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AUTHOR' .1rincher,-Cameron TITLE Academic Administration: Are-There Differences That Matter? INSTITUTION Georgia Univ.,°Athens. Inst..of Hightr Education.

- PUB DATE Jun 82 NOTE 14p.; Originally presented as an invited, lecture the' of Virginia'(Charlottesvifle, VA, :November 18,.1980).- JOURNAL-- C Newsletter'; Jun 1982

EDRS PRICE NFO1 /PC01 Plus Postage.. DESCRIPTORS *; Business AdministratiOn Education; * Administration; College Rofel Conflict Resolution Decision Making; Higher a( Education; *Organizational Climate; Organizational' e Objectives; *PersonnelNanagebent; *; Systems Approach; Teacher Employment

...-.ABSTRACT . / The differences between academic administration and _business managementand the distinctions between academic, administration and public admidistration are Addressed. Attention is directed to differences in purpose and internal organization; ./) decisions and conflict resolution;. environmental relations and internal affairs; and recruitment, selection, and development of personiel. Given a difference in purposes and a resulting difference in orgapizitional structure of and business/government, it follows that the processes adopted or developed for making decisions and resolving conflict differ. All of these differences ensure different-kinds of relations with the public Served by colleges and , and different norms, values, and incentives that govern many of their internal affairs. The different professional identities and allegiances of'Collego faculties dictate' different modes and styles of recruitment, selection, promotion, assignment, transfer, and monetary reward.- Two reports that were influential in the reorganization,of undergraduate and profesiional curricula in business recommended that general concepts and principles: of management were-to be balanced with general or liberal education at the undergraduate level. In the early 1970s, the application of systems analysis to academic administration initially provided a general framework,for the study and development of planningmodels

but.later was advocated for the efficiency it-would enforce upon . mis-managed colleges and universities. Attention is also directed to and the.differentiatedJunctioni of. administration and governance at colleges. (SW)

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Institute of Higher Education University of Georgia

Pk. ACADEMIC ADMINIST4ATION:

ARE THERE DIFFERENCES THAT MATTER?

by

Cameron Pincher

r

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS 'us.o_tRoatiorofasuctitosEDUCATION MATERIAL HAS SEENGRANTED BY INSTITUTE OF NATIONAL INFORMATION A RESOURCES it EDUCATIONALCENTER tERICI reproduced as do:ument hasbeen pelSO Oforgandation received f rootthe sari to improve 'tibve been made .-- f-1 Minor changes reproduction 4:Natty. TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES in thedolt opinions stated INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)." points ot ',MN/ Of °trivet NI ment do notrucessatily represent Of ObC`i Position

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- ACADEMIC ADMINISTRATION. Institute of ARE THERE DIFFERENCE Higher THAT MATTER . - Education '- . - BY 41, .-

. CAMERON FINCHER University of Georgia .

