An Indonesian Study of Mixed Methods

An Indonesian Study of Mixed Methods:

An Example of Methodological Triangulation

By Ruhizal Roosli, Muhammad Rusdi, Mohd Sanusi S. Ahamad and Andrew E. Collins

An Indonesian Study of Mixed Methods: An Example of Methodological Triangulation

By Ruhizal Roosli, Muhammad Rusdi, Mohd Sanusi S. Ahamad and Andrew E. Collins

This book first published 2018

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-5275-1594-X ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-1594-9 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acronyms ...... ix

Foreword ...... xi

Chapter One ...... 1 Introduction

Chapter Two ...... 28 Suitability of Land for Resettlement 2.1 Introduction ...... 28 2.1.1 Settlement Areas ...... 28 2.1.2 Housing ...... 29 2.1.3 Resettlement ...... 30 2.2 Disaster ...... 31 2.2.1 Flood ...... 32 2.2.2 Earthquake ...... 33 2.2.3 Tsunami ...... 34 2.3 Impact of Disasters for Settlement Areas ...... 36 2.4 Recovery and Reconstruction ...... 38 2.4.1 Disaster Management ...... 38 2.4.2 Reconstruction Model in Selected Countries ...... 40 2.5 Land Suitability Evaluation ...... 44 2.5.1 Land Suitability at the Level of Order ...... 45 2.5.2 Land Suitability Based on Class ...... 46 2.5.3 Land Suitability Subclass Level ...... 47 2.5.4 Land Suitability Subclass Unit ...... 47 2.6 Physical and Non-Physical Suitability ...... 48 2.7 Geospatial Technology for Settlement Areas ...... 50 2.8 Conclusion ...... 55

Chapter Three ...... 56 Research Methodology 3.1 Introduction ...... 56 3.1.1 Research Strategies ...... 56 3.1.2 Conceptual Framework ...... 58 vi Table of Contents

3.2 Physical Stage ...... 60 3.2.1 Physical Inventory ...... 60 3.2.2 Variables and Parameters ...... 61 3.2.3 Fieldwork of Physical Stage ...... 63 3.2.4 Laboratory Analysis ...... 66 3.2.5 Spatial Data Processing ...... 66 3.2.6 Physical Analysis Process ...... 68 3.3 Social Implications Stage ...... 72 3.3.1 Preparatory on Social Implications ...... 72 3.3.2 Population and Sample ...... 75 3.3.3 Variables ...... 77 3.3.4 Research Instrument ...... 79 3.3.5 Pilot Study ...... 79 3.3.6 Validity and Reliability ...... 81 3.3.7 Field Work on Social Implications ...... 82 3.3.8 Data Analysis ...... 82 3.3.9 Process on Social Implications Stage ...... 85 3.4 Proposed Master Plan ...... 86 3.5 Conclusion ...... 89

Chapter Four ...... 90 Suitability of Settlements Based on Physical Environment 4.1 Introduction ...... 90 4.2 Slope ...... 91 4.3 Land Characteristics ...... 98 4.3.1 Soil Bearing Capacity ...... 98 4.3.2 Permeability ...... 105 4.3.3 Soil Texture ...... 112 4.3.4 Gravel ...... 117 4.3.5 Settlement Suitability Areas Based on Soil Characteristics ... 124 4.4 Water Characteristics ...... 128 4.4.1 Groundwater Depth ...... 128 4.4.2 Groundwater pH ...... 133 4.4.3 Groundwater Conductivity ...... 138 4.4.4 Groundwater Salinity ...... 143 4.4.5 Groundwater Characteristics ...... 148 4.5 Discussion & Conclusion ...... 153

