20 Th “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy Anniversary 1995-2015

20 th “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy Anniversary 1995-2015

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“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE

Presidents ship: Air Flotilla General Vasile BUCINSCHI, PhD Brigadier General Boris ĎURKECH, PhD

Members: Brigadier General Ghiţă BÂRSAN, PhD

Professor Eng. Milan SOPOCI, PhD

Associate Professor Mária PETRUFOVÁ, PhD

Associate Professor Eng. Miroslav ŠKOLNÍK, PhD

Associate Professor Eng. Marcel HARAKAL, PhD

Professor Dr. Hab. Marek WALANCIK, PhD

Professor Barry JACKSON, PhD

Professor Florentin SMARANDACHE, PhD

Associate Professor Ludovic Dan LEMLE, PhD,

Professor Yiwen JIANG, PhD

Professor Gherman A. DE LA REZA, PhD

Professor Eng. Juraj MIČEK, PhD

Assistant Professor Ozgur Koray SAHINGOZ, PhD

Professor Mircea LUPU, PhD

Professor Corneliu UDREA, PhD

1 Professor Victor Valeriu PATRICIU, PhD

Professor Stefan-Gheorghe PENTIUC, PhD

Professor Răzvan - Lucian ANDRONIC, PhD

Professor Ciprian Ioan RĂULEA, PhD

Professor Constantin -Edmond CRACSNER, PhD

Professor Cătălin Marius GHERASIM, PhD

Associate Professor Rudolf HORAK, PhD

Associate Professor Jaromir MARES, PhD

Professor Aurel CRIŞAN, PhD

Colonel Mihail ANTON, PhD

Professor Gavrilă CALEFARIU, PhD

Professor Constantin DUGULEANĂ, PhD

Professor Philippe DONDON, PhD

Professor Maria IOANIDES, PhD

Professor Melissa LUKA, PhD

Professor Daniela ROSCA, PhD

Professor Robert SZABOLCSI, PhD

Professor Eng. Alex STEFAN, PhD

Professor Maria TUDOR, PhD

Associate Professor Anca PETRE, PhD

Professor Petrică VIZUREANU, PhD

Associate Professor Eng. Sławomir AUGUSTYN, PhD

Professor Marek MARKIEWICZ, PhD

Professor Eng. Marian PEARSICA, PhD

Professor Eng. Constantin ROTARU, PhD

Professor Traian ANASTASIEI, PhD

Associate Professor Eng. Doru LUCULESCU, PhD

Professor Eng. Mircea BOŞCOIANU, PhD

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE

President: LTC Laurian GHERMAN,PhD

Members: Prof. Ion DINESCU, PhD Maj. Cătălin CIOACĂ, PhD Capt. Cmd. Ionică CÎRCIU, PhD Maj. Cornel ARAMĂ, PhD Assist. Prof. Liliana MIRON, PhD Assist. Prof. Constantin STRÎMBU, PhD Assist. Prof. Cristian CONSTANTINESCU, PhD Assist. Prof. Gheorghe RADU, PhD Math. Carmen URSOIU Lt.Col. Cristian ENE Assoc. Prof. Diana ILIŞOI, PhD Assist. Prof Mihaela SMEADĂ, PhD Assist. Bogdan Gheorghe MUNTEANU, PhD Assist. Daniela NAGY, PhD Psychologist Mihaela OANCEA Cmd. Marian BOBE

Logistics: Col Dumitru DINU Lt Col Bogdan CHIOSEAUA Lt Cosmin TĂTULESCU WO Marian MIHALACHE WO Sergiu OBREJA WO Daniel CHERCIU

Secretariat: Maj Criste RĂU Eng. Mariana GHINDĂOANU

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

CONTENTS VOLUME I Pag AIR FORCE

Jacques ABEN, Julien MALIZARD 13 THE SPIRIT OF DEFENCE AND ITS DETERMINANTS Traian ANASTASIEI 25 CONNECTIONS OF AIR POWER Daniel-Nicolae BĂNICĂ EUROPEAN ANTIMISSILE DEFENSE SYSTEM –POST SECOND PHASE 33 IMPLEMENTATION PERSPECTIVE IN THE CONTEXT OF NATO-RUSSIA RELOCATION Oliver CIUICĂ, Eduard MIHAI 43 HUMAN ERROR – COCKPIT VULNERABILITIES Iulia-Mădălina DUMITRU, Mircea BOŞCOIANU 49 HUMAN FACTORS CONTRIBUTION TO AVIATION SAFETY Ion MAGDALENA 55 UNMANNED AIR VEHICLES IN ROMANIA. STEPS TO THE FUTURE Diana MANOLACHE, Ciprian CHIŞ 61 NATO BOMBING IN THE FORMER REPUBLIC OF YUGOSLAVIA Eduard MIHAI, Oliver CIUICĂ 71 FOUNDATION OF THE EARLY PILOTING SCHOOLS IN ROMANIA Ovidiu-Gheorghe MOŞOIU ECONOMIC COOPERATION AND REVITALIZING THE NATIONAL DEFENSE INDUSTRY, DETERMINANT FACTORS IN STRENGTHNING THE 77 FUNDAMENTAL NATIONAL INTERESTS IN THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY AND NATO Ilie PĂUN THE INTEROPERABILITY OF THE INTELLIGENCE SYSTEM – A SALIENT 85 PREREQUISITE FOR ACQUIRING INTELLIGENCE COMPATIBILITY Vasile PRISACARIU, Ionică CÎRCIU, Sebastian POP INSTRUMENTS FOR THE EVALUATION OF THE AERODYNAMIC 93 PERFORMANCE OF WIND TUNNELS Marius RĂDULESCU, Vasile ŞANDRU 99 SHORAD SOLUTIONS FOR THE AIR FORCES SYSTEMS UP-GRADE Róbert SZABOLCSI NIGHT WATCHBIRD UAV SYSTEM: AN EFFECTIVE TOOL IMPROVING FORCE 105 PROTECTION CAPABILITIES IN THE WAR THEATRES Daniel ŞTEFĂNESCU 113 NATO STRATEGY TO DEFEAT ENEMY FORCES IN THE HYBRID WAR

MANAGEMENT

Constantin-Valentin BORDEI THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TERRORIST TARGETS IDENTIFICATION 119 PROCESS Paul-Marian FUSEA THE MILITARY AUTHORITY – THE DECISIONAL SUPPORT OF THE MILITARY 125 ADMINISTRATION Marius MILANDRU LOGISTIC DECISION MAKING PROCESS INSIDE 131 THE MILITARY ORGANISATION USING EXPERT SYSTEMS Elena POPOVICI, Rosa Elena PINOS NEIRA INSTITUTIONAL GOVERNANCE STRATEGIES OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN 137 THE PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS OF THE REPUBLIC OF ECUADOR Mădălin SLĂNICEANU RESEARCH ON CADEDTS’ PREFERENCES AND REQUIREMENTS REGARDING 141 THE GUIDED PHYSICAL TRAINING AND SPORT ACTIVITY Milan SOPÓCI, Marek WALANCIK CONCEPTION OF COMPETENCES DEVELOPMENT OF AIR DEFENCE OF 147 ARMED FORCES SOCIO - HUMANITIES

Florin-Marian ANTONESCU, Petronela-Sorina VÎRBAN RELATIONSHIP MOTIVATION - VOCATIONAL MATURITY TO STUDENTS TO 153 PRACTICE SPORTS CONTACT Ramona-Cristina BALANESCU THE PROJECT-BASED LEARNING IN THE HIGHER EDUCATION - 159 THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL ASPECTS Angela BLOGUŢ 165 STRESSING FACTORS IN AVIATION Ileana-Mihaela CHIRIŢESCU 171 ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT: NEEDS, DESIRES, REQUIREMENTS Cătălin CIOACĂ, Horaţiu MOGA THE ARTICULATION AND AGGREGATION OF INTERESTS IN THE ANALYSIS 175 OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES COOPERATION Georgiana CORCACI SATISFACTION AND PERFORMANCE WORK -DIMENSIONS RELEVANT FOR 185 THE ORGANIZATIONAL YIELD Constantin-Edmond CRACSNER, Lidia MOGOŞAN IRRATIONAL BELIEFS, PROFESSIONAL STRESS AND PERSONALITY IN THE 191 MILITARY Elena-Oliviana EPURESCU 203 CAREER COUNSELOR’S/CONSULTANT’S ROLE FOR A PROFESSION Diana ILIŞOI, Ana-Maria FURTUNĂ 209 STRESS IN MILITARY FIELD Cristian-Vlad IRIMIA 213 HUMAN SECURITY PSYCHO-MORAL CONSIDERATIONS

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

Irina IOANA 219 THE TERRORISM AND ITS PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS Cosmin IVANCIU GUNS FOR HIRE: PRIVATE MILITARY COMPANIES AND THEIR STATUS 227 UNDER INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW Nicoleta LITOIU 235 FACILITATION OF LEARNING AT A DISTANCE TRAING PROGRAM Nicoleta LITOIU PROFESSIONAL TRAINING PROGRAMS FOR PRACTICIONERS IN CAREER 243 COUNSELING Roxana MAIER, Alina MARIAN THE TEACHER-PARENT EDUCATIONAL PARTNERSHIP, HEALTH 249 PROMOTION PROGRAM - SPECIFIC CASE - DENTAL HEALTH Loredana MANASIA CREATING A-HA MOMENTS IN TEACHING PRACTICE. ROUTINE VERSUS 255 ADAPTIVE METACOGNTIVE BEHAVIORS IN TEACHERS Gabriela-Carmen OPROIU THEORETICAL APPROACHES ON LEARNING FACILITATION IN 263 MENTORING Anca PĂUNESCU, Laviniu LĂPĂDAT 269 MEDIATIZATED WORD. INFORMATION. EDUCATION. MANIPULATION Silviu PETRE, Gheorghe SĂVOIU SEARCHING FOR SHREADS OF ORDER. THE STRUCTURE OF TODAY’S 277 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM Lavinia-Maria PRUTEANU, Viorel ROBU 287 ASPECTS OF PROFESSIONAL BURNOUT AMONG NURSES Monica A.P. PURCARU, Gabriela CÂMPEAN 293 FIGHTING SCHOOL FAILURE IN MATHEMATICS Răzvan George ŞTEFAN ETHICS ON THE HORIZON. TOWARDS A COMPLEX ASSUMPTION OF A 301 SECURITY CULTURE Marilena TICUŞAN, Hurjui ELENA 309 CRITICAL THINKING IN DEVELOPMENT OF CREATIVITY Marilena TICUŞAN 315 EDUCATIONAL ASPECTS OF ASSESSMENT OF CREATIVITY

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“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

VOLUME II

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICAL ENGINEERING

Philippe DONDON, Ecaterina-Liliana MIRON EFFECT OF LIGHT DEPENDANT RESISTOR MISMATCHING AND IMPACT OF 321 NON LINEARITY IN A SMALL SCALE SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM Florin-Andrei GEORGESCU, Mihai DATCU, Dan RĂDUCANU GABOR AND WEBER LOCAL DESCRIPTORS PERFORMANCE IN 331 MULTISPECTRAL EARTH OBSERVATION IMAGE DATA ANALYSIS Gheorghe MORARIU, Mihai MIRON 337 FRACTAL ANTENNA WITH HEXAGONAL RESONATORS Dan STOICA, Adina BOTEANU, Mihai ENACHE, Albert PLOŞNIŢĂ INFLUENCE OF THE INTERCONNECTING CABLES ON EQUIPMENTS 341 ELECTROMAGNETIC EMISSIONS SPECTRUM Constantin STRÎMBU 347 ABOUT POLY-PHASE VOLTAGE RECTIFIERS OPERATION Mihai TIMIS, Alexandru VALACI, Calin MONOR IMPROVEMENTS METHODS FOR DESIGN OF MULTIFUNCTIONAL 351 REGISTERS WITH DECODED MODE SIGNALS Grigore VASILIU VALIDATION OF SPECTRAL ANALYSIS RESULTS USING PLC IMPLEMENTED 357 AI TECHNIQUES

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY

Cornel ARAMĂ, Mariana SAVA, Lavinia CUCU ANALYSIS OF THE LIGHT OFF-ROAD VEHICLE ENDOWMENT POSSIBILITIES 363 IN ORDER TO USE IT FOR AIR FORCE MISSIONS Sławomir AUGUSTYN, Bogumił ZNOJEK 369 THE NEW VISION IN DESIGNING OF AIRPORT Sławomir AUGUSTYN, Telesfor-Marek MARKIEWICZ THE USING OF NANOCOMPOSITE HEATING SYSTEM FOR AVIATION 373 DESIGNING Bogdan BARABAŞ, Adriana FLORESCU, Sorin BARABAŞ SAVING ENERGY ESTIMATION FOR USE OF HOLLOW ROLLERS IN 377 BEARINGS UTILIZED IN WIND ENERGY TURBINES E.S. BÂRCĂ, A.G. PLĂIAŞU, Mihaela VLADU, Marioara ABRUDEANU, G. MAHU, Corneliu MUNTEANU 383 STRESS DISTRIBUTION FOR A PISTON WITH AN AL2O3 TOP LAYER DEPOSITED ON THE PISTON HEADS WHICH ABSORBS GAS PRESSURE