Bertram Groin (1964) in his claiiic THE Is requires little effort to construct a similar .y..ANAGING-OF ORGANIZATIONS discusses list of words and phrases for use in the academic management aii4* administration as synonymous. setting: Hs apparent13; excludes the **tenth* from' his grouping of ranger and admiaistrator because Administering .a college there ii no acceptable verb designating what the Managing .a department executive. does. 'An underitanding of sadministra- Coordinating .. adivision tioit evidently would specify how administrators Directing .. abureau, center, ridniiiiistit. Management theory; in the ism. man- institute ner, would evidently explain how -managers-man- Leading ..an office age. But the executive is apparently left in his Chairing . committee ty position with neither a theory nor an activity of . . astaff .,"exAcution." . .faculty or faculty - If nouns are needed to signify the pers0n-m-a- .members position and the organizational function in-which .a prograni he or shis engaged, verbs are helpful describing .. aproject .___more accurately what the. person-as-adminiitrator study group or task force does in carrying out the responsibilities of an as- ..research team -signed organizational tuna:ion.It is Gross's con- .. alaboratory .tention that the two b4ssic elements Of 'managing" . . . alibrary and "organization" can be expressed in.a-vuiety'of terms. So much so, he 'provides the following list Thus, in an academic setting there are fewer of words and phrases for combination as the user to designate the activity but an abundance of com- sees fit: parable phrases denoting the Object-pi-the-ictivity. Even wheq,a noun,is used to designat$'a position Managing- . anorganization such as comptibller, there iklittle expectation that Administering .the activities of an Or- the person in the position will take the word "con- ganization trolling'? with full meaning. Governing .organized human be- Disagreement is unlikely if we contend that havior , The choice of participle is dependent upon the area Guiding . . . anenterprise designating the object-of-oiii-efforf.Colleges, de- Coordinating' . anundertaking partments, centers, libraries, etc'. tend to be budge- Integrating . a groupof people tary units or functional divisions that may not be Running' .people located in one place. Offices, programs; projects, Directing % . .. the activities of people -v etc. tend to be things with specific location and Supervising . subordinates definite function. Committees, .staffs,`Iaculty,- Controlling the'use of resources groups, and task -forces are grohpings of 'people (p: 239) that may be quite impermanent with almost inter- changeable...membership. The phrases do not easily *phis paper was originally presented as an' invited ' lend themselves toa logical separation as processes- lecture at the University of Virginia on November' thingsopeople, but .many of them can bercat:, 18, 1980 and has been publifihed previously, by the gorized. Center for the Study of Higher Education there.' . The unsuitability of somecom binations is S seen-in the likelihood that any group of faculty . education. 'To- meet societal goals and preferences, 41S members will resist being administered or managed the federal government has been ,called upon to =- and many will not care to be led. -It is one thing fund socialinstitutions that can serve thit purpose. to administer .-impersonal - .objects such as depart- With federalfunds has come a demand for account- menta and another to -administer the faculty.It ability and Managerial efficiency-. -will pique ,Eime faculty- members for a dean to The question raised in this context is whether manage a program and it may infuriate them,if the, there are distinctions betvieen academic adminis- president manages the institution. - ...tration and business management that cplleges and But most campuses have offices, projeCts, or universities should ,maintain and insist that service- units that -must be inapaged or adminis. maintain.An additionaLquestion concerns the tered..., If faculty paycheeki are not on schedule, differences between academic administration and someone is no doubt .guilty of mismanagement, public administration:There are obvious dif- and dismissal.will not be regarded is-an inhumane ferences between a university and a business cos- remedy.:Physical -facilities must obviously- be poration between a college and a government maintained- and ntanagement is a matter of ensur- agency. But there are continuing questions about ing that they are. Equipment, supplies, and materi- the differenLefin cdministrition and management als are also In obvious -need of proper and suitable that should matter to those in an t academic setting. utstiagement, Lc the& purchase, storage, main- John Corson (1979) and John Millett (1976), tenance, and distribution.. -among others, have relied the question without The most important distinction on most col- supplying a satisfying answer.Can the 'manage; lege and university campuses, however, is between ment of universities and colle.ges be improved by academic units and nonacademic units.Manage- the adoption and use of managerial techniques de- ment min( be an acceptable term for nonacademic veloped for use in the nation's industrial and busi- units and the transfer of management concepts and ness corporations? 0 is there a basic difference techniques from the business 'corporation to these between the management of universitiestand the units may be in order. For traditional academic management of business enterprise!, government such is colleges and depattmenti, however, agencies,ornon-profitorganizationssuch as management may be,tesistedas an'alien concept, foundations? The ease with which individualthave and administration may be accepted by faculty moved from adminiatrative posts. in government to . members who otherwise regard "the administra- the executive offices of foundations to presidencies tion" as ter natural enemy. of Major. universities 'implies that at least some individuals can use the career rungs of public Distinctions Worth Considering administration, business management, and edtita- tional in a ladder "'of .remarkable con The intent of this paper is to consider the di& struction.' Executive*, in the nation's largest ferences between academic administration and accept cabinet posts in the federal govern. busineis management that ought to matter to the ment with each change of "ads' inistrations4' They faculty, staff, and student= of American colleges sometimes escape the disappointniehts of that post and universities.If intelligence was once defined by accepting appointment to -a "comparable" by the classical Greeks as the ability to see similari- position in a foundation or on a university Campus. ties in things-that are differentand difference in Only occasionally ia, there doubt that the skills and things that are similethere is a willingness to be knowledge accairid_k_one, organizational setting half-intelligent about the management or adminis- are transferable to, the other. In each case, the ap- tration Of the -nation's colleges and universities. pointment -is seen by cynics as "political." There have been numerous charges over the put 15 Yet Millett bas reported that business execu- years that our institutions. of higher education are tives,collegeadministrators, and managment mismanagedand there has been strenuous advo- schblers agree that the fields of corporate manage- cacy that our colleges and universities adopt ment and academic administration are so dissimilar modern management skills and techniques that will ac to preclude any useful exchange of management ensure their efficiency` in an era of limited re- skills..61though it is often claimed that manage- sources-.The federal government has Supported in ,,merit science is transferable from one organization- generous manner' the development of planning,' al setting to another, there Is little credence to he management, and evaluation tools for institutions placed in that adage that "management is manage- that' have bothered little about planning, manage- ment"i.e. an interchangeable array of techniqUes ment, and evaluation as specialized functions of that serve all organizations equally well. , \ Orga izations; for%hich management science The separation of speech and drama from English is believed suitable, apparently differ in: (a) pur literature' on most college campuses is not a matter poses, (b) modes of organization, (c) the processes Of logical analysis and rational design but a func- by which decisions are made, (d) the means adop- tion of teaching interests and emphases at some ted by the organization to resolve interiarconflict, time in theyast. The location of a department of +h. (e) various relations with the environment in which instruction may be a function of funding possibili- the- organization must work, and (f) the meant by ties instead of curricular coherence. At the time which it recruits, *selects, and develops key person- the department' could be established, funds were nel. Each-of these differences-would seem related available in one location and not in another, sug- to the adinini.etrative or managerial !style favoied gesting that'in the -past it has been easier to estab- by the organized and -each is undoubtedly re- lish separate departments across campus than to lated to the choice of rship in A time of crisis transfer within institutional budgefs',the funds by or reorganiiatIon.- which they operated: . The organization of most colleges andI univer- Differences in Purpose sities is understood only by. tracing the develop- _ mental' history of the institution.The size, loca- There is little doubt that college; and univer- tion, and specific functions of many departments sities differ -in purpose from business corporations of instruction were determined by decisions that and gotternment agencies. Althoughthe purpOses at the time resolved some campus issue or pet of Institutions of higher education are said to be mitted some acceptable degree of compromise more 'ambiguous than -those of the business cor- among Contending factions.The accidental fea- poration, there is a tendency. to attribute to both tures of university orgization are seen in the-lo- ,the corporation and the government bureau a sin- cation of courses, th of pre - requisites; and de- ;gularity of purpose they seldom possess. In a aim- partmental pecking-ors that no one designed. pliitic view, business and government have a "unit of measurement"- that has an 'obvious appeal. The Decisions and Conflict Re lution business organization has the dollar and the govern- ment' agency has the vote. The university-has the n a difference in purposes and *resulting degree but nothing approaching the simplicity im- diff rence in- organizational structure, it follows plied by effOrts to make a profit and to get re- that e processes adopted or 'developed for mak- elected.' ing de'ow and resolving conflict may be quite The purpose of an organization dictates many different in. the American college or university. internal features, as well as its inputs and outputs. The purpo of organizations are multiple, receive If the organization's purpose is to produce and differential -emphases, and are subject to change. distribute particular goods or services within a de- The plishment of those purposes is- often .finable market, it will employ personnel for those blocd by obstacle, changing circumstances, and purposes and not for others. Organizational theory internal disagreement as to both their specific na- ' has not seen highly successful, however, in specify- ture and`the means that must be adopted-for their ing how the choice of organizational purpose deter- achieyement.. As administrators or managers with- mines the structure. and function of organizations. in the various-organization; of a pluralistic society Purposes, are- neitifir:fixed'nOr flexible in many or7 seek to develop; maintain, and use their, varying ganizationsi bit purpose is an important clue to or- degrees of authority and .responsibility; they en-. ganizational. origins; an important determinant of gage in what Gross (1964) has celled "the adminis-. what the\ organization becomes, ,and tlfe key to trative struggle." Because they are significant.par-4 how it serves its clientele or constituencies. ticipints in a co4plex, social institution, there are . nerous questiolm-about the distrubution of the Differences in Internal Organization" . power influence, its origin through appointment or role-deition, and its uses in an organization The functions and activities' of organizations that takeseat nride in its -collegial relations. are characterized by the specialization of work, the The gist might be that while the academic ad- division of responsibility, and the inter-relation% ministrator, in the college or-university makes deci- that must be established to permit cooperation and Sions, communicates information, plans; monitors,.; communication. The structure of a college or uni- evaluates, and masters the administrative,details of versity may not be the function of design as much budgeting and fiscal accountability, personnel re- as it reflects historical accident and personalities. cruitment and selection, and the. provision of . - . . various servicet, he or ihe does so in a different to public demand and societal pressure. The dif- manner'-if not with different intent and multi. ferences in mode of organizatiOn, deci- In' much the same manneciiiiiideliiieldniinistu-- sionmaking;anchconflict resolution- ensure lion has become specialized and to sonic degree, ferent kind of relations with the publics served by

