} tours on the participants. Six participcints pro\ided a representath e proportion of the total stud} lour participant population. The four female participants represented the gender ratio (57 percent OSU stud} lours abroad to 65 percent iix erage in Open Doors, 1994-95) of the total participant population. The "axerage" pmticipant, as cited in the published sun e} research b} Gilliom and Ann ink (1995), is "female, and leaches social studies in a suburban secondan school.. . exceptions to the profile ... [were] fourteen respondents [who] were elemental"} teachers" (p. 5). To prov ide a proportional representation in relation to age, 2 participants were under 50 } ears, (54 percent under 50 } ears in unpublished Gilliom's statistics, 1991), and 1 participant over 50 } eai's (29

157 percent o\ er 51 in unpublished Gilliom's statistics, 1991). Race ethnic group representation included 2 minority pai'ticipants—African American (10 percent minont) in Gilliom's unpublished stud\. 1991) and 1 participant \isuall\ impaired (no statistics for physical handicap). Participants’ completed le\el of education completed b\ piulicipants includes 5 participants who held completed their master’s degree (69 percent in Gilliom’s unpublished stud}, 1991) andl participant near completion of master’s degree. The number of stud\ tour experiences will be indi\ idualK detailed in the case studies presented in chapter 4; howe\ er. as a general sunmiar\ , 3 participants completed one stud\ tour abroad program and 3 participants completed o\ er three stud\ tour abroad programs. Paiticipants’ representation w ith regard to longe\ it> since the study tour experience included: 1 paiticipant longer than 15 \ eais, 2 participants longer than 2 \ ears, 2 participants within 1 \ ear, mid 1 pcirticipanl less than 1 month. The following lists the participants in the study who were asked to participate, accepted and subsequent!) completed the stud). Pai ticipants agreed to letters for identification in a paiticipant member-check (7 31 1996). The letters were changed to pseudonyms (8 26/1996) to conceal the identit) of the participants when the letters were easil) identifiable during a review of the stud). The pseudom nis are lad, Jena, Dan, Kell), Sara, and All represent the names used to

138 idenlifA the participants in m\ stud\ . The participants were reionlacted in a member-recheck to the name change. Desired: Acceoted: Completed Studv: Uid la d fa d Jena Jena Jena Kellv Kelly Kelly Dan Dan Dan Sara Sara Sara Ali Ali Ali Access. Pa rl ic i pa n I s ' self idenlificalion of their willingness to be inten iewed pro\ ided access as indicated on a sur\ e\ research questionnaire prepared and administered in 1991 b\ M. F. Gilliom. In addition, one recent stud\ tour participcmt's pennission was gained when she was contacted directly from the class roster pro\ ided b\ M. E. Gilliom, based on accessibilitx and a balance of other selection criteria. Prior to the initial interview sequence, I \erified participants' pennission b\ telephone contact from the names generated from the aforementioned list. Site and time of the introductoiy sessions were confirmed in ad\ance. Upon completion of the initial interview, 1 conducted approximateh nine follow-up inteniews for each participant, which \ aiied in length. The time spent at each inten iew v aried due to the need to accommodate participants' previous time commitments. Male participants usually limited the contact to appro.vimaleh 40-45 minutes. Female participants' inteniew

139 limes were exlremeh \ aried. For example some inlen iews were limiled lo 30 minutes, (during a pre-school appointment) imd others lasted 2-3 hours o\ er breakfast, or dinner. During the extended lime frames, breaks were provided lo divide the sessions. Site Selection—Natural Setting. The goal for selecting inlen iew sites was lo find "as natural a selling" (Ogbu/imo, 1974) as possible. In this studv, the inteniew data were gathered in person, bv telephone, and documents. Like the length of lime for the inleniews site locations varied. Each participant determined the inteniew site. .All male participants choose their classrooms. Fenicile pai ticipants selected teacher work Lueas, comniLinitv libnnies, classrooms, restauicinis. participants' homes and the telephone. Since I desired a full data collection, each session was recorded bv written notes and taped as suggested in Luther's QjLialitative Research class (1993). This duplication prov ed to be extremelv helpful due to the malfunction of the audio equipment on two occasions, with infomiation saved only through notes. Technical equipment and mechanical training prov ed to be a necessary part of the data-gathering process for the study. .A small taping device provided ease in moving to alternative locations and lessened the distraction during the inteniew process. .Additional equipment was needed to record telephone conv ersations and allow me mobility for note-taking. The

140 telephone interview accommodated one of the participants w ith a ph\ sical disabilit) who was unable to tra\ el in the morning or the ex ening during the short winter daylight hours. Her limited free time during the elementaiy school schedule prexented interview s during school hours, and she did not want "professional" commitments to infringe on weekends. Such accoimnodations were made in keeping with naturalistic inquiiy's emergent design process. The following delineates the time frame and format of the interx iews conducted. Series I included three participants. Series 11 included the remaining three participants, \xith concluding inteiwiews for the participants in Series 1. The distribution of the PLirticipants into series was detemiined b\ the participants themselx es in accordance with their other professional commitments and the time necessary to complete the inter, iew requirements. Series I 9 15 1993 - 2 1 1994 Series 11 11 10 1993 - 5 4 1994

Member Checks 11 1 1994-8 31 1996 Concluding interv iew's 2 1 1994-4 30 1994 Focus group sessions (2) 2 3 1994; 2 17 1994

(My studx time table is included in Appendix C.)

141 Della Collecl ion Actixities. Role pr the Researcher. Researchers oflen acl as a parlicipanl obsen ers. The role of parlicipanl obserx alion, according lo Pallon, is a conlinuum beUveen complele "immersion inlo a selling lo complele separalion from I he selling as a speclalor" (p. 206). Den/in (19SS) describes parlicipanl obsenalion as including documenl cmaK sis, inlen iewing of respondents mid infonnanls, direct participai ion and obsen cition, and introspection. The "role of the researcher" includes cill of the interaction with the p^irticipant (leCompte & Preissle. 199.^). The role of the researcher parlicipanl obsenalion or "insider’s" \ iew. is a \ iew that is exlremeh difficult and sometimes impossible lo acquire with such seconchin devices as structured questionnaires. In m\ slLidx, 1 assumed multiple roles. I \ iewed my in\ ol\ emenl in the participants sharing as a pii\ ilege imd was honored to hear pads of their life experiences. A collaboratixe exchange developed and increased as the le\els of rapport and trust between myself and the participants de\ eloped through increased personal contact, as described by Bogden & Biklen (1992). Tliis dual role is delineated by Patton ( 1990) as: Experiencing the program as an insider is what necessitates the participant part of participant obserx alion. At the same time, howex er, there is clearlx an obserx er side to this process. Tlie challenge is to combine pm ticipation tmd observation so as to become capable of understanding the

142 program as an insider while desc ribing the program for outsiders, (p. 207) As a researcher, I held both an insider and an outsider position and mov ed between the extremes of the continuum according to m\ relationship with the indiv idual participants during the inten iew process. As a fonner teacher in the Columbus Public Schools, I shared an employment background with three of the participants. Five participants and I shared the discipline of social studies education. All seven of us were students of M. Eugene Gilliom at Tlie Ohio State I'niversitv. Two participants were students in academic classes with me at The Ohio State I'niversitv. One participant and I assisted in a research project together. One of the participants and I were students on the same studv tour abroad program to Ecuador and the Galapagos Islands. Four of the participants shared the same gender (female). Four of the participants shared the identification of white et hnicallv. Vet. I also occupied an outsider position as a researcher. I was an outsider because I was not currentIv teaching. Mv gender made me an outsider to the two male participants. Mv race made me an outsider to the two minoritv participants as a member of the majoiitA. Finally, I was an outsider to the multiple studv tours experience (more than two study tours) for three of the participants and single studv tour experience for one participant. Much of the previous research on study abroad programs suffered, according to Burns, Ceiych and Smith (1990), from

143 being conducted by "prdclilioners of exchange programs fcither than researchers in the strict sense" (p.l3). This practice created repercussions for the impartiality of the findings. "Good researchers are aware of their theoretical base and use it to help collect and analyze data" ( Bogdan and Biklen, 1992, p. 33). I was not a "practitioner" of the study tour abroad program, but 1 was a doctoral student in the Social Studies and Global Fdu( ation Program cit The Ohio State I nwersity. Tlie methods utilized to ensure as much impartiality as possible are described in greater detail in Section 4 of this chapter (p. 185), "Credibility of the Study." I used a \ ariety of methods for gathering data. The use of multiple-data collection methods contributes to the trustworthiness of the data (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992, p. 24). Commonly called triangulation, this form of data collection imoKes the incoiporation of multiple data sources and theoreticcil perspecth es in order to increase confidence in research findings. According lo Deivin(1988), the more sources tapped for understanding, the more belie\able the findings. I>ata collection options for this study were chosen to (1 ) elicit data needed to gain undei'standing of the phenomenon in question: (2) contribute different perspectives on the issue; and (3) nicike effectix e use of the time available for data collection (Glesne & Peshkin. 1992). I used three data-gathering techniques w hich are dominant qualitatix e inquin : inteniexving, focus group participation, and

144 document anal\ sis. M\ proposai was submitted to the Human Subjects Rexiew Program for clearance prior to the inteniewing process. Further reference to this will be included in the final section of this chapter. "Enhancing Qiialitx and Credibility ." (See Appendix G, Proposal) Intenieuing. During the initial inteniewing process, I probed for greater understanding of the impact and influences the participants experienced during their study tours abroad. The predetennined questions focused on collecting biographical details and understanding the studx tour abroad experience, initiallx in relation to participants’ substantixe knoxxledge, personal groxxth, perceptual understanding ^md inteipersonal connections, folloxxing Wilson's (1993a) "Impact of International Experience" (see Appendix D & E). The inquiry-oriented questioning method integrated pr edetermined questions with an open-ended inter*\ie\xing process. I identified and indicated the coiTcial ional and dix ergent patterns \xhich participants found significant during their groxxth and dexeloprirent folloxxing their studx tour experience (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992). The nature of the indixidual and focus group mterxiexxing process of structured and unstructured questions encouraged the participants to feel "free to bring up xxhatexer topics thex choose, the obserxer ends up xvith more possible topics for analyses than could ex er be cox ered in sufficient detail in a single report" (Morgan, 1988, p. 70).

145 The inlen iews were conducted o\ er nine months in order to include pcirticipants' insights bcised on hiter reflections and de\ elopment from the inteniewing process and member checks. During the inten iewing process the exchange of reflections betAveen colleagues is a highly desired an d reinforcing m oth ation (Howser. 1989). Mern field (1993) suggests s\ stematic reflection as a major component of teacher education in globetl perspecth es. The following example illustrates the inteniewing process and reflection. Predetermined Research Question: How ha\ e \ our stud\ tours abroad impacted or changed you? Sara's repK -- One of the goals I ha\ e worked toward in the s\ stem was to get Global History required. 1 think that this was tied in with m\ experience with stud\ tours. Following the stud} tours, 1 was keenh awaie of how little we know about the world, and how little we understand it. 1 came to realize how important that was for kids. I realized how necessein it was to understand the rest of the world in order to understand their own countiy and culture, particularK when we are supposed to be a melting pot of all kinds of cultures. We sometimes have so much difficulty with that. Tlrat has probabh been the biggest and longest fight of m\ caieer, getting that through the school board. It got tliroLigh in 1983.

146 I uenl lo Cliina, iny first lour, in 1975. I had been leaching here Ihree \ ears al lhal lime. I started ni\ first school \ ear in 1972. When we went to China it included China, Japan, Korea, Hong Kong. II was a fi\ e-week tour. M> next stud) lour experience in 1978 was to the Soviet Union. We went lo fi\e locations in the Soviet Union. (Sara; Interview, 11 10 1993) \ppendix H provides a list of the questions utilized during the interviewing process.

Foc 'lls Group Interviews. After completing the individual inleniews, participants were invited to participate in focus group inlerv iews to share reflections, insights and exjxîiiences. Focus groups are defined bv Morgan (1988) as: a form of qualitativ e research, focus groups are basiccillv group interv iews, although not in the sense of an alternation between the researcher's questions and the research participants’ responses. Instead, the reliance is on interaction within the group based on topics that are supplied bv the researcher, who tv picallv takes the role of moderator. The funckimental data that focus groups produce are transcripts of the group discussions, (p. 9) The focus groups were structured on the basis of data from the individucil inten iew sessions and an ongoing review of the literature. Kanter (1981) suggests educators gained satisfaction from the exchange of ideas and information with peers. Manv participants in the various stud)' tours shared these same

147 impressions and experiences. Lather (in class, 1993) confinned this decision b\ sharing her obsen citions that focus groups provided some of the richest sources of data for her recent stud\\ M\ experience was confinned these experiences and examples will be presented in Chapter 4. A brief example of focus group data in response to the same question asked in the inteniews illustrates the aforementioned point.

Predetennined R k u s Group Question: How do study tours impact \ ou and \ our global understanding? Sara's focus group I replv : I think it is such a mind opening experience, that \ ou get ven alert to even thing that is going on and in countries that vmi are going to go visit before v ou are going. So, v ou start to pick up more information, \ our mind kind of expands and suddenlv v ou hear ev erv thing that has to do with China and creates an interest that bv the time v ou get there v ou do have a focus or some plan and you alreadv hav e learned a great deal. \OV REALLY ZERO CV ON' IT [capitals for emphasis]. Tliat alwav s brings back experiences that v ou can compare and contrast what v ou saw with what that is.. .

Dan's focus group I reply: I think that is a good point... ev en time v ou see sometliing in the newspaper about Russia v ou are draw n to it. You zero in on it. (Focus Group I transcript, 2 3 94)

148 ( Appendixes I and J proxides a lisl of questions utilized during the focus group inten iews.) Morgan (1988) elucidates the importance of focus groups b\ slating "[t]he hallmark of focus groups is the explicit use of the group interaction to produce data and insights that would be less accessible without the interaction found in a group" (p. 12). The adx antage of focus groups is the abilitx of the resemcher to obseixe interaction about a topic and the relatixeh spontaneous responses bx the participants. Lex} (1979) indicates the added adxantage I also found in focus group interaction: the participants' willingness to challenge others kind the responses to these challenges. An example from Focus Group I clekiiix illustrates this point. Two of the participkints discussed the role of being a minoritx in the United States and then sxxitcliing to being kt m em ber of the nikijoritx population in Kenx ki and Egx pt during studx tours abroad. Tlie second minoritx participant kisked the first participant to explain how it felt to be of "lighter skin than the other minorit} member of the studx tour" (.-Mi, Focus Group I. Feb. 2, 1994). Tills intention enhanced the shkiriiig bx another participant concerning her experiences while in China of being in the minoritx for the first time in her life. The minoritx pku ticipant, who had also been to Clilna, extended the discussion further bx describing the reactions to her skin color bx Chinese children xxiio hesltantlx touched her skin and followed her around to obseixe her actions (Focus Group I, 2 3 1994). M\

149 resecUCher's comments at the time identifies the change as "the group begins to interact at this point without m\ intervention and group d\ nanties begin and [participants] leach each other" (Focus G roup I, 2 3 1994), Another adx antage of the focus group is the reduced amount of time inx'oKed: the same number of pailicipimts can respond to the Scune question in much less time than in indix idual sessions. The questions discussed in the focus group sessions enlranced the compansons and richness of the data, rather than distorting indixidual's perceptions, due to the timing of the focus groups. Focus groups were held after the data collection in the indix idual interx iews. In addition the foct-is group sessions made data collection less expensix e. I gathered data in one convenient location near The Ohio State Unix ersitx rather than to drixe to six different locations around the area. I selected the Fawcett Center dining room for the site of the focus group session, proxiding both an academic campus site and a social setting. The 4:00-6:00 P.M. time period was conx enient for participants because of few professional conflicts, and did not interfere with other occupants of the Fawcett Center. These factors encouraged free cmd open discussion. Duiing each session the group was either the sole occupant of the room or separated bx considerable distance from the few other groups. Anal) sis following the focus group interviews indicated an increased richness of the data. I noted that the sustained impact

150 of the stud) lour experiences was challenged and then accepted during the discussions between the paiticipants. Future plans for other stud) tour experiences also were explored. Paiticipants identified and shared changes relating professional growth and personal de\ elopment. These changes seemed to be connected to the amount of time that had passed since the stud) tour abroad, as well as participants' professional advancement opportunities and educational opportunities. Chapter 4 presents further identification mid comparisons of the pm ticipants' experiences an d anal) sis. Document Anah sis. I asked participmits to shaie significant joumal entries occurring during their oxerseas experience. The recorded journal entries were part of the academic requirement for credit from the stud) tour abroad. To achiex e a multiple perspectix e. both positix e and negatixe experiences that the particip^mts had recorded in the journals were requested. These journals proxided a means to share reflections written at or close to the time of their trax el experience and thus increase the x alidit) of data. The process of selecting entries prox ided aidded insight into wliich stud) tour experiences participants felt were most relex ant and which related to other identified growth experiences. Fix e of the six pm ticipants proxided the trax el journals for anal) sis. The entries will be sluired with the reader in Chapter 4, "Participant Fxperiences."

151 Participant Experiences. Qiialitatix e researchers often use cases as a means to im esligale the impact of participants' experiences and to examine program design. I selected the participants in my study utilizing purposeful sampling (Patton, 1990), selecting "infonnation-rich cases" (p. 169) with the puipose of learning a "great deal" (p.l69) about the issues of m\ research. After further im estigation to determine the natur e of \ a rial ions in the total studx tour program populat ion, 1 decided to use "maximum xariéition s^mipling" (Patton, 1990, p.l72) to capilir e and describe the centr al themes or principal outcomes that cut across a participaint population. The strategx tums the weakness of a sample into a strength as " [a] ny common patterns lhal emerge from g real xariation are of particular interest and x alue in capturing the core experiences and central, shared aspects or impacts of a progmm" (Patton, 1990, p. 172). This also coincides with the phenomenological awareness of the studx to find the core Of what the studx tour abroad experience is and ruecms. Another adx antage of selecting a maximum x ariation purposeful sample for the data collection was to \ ield two kinds of findings: (1) high-qualitx' detailed descriptions of each parlicipant's experiences, and (2) impor tant shared patter ns that cut across participants' experiences and "derix'e their significance from haxing emerged out of heterogeneity" (Patton, 1990, p. 172).

152 The determining factor in sample size according to Patton (1990) is stated as follows: The \ alidit), meaningfulness, and insights generated from qualitatixe inquin' haxe more to do with the infonnation- richness of the cases selected and the obsen ational analx tical capabilities of the researcher than of the sample size. (p. 185) Cases are "stories thiU, in their telling, inxite the reader to question and explore personal x alues and understandings.. . and are a means bx which educators can explore how others haxe confronted problems similar to their own" (Bullough, 1989. p. xi- xii). A case study is defined as ”[t]he intensix e inx estigation of a single object of social inquin such as a classroom" (Biddle & Anderson. 1987. p. 237). According to Geertz (1973). case studies, act as a thick desciiption of the program, project, group, and or institution under inx estigation. Case studies are "particularK xaluable when the ex aluation aims to capture indix'iducil differences or unique x ariations from one program setting to another, or from one program experience to ancnher” (Patton. 1990. p. 54). The participants' experiences were incoiporated into organizational units that I call "studies." that enabled an indix idual's idiosyncratic characteristic to be easily identified. I selected participant experiences as mx' identified organizational unit for presentation of the data (Campbell & Patton. 1990, p. 450). Participants' responses are analx zed and presented to make the ox erail patterns clear. An emphasis throughout the studx is

153 lei ling ihe participanls "speak for ihemseKes" (Campbell & Pallon, 1990, 450). According lo Pallon (1990), Ihe "cincil\ si's consliTicts should not dominate the anah sis but should facilitate the reader's understanding of the world under study" ( p. 392). The challenge is lo present responses in cogent fashion while integrating a \ aiieU of experiences and infbnnalion recorded during the inten iews. "Classify ing quotations taken from content anah sis is lo facilitate the search for patterns and I hemes within particular settings or across cases" (Patton, 1990, p. 384). Case studies ma\ be done of a "single progrmn or one max do case studies of sex eral participants" (Patton, 1990, p. 385). Tlie focus of the studx detennines the methods of analx sis and presentation of the data. The program "process and outcome" (Patton, 1990) framework was utilized to proxide format he, descriptixe feedback to panicipants and to share the research findings xvith unix ersitx facultx , administraiix e and professional staff in the field of international education, progi'am coordinators and the participants. The differentiation among participants that emerged from different study toui s under the same program created a need to identilx interconnections beneath the surface of a single program design. The x arx ing number of experiences, to different places, in different x ears and distinct backgrounds of the participants inx oh ed a multifaceted, complex phenomenon.

154 As the reseiucher I needed lo establish a special \ocabulan (to share between ptulicipanls). an anahsis process and a strategy for interpreting the data and presenting the findings- Tlie slud\ did not focus on a single person, group of people or an> particular stud\ tour. I had to dev elop a descriptive, developmental framework to which the program administrator and facultv could relate and the pmticipants could share in the interpretation of the infonnation of their stones. I adopted an international education temiinologv and framework (Kauffmann, Martin, &\\'eav er, 1992: Goodwin & Xacht, 1988: XAFSA's Guide to Education Abroad for Adv isers and Administrators. 1993) to integrate the entire studv abroad experience with the participants' responses. The terms facilitated comparisons of the impact of the program when analv zed in a framework of cross-interview (Patton, 1990) pm ticipants' experiences. Participants identified and agreed upon the "indigenous tv pologies" (Patton, 1990, p. 396) in the field of International education during member checks (July, 1996). Participants' self-selected tv pologies that emerged in the data were incoiporated into the internationcil education tv pologies. Participant-identified tenus include: minoritv experience, multiple studv tours, and implications of gender. The participants' academic background in global and multicultural education provided a shared vocabulaip to help understand the interrelationship of tenus in international, global and

155 intercult lirai studies. Uni\ersit\ facult\', program administrators and ad\ isors shared tliis background. T\ pologies selected from the field of international education include: immersion experience, focus of the program, geograpliic location, location professional implications, and academic requirements. (1 noted a sharing of this tx pologx among educators in the fields of social studies, global education, imd multicultural education.)

Indigenous t\ pologies are clues to ei aluation that the phenomena to which the labels refer are important to the people in the setting and that to understand the setting it is necessan to understand those tenns and their implications for the program. (Patton, 1990, p. 395)

Patton (1990) further identifies that eveiy program has a "special \ocabularK to differentiate kinds of pailicipants, st\ les of pai'ticipation and the contribution to the program" (p. 395). 1 used participants' experiences during the study lour program, the focus of m\ studi, as the units of anali sis. Participants responded to standardized oixîn-ended questions during their inteixlews and focus groups concerning the impact of the program upon personal dex elopment and professional growth. 1 used the participants' l ocabulaiy to identifx their growth and deielopment. Tlie findings utilized the combined categories and framework of the participants and international education, wliich greath facilitated and enhanced the inteipretation and reporting of the qualitative data. Patton

156 (1990) describes this process of using indigenous l> pologies as a "powerful anal) tical approach" (p. 397) in qucililatixe anal) sis. Delta Anah sis Procedures Ev aluation Research. Program Process and Program Outcomes. The fundamental reason for cross-question anal) sis in this stud) is to deepen understanding and explanation. Glaser and Strauss (1970) advise that using multiple cases is easier than a single case stud) to find out under what set of conditions the h) potheses are minimized and maximizecL Multiple cases help the fonnation of more general categories of how those conditions ma) be related (Miles & Hubemian, 1994).

Data anal) sis done simultaneous!) with data collection enables ) ou to focus and shape the study as it proceeds. Consistent!) reflect on ) our data, work to organize them and tr) to discov er w hat the) have to tell you. Write memos to )ourself. dev eloping amil) tic files, appl) ing i-udimentar) coding schemes and w rite monthl) reports. (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992, p. 146)

The noteworth) literature (e.g.. Miles & Hubennan, 1994; Glesne & Peslikin, 1992: Lincoln & Guba, 1985, 1989; and Patton, 1990) frequent!) identifies the capability of constant comparativ e data analysis. Miles & Hubennan (1994) indicate that the complication in using a "complex network of conditions and effects.... is how to draw well-founded conclusions from multiple networks" (p. 207). Each network is in some sense unique, ) et the authors suggest finding a generic nai rative

157 model. I tried de\eloping a conceptual framework (Denzin, 1988) to set the focus. whereb\ descripth e CcUegories could be placed witliin a broad stmcture of both explicit cind assumed positions (Glesne and Peshkin, 1992 ) in a process of making sense of the data. In this field "e\en one is still learning" (Miles & Hubennan, 1994, p. 207) lo anal) /e qualitathe data. This suggestion for qualitati\e data anal) sis pro\ided the guidelines in ni) sUid) for a continuous stream of data collection, data displa), data reduction, and conclusion drawing in the inquii*) . Care and attention were gi\ en to ensure that the process reflected the nature of the inquiix as a "never-ending and uncertain process of interpreting the interpretations of others" (W ilson, 1993a, p. xii) an d did not distort the data, but utilized grounded ciata. The data remmned in categories until the categon took shape and definable themes ('ould be identified for m) stud) . Cuba's suggestion of groupings fonned b) "reclining regulaiities" and "dixergence" (cited in Patton, 1990, p. 403-404) or building on items alread) known, bridging and surfacing b) proposing new information and checking the "fit" (Patton, 1990, p. 404) guided this process.

Coding the Data After completing the transcriptions of intenlews and focus group inten lews, I coded the sentences and paiagraphs that

158 stood iilone or existed apart from other data in a group. I identified inten iew data was b\ the pcirticipant's initials, inten iew date, and inteniew question as illustrated in the following example: In the r.S., our work is not based on such ph\ sical strength.

In the r.S.S.R., our guide SLiid, men felt it was beneath them. " (KelK : Inteniew, 2 15 1993, = 4) The focus group data was identified b\ the participant's initials. Focus Group 1 or 11, and focus group question as follows: "I went to the Soviet Union to improve inv teaching, but 1 also went for mv self (Kellv : FG I, =2). (See Appendix F for the data codes.)

Categoiizing the Flat a The remaining data was then categorized using the dual methods of color coding and "scissors and sori" (Wells. 1974) in tablets of 8.5 x 11 paper. The complexity of conipaiing across focus group discussions, and individual inten iews needed a practical stmcture for organizing a topic-b\ -topic analysis of data. The use of "mult iple shades of colored highlighter" (Morgan, 1988, p. 66) aided the process of marking relevant passages of each transcript, which were copied, cut, and sorted into themes and categories of similar topics. This procedure compares to the procedures suggested by Lincoln and Guba of a "3 X 5" shuffle but the length of the descriptions or examples

159 gi\ en b\ the paiticipants made this a much more practical procedure. The dual method aided m\ own \isual learning st\ le as I continued to organize and interpret the data. The "raw" data was first grouped and then regrouped as the comparisons with other participants and subsequent literature re\ iew emerged. As more data were anah zed certain themes become clarified and "clumps of data " (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992, p. 1 .Tl) coalesced in a like-minded frame. (See Appendix F for the categories of data during the analysis process.)

Transcripts and Anah sis Keeping current with transcriptions was difficult. Focus gnuip inler\iews look o\ er len hours to transcribe for one hour of focus group time, due to complex participant interactions and numerous inteiruptions of the information. After a period of time, the inteixiew process elicited comments such as "1 may ha\ e told you this before. ..." The reflections of the participants did improve w ith probing b\ the researcher howe\ er, compared to the focus groups, where the participants probed each other, there was a major difference. Mam of the examples part icipants used in the inteniew sessions to illustrate points were reemphasized during the focus groups. This increased emphasis, and the comparison with other participants’ illustrations pro\1ded a confirmation of preliminary

160 findings from the inteniew process and a rich source of comparati\ e knowledge. R)r example, in one anecdotal inteniew sequence, KelK’ described women working in the Soviet Union: Women were hanging out of windows on high office buildings while men supenised below. The women were ihe ones doing the hea\x work. 1 was stunned. In the U.S. our work is not based on such ph\ sical strength. In the U.S.S.R., ou r guide said, men fell it was beneath them. (Kelly, Inten iew, 2 15 1993) The gender comparisons [GX] of work tasks was e\ ident here. The cross-cultural comparison [XC] and international [IP] were also identified. FinalK, the participant described her professional growth b\ discussing a slide presentation she made to students

The intercultural compatisons of gender and secondaiy status of groups to a dominant culture were also discussed in the focus group sessions. Two participants reflected on a single study tour experience. In the focms group, participants with multiple stud) tour experience [ME] added their comments. The participants' reflections were con finned by the sharing of others and each described how the\ felt the travel experiences were sustained [ST] (Focus Group II, 2 15 1994). Another illustration of cross-question comparisons became clear in KelK's discussion of future trav el in studv tours. "1 would not pa\ to go to Ecuador, because I would not teach about

161 Ecuador. I would like to go to Cliina, the Middle East, England cind other places 1 could talk about [to students in her classes]" (Kell\. Inten iew, 2 15 1993). [\] In comparison, when this was discussed with participants in the focus groups, a multiple stud\ tour sojourner shared: "I think the first trip made a tremendous amount of difference in me and m\ personal it} and m\ confidence... 1 have ne\er lost that intensit} of alwa\ s being interested in other countries, peoples and their similarities to us" (Sara, Focus Group II. 2 17 1993). [ME] Researcher's Reflection: As the implications and emphasis emerged concerning the data through the multiple sources, 1 realized that it was possible to trace the sustained impeict of stud} tours for these participants. The multiple stud} tour experience seemed to change the perspecthe of the participants. Identifx ing with the minorit}, not a part of the dominant culture groups, caused participants to return to the U.S. with a changed perspecth e on multicultural education, or it reemphasized what was felt as a minorit} member. Minorit} participants' feelings regarding being a member of a large powerful majorit} were shared: It ga\ e [me] a whole other perspectix e about who I am. That I am, that 1 truly am a person! I don't e\ er have to be degraded or belittled, because I'm from a \ en rich culture and societ}. That feeling for the last twenty } ears

162 has transcended iny life. (All, Focus Group I, 2 7 1996) [XC] [ME] During the entire research process, I endeax ored to conlinuousK analx ze the data. This plein enabled me to focus on. collect and understand data. Tliis process according to Lincoln and Guba (1985) inxolx es rexiewing original data, determining, rex is ing. and s\ nthesizing constructions, and detennining a holistic, grounded x iew of the participants’ experienc es. 1 continuallx examined data to understand what commonalities of tlK* studx tour experiences impacted the educators’ personal and professional dexelopment. 1 explored the multiple sources to identifx how these perceptions of the participants impacted their pei sonal dex elopment and professioiicil growth. The concluding example in the analysis process illiostrates tlie coding and cross-interxiew comparison of data. The data sample is in response to the question: "Personal Growth"-Will x cui share a short stoiy of how the studx tour influenced your self confidence, independence, sense of credibility ? How did it change x our life or professional direction?" (Qriestion -=3. Focus Group II).

Don Mine is pretty easy because I was going through a PG mid- life crisis, the study tour came about when I was making the decision whether to keep on coaching or not. I had coached for 15 y eai s in basketball, so this sort of filled

163 CED that \ oid. I got excited about the trip to the So\iet Union, I had just gi\ en up coaching .... It added to ni\ self PD confidence and all those things ... when I was looking [for something else to do]. I missed coaching for the first \ ear or two. I would sa\ this [stud\ tour] realh' helped me get PD ihrough that transition jx^riod and had a significanl impact PG on m\ leaching. R. Did it make changes in your professional growth, too ... like commiltees, organizations, conferences, leaching professional dex elopment? PG Dan Yes, the second, no, max be the first year after I came back, [a teacher on Dan's staff] and I went to Northwestern Unix ersity- for a conference. Eastern European Studies, we .. . heard some really excellent speakers and that really added. It fitted [fit] in really well with what I had just *** experienced with the study tour. I have been asked to PG speak with different organizations about my trip to Russia \ [USSR]. It has enhanced my professional career. (Dan, focus group II)

As 1 constructed the cases the continuous data was still a part of the emergent design. The categories in Table 1 were defined and the final phase of the analysis emerged. Table 2 display s this final phase.