9 Bogdan-Alexandru BELEGA, Trung Duc NGUYEN ANALYSIS OF FLOW IN CONVERGENT-DIVERGENT ROCKET ENGINE 389 NOZZLE USING COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS Bogdan-Alexandru BELEGA, Amado ŞTEFAN 395 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITE WINGS Ion DINESCU CHARACTERISTICS OF SLUDGE RESULTED FROM BALL-BEARINGS 401 RECTIFICATION Lica FLORE, Albert Arnau CUBILLO DYNAMIC MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF AN AIRCRAFT WING WITH EMPHASIS 405 ON VIBRATION MODES CHANGE WITH LOADING Adriana FLORESCU, Bogdan BARABAŞ, Sorin BARABAŞ 411 TRENDS IN IMPLEMENTATION OF RISK MANAGEMENT IN SMEs Ciprian-Marius LARCO, Ştefan-Mircea MUSTAŢĂ, Radu-Călin PAHONIE 419 COMPOSITE MULTILAYER STRUCTURES OBTAINED BY EXPLOSIVE METHO Doru LUCULESCU, Vasile PRISACARIU 425 KINEMATICS OF THE LANDING GEAR SYSTEMS OF AIRCRAFT Tomáš LUKÁČ, Vladimír HORÁK, Linh Do DUC, Dalibor ROZEHNAL 429 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR STUDYING PROPERTIES OF POWER GASES Mihai MIHAILA-ANDRES, Paul Virgil ROSU THERMO-GAS DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF UPPER-STAGE ROCKET ENGINE 437 NOZZLE Angi NORBERT, Razvan UDROIU 445 DESIGN OF A LSA AIRCRAFT USING ADVANCED SOFTWARE Geanina-Laura PINTILEI, Marioara ABRUDEANU, Corneliu MUNTEANU, Ionuţ- Vasile CRISMARU, Mihaela VLADU, Iustin POPA THE BEHAVIOR OF AN AL2O3 COATING DEPOSITED BY PLASMA 451 ELECTROLYTIC OXIDATION ON ALUMINUM ALLOYS AT HIGH TEMPERATURE REGIME Geanina-Laura PINTILEI, Marioara ABRUDEANU, Corneliu MUNTEANU, Ionuţ- Vasile CRISMARU, Iustin POPA, Mihaela VLADU THE INFLUENCE OF Al2O3 DEPOSITED COATING BY PLASMA 455 ELECTROLYTIC OXIDATION TO THE BEHAVIOR OF AN ALUMINUM ALLOY SUBJECTED TO MECHANICAL SHOCK Corina-Monica POP, Gheorghe-Leonte MOGAN 461 ROBOTIC GRIPPERS FOR HANDLING BOOKS IN LIBRARIES Lucian-Eugen RAD, Thomas HEITZ, Anghel CHIRU 467 SPECIFIC TESTS FOR COMPOSITE STEERING COLUMNS Constantin ROTARU, Ionică CÎRCIU, Raluca-Ioana EDU, Oliver CIUICĂ, Eduard MIHAI 475 NONLINEAR EFFECTS OF THE SIDEWASH GRADIENT ON AN AIRPLANE VERTICAL TAIL Amado ŞTEFAN, Ciprian LARCO, Radu-Călin PAHONIE, Ionut NICOLAESCU 481 COUPLED TRANSIENT ANALYSIS OF A UAV COMPOSITE WING Stoyko STOYKOV, Milen ATANASOV CALCULATING TECHNICAL SCATTERING FULL ERROR FOR EXTERNAL 487 SUSPENDED BOMBS AT FREE RELEASE

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

George SURDU, Ioan VEDINAŞ, Georgică SLĂMNOIU, Şomoiag PAMFIL PROJECTILE’S DRAG COEFFICIENT EVALUATION FOR SMALL FINITE 491 DIFFERENCES OF HIS GEOMETRICAL DIMENSIONS USING ANALYTICAL METHODS Fulga TANASA, Madalina ZANOAGA, Yevgen MAMUNYA CONDUCTIVE THERMOPLASTIC POLYMER NANOCOMPOSITES WITH 497 ULTRALOW PERCOLATION THRESHOLD Michael Damianov TODOROV AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF AIRFOIL WITH SINGLE SLOTTED 509 FLAP FOR LIGHT AIRPLANE WING Alexandru-Nicolae TUDOSIE MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR A JET ENGINE WITH ANTI-STALL AUTOMATIC 515 VALVE AIDED COMPRESSOR Alexandru-Nicolae TUDOSIE, Mihai-Cătălin OLTEANU PNEUMATIC ANTI-STALL AUTOMATIC SYSTEM FOR A JET ENGINE 523 COMPRESSOR Sebastian-Marian ZAHARIA FATIGUE LIFE SIMULATION OF THE SPECIMENS MADE OF MECHANICAL 531 COMPONENT Sebastian-Marian ZAHARIA RELIABILITY AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE FATIGUE LIFE OF THE 535 TAPERED ROLLER BEARINGS Mădălina ZĂNOAGĂ, Fulga TANASA, Raluca DARIE NOVEL POLYPROPYLENE-CLAY HYBRID MATERIALS FOR AUTOMOTIVE 541 INDUSTRY. EFFECT OF THE COMPATIBILIZING AGENT

RENEWABLE ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Timur CHIS 547 THE LIFE CYCLE AS AN OFFSHORE PIPELINE Bogdan CIORUŢA, Mirela COMAN INNOVATIVE POSSIBILITIES TO REPRESENT THE BAIA MARE URBAN 551 SYSTEM SOILS POLLUTION WITH HEAVY METALS USING G.S. SURFER Marcela HRENIUC, Mirela COMAN, Bogdan CIORUŢA CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE SOIL POLLUTION WITH OIL PRODUCTS 557 IN SĂCEL - MARAMUREŞ Raluca NICOLAE (MĂNESCU), Anişor NEDELCU SOME PATTERNS OF APPLICATION OF FMEA METHOD FOR STUDYING THE 563 QUALITY OF A PRODUCT Ramona PAKOCS, Nouraş-Barbu LUPULESCU NEED TO IMPLEMENT A HIGHLY-PERFORMING INTELLECTUAL-PROPERTY 567 MANAGEMENT IN THE TECHNICAL-ENGINEERING FIELD

11 Ramona PAKOCS , Nouraş-Barbu LUPULESCU RISK MANAGEMENT AND ASSESSMENT OF THE MANUFACTURING AND 575 MARKETING RISK-FACTORS, WITHIN INDUSTRIAL COMPANIES Adrian PETRU, Aurel LUNGULEASA 581 EFFECTS OF THE LASER POWER ON WOOD COLOURATION Adrian ROŞCA, Petre CÎRDEI MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR PORK BONELESS NECK TENDERIZING TO 585 PRODUCE ROMANIAN TRADITIONAL PRODUCT “CEAFĂ PERPELITĂ“ Daniela ROŞCA, Adrian ROŞCA THE INFLUENCE OF CYCLIC VACUUMING AND PRESSURING PROCESS ON 591 TENDERIZING SHEEP PASTRAMI Cosmin SPÎRCHEZ, Aurel LUNGULEASA THE INFLUENCE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT ON WOOD 597 CONSTRUCTION

APPLIED MATHEMATICS, COMPUTER SCIENCE, IT&C

Gabriel ANASTASIU, Elena ANASTASIU 601 TRANSMISSION CODING SYSTEM USING HAMMING ENCODING FHSS Cristian BUCUR 605 USING BIG DATA FOR INTELLIGENT BUSINESSES Mihaela DUMITRACHE, Camelia GHELDIU THE EQUATION OF DISPERSION AND THE DISPLACEMENT VECTOR IN THE 613 ANTISYMMETRIC CASE Miroslav HRUBÝ 617 SUBJECT INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN MILITARY EDUCATION Hošek JAROMÍR, Alexandr ŠTEFEK 621 SIMPLE SOFTWARE FOR EDUCATION Mircea LUPU, Cristian-George CONSTANTINESCU, Gheorghe RADU AIRPLANES OR RACKETS FLIGHT STABILIZATION OPTIMAL CONTROL IN 625 CASE OF PITCH PERTURBATIONS Ioan MILOSAN 631 MATHEMATICAL MODELING BY USING A C++ SOFTWARE Ioan MILOSAN 639 OPTIMIZATION OF INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES USING A SPECIAL SOFTWARE Gabriela MOGOS COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF QUANTUM KEY DISTRIBUTION PROTOCOLS 645 WITH TWO, THREE AND FOUR-STATE SYSTEMS Ana-Maria RÎTEA, Sorina-Mihaela STOIAN SOME FEATURES ABOUT STATIONARY DISTRIBUTION OF PROBABILITIES 649 AND APPLICATIONS Ştefania-Iuliana ŞOIMAN, Gheorghe RADU, Ştefan-Gheorghe PENTIUC, Ionuţ BALAN 655 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF PARALLEL SVM TRAINING ON CLUSTER HAVING SIMILAR IBM ROADRUNNER ARCHITECTURE

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

THE SPIRIT OF DEFENCE AND ITS DETERMINANTS

Jacques Aben*, Julien Malizard**

*École de l’air, Salon-de-Provence, France, **Institut des Hautes études de défense nationale, Paris, France

In the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of related to the word: “patriotism”. In this case it Man and of the Citizen, one can read: “For the is better to quote Thucydides: “If we turn to maintenance of the public force (…) a our military policy, we differ also from our common contribution is essential. All the antagonists (…) trusting less in system and citizens have a right to record by themselves, policy than to the native spirit of our citizens” or by their representatives, the necessity of the [3]. The expression “native spirit” is public contribution, to consent to it, to follow ambiguous and the word “patriotism” has no its use” [1]. From a patriotic point of view, the longer, to day, the favour it had during the necessity of the public contribution for the years of the Great War, especially because it is maintenance of the public force is not naturally associated with the war, because the disputable, it is an axiom, for the nation’s war reveals the patriotism or because the vital, or even fundamental, interests are patriotism causes the war, through the priceless, so that the defence of their integrity nationalism. In the current French political may justify from any citizen a total discourse, one prefers to use the expression engagement that is to the death. It is what “spirit of defence”, by which the official general Joseph Joffre affirmed, one century language means the community’s willingness ago, in his famous order of the day to an army to use the force, if necessary, to defend their th of mobilized citizens, on the 6 of September interests. Knowing the violence that seems to 1914, at the beginning of the battle of the haunt the mankind, this spirit of defence may Marne: “At the moment when a battle begins appear natural, if it had not a return: to carry of which the country’s safety depends, it violence against others means to accept imports to recall to all that the moment is no suffering their own violence. So the longer to look at the rear. All the efforts have willingness to defend oneself is expressed by to be used to attack and repel the enemy. Any the consent to pay in “blood, toil, tears and troop that cannot advance has to keep the sweat” [4]. But only the ordeal allows conquered ground at all costs and be killed knowing if a spirit of defence animates people rather than draw back. In the present or not. It is easy to say a posteriori that in 1914 the French people showed more patriotism circumstances, no weakness can be tolerated” [2] This conception refers to the idea that the than their sons in 1940 [5]. It would have been citizen, mentioned in the Declaration is the last more difficult a priori, even if the “blue line of wall of the city in the extreme situations and is the Vosges” ideology prepared better to the