. prokessionalized, it hunot clone so to the extent colleges and 'universities -; and different -norms, evident-in the business- corporation. values' and incentives that govern many of their in- Decision making often regarded as the es- ternal iffairs. sence of management continues to havecol- The different professional identities and al- Jegial aimension, that is qualitatively distinct from ,legiances of college facultiesdictatediffereit the interpersonal illations of a management team modes and styles of recruitment, selection, promo-

s in ,inciustry or business. The university itself con- .tion, assignment, transfer, 'and monetary reward. tinues to be charade-flied by intricateif notinti- Illetiure wOuld not seem to be a personnel decision- materelationships laetween students and faculty fdund in the business corporation, but it may be a scholars ancbtheir disciplinesresearchers and facial decision- for faculty members committed to their research -= suggesting, to ,many 'observers, that ,traditional concepts of academic freedom and the organization of a university ii far more likely inured to other customs an,d practices of the eel- to be concentric thin hierarchial. demic life.. The productivity or performance .of There are both subtle and._ profound dif- faculty members is apparently related to their per- ferences in the authority and responsibility dele- ceptions of a personal freedom to investigate, ex- gated from - governing boardi to. institutional prore, criticize, or create. The processes of inven- leaders. There ire traditions of academic freedom tion and discovery are not obvious, sequential and institutional autonomy that do not easily per-. events requiring coordination and` direction as mitoompariions with incorporation for business much as 'they require encouragement and moral

.purposes.. There:remains some ambiance of the suppOrt. It is diffiCult to identify a corporation in "community of authority" once described by John which the professional advancement of creative, Millett (1962) -and a different kind of participa- productive employees is dependent upon the re- tory, consultative, Collaborative decision making actiolts and judgments of colleagues in other, cos* 'about matters, both trivial and profound. It is dif- - petitive organizations. ;fiat to imagine anything comparable to a faculty committee- in the business corporationand it is Should We lfanage or Administer? even more difficult to imagine a business corpora- tion dealing with an outside group eomparable to .ThedistiAtions betweenmanagement and Id.: alumni. ministration vary even in industrial and L usiness corporations. Managers are often regarded as Environmental Relations andInternatAffairs middle .management only,.while administrators may he identified as executives. When used in this The differences between academic administra- way, the first term implies that the manager has re-

.tion and business management in -their respective sponsibility for a division, department, or unit and treatments of environmental relations and internal is competent to interpret and implement company affairs may he identified briefly. Both the univer- plans and policies. In doing so, he ix/accountable sity and the business corporation have beCome in- for the success or failure of the unit. By contrast, creasingly sensitive to public concerns and issues the administrator or executive may be responsible since the -1969s, and both have experienced con- fOr the larger company or corporation, its policies siderable pressure frola the outside to modify their and plans. Comprelsive, longrange,or strategic internal arrangements in matters of personnel re- planning is his proper unction while operationaPor cruitment, selection, and advancement, The com- tactical planning isieft to the manager. mon enemies may be ..identyied as the 'federal . Just as quickly, the.tvio terms will be used in government and single-interest politics. an obversemanner:The manager will be raison- A commonality of:threats; however, does not sible for policy, planning, and overall institutional set aside pertinent differences that should be better effectiveness.The adminittrator will be respon- unders(ood..Despite the fact -that many- federal sible for materials, equipment, and operations but regulitions now deal with the University and the not necessarily his fellow employees. In this usage, corporation in their respective roles-as employers, people are supervised or managed while materials, there remains great difference in the ease with equipment,andoperationsareadministered.. which the two kinds of organizations can respond More recently, the coupling of the two terms '