164 CATEGORIES Global Multicultural Professional Substantive X ! X Perceptual Understanding XX Personal Growth X Interpersonal Connections x X

Table 1 Dal a Anal\ sis Cross Reference: Phase l & 2

CATEGORIES program design international global intercultural immersion - X X X focus X X X X multiple St - X X X gender X X X X minority ! X X X academic credit X X X duration since X X XX geographic loc. X X X X vocational ix X X IX

Table 2 Data .Anah sis Cross Reference:

165 Construction of the Participant Experiences Section 4 The conslmction of the participant experiences was written lo describe I he impact of the o\ erscas study lours with reference to the participants' personal dex elopment and professional grcjwth. This grow th and dex elopment is in relation to international, global and intercultural perspectixes. The presentation of the case studies takes manx forms, depending upon the purpose of the inquiiy (Patton, 1990. The ox emil purpose of this studx is to determine kex issues that the participants found relex ant to detennining the impact of a study lour abroad. These issues fonn thematic patterns. I chose a narratix e format to create a descriptix e picture of the participcmts and the impact of the programs. I decided to construct the studies by themes and topics (Linccjln & Guba, 1985), the question o r problem being the detennining factor that defines the particular case study (Spense, 1989). To add to the clarity of the studies, the introduction in Chapter 4 includes a brief description of The Social Studies

166 Education Stud\ Tour Abroad Program, as well as requirements for academic credit at The Ohio State Universit}. This inclusion also pro\1des a background for the cross-question analysis . Chapter 4 continues with the presentation of each of the six participants' experiences. Each study begins with the participant's biograph} as it relates to stud} tours abroad, deri\cd from the initial inteniew and edited to contain additional infonnation pro\ ided during subsequent inten iew sessions. The names and locations are changed to protect the confidentiality of the participants. The themes and issues of the stud} tour abroad follow in each of the stud} presentations. The impact of the stud} tour abroad upon personal dex elopment and professional growth, as described b} the participant, is the o\ er-arcliing focus. Ke} themes identified in the data anah sis as significant, reoccumng, or unusual follows: program design, international global perspective, and intercultural perspecth e. 1 asked questions lo gain clarit} and in-depth responses from the participants in each of these areas. As the stud} progressed, my increased abilit} to conduct interviews and probe for multiple perspectives of the participants provided richer data for the stud} 's identified areas of interest. The data supports each of the following themes: immersion experience, focus of the program, influence of multiple stud} tours, implications of gender, implication of minority experience, academic requirements, duration since the stud} tour, geographic location, and

167 \ ocalion professional. Each presentation reflects the idios\ ncrasies of experiences with differing areas of emphasis according to the wa\ s in which the indhidual and program shaped the experience. Interpretations and reflections b\ the participant and im self are incoiporated into the case in the mutual shaping of the inquin. The presentation is framed using themes and sub-themes adopted from international education terminolog\ and the recurring participants’ tenns. At the conclusion of Chapter 4, cross-stud\ comparisons are drawn elucielating the similarities and differences of the impact of the stud\ tour upon the pai'ticipants. The goals of m\ participimt experiences were first to portrax the ov erseas experiences using the themes and sub­ themes to demonstrate, for the reader, the impact and patterns of change. Second, I wanted the participants' own words to create a natural presentation of the data depicting the idiosx ncratic emphasis, enthusiasm, and understanding of the events and the impacts. Third, 1 wanted to present the pmticipant experiences in a fonnat that provided claritx to the process and outcomes of the experiences, using a in language familiar to a reader who is inv olv ed in international, global, and, intercultural education. Tlie hundreds of pages of notes, were used to produce a depiction of the ev ents and changes not produce a record of the research. Lastlv, 1 was concerned with the confidentialitv of mv paiticipants’ identities relating to protection from personal.

168 eniplox ment, or educational repercussions. I dev eloped guidelines for the pailicipant experiences based on the above goals, and the importance of including the overall findings. I constructed the participant experiences under these guidelines: 1. All content-descriptions, persons, issues-canie from the ini en iews, focus group inteniews, and document anah sis as described in this chapter. 2. The participant experiences were drawn from the final data anah sis; all major findings, as verified in checks of qualitv and credibility arc included in each pai'ticipant experience. 3. Each participant experience was developed from responses to interview questions, focus group inten iew questions, and documents. 4. The participant experiences are dev eloped from actual people. 5. Pseudonv ins were assigned to the people to protect confidentiality of the people. Each participant experience provides a range in time and perspective and includes data from the initial inteniews, later inteniews and both final focus group inteniews. The participant experiences present multiple perspectives in relation to the themes and sub-themes as well as descriptions of the impact and changes in perspectiv e described bv the individual. (These perspectiv es are compared to the other paiticipants in the study in a cross-intenlew comparison at the conclusion of Chapter 4.)

169 The tenus both from international education and the participants' descriptions created the sub-themes. The categories came from the re\ ie\v of the Uterature and the data. The focus of the stud} tour came from the program design and the review of the literature (Opper, Teichler, & Carlson, 1990). The sustained impact of a stud} tour cmne from participants identifying that "it changed ni} life" (.-\li. Focus Group I) and the literature (Abrams. 1979). (The identification of the minority implication derived from the cktta in which participants identified their minorit} group members membership (e. g. Jena , Ali, and Sara) and or described their experiences of being in the majoriti} (Ali and Jena). The literature presented concerns for the level of immersion of participants on stud} abroad programs (Goodwin & Xacht, 1988). The impact of the geographic location was consistent in both the data (Dan, focus group 1) and in the literature (Racette, 1996). The impact of multiple stud} tours emerged from the data anah sis of participants' responses in the cross-interview comparisons (e. g. between Jena and Sara, and between Kelh and Ali), Implications of gender emerged from the data during cross-interview comparisons (e. g. Sara and Lad, and between Dan and Kell} ). Biographical backgrounds aid the reader in understanding the anecdotes described in each of the participant experiences. As mentioned, I used a pseudonym to increase the confidentialit} for the participants. I identified school names and locations in

170 onl\ general terms. I included background and contextual infonnation from the literature and From a researcher's jTerspective to proxide insights and understanding within each participant experience where significant or pertinent information enliances the reader's understanding. The description of the program is included to connect the experiences of the participants with the structure and organization of the program design. Participants' reactions to the program's academic requirements are discussed in each participant experience. Participants' comments from the focus groups are included within the participant experiences to demonstrate the interactions during the focus group inteniews. The cross- inteniew comparison section is included to prox ide additional insights for the reader relating to the connections between the participants' indix idual experiences and the design of the program. The concluding section of tliis chapter identifies the ( cunponents instigated in the research design to ensure the qualitx and credibilitx of the data not clarified in Section 1 (p. 1 80) of this chapter. The guidelines of the credibilitx in qualitatix e inquirx are derived from Patton (1990).

171 Enliancing Qiialin and Credibilitx* Section 5 The credibilitx issue of qualitatix e inquirx depends on three distinct but related inquin elements:

1. rigorous techniques and methods for gathering high- qualitx data that is carcfullx anitlxyed. with attention to issues of x aliditx, reliabilitx, and triangulation: 2. the credibilitx of the researcher, which is dependent on training, experience, track record, status, and presentation of self: and S. philosophical belief in the phenomenological paradigm, that is, a fundamental appreciation of naturalistic inquitx , quiilitatix e methods, inductix e analx sis, and holistic thinking. (Patton,1990, p. 461)

Patton (1990) maintains that a credible qualitatixe study needs to address all three of these issues:

(1 ) What techniques and methods were used to ensure the integritx , x aliditx , and accuracx of the findings? (2) What does the researcher bring to the studx in tenns of qualification, experience, and perspectix e? (4) What paradigm orientation and assumptions undergird the studx ? (p. 461)

These questions are addressed in this section of the chapter.

Techniques for Enhancing the Qualitx* of Amilx sis Patton (1990) describes the obligation of the qualitative researcher to be "methodical in reporting sufficient details of the data collection and the process of analx sis to permit others to judge the qualitx of the resulting product" (p. 462). The testing 172 of ri\al explanations and negative cases are two of the methods lo demonslrate increased integrity in anah sis.

Integrity in Anah sis: Testing Rival Explanations. Patton (U')00) emphasises ihe importance of looking for rival and compel ing themes and explanations both inducth eh and logically (Pal I on. 1990). Pal I on (1990) regards il tis a mailer of "considering I he weight of the evidence and looking for the best fit between data and anah sis" (p. 462). (An illustration of the testing for rival explanations is found in I he "Credibility of the Researcher" component of this chapter— Researcher's Reflexiv e Journal, developmental sequencing, emerges in analysis (p.-183 ) In this example, the testing relates to the issue of growth and development by the participants during the overseas experience. I struggled with the measurement of grow th and change in the participants and interpretation of their significance. In an effort to establish mv credibility as a researcher.I continued to question and challenge the ways in which mv studv related to the literature. For example. I realized after investigating Kolb's (1984) Exoeiiential l earning and tn ing to fit it into the research structure, that the literature, mv training, and the data gathered from the studv did not support Kolb's explanation. Consultation with mv doctoral advisor. Miranda supported tills conclusion (6 25 1995). Lincoln and Cuba's (1985) naturalistic inquiry offered another

173 oppoitunin for testing of the fit of the research. The research sliid\ comprised many of the conijxments of this research approach: ho\ve\ er, the emergent nature and case-study presentation fit much more consistent!) with the qualitathe inquiry described b\ Patton (1990). The presentation of progr-arn process and impacts of the stud\ tour pr'ogr'arn upon the par ticipants in the ”matrix of linkages between pr'ogr'arn processes and impacts" (Patton, 1990, 417) seemed to make sense. The stud\ was designed to determine the impact of the siud\ abroad pr'ogr'arn on the participants. The multiple stud\ tour s, e\ 4 ')erienced b\ the par ticipants, o\er time pr e\ ented the m\ dir ect par ticipait ion and observ ation. I used a standar dized open-ended interv iew format to increase m\ iibilitv to determine ( onmion linkages, themes and explanations as suggested b\ Patron (1990).

Triangulation There ar e "basicalh four differ ent kinds of triangulation that c ontribute to the \ erification and \alidation of qiuilitative anah sis": methods triangulation, triangulation of sources, anah st triangulation, and theory perspectixe triangulation (Patton, 1990, p. 4G4). Triangulation of Methods. The section entitled " Research Decisions" presents the "checking out of the consistencx of findings generated bx différent data-collection methods" (Patton,

174 1990, p. 464). The tiiangulcition methods utilized include inteniews, Focus groups, and documents. The purpose of the triangulation was to impro\ e the credibility' of the findings and intei-protations of the studx.. This studx includes multiple sources tmd methods. The six participants provided different sources in the contextual validation of impact of studx tours abroad. The representative sample provided participants who had each experienced a studx tour abroad program, in a different or the sitme coLintn , in different and the same x ears, with different and Ihe same number of studx tour abroad experiences. If a particular pattern of "distortion" (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 306) is evident one can discern and conect that source, including that which cannot be v erified bx other sources. Another wax that the sources were discerned occurred when I experienced a "duplicate" studx tour abroad, thus enabling further correcticxn of the differences during the research. The triangulation of different methods of data collection modes (inteiAiew, focus group, and documents) is described in Section 2 of this chapter.

Triangulation of Qualitative Data Sources. Triangulation involves comparing and cross-checking the consistency of information derived at different times, by different qualitative methods and from different data sources. Member checks were

175 made continuous!} during the stud} to check back with the respondents for clarification and to pro\ide research rigor (Patton, 1990). In consideration of the participants' desire for "less paper" to read and exaluate due to their ahead} hea\A teaching schedules, and in consideration of the valuable use of their time, 1 conducted member checks oral!}, At the beginning of each inteniew session: 1. 1 presented a brief summan of the previous!} discussed research questions. The peirticipant's comments hel{x:d to verih iin understanding and make connections with the current in ten iew. 2. 1 gave a summan of answers recorded on the transcripts and of ni} notes of the participant's last session. This pro\ ided a quick review to bring him her back to the topic, and to check their previous answers. 3. I clarified any questions or uncertainties of the intent of the participants previous responses. 4. 1 asked each participant if she he wished to change or add to am of the comments from the previous session, due to reflection since making the comments. 5. After the conclusion of the member check, that usual!} took a ten to fifteen minute time frame, I presented the next questions to be discussed. Uncoln and Guba (1985) explain "the summar} of an inten iew can be 'pla} ed back' to the person who provided it for reaction:

176 the output of one inteniew can be 'pla\ ed’ for another respondent who can be asked for comment" (p. 314). This was done in m\ stud\ during the Focus Group Sessions I and II. Participants were contacted by telephone to \ erif\ their comments at the conclusion of the data gathering process April- May, 1993. I shared all of the part icipants' comments and main ideas which directK related to the dissertation focus with each participant. This pro\ ided the participants with an opportunity to agree to the appropriateness of m\ recordings and to challenge wrong inteipretations. The final data presentation was shared with participants in a cross-check whereby I tested the data, analy tic categories, inteipretations, and conclusions with partie ipants. The final member-check occuiTed between July 15-31, 1996 using a written presentation of the part icipants' data from the dissertation proofs. I proxlded participants the opportunity to agree or disagree and make changes in the dissertation proofs. The participants also were gi\en the option to accept or reject identification by letters (e.g., DH) in the presentation. All participants accepted this form of identification. Two of the participants made changes in the dissertation proofs. The other four participants accepted the proofs as written. The corrections increased my sense that the participants' experiences were representatixe of their study to u r perceptions oxer a ^Xîriod o f time.

177 The inteniews and focus group sessions sen ed as the field experience in ni\ siud\. My comments during the focus group sessions pro\ided an opportunil> to cross-check these (ibsenallons during the transcriptions of the inteniews and focus groups. M\ researcher’s journal \ erified the impressions gained during the sessions with later reflections. During the anah sis process, m\ notations were used to identih importance (e.g., ***). focus, and further issues to explore to \ eiif\ the tkita. An example of this is included in Appendix L , Data Display. The design of the inteniew methods, extending data collection o\ er a se\ en-month time frame, allowed me to check the "consistenc) of what people sa\ o\ er time" (Patton, 1990, p. 467). The inter\ iew questions were standardized across participants and sessions to \ eiif\' the information gathered. An example of the naturalh occurring changes in the participants’ answers was presented b\ Jena in her first inten iew and her second focus group on the impact of her stud\ tour experience. In the first sessions, her statements were introduced b\ "1 realh didn’t know what to expect, but I wanted to learn about Africa" (9 30 1993). In the final focus group (2 17 1994), Jena’s comments were more definithe. For example, "We are a world coimnunit) . For me, the ancient Eg\ ptians and finding out about other people of color around the world ... [liad the most impact]" (Jena, Focus Group 11).

178 The inteniew and focus group fonnat pro\ided an opportunit} lo compare what the participants said in prhate with what the\ said in public, as suggested by Patton (1990). Frequent comments in the focus group sessions included "Marsha, \ou ha\e heard this before ..." (Dan, Focus Group I), "I ha\e ahead) shared this with \ cm" (lad. Focus Group II) and "I am repeating m\ self ( Ali, Focus Group I) to illustrate the same information was shared both publicK and prixateh. To share the information with others outside of the program to "[compare] the perspectixe of people from different points of X iew" (Patton, 1990, p. 467), I inten iewed adxisors and diiectors in the Office of International Education, and members of the Great lakes Conference international education. I shared raw data with mx peer rexiewers as described in the "Reseai'cher’s Journal" section of this chapter. Another method I utilized was ('onsultating with members of mx doctoral dissertation committee to xcrifx the procedures in member checking. Triangulation of data sources in mx studx also inx olx ed the document analx sis of studx tour diaries. Fix e of the sL\ participants prox ided written exidence that corroborated what the) said in their inteniew sessions. These documents were compared to the inteniew and focus group data. The documents captured the names and locations of ex ents that the inten iew sessions’data described more generall) . Patton (1990) identifies this as occurring when "different kinds of data haxe captured

179 differenl things cind so the anal\ si attempts to understand the reasons for the differences" (p. 467). For example, Dcm described Tashkent as "it was destroyed in 1966 in an earthquake and had to be completel) rebuilt, it is reall) a modern cit\. Tashkent in Kazakhistan had a big beautiful mural, but right beliind it were shacks .. ." (Dan, Rx'us Grcjup II). In Dan's tra\el journal, Tashkent is described as:

Tashkent—the 13SR's fourth largest cit\ (2.2 million) and capital of I'/bekistan . . .As we dro\e along we noticed man) stucco buildings decorated with mosaic work tile. .. the cit) was completel) rebuilt [following the earthquake] two ) ears later with the help of people from all 15 republics of the Soviet Union. Mam of the modern buildings hav e been built with earihquake-proof design .. . It was near one of the billboards we were ) elled at b) a local man. (Dan, document).

Anah St Triangulation. Research anal) st triangulation inv olv es multiple anal) sts to review the research findings. In m) stud) the role of peer-rev iewer described in the researcher's journal describes the role of the peer anah st in this stud). Participants were asked to rev iew and react to their participant's experiences descriptions in the final member-

180 checking of this stud\. Two of the participants prox ided written reactions to their experiences (Jul\ 30, 1996). M.E. Gilliom, the program director for the Social Studies and Global Education Studx Tours Abroad, rex iewed and edited the program description (Julx, 31, 1996). Tliis check pennitted a staff check on the presentation of the program and its historx.

The Credibilitx of the Researcher Patton states there is no definitixe list to establish the credibilitx of the researcher. "The principle is to report anx personal and professional infonnation that max luix e affected delta collection, analx sis, Lind interpretation" (Patton, 1990, p. 472). In nix study, I included the following to establish nix credibilitx : ethical concerns, researcher's journal, peer debriefer, prolonged engagement, and credentkils. The background of the researcher is proxided at the beginning of this chapter.

Ethical Concerns M\ reseai ch was conducted w ith careful consideration of two issues which dominate the recent guidelines of ethics in reseai ch with human subjects: informed consent and the protection of subjects from harm. Each participant signed a consent fonii wliich was proxided by The Ohio State Unix ersitx Human Subjects Rex iew Department. (See Appendix Ç for a copx of this fomi.)

181 The Oliio State L'm\ ersit> Human Subjects Committee exempted the research project from a complete re\ ie\v and approv ed exemption status on 11 7 1993 (see Appendix G). Subjects entered the resem'ch project voluntaiiK. understanding the nature of the research and that no dangers were im oh ecL "Subjects were not exposed to risks that were greater than the gains the\ might derive" (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992, p. 53). Participant confidentialitv is another issue in qiuilitative research (Patton, 1990). Confidentialitv became an issue dining tile data gatheiing process as similar stories caused me to seek similar or alternative reactions to the same questions. As this occurred more and more frequentIv , I realized that the participants would benefit from sharing with each other concerning how the studv tours benefited them personallv and professionally. Wlien asked, each participimt was willing imd in some cases eager to share with other participants. Rather than a social gatheiing after the completion of the data collection, consistent with an emergent design, I decided to incorporate the sharing into mv studv as another opportunity for data collection and interpretation. Participants signed a codicil giving their permission to disclose their names and agreeing to participate in the focus groups. Tliis procedure permitted the sharing of their names with other participants as par t of the Human Subjects Review

182 Guidelines for "Consent for Participation in Social and Beha\ioral Resc-arch. "

I agree to participate in a focus group and waive my confidentiality

for this participation with group members.

______(Initials of the participants

In I he inleiA lews and at each focus group, participants were reminded of the confidentialit\ . I cilso included a discussion of this issue in the agenda of the focus group. (See Appendix 1 for copies of the agenda.)

Reflexi\ e journal. As part of the self reflecti\ e learning process, I kept a journal to record insights, ideas, reflections, hunches, and notes about patterns that seemed to be emerging as suggested b\ Glesne and Peshkin (1992). The chronolog) includes reflections and continents from m\ peer debriefer. The journal is an in\ aluable de\ice to trace the process of dex elopment of the dissertation. The "Research Trail" section of Chapter 3 is a demonstration of the journaling process plus prox ides x aluable insight into the research process. Research Trail. Using the chronological sequencing of ex ents found in nix researcher's journal, as well as integrating examples of the data collected and analx zed along the xxax, I created a trail of nix methodologx for the research project. Upon the adxice of

183 Sanders (Associate Professor of Education a t Capital UnixersitA ), I attempted to touch each piece of the data to proxide a clear perspectix e for the readers to understand how the research was conducted. When checking Wolcott (1990) for exact 1\ how to proceed on tills puzzling process, 1 found him quoting others: "Tax lor and Bogdan's restate, 'filou should gix e readers enough information about how the research was conducted to enable them to discount \our findings;' and Albert Einstein's cautious obseix ation, 'no amount of exidence can proxe me right, and anx amount of ex idence can prox e me xxrong' " (W olcott, 1990, p. 27). MeiTx field, at the doctoral candidates' meeting held on Max 1. 1994, explained the process desired in qualitatixe research in organizing and xx riting the methodologx chapter. She suggested students trace hoxx thex did the research "step by step." These steps need to include: how data was collected; how decisions xxere made on participants and what methods xxere used; hoxx decisions changed: and how progress occured. She suggested students ax oid using "stilted dissertation writing." With these suggestions in mind, I described nix research trail in the folloxxing section. Mx reading, xiewing and sharing increased dramaticallx during tliis process due to an enhanced abilitx to self-select what was utilized. Each new book I read, X ideo I watched or person 1 interxiexxed—ex en those who xxere not formallx designated as participants—seemed to relate to xxhat

184 I was intensi\ el> researching at the time. M\ work progressed and increased in orgcinization as documented in a progression of tablets, dating s\ stems, color codes and s\ mbols which I used to pre\enl crucial information from getting lost in the mounds of paper. My refle.\i\ e journal includes one example from the beginning of m\ reseaich process, several during the important transition of fociLs and one near the end of the analv sis to touch on each phase of the research process. Initialh I did not even hav e a design or list in mind. The following presents examples from the original text of the journal to illustrate the research process. An introductorv section begins the section, followed bv selections to prov ide insights into mv studv . The Reflexive journal includes 15 entries representing each phase of niv work: howev er, I selected a representative sample to present the reflective process and credibility of the researcher. ENTRY TOPICS 1. confusion: two days 2. proposal meeting notes—yellow pads represent journal 3. first social studies interview 4. series of three—first 5. series of three—second 6. focus of interviews 7. transcripts & tmalysis S. presentation- preparation tablets: work, references, focus groups (May. June. July) 0. de\elopment important in study tours—M. Bennett 10. Am. Forum presentation—Wilson 11. developmental sequencing emerge in analysis 12. peer debriefer—Kasoff. methodolog}' and study abroad— China 13. realize longevity increases the impact of the study tour experience. Multiple experience for rich in-depth understanding, second study tour plan: China. 14. China Study T our—1994 15. international education—focus found in data analvsis

1. Confusion: Two Days al the Beginning Augiisl 8, 1993-1 rev iewed disserlalion proposal formais from examples submitted by Gene Taylor, Phil Van Fossen, tmd Robert Zahler. 185 I need a clear problem stalement, i.e. What am I doing? I Liscd Patton (1990) as a beginning reference on how to start this process. The author identified the next step: how to organize the information is another decision to be made at this time (it can be changed later), chronologicalh or thematicalK.

August 9, 1993 - Meeting with other Ph.D. candidates (Denise Xg. Phil \'an Fossen. Gene Ta\ior, Robeil and Gail Zahler, and Elaine Potaker), we shared resources, paiadigm lalk, re\ iews of literature, and definitions of the roles of proposals. Denise Xg shaied h er paper for Dr. Lather, " Pai adigm Talk.” I shared the follow ing research decisions w ith the group: f decided to use quotes from books and \ aliditte these entries b\ other researchers similai* to the process of w riting a paper. This suggestion came from Carl Grant at the XAME Conference, "Wnting for Publication” workshop. He suggests ne\ er writing anything which was not of a to publishable quality. Fi\e years may pass before one returns to the piece, but it can be combined into other work in inmi> different configurations and wa\ s. The difference to remember is getting the message out for teachers and researchers b\ writing it down. The words will then go beyond \ our immediate audience(Grant, 1994, XANŒ Conference, Detroit, MI). In addition, this process reflects m\ reading at the time. This section also demonstrates the interrelationship of research, actixlties (conferences, speaking, meetings, inteniews of leaders in the field) and outside reading.

6. Focus of Interviews With the second group of participants reconfinned, "after initial contact with teachers I determined to continue to debrief oralh, due to their own and m\ own time constraints.” Another problem, for the same reason, was the number of contacts made weekh. Trx ing again to keep the participcmts actix ely inx olxed in the research, I agreed to make contacts bi-weekl\ and meet them at their choice of location. This prox ed difficult, during the winter 186 nieelings I once went out to gather data during a "winter slorin warning" onh to find that the person was not at home. After apologies and a re-commitment to keep "doing" the research on both our pails, we rescheduled our meeting. Data: The richness of the data was becoming more apparent to me. As I compared the reactions of the participcints. using cross case anah sis, I found multiple stud\ tours to be a significant factor in how the participants interpreted the data. (This will be further developed in the Participant Experiences of Chapter 4.) Peer Debriefen I discussed this with Denise Xg. She suggested a newh published book (fall, 1993) which helped me significanth in the process of m\ anah sis of the data. M. Bennett's Education for the Intercultural Exix^rience provided cohesion for one of the emerging areas o f mv analv sis. The tim e lag from ordering the bcxjk and reading it prev ented an immediate impact until J a n u a n . Committee Xotations: Men") field felt this was a good aiea and recommended an importcint reference for focus groups (Morgan, 1988) during her doctoral candidate meeting in June, 1994. Researcher's Reflection: The impact of the focus groups was unexpected. 1 found during the transcriptions and analv sis a fund of information which during the interview process was stilted and underdeveloped. This emerged during the research. 1 was glad 1 had scheduled two focus groups and w ished 1 had a done series of three inten iews, all in a focus group format. I will probe this more in the analv sis chapter. If 1 do further research conduciv e to this group sharing area, I will probablv consider using more focus group cLita collection.

8. Presentation-preparatioii Mv ow n professional dev elopment played an integral part in the dev elopment of the dissertation. In Nov ember, 1994, I went to X.C.S.S. where I atten d ed sessions bv Merry field, 187 Grossman and Thorpe (Consortium for Teacliing Asia and the Pacific in the Schools, CTAPS), and h eard Ccirlos Coitez speak. E\ en though I had read many of thçir articles and heard each of these professionals before, I listened with a new perspectixe and learned e\ en more. In Februaiy I attended NAME, which is the multicultural education national com ention. Here I listened to Carl Grant and Christine Sleeter discuss the new trends and emphasis, as well as the changes occuiring in multicultural education. I did not find an\ speakers connecting multicultural and global education during the conference. I connected the two as a result of m\ studx . My own preparation and presentation at the American Forum 1994 helped focus and organize mx experiences. The presentation encouraged and forced me to hax e a deadline for completing the surx'ey of the literature, that I had prex iouslx collected for mx presentation. This process helped me to start writing up the analx sis, not just look at the ticinscripts, analx ze and reflect. I had been keeping a journal called "Work” which consisted of a x ellow legal pad. On tliis, I was writing notes and information: howex er, wirting for a presentation was more comprehensix e, exacting and beneficial. During the prepm-ation of mx presentation, using the grounded analx sis process described in Wolcott (1990), the references to slides emerged. This issue just kept reappearing in so manx places. I realized, as I reshuffled mx data, that this topic illustrated all the perspectix es I was trx ing to relate in mx analx sis process using Ange ne Wilson’s format. Each area and interest was represented. Tliis became one of the components to focus mx' organizational analx sis. The other aspects emerged later.

10. Wilson-American Forum 1994 One of the highlights of mx dissertation research process was presenting some of my research before the author, researcher and authoritx whom I had extensix'ely cited in mx literature rex iew. Though our session was small, Tish Niehaus-Smith, Michelle Marie Dowell and 1 presented at the American Foi*um (1994). Angene Wilson 188 was a member of the audience and offered her comments al the end of the session. We were able to discuss the information after the session with M. E. Gilliom and B. Gilliom. Infonnalh. we asked questions and exchanged infonnation with Wilson about M. Bennett, multiple stud> lours, and other topics. This experience epitomized the research process at a new le\ el of sharing for me. Other opportunities to inteniew and exchange ideas with experts and researchers continued ihroLighoul im reseai ch. As m\ focus changed to international education as a major ai ea of stud\ this became exlremeh useful.

11- Developmental Sequencing Emerge in A nalysis In my research questions I used the question aiea of personal! dex elopment to explore how educators changed in relation to their study tour experience. I determined in the literature rexiew that manx authors discussed this as a dex elopmental process, (e.g., Dewex, Maslow, Elkind, Piaget, Kohlberg), In global studies, Hanxey indicated a change in perspectix es and an lex el of global cixxareness as progress toward global dex elopment. When I analx zed the impact of educators' use of slides in presentations as a categorx, I began to trace xx hat appealed to be a difference betxxeen noxice sojourners' and experienced sojourners' subject matter, classroom use and future plans. After reading M. Bennett's Education for the Intercultural Experience and comparing other xxorks I found the emerging categories of personal dex elopment and professional growth fit the data sequences in study tours. Researcher's Reflection: This discox eiy needed to be explored and 1 was unable to do more than suggest changes in mx American Forum presentation. Howexer, this enabled me to see how I could incorporate this xital link in mx research. Committee Notation: In June, 1 was able to discuss tliis brie fix xxith Gilliom. He commented that he would be interested in seeing how I would dex elop this area. 189 M em field was unax ailable that ckiy for com m ent ^md \ [iranda was out of town.

12. Peer Review or Debriefer Peer Re\ iewer: After lea\ ing our session, Tish and I shared what we thought of each others' research. In the peer exchange, after an intensive research and presentation sequence, we were able to offer each other insights into each other's research. For example, Tish readilv identified thi ee areas of knowledge in m\ data. 1 agreed with this, but had been working so closely with the infonnation that 1 felt 1 had about ten. As we talked 1 nairowed the ten to fiv e major areas of developing themes. One was whether the studv tour experience appeared to be sustained. The second was the global and cross-cultural link. The third was the developmental sequence which was emerging. Fourth was the impact cT the focas groups. Finallv the dem onstration of professional growth thr ough the interaction w ith peers, in a focused environment new know ledge and understanding em erged. Committee Notation: Gilliom provided support as the ( hairrnan of the pr esentation. Sharing some of mv findings in a more relaxed environment with liim after the session was a bonus. Resear cher' Notation: Even though the expense of the trip, familv complications, and pressure of presentation befor e completion of mv mialv sis caused me concern, 1 was enric hed bv this experience. This experience prov ided the impetus for me to realize 1 had gained some distance in the r esearch pr ocess and would in fact finish mv dissertat ion. The experience also made me realize 1 had something to sav. Kasoff: After the presentation, 1 shar ed mv experience with Kasoff. She had r ecentlv returned fr om gathering data in China for six mont hs and was stav ing with me. As we talked, she added her comments concerning mv r esearch. 1 realized she was natur^illv emerging as a peer debriefei'.

190 She aided the research process in man\ aspects including organization, methodologx comparisons and rexiewing mx raw data for comparisons in analx sis process. Specificallx, she helped me determine that I would need a more isolated space for mx research process. As I read her methodologx chapter, I compared what I was going to do in mx methodologx with her process. I realized that I increased mx own organization b\ dating each research item I read, notes I used for reflections and notepads of lists. I repeatedlx rex iewed the tapes of the interxiews as I continuouslx determined anx further emerging trends. The richness of the research data ment that I could find more and more each time I went through it. Researcher Xotation: Kasoffs recent traxel experience increased mx interest in China and made me anticipate mx trip to China in August with mx daughter, Amx Hutchins, on The Ohio State Unix ersitx Social Studies Education Studx Tour. Kasoff acted as a consultant to the books I should read for the tour. We began to practice Tai Chi together. This pre-trip sharing was part of the experience which M. Bennett described in his book. Her multiple trips to CIrina b\ herself and her personal references to entering the culture made mx cultural transition easier. She shared what to take, ideas about what to bux, see, do and how to act. This concludes the illustrations of the reflexix e journal. The next method to insure credibilitx of the data is the role of the peer debriefer.

Peer Debriefer The peer debriefer, as described bx Lincoln and Guba (1985) in their discussion about the trustxxoilhiness of the data, discusses the research decisions, data collection, analysis and 191 tentatix e findings with the researcher. This is done in order to explore assumptions, biases, and inteipretations in a "process of exposing oneself to a disinterested peer in a manner pai alleling an analx tic session" (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 308). The examples illustrated in the studx include in the researcher's jouiTicil, "Research Trail." Mx ;ieer debriefer changed during the research process according to the accessibilitx of mx colleagues. Two colleagues at The Ohio State Unixersitx shared this role. Kasoff completed her Ph.D. in Education inl996 and we share area studies in global education and knoxx ledge of qualitatix e research. Xg, a doctoral candidate at The Ohio State Unix ersitx , shares professional expertise in international education, area studies in global education, and qualitatixe research. The Inouirx Audit—an inquirx auditor is seen as acting on behalf of the general readership. The auditor examines the documentation of research-raw data, analx sis, records of inquin , document analx sis—to certifi the dependabilitx’ of the inquirx and confirm the studx's findings and recommendations. In (his studx, the inquirx audit prox ided part of the rexiexx bx the dissertation committee as part of the partial requirement for the completion of doctoral studies. Mx peer debriefer, Xg participated in an inquirx audit (Julx, 1996) to x erifi data coding and analysis of raxx' data into categories and t hemes. I shared records of inquirx during the entire research studx- as described in my journal and role of the

192 researcher. In a telephone conversation. N'g suggested increasing the identification of minority experience b\ minorit} identification in intercultural perspecthes. Her work in cultural awareness at the Office of International Education proxided practical experience in identih ing this theme. She asked for clarification of the \ocational coding to detennine its relationship to professional dex elopment. 1 incorporated her suggestions into the research studx . (A sample of her data rexiew is included in Appendix K.) Kcisoff participated in the inquin audit (8 2 1996) to x erifx ckita coding and analx sis of the raw data into themes and categories. 1 selected the raw data as what 1 had shared with N'g. She identified the connections between the personal experience and the impact upon the feelings of awareness and understanding described bx the participants. The second inquin audit prox ided a different perspectix e in the research analx sis. This second audit increased mx awareness that the role of the researcher is important in the interpretation of the data. Kasoff imd N'g both pr ox ided an increase in mx confidence xxhile interpretating the data.