13 AIR FORCE

sacrifices of the Marne, and the “war to end all 1 IN SEARCH OF THE FRENCH wars” ideology to the “shame” [6] of Munich PEOPLE CONSENT TO PAY FOR and to the debacle. But there are prices that are DEFENCE paid without any such ordeal: for preparing oneself to face up a potential ordeal or for The word consent is rather absent of the organizing its deterrence [7]. In this case, economic language that prefers to use “sweat” means “money” through the military “propensity”: “We will therefore define what expenditures or the defence effort. The first we shall call the propensity to consume as the expression simply designates the funds functional relationship χ between Yw a given allocated to the maintenance of the military level of income in terms of wage-units, and services. It is useless as soon as one is Cw the expenditure on consumption out of that interested in a comparison through time or level of income” [11]. So the reasoning shows space. The defence effort, which refers to the a dependent variable, consumption, and an ratio of military expenditures to state’s budget, explanatory one, income, linked together by a or national income or gross domestic product, proportionality coefficient. But the same has no such weakness. And by its connotation reasoning adds that this coefficient could well of sacrifice, it is well adapted to the concept of be variable so that the consumption could vary spirit of defence [8]. Anyway, defence non-proportionally to the income. So studying economists have tried for a long time to the propensity determinants becomes very explain statistically the defence expenditures useful when trying to forecast the effects of or effort accepted by one or several states. income variations on consumption, even if one Among explanatory variables one finds: the decides that because of the length of the gross national product; the population; the chosen period, these determinants have no enemy’s military expenditures; the allies’ effect, so that one can reason as if the military expenditures; political ideologies; propensity was constant: “For whilst the other border length; communication lines length factors are capable of varying (and this must [9]… Economists have tried a lot of statistical not be forgotten), the aggregate income relations between the defence effort or measured in terms of the wage-unit is, as a expenditures and different explanatory rule, the principal variable upon which the variables [10], ending up in contradictory consumption-constituent of the aggregate conclusions because applied to different demand function will depend” [12]. The countries, in different periods and with propensity, because of the precedent different statistical methods. This definition, belongs to the macroeconomics disappointing statement shows perhaps that world. On the contrary the expenditure for there is a missing link in the explanatory line. defence, introducing the idea of choice with And this link could be the nation’s spirit of other public expenditures, belongs rather to the defence. It would explain why, in front of a microeconomics field. This idea of choice is given threat, a given vulnerability, and with one of the reasons having induced the given resources, they may as well increase professionals to adopt the word “willingness”. their effort as cut it or do nothing. But at a So according to Paul Krugman and Robin condition: this intermediary variable has to be Wells, “A consumer’s willingness to pay is the constant or follow a known law of variation. maximum price at which he or she would buy The present paper will be dedicated to the that good” [13]. This definition seems study of this intermediation. The first part will perfectly suitable for the present question, present the “consent to pay” concept and give because the willingness to pay for defence its measure in the French case. The second would be a good indicator of the people’s part will try to make a list of its potential spirit of defence. And from “willingness to determinants and to test them as explanatory pay” to “consent to pay” there is only one variables. small step. If the propensity to consume was measured ex post because of its postulated stability, the willingness – or consent -to pay is only useful if measured ex ante, so that the

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

producer is able to build a production and what is to be renounced in consequence. To marketing strategy. Consequently the question ignore the resources financing the defence is to identify the applicable measurement budget is to ignore also that a decision to methods. According to the specialists [14], increase the budget may go hand in hand with there are two families of methods: “stated a decrease as well as with an increase of the preferences” or “revealed preferences”. effort, according with the independent “Preferences” because for a given purchasing evolution of those resources. power, the consumer has to choose among all the products offered by the market for satisfying their needs, and this choice is depending upon the relative prices and their preferences. The preferences are “stated” simply when the question is directly asked to a sample of consumers. If it appears impossible to ask the question for fear of insincerity principally, one has to rely upon what is Of course, there exists a majority of French “revealed” by the behaviour of consumers on a people satisfied with the present level of similar market or on a simulated one expenditures, but it is a relative one, in front of (experimental economics). Because the present the strong minority of those preferring a case concerns a “public” [15] good rather than decrease. Not only these ones are 2 to 2.5 a “private” one and citizens rather than times more numerous than those wanting an consumers, it seems logical to presume their increase, but also the gap is increasing along sincerity and to ask directly the question of a the decade. Anyway, when examining these preference for defence with or without data it appears that the consent of French mentioning the public goods to sacrifice people to pay for defence has not ceased to consequently. This is apparently the crumble. Maybe it is the effect of a growing conclusion drawn by the French ministry of perception of the economic crisis, making the defence through their communication policy defence budget less and less bearable in a followed for 30 years. Every year the ministry context of declining threats due to Cold War organizes a large opinion poll for knowing the end. This first question was replaced in 1993 perception of threats, the willingness to use the by a new one, a bit more explicit: “Do you armed forces, the appreciation of their quality think that the international situation justifies a and the acceptability of the defence effort. The progressive reduction of our military first question about the defence budget was expenditures or that it makes an additional administered during the period 1983-1993 and effort of France necessary?” was very simple: “Do you wish the military budget to increase, decrease, remain constant?” But it is well known that it is not a good way to approach the idea of effort, or even of sacrifice: as it was said upper, there is only a meaning for the consent to pay if the decision is taken with a clear knowledge of

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The substitution of “military expenditures” The impression given by this new graph to “military budget” has surely no breaks with what was mentioned above. From consequence, because, for the sample, these 1996, the tendency of the consent to decrease two words are certainly synonymous. But a is reversed, so that after 2001 the opinions for confusion becomes possible because two the increase outclass those for the decrease, different words, not synonymous, are used for thanks also to a reduction of the share of the treating on one part a “reduction of military opinions for the stability. Unhappily in 2007 expenditures” and on the other one “an this question disappeared of the polls without additional effort”. The comparison with the any explanation. At this moment, the presented precedent graph is surprising by the difference material has two weaknesses. First there are 4 appearing on the year 1993: a gap of 25 points series of data though only one expression of between plus and minus in the first case, nil in the consent is necessary. The second weakness the second one. The appearance of “the is that none of the statistical series studied international situation” in the question is reaches the threshold of 30 observations, certainly unimportant for the result, so that the necessary for using mighty statistical tools. principal difference between the two questions Therefore it is desirable to see how it is is in the possibility to answer: “remains possible to synthetize all the information given constant” in the first one, and only “I don’t by the polls in a unique indicator carried know” in the second one. And there are only without bias by the same series all along the 15% of answers “I don’t know” against 45% period 1983-2007. A number of researchers “constant”, the answer “additional” catching have already encountered this problem and the difference. Does this mean that the answer solutions exist like the one suggested by Higgs “constant” had a positive connotation for the and Kilduff [16]: “Many of those who express persons asked? And if it is the case, what is the a preference for the existing level of spending consequence for the rest of the study? The surely do so because they have little precedent criticism upon the ambiguity of a information or interest in the matter; hence in question with absolute terms was certainly reality they do not differ from those who understood also by the persons in charge of the explicitly respond with “no opinion.” In any poll, because since 1990 and until 2007, a new event, whether a respondent actively prefers question is asked: “Do you wish that the share the existing level of spending or has no of the military budget in the state budget opinion, the effect on policy decisions (if any) increases, decreases or remain grossly the is the same -preservation of the status quo”. same as today?” This means that the persons This proposition allows mingling two polled are supposed to have in mind a series in one and reducing the total number of preference scale of the different functions of series from four to three. Even, it is possible to the state before answering the questions: they descend to one by drawing all the are supposed to know what they would accept consequences of the precedent reflection: the to renounce for increasing the share given to only opinions able to influence the defence defence and reciprocally. policy – if any – are those demanding a change. Consequently, by calculating a balance or a ratio between the respective numbers of opinions for the increase and the decrease allows to get a unique indicator of the consent to pay. This method is quite common

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

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in the literature upon the political opinions: it link both series. This imposes to correct the is interesting by giving the relative value of an data of series 1, following what the ministry opinion. For instance, knowing that 40% of the did – without telling – for the years 1990- persons polled think desirable to increase the 1993, by extracting from the answers defence budget is certainly interesting per se, “decrease” an estimation of the answers “I but it takes its full meaning only by don’t know”. There does not exist a perfectly comparison – while by difference or by ratio – correct method to do that, because it is to the percentage of persons polled who think impossible with the existing data, to know if that a decrease is necessary. This being given, the rate of non-answer is determined and how, the building of this type of indicator leaves a by the explicit answers of the poll. So one will new indetermination, because without a have to satisfy oneself with taking the average reference to raw data, one doesn’t know why of the percentages observed on the period the difference or the ratio grows or diminishes. 1990-1993 and deducting it from the It could be tempting to weight the result with percentages of answers “decrease” on the the number of answers “I don’t know” and period 1983-1989 [17]. It remains the question “constant” but this would be meaningful only to know if it is possible to prolong the series by giving this data an “increase” or “decrease” 1+3 so constituted, from 2007 to 2012, by connotation, which is not the case. When it using the series 2 as a guide. One answer to comes to the building of a unique series 1983- this question may be found by comparing the 2007, the simplest is to tempt joining the three balance curves of both series. As it is shown observed series, maybe after adaptation. It on the graph below, both curves are clearly appears that the more ancient series overlaps coherent, especially since 1993, at the the second one during one year and the third exception of 2000. This impression is strongly during three years. It is therefore necessary to supported by the value of the correlation see what happens during the overlapping coefficient during the common period 1993- periods. First it appears that in 1993, there is 2007, that is 0,821. only one common point between series 1 and 2, concerning the answers “decrease”. On the contrary, between the series 1 and 3 the coincidences are simultaneously important and surprising. On one part, there is a perfect similarity about the answers “increase” and “constant”, on the period 1990-1993, and the answer “decrease” of the third series is the perfect sum of the answers “decrease” and “I 2 LIST AND TEST OF THE CONSENT don’t know” of the third series. Such a TO PAY FOR DEFENCE statement is evidently troubling, giving the DETERMINANTS impression that an error was committed on the series 1 in the document published by the In a famous study, the meteorologist Lewis ministry of defence in 1993. At the same time, F. Richardson [18] puts that the armaments the perfect similarity of the numbers after race is linked to three explanatory variables. correction gives to think that it is possible to The “grievance” is in some sort the degree of

17 AIR FORCE hatred for the “other one”, it is a structural More interesting on the ground of determinant inciting to get armaments in any availability is the Upsala Conflict Data circumstance; “defence” is a positive cause Progam (UCDP) base [22]. It lists all the linking the armament expenditures of the conflicts during the period 1946-2013 [23]. It country to those of the adversary country, by a is unlikely that the people know this database proportionality coefficient; on the contrary, and even its content, because of the slight “fatigue” is a negative determinant linking the coverage offered by the media to this armament expenditures to the armament stock enormous collection and classification work. already built, that is to the expenditures But what is said by these data about global already made. If one dismisses the safety cannot differ much of what is said by “grievance”, which would oblige to designate the sources commonly used by the people. particular states, the two other ones give good There exists a third possibility, through the US criteria to list all the determinants of the military expenditures. They are very sensitive consent to pay, even if the consent itself does to the strategic context because of the role of not determine the actual expenditures. So, in international gendarme assumed by the USA. what follows the variables able to be classified For example, during the Cold War times, the as “defence” or “fatigue” will be listed and for United States expended a lot of energy to have each of them the existence of a relation of a trustable measure of Soviet military cause and effect with the consent to pay will expenditures for adapting their own military be tested. There are two ways for considering policy [24]. And these expenditures, at least as this question, by using either opinions or a tendency, are very probably known by a objective indicators referring to risks, threats significant part of the people. Besides they are and aggressions. available for the whole period covered by the polls. From another point of view, it is 21 – VARIABLES possible to think that the French people are A – “DEFENCE” VARIABLES well informed about the number of French The threat perception seems to be the first losses in operation. It is not guaranteed that positive determinant to be considered. Indeed they remember this number when they answer in the definition of defence by the official the questions of the poll, but it is possible. texts, it is a mean for “assuring the territory These data are accessible but less easily that integrity and the people protection against the those of SIPRI or UCDP, because they have to armed aggressions” [19]. So it was logical that be asked with a responsibility engagement to such a question was asked. In fact the question the Veterans ministry [25]. This variable is asked is not “do you feel more or less safe” but also statistically interesting because it largely “what sort of attack do you fear most: covers the period under examination, then terrorist, nuclear, classical, chemical?” because it is as reliable as possible. Indeed it is Simply, the results exist only between 1991 almost impossible that a French soldier is lost and 2006, that is only 15 data, against 30 for without their disappearance is immediately the consent. If one goes back to Richardson known by their hierarchy and consequently by and the relation between his two “playing” their family. The result is that this database [20] states, it appears that the world military gives the possibility to rebuild the totals, expenditures can be a good threat indicator. name-by-name, date-by-date and place-by- And it happens that the data about world place, that is with a tiny risk of inaccuracy. All military expenditures are regularly advertised these indicators of global security give only so that they can influence the people one part of the consent to pay causal chain. perception of threats. The best-known data in The risk, threat and aggressions perception this field are those published by the Stockholm ought only to run into a demand of military Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) especially on expenditures and a consent to pay, if moreover their web site [21]. The only weakness is that the people trusted the military capabilities. the long series of world expenditures is only And this is exactly one of the first questions published since 1988, that is 5 years after the that have been asked by the ministry: “have series of consent. But that means 25 you a very good, rather good, rather bad, very