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.. in administrative management -is seen more fre- A man does not live for monthsor years quently. This phrase apparently Means that ad-. in a particular position-in an-organization ministrationis a- minor' function'of -management exposed to some streams of communica and pertains primarily,. if not entirely, to, details don, shierderfmtrottcatc-withotit the ihAt involved- in office actifities. Readers may -most profound effects upon what he qiicklYSather 'that an administrative manager will /knows,believes,attendsto,hopes, be in charge of the supply room. They Will not be wishes, emphasizes, fears, and proposes. able to infer, however, what a managerial idnfinis- (p-xi) . trator mightdo: . Whether management or-administration is the Yet Simon's theory, of administiative behavior is generic .term is not as important as recognition that often seen is one that sets human values outride managemedi is-a concept long ago aPprdipriated by the boundaries of administrative decision in efforts the business corporation:If the distinctions be- to employ a criterion of efficiency.simon's ad- tween 'a university and a business corporation are nitnistrative man evidently would maximize if he as important as their iimilarities, there is a need for , could.Haying `not the wits to maximize," he is a different concept or`term to, denote those dif- content to satisfice - a conceptthat is one of ferences. No one will argue seriOusly that universi- Simon's seminal .contributions to decision theory. ties should noel). administeredIvell.--There-are--- Simon's views of administrative behavior were --4, many who are skeptical, however, that universities particularly' influential in the concerted efforts of can be managed well and .others who are dubious the 1950s to infuse new stiength into the training that universities can be managed at ill.. and 'preparation of badness management.The Meaningful distinctions between administra- Pierson Report (1959), sponsored by the-Carnegie tion and. management are to be made,' it would Corporation, identifies "management's responsibili- seem only by fleeing their development and use as ties for formulating.and carrying through decisions" concpts within the nation's corporations; universi- as the most , promising development incollegiate ties, apd governmental agencies. It is not surpris- programs for business administration and devotes .ing that the terms have known cycles of populari- a keY, chapter of the report todeeiaion:making as ty and preference, and one. man's inanagemetit - an organizing' concept. The Gordon andHowell today - may. be the other man's administration Report (1959)0spon.sored by the Ford Foundation tomorrow. and covering much the same ground, emphasized the analytical and informational tools that were in- Management by Technique creasingly available for a scientific or rational ap- proach tO managerial decision-making.Both re- Although occasional bows are made in the di- ports were influential in the re-organization of un-. rection of organizational differences, most manage- deigraduate and professional curricula in business ment theoriga have approached the problems and management. issues of management as if general concepts, skills, More important, perhaps, both voluines were and techniques were applicable to most organiza- highly influential 'in putting across the need for ad- tions,associations,and institutions. Herbert ministrative or managerial specialties that were Simon's ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOR may be generally applicable.General concepts and prin- cited as perhaps the single, most influential book ciples of management were to be well balanced published on the subject of management. It is sig- with general. orliberal. education at the undef; nificant-therefore7that-in issuing a third edition in graduate_ level, and with specialized tools and tech- 1976, Simon chose not to alter the original text of niques at the professional level: The organizational 11 chapters but merely added six' chapters which complexity of the business corporation required were papers that he has published in the interim of specialized skills and competencies in management, two previous editions. He remains convinced that but the, butiness leader remained a generalist in the administration is a form of organizational behavior sense that as a professional, he wasexpected to and that organizations are to be understood in synthesize the diverse concepts of management tetrns of their' decisional processes.As is well science, human relations, And organiiational theory. known, Simon preranis A theory of decision-mak- Little thought or discussion was given to training ing which is relevant to administrative prefaces in or preparation that would beorganizationally- business, government, and education. specific. The importance of organizational character's- The rationale for business management that tici is underscored by Simon's contention that: can be drawn from the literature of the pastthree . 0 decades is one in which the.pritnary concern is the _The recruiting and -training ,practices ,9f business employee. Management is not inaccurately defined corporations, hoyever,_fidlyiiignaled that colleges as "the art of getting work done throUgh others" served a valuable screening service, ,Graduates of and collegiate programs for business management the better schools were obviously Better bets on were 'not foolish in building heavily on beha- which to place corporate money. vioral and .sOCild sciences. The overall effort gave The most significant feature of the emerging substanee to the "managerial revolution" that was theories of management, however,. may have been 'much in evidence even if wrongly heralded by* .their shifting _focus from/the status,- personal traits James Burnham's (1941) book of that title. The and characteristics, or/being of the manager to his ranks of American industry behavior, performance, or skill in applyinctech- aifd 'business expanded rapidly during the '1950s *,niques of interpersonal; inter-group, and organize-- and 1960s.American occupations did indeed be.,tional scope.In this scheme of things; both the come "white dollar:" an event much displayed by manager and the group leader became ,behavioral C. Wright Mills (1953), but Burnham's " managerial roles that were in a state of becoming. Personality society," in which the managers replaced the bour- might.still be a marketable item on occasion, but geoisie as the dominant or ruling class; did not no serious theorist worried about .personality or emerge at Much as the "employee society" later character As. determinantsof management or .described by . leadership. , . The human relations movement was a "quasi- Whatever, managerial competence might be, it ideological view", of the employee as t fellow was acquired ,behavio.Industrial and business huthan being with his priorities carefully arranged.. managers were to be developed by carefully ar- Higher pay and better working conditions were im- ranged exposures to the challengeandresponse of portant, but so was an opportunity to contribute, the. American enterprise system.Granted. that opportunity to advance in corporate 'ranks, and 'management trainees were to be carefully screened, assurrancesthathis own personal worth and it then became necessary not, to be swayed too human dignity would be properly appreciated. As greatly by the status variables on which the screen- an employee, he was a striving, ambitious indivi. ingtdolc place. The white Anglo-Saxon protestant dual who was not indifferent to social approval and inale was obviously the 'best candidate for high recognition. managerial responsibility, but his success would de- Unfortunately, the individualistic, beliefs of ;pend on continued preparation and. develOpment Sosial Darwinism and the Protestant Ethic gave/under the tutelage of corporateiexecutivesIn the may in the same years to a sense of togetherness process the management, trainee was expected to and a desireto2helong that produced. William H., master\ an array of highly sophisticated manage. Whyte's (1956) ORGANIZATION MAN. Whyte ment skills and techniques that were increasingly was particularly devastating about 'the scientism quantitative, compUterbased; and organizationally. that he saw as the first denominator of a new social neutral. Whether, calledoperations research, ethic. Whyte was completely unsympathetic with management science, systems engineering, or,stra- applications of social and behavioral'sciences that tegic planning, a host ofconcepts and techniques were so pretentious as to ensure "good groUp dy: were to be Mastered by the would-be corpo4te namics,"improvecommunications,orworse manager. still, meuure personality./ It mattered little that American industry and More important for the development of mane. business were themselves ambivalent toward such gerial talents, the rationale stressedthe need for techniques.It bothered no one that a leading au- continued training and preparatiOn for the exercise thority (Steiner, 1979) could publish widely.read of managerial decision., Having graduated from one and respected books on corporate planning tech- of the prestigious schools of business management, niques and still conclude, that "the manager is his the better students presumably could look forward own best analytical technique." In discussing the. to recruitment and selection as a management _use of advanced quantitative methods of decision- trainee by one of the 500 corporations identified making, the same authority * reflect the ambiva- by FORTUNE magazine. Jokes were made in pass- lence of industrial and business leaders by writing ing that if lucky, the bright trainee might rekkin in contiguous sections on: training until his midfifties and.enjoy a brief-but- highly-rewarding tenure as vice president before re- 1.Don't underestimate 'the power of newer tirement. The implication was severe doubt about quantitative techniques. the ability of collegiate schools of business to pre. pareindividualsfor managerial responsibility. 2.on't overestimate the power of newer r-- --e F