Prolonged Engagement Mx qualitatix e inquirx utilized prolonged engagement. The time necessarv to acliiex e the purposes of learning the culture, testing for misinformation by mx self and mx- participants, and

193 building trust, as ad\1sed b\ Lincoln and Guba (1985). spanned tA\el\ e months. The rapport and trust dev eloped during the initial inteniews increased during the focus group inteniews and member checking. 1 learned that, with consideration to the participants’ own schedules and flexibilit)' in arrangements, trust developed w hich provided enriched data. Multiple influences affected participants sharing of information.

The Paradigms Debate and Credibility The philosopliical basis for this qualitative research studv is grounded in an awareness of the phenomenological paradigm, inductive analv sis and holistic tiiinking of the paradigms. The utilization of the evaluation research (Patton. 1986) provides a practical wav to approach the data concerning issues of objectivitv and truth. "Pragmatic validation" (Kvale cited in Patton. 1990, p. 484) means that the "perspective presented is judged bv its relevance to and use bv those to whom it is presented: their perspective and actions [cue] joined to the evaluator’s perspective and actions" (Patton. 1990. p. 485). The evaluator provides fair, balanced, and useful infonnation that constitutes a perspectiv e on the program that is being evaluated. The infonnation provided must be. to the full extent of the evaluator’s "capabilities, accurate, valid, reliable and truthful" (Patton. 1990. p. 485). I attempted,to the best of my abilities^to fulfill the above criteria for credibility, perspective and relevance in mv study. 194 In conclusion, this chapter re\ie\ved the \va\ s in which qualitatixe research methods guided the research process from the selection of the research topic through the presentation of the data. The themes of qualitatix e inquirx prox ided a conceptual frame for the research process. Qiialitatix e designs and data collection included a purposeful sample with a maximum X aiiation sample for the interxiews, focus groups and documents comprising the data sources. The qualitatixe analx sis imd interpretation of data followed the ex aluation of the research design, progictm process and outcomes. The participants' experiences were presented in the tenninologx of international education programs and emergent participants' ternis agreed upon in data checks to ensure the interpretation of the data deiix ed from the research by the participants and program presenters. Qiialitatixe methods, with the awareness of phenomenological pei-spectix es, guided the research methods. The next chapter presents the data gathered during the studx using the participants' experiences to proxide clai'ity, focus and understanding. A brief description of program design and historx introduces the experiences to proxide increased understanding for the reader.

195 CRAPTER 4

PARTICIPANTS' EXPERIENCES

INTRODl’CTION This c hapter begins with a description oP the Social Studies Education Pi ogrant Abroad at Tlie Ohio State Uni\ ersiti\. The first section describes the requirements to receixe academic credit. In pan two, I present a brief histon to identih the major changes in the program and delineate its geographic destinations. In part three, I identih the people im oh ed in the program design and its goals. In part four, I describe the focus of the study tours and the conesponding xocational connections. Construction of the participant experiences includes a biographx of the participant. The inquiir focuses on the impact of the program on the personal dexelopment and professional growth of the paiticipants. Each participant's experience is constructed bx building on the four themes which emerged in the data. Tliese themes include program design, international perspectix e, global perspectix e and intercultural perspectix e.

196 Within the major themes the sub-themes identified are immersion experience, focus of the stud\ tour, implications of multiple stud) tours, implications of gender, implications of minoril} expeiience, academic requirements, duration of time since the study tour, geograpliic locations of the stud\ tours, and xocational implications. As discussed in Chapter 3, each pm ticipant's experience is unique and each of the sub-themes max hax e more or less impcicl due to the idiosyncrasies of the indix iducil participant and the program design. These uill be noted and compaied at the conclusion of the chapter. Participant's experiences haxe been presented in a consistent stiTicture to prox ide a pragmatic perspectix e for the reader mid to demonstrate the greater or lesser influence of each theme or sub-them e.

197 Program Description

The Ohio Slate L'ni\ ersit\ Social Studies and Global Education Stud\ Tours aie sponsored b\ the Language, Literac}. mid Culture Department of the School of Teaching mid Learning. College of Education. The Oliio State Unh ersit}. The program accepts a limited number of applicants. The program is open to undergraduates mid graduate students in good standing at Ohio State and other unh ersities; elemental}. secondm}, and uni\ ersit>' educators; mid qualified persons with an interest in the Social Studies and Global Education mid (or) in the countn to be \ isited. Fluenc\ in a foreign language is not required (Gilliom, 1993, July 6-19). Academic Credit. From three to six hours of credit at either the graduate or undergraduate lex els me granted upon completion of the following requirements b\ The Ohio State L'nhersitx : 1. Ac the participation in all pre- and post-stud\ tour briefings and seniinm' sessions. Excused absences [gh en b\ the director of the program] onlx. Allowmices will be made for pm ticipmits not Ihing in the Columbus area. 2. Acth e participation in all phases of the program abroad, including local tours, lectures, briefings, seminar

198 meetings, mid excursions [o\ er night or o\ er a period of ôixys]. 3. Completion of the minimum reading requirement in preparation for the stud\ tour and submission of an annotated bibliograph\ prior to departure from the United States. Each participant will read mid rexiew a minimum of two books for each hour of academic credit. 4. Submission of a special project proposal, to be approx ed prior to the group's depm ture from the United States.- 5. Completion of the special project based on the proposal referred to abox e. Tlie project should be submitted for ex aluation prior to the end of the quarter of the studx tour. 6. Participation in the wnting and compilation of a group d ian . Each participmit is assigned a dax on which he she is responsible for compiling a complete record of the group's actixlties. Entries arc submitted no later thmi txvo week follow mg the com pletion of the studx tour

^ Special project. Each participant works on an individual project during the quarter of the tour, focusing on a particular topic of interest to him her. Some students carry out research dealing with selected aspects of life in the host country. Others develop instructional units to support their teaching when they return, for which they gather realia. newspapers, magazines, graffiti, recordings, etc. During the on-campus segment, participants describe their projects to the entire group and provide a rationale for their work. (Gilliom, 1992, p. 3) Each participant is assigned a da\- on the trip during which he or she acts as the group recorder. The recorder is expected to write a full description of the day's activities, including the names and addresses of resource people met. details regarding sites visited, and unusual incidents 199 7. All work submitted for graduate credit will be cx aiuaicd with graduate lex el standards in mind. (Gilliom. 1992. p. 3) People Inx olx ed in the Program Design. The facultx' of the unix ersitx organizes the studx tour. M. E. Gilliom dex eloped, implemented, and directed studx tours each x eai' since the inception of the pilot program in 1969. While other facultx paiticipated in the studx tour direction at the inception of the program. M.E. Gilliom has prox ided continuous Icadersliip and direction. Program Historx- and Geograpliic Destinations. The Social Studies and Global Education Studx Tour Program dex eloped as an outgrowth of a pilot studx at The Oliio State Unix ersitx duiiiig Spring Qiiarter 1969. The pilot program integrated foreign expeiience mid traditional education on cmnpus. Students rcceix ed fifteen hours of credit for completing the course. The niajoritx' of participants in the program's first \ em s of the progrmn were undergraduates. Since the 1980s. the majoiitx hax e been graduate students. The academic credit earned for the full academic quarter was for fix e \xeeks of on-cmiipus study tour preparation and fix e weeks of studx and trax el abroad. Graduallx, the time periods changed, x arxing from two to fix e weeks of studx tour abroad. According to Gilliom. "Largely in that occur. .\t the completion of the study tour the diary entries are submitted to [program director] for editing and final typing. The diary is printed and bound, and all participants are provided a copy of the document for their own use. (Gilliom. 1992, p. 3) 200 response to spimling costs of ira\ el and the increased participation of teachers in the field who often find it difficult to be awa\- from responsibilities at home for long periods of time, the length of time was reduced" (1992). Tlii'ough the yeai's, the o\ erseas geographic locations comprised twenty -six different countries, including The Peoples' Republic of Cliina, Ecuador, U.S.S.R, Greece, Turke\ , Eg\ pt, Morocco, Kern a, .\ustralia, Xew Zealand, Korea, and Japan.-^ The stud) tour leader detemiined destinations according to a number of different factors, including :

( 1 ) the importance of the countiy in international affairs, (2) the degree to which the paiticipants' experiences will complement and extend upon their teaching and their curriculum, (3) cost of the program, (4) the significcmce of the countiy liistoricalh, economically, pohticalh, and culturalh', (5) the degree to which the countiy can proxide a stimulating cross-cultural experience, (6) safetx of participmits, (7) the existence of persomil mid profession^il contacts in the countiy who me willing to aid the studx tour, (8) the qmilitx and ax ailabilitx of supporting materials and expertise at Ohio State, and (9) the background and experience of the studx tour leader. (Gilliom. 1992, p. 4)

Program Design and Goals. M. E GiUioni (1995) has four basic objectix es in the study tour program. The first objectix e is the expansion and emiclnuent of the more formal on-campus social studies education progrmn. A second objective includes an

Other geographic locations include: Great Britain. The Netherlands. Italy, France. Germany. Poland. Norway. Denmark. Sweden. Finland. Gzechosloxakia. Hungary. Switzerland. Spain. Portugal, and Yugoslaxia. 201 opportunilA' to experience other cultures, thus pro\iding an alternalix e \va\ to learn and grow. A third objecth e is to proxide an opportunity to experience life abroad, different from one's own, thus expanding the global perspectix e for social studies presenice and insenice teachers. A fourth objectix e is to proxide opporiunities to enhance one's professional dex elopment and augment one's self image. Fonnallx stated, the goal of the program is to "proxide paiticipants, through group studx and trax el abroad, opportunities to expand upon their academic studies, to experience other cultures close up, to broaden their grasp of xxoiid affairs, and to eni ich their professional préparation" (Gilliom. 1992, p. 1). The design of the program proxides limited autonomy for the pai ticipants. The group trax els together during the studx lour. Housing is arranged bx the program director at cai efullx selected hotels,in contrast to a home stax or campus sites) . Most meals are eaten with group members at local restaurants as aiTanged bx the program director. A fexx predetermined meals are independently airanged bx the participants. Lectures, discussions, and actixities ai e aiTanged by the progi-am director w ith the aid of the trax el companx.

) A rrax el agency is used to make reserx ations with the airlines, hotels and tour guides. Criteria for selection of an agency include:" price, serxice. contacts they have (in the host country), their flexibility, and effectiveness" (M.E. Gilliom, personal communication. March 6, i995i. Examples of frequently used agencies include Travel Learn and .Xcademic Travel Abroad. 202 Focus of tlie Stud\- Tour. The focus of the stud\ tour program is to pro\ ide cultural enrichment oppo it unities. Tlie director described this as

the oppoitimit> proxided for dipping into and defiling with other cultures. The experience should expand one's concept of w hat culture is. It should ... make one more open- minded in dealing with not onlx a specific culture, but other cultures generallx. (Gilliom, 1995)

The focus on global education mid international experience during the studx tour proxides direct opportunities to connect cross-cultural and international exents with the fonnal social studies and global education progi*anis on campus. Opportunities to obsene classroom sessions, xisit schools and interxicw" educators are often a part of the studx tour design. Unix ersitx course credit is prearranged and direct 1\ registered to The Ohio State Unix ersitx’. Due to the limited time frame, x ocational or work experience opportunities are not ax ailable.

203 Paiticipant Experience of Lad

Biograph\’ Lad is a male graduate student at The Oliio State Uni\ ersit>-. His multiple stud) tour experiences include China (1901), Ecmidur mid the Galapagos Islands (1992). At the time of the inten lew and focus group sessions, it had been one > car since Lad had pm ticipated in a study tour. He expressed his desire to continue his participation in oilier O.S.L'. stud\ lours. Lad sLibsequenth completed the Social Studies Education Program Abroad trip to Ken\ a after the conclusion of the data collection during the summer quaiter, 1994. Lad is a mature [defined in the literature as o\ er twenty - fi\ e] student, in the age range of 41-50. His undergraduate degree is in histoiy. He completed his master’s degree in histoiy mid is pursuing further graduate studies in Global Education at The Oliio State Liii\ ersit\'. His professional experience includes teaching and coacliing atliletics. His current assignment is teaching ninth grade World Area Studies and American Histoiy. During the last twenty-fi\ e y cm s. Did has taught in the classroom at a suburban high school (with mi urban student population) for an urban school s\ stem in the mid-west liiited States.

204 Personal Background of the Participant. Lad is Caucasian and from a middle-class background. He is maiTied, and liis wife is also a teacher. He and his wife participated in the international education programs together to gain global and international educational experiences. The\ tra\ el extensn el\ together in the United States. In the summer of 1993. the organized a trip to Alaska that replicated the Ohio State L'ni\ersit\ stud\ tour during the same time period. The\ Ccirried out their own trip to reduce expenses mid to gain an increased degree of immersion experiences. Ind also traxeled internationalh during liis militan serxice. All of Lad's interxiew s were conducted in the high school's, social studies resource room or an unoccupied classroom. The first session's question introduced the studx : What was the greatest impact of \ our studx tours abroad?

Impact of the Studx Tour Abroad Lad identified the student immersion as mi important theme, ex en in his initial ox erseas experience. As indicated abox e. Lad is a mature student with prexious experience abroad. He is well-educated and liis personal goal is to continue to be "a life-long learner [who] actix elx experiences what life is all about" (Lad. interxiew. 11 12 93). As a histon' student and teacher, he brought background knowledge to the studx tours abroad. He

205 studied a foreign language as an undergraduate, but did not speak the language of the countries he \ isited. According to Paige (1993). "Some cultural immersion definiteh requires the sojourners to speak the language" (p. 8). Other considerations, for the degree of intensit} in stud} abroad include the degree of cultural differences, the le\ el of etlinocentrism of the sojourner, le\ el of cultural immersion, degree of cultural isolation, and \ isibilit) or in\ isibilit} of the sojourner (Paigc.1993). These considerations will be addi essed to in each of the six participant experiences to indicate the intensit} of the immersion experience.

Inmiersion Experience. One of Lad's ke} goals is achie\1ng a le\ el of immersion during the stud}' tour. He describes being in Shanghai and wanting to experience what it is like to ha\ e that man} people "jammed into such a small region" (Lad, inter\ icw, 9 16 93,^1). Lad tried to achieve an overall hnpression from walking around and chatting with the shopkeepers. The following is an example of Lad's perception of his level of immersion:

The feel of the people, smells and crowds when } ou ai e in an aiea, is what is important. I sense the experience with

all of 111} senses. I want to smell the market and to see the food cooking in the open. Coming away from the beaten path and feeling the damp, tight crowd, that feeling is what I like to ha\ e. Now man}' people don't. It is eas} to sta}' in

206 a nice clean hotel away from e\ en thing. I liked stax ing at the SwcUi Hotel in China and going to the mm ket in Ecuador. It was more of the real world. (Lad, Interx iew , 9 16 1994)

He continues bx adding that he does like the comfoil of a nice hotel but he also likes to experience how it feels to be in the countly . Opper, Teichler, and Carlson (1990) idcntifx the "great importance cittached bx students to integration into the life of the host countly " (p. 206). Lad is oxer 6'2" tall mid has a large athletic build. Wlien compared to the natix e people of China and Ecuador, liis large frame and height does not let him blend into the crowd; he was not inx isible. Lad's comments reflect two dimensions about the organization of the studx tour. Tlie trmispoitation and accommodation anangements me proxided bx the progrmn design me quite stmctured. The market time and hotel time, bx contrast, offer an unstructured situation. One feature identified by Opper et al. (1990) is that the "supenision and support" (p. 205) in a studx abroad program is one of the distinguisliing features. When students are on theii' own in autonomous siliiiUions, the lex el of interaction with natix es is greater. Lad describes miother high "lex el of intensity" (Goodwin & Xacht, 1988) from one of his study abroad situations:

207 The experience started with the destination of the rain-forests of the Amazon. First. I remember taking a militan cargo plane, a C-140. with soldiers as the only other pcissengers, w ho were armed, and also going to the interior of the countiy. Then, we rode in a crowded natix e bus for four hours through the back-roads, until the road came to an end. I had nex er been on a road that just came to an end. After that, we boarded a passenger canoe to ride another four hours down the rix er in the drixing rain. We were finallx trmisported bx dug-out canoes, paddled bx natix es of the local xillage to the Hotel. It was an incredible experience. The cold, the discomfoit, the isolation were a highlight of the trip for me. (Lad, Inteniew, 9 16 1993)

Lid experienced a Iiigh degree of cultural difference betxveen his home culture and the target culture. He didn't know the natixe language. The militaiy transportation for public use was an exceptional means of trax el when compaied to the United States, He trax eled with members of the studx tour group: howex er, the group itself was isolated from the common tourist locations. The fatigue caused bx the trax el and isolation of the location increased the intensitx' of tliis experience. Fmlher adx entures occuned during the other six days in the rain forest.

208 Focus of the Program. Tlie focus of the stud\ tour experience for Lid was to engage in cultural experiences. In his own words, he describes the general impression of the stud\ tour: All I can sa> is the tour lea\ es me with an impression. It has continued to foster that openness in me ... to understand the commonalit} of man and the multicultural awareness of the similarities and differences. 1 tn to share with m\ students that culture is mutual.... [The growing awareness of culture is] increased the more that we (lad & wife) trax el. (Lad. Focus Group I)

Influence of Multiple Studx Tours. The ease with which lad compaies his international experiences demonstrates the influence of multiple studx tours. He connects trax el and the international education process: "[I]t is me being a student. It is me being submerged in another cultme. That whole bit... the sense of coinmonalitx and uniqueness” (Hid, Focus Group 1). The abilitx to niox e easilx from one continent to another and compaie experiences or perceptions is a facet of the multiple study tour experience. When looking for items identified in the pre-departure lectures and readings. Lad readily compares not seeing land tortoises in Ecuador with the presence of specific bii'ds in the Amazon, or propaganda billboai'ds in Cliina.

209 On a short slud> tour. Lad was frustrated when he could not find a local phenomenon. When cmsweilng the question, "Do you find that study tours are too limiting because the\ occur in a limited time frame and with a group?" Lad responded, "Sometimes we did. When we sta\ ed two da\ s at a site, and the dn\ er of the bus said, he had ne\ er been out for two da\ s and not seen any bears" (Lad, inteniew, 9 16 1993). If an extended time were possible, as in a semester immersion studx abroeid, an additional opportunitx (to see the animal) might be possible. .\nothcr illustration of Lad’s frustration ox er the time inxolxed his expectations from the pre-trip slide presentation relatixe to propaganda billboards.

When we were in China, I did not see that many billboards. I was looking for them: I did not see a lot. I sa\x some. It is like going to a game, x ou really hax e to look at w hat is going on mid understand the game to know xxhat is happening. In Alaska.xxe saw a whale come up in the \xatcr, it was luck, we just happened to be at that spot. We go with anticipations and sometimes thex aie not totally fulfilled. It is your own expectations of what it \x ill be like. (Lad, inteniew 9 16 93, -=^4)

hiinlications of Gender. Lad connected the gender implications to an intercultural and global perspectixe. "This ties

210 in wilh ihe global perspectix e that people don't shme your goals and X our \alues" (Lad, Focus Group I, ). When the focus group female pai ticipcints described some of their obsen ations about work and status of women. Lad connected it to his aw me ness following Ills studx tours. “W e leam to let it go, because we can’t change it. W e feel women should be treated better thmi that, but in their culture it max nexer change" (Lad, Focus Group I, role of women). The implications of gender were not found to be of major importance to Lad. His discussion of implication of gender occuned only in the focus group inteniews with female participants.

Academic Reouirements. When asked about the cognitix e theme of a studx tour. Lad concluded that you hax e more knowledge about what x ou are going to see than if x ou are traxeling on x our own. Lad's lasting impression of the tour is the academic work and preparation which forces liini to do the reading imd the projects. "We found the study tours were good because x ou were forced to do some preparation ahead of time. Whether it is learning about the histoiy or whatexer" (Lad, Inteniew , 9 16. 1993). His studx tour project, while completed to gain academic credit, w as not utilized in the classroom. Ex en though he teaches World Studies, he does not actixelx use his slides or papers. Lad

211 does im ite others into the classroom to share their intem-ationcil experiences. The stud) tour program requires participation in all group acti\1ties. Autonomx from the group was limited, according to Lad, to short periods of free tmie due to the bre\1t\* of the stud\ lour. Lad traced the reason for pkmning mi independent study lour lo his desire to increase his level of autonom>. In Alaska, fad and his wife sla\ ed for a longer period of time than a group schedule allowed. He also enjo\ ed making liis own an angements for accommodations and for eating, fad described selecting bed and breakfast inns near Inuite \111ages when he prolonged his sla\. These anangements contiasted with the stud\ tour to Alaska for the Ohio State Linix'ersity*. The group accommodations were on a cruise ship and group eating anangements were predominantly aboard the sliip. The group (internelion) does not make any difference to Lad: Only one or two (of the participants) I see (after the study tour). L (Lad's wife) enjoys it so much going with a group of educators. Going with your wife makes a difference. I don't remember haxing a lot of full discussions at the time. The fun, the enjoyment, the ties at the time make the difference. You get feedback at the time (of the ex ents). The people, enjoy ing the people (makes a

212 difference). I think I would probabK' be a caibuncle on the side of humanit\ without L (Lad, Interview, 9. 16, 1993)

The program design also requires readings in proportion to the credits desired. Lad stated that liis first stud> tour’s reading requirement was not so bad; howex er, the second trip's readings were a burden.

Going into China, I was taking tliree credit hours, I had four of the six required readings done going into Cliina. In Ecuador, I was also taking three credits, but I had done onl\ [completed] two of the readings [prior to leaxlngj. I guess that was the lasting side [unpact] of it, the academic [requirements]. It is more rigorous than the equi\aient course load on campus. (Lad, Interx lew, 9 16 93)

Duration of Time Since the Studx Tour. In the following passage. Lad describes the sustained impact of the studx tours. He relates it to his personal commitments with liis wife, Iiis personal dex elopment and his professional growth.

1 think I am out of the mainstream with manx people here [at the focus group interxiew], because 1 share it with L (his wife). I see it more as a good wine, it gets better. I have someone to talk to about it more, maybe it keeps it alix e

213 more. We hci\ e gone on more than one in rather rapid succession. I think that it does ha\ e a tendency (to be sustained) at least for a few \ eais. It is tied in with what I am tiA ing lo do professional!} . what I am in ing to do m\ self as a teacher in dealing with strange situation(s)

[wilh] a loi o f } OLing people and iheir relalionship wilh school. With me, it becomes more significant over time. 1 am more intense with m\ ideas of mullicullural and cross- cultural education. You accept people for who the\ ai e. imd deal wilh them from ihere. I mean, that is what it is all about. I feel strong!} about that. (Lad. Focus Group II)

The sustained impact, professional growth and personal! dex elopment are all tied into interconnecting themes. Lad extended his own education to taike multicultural education classes offered in collaboration between The Ohio State L'ni\ ersit} amd the Columbus Public Schools aifter his stud} tour to Ecuaidor.

Geograpliic Locations of tlie Studx Tom'. The geogiapltic locaition is am important component in Lad’s personal! dex elopment amd professional growth. He illustrates this impact when he describes \ enturing into tributaries of the Amazon. He found that txxo of the benefits of the stud} tour abroad progrmn design include going to nontraditional places amd using

214 allcmalh e means of trcuispoilation. Often these group anangements are not readih axailable to private citizens. A t\ pical part of study abroad programs is the assistance in anangements.

\bcational Implications. The v ocational implications interconnected with the ov erall experience of the studv tours for Lad. His experience is w hat makes the studv to u r so m em orable. When asked about content knowledge, he replied, "I reallv don't talk about it that much. I don’t neccssai ilv use a lot of it in the classroom. I think it is more the perspective that I take with me. \lav be if it comes up and the kids are interested in it [I will discuss it]" (lad. Focus Group. 2 7 1994). Lad reflects on his professional plans. ’’[M]av be it is a result of the studv lours or mav be mv age. but people hav e different value systems tmd vou have to cope with that" (Lad, interview. 9 24 1993). He describes Gilliom's classes mid tours as providing a global perspectiv e. "Mav be because I mil teaching in an environ me III where that is v e n much so. Thev come in with a completely different point of v iew. You accept that they hav e a right to value tilings which are different from what y ou v alue" (Lad. Interview. 2 24 93).

Implications of a Minority Experience Connect with the \ '()cational Implication. Going on a study tour helps one reiilize

215 lhai people ha\ e different cultures and different \alue and makes it easier to recogni/e differences in one’s own countn. Lad illustrated this experience with reference to China and culture.

In the last few \ em's, as I ha\ e seen other cultures, it makes it [culture] more \isible, (increased the).. . awareness to me. I ha\ e alwa\ s done a unit on China. Attitudes are left with me as a result of m\ \ isit to China. The globcil perspectix e connects to Middle East Crisis. My \ lew is different from xour x lew . mx xiew is not necessarilx wrong just different. (Lad, Inten iew, ] 24 1992)

Lad's perspectix e on professioncil growth and personal dex elopment incorporates dimensions of Himxex's (1987) concept of global perspectix es:

It all fits into education, but not necessarilx the cognitix e aspects. It is more a feeling, an attitude 1 take with me that is increased the more we trax el. Mx knoxxiedge base increases. Max be, I feel more comfortable teaching about the rain forest. But, the thing 1 dwell on is the coinmonalitx between people, that we are interconnected somehow bctxxeen the rain forest and the air. (Lad, Focus Group 1)

216 The intcrcoiineclion is again recognizable between the professional growth and the personal dex elopment. Lad identifies his personal grow th during the last four or fix e x ears and relates it to changes in life. He connects his trax eling to parenting liis own children and transferring those skills into professional and xocalional skills. Lad integrates the t\xo bx sax ing, "[A]s x ou deal w ith that, x ou seek better answers and skills. Human [personal dex elopment] skills mid hoxx to deal with people" lad described his personal dex elopment.

I don't tliink you cim get that unless it is through growing into that perspectix e. It is a growing process to realize that. 1 have been going to Gilliom’s classes for twentx \ ears. But, I think it is a learning and feeling process. It is an attitude, that you talce into the cfassroom. Multicultural education is not about pictures and infoniiation in books: it is about an attitude that you take toward life. (Lad, Inteniew, 9 24 96)

Lad connects theme of intercultural education with iiite mat io iial educat ion:

Yes, there is a question in nix m ind xx itii the com iection. I felt bx trax eling, seeing, or studx ing wherex er 1

217 went, and whate\ er Gillioin made as read, it helped to understand the culture. It helped me to better understand what was going on in .America. ( Lad Focus Group II)

In linking the intercultural perspectix e with the global education. Lad connects it to liis trax el and trimslers it into his x ocation.

I don't know if multicultural education leads into global education, but the fact that I did more trax eling. and then I became cognizant or a\xare of the need of a multicultural perspectix e. I don't know which one was first. I don't know if that is even the question. I beliex e there is a link. . . it has helped me in mx teaching sitmition deal [with] and understand the kids that I have. Thex aren't going to go a\xa\ and the issues are not going to go awax. I hax e to look at it from a different ^%)int of xiew and be more tolerant and more acceptable. I think that is what trax eling and [gaining] a global perspectix e is. But. we hax e to shm e that coinmonalitx. if nothing else: we do shai e the air we breathe, the water we drink, the land we walk on we share. (Lad. Focus Group II)

In connecting the global mid international with an intercultural perspectixe. Lad muses about the sustained impact of his experiences and life. He xiews it as the "only real security

218 of life" (Ixid, FbcLis Group II, =4). Lad adds, "The inone\ could be gone, somelimes > ou can'I control that if the banks lose their \ alue, but \ ou can control your feelings, \ our thoughts and what \ ou do wilh the infonnation and the experiences" (Lad. Focus Group II). This comment inspii ed a chorus of agreement from the other members of the focus group. In these words. Lad expresses the \ cilue of the experience as one of the most important things. He indicates that tliis reflects his current feelings and that he expects it to be sustained. The reflecth e statement also indicates interconnections of the knowledge, feelings and perspectw es. These comments led to an unexpected outcome wliich connects the earh Inteniew statements with the abo\ e reflections. Unintended Results. The the stud\ toui' inteniews re\ealed lad’s global perspectix e:

As the world becomes simtller and smaller, I realize that max be 1 missed something: the market was not as croxxded as 1 xxanted it to be or the location as exotic. I sense, if 1 had been there before, it xxas less commercialized then. (Lad, Inteniew, 9 16 93, =4)

Lad continues to seek other international and global experiences.

219 Pai'ticipcint Experience of Jena

Biography Jena, the second participant to be presented, is a female graduate sludenl at The Ohio Slate l'ni\ ersitx. She completed her first stud\ tour program, to Eg\ pt (S1993, Summer Qiiarter), just three months prior to her first inten iew for this study. During the inten iewing process, she expressed a desire to continue her traxels in other study tours, >et had not determined exacth where else she wanted to trax el except to return to Africa. Jena is a mature student 31-35 \ ears old. She completed her undergraduate degree in elementaiy education with a minor in special education. Her master's degree from The Ohio State Unix ersit} (1984) is in Education, Curriculum and Instruction. Sheenrolled in The Ohio State Unix ersitx's Global Education Progrmn to extend her academic studies and to increase the financial benefits in her xocation. Professionallx, Jena is mi elementaiy teacher for hearing impaired students. She has been teaching tliirteen \ ears in a suburban elementaiy school for mi urban pubic school sx stcm in the mid-west. Her primaiy school classes include students from a raciallx and etlmicallx integrated student bodx.

2 2 0 Personal Background of the Paiticipant. Jena, an African American, grew up in a middle class neighborhood suiTounded "mosth b\ whites” (Jena, Interxiew, 9 30 1993). She is single and is "four-fifth's \ ismilly impaired" (Jena, Interx iew. 9 30 1993). Her recent studx tour experience to Egx pt was the first lime she had been off the North American continent. She trax eled prex iouslx to Canada and Mexico for brief xisits. Her future traxel plans include going to Germanx or Luxembourg. She does not want to trax el on a tourist package, but phms to Stax in one location to leam more from a single site.

Impact of the Study Tour Abroad When Jena attended the pre-departure orientation meeting, she felt that perhaps she xxas too \ oung for the studx tour program. She explains this feeling, "I xxas xxondering at the pre­ trip meeting if I xxas going too soon. Most of the pcU'ticipants XX ere about to retire (txxelx e of the pai ticipants), but four of us XXere around the same age. It just seemed strange at first" (Jena. Interxiexv, 111 1993). Since Jena had just recentlx returned from her studx tour to Egypt (one month prexiouslx ), her experiences proxlde a good comparison xxith other sojourners xvho have not participated in a studx tour for ox er fix e x ears.

221 I found Jena seemed more comfortable with telephone inten iews than inten iews in person. When I continued using telephone inteniews for data collection, the le\ el of sharing, confidence and interest increased dramaticalh. I agreed to lengthen the time between my contacts with her. due to the fact that she "really wasn't doing am thing about Egypt now" (Jena, Inteniew, 11 IS 1993). I explained that the miportance to the stLid\ was her perceptions of her previous study tour abroad and her current reflections (MH, Reseai'cher's Journal, 10 2 93). In an effort to accommodate her in whatev er way possible, and to maintain her participation in the studv. I agreed to the reduced contact. The fiiicil results of this decision prov ed fruitful, especiallv with reference to the focus group discussions. In the second focus group inteniew, Jena's participation and exchmige of infonnation with other participants increased ev en though previouslv she appeared less at ease with direct contact.

Immersion Experience. The Egv ptian studv tour was of short duration (two weeks). The limited time frame is reflected in the participant's perspective concerning the immersion experience. Jena expressed surprise that the Egyptian people were so friendlv. "Tourism is the number one industry, and we wer e reallv recognized as a par t o f it. Every one was so nice. Thev also saw us as part of an .American university on a summer school pr ogicirn" (Jena, interview, 9 30 1993). One of the

222 significant e\ ents during her stud\ tour abroad occuned because she was ill for most of the two weeks. Being far from home and realizing tliis might be her only opportrmity to see some of the sights, she kept going e\ en when she was ill. Jena described the intensity of the experience in a multitude of wa\ s. She found the religion and the culture lo be "so different." Just before leaxlng for the stud\ tour, the tour director found it necessaiy to check with the United Stales Stale Department Eg\ pt, for infonnation concerning the safetx of the participants. During the sla\ in Eg\ pt, the presence of soldiers emphasized the hazards of trax eling in a countiy w here safetx was in question. Soldiers seaiched the bus each time the group used it to check for the fundamentalists' bombs. Soldiers with guns strapped to their shoulders were not part of Jena's home countiy experience. The reason for their presence intensified the feeling of risk for the group: foreign tourists had been killed in Cairo shoith' before the stud) tour's anix al (1993). Police also checked documents to determine that all the people on the bus \xere pari of the studx group and pennitted to trax el together. Jena described Americans and the .American \xa\ of life as "so etlmocentric, the ego inx olx ed in thinking our wax s are best, and that the appearance of others [different from ourselx es] is disgusting" (Jena, Interxiew, 9 30 1996). Paige (1993) hx pothesizes that "the more etlinocentricity the host culture exhibits, the more psx chologicallx intense the [trax el abroad]

223 experience will be” (p- 6). In this case Jena recognized her own background in ethnocentric beha\1or. \ et is critical toward her own people. (This will be discussed and exemplified further as the pariicipcmt experience is presented.) Jena found, to her surprise, she resembled man\ of the Eg\ plian people in appemance and stature. She was more readih accepted by them than were other members of the group. On occasion, as she was standing at the edge of the group in a restaurant or near shopping, nath e people assumed she was Eg\ plian. She described them asking her why she was with the Americans. As her trax el experience progressed, she grew to realize tlmt the "tourist smiles" for sales did not alwax s represent the tiTie feelings of the people. Another example, of Jena's increasing lex el of immersion reached occurred when the group was inxitcd to xisit the home of the professor who acted as their guide. "Mohammed Shata is the best guide in Egx pt.^ He described our group as so cohesiv e, that it was the best group he had had in fixe \ eais. We were inxited to his home, which he nex er does" (Jena, Interxiew, 9 30 1993). Jena had no knowledge of .Arabic the natix e language. She describes the guides as "sheltering" them from merchants and

^ Mr. Mohammed .A. Shata recei\ed his degree in archeology (Egyptian Section) from the University of Cairo. He served as Inspector of Antiquities in Giza and participated in the re-assembling of the Solar Boat disco\ercd near the Great fXramid. He is a licensed guide by the Egyptian Ministr}' of Tourism, and is recognized as a lecturer of Egyptian antiquities and culture.