An Indonesian Study of Mixed Methods vii

Chapter Five ...... 158 Settlements Suitability Based on Disaster 5.1 Introduction ...... 158 5.2 Suitability Analysis Based on Flood ...... 160 5.2.1 Stagnant Water ...... 162 5.2.2 Landform ...... 164 5.2.3 Rainfall ...... 166 5.2.4 Flood Frequency ...... 166 5.3 Settlement Areas Suitability Based on Flood ...... 168 5.4 Suitability Analysis Based on Earthquake ...... 170 5.4.1 Earthquake Strength ...... 172 5.4.2 Epicenter ...... 174 5.4.3 Hipocentrum of Earthquakes ...... 176 5.4.4 Earthquake Frequency ...... 178 5.5 Settlement Areas Suitability Based on Earthquake ...... 180 5.6 Suitability Analysis Based on Tsunami ...... 180 5.6.1 Tsunami Caused by Earthquake ...... 181 5.6.2 The Height of Tsunami ...... 183 5.6.3 Tsunami Frequency ...... 186 5.7 Settlement Areas Suitability Based on Tsunami ...... 188 5.8 Conclusion ...... 190

Chapter Six ...... 192 Social Implications of Settlement in Unsuitable Areas 6.1 Introduction ...... 192 6.2 Analysis of Demographics ...... 192 6.3 Residents’ Awareness of Risk in Disaster Areas ...... 194 6.3.1 Experiences ...... 197 6.3.2 Education/Training ...... 198 6.3.3 Information Related to Disasters ...... 201 6.3.4 Correlation of Experience and Information on Awareness ...... 202 6.4 Reasons to Stay in Disaster Area ...... 203 6.4.1 Expenditure ...... 206 6.4.2 Inheritance ...... 207 6.4.3 Neighbourhood ...... 209 6.4.4 Belief/Religion ...... 211 6.4.5 Correlation of Reasons for Choosing Settlement Areas ...... 213 6.5 Public Perceptions on Disaster ...... 214 6.5.1 Government Policy on Disaster Management ...... 217 6.5.2 Government Support ...... 219 6.5.3 Public Perception on Policy and Government Support ...... 220 viii Table of Contents

6.6 Qualitative Analysis ...... 221 6.6.1 Community Awareness ...... 222 6.6.2 Reasons for Communities to Stay in Disaster Areas ...... 223 6.6.3 Public Perceptions on Government Policy and Support ...... 224 6.7 Conclusion ...... 226

Chapter Seven ...... 227 Proposal of an Integrated Plan 7.1 Introduction ...... 227 7.2 Inventory Data and Design Plans ...... 228 7.3 Analysis of Emerging Problems and Potential Solutions ...... 232 7.3.1 Potential of the Area ...... 232 7.3.2 Emerging Problem ...... 235 7.3.3 Potential Solution ...... 235 7.4 Proposed Concept of a Resilient City ...... 239 7.4.1 Design Concept ...... 239 7.4.2 Concept Plan ...... 249 7.5 Integrated Plan ...... 251 7.5.1 Integrated Plan of Zone A ...... 252 7.5.2 Integrated Plan of Zone B ...... 255 7.5.3 Integrated Plan Zone C ...... 259 7.5.4 Integrated Plan Zone D ...... 263 7.6 Conclusion ...... 266

Appendix 1: Physical Environment Data...... 267 Appendix 2: Disaster Data ...... 270 Appendix 3: Population Sample Size ...... 272 Appendix 4: Survey Forms on Social Implication Study ...... 273 Appendix 5: Validity of Questionnaires ...... 280 Appendix 6: Validity of Pilot Test Questionnaires ...... 281 Appendix 7: Results of CPT Measurement ...... 282 Appendix 8: Results of Soil Permeability Measurement ...... 283 Appendix 9: Results of Land Texture Measurement ...... 284 Appendix 10: Results of Rock/Gravel Measurement ...... 285 Appendix 11: Results of Groundwater Measurement ...... 286 Appendix 12: Results of Groundwater pH Measurement ...... 287 Appendix 13: Results of Groundwater Conductivity Measurement ...... 288 Appendix 14: Result of Groundwater Salinity ...... 289 Appendix 15: Results of Settlement Suitability Area Sub-Class ...... 290