quantitative analytical tools. 3. comparing- costsbetween the alternative (pp. 253-254) methods; .

It is not cynical to conelude that a atzon pha- 4. de- velopingmeasures, for appraising ef- sis has been placed on quantitative, yticai tech-, , fectiveness, in 'achievingdesiredout- niques in the development-olcorporate manakirs comes, as a.meaiis of kontsoL-There is no doubt about the' impact of -compUter technology upon the conduct 5. organizing data for continuous compari- of 'an businte, and there is little doubt sons of results with costs, all its impact- othe behavior of corporate a f.management.It is easy "to suspect that the ap- 6.; facilitathig; facilitating the revision of plans and pro- parently inordinate -coneern of corporate manage- gr!uns. ment with sensitivity training, encounter groups, T-groups, and of.. forma of group "process in Management By Objectives (MBO), in partiCu- human relations is a countervailing effort to stem . lar, has met with various success in higher educa- the tide of rational, analytical, Impersonal skills tion because of its appearance as a management and techniques. in management (SP Back 1973). technique that puts the burden of performance on the heads of budgetary units. Heads of adininistTa Educational Applications) tive units often believe that they are asked to sped- fy unrealistic objectives for their division or depart- The arrival* of management science in aca- ment and then justify the following year's budget demic administration has been much heralded but one their performance during the preceding year. dubiously received.. The early 1970s were days in Because of this it is difficult to separate evaluations which planned change models were greatly extolled of the department's performance from the evalua- and the management sciences were visited upon. in tion otthe individual administrator's competence. stitutions of higher education in a manner, similar Clear distinctions are too infrequently made be- to the Plagues In its various.guiees as operations re- tween what the program, department, or adminie search; administrative sciences, general systems tredve 'unit does with.its allocations and what the 'theory, systems engineering, or systemsdesign, the individual administrator does with his/her adminis- application of systedis analysis initially provided a trative duties. Where there is strong personal iden- general 'framework foL the t....dy and development tity of an administrator with an administrative of planning models but later was advocated for the unit, there is even more reluctance to specify ob- efficiency it would enforce upon mis- managed in- jectives by which administrative competence' can ititutiOns of higher education. 4 be. judged. Among {hose advocating modern management A conference held in 19 75 to cominemorate techniques 4air the' Committee for Economic De- 20 years of "administrative theory" in education -velopment (1973). The Conimittee was convinced detected no unanimity among those engaged in that .careful planning essential to the survival educational administration. A keynote addrese by of many colleges and universities and recommen- Jacob Getzels (1976) depicted how the perspec- ded the adoption of *moderetesimiques for both - tives of and human relations lonktange and short-range planning, by all institu- have been disrupted by the social issues of the tions of higher education. Such recommendations 1960s and replica! by an emphasis on legal and were in keeping with the Committee); earlier re- economic' entanglements, It was'evident Getzels Commendition to the federargOvernment that pro- that the behavioral and social sciences were no gram budgeting be implemented in a, concerted longer the -dominant influence in administrative° effort to achieve rational objeitives. As a tool for thought, having been displaced by "a -spectacular sharpening management judgment, in planning and rise of accountability" as the major thesia in decision-making, plenning-programming-budgeting- administration. There was at the -time zieat: zysteme provided a Means of: pressure on 'universities and administrators to turn away from "fundamental enigmas and to deliver 1. defusing governmental programa in terms technical services." of specific results or desired outcomes, Elsewhere in the conference ,papers, Andrew Halpin (with Andrew 'Hayes) attributes the demise identifying alternative methods of aChiev- of the administrative theory movement to the pos- ini those results, sibility that the idea- was oversold The language