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

bad opinion on the armed services?”. The unthinkable that the people refuse to honour answers have been almost immediately very their debt to the retired soldiers. And in this positive but have remained at this high level case a first observation seems to confirm the without varying. So they cannot statistically hypothesis about the “fatigue” variable, explain the significant variations of the because if the nonmilitary expenditures tend to consent to pay. It is the same thing with the grow on the same path as the debt, the military question “For each of the following missions, expenditures, for their part, stagnate. But if the do you think that the use of the French armed military expenditures are truly a “burden” for forces is priority?” The score of the less the nation, it is in comparison with the quoted mission, “to destroy a terrorism centre available resources, so that they have to be [26]”, increases from 74% in 1991 to 86% in considered through a relative measure. 2006, without variations not exceeding 5 Traditionally, the references concurring for points. that are the total expenditures of the state budget or the GDP. The first one was used in B – “FATIGUE” VARIABLES the French political discourse grossly until the For Richardson, the “fatigue” is the result end of the 70s, before being replaced by the of a preceding accumulation of armaments: the GDP, as in the other countries [27]. In both more there are, the less the state is induced to cases the objective is to show that, within a buy new ones. Said otherwise, the more the given budget any variation of the military state possesses “guns”, the more it wants to expenditures has for counterpart a reverse buy “butter”. Of course the people do not variation of the non-military expenditures of know the value of the armament stock, and the the state. So Josselin Droff and Julien calculus has not been made. Nevertheless, Malizard [28] have shown that during the last there exists a mean to reason in terms of stock. 30 years the state budget has been under It must be postulated that there exists a relation constraint and that consequently the ministry between the armament stock and the public of defence paid the greater price. The debt, by a dared syllogism: borrowing equipment budget being more malleable, it has traditionally finances equipment, armament is been the principal one to suffer from this equipment, and therefore borrowing finances constraint. On the contrary, both references armament. Perhaps it is dared, but it is not could be used alone alternatively, because the incredible that the people set spontaneously a people know them alone: the GDP as the link between the stock of armament and the measure of the possible and the state public debt. In that case, the well-known Debt- expenditures as the result of a sacrifice. When GDP could be the searched for “fatigue” this is admitted, it is logical to consider that all indicator. Nevertheless, from another point of the economic variables, because they influence view, the consent is not only about the the people’s mood, are likely to determine equipment expenditures but also about the more or less their disposition to pay for a day-to-day expenditures of the military forces. kingly expenditure. So the inflation rate, factor In these conditions, the good indicator has to of euphoria, could play positively, the be the military expenditures without pensions. unemployment rate negatively, the GDP Without pensions, because they are quite growth rate positively and the ratio of the independent of the military policy and it is public debt to GDP negatively.

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And finally, if the mood, the state of mind use powerful statistical methods. The graph of the French people has to be considered as a number 4 above presents the result. determinant of their consent to pay, it is better Nevertheless because of the empirical to consider directly their opinion on this character of this work, it is desirable to have subject. In fact, this will not be the whole some control references. For that, both French people, but only this part of it who is originals and longest series: 1993-2012 and asked by the Institut national de la statistique 1990-2007 have known the same tests as the et des études économiques (INSEE) when synthetic series; the series corresponding to the preparing the forecasts for the French question “Do you think that the international economy, that is the company directors of the situation implies an increase, a decrease or a main production sectors. The result is the maintain of the defence effort” (1993-2012) is series “business climate” [29], available since named “opinion 1” and that constructed with 1977. the question “Do you think desirable that the After this survey, it remains to test the part of the budget devoted to military existence of cause and effect between each of expenditures increases or decreases” (1990- those variables and the French people consent 2007) takes the label “opinion 2”. For to pay for defence. In these conditions, the increasing the control efficiency, both series evolution of the consent of French people to have been constructed by using ratios, while pay for defence may be represented by the the “consent” synthetic one has been graph below. Three periods appear clearly: a constructed with differences. slow decline from 1983 to 1996; strong The explanatory variables studied above recovery between 1996 and 2002; and new but are classified as “defence” and “fatigue”, hesitating erosion period. The events copied logically indicating a tendency to increase and out on the curve allow having an idea of the respectfully decrease the consent to pay for strategic environment of the French people, defence subject to the form of the variable: a when they answered the questions. Apparently ratio is easily reversed. So the statistical tests the dissolution of the ancient Yugoslavia is not have to verify these hypotheses. for nothing in their first change of mind, As already seen above, “defence” will be maybe because these conflicts happened “two represented first by the evolution of the SIPRI hours away from Paris”, because it was at the world and United States military expenditures. same place the Great War began eighty years In fact SIPRI does not account the before and because the European union was expenditures themselves but content with threatened by an explosion, during the compiling the data given by the different Maastricht negotiations, by the differing states, even if a control exists upon the most sympathies of their members. Anyway, this questionable cases. But there is no real risk of graph is a good transition towards the second a significant falsification introducing a bias. In part of this paper, where it will be question of fact if that sort of falsification happened, it making a list and a statistical test of the could affect the level but not the tendency of determinants of French people’s consent to the variable, which is acceptable in the present pay for defence. case. There are other explanatory variables belonging to the “defence” class: the number 22 – TEST of conflicts on one part and the number of A – CONSTRUCTION OF THE French soldiers killed in operation on the other VARIABLES part. As for the “fatigue” it will be represented The objective is to define a method for on one side by the unemployment rate and the designing the variables that, among all those business climate which can produce an presented above, statistically explain the economic policy competing with the military variations of the French people consent to pay expenditures; on the other side there is the for defence. Certainly, an effort was made for public debt, limited by the European Pact of getting the longest possible series of the stability, able to justify budget restrictions to dependent variable “consent”, for being able to the detriment of defence budget.

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

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The different explanatory variables are significant”. For practical reasons, the calculated as growth rates. There are two signification threshold is set at 10% and the reasons to that. First, in terms of theory, it is coefficient signs alone are presented. intuitively sensible to set that the public Independent variable opinion knows the indicator variations better Opinion 1 Opinion 2 Consent Deaths in than their level. Second, in terms of NS NS NS econometrics, the data suffer from their non- operation SIPRI world Positive Positive Positive stationarity [30], that is their structure is time exp. depending. On the contrary, the data calculated UCDP NS NS NS as first differences are stationary so they have SIPRI USA Positive Positive Positive the “good” statistic properties. Since the exp. Granger and Newbold [31] pioneer works, one Debt NS Negative NS knows that the use of non-stationary variable Unemployment NS NS Negative Explanatory variable Explanatory variable lead to “spurious regressions” with erroneous Business NS NS conclusions in relation with the real nature of climate NS the variables. Table: econometric results

B – RESULTS AND COMMENTARIES The table shows the pre-eminence of the “defence” variables on those of “fatigue”: the The reasoning has two steps. First the military expenditures, either world or relation between each explanatory variable and American, determine significantly the opinion each independent variable is tested evolution. In this case, the coefficient is individually. The objective is to verify the always positive: so there is really a positive robustness of a result on the three “consent to connection between the perceived threats, as pay” indicators; the fact that the longest series conveyed by expenditures, and the consent to is obtained by bringing together several pay for defence, what is consonant with logic. sources imposes such a strategy. In a second The fact that the results are good for both time, the identification of the best explanatory series has not to be overestimated, because variables of the opinions gives a “demand of they are correlated together, as it is logical military expenditures” function associating a also. On the contrary the deaths in operation “defence” variable and a “fatigue” one. and the conflicts frequency have no significant Because of the small number of observations influence upon the opinions. The conclusion for the series that cannot be reconstructed, it is has to be that, contrary to the intuition, the not possible to go beyond two variables, public opinion does not precisely know those otherwise the degrees of freedom number figures. In fact this is not surprising when one associated to each estimated model would be knows how it is difficult to get them. too small and would reduce the statistic As for the fatigue variables, there is only significance of the exercise. The following two statistically significant coefficients: table presents the results of the empirical between the public debt and “opinion 2” on analysis first step. The estimated models one part, between the unemployment rate and include a constant, which is not indicated here. “consent” on the other one. In both cases the The NS initials mean “statistically non sign is minus, as logic commands. It is

21 AIR FORCE certainly not fortuitous that the public opinion economic constraints weaken it. What is right associates public debt and unemployment as with the coefficients signs can be extended to cause and consequence of the crisis suffered their value for studying the consent variable by the French economy, because it is the sensitivity to the different parameters? In substance of the prevailing discourse. A absolute value the coefficient of military knowing the role of adjustment variable given expenditures is significantly superior to the to the military expenditures, it is not surprising one associated with the unemployment rate, to find this negative relation between them and what is consistent with the lessons drawn from the crisis indicators. For confirming these it the table above. Moreover, this result would be would be useful to know what would be the robust in case of a possible period partition consent to pay for other public expenditures around the Cold War end, suggested by some during the same period. authors 32] who consider that it is a structural This first results being given, it is possible break. to proceed to the test of a consent function As a conclusion, all the preceding results with two variables: one of “defence” and one show that the French people consent to pay is of “fatigue”, so that the robustness of the firstly sensitive to the threats, as they can be preceding estimations is verified when the perceived through largely spread indicators. In opinions are analysed within the logic of the a second time this consent may suffer Richardson model. The preceding table reluctance when the economic constraints identifies clearly the military expenditures as become heavy. And it is not because a result “defence” variables. On the other hand the confirms the intuition that it is not interesting. “fatigue” variable choice depends on the “consent” indicator choice. The latter has to be REFERENCES dictated by the search of the greatest number of freedom degrees, so that it will fall upon the 1.http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/Droit-francais/ series “consent”, despite the doubts generated Constitution/Declaration-des-Droits-de-l- by its “fabrication”. The desired function has Homme-et-du-Citoyen- to be of the type: 2. Engraved on the pedestal of his equestrian consent = f(SIPRI, unemployment rate). statue on the Champ de Mars in Paris. As it is estimated upon the available data, it 3. Translation by Richard Crawley, book 2, becomes: chapter 6, http://classics.mit.edu/Thucydides/pelopwar .2.second.html. In parenthesis are the coefficients standard 4. According to the expression very beautiful deviations. They all are significant at a and very famous of Winston Churchill in threshold of 5%. The model is of a rather good his inaugural speech to the House of quality because the correlation coefficient is 2 Common on the 13th of may 1940: « I superior to 0,807 (R > 0,65); applying a have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears generalized least squares method solves the and sweat », residual autocorrelation problems. A http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8TlkN- posteriori, the pertinence of choosing the dcDCk and for the official transcription: “consent” series, that is the explanatory http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/com variable “unemployment”, is verified because mons/1940/may/13/his-majestys- the alternative choice “opinion 2”-“debt” government-1. would give a non significant coefficient. 5. Easy and even too easy, for the losses Perhaps it is the result of the precedence of the suffered during the campaign of France in unemployment problem on the debt problem, may 1940 are at the same the debt being understood for a long time as a level as those accounted during the consequence of a Keynesian treatment of “offensive à outrance” of august 1914. unemployment. The results are consonant with 6. To pick up another expression of Winston the preceding conclusions: the threats Churchill: “We seem to be very near the reinforce the consent to pay, while the bleak choice between War and Shame. My

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feeling is that we shall choose Shame, and méthode des choix discrets », Revue then have War thrown in, a little later, on d’économie médicale, vol.23, n°6, 2005, even more adverse terms than at present”, pp.364-370. quoted from a letter to his friend Lord 15. Even if the “publicness” of defence is Moyne, by Martin Gilbert, Winston S. discussed: Gates W.R. and K.L. Terasawa, Churchill, Companion Volume V Part 3, “Reconsidering publicness in alliance The Coming of War 1936-1939, London, defence expenditures: NATO expansion Heinemann, 1982, page 1117. and burden sharing”, Defence and Peace 7. «Igitur qui desiderat pacem, praeparet Economics, 14(5), 2003, pp. 369-383. bellum », by which Publius Flavius 16. Higgs (R) et Kilduff (A): “Public opinion: Vegetius shows that deterrence existed a powerful prediction of US defense before nuclear weapons, even if those spending”, Defence Economics, vol 4, weapons were able to give a new 1993, pp.227-238. (quotation 1, p.228). dimension to it (Epitoma rei militaris, B. See also Bishop, G. F. “Experiments with G. Tevbneri, Leipzig, 1885, p65, the middle response alternative in survey https://archive.org/stream/epitomareimilit00re questions”, Public Opinion Quarterly, 51 nagoog#page/n12/mode/2up). (2), 1987, 220-232, p.229, and Hartley, T. 8. The Anglo-Saxon do it spontaneously by and Russett, B. “Public opinion and the speaking of military burden or burden common defense: Who governs military sharing. spending in the United States?”, American 9. Ron Smith, “Models of military Political Science Review, 86(4), 1992, expenditure”, Journal of Applied 905-915, p907. Econometrics, 4, 1989, pp. 345-359 17. The instinct would push towards a 10. For a detailed study, see J. Aben: proportional correction rather than a fixed Économie politique de la défense, Cujas, one, but beyond an “aesthetical” gain, Paris, 1992; Julien Malizard, Effort de there would be no qualitative improvement défense et croissance, Phd in economics, observations, which is not negligible. university of Montpellier, 2011. 18. Lewis F. Richardson, Arms and Insecurity, 11. The General Theory of Employment, A Mathematical Study of the Causes and Interest and Money, Palgrave McMillan, Origins of Wars, Boxwood, Pittsburgh, London, 1936, ch. 8, 1960 https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/k/keynes/jo 19. Article 1111-1 of the defence code. hn_maynard/k44g/contents.html 20. A used in game theory. 12. Idem, ibidem. 21.http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/m 13. Microeconomics, Palgrave McMillan, New ilex/milex_database York, 2012, p 102. 22.http://www.pcr.uu.se/research/ucdp/dataset 14. Christoph Breidert, Michael Hahsler, s/ et Themnér, Lotta & Peter Wallensteen, Thomas Reutterer, “A review of methods "Armed Conflict, 19462013." Journal of for measuring willingness-to-pay”, Peace Research 51(4) 2014. Innovative marketing, vol.2, n°4, 2006, 23. A conflict is defined there as a battle pp.8-32; C. Desjeux, C. Colin, R. Launois, between two parts involving at least 25 « La mesure de la disposition à payer: la deaths.