References ...... 291

Subject Index ...... 324 ACRONYMS

AGDC Aceh Geospatial Data Center ALOS Advanced Land Observing Satellite BAPPEDA Regional Development Planning Agency BAPPENAS National Development Planning Agency BIG Geospatial Information Agency BNPB National Disaster Management Agency BMKG Meteorology, Climatology and Geophysics Agency BRR NAD-Nias Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam-Nias Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Agency BSPR Home Improvement Social Assistance CPT Cone Penetration Test CSRRP Community-Based Settlement Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Program Depkes Ministry of Health DRI Disaster Recovery Institute ERS European Remote Sensing ESRI Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc FAO Food and Agriculture Organization GCP Ground Control Points GTZ German Technical Cooperation Agency ICRAF International Center to Research in Agroforestry IFRC International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies IOM International Organization for Migration IRP International Recovery Platform IRS Indian Remote Sensing ISDR United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction ITB Bandung Institute of Technology ITS Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency KPKT Ministry of Urban Wellbeing, Housing and Local Government x Acronyms

LESA Land Evaluation and Site Assessment MOSTI Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation MREP Marine Resource Evaluation and Planning NGO Non-Governmental Organizations NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service NSW New South Wales Government Pemko City Government PennState Pennsylvania State University PP RI Government Regulation of the Republic of Indonesia PU Public Works Puslitanak Soil and Agro Research Center RI Republic of Indonesia Ristek Research and Technology RMS Root Mean Square RTH Green Open Space SIM-C Spatial Information and Mapping Centre SPNB National Housing Corporation SPOT Satellite Pour l'Observtion de la Terre SRTM Shuttle Radar Topography Mission TDMRC Tsunami and Disaster Mitigation Research Center UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women UNIMS United Nations Information Management Service UPLINK Urban Poor Linkage URISA Urban and Regional Information Systems Association USDA United States Department of Agriculture USGS United States Geological Survey UU RI Law of the Republic of Indonesia WCED World Commission on Environment and Development WWF World Wildlife Fund

FOREWORD

Sociologists use many different research methods when conducting sociological research. This book will describe how to combine quantitative with qualitative methods in a research project. The approach of combining both methods is called ‘Triangulation’. In the social sciences, triangulation is often used in combining several research methods to study one subject. Also known as “cross-examination” or “mixed method” research, triangulation is very useful in capturing more detail, minimizing the effects of bias and ensuring a balanced research study, no matter how big or small that study may be. Triangulation gives a more detailed and balanced picture of the situation. There are overlaps in practice, which are fair, being complementary at times and contrary in others. This has the effect of balancing each method out and giving a richer and hopefully truer justification. This triangulation approach is detailed through a real research project. For this book, the ‘Triangulation Strategy’ will be demonstrated by using it throughout the whole process and implementation of a project. An evaluation study of the suitability of land for development has been conducted in Banda Aceh, Indonesia. It is based on the physical environment, taking into account the risk of disaster and the social implications for settlement areas. The study aims to identify the basic physical environment for the settlements. It also identifies and confirms the locations of settlement areas that are prone to disaster. Furthermore, it also analyzes the residents’ awareness level, their reasons and perceptions in those high-risk residential areas. Finally, the research results make it possible to recommend a proposed plan to reduce the risks of disaster. The system of land suitability evaluation uses that adopted by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), processing and analyzing spatial data using a Geographic Information System (GIS). Analysis of results on the physical environment showed that the whole area of Banda Aceh is suitable for residential purposes. However, based on the disaster analysis, it is found that 54% of the total area of Banda Aceh is not suitable for settlements (being risky), and 29% of this is a very high-risk area. The unsuitable areas became the basis for the social implications study and for a planning analysis of the integrated land usage. Social sampling analysis was done with a random sample of 414 respondents. xii Foreword

