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Capitolo Tesi Def UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI MILANO SCUOLA DI DOTTORATO IN SCIENZE GIURIDICHE DIPARTIMENTO DI DIRITTO PRIVATO E STORIA DEL DIRITTO CORSO DI DOTTORATO DI RICERCA IN DIRITTO COMPARATO XXIII CICLO TESI DI DOTTORATO DI RICERCA LE “AZIONI PER IL PUBBLICO INTERESSE” IN CINA Ius/02 Dott.ssa Simona Novaretti TUTOR : Ch. Prof. Gianmaria Ajani COORDINATORE DEL DOTTORATO: Ch. Prof.ssa Barbara Pozzo ANNO ACCADEMICO 2009/2010 A Matteo e Gabriele, e a Gisella RINGRAZIAMENTI Le persone che mi hanno aiutata nel corso di questa ricerca sono molte, e a tutte va la mia gratitudine. Desidero ringraziare, in particolare, il Prof. Michele Graziadei, la Prof. Marina Timoteo, il Prof. Hoyt Tillman e il Prof. Maurizio Scarpari per la disponibilità, la pazienza, e i preziosi consigli; il Prof. Zhang Lihong, la Prof. Fei Anling, la Prof. Stefania Stafutti e tutto il personale del CASCC per avermi consentito di accedere a materiali e database altrimenti introvabili. Un ringraziamento speciale va, ovviamente, al Dott. Otto Malmgrem, alla Dott. Elisa Nesossi, all’Avv. Huang Jinrong, all’Avv. Wang Fang, al Dott. Hao Jinsong e all’Avv. Wang Zhenyu, che hanno voluto condividere con me le Loro esperienze sul campo, permettendomi di andare oltre la “legge sui libri”; senza di loro questo studio non avrebbe visto la luce. Ringrazio, infine, tutti gli amici che hanno letto, corretto, criticato e incoraggiato la mia ricerca e - più di ogni altro - ringrazio Gigi, che mi supporta e sopporta sempre. INDICE INDICE I INTRODUZIONE V CAPITOLO PRIMO DALL’INTERESSE PUBBLICO ALLE “PUBLIC INTEREST LITIGATION”: L’EMERGERE DI UNA NUOVA NOZIONE DI “PUBBLICO” IN CINA 1 1.1. Introduzione 1 1.2. Le origini della nozione di interesse pubblico in Cina 11 1.2.1. I riferimenti occidentali. 11 1.2.2. Le nozioni di “pubblico” e “interesse” nella Cina classica. 15 1.2.3 Il discorso sugli interessi nella Cina maoista 26 1.2.4. Dalle riforme degli anni ’80 ai giorni nostri: verso un interesse pubblico pluralista? 30 CAPITOLO SECONDO “PUBLIC INTEREST LITIGATION”: DEFINIZIONI, ORIGINE E DIFFUSIONE DI UN MODELLO 37 2.1. Società pluraliste e interessi diffusi: l’emergere delle “cause di tipo moderno” 37 2.2. Public interest litigation: definizioni a confronto 43 2.2.1 Definizioni dottrinali di public interest litigation in Occidente 44 2.2.2 Definizioni dottrinali di public interest litigation in Cina 48 2.3. Origini e caratteristiche della Public Interest Law 62 2.3.1. “Brown vs. Board of Education” of Topeka e il modello classico di public interest litigation 67 2.3.2. Law and Development e Human Rights: il volto internazionale del liberal legalism americano nel secondo dopoguerra 70 2.3.3.1 La Globalizzazione della Public Interest Law 77 CAPITOLO TERZO LA COOPERAZIONE GIURIDICA IN CINA, E LE PREMESSE ALLA NASCITA DELLE “AZIONI PER IL PUBBLICO INTERESSE” 86 3.1. Introduzione 86 3.2. L’ingresso di concetti, modelli e fondi stranieri in Cina, tra cooperazione internazionale e reazioni interne 101 I 3.2.1. L’ingresso della Repubblica Popolare Cinese nella comunità internazionale 101 3.2.2. Il dibattito interno sulle riforme 107 3.2.3. La cooperazione giuridica internazionale nella Repubblica Popolare Cinese 115 3.2.3.1. La strategia di “Legal Empowerment” nella RPC: i programmi di “accesso alla giustizia” della Fondazione Ford 