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24. C. W. Orstrom, « A reactive Linkage Model of the US Defense Expenditure Policymaking Process », American Political Science Review, 72, 1978, pp. 941-957 ; C.W. Orstrom, R.F. Marra, «US Spending and the Soviet Estmate», American Political Science Review, september 1986, pp 819-842. 25. But the department servants have answered with goodwill and efficiency to our request. 27. In fact, it was a market GDP between the beginning of the 80s and the 1994 white paper, then the total GDP. 28. J. Droff et J. Malizard (2014), « Cohérence entre politique budgétaire et budget de la défense », Revue Défense Nationale, avril, pp. 116-121 29.http://www.bdm.insee.fr/bdm2/affichageSe ries.action?idbank=001565530&codeGrou pe=1007 30. This result is obtained with several tests of standard unitary root (Dickey Fuller Augmenté, Philipps-Perron) and one considering the possibility of «structural breakdown» within the data (Zivot-Andrews). Moreover the variables of opinions are stationary, which makes impossible a co-integration approach. 31. C. Granger et P. Newbold, « Spurious regressions in econometrics », Journal of Econometrics, 2, 1974, pp.111-120 32. See for example the survey by Paul Dunne and Ron Smith, in op. cit., pp. 913-940

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

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CONNECTIONS OF AIR POWER

Traian Anastasiei*

*Faculty of Aeronautical Management,”Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: The concept of power, in general, and of air power, in particular, may be dealt with from various perspectives. Accordingly, there is no definition of the Air Power in a universally accepted vision, nor does it hold a clear-cut characterization. The rationale consists of the fact that Air Power unites/includes a multitude of complex processes with a variable dynamics, reaching diverse areas of society. Most of the authorized authors make reference to the military aspects of the Air Power only. Nevertheless, a more comprehensive approach, in accordance with changes that occur in society, is demanded.

Keywords: power, air space, air power, air force

1. INTRODUCTION stability at the world level… Rather, we witness multiple turbulences, fact which The leitmotif of the beginning of the proves that the process of change is 21st century consists of an alert pace of the excruciating, and that we are confronted with a multiple changes taking place at a global, permanent struggle between conservatory regional and local scale. The humankind, in its mentalities and globalization and integrating entirety, finds itself in a perpetual becoming tendencies. and we all witness an acceleration of the In a dynamic and unforeseeable world fundamental processes of the social whole. it is hard to establish for sure which is the The combination of continuity and probability of involvement in a conflict, and, change reflects the complexity of the human moreover, its moment and intensity, both for society. The reasons for such transformations the present and for the future. Being subjected are of various nature and they to be found in to a constant pressure of the media and the any of the components of the contemporary information technology, with all sorts of world. contradictory and often false pieces of news, Humanity today faces serious problems we are at a loss in decrypting reality once the related to economic, political, geo-strategic perception of it is subjective. etc. issues, all of which are in a tight relation By the current paper, I intend to of interdependence. The acute dynamics of the present several aspects with regard to Air specific phenomena is dispersed toward other Power – its role, place, relevance – in the areas – financial, demographic, military – actual context. reciprocally influencing one another. Consequently, we are yet far from speaking of

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2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS [11]. The examples provided used as criteria of CONCERNING POWER evaluation for the macroeconomic indicator (GDP – Growth Domestic Product), in case of Geo-political and geo-strategic the economic power, and the expenditure for analyses highlight the fact that the transition the military (all government expenditure with process from past to future, via present time, is regard to troops and current military actions, a continuous one. There are major mutations at including expenditure for the personnel, various levels (economic, political, military research and development, administration). etc.), the world physiognomy is re-shaped, Thus, there is a comparative analysis, and, hierarchies are re-established, and the power when the power of a state is invoked, there is poles are being redefined. focus on its ranking in relation with the other In the broadest sense, power is the states, its potential status and its capacity to produce a certain outcome and, if operationalization potential within a we refer to human action (the conscious one) competition. The competition may be of a the outcome is anticipated, thus becoming a contest type (the characteristics of the goal. Therefore, power is the capacity/ability economic background), or conflicting (specific to set a goal, to pursue and obtain specific to military action). outcomes in specific conditions, with specific Certainly, it is desired, at least in resources, making use of specific tools, in a declarations, that any competition should be specific period of time. It presupposes the maintained within the boundaries of a correct assessment of the momentary state of productive rivalry; yet, reality has proved that facts and the decryption of the tendencies of most often such oppositions turn into tough evolution to set the directions for action enmity leading to conflicts. as well as the assessment, creation and In reference to a state’s power, there development of the necessary resources for were numerous works written, but in essence, action. It is very difficult to define the concept it is considered that a state is powerful if it of power, as it is a too vast topic. Nevertheless, holds the capacity to influence events, which I would like to add that power, with the implies different aspects – economic and meaning of the ability to do something, the scientific, demographic, military etc. In this capacity to act physically and morally, must be respect, most of the analysts preserve a manifest: on the one hand, to be proved and on multidimensional approach to power, the the other hand to be perceived as such. Power power of a state being conferred by the does not mean a state at a given moment (or efficient and balanced connection of its not only this), but it is also action, the components; “there is no political power if it is transformation of state towards a determined, not based on a robust economy, and every desired direction. economy needs the intervention of the political There are numerous specialized factor in order for it to develop naturally” [6]. institutions that monitor the states’ evolution Power is the capacity of establishing by certain standards, and, ultimately, they objectives or making decisions, followed by establish classifications or ranges. Specialized the force of applying them. Implementation is publications or the ones of general interest and the element that highlights real power [7]. information show diverse statistics, in one Some authors are of the opinion that when filed or another, based on which classifications analyzing the rapport between power and of countries, institutions, scrutinized actors are conflict one needs to start from the hypothesis established: “China has become the greatest according to which “A country’s power economy of the world…”, we learn from some materializes, first of all, in its military force journals; “preoccupied by the growth of and capacity of defending itself against one or China’s military power, Japan has decided to more other states”[5]. increase its military expenditure”, the In the context of this paper, Stockholm International Peace Research approaching power as “a generalized social Institute’s (SIPRI) report of 2014 informs us relationship that characterizes any human

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structure and community, irrespective of their reconsideration of the state’s sovereignty over dimensions and the historical intervals that this newly included spatial element. In this humanity and society have gone through” [5], context, taking the natural dominant setting of it is essential that we should clarify some manifestation as a criterion of the analysis, we aspects. First of all, since a “relationship” is can identify, among the component elements mentioned, we need to identify (at least) two of a state’s power, the air power next to land subjects of the relation: one to detain and power and sea power. apply power, and another one to have power applied on. Secondly, the materialization of 2. AIRSPACE - ENVIRONMENT power implies that it should be realizing by the MANIFESTATION OF AIRPOWER parties of the relation. The degree to which power is highlighted represents, after all, the Indeed, it is very important to speak manner in which power is perceived by the about airspace – the place where and in entities involved and by the background where connection with which air power is manifest. it occurs, and which it may, as well, influence. The term airspace generally represents As we have shown so far, power may the air blanket above the ground and emerge under various aspects. Thus, a state’s water surface, without being very power displays several components or exactly delimited upright, because of the subsystems. Analysts and researchers have physical properties of the gas that it is made largely debated on defining and ranking forms out of. I mention the fact that, at the beginning, of power, respectively, the components of in specialized literature, the thesis according to power manifesting in society. In most of the which airspace stretches up to the infinite was cases, it is considered that power, in its dominant. Subsequent to the development of entirety, is made up of a union of disjunctive aeronautics and aero-navigation, the issue of components. In reality, those components are its juridical regulation is raised. Thus, today, it not strictly delimited; there are numerous is identified: the airspace belonging to states, a common zones, areas of interference, which component of the state territory and the air leads to a multitude of rankings of power. We space with international regime, that is not observe that a state’s power presupposes the subjected to any state sovereignty (for example presence of the human factor and it is given by that above the free sea). The Paris both natural settings – size, geographical Convention, on October 13, 1919 position, climate, resources (material, energy, consecrates and regulates the subjacent states food)- and elements related to human activity sovereignty on the national airspace.[10] – dimension and economic production, Although the airspace superior delimitation is educational system, scientific research, no longer discussed about, it has been governing, diplomacy, the army’s degree of advanced the idea according to which this preparedness and capability etc. frontier should be established following With regard to the geographical certain criteria, more or less conventional. characteristics, the expansion of the human Some of them refer to the air physical activity to the air space has determined the properties – density, composition etc. –, while redefinition of the national territory, which others refer to the aircrafts capacity to attain a now includes the air space [10], as well, and a certain height. We notice that it is very

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difficult to exactly establish this border, climate, resources (human, materiel, energy, as the mentioned criteria vary in time. cultural), the armed forces level of training and Juridical literature offers an ambiguous, procurement, system of government etc. tautological answer: “the superior limit of Perceived a part of a state’s power, air power airspace is where airspace begins”. Today, holds a distinct role and it refers to the totality through bi- or multilateral conventions, of the capabilities of both civil and military although not unanimous, the superior limit of aviation. At the same time, here may be airspace is considered to be somewhere at 100 included the specific infrastructure, systems or 150 km above the earth surface. destined to air navigation protection and air The most important thing is for a space management, companies of aeronautical country to be able to exercise its sovereignty in profile etc. [1]. We could say that air power own space. Based on a state sovereignty over refers to the capabilities that allow for the state its own airspace, the state regulates the to manifest its sovereignty in the national air juridical regime of the respective space, carries space, all the factors that ensure the progress out different activities within it, and may give of the activities in the air, in appropriate foreign aircrafts the right of freedom of transit conditions. and traffic through its airspace, too. It may The air space and its premises (on the also limit the liberty to fly in its airspace or to ground, at sea and in the outer space) destined ban certain foreign aircrafts from entering this to the aeronautical activity became an space, may execute jurisdiction on foreign integrating part of the human activities at the aircrafts when they are in its airspace, if there same pace with the aviation’s development is no other special regulation and it has the and it had a huge impact on society as a whole. right of indemnification for damages caused At the same time, the airspace has by foreign aircrafts. become the arena of some terrible and subtle Besides the regulations included in the confrontations during armed conflicts, to airspace juridical status, states have ratified a resolve military and other disputes series of documents regarding the international (economical, political etc.). air navigation. We mention, in this context, the With reference to the military five “air liberties”, which refer to the right of component, some air power essential elements flying over a particular territory, as well as to become evident: airspace and aircrafts, air some liberties regarding landing and capabilities and the specific characteristics of transportation by air. air actions. Air power is determined by many The effects of air power surpass though factors and I would like to mention the the physical limits of airspace. Subsequently, economic and political ones, which provide the application of air power has effects not the resources and will. I leave a special place only in airspace but also in physical spaces – for aeronautical awareness, as it is a source of terrestrial and maritime – and in economic, air power that can be found at the level of all diplomatic and informational “spaces”. In its components, which it empowers. Science consequence, air power is, indeed, strictly and research in the field, education in the field, connected to its environment – airspace, while specific infrastructure, air operators and the its effects are manifest far beyond it and I systems meant for the safety of air navigation consider, from this point of view, that an are some other directions in which air power is analysis of the air power effects is much more manifest. important than – strictly – the environment in The affiliation to the international which it manifests. bodies meant to control aeronautical activities (ICAO, EUROCONTROL, NATINEADS) 3. AIRSPACE - ENVIRONMENT represents, another source of air power. MANIFESTATION OF AIRPOWER Starting from the fact that military aviation, air forces, in general, are more and The state power is given, among more present in limited actions in different others, by: size, geographical location, areas in the world. Therefore, some aspects