The social implications results showed that the entire society is positively aware of the risks and impacts of living in the disaster-prone areas. The people have strong reasons and justifications for staying in the areas prone to disaster. The reasons include their tightly knit relationships with current neighbours, the difficulty of bearing the extra costs if they decided to move, the religious belief that disaster will happen wherever you are at any time and that therefore the current area poses no problem, and the issue of inheritance. The public perception analysis showed that the people have a high perception of the government’s foundation and support. The suitability of residential areas based on the physical environment and the perception of the community becomes the basis for the planning of such areas in order to reduce the impact of disaster. The protection strategies include the building of protective sea walls, preservation of greenbelts, and terracing as suited to local natural conditions. The building of escape buildings and evacuation routes is also recommended in the residential areas. The escape buildings are recommended to be built in mosques and schools, taking into account the religious belief that the mosque is the best place to seek shelter when it was previously not damaged in the 2004 tsunami that hit Aceh. In some areas, the relocation of residential areas to safer places should be made a priority in the long term for the purpose of reducing the risk of disaster in the future. The study was conducted from the end of 2012 until 2015 at the School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia and Syiah Kuala University in Banda Aceh, Indonesia. The field research was conducted in Banda Aceh, Indonesia. Soil and water sample processing was carried out in the Soil Laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Syiah Kuala, Aceh. Analysis of the spatial data generated in the research by GIS and Remote Sensing was done by the University of Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh and the School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia. The research required materials and equipment. The materials used in this study are the base map, thematic maps and satellite images of Banda Aceh, and there was a materials laboratory to analyze soil samples. A special tools laboratory was also used to measure the variables of soil and water (Appendix 1). Additionally, the project used stationery, computers, scanners, printers, GPS (Global Positioning System), cameras, and software such as ArcGIS, Excel, Visio, Auto CAD, Photoshop and SPSS. The tools and materials used were obtained from USM (Universiti Sains Malaysia) and UNSYIAH (University), Banda Aceh. An Indonesian Study of Mixed Methods xiii

This book is carefully organized in its methods and presentation of written material to explain the steps made to combine the two popular methods of undertaking a research project. Actual research projects are presented here to give a real sense of combining both methods. Such methods of writing are expected to provide guidance to prospective researchers doing research by the same methods.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

This book consists of seven chapters. Chapter One is the introduction to the book. Chapter Two describes the literature and the overview obtained from reviewing journals, collections of articles, reports, textbooks and other resources related to the research. This chapter starts with Banda Aceh as the study location: its history, physical conditions, climate and population structure. Chapter Three contains the conceptual framework and methods used to answer the research question, the variables used, the methods and techniques of data analysis, as well as the analyzer used. This chapter details the strategy of using the triangulation approach. The next chapters are the result of interpretation, research and data analysis. The theme is based on the research objectives. Chapter Four describes the conformity assessment of land for settlement based on the physical aspects of the environment. Chapter Five identifies locations for the placement of security measures against a potential disaster such as occurred in Banda Aceh. Chapter Six describes and discusses the social implications of people living in areas that are not suitable as settlements. Chapter Seven summarizes the findings as described in Chapters Four, Five and Six. This chapter also proposes a settlement plan that is appropriate to reduce the risk of disaster. The study was an evaluation of land suitability for settlement in Banda Aceh, Indonesia, taking into account physical environment, risk of disaster and social implications. This research revealed the problems, which were mainly in answering questions on the current suitability of land for settlements in Banda Aceh after the tsunami of 2004. The study was felt necessary by the authorities, as it relates to the safety of residents and investment in the short and long term. It considers the physical factors of the environment, taking into account the type of disaster likely to occur. The studies continue to take into account the social implications of people living in areas not suitable for resettlement after a disaster such as a tsunami and an earthquake. The social implications are revealed by the views, perceptions and factors that affect the local community who live in 2 Chapter One that place. The questions answered were about the dominant factors for the comfort of the people. In addition the project produced a model for future disaster reduction in Banda Aceh. In terms of history, Banda Aceh is a city in the State of Aceh within the Republic of Indonesia. Aceh is a special and unique country with a situation of unrest, political crisis and conflict. In addition, the earthquake and tsunami in late 2004 make Aceh an interesting field for international researchers to study, especially for research related to tsunami disasters (Pemko-Banda-Aceh, 2013a). Banda Aceh was chosen for this study because the area has suffered a large-scale disaster, with multiple processes and stages of reconstruction. The research work was best done over there because there are many phases of development: the initial process, the semi-finished and the occupied settlement, and some have reached the perfect stage of a mature neighbourhood. Banda Aceh is the largest city and the capital of Aceh. On top of that, the level of destruction as a result of the earthquake and tsunami was more than 50 percent (Takahashi et al., 2007). In terms of geography, Banda Aceh is located at 4° 41' 42.486" N, 96° 44' 57.836" E, which is about 149 km north-west of Meulaboh, Aceh West (Shofiyati et al., 2005; USGS, 2012). The earthquake was the fourth strongest in the world recorded since 1900 (Atjehpost, 2014; CNN, 2004; Hermansyah, 2012; USGS, 2012). Banda Aceh is an archipelagic state. An archipelagic state is an area that is influenced by an oceanographic environment (New South Wales Government, 1990; Sala, Harrison, and Caldeira, 2015). An oceanographic area is where sea and land ecosystems meet (Farhan & Lim, 2012; Hartadi, 2001). Natural geographical conditions are that the area is surrounded by unbroken ocean, and is deeply influenced by the sea and various environmental events. Overall, Aceh is the most western coastal area in Indonesia, overlooking the Indian Ocean. On December 26 2004 USGS recorded an earthquake of magnitude 9.1 on the Richter scale occurring off the west coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia. The Global Seismic Network said that the earthquake was at a depth of 30 km below the Indian Ocean (Chlieh et al., 2007; Lay, 2015; USGS, 2012). The earthquake caused cracks in some of the Indian Ocean sea bed and the tsunami that resulted moved across the Indian Ocean in just a few hours (Shofiyati et al., 2005). The overwhelming effect of the tsunami wave can be seen along the west coast of northern Sumatra, the province of Aceh. As a result of the wave, more than 220,000 people died or were lost to the sea. The Indonesian National Board for Disaster Management recorded a total of 124,068 deaths and 112,343 people missing. The Introduction 3 tsunami also caused damage to 120,000 hectares of coastal areas due to the influx of the sea (BNPB, 2005; Matsumaru, Nagami, & Takeya, 2012). Based on geography also, Banda Aceh is located at 4° 41' 42.486" N, 96° 44' 57.836" E. Banda Aceh’s position and orientation are shown in Figure 1.2. Banda Aceh has an area of + 6136 ha. or 61.36 km2 and its borders are as follows:

a. The northern part borders the Straits of Malacca; b. The south side has borders with the subdistricts of Darul Imarah and Ingin Jaya (Aceh Besar); c. On its west side it has a border with Peukan Bada subdistrict (Aceh Besar); d. The eastern border is with subdistricts Barona Jaya and Darussalam (Aceh Besar).

The City of Banda Aceh consists of nine subdistricts and 89 villages. Detailed information is as shown in Table 1.1, Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2. In general, in terms of their physical condition, lands in Banda Aceh are alluvial, consisting of layers of gravel, sand, and clay. In coastal areas, the ground is regosol and alluvial, resulting from the erosion of soil particles deposited by water or surface flow at a low level. In some coastal areas, such as along the Kreung coast, precipitation and curvature of the river occur. Deposition by local surface run-off produces barrows in certain parts, which eventually form a kind of alluvial soil (Puslitanak, 2000; Pemko-Banda-Aceh, 2012b). The types of soil in Banda Aceh is as shown in detail in Figure 1.3. In terms of topography, Banda Aceh ranges from 0 to 6 meters above sea level, with an average height of less than 5 meters above sea level. The (physiographic) surface form is relatively flat with a gradient of between 0 and 2 per cent. The surface form is such that it is prone to flooding and impoundment of water, especially during high tides and sea surges. In terms of its geology, as shown in Figure 1.4 Banda Aceh is located on alluvial sediments (Badan-Geologi, 1981). The deposits have not been compacted since the Holocene and have a loose structure. Banda Aceh is surrounded by Tertiary and Holocene rocks. The southern part of the west of Banda Aceh is dominated by carbonate rocks, while the eastern half is dominated by volcanic rocks. Both types of rock are the bedrock of Banda Aceh. Alluvial deposits which cover the city of Banda Aceh have not resulted in geological structures such as displacement and fracture, but Banda Aceh is affected by activity in the flanking geological structures.