224 peddlers. The group questioned the guide's comments to "trust him" and wait to purchase later when the\ could interact with "the real people who made the item." Jena explained, "It was funn\. because on the first night, he was sei\ ing to 'tiTist him,' when we didn't know him either. After a while, I did not bu\ an\ tiling without liis advice" (Jena, Interview, 9 30 1993). According to Paige (1993), the less language abilitv the sojourner possesses the greater the psv chological intensit} of the experience. As part of the prognmi's design, Jena remained with the group tlu'OLighout the studv tour. Tlie cultural isolation from one's own group was lessened as a result. The transportation, accommodations mid eating anangements also complied with the progrmn design of the studv tour group. She did not have much contact with natives from the host counti"}, apai't from the tour guide mid scnice people, except to buv their goods. In her own words she explains, "I didn't mix with, or sit down, or talk with a common person, man or woman" (Jena. Focus Group I, 1994). Jena rccilized that she was just getting a "glimpse of the countn- and then, I stm ted sav ing to myself, 'Well, you aie going to be back' " (Jena, Focus Group 1, 1994). Tlie reflection during the studv tour conceniing future plmis is connected to the next sub-theme, "Implications of Multiple Studv Tours."

225 Implications oF Nkilliole Stud\' Tours. The study tour was Jena's first time abroad: she explains, "I didn't know what to expect. I began to understand how people other than ourseh es li\ed. The adjustment to another time zone was difficult" (Jena. Inteniew, 9 30 96). While she was trax eling, she often felt that "this was a once in a lifetime experience" (Jena, Inteniew, 9 30 96). One of Jena's insights to emerge during the inten iew ing process, was that the more experienced sojourners, who had pai ticipated in multiple studx tours, were an asset to the others when sharing their experiences. "The others made it richer and introduced infonnation into our tour, making it richer too" (Jena, Inteniew, 11 1 1993). She felt many of the others in her tour were well trax eled. Thoi*pe (1992) states that prex ious tom* participants proxide a "second lex el of expertise that complemented the guidance proxided by the regular leaders" (p.

12).

Focus of the Studx Tour. Jena’s focus for the studx tour for Jena was to increase her knowledge of Africa. Her x ocational intent was to increase her academic credit and thus increase the financial rewards from her school sx stem. My initial probing about a focus inx estigated the comment: "1 reallx hax en't had a chance to think about that x et" (Jena, Inteniew, 9 30 1993). This changed during the inteniew process and Jena proxided a

126 more delailcd response in tlie second focus group. Jena's focus is clarified in the implications of minority experience sub-theme as it emerged in relation to the questions asked about related topics and will be presented in that section.

Implications of Gender. Tlie religious separation of men and women was different for Jena. She identified with a \ ariety of perspectii s during the stud\ tour, and the feminine role was onl\ one of them. This role was intcnvox en with her xiew of herself as a member of a minoritx group, both raciallx and as phx sicallx impaired. She read the autobiographx of Jehan Sadat, A Woman of Eax Pt. as partial fulfillment of the academic requirement. This bocjk prox ided insight into women's role in Egx pt. Upper and upper-middle class Egx ptian xxomen are more educated and politicallx powerful than arc \xomen from lower economic lex els. When Jena talked about the historx of women's roles in Egx pt, she also described the lack of infonnation concerning .African- American women in .American liistorx. She shared that as she grew up in the United States there xxere no stories of .African- .Àmeiicans in her historx books. "People think it was lack of information in just one book, but it was a lack in all books" (Jena, Inten iew, 1 27 1993). Comparisons both positix e and negatix e between the host and home culture ai*e often the result of studx abroad experiences. (Carlson & Widaman, 1988).

227 Jena identifies with the Eg\ plian women. She suggested that I hex arc responsible for making their own changes and ai e in charge of their own destinies. "We women haxe to change it ourselx es. We women allowed ourselx es to be isolated in churches, it will onlx happen if we go first to change them" (Jena, Interxiew. 1 20 1994).

Im plications of MinorilA Experience . This is a theme in Jena inteniews. focus group inteniews and in the selections of her studx tour journal. "1 stronglx identified with the people" (Jena, inteniew. 9 SO 1993), When she was with another African-American studx tour participant, she compared Egx ptian people's reactions to them. "Another black woman. African- American. and 1 often walked together. When we went out together, she fell that Africa was \xhere she irulx felt at home. I hax e lighter skin than she does. Sometimes I wanted to sax. look at me I am African too" (Jena. Inteniew. 11 27 1993). Jena's group diarx confinned her reactions to the Egx ptian people at the time of her studx tour. "The people are so warm and fiiendlx. Thex are x erx hospitable. When x ou go mto a store a person will xxait on you indix iduallx and thex w ill sen e x ou drinks (Coke or 7-UP)" (Jena. Document. 7 16 93). These are almost the same xvords prexiouslx noted in her inteniew. Some of the background information on her minority perspectix e came from prexious academic courses. Jena

228 participated in a Multicultural Education Ckiss for three quarters as a collaborate e course between her urban public school sy stem and The Ohio State Unlx ersity. Her knowledge of .\fiican- American history and the links proxided to Africa stimulated her "deep curiosity " about her ethnic background. Tlioipe (1992) found tracing one's ethnic background lo be one of the motix ating factors for the participants to trax el in the Consortium for Teaching Asia and the Pacific in the Schools (CTAPS) program. Jena experienced an increased self-esteem and sense of belonging following the study tour experience during by Jena in the focus group interxiew. "Personal growth is, again being in the minority, not seeing it being represented, and not being taught those kind[s] of things [in school]. [\\'e were] only taught the part of being a slax e. We did not hax e a positix e experience you can be proud about to build self-esteem [and] to be able to pass it on to the boy s and girls, all of them, especially .-Mrican-American boys mid girls" (Jena. Focus Group I). In the second focus group she reemphasized her perspectix e. After the study tour, she was able to describe positix e details about .African-.Anierican roots.

Just to hax e the teachers tell you something, besides slaxeiy. that is .African-American is [incredible]. For me to go to Egy pt. and find out about the phcU'aohs. The African- Americmis xx ere only slax es. For me to find out about the phamohs. and the cixilizations that were far beyond any of

229 ihü cixilizations at that time in the world. All of the mathematical things about the p\ rmnids which we are just finding out about [now]. You can’t ex en fathom it. tliat the African-American people are part of that culture and we ai e going to teach it. We are going to teach not only about Harriet Tubman, but also about the histoiy of Africa. (Jena. Focus Group H)

Another example of the integration of intercultural experiences from a minoritx perspectix e occuned when Jena was in the touring x an in Cairo. She asked the drix er to stop and wait for a phx sicallx lum dicapped nicUi to cross the street. "The traffic is so bad. thex don't stop. There are no niles. It doesn't matter if the light is red or green, it would hax e taken him a half mi hour to cross the street" (Jena Focus Group I). He stopped and slimed with her that his wife also taught special education students. Liter, she met his wife on one of the school xisits and plans to con es^iond with her.

Academic Requirements. Jena found the academic progrmn "fine" (Jena. Inteniew. 9 30 1993). For her project she gathered regalia to slim e with her students as well as taking slides of the sights. Tlie artifacts include rocks of different kinds she found on the sites she xisited. such as qum tz. salt rock, and sandstone. She explained that students can hold mid squeeze the stones and

230 lunch lhal pari of ihe place. Her project cilso included Egx plian scan es used for head-dresses b\ the natix es. When she presented her stud) to members of her church, she demonstrated the "w rapping of the scarf for both the women and the men" (Jena, Intenlew. 9 30 1993). She found the sludx tour experience strenuous, as she was writing all the time- one da\ for the group diarx and all the lime for her personal diaiA . She took notes on the tours mid read about what she had seen at night. She wrote her group dian contribution from ihe perspecth e of writing to "someone [who] had nex cr been there" (Jena, hiteniew, 11 1 1993).

Duration of Time Since the Studx Tour. Jena had returned from the studx tour just a few months before the interxiewing process stm ted. Hoxxex er, as the six months passed, I noticed a fuller description of the experiences she encountered. In contrast with the two or three sentence answers she proxided in the September interxiexxs, I found she shared comments requiring one or two pages to transcribe during Focus Group session II. The richness and dix erse perspectix e she shared through the addilioncil interxlews proxided insights into the studx tour.

Geograpliic Location. The geographic location incorporated inlcniational, global and intercultural themes. She explains that Africa is a place all African- Americans would like to go. hi the

231 foras group, she asked the other participants if the\ were Russian or European.

For me, to be where m\ home might be, and... the place where the people I want to know would be too, that made it \ en , \ en interesting in that respect. I wanted to find out for m\ personal imd my professional [growth] to share with m\ students. (Jena, Focus Group II)

She describes the p\ ramids in G i/a as one of the things which had the most lasting impact upon her. Going to Egypt was a "big slep for her" (Jena, Inten iew, 11 1 9S). Additional comments about the impact of her experience relate to this sense of h is lo n .

The colors ai e still true, \i\id and beautiful.. .1 feel a great sense of historx walking miiong those huge columns. We saw the Sound and Light Show at Kamak Temple the last night, but it is hard to get an idea of the grounds at night. It was fabulous, immense, the largest of all temples. It is sad that much of it is destro\ ed, but modern da\ people are putting rock walks that proliibit future digging. (Jena, Document, 7 16 1993)

232 The inlemational perspectix e of the "world climate" became part of her experience abroad. The sense of risk was intensified during her trax el b\ the precautions she encountered, as described prex iouslx . Jena reports an increased interest in international affairs and ex ents upon her return to the United Slates. She describes going to lectures about Egx pt and reading other books not a part of her academic program. The impact of im increased international interest did not extend to leai iiing the Arabic language or influencing the choice of academic courses so fm\ Howex er, Jena noted mi increase in her awareness of the lack in x arietx of international languages on U. S. airplanes upon returning to the United States.

We do not gix e safetx instructions in ex erx language for international flights. Another cultural transition in Egx pi [was that] ex en one clapped when the plane landed like it was a miracle that the plane kmded, and a thank x ou to the pilot and crew for a safe trip. (Jena, Focus Group 1)

In a later focus group, Jena found tliis feeling was sustained. "Mow, 1 don't take this for granted. Think of fix ing for thirteen hours on a plane and just leax ing, not sax ing thank x ou. Now I clap quietly mx self ex en on an .American flight" (Jena, Focnis Group II).

233 X'ocalional Implications. Jena presented her trax el experiences during International W eek at her school. She made a displax for the World Hall of all different people and places she saw. "1 teach in an elenientan school in [citx nmne]. Thex flier students] do not hax e a big perspectix e of the world. I'm teaching them more [about the world]. In an assemblx. I am going to hax e a slide presentation" (Jena, Focus Group 1). These actix ities demonstrate an increase in the impact on Jena's x ocation. With a limited studx tour experience, initiallx Jena hesitated to share her experiences. After discussing some possibilities with other focus group paiticipants. she added her own ideas in the second focus group. Jena's contributions were content and object oriented. She did not compme items, experiences, or people of other cultures from multiple perspectix es. Jena did not express profound changes in her professional growth. Her personal dex elopment, hoxxex er, proxided a new sense of who she was in relation to her own ethnic identitx. She looked at her heritage with new awareness. The ties to prexious cognitixe knowledge were extended. Jena also expressed an increase in her global perspectix e related to tourism, trax el and language.

234 PLU'licipiint Experience of Dan

Biographx Dan is a male graduate student at The Ohio State Unix ersit) . He participated in a single stud) tour program in 1984 to the Sox iet Union and Eastern Europe, including Leningrad, Moscow, Tashkent, Bal

St Lid) tour programs, mid plamied to take liis wife with him. The length of time since liis last pai ticipation in The Oliio State Unix ersit) Social Studies and Global Education Stud) Tour Abroad is ox er nine ) ears. Dan is a mature student 41-50 ) ears old. His academic background includes an undergraduate degree from a prix ate college in histon and English. He completed his master's degree from The Ohio Stale laiix ersit) in Social Studies Education. His continuing education includes graduate studies in Social Studies and Global Education at The Oliio State Unix ersit). Professionall)-, Dan has been a teacher for a suburban school s) stem for hxent) -fix e ) ears. He was emplo) ed as a football and basketball coach for ox er fifteen x ears.

235 Personal Background of the Participant. Dan is Caucasian from a middle-class background. He is manied and his wife is also a teacher. Dan's wife directed stud\ tours to France as part of an international stud\ abroad progrmn for liigh school students with a focus on language abilit). His wife had prexious international experience when she studied in France during her junior x car as a student in college. In 1982, Dan and his wife toured France and Spain together. Dan's father-in-law lix ed abroad for approximatelx three x ears and encouraged liim to tn the "wonderful experience of lem'iiing imd lixing in another countiy" (Dan. Inteniew. 9 13 1996).

Impact of the Studx Tour Abroad The greatest impact of the studx tour program was the timing in Dan's life. He sax s he was suffering from "bum-out" and decided to stop coacliing. Dan had been questioning liis caieer choice when a colleague suggested going on the studx tour. His friend went to Cliina on a Social Studies and Global Education Studx Tour. "The studx tour rexitalized the teaching aspect of my caieer" (Dan, inteniew. 9 13 1993). The experience proxided a boost to Dan's perception of liimseif as a professional and opened new career choices to him. As a result of liis experience, he organized studx tours to the Soxiet Union so liis students could also experience learning in an international setting.

236 Immersion Experience. The le\ els of cultural differences were intense in the Soxiet Union during 1984. The mid-1980s was a period of conflict and suspicion between the two super powers. Ini984, political power was held by "Sox iet Communists ... N'ot manx people had an opportunitx' to trax el to the Soxiet Union, so there was curiositx and interest on mmix different lex els [while he was there and upon his return]" (Dan, Inten iew 1 Ui 1998). language inmiersion was not a pail of the international experience. Dan has not studied Russian and knows only few words of the language. Ex en though he returned to Russia tlmee times, learning the kinguage was not a part of his experience. On his studx tour abroad, sex eral participants spoke Russian and shared their expertise with the others. like the prexious pailicipants described in this studx, Dan's studx tour program did not proxide opportunities for home-stax or extensix e contacts with the natix e people. Dan trax eled with the group, stax ed in hotels selected bx the tourist bureau in the Soxiet laiion, and ate in restaurants with the group. In appeai'ance Dan is medium height mid medium build, with dark hair. His appearance is common to people of Eastern European descent and he did not feel much difference in facial features or physical build from them. In comparison with the natix e population, he felt xisible because of his clothing. Tlie

237 status of tourist in the Soxiet I'nion was considered to be an ad\antage. as the access to food, clotliing and consumer goods was much greater.

Focus of the Studx Tour. Dan's focus for the studx tour was histon. He increased the academic credit for the studx tour to ten credit hours for the quarter, which was greater than the ax eiage three to six credit hours credit hours awarded. Dan explains the additional work load as follows:

1 had to read a lot more books thmi the other students on the tour.... I took the academic work more seriouslx, I know 1 did, thmi some of the others. The additional hours of credit were in an independent studx. There were fourteen [participmits] in the group, including two professors, tlnee or four undergraduates, tind the remaining were niostlx teachers. Mx project was to design a Russian Histon class to teach the following x eai*. ( Dan, Inteniew, 9 13 1993)

Implications of Multiple Studx Tours. Dan's continued trax el \x ith his own students demonstrates the influence of multiple studx tours. "1 was there for Soxiet Communists (1984), for Gorbachex’ ( 1989) and in 1993 for Yeltsin. I hax e seen first hand the differences. I am not an expert. 1 could hax e read more, but 1 hax e read more than the ax erage American about

238 Russia” (I>cin, Inteniew. 9 13 1993). Dan describes the changes in the people during a later trip.

In the Soxiet Union under a centralized gox eminent, we nex er forgot we were in an armed countn. The sacrifices from World War 11 were x en real. In the United States we did not hax e a place for the txxentx million killed in WW 11. At a cem eten. the newlx married often went first to lax the flowers at the g raxes to p-ax res^X'Ct to their relatixes. Bx 1993, the new generation was more remox ed. The sacrifice of WW 11 was x en seldom mentioned. They emphasized more than anx tiling else Imperial Russia mid the czar. (Dan, Inteniew, 1 11 1994)

Academic Reuuirements. Dan connected the academic content of his tours to his x ocation. He increased his academic credits, as indicated abox e. He used slides to share liis experiences w ith his students. The multiple studx tour impacted the subject selection of his slides.

1 had it built in mx course. 1 teach Russian Histon. Mx slides that 1 took are xerx important. 1 learned one thing, after being there the first time: the second time 1 took slides of people and ordinaiw tilings rather tlraii monuments, bridges and buildings. (Dan, Focus Group 1)

239 Dan Lised the journal requirement for professional growth. He perinilled liis students to read it and make a report as one of the outside readings or for extra credit in his Russian Histon class. The program also required group participation. He did not comment upon this aspect, oiiK to say the\ sta> ed in a designated location and sta\ ed in the group. His conmients about the group related more to his cunent stud\ tour group experiences.

Implications of Gender. Dan presents issues of gender to his students in an open-ended inquin format. "You show pictures of ladies in Tashkent and the\ are all o\ enveight. The students ask wh\ ? They ask why do the\ wear the babushkas and 'stupid dresses'? I show the changing sty les, bod\ shapes and acti\ ities of the women. (Dan, Focus Group I, =1). Occupations and perceptions of the women in the Sox iet Union \ aried. "Once in the Sox iet Lhiion, it was all one countiy. Different cultures all had different attitudes towaid women" (Dan, Focus Group II, =4). He felt there were some occupations with more women than traditionalh seen in the United States, such as doctors and laborers.

240 In that regard you wouldn't say that the Soxiet Liiion was reallx more liberal toward women. Thex do some of the jobs we traditionalh' associate with men, but that does not mean that thex arc liberated. It is almost like thex are more enslax ed reallx. 1 don't know. The issue is multicultural mid [intercultural] mid global. (Dan, Focus Group 11)

Inter, during the focus group discussion, Dan added the following comments: "It is almost like when x ou studx world histoiy you are studx ing differences. You talk about how all the cultures are different. In multicultural education, 1 think for me. one of the goals is to show how we me all alike. (Dan. Focus Group

1 1)

Geograpliic Location. In a situation of political tension between host and home nations, the element of risk for sojourners increases the iniportmice of the geograpliic location and makes a significant impact. Paige's (1993) lex el of intensitx in an immersion experience also relates these differences to the degree of cultural difference. Dan described two exmiiples to illusti ate tills point. On one occasion he was taking a picture for liis slide presentation of a billboard in Tashkent, Uzbekistan.

241 One of the locnl people got all upset: she saw us get out our cameras.... The billboard was a picture of all of the republics that came and helped rebuild the cit>\ after the destmction of the earthciuake in 1966, to become a modem cit\. Most of us did not know the language. WTiat the person was \ elling about was because behind the billboard were shacks. She said, '\Vh\ don’t \ ou take a picture of this new department store, o\ er there, instead of the shacks. I'ou wmit to go home and show how bad it is, not how modern.'

The\ were x cia sensithe about the location, (flan. Focus Group II, -4)

Another geographic example, also in\ ol\1ng a slide presentation, was the first time I>an showed his slides of the Caspian Sea and Baku. In the foreground of the picture was a couple kissing. He planned to share the scene to relate intercultural relations with the geographic setting. "The first comments on the slides were of the warship in the background, which was realh an oil tanker" (Dan, R d c u s Group I). When he showed the same slide during other presentations to students in more recent times, the conmients about the warship did not occur. Dan was dismax ed to find he had tried to present a positi\ e aspect of intercultm al relations to find it viewed negath el\. When the le\ el of tension betxveen the two nations eased, no one conmiented about the ships in the background of a

242 couple kissing. The focus group discussed the implications of changing perspectix es in inlemational and intercultural relations. "Xow that the Cold War is ox er, x ou don't nearlx get the same questions as x ou did ten \ ears ago" (Dim. Focus Group I).

\ ocational Implications. Dan's xocational goal for the study tour xxas to dex elop a new course for his suburban high school. The course was added to the cun iculum the following x ear and class enrollment the first \ ear was oxer 100 students. The course has continued for the last nine \ ears. Dan describes the course as xeiy similar to the design of the studx tour in tenus of format and assignments. "That xxas the inspiration. A lot of the design of the course xxas built mound that. The textbook I use is so small, it is greatIx' supplemented based on my studx tour, not just the text" (Dan. Focus Group I). The course design includes the studx tour journal as one of the optional readings. Students are required to read and xx rite editorial comments about current happenings in Russia. Thex are also required to make a project XX hieh relates to Russia. Finallx. students selected paiticipate in a studx tour to Russia. Fundmising projects. Rotarx donations and school benefits help to defrax the cost for the students inxited to participate. In the focus group. Dan shared the implications for liis personal dex elopment and professional groxxlh as thex resulted from the studx tour experience.

243 Mine is prett\- eas\. because I was going through a luid-hfe crisis. The sluch lour came about when I was making the decision whether to keep on coaching or not. I had coached for fifteen \ em s in basketball. ... I got excited about the trip to the Soxiet Union. I had just gix en up coacliing. It added to mx self confidence" (Dan. Focus Group II).

He atliibules to the studx tour the dex elopment of fuither educational goeils.

Bob (a colleague) mid 1 went to Xorthwestern Unix ersitx for a conference in Easlem European Studies. We heard some excellent speakers and that reallx added [to mx content knowledge]. It fitted Isicl in reallx well with what 1 had just experienced with the studx tour. I hax e been asked to speak with different organizations about mx trips to Russia. It has enlianced mx professional cmeer. (Dan. Focus Group 11)

Global and International Persoectix es. Dan stated that trax el was the best wax for liim to leani about a global perspectix e. " I learned about global education from courses at Ohio State mid trax eling. You realize it is a big world and it keeps expanding, and for the most pm t learning is self learning .. [It is]

244 one of the best \va\ s to leam of \ our own countr\', for \ ou to emaKze and maJce comparisons. B\ making compaiisons students leam how their own countr\ fits in with other countries and how lhe\ are interconnected" (Dan, Inteniew, 111 1994). I>an suggests an awareness of global histon b\ using Peter the Great's Palace as an example of what life had been like for the czar in compaiison to that of a peasant. .Another illustration also came from his trax els when he described the Leningrad \\1\' 11 W ar Memorial. The inteniew reference was reemphasized during the focus group inteniews with increased elaboration. The final exmnple Dan uses to describe the global implication of his stud) tour was the e\idence of Russia's abuse of the natural enxironment at the Caspian Sea and the interior. On later stud\ tours, a cleanup process was obsen ed as the Russkms tried not to lose mone\ in the sturgeon fisheries. When the So\iets were in power, the group was asked two or three times not to ask about presen ation of the emironment. In a focus group fXm again identified the importance of trax el and intercultural perspectix es. 1 think 1 made the comment . . . before, that it is xen interesting to see, bring back, and share with the kids how other cultures feel towmd .Ajiieiicans. And that is something that 1 realize, 1 think 1 told x ou before, Mai sha, that 1 learned more about America trax eling to other countries than 1 would anyplace else. We take ex erx thing

245 for granted, what we see and hear is so conmion. It is interesting to see other people's perspectives. (Dan, Focus Group I) These conmients are similar to findings in Koester's reseai'ch (1987) concerning im increase in understanding about the United States as reported b\ students . Extending his perspectiv e, Dan describes how he learned to be aware of multiple perspectiv es in global studies.

One thing 1 learned and heard was about multiple perspectiv es. That people start to look at tilings from someone else's perspectiv e and to look at histon, look at anv situation mid be able to hear from even speaker. [That] if people were inv olv ed in a situation, or an ev ent in histon, that they too have had their stoiy. Too often what has happened is only one sloiy h&is been liemd. (Dan, Ricus Group 11)

Duration Since the Studv Tour. Dan felt the studv tour abroad changed liis life and his interest in his career bv making it more exciting. 1 think that [there] is a lot more excitement immediatelv' after [return from the studv tour]. 1 think it is not as exciting anv more, but it is appreciation. I'll never forget it. It is still rewai'ding. It has been sustained in iiiv' actions

246 and things that I ha\ e done with my classes. [It has] ccrtainh been sustained. I ha\ e had to work at keeping it aii\ e to do things b\ constant!} going back [to Russia]. (Dan, Focus Group II)

Implications of a Minorit\ Experience. At the conclusion of the focus group session, Dan talked about intercultuicil perspectiv es and understanding as it related to an international ex enl. His awareness of being in the minority in Russia increased his awareness of how other minorities experience life. He found that this aw aie ness added to his understcmding.

Yes. an\ experience that \ ou hav e w ith other cultures is going to increase v our tolerance. When v ou aie in a position where v ou are the minoritv. that giv es v ou an eippreciation for our minorities in our culture. Of course mv experience of being in the Soviet Union, had the stigma of being the enemv. I learned that the people are not the enemv, but the government's position [is]. I don't know how manv times I heard [the Russian people sav ] that while I w as in Russia. ... [Tjhe first time in 1984 was the time of the Soviet Union not coming to the OIv inpics. The official position was it was too dangerous, but it was reallv "tit for tat". You did not come to Moscow, and we are not going to v our

247 01\ nipics. I tliink il [trax el abroad] increases x our tolerance, understanding and appreciation. (Dan. Focus Group II, =2)

The interesting aspect of this case for me was the unexpected personal dex elopment and professional growth bx Dan that was exident in the data. When I selected the pait ici pant in Ihe purposeful sample. I chose liim because it had been almost ten X ears since he had experienced a studx tour as a student. I thought the expeiience would be lost or diimned bx time. Howex er. as 1 went through the research process and analx zed the data, this clearly was not the case. The fact that Dan had initiated his own studx tours was new infonnation to me.

248 Panicipant Experience of Sara

Riographx Sara is a graduate student at The Ohio State l:ni\ crsit}. She parlifipaled in four sliid\ tours with the Social Studies and Global Education ProgRuti. Her first tour was to Asia (1975) for fi\ e weeks, including The Peoples Republic of Cliina, Hong Kong. Japan, and Korea. In 1978. she went to the Soxiet Union, with fix e locations including Georgia. Aiiiienia. Kiex. ETraine. Leningrad. Moscow and Zhitoniir. In 1981, Sara went to Austnilia, New Zealand, and Pago Pago. Returning to the Soxiet Union in 1988, she toured the Bciltic States. Moscotx. Leningrad. Estonia, Uitxia and Moldaxia. After 1981. she paiticipated in another studx tour conducted bx the National Education Association to the British Isles. The length of time since her last studx tour is approximatelx four \ cars. Sara is a mature student ox er 50 x ears of age. She attended Bible Seminar after liigh school. Sex en \ ears later, she completed an undergraduate degree from The Oliio State Unix ersitx . majoring in Social Studies Education (1971). Her Master's of Ai ts degree is from The Ohio State L'nix ersitx in Social Studies Education. Sara completed additional graduate

249 le\ cl courses in Social Studies and Global Education at the Ohio Stale Unixersit). Her unixersit) xxork mcludes collaboration in research projects betxxeen suburban public schools and The Oliio State Unix ersit). Professioiicill), Sara is a teacher and has taught in a mid­ west suburban school s) stem for twent) -three ) ears. Her subject meas hax e x aried during her x ocational career; currentl). she teaches Global Histon Cor ninth and tenth grade students. Prex ious courses at the liigh school lex el include American Studies, Sociolog) . Political Problems, and l\S. Gox eminent. After participating in a stud) lour, Sara became the district coordinator for social studies education.

Personal Background of the Participant. Sara is a female Caucasian \xho was raised in a loxxer economic enxironment and ex entuall) mox ed into the middle class. As an Appalachian, she considers herself part of a minorit) group. Sara describes her ow n background as groixing up in a multicultural enxironment. "1 \xas raised among just as man) African-Americims as wiiites, and a lot of different ethnic groups. M)‘ mother's acceptance of a lot of different groups of people xxas a positix e inHuence" (Sam, Inten iew, 11 10 1993). She describes her mother's "fas( illation" with different people cmd places. .An example of this is a friend from S) ria xxith xvhom Sara's mother exchanged recipes xx ith and shared life stories. "She xxas alxxa) s excited

250 a boni tasting others' food, not seuing ours was better than theirs, but just in tn ing different things" (Sara, Inten iew, 11 10 1993). Sai a's eai'h school histor> reflects her poor economic background. Of the thirt\ students in her liigh school class, cmh two went on to studx after high school. Most of the students were from families where the father and relatixes mined coal: students often quit school at the age of sixteen to help support the family. Prior to the study tour program, Sma's trax el experiences were limited tc^ the United States and Canada. She explains, "[Bjefore China, 1 had nex er trax eled out of the United States except to go to Canada. It was a w hole new experience to be in another culture.. . . The studx tour was a whole new experience for me, a life experience where 1 was nexer the same person again" (Sara, Inteniew, 11 10 1993). Sara's interx iew sites xaried. Locations, selected by Sara, were either at the pm ticipant's school or a conx enient restaurant. The atmosphere and lex el of exchange \xas collegial and open due to our prior academic and professional acquaintance.

Impact of the Studx Tour Abroad The oxei'cill question, "Wiiat was the greatest impact of xour studx tours abroad?" again framed the interx lews. When

!51 asked this question Sara's responded immediateK and eiiiphalicK : [I]t changed m\ life! When I went to China, it was changing from Maoist doctrine to more open. As a result, after returning, I talked to twent\ or more groups from the lion's Clubs to the Rotm"} Association about the changes. One person came up to me and asked if 1 had been brainwashed. I was sharing current China, where I saw no \iolence. (Sara, Inteniew, 1 1 9 1993).

Immersion Fxix^rience. The most significant impression from her stud\ tours was the "smiling faces of the cliildren. The feeling of happ\, fiiendh contented people was captured on slides" (Sara, Inten iew, 11 9 1993). The people in China were extremeh nice to the group. When \isiting the apaitment, the people seemed to be thrilled to be lixing where they were. Saia realized that she had been "so ethnocentric" and "nexer anticipated the changes" (Sara, Inteniew, 11 9 93). After her return, Sai a's husband and children said she had changed. Saia felt anx thing on China was seen w ith a new intensitx , w hether it was a program on telexision, something she read, or a conx ersation about her trip. The impact for her was that "learning experience became an ongoing life experience" (Saia, Inteniew , 11 9 93).

252 The degree of cultural difference between the home and host cultures proxided one of Sara’s most lasting impressions. She described it as "stepping back into time," where she Scuv water buffalo plowing the fields as thex had been for thousands of X ears. Tlie impact of the countn side inipressix ed her. The changes in Ihe political and economic conditions resulting from the Cultural Rex olution. were hidden from the toiu' group. (A fuller description will be presented concerning the economic and political aspects in the theme of international impact.) When she was in China Sara felt she xxas in "a totiillx different world, nothing looked familiar .. .You stail to obsen e people more closelx. The bodx hmguage become a kmguage of communication" (Sara, Inteniew, 12 1 1993). Sara also identified the lex el of etlinocentrism and comparisons between how she felt and hoxx others on the tcjurs responded to the same situations. The anecdote of the apartment (Chapter 3) is one illustnition. Another example occured when the group was walking tlirough the streets and people smiled at them. She felt the people were shoxxing friendliness. Another group participant x iexxed it "quite c\ nicallx as part of the partx line, not looking at the courtesies but as propaganda" (Sara Interxiexx. 11 9 1993). The motix ation to traxel influenced the lexel of her immersion and acceptance. "I did not go on the trip to find fault, but to learn" (Sara, Inten iexv, 11 9 1993).