, i 9 0 O and mode of thinking of the behavioral scientist'The accusation is frequently made that national was "strange and confusing" to tie eduCational ad; and state governments can no 'longer "muddle ministridor and a sufficient distinction was not through'."If +government is to become more re- made between the use of theory in administration sponsive to its constituencies, it must become more and the search for THE theory. Unfortunately.for efficient.To become more efficient, it should the movement, it had not matured sufficiently by adopt procedures, and techniques that will make the -1960s ,to survive the external shocks of.that, public policy nirerational. Indeed, many of the period ;Students of-administrative behayior. have \ rationaLanalytical, anintitative, impersonal tech- .concputrated on internal variables and could nqt niques that have Been recommended for academic handle "the politics of confrontation." A: fourth ,administration were recommended first for govern.. reason defined by Halpin was the lack of depth'in .mental agencies. Planning-programming-budgeting- talent./Those who initiated the movement ap. skstems (MPS), despite the fact that program bud- parentlyi could not resist the lures of high adminis. geting apparently originated in the federal govern- trative Position themselvei, and those who were ment, can be traced in their journey from the"Ford Company to the Detiartmentof Defense to the uni- .trained in the early days of themovement became t professors of edicational,administration instead of versity campui. Management-By-Objectives (MBO) practitioner/schOlars. supposedly followed a route from Litton' Industries 'to' the Bureau of the Budget to the academic dean- Academic Versus Public Administration ship. And zero-based-budgeting (ZBB) was much . . publicized in its itinerary 'from Texas Instruments ,Although academic administration is strongly. to state capitols'and We House. In each case influenced by public policy, thepolitical climate in there was the expliOt assum tion that administra- which its must function, and, the innumeiable tive problems inmernmentyandeducatibn could government agencies with which it must deal, there be resolved b'y the tiansfer of techniquei found ef- are importantcand sometimes distinc- ' fective in the business corporation. tions to be made between administration in a col, As Grois (1954) and othershakpointed lege or universiCyjand administration in an elective out: similarity is "a far cry!' from identity, and or appointive office of goyernment. there is a ,feed to understand the differences in ad- The similarities between the two'are not un- ministration that are evident in the different types impressive; and at onetime; itswas tempting to say of organizations., There are similarities :Iketeen that academic administration either was becomini; public administration, and business management or should 'become, an explicitly avowedfield of that may be seen in the basic- concepts and prin public administration.These were :The days in ciples, their generalization at various levels of or- . which the nation's universities were increasingly re- ,,ganizational complexity, and the values to which ferred 'to as national retources that should be re- the language of administration gives expression. garded as public utilities; The appointment of uni- But the language of public administration is not - verity presidents was not completely apolitical,. identical with that of business management or aca- and if university presidents could be an inter- demic administration, and the expressed values of , changeable part with' foundations, corporations; the three must surelydiffer. and government agencies, it was not absurd to view The development of administrative thought in some of them as public officialswhose actions and public affairs' has been influenced by many cross- . decisions were relevant to national thought and dis currents with business management. 'Both fields cusiion. It is not impertinent to recall that Wood. may claim .Fr,ederick Taylor, Henri Fsyol,Max row Wilson helped defineipublie-administration as Weber, Luther Gulick, and Lyndall Urwick as "pia a field worthy of serious study prior tobecoming neers" in their efforts to analyze and plan work, to president at,Princefon and then governor of New Oil with the-push for efficiency, to introthice ra Jersiy.. tionality into the organization of *eir work, and ;The similarities can be discussed a bit further to deal with such issues as the delegation of-author. before they begin to unravel.Public administra- its' and responsibility. Both fields have surely been ton too, would seem to be a field that is rapidly influenced by. the group of pioneers that Gross developing,a field, that is searching for the ,right identified as launching "new beginnings" Mary kind 'of ethos or paradigm, and a field whose time Follett, Elton Mayo, Akita Roethlisberger, Chester . .has apparently come. Like academic administra- Barnard, and Herbert _Simon. tion, the functions and activities of government There are reasons Co believe, however, that have. received intense criticism in the put=20 years. academic administration has developed in a stream 0 ,

apart from the major currentsof public adininistra- some federal and state offices.An occasional don and businpat management. Although public. governing board may reject an administrative ap- edpcation at' tre elementary and ,aecondary levels pointment within the institution, but the event has been cognizant of the need Or professionally must be regarded as a rarity. prepared adminigtrators, there are Serious questions In discussing the differences between public about the explicit. recognition of such a need in . administration and academic administration, it is higketeducation.Appiliritment to administrative. well to mention that public administration is un- responsibilityon a college oruniversity campus dergoing its own process of professionalization. still ippesrs as a decision in which the professional Programs for the doctorate in..public administra- preparstion.of,the indiiidual did not weigh heavily. tion are increasingly evident, and various programs Faculty often expressed an antipathy to notions for,the certification of "public managers" have that academic administrators can or shot4d. be'Pro- been developed in an effort to formalize the train- fessionally prepared, and it is not uncommon to ing and' prephatiOn that public administrators re- see ,a great emphasis placed on an. administrative ceive.In each of these efforts there is insistence candidate's academic credentiods that will give him that public.administration is neitEer administrative or her credence with the faculty. Top institutional science nos: polititatscience. There is a willingness leadershipin colleges and universities continues to to -drawheavilyfrogi 'organizationaltheory, o be drawn from an' incredible diversitya academic management .science; and the behavioral sciences, backgrounds. The presidents pr chancelloys of the but public adminittration would view the public nation's majok universitiesdisplaynil;specific organiiation Or government agency as both requir- .pattern of preparation. Slight hints can be given of ing and deserving a style or motif of administration an academic career ladder leading from departMent that is its own. head through a deanship to a vice presidency tie-4 9 fore assuming top administrative responsibility,.but Administration and Governance just as often that.pattern will be violated byan ap- pointment from without the institution or. by an If an intelligent theory.of academic adminis- internal appointment that has many characteristics tration is. to be developed for use and application of "anointment." Neither the "out-and-out politi- in the 1980s,there must be explicit recognition of , cal appointee" nor the "protege-appointq," satis- the duality 'that permeates the university as an fies the lip service given consultation vilh the educational institution.There must be a better _ fpculty and diplomatic relations with the public. understanding of administration' and governance as The continuance of such prictices, however, is one differentiated ftnictions of the institution that of the stronger forces behind 'affirmative action, serve'its purposes and reasons-for-being in a com- the drive for participatory decision-making, and plementary manner. The understanding of these the demand of rational, analytical impersonal ap- two functions must. be 'conceptual and logical, as proaches. well as operational. And that understanding must Yet there are reasons to believe that the "po- be more widely appreciated by administrators, litical appointment" in higher education has a dif- faculty, and students than it presently is. ferent quality from that in public affairs.It is sel- The distinctions between administration and dom so blatant assome appointments in federal or governance tell a great deal about the inappro- state government, and it_usually is "rationalized" priateness of management as a unifying or integra- in terms of the advantages that should accrue to tive concept in higher education. Preferences for the college or university. Nor does the protege-sys- the two concepts should not be semantical but* tem wbrklin exactly the same mknner in academe. should be based on a willingness to begin with Proteges must establish a certain reputation as working definitions. In the beginning, distinctions "brilliant and obviously rising" 'nil if they earn a between the two terms-niay-he-heuristic-- in the reputation for hatchet work, they usually do so sense of permitting us to begin. in the later stages with the full understanding that their tenure does of thought and discussion, however, the- distinc-