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that do not belong to the military sphere, but to and military actions extended spatially due to the political one emerge, depending on the the fact their air component was confirmed. way and the moment air power is used to Synthesising, we could say that the air influence the opponent. forces is an instrument for the political factor Air power, as well as the aircraft as of power, being placed at the confluence of the such, is like a child of scientific progress: it military power and the air power. cannot exist without advanced technology and Air power is the manifestation of state borrows from it the fascination and mystery of power in the air environment and includes the a special, unknown and … desired thing. As mentioned factors of influence and, I feel a result, both producers of specific technology bound to emphasise, the majority of them has and supporters of air power (defined as the a “non-military” nature. “capacity to use air platforms for military Consequently, the air power and the purposes”) want more and more funds that are military power have both common and everywhere and always bigger than the allotted specific elements, the problem of their budgets. interdependencies being the result of their Air forces represent a way to interact study. To simplify, the connection between the with the opponent without having a physical military and the air power is represented by air contact with him, to strike him powerfully, forces and their action. rapidly and from distance, which determines As it results from the things mentioned us to give the notion “contact line” a second above, air power, in its military component, is interpretation. The classical “front line” has the capacity of the owner to ensure the use of disappeared, the enemy being now deeply air space according to his will and to limit or struck, tens or hundreds kilometres far. ban the others from using it. The multitude of Confrontations take place in airspace and in opportunities regarding its use allows for the the electromagnetic environment, so that the military command to adapt the air actions entire area of military actions becomes an area (operations) dimensions and intensity to the of physical contact, aviation being the concrete political and military requirements. protagonist of this actional model (launching a We have to notice once more the destructive force against the opponent, without existent complex relationships and the created having a direct contact). “The air power interdependencies between different aspects of objective in wide-spread conflicts, and not power. Thus, a civil air fleet, even if it is not only, is to destroy the opponent will or/and his an element of military power, can contribute, capability to resist” [1]. through the force projection, to its enhancing In modern warfare, what is more and potential in a theatre of actions. On the other more important is the way to act, the way to hand, a military aircraft can be a vital element win the confrontation and their impact on the of the air navigation protection system, for public, which tends to be primordial in the civil aircrafts included. stage of conflict outcomes. This aspect, Future world will be characterized by relatively new in the history of warfare, has more and more subtle confrontations, at become significantly important after the First different levels, the military one included. World War, once the law of war was stated Globalization has changed the nature of war, as well as the context in which the state

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utilizes military force in its conduct in the this globalization era. The important geopolitical environment. accomplishments in the field of air power will Without doubt, the “red thread” in not belong to one single man or one single the field of military actions is their joint country, therefore scientific and technologic character, which is known to be a complex cooperation will be more and more evident phenomenon as far as theory, and even compulsory, as one of globalization organization and action are concerned. The manifestations is borders “permeability” up air component, more and more refined and to their becoming merely symbolic. sophisticated, is omnipresent in the Confrontation bellicose significance will armed conflict at the end of the be diminished and it will more and more century, becoming the defining element of become competition. modern warfare. Moreover, the accentuation Subsequent to modern and extension of confrontation in airspace is technologies development and our access forecast, fact that is confirmed by states’ to them (automation and miniaturization), the security policies programmatic/normative specific techniques and activities dual documents: air forces are included in modern character (air and cosmic) will be emphasised armies quasi-totality. and we could more and more speak about an Relatively new within the armed forces aero-cosmic power. Air power (aero-cosmic) categories of forces, existing for less than a will be very attractive as far as the decision- century, air forces have rapidly become makers are concerned, as they will develop important, due to their modernity and capacity and utilize it according to its specific to extend in space, which have led to a new properties: possibility of opportune, accurate, way of conceiving military actions. Let us not desired intensity action, exactly where it is forget that it is 109 years since Traian Vuia necessary and with minimum effects on the managed to “fly” a distance of (only) 12 environment. meters, using a machine that was heavier than It will also be preferred under military air, which could take off by its own on board- aspect, due to its coercive as well as its means. Although, in short time after the Air preventive role. Force and began to be used for military New ways of airspace “exploiting” will purposes. If the First World War started being certainly appear and, of course, airspace will an air one, the Second World War was also an be more accessible to everybody, so more air war, the wars that followed them, no matter crowded, which requires appropriate they had a local or limited character, regulations, air transport security being of highlighted the tendency of amplifying their great concern. air component, and the contemporary war cannot be conceived without it, at least in the 3. CONCLUSIONS predictable future. Aeronautic technology is developing very quickly. As a result of Although most of the specialized technological advancements in the field of literature focuses on the military operational aviation, in order to obtain similar effects, component of air power, we consider that, at a during the WW II, there were 9000 bombs large scale, air power includes many other used (1944) in 4500 sorties (B-17 aircraft), non-military areas, such as the aviation whereas during the Vietnam war there were industry, air traffic operators, institutions for only 190 bombs used in 95 sorties (different research and education, air space management types of aircraft) and during the Gulf war only systems etc. 2 bombs were launched from a B-117 plane.[r] Concerning the platforms used for the Air power evolution will be strictly application of air power, we notice that, next connected to human evolution, in general, and, to the fixed-wing or mobile-wing airships, in a for a long period, it will be the front platoon of larger vision, we should include the ballistic human knowledge development, being missiles, cruise missiles and satellites. The confronted with the general problems of projection of an airspace platform is made in

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the light of its destination and future missions, REFERENCES another decisive factor for the development and modernization of the technological 1. Anastasiei, Traian, in dezbaterea GMR component of air power. “Puterea aeriana in paradigma globalizarii”, There is still need for an analysis and revista Gandirea Militara Romaneasca, nr. clarification of concepts regarding the air 4/2006 power, so that, subsequently, states may act 2. Armitage, M.J. şi R.A. Mason, R.A., „Air with awareness for making the air power Power in the Nuclear Age”, Urbana III, efficient. It is obvious that in the absence of a University of Illinois Press (1983) clear understanding of the principles of the air 3. Catrina, Gheorghe, Gl.fl.aer., Puterea power, without a scientific approach to it, we aeriana in relatiile internationale, Editura may witness an erroneous management of both AISM , Bucuresti, (1998) material and human resources. Therefore, a 4. Chirovici,Eugen Ovidiu, Puterea, Editura sequenced/limited and conjunctural approach Rao (2009) will result in ineffective measures, or non- 5. Jude, Ioan, Paradigmele si mecanismele viable solutions. Whereas, the area of air puterii, Ed DP, Bucuresti (2003) power is similar with foreknowledge, long- 6. Magureanu, Virgil, Studii de sociologie term measures opposing the very alert pace of politica, Editura Albatros, Bucuresti, 1997, p. changes of the background. That is why, it is 71. (apud Cristian Bahnareanu, Puterea important to decrypt the defining elements and militara în secolul XXI, modalitati de realizare tendencies, to create the normative framework si manifestare a puterii militare în societatea necessary for a rapid adjustment, to eliminate democratica româneasca, Editura U. N.Ap., resistance to innovation. Bucuresti, (2005) The use of the air power in the military 7. Mitchell, William „Winged Defense: The area is preferred by the political decision- Development and Possibilities of Modern Air making actors due to several of its essential Power – Economic and Military”, New York, features: freedom of movement both in G.P. Putnam’s Sons (1925) horizontal and vertical plans permits the 8. Moran, Daniel, citat din cuvantul control of a vast space, in very short time; delegatului american la Conferinta de la Haga characteristics of the technology used permit a din 1899 in Despre puterea aeriana in The greater effectiveness of actions. Meanwhile, Oxford Companion to Military History, the manifestation of the air power in other Oxford (2001) areas contributes to the increase of the state’s 9. Moran, Daniel, citat din cuvantul power tremendously. delegatului american la Conferinta de la Haga This means, among others: din 1899 in Despre puterea aeriana in The sustainable/stable economic relationships Oxford Companion to Military History, under all circumstances; autonomy, as much as Oxford (2001) possible, from the viewpoint of resources; a 10. ICAO, Conventia de la Paris 13 Xrie 1919 net of alliances capable to facilitate the 11. http://www.mediafax.ro/externe/raport- accomplishment and maintenance of security. sipri-, descarcat la 07.05.2015 12 Slipcenko, V. „Generalul-maior Slipcenko răspunde întrebărilor”, raport SASONET,

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Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, Foreign Military 13. –www.google.ro/search?q=The+utility of Studies Office, 28 martie 1991. Apud Sebeszki +Air+power&oq , descarcat la 01.05 2015 Marius in Doctrina şi teoria puterii aeriene în uniunea sovietică, UNAp

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EUROPEAN ANTIMISSILE DEFENSE SYSTEM – POST SECOND PHASE IMPLEMENTATION PERSPECTIVE IN THE CONTEXT OF NATO-RUSSIA RELOCATION

Daniel-Nicolae Bănică*

*"Carol I" National Defence University, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: 2014 was a year when the world finally taken out of its auto-imposed self-confidence and serenity. Ukraine triggered the unavoidable confrontation between Russian Federation and both USA and EU. The European economical problems became impossible to be ignored anymore and the anti-system groups win a bigger influence power with each political election. After eight years since the invasion against Georgia, Russian Federation showed that it has a rapid action capability able to trigger an attack to reconquer the lost territories after the Russian collapse. While the Americans are installing the anti-ballistic shield in Europe, the Russians are installing their missile system in Ukraine in order to establish their own readiness system. Two antiballistic capabilities are foreseen for 2016 - American and Russian, facing each other within a range of 800 kilometer distance, which means an overreaction on both sides.

Keywords: anti-missile shield, destruction zones, shield, military cooperation, reaction capacity

1. GENERAL INFORMATION without the European Union. In this context, Romania must remain a pillar of stability in The warfare of the future will require the area and a trusted partner for NATO and decisive changes for the military body, EU. whereas the emphasis will be put on the The representatives of the Russian number, but the quality of the forces reaching Federation stated that they do not intend to a maximum strenght using the optimal limit NATO in creating a missile shield combination of knowledge, operating rhythm, against missile threats from the Middle East, precision and lethal capability, all applied in a but do not want it to be done at the expense of joint context. the security of their own State. The main Recent developments in contemporary concern of Russia, according to the statements world confirm that today's security made, is that a relationship based on mutual environment goes across a period marked by trust cannot be built as long as instruments of complex challenges and financial difficulties. deterrence of one party (e.g. the Russian At the moment, Romania is caught in the Federation nuclear force) will be the target of middle between the Russian interests and NATO missile defense tools. In this regard, Western interests: the transatlantic relationship Chief of the General Staff Gerasimov of is vital for Romania and it does not exist Russia, expressed, during a meeting within the

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framework of Russia-NATO Council held in 2. HYBRID WARFARE IN UKRAINE - May 2012, his hope that NATO will undertake INFLECTION POINT OF NATO AND the necessary actions to remove Russia's RUSSIAN FEDERATION concerns about the missile shield elements RELATIONSHIP deployment and argued that Russia has offered solutions which could help restore the The Russian Federation desideratum to confidence in NATO [1]. control Ukraine was based on perceptions such If NATO decided to reinforce the eastern as ethnic and historical, (the Russians consider flank, in turn, at present, Russia strengthens its Ukrainians as their “prodigal” brothers and the military capability to activate and sustain more Crimean as a peninsular Russia), blooming similar conflicts to the one in Ukraine, in economic policy (the need to extend the various European countries. According to the Eurasian Union), and strategic military American Lieutenant-General Ben Hodges, calculations (need permanent military allies Moscow's actions do not represent an and/or buffer states). Although the fraternity immediate threat at present, but in the future feelings of Russians towards Ukrainians are the risk will be higher. Continuous logical, the urge to make Kiev a subordinate to improvement of the Russian army will provide Moscow, in military terms, is not logical [4]. the possibility of Vladimir Putin to start up to Not just territory, culture, history and the three operations simultaneously, without the Russian minority are common reasons why need for a general mobilization of the military, Russia wants to keep Ukraine within its sphere declared the American Lieutenant-General of influence. In Ukraine are at stake the Ben Hodges. economic interests of Russia. The territory of The new configuration of the Russian Ukraine providesthe Russian gas transit to antiballistic missile defence is based on the Europe (approximately 80% of Russian gas is automatic control system of the Air Force and transported through the Ukrainean pipelines). Aerospace Defence, conceived by Almaz Also, the Russian military and industrial Antey Company. Interceptor anti-air missiles, system has significant interests in Ukraine, as well as mobile antiballistic missile defense given the fact that a large number of spare systems and radars will be connected to the parts and engines are imported from here. common control center. Thereafter, all new Russian oligarchs would like to obtain, the anti-missile systems, such as S-500 missiles Ukrainian economy “pearls”. Should be and new radars will be integrated into this mentioned here and the rich croplands of the system [2]. country. In addition, Ukraine has huge The automated control system shall process economic potential and is a great outlet, taking the the information obtained from all the into account that its population goes far terrestrial radar systems, from all the AWACS outnumbered than the population of other planes and from the space detection systems. Member States of Commonwealth of Connection and exchange of information will Independent States – CIS. Ukraine also has a be provided by mobile systems of wireless geostrategic importance for Russia. If Ukraine high-speed transmission made by Mikran withdraws from the orbit of interest of Russia, Company, in Tomsk [3]. this could mean a change of Moscow security Russian expert said that for a global system parameters. of missile defense to be installed throughout Vladimir Putin's dezideratum on the the Russian territory, is required at least the modernization of the Russian State to be a production of advanced anti-air missiles. “At superpower has a sphere of influence within present Russia have already such missiles, the post-Soviet space. A Ukrainian State, which exhibit, however, numerous opting for an association agreement with the deficiencies. There is, especially, no common EU, facet supported by all leaders of radar coverage throughout the country“, significance of the opposition, will create a Konovalov explained. huge gap in the Russian President's objective.