4 Chapter One

Table 1.1: Subdistricts and Villages in the City of Banda Aceh (Pemko-Banda-Aceh, 2012a)

No. Subdistrict Villages 1 Baiturrahman Ateuk Deah Tanoh, Ateuk Jawo, Ateuk Munjeng, Ateuk Pahlawan, Kampung Baru, Neusu Aceh, Neusu Jaya, Peuniti, Seutui dan Sukaramai 2 Banda Raya Geuceu Ineum, Geuceu Kayee Jato, Geuceu Komplek, Lam Ara, Lam Peuot, Lamlagang, Lhong Cut, Lhong Raya, Mibo dan Penyeurat 3 Jaya Baru Punge Blang Cut, Geuceu Meunara, Lamteumen Timur dan Lamteumen Barat, Bitai, Empeerom, Lampoh Daya, Lam Jamee dan Ulee Pata 4 Kuta Alam Peunayong, Laksana, Keuramat, Kuta Alam, Beurawe, Kota Baru, Bandar Baru, Mulia, Lampulo, Lamdingin dan Lambaro Skep 5 Kuta Raja Lampaseh Kota, Merduati, Keudah, Peulanggahan, Gampong Jawa dan Gampong Pande 6 Lueng Bata Lamdom, Cot Mesjid, Batoh, Lueng Bata, Blang Cut, Lam Paloh, Sukadamai, Panteriek dan Lamseupeung 7 Meuraxa Alue Deah Teungoh, Asoe Nanggroe, Baru, Blang, Blang Oi, Cot Lamkueweuh, Deah Baro, Deah Glumpang, Lambung, Lamjabat, Lampaseh Aceh, Pie, Punge Jurong, Punge Ujong, Surien dan Ulee Lheue 8 Syiah Kuala Ie Masen Kaye Adang, Pineung, Lamgugob, Kopelma Darussalam, Rukoh, Jeulingke, Tibang, Deah Raya, Alue Naga dan Peurada 9 Ulee Kareng Pango Raya, Pango Deah, Ilie, Lamteh, Lam Glumpang, Ceurih, Ie Masen Ulee Kareng, Doy dan Lambhuk

Introduction 5

Figure 1.1: Map of Study Area Orientation (AGDC, 2013; BIG, 2013; ESRI, 2013)

6 Chapter One

Figure 1.2: Map of Banda Aceh City Administration (AGDC, 2013; GIS-Center-Banda-Aceh, 2013)

Introduction 7

Figure 1.3: Map of Soil Types in Banda Aceh (Puslitanak, 2000; AGDC, 2013; GIS-Center-Banda-Aceh, 2013)

8 Chapter One

Figure 1.4: Map of Banda Aceh Geological Area (Badan-Geologi, 1981)

Introduction 9

The Great Sumatran fault lies along the Sumatra Island from Semangko in Lampung to Pulau Weh, and is connected to the Andaman Islands. Analysis of geological spatial displacement is as shown in Figure 1.5. The western part of Aceh is also within a subduction zone of the Eurasian Plate and the Indo-Australian Plate. The movement of geological structures has affected Banda Aceh but was blocked by the strong lithology of its sediments. According to data from the meteorological station in Blang Bintang from 1986 to 2003, it was found that the average monthly air temperature in Banda Aceh is 25.5ºC to 31ºC, with atmospheric pressures between 1008 to 1012 millibars. The most frequent rainfall in Banda Aceh occurs in August, totaling 245 mm. The lowest rainfall occurs in June, i.e about 3 mm. Total rainfall during the year is 1065 mm, with a monthly average of 88.75 mm. The average monthly humidity is 74.6 percent over a year (Pemko-Banda-Aceh, 2013c). In the dry season rainfall is less than 60 mm, while in the rainy or wet season rainfall exceeds 100 mm. According to Schmidt and Ferguson (1951), the type of climate is determined by comparing the average of the month (BK) with the wet (BB) coefficient of 100 percent. The result of this comparison is that the Q value of 100 percent was obtained, which showed that the type of climate in the study area is relatively dry (type E). Hydrological conditions in Banda Aceh are heavily influenced by the sea and by the mountains. This can be seen in the ground water, which can be salty, brackish or fresh. Areas that have salty ground water are located in the north and east of the city towards the city centre. This area overlooks the Straits of Malacca. Brackish water exists in the central part of the city from east to west, while fresh groundwater is present in the southern part of the city, namely in the area near the Bukit Barisan mountains (Pemko-Banda-Aceh, 2012b). Spatial analysis of hydrological conditions, which include water and river sources, gives results as shown in Figure 1.6. Areas of construction (built-up areas) cover 4877.2 hectares (ha) or 79.48 per cent of the city, while the area with no construction is 1258.8 ha (20.52%). Areas of construction include residential areas, offices, public service offices, business centers, educational centers, health centers, tourist centers, ports and places of worship. Conversely, areas that are not built- up include parks, city forests, forest reserves, cemeteries, swamps and ponds (Pemko-Banda-Aceh, 2013d). Detailed land use can be seen in Figure 1.7.