not survive that of their benefactor. k tions ought to be more compelling in their-accep- There, is a definite differience, then, in the, tance and use. "elective-andappointive proceris" that prevails in Administration-should, be an-acceptable con- educational institutions.Candidates for high of- cept if it is understood to mean the interpretation fices are seldom elected by the :casting of votes in and application of institutional policy. Adminis- an openly-run election. Tgey tare seldom ap- trative leadership is surely needed in the develop- pointed with the "advise-and-consqnt" features of ment or formulation of institutional policy, but 4

, . the need' for adnfin.istratilie leadership does not goierning boards and bejow in facultyl and student negate the concept of .administration as decisions griallift will be loosely, defined however it is and actions idirectly and immediately' concerned defin .'It will noebe 4 neatly ordered muence with the execution of policy.They day-to.day with.a beginning,}} middle, and an and operations of the institution require coordination often' lack ratidbal, analytic descripticins that 'lose-. and direetion. Decisigns must be made at The time . lyit Other organizations and associations.It in and in the place where policy should specify that academic governance that may deserve the lahel.of . those decisions should be made. They must 6e "organized anarchy" (Cohen &' Mirch, 1974) hot Made. by individuals who are specifically charged even there, the label is unfair.Academic gover with the administrative responsibility for doing so. nance should not be so easily dismissed but it does' . If the decisions are faulty." the administrator is not always meet legal, economic, technical, and liable in either an ethical, plural, or legal sense. If managerial concepts of rationality.Academic the decisions arsebrilliant,the administiator.isen- gove?nance has a logic of its own that is notcom- titled to yecognition. .' . . Dipletely obscure. The achievements of American in- governance is a far more subtle concept and stitutions of higher education suggest that aca- whilits faults may quickly be evident; its bril- demie governance is entitled tog logic. of its own. liance'often difficult to detect. The location of Many critics and observers wo`uld,. hope, nonethez governance 'and its occasion are difficult.to specify. less, that the inner or unique logic of academic Boards of trustees are rightly charged with respon,....governance could, be bette- explicated. and that it ,sibility kir certain aspects of governance, bid would be more consistently applied.'Public in- boards of trustees, cannot design and develop a cur- 4terest should insistthat it is. riculum. They teach no classes and they grade no The essence of academic governance can be final exams. The faculties of.colleges and universi identified, without great distortion, as ,"delibera- ties are respontible ,fOr certain governatm func- tive process." One mark of a university must sure- tions in higher education. 'There is almost universal ' ly be its capacity for debate.If a university has concession tl it faculties, should be "free to learn. the intellectual competence it should be noted for, and free to teach."Neither. statenor society and if its faculties have the knowledge, expertise, should dictate research of scholatiy interests and and intelligence for which they ostensibly-hive what faculty teach students is a matter firmly be.. been appointed, there should be involvement in lieved to be best 'decided by faculty members. :and commitment-to--- a deliberative process by .Decisionsof cutAL.:duml. course content, .., which knowledge can be derived and conveyed to course requirements, and teaching method are de. others: A curriculum should' not be a combination cisions of academic 'governance. To make these of courses decided upon in 1912, 1946,or 1968; decisions, tne'faculties\ of colleges and universities` it should be one of the. outcomes of continuing de- must have a governance structure to do_so:-"More liberation among faculty,Itudents, and other insti- important, faculty need a ciearlyArtreulated pro- tutional participants who can contribute cess by which, they reachAecncions of curriculum candy to the process. Other outcomes 9f thatpro- and instruction. Thatlioceu should be as open cess should be meaningful course requirements,' and explickas-any governance process can be.It dedicated teaching, systematic and fair evaluations should -bedevoid of all mystique and it should be of student learning, and a critical appraisal of pro- free of the suppoiitidns that so frequently 'domi- grants Of study. The prOcess should include a con- nate faculty committees and faculty representation cern for academic standards that'are relevant in a in administrative and governance matters.The pluralistic society, lirofessional standards that are faculty is not a legislative branch of government, "meaningful in institutions that are surely diverse, free to enact policy for administrative execution and policies that enable constructive change in pro- and lqually free to remove adminlitrators for gramsand services to 'students and othey-clierifecs. failure to do'so. Presidents and deans do not serve- of the institution. at the pleasure of the faculty in most institutions The difficulties of getting faculty to dis- of higher education and could not possibly do so. tinguish between administration and governance Neither is the faculty organized labor whose' sole are compounded at the level of governing or co- governance responsibility is thenegotiation of next ordinating boiirds.Frequently lacking is an ade- year's contract.Neither n legislature/executive quate concept of policy Re.! se and an appreciation model nor a labor/management model is anintelli- of the governance processes taking place within the gent.interpretation of academic governance. institutions themselves.Procedures for program Academic governance begins both above in approval and reyiew often suggest that .colleges and