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The revolution in Ukraine and the removal The takeover of the control over the in February 2014 of former President Viktor Crimea by Russian Federation allowed Crimea Yanukovych was “a coup d'Etat” as Vladimir to strengthen its force projection capabilities at Putin estimated. The annexation, a month the Black Sea by positioning antinaval later, of Crimea – which was part of Ukraine missiles, air defence systems and strong naval only since the 1950s – was inevitable after the aviation capabilities in the recently annexed change in the data of Kiev problem. “For peninsula. De exemplu, în plus faţă de Russia, Crimea makes a civilizational and avioanele de atac de tipul „Su-24”, ruşii au sacred sense, just as it is the Temple Mount in început să disloce avioane multirol relativ Jerusalem for Jews or Muslims”, said the avansate de tipul „Su-30” în Crimeea. For Kremlin leader [5]. example, in addition to attack aircraft as “Su- After the annexation of Crimea, Russian 24” type, the Russians have started to deploy foreign policy has been placed on previously relatively advanced aircraft as the multirole unknown directions. At stake are not only “Su-30” in Crimea. Moscow will also build a Crimea, Ukraine or other country in Eastern base in Novorossiysk, which will serve as a Europe, but also the role and place of Russia in Center for its naval presence in the Black Sea. the international system. Russia has not only In the aftermath of the past year arisen attacked Ukraine, but also the whole European events in Ukrainian zone there are prefigured system of rules and laws and European agenda two disjoint ideological blocks: itself. Moscow wants not just to restore its a. The NATO and EU, according to which scope of geopolitics influence, but also to Russia annexed illegally Crimea from the religitimeze it as a basic principle of the standpoint of international law; Russia acts international system [6]. subversively to destabilize Ukraine; Russia The creation of a global anti-missile supports separatists in Eastern Ukraine; Russia defense system is “a threat to everyone”, that tries to maintain Ukraine under its own sphere “gives the illusion of invincibility”, Russian of influence in order to stop NATO's President Vladimir Putin declared in expansion; Russia wants to maintain a buffer December 2, 2014, in his speech argued in zone between Russian and NATO borders; front of reunited chambers of Parliament Russia seeks an extension for completion a during the annually meeting on the State of the counteroffer to U.S. missile shield. nation. According to Russian President, the b. Russia, according to which Russia is not most sensitive issue in terms of international involved in Ukraine, Russia condemns the security was the United States' decision “to interference of the West in the Ukrainian abandon in 2002 the Treaty on ballistic missile crisis, Russia condemns military intervention defense”. Putin added that although he does as such Ukrainian authorities against not want to engage in a new arms race, Russia separatists; Russia does not want an overt war will provide its defence even under “current with NATO but is bound to defend itself; (global) conditions”. The President has also Russia is trying to create its own safety stated that Russia does not want to abandon its umbrella as a reaction to NATO'S refusal to relations with the United States and Europe, stop the anti-missile shield program; Russia but also trying to develop ties with Latin does not want a NATO surround by its western America and East Asia [7]. flank.

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3. STAGES OF IMPLEMENTATION OF Phase 3 (2018 time horizon): system THE ANTI-MISSILE SHIELD IN extension to cover all NATO Member States EUROPE in Europe, through the introduction into service of a new version of SM3 interceptor, Romania has been and will remain a which is to be set in a land base, in Northern constant promoter – in NATO framework, of Europe (Redzikowo, Poland). the missile-defence project, acting with Phase 4 (2020 time horizon) – According consistency for its materialization In this to the timetable made in 2010 by the U.S. respect, the decisions taken at the NATO Department of Defence the phase entailed: the Summit in Bucharest (April 2008), reiterated extension of protection to any possible at the Strasbourg-Kehl (April 2009), Lisbon intercontinental missile attacks, including (November 2010) and Chicago (May 2012) through the further development of SM3 referred to the development of a missiles and radar systems, and by placing in comprehensive system, able to “cover the Poland a new class of interceptors [9]. entire Ally territory, in accordance with the Studies made at the beginning of the Alliance's security indivizibility and collective second decade of the 21st century, indicated solidarity principles. Romania supported the that the Southeast Europe would be Chicago statement regarding the Interim increasingly vulnerable to threats with short Capability of NATO ballistic missile defense and medium range missiles. It was appreciated system”. The decision of the Supreme Council that attaining as quickly as possible the of National Defence – SCND (Romania) operational readiness of the missile defense concerning the participation of the American system could strengthen national security both Missile Defense System is in full agreement directly through the covering protection with what has been established at NATO level, provided for the entire national territory, and being recorded so far in the bilateral indirectly, because of the the significant and cooperation register [8]. deterrent role of the system, able to reduce the According to the Report on the review of risks associated with possible missile attacks. the Ballistic Missile Defense Review Report, The role of deterrence will remove the risk of published by the American Departament of attack against any other Allied territory. Defence at the 1st of February 2010, four The destruction area of a ballistic missile phases of implementation were envisaged: shield of a defense system is defined in the Phase 1: protect some parts of South- first place by the interceptor parameters, Eastern Europe, through the deployment of an namelly by the maximum speed achieved advanced radar system (intended for detecting when the last Rocket Motor separates from the missiles launched from the ascending phase of privious stage on the condition that the their trajectory) and mounted on ships SM3- elements of detection, tracking, and command TAKES interceptors. Phase 1 started on 7 and control could ensure the interceptor use to March 2011, by sending the USS Monterey its maximum capabilities. ship in the Mediterranean Sea, equipped with Considering that at the end of running of Aegis system, namely making operational all the three-stage rocket motor of the SM3 radar in Turkey, at Kurecik. interceptor (the first rocket motor – MK72, the Phase 2 (2015 time horizon): expand second rocket motor - MK 104 Dual Thrust NATO Allies protection through the Rocket Motor, and the third stage rocket motor implementation of a new generation of SM3- – MK 136), the interceptor is at about 100 km IB interceptors (able to be launched from the height and that from moment it follows a ground), placed in a land base, amplasaţi într-o ballistic trajectory to the area, where the target bază terestră, namely at Deveselu. The system becomes detectable by the strike vehicle's which is to be placet at Deveselu is foreseen to sensor capabilities, then the impact area could reach the operational capability by the fouth be considered acceptable as being a trimestre of 2015. hemisphere with the center placed at the lounching point of the interceptor and with a

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radius equal to the maximum height reached According to these estimates, the areas of by the interceptor. destruction for a launch from the Deveselu of a By some not very complicated SM3 block IB interceptor, namely a block IIA, mathematical relationships, ranging from would look like in figure 1 [10]. Kepler's laws, you can get the value of the maximum flight height. This is a function of (It depends on the) speed (at the end of the acceleration portion) and (on) the angle of the vector with the horizontal speed at that point. Considering that it is desirable for ballistic rocket interception to be made at a higher possible height, allowing for a possible re- engagement with endoatmosferice systems, it can be concluded that the angle of the vector with the horizontal velocity at the end of the acceleration portion should be greater than Fig. 1 Deveselu maximum launching range 60o. With regard to the upper limit of this for the two kind of interceptors: the SM3 block angle, it can be considered a highest I and block II conditioning speed at its peak speed of the impact vehicle. Thus, in order to ensure the 4. PERSPECTIVES AND POSSIBLE destruction of ballistic rocket by direct strike, SCENARIOS OF DEVELOPMENT OF the impact vehicle should have at the meeting THE MISSILE DEFENSE point a minimum of 1 km/s speed. For the SM3 block I type interceptor, which reaches a Of the lessons identified and lessons maximum speed at the end of the acceleration learned so far, and in pursuit of the scenarios portion of 3 km/s, the maximum angle on which the events developed, it is clear that, ensuring its peak speed of more than 1 km/s is in relation to the with NATO, Russia has an 69o. Between these two angular values, the advantage in terms of life cycle of planning height at its peak varies between 490 km and and decision-making, as well as the ability to 580 km, so it can be concluded that the deploy rapidly and concentrate forces and average destruction area for a SM3 block I means of to achieve superiority in the event of interceptor is a hemisphere with a radius of conflict escalation. about 535 km. After the war ended in Georgia, Russia has Under the same conditions of calculation carefully analyzed the lessons learned and regarding the SM3 block IIA type interceptor proceed to modernise step by step, its military (that, more than likely will not be installed in system: it started by launching of structural Roania, according to President Obama reforms in the field of defence, in 2009 has statement) which is expected to reach a speed developed a new National Security Strategy; in at the end of the acceleration of about 5 km/s, 2010 a new Military Doctrine has been it can be concluded that the optimal elaborated, and in 2012 the Foreign Policy destruction would be a hemisphere with a Concept of the Russian Federation has been radius of about 1535 km. issued.

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At the same time, Russia has adapted its not excluded the deployment of type 2009 doctrine and is able to plan, organize, “Iskander-M” missile complex in Peninsula execute, and manage assignments specific to before the year 2016. Accordingly, the hybrid conflict under the circumstances the members of the Armed Services Committee of new doctrine has a horizon of applicability up the U.S. Senate have expressed their concern to 2020. that the deployment of “Iskander” system in Ukraine's decision made on 23 December Crimea violates the Treaty on intermediate- 2014, to renounce to its status of unaligned range nuclear forces (INF), also represents a country to approach NATO, in the aftermarth threat to Europe. System designers claim that of the annexation of the Crimean Peninsula by the “Iskander” system can be stocked with up Russia and in progress conflict with to ten different types of warheads. This makes prorussians rebels in the East of the country, the system an optimal one for destroying change although not radically the policy and rocket systems, long-range artillery systems, the approach of the Russian Federation air defense and missile defense systems, and regarding the conflict. As a result, in C4 ISR infrastructure as well (command, December 26, 2014, President Vladimir Putin control, communications, computers, has referred to the defensive character of the intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance). Russian military doctrine, which will be Brigade-level complex includes 51 vehicles of maintained, and focused on a military which: 12 grenade launchers, 12 transport- engagement of Russia only if all non-violent loading systems, 11 command and contorl solutions will be used up. “The probability of a systems, 14 support vehicles, one maintenance large-scale warfare against Russia fell down”, vehicle and one preparation of information but in some areas there are a number of vehicle, a number of complex high-precision intensified threats, such as territorial claims, guided missiles, and armoured vehicles and “interference in the internal affairs” of other training facilities. countries and sending strategic weapons in To prove the superiority of nuclear forces space. and strategic transactions, coincidentally with The revised military doctrine of the the release of the new military doctrine of the Russian Federation was published on 26 Russian Federation, on 26 December 2014, December 2014 and points to the changes in 11.02, Moscow time (10.02, Romania's time) terms of the threats and global security affairs the Russians have made a test with the perception starting with 2010, taking into intercontinental ballistic rocket RS-24 Yars, account the lessons identified and lessons with solid fuel and detachable warhead, on a learned by the Russian Federation from recent terrestrial base of Pleseţk Space complex, in crises and presents a foresight of the threat order to reaffirm President Putin's statement environment addressed to Russian Federation regarding the fact that the new doctrine and its defence. The revised military doctrine remains defensive, but Russia has at its reaffirms the the Russian Federation disposal powerful tools, including credible peremptory policy to defend its strategic deterrent capabilities [11]. The warheads used interests, as the revision of the doctrine being in test program “were programed to strike triggered by the change in security targets at the Kura range, Kamchatka environment, and, as a consequence the Peninsula”. The RS-24 Yars missile was modernization of the armed forces, and the introduced into service in July 2010 and it is development of Moscow political and military an improved version of Topol-M ballistic leadership thinking. missile. The ballistic missile is able to carry In November 2014, the Russian Defence multiple nuclear warheads that can reach Minister has obtained a fifth missile complex independent targets and has the ability to avoid type “Iskander-M” brigade-level effective, the anti-missile defence systems within a generating the speculation that it could be radius of up to 12,000 kilometers. transported in Crimea. In any circumstance, It is possible that future actions of the the General Staff of the Russian Air Force has Russian Federation to be sequences array and