125 CAPITOLO QUARTO LE PRIME GONGYI SUSONG, E GLI OSTACOLI STRUTTURALI ALL’USO DELLE CORTI PER LA TUTELA DEI DIRITTI SOCIALI 136 4.1. Gli anni Novanta del XX secolo nella RPC: la scoperta dei diritti e l’emergere di nuove “contraddizioni” in seno alla società cinese 136 4.2. La nascita delle “azioni per il pubblico interesse” in Cina 140 4.2.1. La prima fase dello sviluppo delle gongyi susong: la scoperta dell’interesse pubblico da parte dei comuni cittadini cinesi, tra tutela sussidiaria e protezione diretta 142 4.2.2. Public interest litigation civili e Procure del Popolo 154 4.3. Gli ostacoli strutturali al successo in corte delle gongyi susong 169 4.3.1. Il problema del diritto di azione. 175 4.3.2. Le limitazioni alle azioni di gruppo 183 4.3.3. Indipendenza del potere giudiziario, e professionalità dei giudici 191 CAPITOLO QUINTO LE “AZIONI PER IL PUBBLICO INTERESSE” IN CINA: QUATTRO GONGYI LÜSHI A CONFRONTO 200 5.1. La professionalizzazione delle gongyi susong 200 5.2. La professione legale in Cina. 207 5.3. La tutela del pubblico interesse in Cina: quattro gongyi lüshi a confronto. 227 5.3.1. “Ottenere il bene comune attraverso la protezione degli interessi individuali”: lo Studio legale Dongfang per il pubblico interesse e il legal aid di Pechino ( 北京市东方公益法律援助律师事务所，Beijingshi Dongfang gongyi falüyuanzhu lüshi s hiwusuo ) 230 5.3.2. L’Ufficio di legal aid di Pechino per lavoratori migranti ( 北京市农 民工法律援助工作站, Beijingshi nongmingong falüyuanzhu gongzuozhan ) 242 5.3.3. Il Centro per il fondo di diritto e pubblico interesse ( 法律公益基 金中心) 251 II 5.3.4. Lo Studio Legale Yipai di Pechino ( 北京市义派律师事务所, Beijing shi Yipai lüshi shiwusuo). 263 CONCLUSIONI 274 BIBLIOGRAFIA 281 BIBLIOGRAFIA IN LINGUE OCCIDENTALI: 281 BIBLIOGRAFIA IN LINGUA CINESE: 305 III “I cuori degli uomini tendono al proprio interesse personale, tuttavia, grazie al modello positivo della legge, l'interesse personale si trasforma in generale. Questo spiega perché le potenti forze che guidano il mondo vanno costantemente in direzione della legge, senza che nulla o nessuno possano arrestarne il cammino. La legge è il principio fondante dell'interesse pubblico". Chen Liang (1143-1194), “Ren fa”. IV Introduzione Introduzione Il processo di “riforma e apertura” ( 改 革 开 放, gaige kaifang ) 1 inaugurato da Deng Xiaoping nel 1978, e l’impegno, assunto dal PCC nel 1997, per trasformare la Cina in uno “Stato di Diritto” ( 法治，fazhi ) non hanno solo portato all’edificazione di un “sistema socialista di leggi con caratteristiche cinesi” completo, come dichiarato, nel marzo 2011, dagli stessi leader della Repubblica Popolare; la (seconda) modernizzazione giuridica ha anche modificato radicalmente il tessuto sociale di quel Paese, ridefinendo, grazie al riconoscimento e alla tutela di nuove tipologie di interessi, i rapporti tra gli individui, e la relazione tra questi ultimi e il potere costituito. E’, tuttavia, principalmente sul dato normativo, e sul processo di produzione “ top-down ” delle regole che si sono concentrate, in questi anni, le analisi degli autori occidentali, in particolare italiani, mentre poca attenzione è stata dedicata al momento applicativo, e al ruolo giocato dai cittadini e dagli intermediari sociali (segnatamente: le professioni legali) nello sviluppo, anche giuridico, della RPC. Il presente studio si propone di colmare, almeno in parte, tale lacuna, e di esaminare la “ law in