10 Chapter One

Figure 1.5: Map of Semangko Fault in Banda Aceh (AGDC, 2013; BIG, 2013; NGA & NASA, 2013)

Introduction 11

Figure 1.6: Map of Hydrological Conditions in Banda Aceh (AGDC, 2013; GIS-Center-Banda-Aceh, 2013)

12 Chapter One

Figure 1.7: Map of Land Use in Banda Aceh (JICA & BAPPENAS, 2005; AGDC, 2013; GIS-Center-Banda-Aceh, 2013)

Introduction 13

The majority of the Banda Aceh community is Muslim. The population density is higher than that of other cities in the state of Aceh. In 2004, the population growth rate in the period 2001 to 2003 was recorded as 2.4 per cent per year (Pemko-Banda-Aceh, 2013b). After the tsunami, the Banda Aceh population was reduced by 25.61 per cent. According to census data, the population prior to the tsunami was reduced by a total of 177,881. In 2007, i.e three years after the tsunami (2005-2007), the number of people in Banda Aceh had again increased to 219,857 (11.8%) (Pemko-Banda- Aceh, 2013b). The earthquake and tsunami aggravated the infrastructure situation in Aceh, especially its houses. Earthquake aftershocks are included in the category of strong earthquakes. Based on the recorded data, the number of homes destroyed is estimated at 120,000 units, and 70,000 homes were damaged throughout Aceh (BRR-NAD-Nias, 2008a). The impact affected most communities near the epicenter (MTU, 2007). Infrastructure and housing have an important role in supporting efforts to improve the lives of people and the surrounding area. In terms of the development of a society, infrastructure plays an important role in economic growth by supporting consistent and effective increases of production, transport, communications and transactions (KPKT, 2013; Masriadi, 2011). The role of infrastructure is also important for and correlates with supporting the establishment of civil society, to create, among other benefits, a healthy environment in residential areas and to promote culture and provide comfort. BRR-NAD-Nias (2008a) notes that in Aceh up to April 2008 a total of 111,995 units of housing and the basic infrastructure of 809 settlements have been refurbished, involving 5,325,554 hectares of land allocated for the resettlement area with mixed use development. Within this package, a Social Assistance for Home Improvements (BSPR) scheme was provided to 50,081 families. A total of 16,874 housing units were reserved in Banda Aceh. Now, ten years after the tsunami, most of the buildings have been rebuilt and repaired accordingly. Unfortunately, some of the housing has not been occupied by the residents and some has even been abandoned. This problem is closely related to the discomfort and anxiety felt by communities close to disasters, the sense that it might happen again at any time (Nizar, 2014). As Chiara and Koppelman (1997) noted, any site for housing and resettlement must meet the following criteria: a) it should be attractive, convenient and efficient; b) it must offer safety and comfort and function properly; and c) it should maintain nature and be in harmony with the environment. 14 Chapter One