253 Sai a Finds languages difficult. She has taken Spanish and speaks hesilanlh with her sister-in-law, a n'ati\ e speaker. Sara did not speak the language of an\ of the host countries duiing the stud) lours except Australia and New Zealand. Sara re\ealed her reflection concerning the impoitance of language during the inten lews. "If >ou li\ e in a societ\, \ ou leam to know their wa\ s. You know their language cind do not ha\ e to rel\ on an interpretation of the language" (Scira, Inten iew. 1 22 1994). In place of the kmguage, Sara deciphered the meaning of the speakers through watcliing their nomerbal co nun unicat ion and the intensitx of their speech. The guides during the stud) tour inteipreted the language as pm t of the progrmn design. In China "I didn't understand an) thing. 1 had to increcise \1sual awareness. A heightened use of other senses, and so much concentration. It made me both tired and ga\e me energ) " (Sara. Inten iew. 1 22 1994). The cultural isolation of Sm'a's tour groups to Communist countries was in keeping with the pre\ iousl) identified program design relating to tra\ el and accommodations. The groups remained witliin their own culture group and sta) ed at accommodations designated b) the gox ermiients. The go\ eminent prescribed and controlled all aspects of tourism. Where pm tic ipant s sta) is not an option unless authorized through the national tourist bureau in both the People's Republic

254 of China cind in the Soxiet Union during the time frame of the studx tour experiences. The xisibilitx of the participant, especiallx' in China, sepcirated her further from the natix e population. Sara is ox er fix e feet eight inches tall, has blue ex es and blond hair. Clothing and hair stx les were distinguishing factors on her first trip to the 17SSR. The particip^mt did not feel anx distinguishing features on the N’exx Zealand studx lour. In the lexel of immersion, the social status of the participant is considered. During in the first studx abroad experience, Sara reported the need to "perform" for an audience after thex had experienced a cultural exchange. Tliis xxas facilitated by the guide xxho helped the group select a song to share. Sara was not at ease with the lex el of attention; howex er, it was not sufficientlx intense to cause culture shock.

R)cus of the Studx Tour. Sara's focus for the studx tour was the personal dexelopment Lind the sense of empowerment she derix ed from her experiences. The risk of going to a countiy outside of the United States that was a political "enemx " at the time caused her to return xxith the feeling that she was poxxerful.

The studx tour impacted the feeling I hax e that I am more credible. I nex er felt that I was an assertix c person. I came back with an intense feeling and strong \icws wliich enabled me to shout someone down and actually cirgue for what I belie\ ed to be right. This was a new part of me. (Sara. In ten iew. 2 5 1994)

Prior to the stud\ tour, Sara had not spent a night awa\ from her famih since she married.

[It was] breaking loose, for me to decide that something was llial impf)rtanl to do. E\en though I had gone back to scL'hool and gotten m\ degree I still was alwa\ s there.. . . It w.as an emotional shock to go. M\ ^x'fception of m\ self chartged. 1 grew up in a multicultural en\1ronment. [The study tour] allowed me to see that I am a person. I can open m\ mind. (Sara. Focus Group 1)

The stud) tour pro\ ided a means for personal gnjwth. according to Scua. which she did not derix e from her academic home campus courses or her earlier multicultural background. Sm a itlso focused on intemational experience and on learning. ”M\ husband said I was not the same person; I learned so much" (Sara. Focus Group 1). In the focus group Sara emphasized these points.

156 The stud} lour intensified ni\ focus, it made me feel. I began to change at that tim e.. .all kinds of experiences came together. I think the\ all go back to the start of that first trip. I lliink it made a tremendous mnount of difference in me and in m\ personalit}, ni\ confidence, and it intensified m\ teaching. (Sara, Focus Group II. ^3)

In inlen iews, Sara emphasizes the same point. "It changed m\ life. It did. I am not an expert, but I left one person and came back a different person" (Sma, Inten iew, 1 22 1994).

Implications of Multiple Stud\ Tours. Tlie data support Sara's abilit} to easih draw compaiisons, and accuratel} malce assessments of the problems in da\ -to-da\' life and pro\ ide some exmnples of the impact of the multiple stud} tour. To add element of humor, Sai a shared with the focus group the ad\ entures across cultures of fixing toilets in her accommodations. In addition to illustrating "the fact that I ha\e worked on a lot of toilets in ni} tra\ els" (Sai'a, Focus Group I)... the experience demonstrates how accommodations represent the culture of the host countiw. In the So\iet Union, Sara stayed at a brmid new hotel. She could not get am sen ice o\er the telephone. When she went to the desk to ask for ser\ice "they took me to a back room full of tools. The} said here, here me the tools. So I picked out some tilings and went back up. 1 had to pi*}

257 the paneling off the wall to get to the tank. I fixed it with a rubber band. It was in Leningrad” (Sara. Focus Group 1). She then went on to draw comparisons to other unique situations in Xew Zcciland, Korea, and China. Sara’s abilitx to adapt to unusual situations and find the humor in them became e\âdent to all. Another example of the influence of multiple stud) tour experiences relates to the next sub-theme. "Implications of Gender" as well. In China. Smu went out at 3:00 A.M. and still felt safe. It was the first time I felt free. I think men are alvva\ s free and ha\e fell more free [to do as the\ wished]. Xot that [the\ ] Ccm't get murdered, killed or robbed. But. women ha\ e ne\ er had that kind of liberty to be out and around. The\ always ha\ e to be more resen ed and we are not free. (Saia. Focus Group I)

Sma contrasted this experience in China with one in the Soxiet I'nion. In the Soxiet L'nion. the women do not feel free. Thex are to be off the streets in the earlx darkness, and hax e cx cn less freedom in w inter. Our guide, when I asked her about the freedom for women, couldn’t ex en understand whx women would want to be out with the men. (Sara. Inteniew. 11 9 1993)

258 N’ext. Sara described women in Xew Zealand, "The women in Xew Zealand seemed more confidenl and direcl. Il does not ha\ e a social structure to limit their position" (Sara, inteiview, 1 22 1994). Her spontaneous examples demonstrated the abilit} to integrate concepts from all o\ er the world. During reflection and anah sis. the impact of multiple experiences on cognith e awareness was e\ident. "I am not an expert. Stud} tours do not make }ou an expert. It is a planned stud} to open up (a countn ) .. .sights aie selected to be seen; howe\ er. }ou m e not limited when }ou are walking on } our own" (Sara. Inteniew, 1 22 1994, ^2).

Implications of Gender. Sara described the implication of gender in sex eral different wa} s. One, as just mentioned, is the sense of safet} she experienced as a woman during her trax els. Sara found the stud} tour proxlded the securit} to seek out places she would not ha\ e \ entured if tra\ eling on her own without pre\1 0 Lis international experience. A second example of the implications of gender related to the perceptions of how a male and female described the \ er} same experience on the stud} tour. Sara listened to mi audio tape about China from a fellow sojourner. After the stud} tour, using her journal, she was able to pinpoint the same da} and time and compare what he obsen ed with her own perceptions. She describes the differences as follows: "The male point of \1ew

259 was entireh different. What he saw from standing across the street cmd what I seiw, were different. His comments were alwa\ s more critical" (Sara. Inten iew, 1 22 1994). The implications of gender also related to the inlercultural interactions during the stud\ tour. When in Cliina, Sara asked the student-guide if she had any questions for Americmis.

I remember the guide's reply. "No", she said. She said she "fell \ er) sad for us" because we "li\e where there is so much crime and [we are] afraid all of the time." She said, "I feel pit} . I am glad \ ou cmi be here for awhile." (Sara. Focus G roup I)

Sara identified with the guide's perceptions of the crime in the r.S. because she related to her feelings of Scifety in China. She compai cd how safe she felt when she took a taxi earl} in the morning in China, to how she would feel if she had been doing the same tiling in New York or e\ en in Columbus, Ohio.

Implications of Minoiit\' Exriericnce. Sara combines her perceptions of a niinoiit} experience with her gender experiences. In her opinion, the } oung women in the tour group with Saia were \ eiy attractix e. When the tour had been other places, these } oung women met with positive reactions. In China, howex er. the women felt that the Chinese were not responding to

160 them. ScU'a desc ribed tliis experience and the Chinese's comments.

Of course, they saw us, but the\ did seem to notice us as girls. We went to a (acton right after that and I asked them. One guide said, "We think \ ou are \ en large, \e n

tall [X2ople and not \ en at t met he." She then said she was Sony that it was "not a \ en nice thing to say. " To understand how the\ look at us in a different ua\ was helpful. (Sara, Focus Group I)

Sara found it interesting that the American concept of a beautiful woman and the Chinese concept differed. Where in the l=.S. shapely women w ith blond hair and blue e\ es w ere considered at tract he, the Chinese felt the\ were too large and had pale e\ es. Sara reflected that it was interesting to find out that the\ did not admire the American women. Sara's intercultural compaiisons re lathe to the implications of gender is another example of how the stud\ tour opened her e\ es to other wa\ s of seeing the world and its [Xîople. Sara also discussed her awareness of being a political minoritx in the Communist countries. She experienced the risk of going to a countiy that was a political enem\ of the United Stales. In another example. Sara compared her experience as a minorit} in the United States with Jena. She connected her local

261 and global experiences when talking about the commonalities of a group of people and stereotx pes. In the focus group session, Saia explained that: I'd sa\ to myself, she [Jena] is a minorit}' [in the U.S.]. . . . I'm from West \ irginia. Xow \ ou tell me that is not a minorit} in Columbus, Ohio.... Some people like to put \ ou down simpl} because \ ou come from there [Appalachia]. Il is like the kids > ou tell them \ ou aie a coal miner's daughter. . . the kids are fascinated with that . . . but, some of the teachers .. .the\ don't pailicularK like that... particularh if }cm arc in [a suburban area], Columbus, Oliio. (Sara Focus Group II) Sara also described making local and global connections, when disseussing the impact of academic requirements.

Academic Reouirements. According to Sara, the academic requirements for the stud} tours proxlded a wa} for the trip to be taken seriouslx . "The studx tour is not a x acation. What x ou look for and what you see chmiges. The project or mission of the studx tour chmiges the more x ou trax el" (Sara, Inteniew, 1 22 94). Sm a's academic project for one tour abroad was a concept paper on freedom in Cliina. She related it to safet} and securit} and drew comparisons with the United States. This exemplified the process of international education which enables paiticipants

262 {ü iiiiike comparisons between the host and the home countiA . In another project, Saia took oxer 1800 slides to make presentations to share w ith her students and others. In this project, she focused on comparisons between China and the U. S.. Sara focused on the faces of China, especiallx the children and the older people. When compaiing the subjects she chose for pictures to those the male participants on her studx tour selected, Sara found many differences. The males chose to photograph sen ice stations, constmction, electric lines and electrical lights. Sara realized that gender max have influenced her perspectix e. Another component of the academic requirement was recording. Sara found this to be a negalix e experience, "Some dax s x ou resent that x ou must write and miss seeing something. In the first trips we did not keep mi oxerall journal. They both add to the experience, but also incre^ise the demands on the participant" (Sara, Inten iew, 11 9 1993). In comparison to Saia's reaction to the journal, her feelings about the "seminar t\ pc" meetings during the tour was xen positix e. She explained it was "an exciting experience to haxe other people from the school (The Oliio State Unix ei*sitx ) to discuss the impressions fairlx frequently. To talk ox er the dax's happenings increased the xaluc of m\ experience" (Sara, Inteniew, 11 9 1993).

263 Duration of Time Since the Studv Tour. Tlie stud\ tours still impact Sixi'ix, influencing both her personeil dex elopment and professional growth. Sara describes these changes:

I still to to be an adx ocate for [global education] e\ en though 1 don't do that job [cuiTiculum coordinator] an\ more. Il intensifies my focus. It made me feel. I begain to chcUige at that time . . . it has been tw ent\ \ ems, but cill kinds of experiences ha\ e come together. I think that the> all go back to the stm t of the first trip. 1 tliink it made a tremendous amount of difference in me and m\ personality, my confidence, and it intensified m\ interest in teaching. Though 1 was \e o interested in teaching, [as] I went into it later [in life], it intensified m\ interest. I hci\ e never lost that intensitx of alwux s being interested in other countries, people and the similaiities to us. (Sara, Focus Group II, -S)

The comments Sara shai ed with others during the focus group me rich data for the implications of a sustained impact of the studx tour experience for her. Sara's words support the relevance of a study tour experience to her personal development, professional growth and intercultural awareness .

264 Geographic Location. The destinations for Setm’s siud\ tours relate to the geograpltic implications. These locations are non-traditional choices for a stud\ abroad experience, as pre\ ioLisly identified in Open Doors 1994-1995 in Chapter 2 of this stud). The {.XDlitical accessibilit) at the time of her tours limited indi\ idual trax el. China and the Sox iet Ihiion me identified as politicallx sensitix e geographic locations. Xew Zealand is perhaps one of the most remote destinations for students to studx abroad. According to Open Doors 1993-1994. onlx 196 students studied in that countrx din ing that academic X car, and 178 in 1991-1992 (p. 162).

\'ocal ional Implications. The xocational implications are numerous for Sara. Sara stated that she became "more credible as a teacher" (Sara, Inten iew, 2 5 1994). Students' interest in \x hat she had to sax increased. In anecdotal fonn, she told of a student who was often in trouble and nexer studied, but who w rote a complete description of her slide presentation of the Tiananmen Square that went far hex ond his usual academic work. Her experiences fostered discussions. "In the students' minds a Communist countn is a negalix e place to xisit. If x ou sax things too positix elx, thex want to challenge x ou" (Sara, Focus Group I). This led to increased inquin into intemational perspectix es and global education. "Students are much more

265 inleresled in the thing which \ ou ha\ e had direct experience with [than in the bonk]" (ScU'a, Focus Group I). Three \ ears following her first study tour, Sara applied for the position of social studies curriculum coordinator. She made o\ er fort) presentations of her study tours in high school classrooms, staff presentations and communit\ orgemizations. She nio\ ed from the middle school general cm*riculuiu to teacliing specificalh about the world. As a result of her interest in global education, she led the district in accepting Global Education as a required course rather than an optional selection for the school’s approximate!) 2,000 students. The impact of the stud) tours also affected the \ ocational intercultural relations in her classes. Sara continues to encourage students with international experiences to slrarc in her classroom. She inxites parents from other countries to speak about their nati\ e hinds, hicreased awareness concerning the ethnocentric perspectix es of her students causes Sara to incoi*porate man) intercultural actixlties into her cuiTiculum. In her cun iculum, she endeax ors to make comparisons between the local and the global connections in politics, economics, technolog), and cultmes as described bx Algers (lOOS). To illustrate this Sara describes the homeless situation in the United States and asks students how other countries cai'e for their homeless people. She then proxides relexant information about China and the Soxiet Union. Using local international

266 speakers lo exchange ihcir impressions pro\1des another access U) ihe inlercultural imd global education program. ScU'a pro\ided a speech presented b\ Dr. Golenpolsk> to the slLid\ to u r as part of her data. The docum ent represents an academic perspecth e im ohing histoix. politics and changing Sov iet perspectives. The speech includes questions bv the studv tour members concerning these global imd international topics. Sara uses the inten iew in her work with her students.

Participant Experience of Kellv

Biographv Kellv is a fenicilc graduate student at The Ohio State I'niversitv. She completed a studv tour abroad prog mm to the Soviet L'nion and Eastern Europe during the summer quarter of 1988. The studv tour experience entciiled stops in Leningrad, Estonia, Latvia and Moldavia. The length of time since Kelly participated in the Social Studies Education Program Abroad is four V ears. During the data gathering process, Kellv expressed interest in continuing to travel on study tours to Egv pt, Kenv a mid Cliina.

267 Kelh is a mal are student o\er 30 \ ears of age. She completed her Bachelor of Ai ts degree in social studies education. Her Masters of Arts degree from The Oliio State Uni\ ersit\ (1991) is in social studies and global education. Cuirent studies at the uni\ ersit\ are to extend her knowlede in global education and U) pro\ ide increased \ ocational benefits. Kelly teaches for a mid-westem suburban school s\ stem. At the time of the inteniews, Kelh had completed ten yems in education. Currently she teaches are Adx anccd Placement European Histoiy , American Studies and Adjusted American Studies.

Personal B^icksround of the Pai ticioant. Kelh is a single Caucasian from a middle-class background. She grew up hi Ohio and still resides in the state. The stud\ tour experience proxided Kelh's first opportunite to xisit a foreign countiy, other tlum Canada. Her prexious intemational experience inx oh ed teaching Global Histoiy at the suburban high school for eight \ ears. Before starting to teach Global Histoiy, she knew "bits cmd pieces of world histoiy " but. she became "fascinated bx Russian histoiy with all the different czars, em presses and royal families" (Kellx , Inteniew, 11 12 1993). I conducted the inteniews in a x ariety of locations, including Kelh's classroom^and the teachers' work area at her

1G8 [suburban liigh school] cind her home. As with pre\ ious participants, her choice oC location detennined the site selection. The relationship between Kelh and m\ self was collegial. Our prexioiLS acquaintance through academic and professional associations made the atmosphere relaxed and open to sharing during the inter\ iews and focus groups. Kelh cooperated and participated willingh in an effort to help another student with her research. The initial question of our first inteniew framed the stuch ; What was the greatest impact of \our stuch tour abroad?

Impact of the Stud\ Tour Abroad Kelh identified the greatest impact of the studx tour abroad experience cis seeing and experiencing w hat she had read about and studied come to life. Kelh’s description of seeing Peter the Great’s palace epitomized her impressions. .After a long flight, and being awake for oxer twenty-four hours. Kelh looked out the w indow of the airplane.

I could see Peter the Great's palace from the air. I knew right axx’ax what that was. I told the person sitting next to me. "That’s it, that is his palace." I hax e seen it all the time in books. I alwax s wanted to step inside it. I could see how it was laid out, like \'ersailles. I had told the kids [students in her classes] hotx the monarchs lix ed in the

269 Baroque st\ le with e\tra\ agance and elegance. It was so s\ ininetrical. .. This is \vh\ I wanted to go in the first place, it was just, just great. (Kell\. Inter\lew, 11 12 1993)

htimersion Experience. Kelh' continued to describe her experience of initially stepping into the Palace and the extended impact of her experience. The le\ el of interest, enthusiasm, and fascination she expressed was contagious, fi\e \ ears later. The planning, the sa\1ng, and the stud\ before the trip increased the impact. "That is what I will alwax s remember about that trip, seeing that palace for the first time" (Kelh, Interxiew, 11 12 1993). The document Kelh shared fiom the study tour journal was the description of Peter the Great's Petrodxorets. The nai icitix e included the hx drofoil ride to the palace across the Baltic to demonstrate the improx cd transporiation with the old XXodd chann. "From the marble teirace at the front of the Great Palace, we had a fine xiexx ox er the Great Cascade, made up of three xxaterfalls, sixtx -four fountains, and thirty -sex en statues" (Kelly, document 7 30 1988). Kelh's studx tour was a short term, three week trip, based on the progi'cun design. She trax eled xxith the group, imd transportation and accommodations were aiTanged for the entire group. Sara and Kelly participated on the same tour to the Soxiet 1 iiion in 1988. Thex shared accommodations.

270 Kelh 's national origin is English and Irish. In appearance, she is short, of medium-athletic build, and attract i\ c. Her hair is burnished red ^md she has a light complexion. Kelly described differences between herself and the nali\ e people in appearance to be in hair color and clothing st\ les. She did not feel inxisible. language abilit) also separated Kelh from the native ixipulation; although she speaks limited Spanish: she does not speak Russian at all. language, however, prov ided the link to intercultural interactions. Wlicn in Estonia, she talked to a group of natives who were tiy ing to improv e their English language skills. The group met with English speaking foreign visitors from universities so thev could lest their English and trv to communicate. Kellv and another woman shared valuable insights into international relations, histoiy , and gov ernment during the language exchange.

I remember talking to one wommi [in Estonia] about stories when she was little and the Germans had come during the N’azi occupation, and later the Russians came. She was telling us she preferred Nazi mle and so had her familv because the Nazis had treated them so much better than the Russians ev er did. (Kellv , Interv iew, 11 12 1993)

During her intercultural exchange, Kellv also shared with an Estonian woman that she lov ed to read.

271 I lüld her of course I lo\ ed to read too. A lot of the books I told her about she was realh fascinated with .. .of coui se those books e\en in 19S8 were not available.

Something 2is simple as reading a book, going to a book store and buying a book we all take for granted [in the r.S.]. This woman would ha\e gi\en am thing for a cart full of books and did not ha\e them. (Kelly, Interxiew, II 12 1993)

The sharing of language, in the limited immersion experience, pro\ ided Kelh with an increased international education perspectix e inx olxing human rights. Kellx compm ed freedom to learn in a Communist-controlled countiy and the United States. The interaction enabled two women, who shared a lox e of learning, to cross cultural barriers and interact. Ecich gained increased intercultural perspectix e from the one-on-one contact. Kellx takes the episode one step further in the sub-theme of x ocation when she said she then discusses this example in her American Histoiy ckisses with her students. Kellx mentioned this incident in other inteniews and in the focus group. The emphasis of the ex ent indicates its importance to her.

Focus of the Studx Tour. Kellx's focus for the study tour program was Russian Histoiy. She read oxer twenty different

272 kinds of books on Russia hislon. wars, and literature. She related her slud\ tour to her \ oration.

I would not go to Ecuador, because 1 don't teach about it. I want to go to Eg> pt, China, the Middle East, England, and other places I talk about [in class]. There is more at stake than me ha\ ing fun. It is more professional than personal enjoyment. How expenshe it was makes me be \en sclecthe in where I go. (Kelh , Inteniew, 2 15 1994)

Implications of Multiple Stud\ Tours. The trip to Russia was the onh stud\ tour Kelh participated in during her educational career. She found shai ing her ideas with other more seasoned tra\ elers of the group increased the qualitx of her experience. From the single stud\ tour experience, Kelly spoke of the multiple wa\ s she used the content in her teaching. The tour also provided personal dev elopment opportunities. One of the other participants rev ealed tliis in the focus group. Sma desc'ribed the tour as a real challenge for Kellv. "She hadn’t trav eled before, I knew how she felt. .. She was afraid of planes, I mean she put aside a lot of fears or dealt with them so she could be on this trip. . .She blossomed on the trip"(Sara, focus Group II, =3). 1 asked Kellv to share her growth experience.

273 Well, 1 don’t like airplanes. When we were in those small towns (Baltic States) fix ing, I don't remember the exact location.... Thex brought up this contraption to jump start the plane. I happened to hax e a window seat, 1 just about lost it. I did not xxant to go on the plane. It had bald tires. Xo tread that I could see. And for some reason, just before 1 left, 1 read about an airplane crash in the ar ea earlier. You just gel on the plane and xou just sit somewhere. You do not iMx e assigned seats. We took off and obxiouslx got there. If I could fix on that plane, I could fix on anx pkme, it was that bad. (Kellx , Focus Group II, =3)

This traxel episode illustrates Kellx's increased perspectixe concerning global linkages in technologx. Manx Americans take global interconnections and intemational safet} standards for granted. She also described facing this intense immersion experience in a culture where unifbmiitx in air plane safetx and embarkation procedures are not the same as her home culture. In the end, the experience allowed her to feel she could traxel more easilx on airplanes, thus increasing her confidence. "Risk takers," according to Paige (1993), are sojourners who find risk as a natural pm t of cultui'al adaptation, \xho arc tolerant of thernselx es, and their adaptation process. Thex xxill hax e an easier time and are more likelx participate actixelx in the

274 culture. In this case Kelly continued to pai'ticipate in the slud\

I ( ) ur cnt liLLS last ical l\ .

Implications of Gender. Kell\ identified se\ eral implications of gender related to the acti\ ities of the Soxiet women. She found that the daih actixlties of the Soxiet women did not indicate that they were highlx regai'ded in the societx. Soxiet women needed to shop dailx . Doing the laundiy was a major acccnnplishment. Women were forced to stand in lines for shopping, Kellx said it was "a waste of time; thex cm ried books with them as thex stood in line" (Kellx , Inteniew . 2 15 1994). Kelly described the \xomen's styles as a time warp of the 1960's. In the fk raine, the xxomen labored. For example, thex cleaned up heaxx trash, while the men stœ d on the sidelines and supenised. Kellx saw other women hangmg out of liigh windows washing them and doing heaxy lifting work. "I felt stunned. In the United States, our physical strength [work] is done by men. In the U.S.S.R. the men consider it beneath them" (Kelly, In ten lew, 2 15 1994). Saia's document describes the lack of men in the Soxiet Union after World War II. Kellx also referred to the speaker who discussed this with the studx tour group in Leningrad. Sharing of infonnation and reflecting on the results with others at the time of the experience increased her studx tour experience. Howex er, Kellx did not select this document as part of her data.

275 Kelly rcporlcd lhai ihe Sox iet women were \er> serious, "When we were walking, 1 didn’t notice a lot ofhappx people. PcU'ticularh the women appeared to be sober (Kellx. Focus Group I). In another gender-related issue Kellx identified the number of abordons in the Sox iet Union. Manx women use abortions as pm t of the birth control practices. When Kellx compared the status and practices of women in U.S.S.R. with those of the United States, she said:

I know that women in this countn think that they hax e it bad. But, if thex could just see some of the things that went on there. I think that thex would realh feel For a lot of the women there: I could not go there and put myself in that s\ stem, knowing what 1 hax e here now! N'o, I couldn’t. (Kellx, Focus Group I)

Kellx identified imother gender implication related to the studx tour’s participants. She said, "Most of the group were women. Of the twenty participants onlx four or fix e were men, not including Dr. Gillioin. Thex were \ ounger than 1 anticipated, with six of us in our twenties " (Kellx, Interx iew, 2 15 1994). (At the time of the tour. Kellx was 26.) When asked to reflectix elx anah zed why this might be true, she concluded, "Max be men hax e more control in our own countrx and outside it

n 76 is difficult to ensure conlrol" (Kelh , Inteniew, 2 15 1994). She felt women adapted more easih to the changes necessm} in traxel and were less threatened.

Implications of Minoritx Exnerience. The minoritx of Estonia was in mi international conflict to gain independence. This was the most signifiCcmt experience for Kellx .

When we were in Estonia, x ou know that is were the Baltic Republics are, and they were rebelling and wanting their independence. It was a x en x olatile [situation] while we were there. It [the independence mox ement] was xerx much in the works. I nex er felt threatened while we were there. You could just tell that these people had made up their minds that thex were going to do anx thing thex had to do to get their independence (Kellx , Inten iew, 11 12 1993).

Academic Requirement. Kellx enrolled in ten credit hours including four hours of independent studx . In tliis effort, she read twenty books for Dr. Gilliom before she went. "I reallx think that it prepared me well" (Kellx, Inteniew, 2 15 1994). As part of the program design, she also \x rote in the group jounial. Tlie journal proxlded

/ / a means to take turns with other group members. I reali\ thought it was good, because for one d a\, you were realh, realh responsible for the group to get down a lot of the ke\ things [during the day's traxel]. I think exerxbodx on their dax was serious about highlighting the important ex ents of the dax and the episodes of the dax. The journal was compiled. I used it when I showed my slides, or talked aboLil something in Russiim histon. (Kelh, Interxiew, I I 12 1993)

She did not feel keeping indix idual journals as part of the academic requirement \xould be as helpful because "[xou] would be so busx writing that x ou would miss seeing what x ou are there to see" (Kelh , Inteniew, 11 12 1993). Kelly's did not consider her project a significant part of the requirement. "The fact that 1 crmnot remember w hat 1 did for a project is probabh an indication that was the least imporiant thing to me. 1 probabh did a lesson plan of some sort" (Kelh, Inte niew, 11 12 1993). Kelh's reading was important to her, as it tied into her lox e of reading. Wlien she returned to campus, she enrolled in an additional course in Global Literature and made recommendations to the professor for additional books to use in the course sx llabus.

278 Duration ofTme Since the Stud\ Tour. When asked if she fell the impact of the study tour had been sustained. Kelh agreed that it had. Howex er, sometimes she does not remember details about the trip until something triggers the memon . "All of a sudden \ ou remember and add that to > our work or image" (Kell) , Focus Group. II. =4).

Gcoaranhic l ocation. The geograpliic location of the stud) lour was \ ei') significmit to Kell). While in Estonia and l.at\ ia. the group saw political protests agciinst the Soxiets. as noted in the a boxe quotation. Kelh felt she had a more personal understanding of the feai' and the desire for self-rule in the countiy than if she had read about it in a book or in the newspa^xux This intense immersion in the field of international education prox ided Kelh with an intense experience. When the risk of X iolence increased, though she felt safe, the lex el of intensit) of the experience also increased. Kell) felt one of the outcomes of her stud) lour was an increase in knoxxledge about Russian geographx'. The students she teaches at the [surburban liigh school] are "well trax eled and hax e been all ox er the place. .. a lot of them hax e been to Greece. Eg) pt. but x eiy few haxe been to the Soxiet hnion" (Kelh . inten iew. 11 12 1993). She identifies that it is difficult to teach globed studies if one has not been anyplace in the world except

279 one's o\ni countn . She also finds it "enhances m\ teaching of American histon because ni\ \ie\vs of .American liiston changed" (Kelh . Inteniew, 11 12 1993). International experience increases the confidence of teachers in their subject matter, according to Wilson (1993).

X ocational Implications. The x ocational impact of Kelly's study tour related to an increase in her professional growth. Kellx succincllx explained this as; "Exen though I think that it has helped me more with leaching global histon, I can see how it helped me with .American history too. I get [m\ students] to see that history is subjectix e and that other people hax e a different point ofxiew" (Kellx . Interxiew, 11 12 1993). Kellx teaches students to look at history with a multiple perspectixe, and determine "whx did so and so fight in tliis war" (Kellx, Interxiew, 11 12 1993). Kellx r eflected that her lack of interest in the studx tour project in the rnethodologx of her teaching. She does not r equire students complete a project due to "the time constraints" (Kellx, interxiew, 11 12 1993). She explained the purpose of the studx tour as that she xxenl to the Soxiet Union "to improxe rnx teaching, but I also xxent for mx self. I teach about those things" (Kellx, Interxiew, 12 28 1993). Kellx also described how the experience helped her to groxx personally:

280 It was far from home. I did not know the people. I was not sure of the customs. I did not want to offend the people. I was sometimes afraid I would do or sa\ something wrong. Xow, 1 am more comfortable and confident to traxel. I nex er gi\ e it a thought. If 1 want to go to China, 1 would go. (Kelh , Inten iew, 11 12 1993)

In Kelh's words the \ ocational intent helped her personal dexelopmenl and professional growth. When she lectured or showed her slides, she felt cm increase in her expertise. By combining the academic slud\ and the direct experieme she enhanced her personal dex elopment cind professiomil growth.

Increase in the Global Perspectix e. Kelh described an increased luxareness of a global perspectix e: If people knew the histon of the whole people, Ihex would know how much the geographx influenced them and how much the religions influence them. Not that they conscioush tried to be different, but because thex were constanth adapting to the climate, the soil, their neighbors around them, it is onh natural that thex would dex elop differenth. The Chinese people adapted differenth than

281 did the people of Russia lo Conmiunism. The old s\ stems were not working. The people adapted to them. I see the siime thing happening in this countn. There is a huge discrepano between the rich and the poor. I think it is kind of funny that later their countiy is becoming more democratic and we are going in the opposite direction. (Kelh , Focus Group II)

Kelh completed her graduate studies in Social Studies and Global Education in 1991, following her study tour to the So\ iet I’nion in 1988. The interest and enthusiasm for her experiences irimsfers into her teaching. She describes bringing e\ eiy thing to the classroom when she teaches about Russia. "The\ think that I know because 1 was there. You would be surprised what the\ learn from the slides" (Kelh , Focus Group I). She illustrated with an anecdote of tA\ o girls who spontaneoush pro\1ded the dialogue for her slide presentation of Peter the Great's palace. The girls were in her Adx anced European Histoiy class, and the pre\ ious year saw her slides in her Global Histoiy class. "The> remembered almost e\en thing I said. I was floored" (Kelly, Focus Group I). Kelh's commitment to completing her master's degree in the global education directh related to her stud\ tour experience b\ linking the discipline of study and the focus. The academic

282 credits applied to her continued studies on her home campus, including the additional independent stud\ credits. Kelly's hit me plans include additional stud) tours which relate to her teaching assignment. She repeatedh expressed interest in noii-traditional locations, such as Cliina, Eg\ pt and Kem a. Kelh does not intend to pkm and cm iy out the trips independenth. She described going on the trips with students, who would add to her tour b\ pro\iding collegialit) . The arrangements in transpoiiation, accommodations and lectmes pro\ided b\ the program design were an important pm t of her decision, due to her numerous professional commitments. Continued stud\ tour pai'ticipation seems likeh as Kelh hats now paid for her education and mo\ ed into her new home.

283 Pcirlicipcint Experience of .Ali

Riograph\' All is a female graduate student at The Ohio State I'nhersit) in Global Education. At the time of her participation in the research study, she was a doctoral Ccmdidate in The College of Fducalion. She completed two stud) lours with the Social Studies Education Program Abroad. The first tour was to Ken\ a in 1992 and the second was to .Alaska in 1993. Her participation in the research project began four months following her .Alaskan tour. She expressed a desire to continue with stud) tours; howe\ er. she plans to lead her own tours with her liigh school students. All is a mature student, between 40-50 ) ears old. Her Bachelor of Science degree is from Ohio Unh ersit) in Iiiston and political science. She completed her Master of Ai ts at Youngstown State rn h ersit) and a Doctor of Pliilosoph) from the Oliio State rnh ersit) in 1994 (following the completion of the data collection for this reseai'ch stud) ). Her professional experience is in education. She teaches secondar) social studies for an urban public school s) stem. Her teaching career spans ten ) ears in a northern urban area of mid­ west United States, and eight ) ears in a central urban area of

284 inid-wesl Uniled States. CiiiTenth Ali teachers American Histor\ at the [name] high school.

Personal Background of the Participant. Ali is a Female AFrican-American, from a middle-class economic background. PrexioLis international experience for Ali included acting as program director for her own study lours with her students. In 1972. she took rwentx -fix e middle school students to fourteen Fast African countries. Fgx pi and Italx. In subsequent x ears, she led fifteen students to Cliina. fifteen students to Europe, txxentx - two students to Mexico and twentx -fixe students to the Bcihamas. I inteniexxed Ali in her classroom late in the afternoon or early ex ening. Due to her heaxy academic commitment and professional responsibilities, the factor of time prex ented .-Mi from pariicipating in the second focus group session. .Aii choose not to submit a journal entiy for the docmnent analx sis. The indix idual inten iew sessions and Focus Group I proxided data for Ali's case.