action ” cinese a partire da un istituto solo di recente comparso nella Repubblica Popolare: le “azioni per il pubblico interesse” ( 公 益 诉 讼 , gongyi susong ), cause indirettamente ispirate alle public interest litigation statunitensi, ma da quel modello profondamente differenti, perché frutto della rielaborazione e dell’adattamento dei principi della P ublic Interest Law al contesto locale. Azioni “nuove” in più di un senso, per mezzo delle quali un crescente numero di ONG, studi legali o singoli avvocati ogni giorno 1 Per la trascrizione dei nomi e dei termini cinesi verrà utilizzato il sistema pinyin , mentre per la trascrizione di quelli giapponesi si userà il sistema Hepburn; in particolare, per quanto riguarda i nomi propri, si manterrà l’uso cinese e giapponese secondo il quale il cognome precede sempre il nome. V Introduzione ricorda al governo cosa significhi, in concreto, “essere un Paese di Rule of Law”, chiedendogli di tener fede alle proprie dichiarazioni e di applicare le norme che esso stesso ha approvato, attraverso una rivendicazione dell’interesse pubblico collettivo che costituisce - per i cittadini cinesi, nella situazione attuale - uno dei pochi strumenti di partecipazione politica ammessi, e l’unica strada per far sentire la propria voce. Il mio lavoro si articola in cinque capitoli. In particolare: • Il primo capitolo esamina le origini e lo sviluppo della nozione di “interesse pubblico” in Cina, al fine di valutare se, e in che modo, le riforme abbiano modificato il significato ad essa attribuito nella Repubblica Popolare. • Il secondo capitolo prende le mosse dal confronto tra le definizioni dottrinali di “ public interest litigation” in Occidente e nella RPC, per esaminare le caratteristiche del modello classico di questo istituto, e ripercorrere le tappe del processo che ha portato alla sua “globalizzazione”. • Il terzo capitolo ricostruisce i passaggi che – grazie alla complessa interazione tra modelli e fondi stranieri da una parte, e attori locali (governo, Procure del Popolo, attivisti e avvocati) dall’altra – hanno reso possibile l’introduzione delle public interest litigation in Cina, e la loro “trasformazione” in gongyi susong . • Il quarto capitolo è dedicato alla nascita delle “azioni per il pubblico interesse” nella Repubblica Popolare, e agli ostacoli tecnico-giuridici e strutturali che, in tale sistema, hanno impedito l’affermazione e lo sviluppo del modello “classico” di public interest litigation . • Il quinto capitolo analizza l’attività e le tecniche utilizzate dagli “avvocati per il pubblico interesse” cinesi, alla luce VI Introduzione dell’esperienza di quattro dei “ gongyi lüshi ” da me incontrati a Pechino. VII Capitolo primo Capitolo primo DALL’INTERESSE PUBBLICO ALLE “PUBLIC INTEREST LITIGATION”: L’EMERGERE DI UNA NUOVA NOZIONE DI “PUBBLICO” IN CINA 1.1. Introduzione In un’intervista rilasciata negli ultimi mesi del 2008 2, il professor Ji Weidong, interrogato sul futuro delle riforme giuridiche nella Repubblica Popolare, notava che esse: “sono state compiute solo per metà; per passare alla seconda fase, è necessario promuovere l’espansione dei diritti individuali, rinnovare profondamente il diritto pubblico, e costruire - in un Paese in cui il “concetto di pubblico” è, storicamente, carente - un “nuovo concetto di pubblico” ( 新的公共性，xinde gonggongxing 3)”4.
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