Another effect on the region after a natural disaster is a transfer of some residents to a more comfortable place with better infrastructure. This migration is also followed by economic investors wanting to undertake business activities in areas not affected by the disaster. This will lead to changes in the local community such as rising land prices, stress on the capacity of the infrastructure, and social conflicts to be resolved. Competition for land use is consistent with the idea of obtaining the highest value and the best use of land. This means that the use of land for activities which have been producing outputs of low value is substituted with activities that have higher production values (Bracken, 2008). The demand for land often increases, and thus the development activities primarily for housing are often affected by the problem of limited land. The land area does not increase, while demand continues to rise until it is higher than the supply. Construction of settlements in territories that do not conform to this will affect the environment and human life as well as the inhabitants of these settlements. In line with the changing times, the problem of limited land for development becomes increasingly critical, especially for the settlements. Such circumstances will be the basis for the implementation of a more detailed study of the suitability of land for residential development based on the physical characteristics of the environment in Banda Aceh. In addition, natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis and floods were studied to obtain a more detailed picture of the impact of investment activity. This was done in view of Banda Aceh being on an earthquake fault line with sloping topography and a highly probability of a tsunami and flooding. The tsunami in Aceh proves that disaster might befall human beings at any time. Thus, the most important thing is to try to minimize the risk of natural disasters, as it is impossible to completely avoid disaster. Furthermore, Srinivas and Nakagawa (2008) argue that we should take lessons from the disaster as an opportunity to prepare better for disasters in the future. Banda Aceh as the main town in the province of Aceh is one of the cities hardest hit by the earthquake and tsunami (Guswanto and Nugroho, 2005; Nugroho, 2005; RI, 2005). Damage to buildings and infrastructure is estimated to impact fifty percent of the area of Banda Aceh (Takahashi et al., 2007). This is shown in Figure 1.8. To improve and repair the situation in Aceh after the tsunami, the Indonesian government set up a special institution named Badan Rehabilitasi dan Rekonstruksi Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam-Nias/Agency for the Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Aceh and Nias (BRR NAD-Nias) for the period of 16 April 2005 to 12 February 2009. BRR is an agency which acts as the national ministry established Introduction 15

Figure 1.8: Map of Building Damage Caused by Earthquake and Tsunami in Banda Aceh (Takahashi et al., 2007) (AGDC, 2013; BIG, 2013; GIS-Center-Banda-Aceh, 2013)

16 Chapter One

for managing and administering the financial resources, rehabilitation and reconstruction of Aceh after the earthquake and tsunami. The financial resources come both from within the country and from outside (RI, 2005). The type of houses, construction and programme name in the last stages of the recovery area are as shown in Figure 1.10. The first three months after the disaster of 26 December 2004 are referred to as the emergency phase. At this stage, all the energy was deployed to keep the survivors able to live with even the most basic necessities of life. At this time, settlement is still in the form of tents, as shown in Figure 1.10a. After the emergency phase is the recovery phase. Generally, this phase involves the functioning and restoration of public services. Housing built in this rehabilitation phase of barracks and temporary housing (shelter) is as shown in Figures 1.10b and 1.10c. The recovery phase ended in December 2006. Beginning in 2007 until 2009 was the phase of reconstruction, which aimed to develop the social system, economic system, infrastructure, and administrative functions. At this stage many homes were built for permanent residents, or at least land was provided by the government for this purpose. Based on the classification of houses by Unterman and Small (1994), the most common type of home construction was a single-storey terrace house, and there was a smaller number of semi-detached houses as shown in Figure 1.10g. The forms of single-storey terrace houses built will vary according to the sponsor or funder. This can be seen in Figures 1.10d, 1.10e and 1.10f, which show that the model homes rebuilt by IOM are different when compared to houses built by Muslim Aid and UPLINK. Detailed information about the executor, the amount, source of funds, contracting, and cost of the project at the time of reconstruction can be seen in the catalog with the title of Housing and NAD-Nias Settlements (BRR-NAD-Nias, 2008b). Based on these reports, the reconstruction of houses in Banda Aceh amounted to 16,874 units, representing 7,766 units reported to the Indonesian government through the BRR, and 9,108 units by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and international agencies.

Figure 1.9: Timeline of Recovery Stages After the Tsunami in Aceh

Stages Before tsunami Emergency Recovery Reconstruction Normal Conflict RI‐GAM Tsunami, 24 Dec 2004 Mac, 2005 Dec, 2006 April, 2009

Time line

16 April 2005 16 April 2009 Controller National, Aceh National, International Rehabilitation & Reconstruction Agency (BRR) Goverment Aceh