Impact of the Studx Tour Abroad

R)cus of the Studx Tour. .Ali's focus of the studx tour was to complete her academic requirement for her doctoral studies and to compare East and West .Africa. She wanted to get a sense of the culture, to get in touch with her African heritage, and

285 mingle with the f>eopIe. Her personal goals for ihe slud\ lour were met and expanded due lo ihe people she encountered.

Immersion Exoeilence. .Ali fell a strong sense of identil) when she was in Africa. Although she did not spe^ik the Icing liage, she describes mam children in Africa who speak English. Her ph\ sical stature and skin color made her feel accepted.

When 1 was there, man> of the nath es and business people would tell me that I looked like a member of (an African iribe). Some of them said no, I probabh came from another tribe. That made me feel good. .. .One girl I inten iewed, because she looked \ en much like m e... we talked to a great extent.. .she said, I should come back to Africa because I w as educated. I should leam to help inn Africa. That made me feel good. (Ali, Inteniew. 11 11 1993)

Ali felt accepted when she interacted with the indigenous people in .Africa. People, especiall) children, were drawn to her during both her stud\ tom- experiences. "We were taught for mam \ ears that Africans did not accept us because we had come here. Our culture was destroyed. I did not find that true in 1972 nor did I find it true in 1992” (.Ali, inten iew', 12 8 1993). .Ali's discussion with the \ oung woman had a significant impact on her;

2 8 6 she referred lo il in ihree inleniews cind in the focus group. At first, the two were drawn together because the\ looked so much alike. "It was great to know who I was and where I came from. Before tliis. I did not feel good about m\ self. Xow I communicate with her each Christmas since 1992" (,-\li, Inten iew, 11 11 1993). Ali’s multiple stud\ tour experiences strong!) influenced the inten iew sessions. Her first autonomous trip to Africa, in 1972. was both a global and multicultural experience. .Ali describes when she first trax eled to Africa, "Coming out of the ci\ il rights mo\ em ent. to go into .Africa w ith twentx -fi\ e of m\ students was em^TOwering. When we set out on that trip, the billboards were all black [people], and the president [of the countn ] was black, and the bank emplox ees were black" (.Ali. Focus Group I). Ali shared her pei-sonal de\ elopment following this experience in both inteniew mid focus group sessions. .Ali describes Africa as a place where, eveixxvhere she went, she was empowered "just to be" (there) (.Ali. Inteniew, 12 8 1993). On the stud) tour in 1992, the black professors at the unhersities ga\ c her a different perspecti\e on herself: "I did not c\ er ha\ e to be degraded or belittled, because I'm from a \ erx rich culture" (.Ali. Focus Group I).

287 Ali explains lhal she used lo feel degraded

because oC the ua\ sociclx had pcrceixed us [blacks] for \ ears. Xol knowing an\ positix e things about m\ race of people. . . . Soineliines I ihink that had I known about an Ida B. Wales and Anna Julian Cooper, I could hax e had role models. So I went to seek what I had lost in m\ upbringing. (Ali, Inteixiew, 12 8 1993)

Ali describes the experience as shining a whole new light on her life. Ali rex ealed personal dex elopment when she sax s, "[!]( gave me a better sense of who I was" (.Ali, In ten iew. 12 8 1993). Her 1972 studx tour motix ated her to eni'oll in graduate school and complete her masters degree. After her return from the two studx tours during her doctoral studies she felt rex itLtli/ed to complete her Ph. D. degree. She describes this powerful influence: "That feeling for the last twentx x ears has transcended m\ life. Those twentx -fix e students [xxho were on the study tour], all but txvo of them are professionals now. It certainly gax e me a better grip on life" (Ali. Focus Group 1). The design of the studx tour led to cultural isolation h orn the natix e population in transportiition and accommodations. Howex er, .Ali describes the group experience xxith an intercultural perspectixe. "The other people on the trip, it was like thex were in the minoritx [whites] and we [blacks] were in

2 8 8 Ihc majoriu ’■ {.Ali. Focus Group I). When asked b\ the focus group pai'licipants if she discussed this with the other participants on the stud} tour, she re\ ealed that the}' had. "We talked about it e.\lensi\ cl}. I think that when } ou talk in a group you increase e\ en one's awareness. Jean [lier white rooiuniate] and 1 were up for hours at night talking about it" (.Ali Focus Group I). Ali proxides an additional intercultural perspective.

I think it does make a difference. I wish e\en white person in .America could go abroad [to .Africa] and tlien come back to .America. Then let's tn again. Exciy black person, I thinlc, needs to go to Europe and .Africa and be there for a month. Then let's come back cmd make us a countn . (.All, Focus Group 1)

The international educational exiX'iience in Ali's opinion could cause the two racial groups to \iew their own relations differenth. .Ali does not express concern about the le\ el of risk in the stud} tour program. "1 feel there is \ en little risk-taking in a stud} tour at OSU. It was more of a risk when I had total rcsponsibilit} for the kids on m} own stud} tours. The agenc} was also responsible, but 1 felt responsible" (.Ali, Inteniew, 4 4 1994). The intensit} of the immersion on the stud} tour

289 during Ihe OSU slud\ tour did not create a liigh le\ el of stress for Ali.

Influence of Multiple Study Tours. In the inteniew sessions and in the focus group, Ali interconnected her tours. She easilx compares current issues in the new spaper or from movies to past expeiiences, during the studv tours, with seemingh no effort. The stud} tour to West Africa and Alaska did not have the same intensit} ^md level of impact as did the tours to East Africa mid Cliina. "It certaiiil} did not have the same impact because it was self identification [in her personal development]. The one to Keii} a probabl} had [an] equal!} [strong impression], but it was not the same. The first one, it changed ni} life" (Ali, Inteniew, 4 4 1994). Ali cilso relates h e r experiences in .Africa to her vocational activities. She describs going on a field trip to the [name] Theater and viewing an .African film. Seeing the film renewed her intciges of Africa.

Going to East .Africa, w ith Gilliom, the impact was the people. The rapport, the mutual sense of being, belonging to and being a part of a people. 1 told } ou this before (in inteniew , 11 11 1993), that mam of the tribal people said, "} ou look like a Kakua” or "} ou look like a Uih a." That identification gave me a sense of belonging; it was a pm t of me. (.Ali, Interview. 4 4 1994)

290 The multiple studx tour experiences helped .All dex elop a global perspectixe.

In tenus of going to other countries, that xxas more world minded. That wasn't a personal commitment. [It] was more of a unix ersal acceptance. Just know ing that the xxorld was

interdependent. Wcis human [person to person]. It was like growth and knowledge together. (.All, Interx iew, 4 4 1994).

When she compares the txx o experiences of being in Africa, her recollections m'e intertwined. "When I was in Egx pt, and talked to the people on the Mile Rix er, I don’t think that [it] impacted me as much as West Africa \x here I was close to my roots" (.Ali, Interx'iew 4 4 1994). • She later connects other study tour experiences with her global perspectixe.

I tliink I \xas more open to ideas. The interconnection between The Great Wall and the pyramids all became understandable. Seeing The Forbidden City, that it had to take ingenuitx and knoxx-how. I think 1 [gained] a deepening respect for the Chinese people. I don't think I could hax e looked or ex en cared about The Great Wall of

291 China [before ihe slud\ lour]. I didn'l e\en care aboul ihe Chinese people. In m\ world, il was cilher black or while. But, now there is a whole other dhuension of human life. Going lo Mexico Lind looking at the .Aztec [monunienls] and compaiing the concepts there with ancient Eg\ pt. Seeing those things in persomil experience creates an anah tical mind. Then you get that global connection of boiTowing and sharing. (.Ali, Inten iew, 4 22 1996)

These words reflect the interconnections .Ali made through multiple stud) tour experiences. Ali's descriptions indicate an awakening in her abilit) to \ iew the world from another perspectix e due to the direct experience of being there. As .Ali explains, she had taught Lmd read about the places she \isited in histon , but the impact changed her when she experienced them. The interconnections of the histon , culture, and people are more appment to .All after the stud) tour.

Implications of Gender. .Ali identifies strong connections between implications of gender and her racial identity. She describes this connection. " [i]n a world minded sense, being an .African-American, a teacher, a person, and a woman, all of it together, I think that there has been this longing or emptiness inside me" (.Ali, Interx iew, 4 4 1994).

!92 Ali chcillcnges a comment from another participant that men feel safe in the United States b\ asking, "What kind of men? Young black men mid cliildren li\ing in crack houses do not feel safe" (Ali, Focus Group 1). She illustrais her coimnenls using the pre\ious ev enings news and an m ticle in the local paper about aiTcsls of African- American men and nineteen neglected cliildren. Ali ideIIIifies with her race before her gender. In the following example, she illuslrales ihis point.

For me, m\ slmggle is for m\ people, and 1 could never, never ev er, ideiiUfv when a while woman sav s I've been discnm inaled against. . . . So, that never equated to me its what discrimination means. When it takes awav v our self­ esteem and V our verv soul [that is discrimination]. Material things could never equate to me [as much] as what happened to the Native Americans. (Ali, Focus Group I)

Ali does not describe miv difference between the projects, slides, or feeling of safetv in relation to gender.

Implications of Minoritv Experience. As previouslv described, the implications of minoritv has had a profound impact on Ali's st udv tour abroad experiences. Ali presents her perspective ixs follows:

293 Since I classifX m> self as a minority, the stud\ tour cerlainh changed the \\a\ I perceh ed minorities or the needs of special populations, especialh for m\ perception of m> self and other people of color.. .. The stud\ tour experience changed the \va\ 1 perceix ed people from different cultures b\ getting more information cmd knowledge about people. Whereas, when \ ou think about Chinese, \ ou just think oC a mass of people. The study tour enabled us to see real people. To see [that the] commonalities mid their hummi \ alues were the same as mine as well as different. (.Ali. Focus Group I)

She continues with an international perspectix e of the -American lifestx le.

Before 1 went, I had an .American belief that (other) people ha\ e the Scime concern for their lifestx le tlmt we do. It's like. .America isn't the world [1 realized]. It's like those people's cultures are just as great. 1 think the study tours gax e me a different perception on how to place .America in terms of our position. It gax e me a better understanding of other people, coupled with [increased] toleiance and appreciation. (.Ali, Inteniew, 5 4 1994)

294 Ali comp'cU'es h er experiences as a m inoriri mem ber in the United Stales with her international and global status when on a stLid\ tour.

I'm a minority' in .America. Being a minorit) in the U.S., not [being a minorit> ] in the world's population as a person of color, I had an excellent rapport with the Chinese. One of the reasons I went ox er there was to trx to understcmd how a people who were so oppressed, coming out of a third world, how it was thex could dislike, disagree or hate [anotlier] minor!t} group. I had never thought of China in terms of am tiling else except its culture. Now, I look at Cliina in terms of its people, and its attitudes towards other people. So when I got to Cliina, Lill that stuff got dispelled. We did not share a language, but we could smile imd gesture. I felt xen comfortable in China. (.Ali, Interxiew, 5 4 1994)

Ali does not beliex e that her studx tour experience changed the wax she perceix es the phx sically impaired minorities or other ethnic minorities in the United States. Hoxxex er, her tour to Alaska impacted her perspectix e of the Natix e .Americans. After xisiting the Inuit people, .Ali researched other tribes and Natixe American histon. She added the minoritx group into her unit on Weslern Studies of the United States. She spoke with natix e

295 people during her stud\ lour in brief, one-on-one com ersations. She asked aboul how ihe\ Ii\ed and gained an increased apprecialion of iheir respecl for nalural resources. Her global awareness of the prcsen alion of the em ironmenl in relation lo the day lo da\ life of the Inuil people has increased. .Ali expresses it as follows:

1 was \ en impressed and gained a new respecl for indigenous people. 1 was thrilled b\ laiowing their liislon from m\ readings and lectures when we \isited places. We talked lo the indigenous people aboul what we had read. It increased m\ knowledge mid I fell renewed [in m\ learning]. (.Ali, Inteniew, 5 4 1994) All's words lead naluralh lo her interpretation of the impact of the cogniti\e component of stud\ tour programs and the academic credit.

■Academic Reguirements. .Ali went on the Social Studies Education Program Abroad as partial fulfillment of her academic requirement to engage in an intemational experience. Her stud\ tour did not intermpt or extend her studies, but was integrated into her com se plans. The content knowledge increased as a result of her study tour, as she illustrates in her comments concerning the .Alaskan stud\ tOLin

296 The trip cidds to the knowledge of m\ studies. I was deeph mo\ ed after stud\ ing about the Natix e .American trials and tribulation. I compared it to m\ own people's struggles. 1 felt a kinsliip. Before going 1 did not know about the stmggles of the Inuits [Eskimo people] or Kwakiutl of Alaska and [British Columbia]. (.All, Inteniew, 12 8 1993)

She relates her studies to personal dex elopment, in relation lo an increased intercultural perspectixe. Ali demonstrates mi increased understanding when describing the feeling of kinsliip with Natix e Americans, after learning of their struggles with Europeans. Wlieii discussing her cognitix e learning process, .Ali describes reading the Tale of Crazx Horse cmd lem ning about liis statesmanship. She feels this information has been lost in the Eurocentric perspectix e of American liiston . .Ali expresses frustration with the .American presentation of the leadership. "He was just as American as Teddx Roosexelt and led a nation, xet he is not recognized" (.Ali, Interxiew, 12 8 1993). .Ali expresses am awmeness of her lack of in-depth knowledge and difficulties in understanding other cultures' histories mid points of xiew. She explains that the "best wax to learn about them and to share" (.All, Interxiew, 12 8 1993) is direct contact with the people and places where thex lixe. According to .Ali, haxing students lemm of others' struggles and

297 their dex elopment, will help her students "x alidate their own culture, and lem n to understand mid respect it" (Ali, interxiew, 12 8 1993). The com parisons i.md contrasts .Ali learned during her studx tours transfer into her xocational goals for hei­ st udents. Her onlx criticism of the studx tom* is the perception that some participants might feel that bx going on a two or three week study thex leam enough to be knowledgeable about or understand the culture. "It is an excellent wax for people to be exposed, but in terms of changing attitudes, 1 don't think it makes a difference. It max help in their teaching, hoxxexer" (Ali, in ten iew, 12 8 1993). Ali's studx tour renew ed rath er than changing her attitudes. .Ml did increase her intercultural perspectixe to include others' perspcctixes with her own racial identification. She's recognizes other minority struggles that she's unaware of before her studx tour as similar to the African- American stmggles. All's project for Kenx a and Alaska relates to her teaching units, including slide presentations. "It was no big thing" (Ali, Inteniexx, 11 11 1993). .All tliinks of studx tour in terms of completing her academic requirement rather than as a persomil goal for increased intemational experiences. Howex er, she is glad that she went on the studx tour.

298 I was required to go to get graduate credit in global education. I mn glad I was forced to go now. It helped me organize m\ slides and m\ readings. The time Uniit helped me ha\ e it done. When 1 went on m\ own tour 1 was not as organized. (Ali, Interxiew. 11 11 1993)

Ali considers the reading requirement (two books per academic credit) fair and equitable. Ali selected literature, histon and nalural resources as topic areas for her readings. She found her readings pro\ ided a background to seek further information duiing her studx tours. She cites an exmnple from West Africa. "When I was touring the Man Man Cultural Museum, I was able to ask intelligent questions and make connections with the mox ement mid the Cixil Rights mox ement in the United States" (Mi, Inteniew, 11 11 1993). Ali used her journal was a memis to remember other peoples' names on the tour. .Ali explains that she shared the readings with her fmnilx as a wax to include them in her trax els. The interaction with the group as a peer sharing process was, in her opinion, positix e. On the .Alaska studx tour, the onlx pai'ticipants were professors in the depaitnient, with only one other exception besides .Ali. "During that tour, 1 was indifferent to the group. .All of the group participants were in couples, making inclusion bx a single participant awkward" (.Ali, Interxiew. 5 11 1994).

299 Ali explains that the tours required a considerable financial coniinitment. All's participation as pail of her professional \ ocation. and the tax-deduction benefit helped her defrax the cost.

Duration Since the Studv Tour. The impact of the study tour, Ali feels, is definiteh sustained. In one inteniew. she describes a film she had seen on .Africa which took her back twentx \ ears to her own studx tour, and then adds the perspectixe of her more recent studx tour to .Africa in 1992:

It made me go back twenty x ears to reflect on who I am. w hat kind of a teacher I am and whx it is that I am the \xa\ 1 am. It made me reflect on m\ coimuitment to mx children, be thex black, or white, or .Askm. 1 think that trip [ to .Africa] made me understand how important it is to center each kid [student] in their o\xii culture. (.All, Interx iew. 5 4 1994)

All's words connect her sustained impact with her intercultural perspectix e. Her conmients also reflect the personal dex elopment she experienced bx the direct contact with the people and places she discusses. .Ali connects this sustained impact to her global perspectixe.' "If x ou ask me what this globcil education means. 1 think it means self to other—it means

3 00 niLilticullurcü to global-I don’t think one is independent of the other. That is what the lours did for me" (.Ali, Inteniew, 5 4 1994).

Geographic Location. The destination of .Ali’s stud\ tours was of major importance to her personal!) and professional!). In .Africa, experienced pai't of her cultural heritage. In China, the impact of being a minorit) in another culture was cill about both for .Ali and for the participants of European descent. In .Alaska, she found the intercultural connections with other minorit) group members based on their similar histon of oppression. In her own words, .Ali ckulfies the importance of these experiences geographicall), personall) and interculturall).

Multicultural and global link the sense of self first in ) our own culture, know ) our histon . 1 did not ha\ c that self­ esteem or pride for me in college. 1 think people must feel good about themseh es, before the) can mo\ e into am other dimension. 1 tliink James Banks' book in 1981 on multi-ethnicit) [Teaching of Ethnic Studies] sa) s it: one cmniot go outside of self, one must incorporate the self. That is the problem 1 see with global education. \ en few professors ha\ e written about the impact of one’s own culture. The interconnections between the Great Wall and

301 Ihc p\ rainids all became underslanctible. (.All. Interxiew. 5 4 1994)

\'c)cationcil Implications. All's professiomil growth included her continued her educational studies, the completing of her masters and doctorate degrees. Ali took her own students on studx lours abroad and on the .American continent. Currentlx , .Ali proxides conlemporm*x' international news through film, newspapers and lelexision bx xxiiich she connects the world with her classroom. She proxides international and intercultural speakers for her students as a regular part of her curriculum. Students are asked to identifx from whom and from where thex need further information for their studies and .Ali facilitates their connections to these people. She consciouslx tries to empower her students to find out about themselx es (e.g.. who thex are. vx hat their cultural historx is), and then she asks them to look at it from a multiple perspectix e in rekition to other groups. \'ocationallx. .Ali identifies that she started xxith herself first and then lem ned with her students to help them lem n about themselx es. When asked in the focus group if it makes a difference xx ho is teaching. .Ali responded:

I don’t tliink it matters about the color of the teacher’s skin. I reallx don’t. As I hax e done mx own research. I think I can attest to thcit. I think that it is onlx xx hen the kids knoxv

302 lhal lhe> can relaie [to olhers]. The} made connections with the children the} saw on the trips [in person and in slides]. The connections were made with m} China tour which was onl} three da} s after the Tianamnen Square incident. It was as if the} were there too. The} saw the Cliinese person on the street mid could relate to it. Tlic} could relate to the hard w ork ethic of the people the} directh saw or shared in the slides. It is a fluid awareness, a common bond for them. (.Aii, Focus Group I)

The impact of the international education gained during a stud} tour is sustained for .Ali. She transfers her personal de\ elopment mid professional growth into \ ocational programs for her students. As she continued to travel, the impact of multiple stud} tours created increased .Ali's intercultural and global perspccth es. The future personal dex elopment and professioiicil growth options, as described b} .Ali, are } et to be determined. She plans to continue traveling and plans future stud} lours for herself mid her students. She hopes to teach in higher education using her intercultural knowledge and e.vperiences to teach global education studies.

303 Paiticipant Expeiiences Compaiisons

Comparisons between ihe paiiicipcUil experiences during Ihe research process enabled clarit} and focus to emerge in the research dala. The paiiicipanls' experiences contain idios\ ncratic ch'cuacteristics that distinguish one experience and from another. I note Ihe comparisons to indicate cU'eas for further reseaich exploration. The themes and sub-themes of the stud\ frame the participcUits' inter\ ie\vs, documents, emd related literature to interpret the comparisons imd contradictions of the participants' experiences. The format follows the pre\ ious organization in ihe pcUlicipant experiences, with an o\ er-all focus on personal dex elopment and professional growth of the pailicipants. I integrate the major themes of program design, international perspectix e, global perspectixe and intercultural perspectix e within the sub-themes of immersion experience, focus of the progrmn, influence of multiple studx tours, implications of gender, implications of minoritx experience, academic reciuirements, duration of time since the studx tour, geogiupliic location of the study tour, and x ocational implications.

Immersion Experience. The program design of a group studx tour limits the impact of an immersion experience. The program director completes the anangements for

304 accommodations, me-als, ti'ansporlation, and lectures. .\11 of the participants shaied this aspect. The pailicipcUits shared the Scune immersion experience relath e to language abilit). Each had pre\ ious foreign language stud) : howex er, none of the participants spoke the natix e language of the countries toured. f>an expressed a desire to speak the Russian language, and he tried to teach a few words to his students. Kell) and Sara noted the benefits of others speaking the language of the countn. As indicated in the program description, the criteria for stud) tour participation does not require language. The time frmne and focus of the stud) tour limits the possibilité of increased kmguage proficienc). All pariicipmits identified an increase in their intemational perspectix e in relation to their immersion experience. Participants perceix ed the similarities and differences betxveen the home mid host cultures as indicated in the literature (e.g.. Cmison & W'idmnan. 1988; and Carlson, Bum. Useem, & Yachimowicz. 1990). Participants who toured Communist countries emphasized an increvised awareness inx olxing political and economic comparisons. Tliree pai ticipmits indicated the importance of political miplications for the Soxiet Union. One participant noted the changing of statues in Moscow and connected it with the decline in respect for fonner leaders. Another participant who xisited China shortl) after Tiananmen Sipmre student demonstrations, described her increase in

305 püliliCcü awareness following her tour. Kell>, Dan. ScU'a m ade economic comparisons concerning a\ ciilabilit\ of food, clolliing and other consumer goods between the Soxiet Union and the United States. The> compared the necessitx of standing in line and the black market economx in the Soxiet Union xxith the ecise of access to consumer goods in the United States. All participants described an increased interest in reading about the countn \ isited. as indicated by Wilson, 1993 and C us liner, 1992. All {.wticipants indicated an increase of interest in world exents, especiallx in the area toured. Participants shared xiewing telexision news, watching telex ision specials cind attending foreign films following their tours, .All participant reported an increase in attending lectures and exents relating to the nations toured, further ex idence of an increase in their international perspectix es. The global perspectix e of the immersion experience relates more specificallx to participants of multiple studx tours. A.11 of the participants but Jena attended classes at the home campus in global education prior to their studx tours abroad. Kellx attributed the increase in a global perspectix e to her indixidual focus. All participants identified an increased intercultural perspectixe following the immersion experience during the studx tour. In other sub-themes relating to an increased intercultural perspectix e, iill of the participants described the "feel" of the

306 count n . the awareness of similarities mid differences, and the desire to lemii more b\ "being" in the countn in their inten iews and focus groups. Each participant identified that the stud\ tour did not gi\ e them in-depth intercultural knowledge. All and Sai a found it was an a\\akening experience. Lad identified that the immersion ga\ e him a taste of what the country was all about. The design of the program created cultural isolation from the indigenous population for the stud) tour groups. PcU'ticipmils expressed a desire to increased their contact with the host nationals. Limited autonomous interactions during non­ designated stud) tour acti\ities pro\ided the most oppoilunities for o\ ercoming the cultural isolation. The impact of \isibilit) or imisibilit)' in the intercultural immersion experience depended upon the pm ticipant. Size and Europecm identit) impacted the \isibilit) of Lad and Sara during their stud) tours to China and Lad's stud) tour to Ecuador. .Aii's skin color increased her \ isibilit) in China. Jena found she was almost imisible in Eg) pt. Dan, Kell) , and Sara found their \1sibilit) related to western clothing rather than to identifx ing ph) sical characteristics. None of the participants expressed the desire to fade into the population and become one with the people as indicated b\ M. Bennett (1993), during longer sojourns, with pai'licipants in a stage of denial. Three of the participants considered the status or respect g hen them b) the indigenous population significant during their

307 inlercullurdl iiimiersion. Jena. Sana, and All perceix ed positix e inleraclions, comlesx, and friendliness when Ihex encounlered the local people. The participants described these experiences bx identifx ing the wai'ni smiles, the prompt responses to questions, and the sensitixitx to their needs when thex encountered the natix e [x^pulalion.

Rxais of the Studx Tour. International experience, global education, and cross-cultural experiences prox ided the focus for the studx tours. The pm ticipants identified an indix idmil focus that often did not coincide xxith their studx tour projects. The number of studx tours experiences influenced the focus identified by the participants. Lad identified the cultural experience as his central focus. Jena's focus entailed learning about Africa and understanding the implications of being in a culture different from her oxxn. Dan focused on Russian histoiy in order to design a ncxx cuniculum for his school. Sara connected her focus xx ith personal dex elopment in intercultural and global experience during her studx tours. Kellx described her focus as the direct experiences xxith the histon she lox ed. .Ali's academic completion proxided her focus in keeping xxith the international experience requirement in her global education program. Ali, as a more personal focus, compaied her prexious study tour experiences to .Africa xxith the studx tour from OSLL .A.11 of the indixidual focuses related to gaining increased personal

308 de\ clopiiienl mid professional growth. As the above summaiv indicalcs, the focuses differed. I did nol place a \alue or expectation on the identified focus. Each participant etc know ledged that identifx ing the focus helped to increase the benefits of the studx tour bx adding clarity and boundaries.

Influence of Multiple Studx Tours. The influence of multiple studx tours impacted four of the six pai ticipants. One of the influences relates to an increased awaieness of the design of the progi'cun and its impact of the experience, lad expressed his desire to immerse himself in the culture and feel the impact of the countiy. Lad appreciated the comfort in his accommodations mid food: yet, he also desired direct contact with the people and direct experience in the local enxironment. In Sara's experience, the foreign gox emiiient's control influenced the design of the program. When the studx tours x isited Cliina, the gox ernment of The People's Republic of China determined where foreign nationals x isited. The gox ernment desigmited school x isits, factoiy xisits cUid tourist stores. Sma's awareness of the gox ernment's influence increased following her studx tours. She increased her awareness of how the program design shaped the experience on subsequent studx tours to the Soxiet Union and Xcw Zealmid. Dan designed liis own independent studx tours to approximate the Social Studies Education Program Abroad of the program. He endeax ored to increase the impact of the program

3 0 9 b\ requiring that his students study Russian histon for the \ ear prior to their study tour experience. Ali \ ieued the Ie\ el of intensity' of the Oliio State programs, after experiencing her own stud) tours, as limited. Howexer, she felt the stmcture, org'cuiization, mid focus of the Oliio State programs helped her to create order and transfer the impact of the experience to her academic and \ ocational programs. The international education-stud\ tours abroad proxided an increased international perspectixe when the paiticipants compared the gox eminent, economx. geographx , lechnologx. and culture between countries. Each of the four multiple-tour paiticipants compaied the countries xisited with the United Slates. Paiticipmits combined cognitixe learning in the academic program w ith experiential learning in the direct experiences abroad. The refleclix e integration increased the number and intensitx of the comments about international connections. \ isiling another countiy,after a period of lime, enabled the pai ticipants to look more closelx and refectixelx at what thex were experiencing. The four multiple studx tour paiticipants cited the global implications of an increased multiple perspectix e. Thex viewed the interconnections of the enx iiomnent, gox emments, human rights, and intercultural struggles with increased awareness. For example, Dan continually asked students to took at the issues and ex ents in the news from a multiple perspectix e. Sara

310 compared the go\ ernment's limits on indixidual rights in the Baltic States w ith the go\ ernm ent's restricition in the Soxiet I'nion ten x eai s prexiouslx. She used the changing climate in the two Communist countries she xisited to draw comparisons between the inteiTelationships betxxeen technology and power in her leaciiing. All four pai ticipants identified the impact of multiple study lours ujxin intercultural perspectixes. Ali prox ided a clear illustration of increased intercultuicil perspectix e when she described her increasing awcueness of Xatix e American culture and the interconnections between it and her African-.American culture following her Alaskan tour. She identified the need for indixiduals to understand who they were first, understand their roots secondlx. and then tliex could understand the interrelationsliips between groups. She felt she increased this perspectixe after rexisiting Africa and connecting it to her Alaskan trip. Sara endeax ored to understand how other cultures xiewed

the American c ulture in relation to x iolence. phx sical appeal, and social interactions. Sara initiated the comparisons due to her suiprise after hearing the natix e Chinese women’s opinions of American culture. She compared the Chinese xiews to the interactions she experienced in the Baltic states with Estonian women. In New Zealand. Sara found the cultural issues intertwined xxith global and intercultural perspectix es. Draxxing

311 on ihe different experiences from all over the world enabled her to incrccise her cultural understanding and increase her cultural perspectix es. Sara found xiews differed between people and indeed.differed from her own xiews, as Hanx ex (1979) stated. Reflection helped Sara realize that she was prexiouslx' unaware of these differences. An increased intercultural perspectix e facilitated her personal de\ elopment by increasing her underst'cUiding of herself. She described the changes she experienced personallx as a result of the multiple trax el experiences bx seeing that jxiople were different. Sara indicated a desire to know more about these differences and the world's people. Her cultural understanding increased as she recognized that it was okax to be different cmd that these differences could enhance rather than disrupt the world. Lad increased his axvareness that the intercultural relationship betxxeen people of different groups could be bridged by increasing the cai ing and understanding when dealing inlercLilturallx. He obsen ed some of the fiftx -six different culture groups when in Cliina. Lad then compared the interactions and liiston between Chinese groups to those of the L nited State and Ecuador. The mipact of seeing multiple groups coming together and peacefullx" interact, and liis desire to increase positix e interactions betxxeen students, illustrates changes in Lad's personal dexelopment and professional groxxth.

312 Liid's chcinges indicate an increased inlercultuml and multicLiltural perspective.

Implications of Gender. The cross interview analysis re\ eciled gender impacted all of the participants, but to \ ar> ing degrees. Statistics on gender identify most studv abroad students as female, 63% and white, 84% (Open Doors 1994-1995, p. 158). Participmits v iewed the implications of gender from several perspectiv es. The first v iew, in relation to the program, examined whv did the participimts choose a study tour abroad program. In three of the cases, cill female, it was their first time abroad (Jena, Sam, and Kelly). .An international perspective prov ided the second view of the gender implications. When compai ed to their home culture, all of the paiticipants described differences in the wav the host culture interpreted women's role in societx. Each paiticipant noted these differences, and described them during the inteniews and the focus groups. Three documents rev ealed examples of comparisons in women's roles. .All of the participant identified a global perspectiv e of gender implications. Paiticipemts found women's rights interconnected globallv . The ability to seek liigher education was recognized bv Kellv and Sam. Dan, Sam and .Ah recognized the importance of women's status in their society. Lad inter-hnked a global perspectiv e with an intercultural perspective inv olv ing the

313 ireatment of women in iheir own socieU'. He recognized the treatment of women should be impro\ ed, \ et that in the perspectix e of the home culture tliis max not be x alued in the smne wax as he x alues it. All of the pai ticipants identified the implications of gender in intercultural jx'rspectix es. Kellx described the subsenicnt role women played in the Sox iet Union ex en though thex were a majoiitx. Sara discussed the feeling of safetx she personallx experienced when she was in China, which was greater then she experiences in the United States. Jena identified that in Egx pt women were x alued as rulers. Monuments illustrated the xalue of women ailers, though thex are not as large as those honoring males. Egx pt had female rulers who were worshipped bx later generations. Dan found changes in the roles of women during the multiple studx tour experiences (two of his own studx tours). He obsen ed changes in occupations, dress and attitudes. Vet, he found similarities in women's actix ities such as waiting in lines for consumer products and serxices. Ali's minority perspectix e connected with her awareness of its implications to gender. Ali ex aluated the women's roles as "women of color" in relation to a lex el of safetx and the role of women in societx (.Ali, interxiew, 5 6 1994).

Implications of minoritx experience. The implications of a minoritx experience impacted all of the paiticipants to a greater

314 or lesser degree. The impact of the minoritx experience appem ed to be greatest using an intercultural perspectix e. Participants who identified themselxes as a minoritx’, as was the case with Jena and Ali, expressed a stong mipact. Sara realized her minoritx status in the host counti-x contrasted with her majoritx status in the home culture. Minoritx paiticipants experienced the opposite encounter. In their host countn, thex identifid with the "people of color" who were the majoritx : whereas at home, thex were in the minoritx. One of the paiticipants described the minoritx experience in terms of a religious group. Jena was a Christian in a Moslem countn. Her awareness of the minoritx status in religion, was a new experience. Jena's increased her aw ai eness of the differences when she shared her experience with members of her own religious group soon trax cling to Egx pt. Jena also indicated an increased awareness of the minoritx experience for phx sical limitations. \Tewing with an international perspectix e for the minoritx experience, three of the pai ticipants encountered the minoritx experience as members of a capitalist democratic societx while in a conmiLinist, socialist societx. Kellx, Saia, and Dan described an increased awareness of what it was like to lix e in a closed and controlled societx where gox ernment rather than indixidual rights dominated.