12 .. . . . , . universities are incapable ofslf-determinationor governance structures. that are rightly concerned autonomy 'and must be proteCtedt from themselves. with academic programa and services Aid, external In recent years on many occasions, such an as- governing 'boards that develop policy and en- sumption 'by political leaders and pUblic officials courage institutional leadership. It would then be . has been correct. Thcse who drasp so eagerly the permissable to imagine 'academic administration notion of accountability are eqitally quick to view that is professional in the finest sense of that word the local college or the,state unhersity as organized and fully capable of administrative leadership. We anarchy. -- could then infer that the dominant interest and A crucial need in American higher education Concern of American colleges and universities were must surely -be a 're-examination bf the governance not survival but education: responsibilities of faculties at the institutional level and of governing or coordinating boar& at the state level.Both groups"Should' articulate with REFERENCES finer precision their conceptualization of policy - and hould te-establish their rightful, claims to Arnold, Thurman W. The Folklore of Capitalism, policy as an organizing, implementing principle.. It New Haven: Yale University Press, 1937. is not unfair ta,say that academic administration is 'far more m,tUre in 1980' than academic governance Back, Kurt W. Beyond Words: The Story of Sen.. is.- Many institutiiins of higher education may be Litivity Training and the Encounter Move - better -administefed than they deserve to be,- given ment.. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1973. the=unce#ain status and function of governance structures and the apparently widespread confu- Bereleson, Bernard and Steiner, Gary A. Human sions about governance process. Too many faculty Behavior:An Inventory of Scientific Find- committees meet and haggle on the basis of their . ings. New York: Harcourt, Brace, & Worlds suppositions concerning their specific char 1964. th' ir particular responsibilities. .Too many govern- . in bards are caught up in administrivia, fretting Burnh , -. The Managerial Revolution: about state purchasing requirements, the accep- What is Ha in in the World. New York: tance of gifts that will be used for tax write-offs, John Day, 1941. travel regulations, -and student complaints when the dean of students is not the right sex, race, age, Churclimin,, C. West.The Sy's-te-Ms-',Akroach. or ethnic group. New York: Dell Publishipg, 1968. The interlacing of administration and gover- nance is the major challenge facing institutional Cohen, Michaet D. and March, James G. Leader"= leadership.Survival' for many institutions in the ship and Ambiguity. New York: McGraw- 1980s may well depend upon the success of their , 1974. leaders in finding outside funds.It is more likely, however, that survival will depend upon the insti- Committee for Economic Development. BUdgeting tution's success in developing academic' programs for National Objectives: Executive and Con- and services that meet the needs and expectations gstional Roles in Program Planning and Per- of a changing student population. Faculty who do formsnce. New York: CED, 1966. not accept their governance responsibilities with full appreciation of the need to improve instruc- Committee for Economic Development. Innova tion, revise trfditiorial programs, develop new pro- tion in Education:New' Directions for the grams and-services, and re-affirm relevant academic American School. Nel-vY7rk: CED, 1968. yJ standards wall contribute directly to their continue ing loss of professional status.Governing boards Committee for Economic Development. The that do not re-define their responsibilities-for insti- Management and Financing of Colleges. New - tutionalpolici Auld leadership will contribute to York: CED,).973: the decay of institutions they have been appointed to preserve and enhance. 'Corson, John, J."Management of the College or In an- ideal world where institutions of higher University: It's Different. Topical Paper No. .education re-establish their intellectual and cultural 16. Tucson: Center for the Study of Higher leadership, it is not impossible to envision internal Education, University of Arizona, 1979.

No s .

Getzels, Jacob W."Fdlucaticipil AchniOstiation Mina,. C. Wright.White Collar:The American f Twenty Years Later: 1954- 1974" In Luvern Middle, Classes. New York: Oxford Univer- a s L. Cunningham, Waltei G. Hack, and Raphael - aitY-Fress, 1953. 0. Nystrand (Eds.)" Educationil Administra- tiod:The Developing Decades:Berkeley: Pierson, Frank C. and Others. The Education of McCutchan, 1977. American Businessmin: A Study of Univer: city- College Progams in Business Administra- Gordon, Robert A. and Hciwell, James E. Higher tion. New-York: McGraw -Hill, 1959. . Education for Business. New York: Colum- bia University Press, 1959. Ross, Ralph & Van Den Haag, Ernest. The Fabric of Society:An Introduction to the Social Gross, Bertram M. TheManaging of Organizations: Sciences.New York: Harcourt; Brace and The Administrative Struggle. Volumes I and Company, 1957. II. New York: Free Press, 1964. . .5 Selznick, Philip. Leadership in Administration: A Halpifr, Andrew W. and Hayes, Andrew E. "The Sociologic,It:terpretation.Dianston, Broken Ikon, Or, What Ever Happened to Row, Peterson, 1957. Theory?"In Cunningham, Hack, and Nys- trand(Eds.)Educational Administration: Simon, Herbert A.Administrative 'Behavior: A The Developing Decades. Berkeley: McCut- Study of Decision-Making in Administrative - 197. Organization.Third Edition.New York: Free Press, 1976. Henry, Nieholast Public Administration andtiblic Affairs. Englewood Cliffs:Preiffearal; Steiner, George A. Strategic -,Plarininci-FWliattm--- 13757 Manager Must Know. New Y*k: Free Press, /979. Maccoliy, Michael. The,Gamesman: The New Cor- porate Leaders.New York:Simon and Whyte, William H., Jr.The Organization Man. Schuster, 1976. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1956. . Mason, Henry L. 'Collegiiii8 University Giver- nance: A Hindbook of Principle and Prac- tice. lieiTOrleails: Tulane/ University, 1972. Millett, John D. "Higher (Education. Management Versus Buainess Management." Educational Record 1976,16, 2B1-225. . . . Milettu, JohnershipD::'ManGuidMenGovernance and for College and Univer- IHE NEWSLETTER sk Admini strators. ew York: AMACOM, June, .1982 1980. Athens, Georgia'30602

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