315 The global perspeclh e of a minoril\ experience impacted all of the participants in the increased awareness that the problems and issues of a minority in one culture have simihuities and difference to minorities in all cultures. As Pusch, et al. (1981) identified, just being a minorit) and sun King in one culture is not enough to guai ^mtee a multicultural \iew' of all cultures. The paiticipants expressed an increase in self- awareness. Pusch (1981) stressed the importance of this initial step of self-de\ elopment to become a multicultuial person as "culti\ ating self- awaieness" (p. 35). Lad, Sara, Kelh, Dcin mid Jena agreed that examining the self and increasing one's awareness was "what the stud\ tours were all about [for them] (Focus Group II). Ali indicated the smne awmeness and reflection in her inteniew as "the more that 1 learn and the more that 1 experience impacts ni\ multiple perspectixe mid causes me to change" (Ali, Interview, 5 4. 1993).

Academic Requirements. .All pcirticipants emoiled at The Ohio State I’nix ersity before participating in the Social Studies cmd Global Education Progr mii Abroad. .All but one of the pmticipants (Jena) completed courses in Global Education. Tlie academic r equir ements of the program x aried in the lex el of importmice the pmticipants placed on them. Kellx', Dan, and Lad considered the course r eadings as hax ing a strong impact. Dan identified a riuijor impact due to the journal. Kellx, and Sara

316 agreed to a strong impact from the joumal. All participants considered pai'ticipation in the pre-trip and post-trip semincirs. lour lectures and study tour acthities as having a major mipact upon them, lad, Kelly. and Jena identified the imporimice of pai'ticipation in the group experience to facilitate their learning. Sev eral participcmts ident ified I he project as important when it related directlv to their v ocational goals as in Dan’s experience. Other pariicipmits did not find the project impacted them at all, and some could not even remember four years later what they had done as a project. Two of the participants identified the academic requirements as a necessan pai't of their academic program to complete their degrees. The academic requirements in relation to internatiomil perspectives impacted the participants by providing the structure to organize, inteipret, and shaie the changes in their personal development and professional growth during and follow ing the study tour experience. The pre-trip and post-trip lectures and slide shows provided information, counseling and personal comiections. Tlie preliminary shaiing of projects, readings and previous travel experiences within the group and w ith the program director emiched the experience and helped the participants fcx'us on tiieir own project. The group experience, enlianced by sharing resources, project focuses, and previous international ex^xîriences, resulted in a broader international perspective during and after the study tour

317 program. The readings proxided an increase in cognitix e know ledge of international education. Each paiticipant identified that thex extended theii' learning process after the study tour bx increasing them reading of international ex ents in texts, news articles cmd literature. As the participants did not possess language abilitx in the countiy toured, the cognitix e dex elopment did not extend to reading the infonnation from original inlernal ioival sources. During the studx tour program, the group experience proxided a niecms of personal dex elopment and professional grow th for the indix idual participants. Sara indicated she helped to mentor Kellx during her studx tour to the Soxiet Union. Jena spoke of other group members who shai ed prex ious international experiences to help her gain a perspectix e on the sights and people of Egx pt. Lad mid Dmi described ex ents and actixlties w ith the group that linked them to prex ious international knowledge mid experiences. The group enables increased international perspectix es to be shared at the time of the ex ent; thus, in some cases enliancing the learning process for participants pei'sonallx' and professionallx. The academic requirements impacted the global perspectix es of the pmticipants’ personal dex elopment and professional grow th. In the case of Dan, the studx tour progrmn proxided a memis for him to mox e tlirough a life transition and emerge with a renewed global perspectix e. Sara used the

318 incre-cised confidence and expertise in global education to chair the social studies department. She professionall) impacted the curriculum of her school b\ advocating the change from an electh e requirement of Global Education to a general requii em ent. Ali an d Kelly 's com pletion of the academic requirements in their stud} tours enable them to complete their academic degrees in Global Education. Lad integrated the global pers[X2Cti\ es he gained during his personal dex elopment w ith his professional growth. He continued his trax el tours and academic work w ith the Social Studies and Global Education depaitment. Jena used the project she completed for the stud} tour program as a mecUi to grow professionall}. She helped the school's displa} of Global Connections with examples from her tour. The academic requirements also impacted intercultural perspectix es of the partieipmits. The reading, lectures and discussions increased the cognitix e knowledge of the pailicipants. The pai'ticipation in the actixlties during the stud} tours prox ided direct contact w ith people who were different from themselxes. The journals prox-ided a mean to reflect on the ex ents and increase the personal dex elopment through the process of writing and anal} zing an ex ent to shaie with others. The reading of other pai ticipants' reflections in tlie group joumal proxided insights into an ex ent through a fellow sojourner's perspectix e. These different perspectix es facilitated and increased

319 intcrculUiral awareness Ihi'ough the journal as each person proN'ided unique insights into another point of \iew, be it minority, majoritx, ethnic, racial, or religious. Sara gained insight into the male perspectix e when she read the joumal entiy about buildings and traffic in China. Dan shared his joumal with his students and asked them to identifx the intercultural perspectix es of others. The lex el of impact of the joumals x aried as prex iouslx identified.

Duration of Time Since the Studx Tour. The design of the studx for selection of pai ticipants prox ided a range in the length of time since the studx tour programs. Ox er nine x ears elapsed since Dan participated in a study tour mid onlx a few months elapsed since .AJi and Jena's study tour experience. In as to the design of the progrmn. participants expressed a positix e impact rclatix e to the length of time since participating on the studx tour. Dan initiated his own studx tours using a similar progrmn design for his own students. The txxo recent retumees from a studx tour expressed satisfaction xxith the design of the progrmn. The first-time participant. Jena enjox ed the academic connection with the unix ersitx as it helped her in her oxxn personal groxxth cmd professional dex elopment. She compared going xx ith the unix ersitx progrmn to going on a tour xxith her church group, identifx ing that she leamed more because of the readings, lectures mid actix ities. .Ali. xxho xxas an experienced sojourner.

320 described the recent experience program design as helpful to get her organized professionall) and to help her personal dex elopment through the doctoral candidate process. Lad, who participated in a stud) tour the ) eai* before, found the program design more difficult to follow as his outside professional commitments intensified the academic requirements. He identified that his personal dex elopment and professional growth was in a process of change as he continued his participation in stud) tours. He identified that he xxas going to Africa in 1994. Kell) and Sara participated in the same stud) tour in 1988. The program design proxided a means to trax el and complete the academic requirements for Kell). Sm a. after multiple stud) tours, did not comment on the program design. All of the participants experienced a sustained impact upon their international ^Terspectixes. Each paiticipant continued to stud) and trax el. with one exception (due to the recent completion of her tour). The impact upon the intemationcil perspectix e extended both personall) and professionall) in the participant experiences. Participants responded positix el) in all cases to the question of whether the) had sustained their international perspectix e. The pai ticipants' responses xaried in relation to the impact upon their global perspectix es relatix e to the duration of time. Ali did not feel her ox erall global perspectixe changed, "it just enhanced" (Ali. Inteniew. 5 11 1994) . She identified that her

321 own stud\ tour (.Africa in 1975 ) had the strongest and most sustained impact. Lad agreed that his global perspectixe was sustained since liis tour. He connected this to his professional growth in global education studies. Kellx also expressed that her global perspectixe was sustained. Kellx connected her continued study at the unixersitx with her professional growth in global education. Sara definitelx felt the global perspectix e was sustained. Working with the Global Education facultx, she identified, cilso reinforced the impact personallx and professionallx . Dan identified that the global impact was sustained: howex er. he expressed a desire to reconnect through another studx tour or academic course in global education to intensif} the impact. .All participants identified the sustained impact of increased intercultural perspectix es. Thex aittributed miother reason for the sustained impact as the increase in the multicultural education in their professional lix es. Sara and Kellx described an increase in their awareness of .Asian students in their school. Thex identified tiy ing to help them professionallx and personally. Dan identified that liis intercultui'al perspectix e was sustained through liis repeated trips to the Soxiet Union. He connected his intercultural experiences professionallx bx aidmg the exchange students. He initiated contact between the foreign nationals and his students to increase the direct experience of both groups. .Ali completed her doctoral studies in global education and sustained her

322 interest in other cultures professionall). She im ited speakers into her classroom who were from a \uriet} of intercultural backgrounds. She encouraged students to initiate theii* own intercultural interactions and then shaie them with the class.

Geograplilc Locations of Stud\ Tours. The program design of the geographic location for the Social Studies Education Program Abroad impacted the participants. The non-traditional locations prox ided a positix e impact. Lad described Ihe impact as enabling access to an adx enturous, out of the ordinarx experience. He expressed interest in seeing a xxorld which differed from his home culture. His studx tour to Ecuador and the Galapagos Islands prox ided an international experience in a dex eloping countn. Lid cmd Sara xx ent to China with the Oliio State progrmn. China prox ides another exmnple of a dex eloping Communist nation xxith limited studx abroad pai'ticipation bx Americmi students. D-an, Kellx, and Sara’s studx tour to the Soxiet Union and the Baltic States presented another example of a non- traditioiicil location xxith a risk factor due to the Coiimiunist gox ernment. All and Jena's study tour to Kenya and Egx pt respectixelx proxided other experiences in non-traditional locations. As prexiouslx' described, the program intented to enable participants to tour places considered internationaux relex cinl. related to their classrooms, economicallx xiable, and considered to contain an element of risk. Location selected

323 consider the expertise of the program director as well as the a\ailabilit} ofloccd knowledgeable resources. All of the participants identified the impact of the geographic location upon their international perspectix e. All participants desired to leave the continental United States and \ enlure abroad, whether for the first time or because of prex ious international experiences. Participants stated that thex held prex ious interested in international trax el before x enturing on the studx tours. Learning more about the world imd increasing their direct experience abroad motix ated all of the pai ticipants, as indicated by the numerous examples in the cases. The geographic locations interrelated with an increase in the participants global perspectixe. The intenelationship connected the enx ironmental, political, economic, and technological concerns with the site selections of dex eloping and chcUiging nations. Lad toured a tributaiy of the .Amazon Rix er when in Ecucidor and obsen ed the removal of trees in the rain forest. -Ali in Kenya saw the animals and the enxironmental concerns of the tribal people. Sara and Kellx found the global implications of the Baltic States' political concern to be free nations. Jena described the destructix e enxironmental effect of technologx in Egx pt's pollution, which is causing the decax of the px ramids in Cairo. Increased axxai eness of the global interconnections impacted all of the pai ticipants in their direct experience while on the studx tour's abroad.

324 Increases in an intercultural perspectixe impacted all of the participants due to the geographic location. .Ali and Jena experienced an increased sense of belonging, sharing and awareness in .Africa. Sara and Lad experienced China and Hong Kong with the crowded conditions and the majoritx population of a different ethnic background. The Soxiet I'nion impacted Dan an d Kellx w hen thex saw for themselx es people w ho lix ed in an cnxiromnenl controlled bx others and who were denied indix idual rights thex took for granted. Participants’ experiences contained numerous exmnples integrated throughout the data presentations.

Vocational Implications. .All six participants described the impact of the studx tour program design on their x ocation. The academic credit earned as a result of the completion of the studx tour course placed fix e of the participants in a higher pax -scale. The program proxides opportunities to collect realia and create relex cmt curriculum projects designed to relate to the participants’ x ocations. The slides taken during the study tour and displax ed in the post-studx' tour ex alnation session prox ided further opportunities to share the tour with colleagues. .After sharing as pail of the program design, fix e of the pai ticipants described extending their slide presentations w ith a x ocational audience. In one case. Sara shared it with the communitx in fortx presentations. The program design impacted Dan

325 \ ocationalK cis a result of his stud\ tom* project. Dan used the journal in liis classroom when students needed it as a resource for their studies in Russian histoiy. Pm ticipants described becoming a more credible source of infonnation demonstrating the \ ocational impact upon participants' international and global perspectix es. Direct experience caused students, staff, and others to listen with more care to the participants’ words. Each p^irticipant identified that thex were not experts in the field even after multiple tours to the same location. Participants described an increvised sense of purpose. For example, Jena described that she felt w hat she was seeing and doing had a significance bex ond the innnediate studx tour, lad reflected that he xxas connecting and collecting the experiences to help make a difference in his students' fix es. Ali stated that one of the x ocational impacts of her studx tours was to enable her students to participate in internatiomil experiences. Sara's x ocatiomil impact related to her confidence acting as the district sLiperxisor in social studies and the depai tment chainnan for social studies at her liigh school. .Ali and Sara presented at the National Council for the Social Studies .Annual Conference in 1994 as a direct result of their participation in a study tour program. All six of the participants identified the x ocational impact upon their intercultural perspectix es as a result of their studx tour experience. .Ali acknowledged that intercultural education

326 Wcis a new ai ea of research Lind slud\ for her. She found that iiiam of her ideas, experiences, and gOcils connected intercultural education with global studies. Lad identified that he was contacted to participate in a intercultural project with Polish natiomils as a result of his participation in slud\ tours. Jena participated in a lecture at the Mershon Center of International Studies in order to extend her contact with the Eg\ptian guide of her stud) tour. Kell) and Sara found incrccised awareness of the ininorit) students in their school and focused their attention to iinpro\ e the classrcxnn Lind school experience for them. PariicipLints experienced the integmtion of the program design. inteiTiLitionLil ^oerspective. globLil perspectixe. Lind intercultural perspectixes. Participants identified the complex and multifLiceted Lispects of the stud) tour experience. ELich segment connected with others making the impact of the stud) lours difficult to sepLirate into isolated units. Participants identified increases in personal dex elopment Lind professional growth through the changes the) undenvent as a result of their experiences. (The next chapter presents the summaiy. conclusions Lind suggestion for further areas of reseai ch.)

327 CH.APTER 5

Sl'MNURV, COXCLUSIOXS, IMPLICATION'S AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Inlrodurlion

This chapter suiiuiianzes the resccirch slud\ , recognizes the major findings, draws conclusions, suggests implications for international education stud\ tours abroad, globcil education, and intercultural eductUion, and pro^X)ses recommendcitions for future research.

Sumnicin of the Stud\

This stud) inxestigates and exciluales the experiences of graduiite students in Socicil Studies and Global Education who went on The Ohio State l’ni\ ersit> Social Studies and Global Education Stud\ Tours Abroad. The stud\ examines the connections between students’ experiences abroad and their personal dexelopment and professional growth as interpreted bx

328 I he sludenls iheinseK es. The slud> benefits international and global education researchers, educators Lind administrators in examining the impact of stud\ tours abroad upon students. The graduate students selected for this study were six teachers employ ed at secondaiy mid elcmentar}. urban and suburban schools in a mid-west cit\. Participants' experiences prox ided the focus to inx estigate the impact of educational ox erseas studx lours upon Ihe personal dex elopmenl and professional growth of the participants. The reseaich explored the effects of the studx tours ox erseas as a jxilenliallx ;xiwerful inlroduclorx educational technique. The findings explore the wax the design of the program influenced the impact of the experience bx the participants. The findings connect the studx abroad literature and the participants' reflections on the changes in their professional growth and jxii'sonal dex elopment. The findings explore how participants recognized the self-identified changes in their global, international, cmd intercultural perspectix es and in what wax s thex resulted in changes in their behaxiors. The inquin process utilized a phenomenological awareness xx ith pragmatism and paradigm of choices. Tlie themes of qualitatix e inquin guided the studx. The studx progressed with a cross-question Lmalx sis with refiectixe exaluation. Participants' interxlews, focus group inten iexxs, and participmits' studx tour group dian documents prox ided the data. I conducted inten iews

329 during a nine-month research timetable. The research process included access, participant selection, data collection, cmd data verification. The Oliio State Unix ersit\ Socicd Studies Education Program's program design provided a background for the cross- inleiA iew compm ison. The emergent themes in the qucilitative inquiiA included llie progrmn design, international jx;rspecti\es, global ixjrsjx'clives, and inlercuHural perspectives 1 analyzed Ihe Ihemes in the cross-inleiA iew comparisons with the conceptual sub-themes of immersion experience, focus of the program, influence of multiple studv tours, implications of gender, implications of minontv experience, academic requirements, duration since the studv lour, geographic locations of the studv tour, and v ocational implications. The frame of participant experiences prov ided the identification cind description of the impact upon the individual's professional growth and personal development. A cross-in ten iew comparison identifies and describes the implications of the progrmn upon the professional growth and personal development of the participants. Presentation of the research inquiiy enables readers to increase their perspectiv es concerning educational overseas studv tours.

330 Major Findings

The inquin sought to answer the following research questions:

1. Assuming stud\ tour abroad participants experienced changes in their professional growth, what were the chcinges in relation to the indhidual? What chimges were identified b\ the participants in relation to the design of the program? 2. Assuming some chmtges in ^lersonal development, what changes did individual paiticip^mts report in relation to their experiences in the studv tour abroad program? What were these changes in relation to the design of the program?

The findings of the research studv indicate that studv tour abroad participants did experiences changes in their professional growth in relation to the individual. Individual participants identified changes in the themes of international perspectiv es, global perspectiv es, and intercultural perspectives. Tlie findings of the research studv indicate that the participants did experience changes in their professional growth in relation to program design involv ing changes in their international perspectiv e, global perspectives, and intercultural perspectives.

331 The findings also indicated the paiticipants did experience changes in relation to their indhidruil personal de\elopment in\ ohing changes in their international perspectix es, global perspectix es, and intercultural ;ierspectix es. The findings additionallx indicate that the paiticipants did experience changes in relation to the prog nun design impacting their personal dex elopmcnt inx olx ing changes in their inteiTicitional perspectix e, global perspeclix es, and inlercullural perspectix es. The integration of relex imt literature as it correlates to the findings prox ides useful conipcU'isons in the presentation of the impacts of the study tours abroad upon the participants. Increasing claritx mid focus, the organizational stmcture of ihe findings utilizes the sub-themes that emerged in the cross- inteniew analx sis.

Immersion Experience. Indix idual pai ticipants experienced cultural differences in their studx tours. When indix iduals participated in studx tours to places which thex identified as significant Ix different from their home culture, thex experienced a degree of psx chological intensitx. According to Paige's (1993) hx jxithesis, the "greater those differences in xalue orientations, beliefs, attitudes, behaxiors, patterns of thinking, and communication sty les, the more challenging and stressful the intercultural immersion" (p. 5). When the indixidual's international perspectix es had not been prexiouslx exposed to a

332 direct international experience the intensitx of the experience increased. Wlien the political, economic, cultural, and national aspects of the target culture differed signihcanth, the impact upon the pai ticipants increased. The pariicipants drew additional compai'isons between the host and their home cultures and Ixîgan to adjust to the impact of the host culture b\ \ isiting sexertil locations during one studx tour. All of the participants considered intercultural interactions imtx)rtant. Participants identified the lex el of cultural immersion in the studx tour program as limited. Each participant endeax ored to experience increased contact with host nationals. The limits of language, due to the indix idual participant's lack of natixe language abilitx , prex ented cross-cultural interactions without an inteipreter, Howexer, pai ticipants experienced direct contact. One participant described a program proxiding access b\ contact with a group of natix es practicing English in cin E.S.L program in the Baltic States. This direct contact, then, increased the lex el of intensitx of the immersion ex^xn ience. Participants increased the lex el of immersion bx sharing common interests outside of the immediate studx tour (e.g., reading, special needs, shopping) with natixes. Participants identified the greatest access to increased iimnersion in the culture occmed during their un-designated or free time from the program actixities. As Grox e and Torbiorn (1993) described, the cultural adjustment into a host culture takes time. For the indixidual

333 participants of a short tenn stud\ tour, the presence of knowledgeable professors, lecturers, guides and other ex^xîrienced sojourners proxided assistance and helped to bridge cultui Lil differences. The ax ailabilitx of support increased the le\ el of the cultural immersion and aided the pai ticipants in feeling confident that their understanding of the wax the world works is accurate, complete, clearlx perceix ed and positive. The X Isibiliix or inx isibilitx of the participants increased the impact upon the indix iduals' lex el of immersion. The studx's findings indicated that shared ph> sical traits incrcôised the feeling of acceptance of the indixidual paiticipants during the studx tour abroad. The identification with a racial or ethnic background proxided mi increased sense of belonging with the host culture. In contrast, indixidual paiticipmits who did not experience this identification of inxisibilitx xiexxed the culture from a comparatix e frame of reference. Thex tried to understand how it related to their own home culture. The personal dex ciopmenl of the indixidual participants mox ed from increased awmeness. to identification, and then into increased intercultuial interactions. Paiticipants identified that intercultural interactions proxided a strong impact. The program design proxided limited immersion experiences. Howex er. access to professional expertise was part of the studx tour program design. The pre-trip and post-trip lectures, the seminars during the studx tours abroad, and the

334 paiticipation of the program director in all tour acthlties increased the ability of the pai ticipants to gain accurate, complete, clearh perceix ed, and positi\ el\ useful infonnation to guide them. The paiticipants indicated the increase in their professional growth. The participants identified that wltli the limited lime, the program design prox ided greater access to expertise in international, globcil, and intercultural education on the tour than if thex had tried to indixiduallx organize the ex^ierience under the same constraints. The program design of ai'ranged accommodations, trax el cUid board, while conx enient for the pai ticipants, limited the immersion ex^ierience. Direct intercultural experiences did not include hoine-stax experiences or eating with host nationals as part of the program design unless thex were guides or lecturers.

R)cus of the Studx Tour. The lex el of maturitx' of the indix idual participants affected their abilitx to focus, clarifx and gain knowledge about their study tour experience. Kauffmann, Martin and Weax er (1992), in their research, found lex el of matuntx impacts the abilitx to focus and claiilx academic goals. The applicabilitx to their professional growth often detemiined the indixidual focus of the paiticipants. Sex eral of the pmticipants indicated thex selected studx tours directlx relating to their professional growth.

335 The focus of ihe stud\ tour, us indi\ iduall\' detemiined b\ I he puilicipants, impacted the personal de\elopinent of the paiticipants. Tlie focus upon gaining increased understanding of hisloo , culture, mid intercultural relations proxided growth in the international, global, and intercultural perspectix es of the participants. The personal goals of directlx experiencing where the ex ents in liistorx took place and seeing the location where prominent historical figures lix ed enabled an increase in confidence, and a feeling of credibilitx for some of the participLints. Tlie indixidual focus of understanding how natixes of one countn lix ed together, what thex x alued, when compmed to other countries, mid how this compared to the home culture increased the global perspectix e of indixidual paiticipants. Participants indicated increased intercultural awaicness and understanding when an indixidual pmticipant focused on how natix es of the host culture related to minorities of miother culture. The program design of a studx tour abroad prox ided opportunities to expand upon tlie professional growth mid personal dex elopment of the participants. The pre-trip identification of the focus for the pm ticipants' studx tour projects impacted the direct experience in other cultures and the studx ing of world affairs bx increvising the aw m eness of designated topics. The group experience of assisting other participants proxided the increased perspectix e of looking at the studx tour ex ents from

336 olher participants' focus during the stud> tour. The post-trip re\'ie\v and presentation of the projects enabled increased awareness b\ sharing insights and reflections. The focus of the stud\ tour program as indicated in the data increased the participants’ abilit} to gain claiit}. organization and understanding upon completion and presentation of their projects.

Influence of Multiple Stud\ Tours. The influence of the multiple stud) tour experience impacted pariicipants' professional growth b\ increasing their confidence, credibilit\, and knowledge. Pariicipants with multiple stud\ tour experience described an increased abilitx to make comparison benveen local and global places, ex ents, and resources. Participants with multiple studx tour experience described an increase in international understanding how the host and home nations compared to each other in gox ernment, economx', cultures, and human rights. Participants described their professional growlh as completing academic studies, initiating new cuniculum, and connecting with the outside community. Multiple studx tour pariicipants integrated tlieir increased international, global, and intercultural perspectixes into a cohesixe world x iew. Multiple studx tour pai ticipants identified an increase in their personal dex elopment. The participant's described the changes in ternis similar to the ethnorelatix e stages of

337 intercultural sensiti\it\ described b\ M. Bennett (1993). The\ assumed that cultures could onh be understood rclath e to one another. Pai ticipants identified culture differences not to be good or bad, just different. The dex elopment of increased awareness, understanding, acknowledging, and respecting of others described bx the participants represents a deeper lexel of cultural relatixltx by the multiple studx tour paiticipants. The phrase, "it changed mx life" (Participmit Experiences in Chapter 4), found in the data of multiple studx tour participants documents the ox eicill impact upon their personal dexelopment. Multiple studx tour participants described their persoiuil dex elopment as an enhanced aw areness of a global [x.*rspecti\ e. All of the multiple studx tour pai ticipants had completed courses in global education on the home campus prior to their studx tours abroad. All participants reported an increase in making connections, understiinding, and inx olx ement in relation to their chcUigmg global perspectix es. Each of the multiple studx tour participants expressed plmis of continuing their international education, ox erseas studx tours. They encouraged other students to pciiticipate in the studx tom* program. Tliex became ambassadors for ox erseas study tours. In two of the cases, the increase in the lex el of confidence influenced them to dex elop their ow n studx tour programs for their students. The program design does not proxlde multiple studx tour participants with increased international, global, or intercultural

338 üppoitunities not a\ ailable to single stud\ tour pai ticipants. The design of the program proxided few opportunities for pai ticipants to share their multiple studx tour expeitise: the pre­ trip lecture represents one example. The academic requirement of an international experience for Global Education majors connected \xith the professional growth of the participants. The requirement of direct inlemalional experiences for students promotes their enlumced understanding through international and global opportunities u^xin completion of the course.

Implications of Gender. Female participants found greater indix Idual impact in relation to the implications of gender. Completion of the readings promoted an increase in knowledge and understanding for the female participants and increased their professional growth. The readings connected the participants' experiences during studx tour and promoted shaiing in the direct contact between women in their host enxironments. An increase iixxareness of the international connections inx olx ing \xonien's rights in birth control, emplox ment, education, and freedom increased the participants' global perspectix es. Women w ho shai ed professional x ocational interests found intercultural coimections as rexealed in the data. Female pai ticipants identified an increased sense of safetx \xhile on the studx tour abroad and found an increase in personal

339 dexelopment. B\ facing feai's and continuing with the studx tour actix ities female participants achiex ed a sense of empowerment. An increase in the awareness of the extent of female participation in studx abroad brought about reflections and introspection bx all of the participants. The design of the program does not prox ide for differences between genders. The program director expressed concern for all students equallx'. The number of female paiticip^mts in studx abroad and in the studx tours abroad program in the Social Studies and Global Education Dep^irtment is and has traditionallx been greater than the number of men. The impact of gender in relation to numbers did not influence the design of the studx tour abroad program.

Implication of Minoiitc Experience. .All of the partieipmits reported increased professional growth in relation to the indix idual inipiict of their minontx experiences. When the participants identified themselx es as members of a minoritx the impact xxas intensified. Each of the participants described professional growth in awareness, understanding, and knowledge following their minoritx experiences. Two of the paiticipants completed courses in Multicultural Education in collaboration with The Ohio State Unix ersit>- and the [Local] School S\ stem prior to their studx tours. The studx ox erseas linked on-campus cognitix e leai ning with off-campus experiences. Paiticipants'

340 international and intercultural perspectixes increased after the direct experience of being in the majoritx or niinorit} in the host culture and being the opposite in the home culture. An increased awareness of American ethnocentric perspectix es challenged pariicipants following reflections about host cultures. The international and intercultural literature supports these findings (Abrmns, 1979). The indixidual pariicipants who self-identified as a minoritx significantlx increased their intercultui'cil perspectixe by gaining increased intercultuial identification with other members of their racial or ethnic group. Each of the minoritx pariicipants stronglx identified the motix ation to increase their knowledge, interconnections, and understanding of their own heritage during their studx tour abroad. As indicated in the literature (Open Doors, 199-4-1995), most studx abroad participants are wliite (83.8 percent), and onlx 2.8 percent of the pai ticipants aie .African-Àmerican (p. 177). The personal dex elopment experienced bx both minoritx pai ticipants in the present cases enabled them to increase their own self-esteem. The discox eiy of a rich cultural heritage increased their knowledge, awaieness, and sense of identitx for the African-American pariicipants. It empowered the multiple studx tour pai ticipant professionallx to complete her studies, and to proxide similar opportunities for her students. Opportunity to dex elop professionallx limited the single studx tour African-

341 .\iiierican pai ticipant. due to the shoil duration of time since her si ud\ tour. The program design did not proxide distinctions in relation to minorities. The sur\ e\ infonnation compiled did not include minoiit} identification of the participants (.-\nnink and Gilliom. 1993).

Academic Rea uirements. The impact of the academic requirements upon the indixidual participants x aiied. The indixidual participant’s experiences (in Chapter 4) proxided a detailed analx sis of the professional growlh mid pcrson^ü dex elop for each participant utilizing the sub-themes. The discussion here focuses on the ox erall impact of completion of the studx tour in mi academic progrmn. Completion of mi academic degree by three of the pLU ticipmits following their studx tour experiences impacted their professioiiLil growth. Participants reported the ax ailabilitx of opportunities to share their experiences with their students, staff, and community after their studx tours. The number of requests for presentations often conesponded to the unusual geographic locations of the studx tours, especially during politically intense international exents. Particiants described the mipact of the academic requirements upon the indixidual’s professional dex elopment as an increase in knowledge, international experiences, direct

342 intercultural experiences, Lind global perspecth es. The abilitx to participate in out-of-classroom ex ents linked theon to practice in international education, global education, and intercultural education. Tlie reflection requiied in the group diarx and in participation during group seminal' sessions enhanced the learning in these areas. The impact of the academic requirements in relation to the indix idual's personal dexelopment changed the wax a participant xiewed the world. An increase in knowledge, reflection and action created the opportunitx for the pai ticipants to increase their international perspectixes, global perspectix es and intercultural perspectix es. The literature (Cooper & Grant, 1995; W ilson, 1993: Cushner, 1992) supports the identification of this impact and grow th. The objectix e of the program design intents to increase the international and global pers^iectixes and intercultural connections of the participants. As described abox e, tliis studx finds this objectix e fulfilled.

Duration of Time Since the Studv Tour. All of the participants found the mipact upon theii' personal dexelopment LUid professional grow th sustained. The indixidual pai ticipants increased their ox erseas studx tour experiences to continue the connections.

343 All pailleipants indicated growth and dex elopment over time relating both to their personal dexelopment and professional growth. The program design does not proxide extended educational

oppo It unities after the studx tour experience. The director maintains contact bx mailers identifx ing future studx tour experiences to the former participants.

Geographic Location. The geograpliic location increased the impact of mi indixidual pmlicipant’s personal dex elopment and professional grow th. Pariicipants selected the locations to connect their own x ocational mid or academic needs. The location increases the professiomil expertise of the pariicipmit when it coincides with the academic discipline taught bx the teacher. The unusual and non-traditional locations of the studx tours increase the credibilitx of the participant, as manx of the students and staff haxe not toured or stax ed there. The literature identifies the imporiance of increasing the awareness of dexeloping nations in the changing world today (Racine, 1996). The participants toured China, Ecuador, and sex eml countries in .Africa. The location is significant, as it permits the pm ticipant to trax el with a group in the studx tour program with a feeling of confidence. When participants face "experiences of risk" in non- traditional locations the impact of the geographic location

344 increase. The personal dex elopment described bx all the pai ticipants indicated increased self-rehance, independence, self- confidence, and self-esteem. The multiple studx tour experiences increased the impact of the geographic locations upon the paiticipants’ dex elopment. The program design proxtdes opportunities to access the world cmd impacts the paiticipants in the choice of the geographic locations. The identified needs to increase inleniatiomil understmiding, global awareness, cmd intercultural relations prox ide the focus to select studx tom* programs of sufficient short duration to attract paiticipants to these non- traditional locations. The program acliiex es its intent as the participants continue to plan to participate in the studx tour abroad programs .

X ocational Implications. Paiticipants found thex did not immediatelx experience increased professional growth. The pmticipants identifed a period of time, which xmted from six months to oxer sex eral \ ears, necessarx to increase their professional growth. The growth included areas of academic achiex ement which impacted the participant's x ocation. The growth included professional promotion in the participant's x ocation. The growth extended the international perspectix e of two of the pmticipants to connect x ocationallx with the

345 L im \ ersiu. The hvo participants also experienced multiple stud\ tours. The personal impact of tlie v ocational unphcations was to increase a sense of self-esteem and confidence in international mid global education. The confidence to initiate intercultural connections was iilso pai l of in increased impact due to the studv lour experience. The paiticipants unifbniilv recognized that thev were not experts in the field of international or global education. Participants grounded the personal impact with a realistic view of their intemational experiences. Thev identified their v ocational implication as an iiitroductorv or limited experience. The program design provides the oppoitunitv to paiticipate in the studv tour programs, thus increasing the vocational implications by professional growth and personal dev elopment. Xo v ocational connections such as work studv, internships or domestic connections were par t of the design of the program to link the students internationallv, globallv or interculturallv.

hnplications

Implications of the findings from this reseairh studv concerning the impact of studv tours abroad upon the professional growlh and personal development of the

346 participants in relation to international perspectix es, global perspectix es, and intercultural perspectix es include the following.

Iimnersion Evnerience. The Ihuited length of time of a studx tour abroad program limits the lexel of iimnersion possible for the pai ticipants. Opper et al. (1990) identified the great importcmce placed bx the pai ticipants upon "an integration of life into the host countrx " (p. 206). The limits of language abilitx of the participants influence the extent of the immersion experiences. Studx tours abroad positix elx impacted the personal dex elopment and professional growth of the non-traditional students (as defined bx age (ox er 25 x eai's), ethnic identification, and special needs due to the higher lex el of maturitx as indicated bx educational lex el, sustained employment, and continuing education). The identification of the importance of a high lex el of immersion bx the students helped them connect prior learning on-campus in global and multicultural education with ox erseais experiences to increase their intercultural perspectix es, global perspectix es, and international perspectix es. The desire to gain direct contacts with host nationals proxided participants with the impetus to risk prexiouslx feared obstacles, resulting in an increase in personal dex-elopment of the participants. The maturity of the paiticipants enabled them to connect previous life experiences and interests with the host nationals, increasing intercultural understanding and global perspectix es.

347 Focus of th e Stud\~ Tour. The in d hidual focus o f a study tour impacted the pai ticipants' professional dex elopment and personal grow th. The program design proxided an organizational structure to increase the impact of the focus for the paiiicipants. The focus enabled the participants to impact their professional dex elopment bx directlx experiencing what thex had been teacliing. as suggested in the literature (Wright & \'an Dear, 1900). The identification of a focus proxided claiitx . intensity imd insight into educational opportunities. Participants with multiple studx tour extx'iiences found this impact increased.

Influence of Multiple Studx Tours. Multiple study tours significmitlx increased axxareness, understanding, and connections relating to intemational, global, and intercultural perspectix es. In personal grow th, the participants increased in confidence, credibility, and knoxxiedge. The abihty to draw interconnections betxxeen local and global ex ents, resources, and people increased the professional growth of the paiticipants. The impact of the personal dex elopment and professional growth of the paiticipants increased the ability of the participants to dex elop a xxorld x iew and to become more culturallx sensitix e. The combination of on-campus learning with the multiple study tour experiences enabled participants to increase their knowledge and understanding globallx and interculturallx.

3 4 8 Impact oF the Minoritx' Evperience. The minont} participants increased their personal dex elopment and professional growth as a result of their ox erseas studx and minoritx experiences. All of paiticipcmts increased their intercultural perspectix es after experiencmg the opposite culture (minorilx majorilx ) in the host countn from their home culture. African-American paiticipants in this studx identified slrong significimcc in the impact of experiencing iheir African histon, heritage, and ethnic identitx .

Dumtion Since the Si udx Tour. Paiticipants sustained the impact of their personal dex elopment and professional growth for a period of yeai s follow ing the studx tour abroad. The immediate effect max not be exident until six months or longer.

Geograpliic Locations of the Studx Tours. The geographic locations of the studx tour impacts the personal dex elopment and the professional growth of the participants bx the selection of non-traditional locations, dex eloping countries, or internationaux impoitant. x et politicallx tense locations. Tlie personal dex elopment of taking risks to learn enipoxxered the paiticipants to increased confidence. The direct experiences, ex en introducton experiences, proxided direct contact to increase

349 participants' international, global, and intercultural education in a stud\ to u r abroad.

Reconmiendations

Rccc^mniendeitions for intemational education ox erseas studx tours include the folloxxing to increase the impact upon the participants personal dexelopment and professional grovxth. The impact of geograpliic locations needs further research in relation to studx tours abroad. The literature identifies the need to hax e students in international and global education who hax e had direct experiences bex ond a Eurocentric location in the world todax. Further research into how the studx tour influences the intematioiibil perspectix es. intercultural understanding, and global axxareness of the participants needs to be completed. The influences of ox erseas studx tours upon mature students needs further research. The impact of the studx tour abroad on minoritx' pariicipants' personal dex elopment and professional groxxih demonstates the need for further research. Following the recommended reseai ch. I recommended proxiding programs wliich increase the ax ailabilitx, focus, and impact for minoritx pariicipants.

350 I recommend further research into the program design of stud) tours abroad to increase the impact upon female pai ticipants as the\ ai e tlie majorit} participants. 1 also recommend research into the \ ocational connections for stud\ tour paiticipants linking them to \\ork-stud\ opportunities, internships, and other professional introducton options ox erseas. 1 recommend research into proxiding increased inlercLiltural contacts with host nationals in stmctured and unstructured contacts. If paiticipants and the host nationals do not shaie languiige abilitx, I recommend reseai ch into how to sunnoLinl this obstacle to increase direct contact. The decades of the eighties and nineties aie a time of change and opportunitx for increased international, global and intercultural relations. Oxerseas studx tours proxide one option for in inlroductorx intemationitl experience which opens the doors for further grow th and dex elopment bx paiticipants, both personallx and professionallx. Goodwin and Nacht (1988) proxide categories for assessing the x aiietx of intemational experiences. I suggest these categories be presented to students in a scale of immersion and impact relatix e to duration of time required to paiticipate, extent of prior experience, lex el of maturitx of the paiticipant, w herebx, students cleai lx understand the options ax ailable for international education. Students, prior to their international

351 progicmi, determine what the focus of their indixidual studx will be. Tliex could then be matched with the program design bx experienced international education studx abroad advisors. The image of a "liigh ropes course" in ox erseas trax el comes to mind, wherebx, some trax elers extend themselves into the upper part of the course, with increased intensitx of experiences relatix e to: duration of time to complete the course, extent of language abilitx ("knowing the ro^X!s"). lex el of support sen ices, contact with the host nationals xersus the studx group, etc. In the lower reaches of this ropxis course, to continue the cmalogx, participmits experience the studx tour ox erseas for shorter periods of time with clearer focus, designed contact with natix es, specific geograpliic destinations based on an understanding of the risks and experiences inx olx ed, and an awareness that it is an introducton experience. Participants need to continue their training bx other oxerseas studx tours. Key recommendations on how to proxide increasinglx significant experiences based on the designated needs of the students aie the challenges for the international education program diiectors and lacultx in international, global, and intercultural education.

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379 APPENDIX A

Consent for Paiticipation in Social and Beha\ioi*aI Reseaich

380 TRX OBZO STATE aMZVIKSZTr ProCocoX No.

CONSENT FOR PARTICIPATION IN SOCIAL AND. BNNAVIORAL RBSURCB

I coasenc Co pacclcipaiClng In (or my child" a pacCiclpnClon In) ceae&cch entitled:

______Cross C ultural Study tour Q ualitative Research ______

Marsha M. Hutchins ...... ______®r his/her authorized representative has (Principal Investigator) explained the purpose oC the study, the procedures to be followed, and the expected duration of my (my child's) participation. Possible benefits of the study have been descri)3ed as have alternative procedures, if such procedures are applicable and available. I acknowledge that I have had the opportunity to obtain additional information regarding the study and that any questions I have raised have been answered to my full satisfaction. Further, I understamd that I am (my child is) free to withdraw consent at any time «md to discontinue participation in the study without prejudice to me (my child) . Finally, I ac)cnowledge that I have read and fully understand the consent form. I sign it freely and voluntarily. A copy has been given to me.

D a te : ______S ig n e d :______(Participant)

S ig n e d : ______. S i'^ e d ; (Principal Investigator or his/ (Person Authorized to Consent her Authorized Representative) . participant - If required)

W itn e s s :

381 APPENDIX B

Predispositions of Qjuantilati\e and Qiialitath e Modes of Inquin

382 Predispositions of Quantitative and Qualitative Modes of inquiry Quantitative Mode Qualitative Mode Assumptions Social facts have an objective reality Reality is socially constructed Primacy of method Primacy of subject matter Variables can be identified and Variables are complex, interwoven, and relationships measured difficult to measure Etic (outsider’s point of view) Emic (insider’s point of view) Purpose Generalizability Contextualization Prediction Interpretation Causal explanations Understanding actors’ perspectives Approach Begins with hypotheses and theories Ends with hypotheses and grounded theory Manipulation and control Emergence and portrayal Uses formal instruments Researcher as instrument Experimentation Naturalistic Deductive Inductive Component analysis Searches for patterns Seeks consensus, the norm Seeks pluralism, complexity Reduces data to numerical indices Makes minor use of numerical indices Abstract language in write-up Descn'oiive. write-up. Researcher Role Detachment and impartiality Personal involvement and partiality Objective portrayal Empathie understanding

Reprinted from Corrine Glesne and -\lan Peshkin’s Becoming Qualitative Researchers, An Introduction. 1992, p. 7 with permission of Longman Publishing Group 383 Januar>' 12. 1995

Longman Publishing Group 95 Church Street White Plains, N'.Y. 10601

Dear Ms. Sliverman:

I would like permission to include table: "Table 1.1 Predispositions of Quantitative and Qualitative Modes of lnquir>'" (p. 7) in Becoming Qualitative Researchers . .A.n Introduction by Corrine Glesne and Alai: Peshkin. (1992) in my dissertation.

The table is a clear presentation of the information relevant to my study on the methods and modes of inquiry for qualitative research. 1 will include other brief citations of the text, as they relate specifically to the background and research methods of my study. These will be cited appropriately in the text using APA style directives.

My research topic is a qualitative study on the impact of cross-cultural study tours on educators' personal and professional development in relation to multicultural and global education.

Thank you for your consideration.

Sincerely,

Marsha M. Hutchins, Doctoral Candidate, The Ohio State Université'

Permission is granted to your request as outlined above.

Laura Met Rights & Contracts Manager

384 APPENDIX C

Slud\' Timeline

.^85 Study Timeline Winter. 1993 -Pilot stud}-, presenice teacher -Research stud}, Global Educators

Tune-Tulv. 1993 -begin hterature rexievv -establish dissertation cohort pair -re\-ie\v previous stud} data

August. 1993 -submission for approval of study proposal -committee meeting -identif}- and gain access for stud}- participants-3 of 7 -10

September. 1993 -submit Stud}- for Human Subjects Re\ie\v Program clearance -consent protocol, identif}- and gain access for remaining stud}- participants -collect data, begin inteivlews LS, DH (in person) -begin data anal} sis -meet with peer debriefer -start Chapter 2

October. 1993 -continue data collection, inteniews LS, JD, DH -begin member check of completed interviews -continue data anah sis -begin draft of Chapter 1 and 3, continue Chapter 2

November. 1993 -begin phase n data collection, continue phase I, interviews DH, LS,JD - member check of completed interviews -continue data anal} sis -continue Chapter 2 -meet with peer de briefer

386 December. 1993 -continue data collection b\ inter\ievv JD (telephone) & DH, LS -start data collection by inter\ieu\ phase 2, SH, CH, & AR -continue data analysis - continue Chapter 1

Ianuan\ 1994 -continue data collection inteniew all paiticipants (6) -continue data analysis -meet with peer debriefer -edit Chapters 1

Februan'. 1994 -continue data collection interxiew phase 2, SH, CH, & AR -continue data collection focus groups, 3 th & 17 th -continue editing -meet with peer debriefer-NG -Name Conference

fune - Tulv. 1994 -draft submitted -coimnittee meeting Chapter 1 -stud}' tour China

August-September. 1994 -continue data analysis -return study tour (China

October. November 1994 -literature review -NCSS presentation -continue data analysis

December. 1994 - Tune. 1995 -literature review -continue data analysis -draft Chapter 1

387 Tuh-. 1995 -meet with peer de briefer

August. 1995 -interxiew Grace Johnson (8 1) -inteniew- Kevin Hartv' (8 8) -continue literature review -continue data analv sis

September. 1995 -inten iew Charles \'edder (9 12) -inteniew Blake Michael (9 13) -inteniew George Hertrich (9 19) -inteniew John Greisberger (9 22) -inten iew Caroh n Abels (9 19)

October. 1995 -meet with peer debriefer -internship at the Office of International Education (10, 1995-4, 1996) - continue review of literature

December. 1995 -Carina Hansen (12 19)

lanuan-. 1996 -interview' Sherif Barsoum (1 28) -inteniew Carlo Coleccia (1 28) -continue literature review -continue data analysis

Februan-. 1996 -inter-view Cres Ricca (2/19) -submit chapter 1 388 -continue data analx sis

March, 1996 -interv iew Paula Spier -interview Melissa Rychener

Aoiil, -August 1996 -submit chapters 2, 3, 4, & 5

September 1996 -oral defense

389 APPENDIX D The Impact of an International Experiece -\ngene H. Wilson 1993

3 9 0 The Impact of an International Experience

Reprinted from Angene H. Wilson's The Meaning of International 3ç)j Experience for Schools (p. 16) with permission of the author. UNIVERSITY OFFICE OF OF KENTUCKY international a ffa ir s

Bradley Hall JM Lexington. Kentucky 40506-0058 U.S.A. Telephone: (606) 257-4067

November 2, 1994 Marsha M. Hutchins 1461 Langston Drive Columbus, OH 43220 Dear Marsha: I'd be flattered to let you include the figure and the Appendix 2 in your dissertation. . As you know. I'm glad to see others looking at the impact of international experience. I hope I'll get an opportunity to read it sometime. You must be glad to getting to the end. When do you defend? Perhaps we'll see each other in Phoenix. Sincerely,

Angene H. Wilson

392 APPENDIX E Utilization of International!}' Experienced Persons Angene H. Wilson 1993

393 UTILIZATION OF INTERNATIONALLY EXPERIENCED PERSONS

AREA OF IMPACT OF INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE STUDENTS TEACHERS

SUBSTANITVE A dopt a Student — IE teacher develops KNOWLEDGE elementary class culture kit adopts IE student

PERCEPTUAL W orld Issues Forum Teacher organizes UNDERSTANDING for IE and non-IE panel of IE students students on human to talk about environ­ rights mental issues

PERSONAL IE and non-EE students IE teacher talks GROWTH participate in prejudice about confronting reduction workshop own prejudice

INTERPERSONAL Class does pen pal Teacher organizes CONNECTIONS exchange with school conversation EE student attended partners for ESL in another country students

CULTURAL EE students act as IE teadier encourages MEDIATION buddies for new IE student participa­ exchange students tion in class

Reprinted from Angene H. Wilson s The Meaning of International Experience for Schools fp I 4 i) with permission of the author. 394 APPENDIX F

Analx sis Codes

395 -Aiial\ sis codes 3 15 1996 - Citation reference -# -Important point—* -\'en important point—** -Tliis is it. what I’m looking for— *** -Brackets not included in data or content—[ ] -Qiialitath e research reflection method tie— & -Autononi) —A -Sustained impact —SI - Immersion experience -I EX - Global perspecth e-GP - International perspecth e—IP - Cross cultural or intercultural—XC -Program design-PD -Personal de\ eIopment— PG -Gender perspecth e-GN -Nlinorit}’ perspecthe—MP -Academic requiiements—C -Geographic location-Geo -\ ocational professional—V -Focus of the program-F

396 .Anal\'sis Codes July 1996 -Professional growth-PG -Personal dex elopment—PD -Program design—P Design -Global perspecti\'e—Glo P -International perspecthe—IP -Intercultural perspectix'e—XC -Immersion experience—1 Ex -Focus of the program-F -Influence of multiple stud\ tours—M ST -Implications of gender-GN -Implications of minority’ experience—M Ex -Academic requirements—C -Duration of stud}' tour-Sust. or D -Geographic location and implications-Geo -\'ocational professional—\' -Focus group—FG -\'er\' important—** -On target—***

397 APPENDIX G

Appro\ al Document of Human Subjects Reseai'ch

398 APPLZCATZOH FOR IX S K ^ O N NWW A 6 N 0 8 q R « C T 3 COMMZTTSS RRVZXW RRTORW TWO (3) COPZBS OF TH» *PPt-TgRTT«U^rfine1»dincT oriaiti«l aim .k i.»., TO; O ffice of Research Rxalca. R^ohTaoo. Research Foundation Building. 196Q ir^wqy p*a5

Principal Investigator: M. Eugene Gilliom ____ Vv- m jJJLiw k (M ust b e OSTT F a cu lty ) (Typed Name) (S ^ 6 a tü r e ) Academic Title: Professor, Social Studies EducatiBtone No. (614) 292-2575

Department: Educational Studies; Humanities, Department Ko 3 M OllMJ W 0 Science, technological, and Vocational College cam p us A d d r e s s : ______2 1 3_____ ftngs.-Hal]___:______1345_SQr±±uHialuS£ree±- Room Number - Building Streetstreet Addrey Addrew

C o-Investigator (s) : Marsha M. Hutchins_____ (Typed Name)

(Typed Name) (Signature)

Protocol Title: Cross-cultural Study Tours: An inquiry into the sustained impact upon educators* personal and profegginnal develnpment in______relation to Global and Multicultural Education

Y e s No

A. The ONLY involvement of human subjects in the proposed research activity w ill be in one or more of the exemption categories as described in the appendix of "Hunan Subjects Program G uidelines.”

* Category(ies) #

B. 13.)

X c . The proposed research a ctivity w ill involve pregnant women, m entally retarded, m entally disabled, and/or prisoners.

X D. The proposed research activity w ill involve human in vitro fertilization.

X S. The proposed research activity w ill involve an element,of deception.

X F. The proposed research activity w ill expose subjects to discomfort or harassment beyond levels encountered in daily life .

S o u r c e of Funding fo r Proposed Research: (Chech A or S.)

A . OSORP: Sponsor N / A ______R P Proposal/Project N o . ______

S. Other (Identify) ______

EXEMPTION STATUS:i: y/ APPROVED DISAPPROVED**

Date Chairperson

Principal Investigator must subm ^QQrotocol to the appropriate Human Subjects Review Committee APPENDIX H

Inteniew Questions for Participants of Stud\' Tours

4 00 Initial Questions for Participants of Study Tour Interviews 1. Identification information: Name, home address, telephone (home, best time to call) Work, school address, telephone (best time to call) 2. General background age. 20-25, 26-30. 31-35, 36-40,41-50, 51 and over sex, female, male 3. Study tours in which you participated, . ______year______.year. year. 4. Education: undergraduate major (college) graduate major (college) MA, Ph.D. majors highest degree earned 5. Currently teaching: years experience (end of this year), subjects , locations, levels... Study tour information 1. Tell me about your study tour experiences. What are some of the most lasting images that come to mind? (If multiple trips, of each trip, high light.) 2. What was your most significant experience on the study tour? 3. What are your most important outcomes of the study tour? 4.* What unintended or anticipated outcomes resulted from your study tour experience: 5. The academic requirement, credits, readings, project, group journal were... how did you benefit or feel these influenced your tour? 6. How did you become interested in participating in a study tour? 7. How were your personaljgoals in your participation reached or expanded? 8. Did you have prior experience with travel abroad? How long was you trip? What preparations did you make? Fbllow-up? Use of your experience?

Outcomes of the experience: 1. Knowledge ... in history?, culture?, geography?, econimic?, educational, political, international relations with the U.S.?, Values in global relations? arts, and literature? 401 Attitudes and Preceptions 1. How did your study tour experience influence your tolerance of people of other cultures? Can you give me an example? Probe with questions concerning...

sterotypes of other people? prejudices of others? sensitivity of the problems facing developing countries? empathy with people throughout the world international events current events followed related to area of the world human rights of the indigenous people appreciation for others ways of life life style of U.S. people in relaltion to others flexibilit}' of dealing with others intellectually curious aware of the culture in general (positive and negative)

402 APPENDIX I

Agenda Focus Group Focus Group Inten’eiw Questions

403 A genda focus group meething February 3, 1994 Fawcett Center 4:00-6:00 p.m.

1. Introductions: Marsha Participants: Share Name, School, years of experience, subjects taught. Travel experience in study tour (s) [where and when] Most essential thing to take with you on a study tour The first thing you pitched out... [things, ideas or whatever]

2. Purpose of session: Marsha Summaiy of research process: individual interviews focus group (2) journal entries: one day positive and negative aspect of tour [self recorder day] Guidelines of focus group participation confidentiality all participate equally ( even if it is only 1 agree...) Reflection and honest opinions will bring out the best research. We can disagree in our personal findings without stopping our participation. The purpose of the research is to leam peoples' perspectives. Prompt ending of session- 3. Group Sharing

1. Substantive Knowledge A. Do study tours impact your understanding of international/global linkages? (language, cultural understanding historical perspective, economic interrelationships) Please choose an example to illustrate from your tour. 404 B. Did \ ou transfer\ our knowledge in educational opportunities? What was your favorite project? What worked/ what didn't?

C. Does experiential learning [learning by doing] help \ ou to integrate the disciplines? Please share an example.

2. Perceptual Understanding Can you explain how the stud\ tour experience changed the wa\ you perceived "foreigners", minorities, or the needs of special populations? (Value clarification, tolerance and appreciation)

3. Personal Growth Will \ ou share a short story of how the study tour influenced \ our: self confidence, independence, sense of credibility'? How did it change your life or professional direction?

4. Interpersonal Connections Do study tours influence . continued travel, international comiections, community connections, world mindedness?

How did the study tour experience build new links between global and multicultural education?

How does a multiple perspective reflect upon your study tour experience during, immediately after and a few years later.

Is this experience sustained over time?

405 APPENDIX J

Agenda Focus Group II

Focus Group Inteniew Qiiestions

406 A g e n d a focus group . February 17, 1994 Faw cett C enter 4:00-6:00 p.m.

I. Introductions: Marsha 2. Purpose of session: Marsha Summary of research process: individual interviews * focus group (2) journal entries: one day positive and negative aspect of tour [self recorder day] ^Guidelines of focus group participation confidentiality all participate equally ( even if it is only I agree...) Reflection and honest opinions will bring out the best research. We can disagree in our personal findings without stopping our participation. The purpose of the research is to leam peoples' perspectives. Prompt ending of session- 3. Group Sharing

1. Substantive Knowledge A. Do study tours impact your understanding of international/global linkages? (language, cultural understanding historical perspective, economic interrelationships) Please choose an example to illustrate from your tour.

B. Did you transfer your knowledge in educational opportunities? What was your favorite project? What worked/ what didn't?

C. Does experiential learning [learning by doing] help you to integrate the disciplines? Please share an example. 407 2. Perceptual Understanding Can you explain how the study tour experience changed the way you perceived "foreigners", minorities, or the needs of special populations? (Value clarification, tolerance and appreciation)

3. Personal Growth Will you share a short story of how the study tour influenced your self confidence, independence, sense of credibility? How did it change your life or professional direction?

4. Interpersonal Connections Do study tours influence the continued travel, international connections, community connections, world mindedness?

How did the study tour experience build new links between global and multicultural education?

How does a multiple perspective reflect upon your study tour experience during, immediately after and a few years later.

Is this experience sustained over time?

4. Participants questions or idea to share: If you were to plan your ideal study tour for yourself: What would your include? Where would you go? Who would you plan to have as participants? How would this enrich the educators in your building?

408 APPENDIX K Peer Debriefer’s Pi'oofs Ng

409 ) Julie What do you think about that? K^\ , n ^ \ ell. I am a minority so, I know how I feel. Being a minority \ within in minority [eye sight] Being that I may not look like an K'^c' t African American, but I am. some of lool^ jittle different. The other X ' . / African American in our group obviousl/TookS African American f"" and she felt very much at home over there. I always wanted to say I ^ am too. Yea. right. But that has been that way all my life, so it is no ‘ big deal. It was me trying to find out about the history of my people too. Even though I was bom here, they are my people. But, I also work at J.C. Penny Portrait studio when foreign people come there now I am very receptive to them . I also teach special ed.. so I'm enlightened (laughter between J and M. ) But, I think I am more tijan^I was before ( the S.T. )When it comes to immigration pictures .(^ ey don’t know how to read the forms. They are really compIicated.'Ttty to make it easier, because I know. I understand that you have to make your right ear needs to show. I'll do it just the way you need it. I think I am enlightened because I ^ v e to live like that. V jl" ‘ You are more perceptive because you understand what it feels \ Uke to be a foreigner trying to adjust to being in a different culture? \(J)l am the only black person here, and I am usually the only black person where I go most of the time., so it is something which is kind ' normal to me. ^ J l understand what you are saying. . (^Most people don't even know it until-Ltell them so . so there we go. i ^eing African American) y-v. When you and I talked before, you didn't really talk in that way. I guess I’m hearing you say {* this is a case of active listening trying to clarify exactly what Julie is saying in relation to her AA background, the cross-cultural experience and current situations]... you had a little bit more understanding (from your trip) but in fact you have always had this understanding. (j) I'm not trying to pretend that I went over there and felt at home because I know those people. No. I don't know them. You know what I I am saying. Of course it is a different culture, but AA history, I don't . know what your backgrounds are... They imght be Russian or . ■ whatever. Rjr me. to be w'here' mv hoirie might be. and that would be the people that I want to know. That made it very, very interesting i in that respect and I wanted to find out about (ImtfoiFmy personal and my (professional) share with my students. Because when I was growing up none of this was in ray books. And it still isn't in our social studies books. I still have to fight with the teacher who teaches social studies because I don't about putting more this is black 410 histor\‘ month, you should not ha\e to proclaim a month to teach about a people in the mainstream. To get her to include the things, she says well that is not in the book. She says, "when it cofties up in the book. I will cover it. I tr>' to tell her that it is OK, it is not in the ■ A' book. It was not in the book when I was growing up . The teacher would always say. well you know Harriet Tubman, don't you? No, (laughing) just because you are of a certain culture, don't assume you know the history. Even though it is not any part of what you teach. Of course your parents teach you about your culture but. they don’t know everything either. Just having the teachers try to incorporate tto g s which are not in the book. "oh. wow." less we stray. I gave an assignment this week, that was not in the book, it was not based on the book. It was about African Americans. And so (the students asked) "How are we supposed to do this?" The one class almost refused to do the assignment. I said, you have a problem and you are going to have to solve it. So they^ eventually did the signment. Or just to have teachers tell about something besides slavery that fIS .African American. For me to go to Egypt, and find out about the Pharaohs. The African Americans were only slaves. For me to find ^pkbout the Egyptian pharaohs, and the civilizations that were far leyond any of the civilizations at that time in the world. All of the mathematical things about the pyramids which we are just finding out. You can't even fathom it that the African people are part of the that culture and we are going to teach it. You know not only to teach about Harriet Tubmen but to teach the history of the African .American. W. B. Dubois is not in the book but we can talk about him. Just to have people open up a little bit more, and a little bit more to be investigated. Because I have all this stuff and you can use it too. sharing of information in a classroom setting with others} Some of them are afraid to use anything that is not in the textbook. Some of the teachers ask where I am going in the textbook. I nswer, well I am not really following this book. Newer textbooks are better than they used to be. But still it is always like a few words or an addition, u It is always one of those high lighted pages. It is always the part added, oh yea. and... Did you ever read Dave Barrv 's book about George Washington? It was something about Dave Bany slept here... it is a new version of American history. It is hard to make it inclusive in the text book. The text books are not JpcIusive...or separate. .And when you do not know it yourself. J^That is being debated. You can’t cover every thing you have to pick and choose. Anyway and so ... I think is you have Afro-centric schools. I don’t know if ' you have that if that is the proper direction for you to go either. You / have to ask the question if you really want it to be inclusive or do ‘ ^ u want it to be separate? I don't know. One of the things I realized as I was transcribing was that I talked alot. So this time I want to talk less, and if I don’t respond as often that is why... to get your responses more fully. The next thing I would like your to talk about is your personal growth, not just your understanding about minorities and special populations but your own personal growth, [here I read the exact quote in the agenda p. 2 #3] Nfeybe you could give a synopsis, §ltoley and Chris of what we were talking about on the tape. ^ Mine is pretty eaty because I was going through a mid-life crisis, me study tour came about when I was making the decision whether to keep on coaching or not. I had coached for 15 years in basketball, t'îf,L so this sort of filled that void. I got excited about the trip to the Soviet Union, I had just give up coaching. I don’t know how I ever taught with coached on top of everything I did. When I coached, it was difficult to get everything done, even not that I am not coaching. It added to ray to my self confidence and all those things (ref. #3)in a sense when I was looking, i missedcoaching for the first year or two. The problem was the first year I did not get completely away from it because I was volunteering which was stupid. I should have said j^st forget it. ^ That is hind sight when you say that. But then, so I would say this really helped me get through that transition period and had a significant impact on my teaching. Did it help make changes in your professional growth too... like committees, organizations, conferences, teaching professional development. ^ Yes, the second, no, maybe the first year after I came back, Dave

. Gifford and I went to Northwestern University for a conference. Eastern European studies, we got heard some really excellent speakers and that really added. It fitted in really well with what I had just experienced with the study tour. I have been asked to speak with different organizations about my trips to Russia. It has enhanced my professional career. Is that the sort of thing that your ^ e asking about? Is there anything else you want to add? (W No, I don’t want to talk all the time. (laughing) Denny that was for me! I’m the one who is inter\1ewing. ^ ^Personal growth, again being in the minority, not seeing it being V represented and not being taught those kind of things. Only being taught the part of being a slave and to have a positive experience you can be proud about to build a positive self esteem. To be able to pass it on to the boys and girls, all of them, especially the Afirican American boys and girls that I have contact with at my school. Personal growth, I just found out that my church in going to Egypt and doing the same tour that I did. I was excited when they told me they were going and my girl friend is going. I missed their first meeting. My friend took my pictures and they asked her to identify what these picture were, and she said, 'T had no idea. So, OK, I would \ : know that." (joking) I wouldn't mind sharing that, I don't think I am '• going to go again but I would love to (go again ). It would have more \ of a spiritual feel to it. Though there were some temples where we went together and pray on our study tour which were very special. I go to Community Church of Christianity. One of the symbols are the wings of Isis which are outstretched. The story of tlüs de’-ja vu feeling , of people who are supposed to go there but just didn't know it. So I got a book out of the book store which is called Serpent In the Sky which kind of ties in with the religious beliefs of ancient Egyptian pharaohs and beliefs. I haven't started to read it yet, but I have it and I am supposed to report on it for our church newspaper. It is kind of exciting and nice that all of this is tj'ing together. To share with people that are going on the same trip that I went on, and To share with people who are getting ready to go. Because I really nt to go. Yeah, I felt the same way. It is almost like I was meant to be doing f s.* I felt the first time I went to Russia , I felt this is really meant to be. I felt really good about it. {♦synergy and higher feeling of purpose experienced, reflection >v the participants} JOMaybe I didn't understand it at the time but now, it has becoming ear to me that this is what I am supposed to be doing. ♦ murmur of agreement. Denny agree, Shirley nods. ^ Julie do you think that you went on the trip has impacted the ^ u rch to go ahead and do. ■ jyNo, I think they influenced me. I don't think that I had that much influence, I don't. I asked the church for a prayer, that summer was a bad time for Egypt, so I asked for a prayer. That blessing for me to have a safe journey. That is the only thing that I shared. Now that they are going it is very exciting. So I am overjoyed to share my vacation. The first to be going and asking how I went. Everything is 413 so wonderful. You just have to find out about it and for the people to go to be realistic. I feel like I am repeating myself. .. ^ [reassure that is OK] f \ ^WTien I came back from China I spok^.^O^me times because it ... f" 'V \ was unusual to have gone there at that time., particularly to all kinds \ K or groups, civic groups, school groups and some university groups, \>' some women’s groups just a number of different kinds of groups. It put you in a whole different kind of arena. I mentioned previously, I A felt I gained a lot of confidence through that experience. 1 was really a new teacher, because I had gone into teaching a little later. I did not start back to college until he was in first grade. The district coordinator job came open when 1 applied and had only been teaching for three years. I applied for that. I had greater interest in everything concerning curriculum. What kind of things were being taught, wtet kinds of material we had, the fact that the social stupes never seemed to get any money. We still don’t get any money. I still mn interested in that am I not Chris. Ô (murmur of agreement) We still don’t. y cont. I still try to be an advocate for it even though 1 don't do that . . \ job any more. But it intensified mv focus. Nfade me feel, I began to MV.' '* \ change at that time...it has been twenty years but, all kinds of ^ j experiences have corne together. I think that they all go back to the \ < staffoTtEarfijrirtn^ I tÜîïïïc it made a tremendous amount of j difference in me and my personality, my confidence, and it ' Û / intensified my interest in teaching. Though I was very interested in V i teàcEïng though 1 went into it a little later. *** It intensified my \ interest, [life changing event] *** I have never lost that, that intensity [^sustained impact] of always being interested in other countries, peoples and the ^milarities to us. How many study tours have you been on? ^ Is it 4 or 5? Four with Gene and one with NEA. It kind of like a hook. ( 0 Part of the study I am looking at is, one. Does it have a sustained impact? and the other is the developmental influence on the educators. For Chris and Julie’s trip will it have an increasing impact ÆT direction? It sounds like for you, looking back it has (an impact). '^Murmur of agreement. Chris and Julie only have one study tour experience. Do you see that this is happening? What do you think?

414 APPENDIX L

Reseai'ch Proposal

415 TITLE OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL

SUBMITTEO BY

The Dissertation Committee for Marsha M. Hutchins met (Name of Candidate) in formal session on August 25, 1993 and approved (Date)

the attached dissertation prospectus.

Approved by

"-V U U 1Â . (Candidate)

(CoiwBitten Member)

(Committee Member)

(Committee Member)

416