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be carried out in three phases. During the first significant forces and assume a large number phase, Russia will be concerned about the of casualties, approach that would likely be recovery of influence and effective control of lacking of domestical popularity. Renewed the former Soviet Union, re-establishing the military actions would lead to tougher buffer zone that Soviet Union offered. During sanctions from the West side. They would the second phase, Russia will aim to create a further undermine the deteriorating economy second level of buffer areas beyond the of the Russian Federation, and for now, on the borders of the former Soviet Union. Russia peak of the economic crisis, they could lead to will try to do the herein above mentioned the impossibility to support such campaign, without creating a solid wall of opposition, as which President Vladimir Putin knows very the one which undermined it during the Cold well. Consequences of anti-missile shield f War. In the third phase, a process that takes viability: the situation would gain new place from the very beginning, the Russian connotations because the border between the Federation will try to prevent the formation of Russian Federation and Deveselu elements coalitions against itself [12]. will remain just an area of roughly 500-800 Possible scenarios: km. The Russian fleet will control even better A. Military the actions within the contiguous zone and I. Maintaining of relatively cold war in Romanian territorial waters, accompanied by a Ukraine. Hypothezis: the Russian Federation tighter supervision of the actions of the will continue to sustain the separatists’ actions, American and Turkish vessels in this area. while escalating the arms race and There will be a possibility that Russian rediployments of technique and troops in antibalistic defense systems to relocate right sensitive areas. Implications: maintaining on the border with Romania, and the Russian tension in the area, concomitant with arms race early warning systems will be able to inform escalation. Viability of anti-missile shield almost in real time on a possible launch of a consequences: the completion of the IV-th missile from Deveselu being able to fight quarter 2015 phase related to missile shield against it in the first phase, destroying it above elements in Deveselu will be achieved under Romanian territory or at its border. normal circumstances, screened by the B. Economic implementation of NATO Readiness Action The fact that many States depend on Plan – RAP. natural reserves of Russia, especially on II. The conflict escalation and conquest Russian gas, ensure Russia with a series of by Russian Federation of Ukrainean actions targeting a transboundary economic territories, with the intention of reaching domination. even to the mouths of the Danube. The main objectives of the Russian Hypothesis: in the first phase, the Russian strategy on the Middle East are not necessarily Federation could pursue to capture Mariupol the development of more favourable bilateral port at Azov Sea, or even to develop a land relations with individual countries as Iran, bridge to Crimea along the Western coast of Egypt or Syria, but rather to diverge US focus the sea, and then to extend this corridor up to from other areas important for Russians, as the mouths of the Danube. Implications: It Ukraine. The crises in the East and recent requires that Russian Federation deploy aggressiveness of Russia have made of energy

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security an essential theme to the European and at the same time, aiming to establish Union. Romania is aware that only a real stronger economic and political relationships European solidarity can ensure a reduction in with Russia. the dependence on Russia [13]. If other Geographically, the Czech Republic is European countries will not “cheat” and accept more remoted from Russian Fedration and less preferential agreements with Russia, then the dependent on the economic side than Hungary, South Streamva case rests at the level of which allows a greater space of maneuvering intent/project. in terms of policy approach on Moscow. C. Political and diplomatical However, the Prague authorities make a Russian Federation knows that it special effort to balance the foreign dominated half of Europe once and that the relationships and maintain the political and former communist bloc of states, as well as commercial relations with Russia. The Czech those with Slavic ancestry should not fully exit Government has promoted a joint policy from its sphere of influence. toward Russia. Moscow is turning more and more towards Slovakia makes significant efforts to the Western Balkans, because it does not want maintain close political and trade relations doesn't want this region to become part of the with all the neighbouring States and regional West. And even in the larger States that are powers. Slovakia is to a large extent integrated EU members, such as Bulgaria, Moscow into the European market and is the only continues to try to exert its influence through member of the Visegrad Group, which is part the energy sector. of the Euro area. The Slovak leadership strives For a long time, the Russian Federation has to maintain those relationships in business and focused its attention on Belgrade which has to avoid any disruption of trade with Russia. had always strong relations with Moscow. Undoubtedly, as the primary transit country During 2014, the Serbian President, Tomislav for Russian energy resources flow to European Nikolić, has developed a close relationship markets, Slovakia holds a certain level of with Vladimir Putin, trying to position the influence in its relations with Russia [15]. Republic of Serbia closer to EU. In 2013, during a visit to the summer residence of 5. CONCLUSIONS & Vladimir Putin in Sochi, Tomislav Nikolić has ACKNOWLEDGMENT signed a Declaration on strategic partnership The antiballistic missile brings together between Belgrade and Moscow. At the end of under one umbrella very different 2013, Serbia signed an agreement on military technologies, all having a common one cooperation with Russia, and in October 2014, characteristic: they are the most advanced to Berlin's displeasure, Serbia received the technologies at this time. visit of Vladimir Putin, context in which The question that arises is the following: Is Tomislav Nikolić offerd him the highest badge missile shield impenetrable? of honor of the State. These are just a few Given the fact that throughout the history steps taken at the public level [14]. of military technics and technologies it has The Hungarian, Czech and Slovakian been a race between weapons and antiarms we Governments positions in relation with can be sure that the antiballistic missile shield Kremlin differs in terms of the degree of has its own antidote. energy dependency and trade relations with In this context, the antiballistic missile Russia shield can be countered through a series of Budapest depends on NATO regarding the actions, of which I recall the following: security, on EU in terms of investment and a. The easiest but most expensive solution: financing, and on the Russian Federation in the launching towards the opponent a much larger field of energy. Accordingly, Hungary number of missiles than he could ever promotes a multilateral strategy for its foreign intercept. policy, maintaining the relations with the EU b. A cheaper and accessible solution: and NATO as a member of both organizations, increase in number of false targets, so that a

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

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good part of the counterattack could be lost on c. the collapse, on July 19, in Eastern the air. Ukraine of the MH17 flight belonging to c. Other way of missile shield penetration: Malaysia Airlines, which had left Amsterdam total elimination of one of its components. For and was heading to Kuala Lumpur, carrying example, the annihilation of satellites that 208 people of whom 189 were Dutch guide and transmit continuously data to nationals, was not due to the interception of opponent's missile shield before launching the aircraft by an anti-aircraft missile launched their own attack. from a BUK anti-aircraft defense system, but d. The smartest solution for the anti-missile represented an intempestive threat because the shield penetration: producing hipersonici pilot had changed the flight path, hadn’t vehicles/interceptors highly manoeuvrable responded to radio calls, was heading towards able to penetrate with relative ease any anti- an island where it was assumed that there were missile shield existing at this time. “extremely delicate” elements, and in this NATO insists on implementing two context it was shot down by the ones who “had separate missile defense systems, but to do it, and were feeling threatened”; coordinated, one Russian and one of the d. attacks in Paris on 8 January 2015, Alliance. On the other side, Moscow proposes followed by other attempts in Germany and the creation of an indivisible system Belgium a week later, are part of a default integrating the devices of the two parts. scnario, which will lead to an exacerbation of Russia has taken a series of actions nationalism and a conviction in unison of described as countermeasures to NATO Islam. In this way, arms race and international Defense ballistics program. Some of these security restructure could be justifyed; there is measures are proactive, such as launching new now a given pretext for future interventions in research programs and strategic development the Middle East but also in any other parts of programs. For example, the Russian the globe; Government is developing new ballistic e. by the annexation of Crimea, Russia missiles, of which tactical and technical took a step forward and opened a possible, characteristics are adapted to the new new arms race; the elements of the American technologies and can circumvent in most Ballistic Missile Shield placed in Poland, effective way the missile defense systems. Romania and Turkey, as well as at the Black As a corollary, a few conclusions are Sea could be countered, in the case of missile outlined in the following: launching within the missile acceleration area, a. at the 25th anniversary of the fall of the i.e. much easier, by Russian elements of Communist bloc, after the uprisings in the missile shield located in Crimea and mounted autumn and winter of 1989, the world had on Russian ships, which are increasinly more entered a new stage, likely a reiterative one numerous at the Black Sea and in the frozen conditioned by the recalibration of the power North, which also is dominated by Russia. balance; f. during the next 10 or15 years we are b. war without limits, non-linear war or going to witness a massive force relocation, hybrid war as conducted in Ukraine is only the rapid deployment and re-deployment of forces, peak of the iceberg of what the world calls the scenarios and defined local and regional start of World War III; challenges, realignment of alliances and new

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types of ordnance experiments, all made by the Federation state. Available: great military and economic powers, at the http://www.mediafax.ro/special/ucraina/ expense of peoples and populations; the recent (March 2015). changes in the climate, the record of 2014 as 6. Fiodor, L., Building Eurasia and defining the warmest year in the history of climatic Russia”, in Kadri Liik, Russia’s Pivot to measurements, the multide of surface Eurasia, 29.05.2014. Available: earthquakes in Vrancea area, which not http://www.ecfr.eu/publications/summary/r characteristic for that zone, the crowd of ussias_pivot_to_eurasia310 (March 2015). meteors entering the Earth's atmosphere, and 7. Pietroşel, A., Vladimir Putin’s anual speech many other aspects show that psychotronic and concerning the state of the nation, 2 Dec geoclimatic war know an incessant progress. 2014. Available: http://www.theguardian. g. starting with 2015, NATO must be com/world/2014/02/dec-primul-discurs-al- capable to act quickly and to show that, if the lui-putin-intr-un-context-politic-economic- Russian Federation is going to attack an allied dificil-federatia (March 2015). country of the eastern flank, the capability 8. * * * Questions and answers on Romania required for a prompt, efficient and viable participation in US anti-missile defence intervention is available. system. Available: http://www.mae.ro/ This work was possible with the financial node/1523 (February 2015). support of the Sectoral Operational 9. * * * Questions and answers on Romania Programme for Human Resources participation in US anti-missile defence Development 2007-2013, co-financed by the system. Available: http://mae.ro/node/ European Social Fund, under the project 1523?page=2 (February 2015). number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/138822 with the 10. Tabarcia, N., Power balance in XXI title “Transnational network of integrated century – the antimissile defence case, management of intelligent doctoral and PhD thesis (2012). postdoctoral research in the fields of Military 11. Iegorov, I., Rusia a testat din nou o Science, Security and Intelligence, Public rachetă balistică intercontinentală, order and National Security – Continuous Mediafax, 26 decembrie 2014. Available: formation programme for elite researchers - http://www.digi24.ro/Stiri/Digi24/Extern/I “SmartSPODAS”.” nternational/Rusia+a+testat+din+nou+o+ra cheta+balistica+intercontinentala REFERENCES (December 2014). 1. Gerasimov, V.V., Assessment of BMD 12. Friedman, G., Ukraine and the small cold Global capabilities, presentation at war, 4 March 2014. Available: international conference “Missile Defence www.stratfor.com (January 2015). as a Factor in Establishing a New Security 13. Ghinea, C., The energy security of Europe. Environment”, Moscova (2012). What coul be the role of Romania? 19 Sept 2. Toth, M., Agenţia AGERPRES, 15 May 2014. Available: http://adevarul.ro/ 2013, www.agerpres.com, accessed on 15 economie/stiri-economice/cristian-ghinea- febr 2015. securitatea-energetica-europei-rol-romaniai 3. Kimball, D.G., How to overcome the -1_541bdddd0d133766a8412365/index. impasse of antiballistic defence, The html (January 2015). Moscow Times, 27.05.2013. 14. * * * Carnegie Europe, The Western 4. Sarajian, S., The National Interest, Does Balkans become the sphere of interest of Russian Federation really need Ukraine, the Russian Federation, 24 November 25 February 2014. Available: 2014. Available: http://carnegieeurope.eu/ http://www.questia.com/library/p5633/the- strategiceurope/ (January 2015). national-interest/ (September 2014). * * * STRATFOR, In Central Europe 5. Putin, V., The Occident has always sought governments are caught in the middle, 25 to slow down Russia - the anual speech of November 2014. Available: the Kremlin leader concerning the Russian www.stratfor.com (February 2015).

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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

HUMAN ERROR – COCKPIT VULNERABILITIES

Oliver Ciuică*, Eduard Mihai*

* Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Bra ov, Romania

Abstract: The present paper aims to underline the importance of the crew in the aeronautical activity. Apart from personal talent, the aptitudes of each member of the crew and, not at least, the level of knowledge of the flying crew, the knowledge and training for the purpose of communicating, tasks distribution, decision making and hierarchy within the aircrew represent some key elements for success regarding flight safety.

Key words: flight safety, Crew Resources Management, leader, communication, flight deck, training.

1. INTRODUCTION - awareness raising, training and checking of the crew in the light of obeying operational “To learn out of experience is reasonable, safety measures; yet, to the same lesson twice is unacceptable!” - reports drawing with regard to latent hazard [2]. situations identified; There are hardly any human activities that - effectiveness improvement of safety do not imply certain risks. We can only management system based on periodical distinguish between hazardous activities and activity analyses at all hierarchical levels. activities that are less risky. We can say that the main objectives of 2. NECESSITY OF ADHERING TO CRM safety in the field of aeronautics is to reduce to CONCEPT minimum losses of resources, especially human resources, which are difficult to replace Starting from the main resource of any if one takes into account the investment of organization, the HUMAN being, researches time and training involved. done for increasing service safety (in each In order to accomplish this objective it is particular area of human activity) concentrated necessary for the management to focus on on reducing human errors with secondary several directions [1]: effects on productivity, effectiveness and - identification and elimination of hazard especially on the human resources lives and conditions that may generate difficulties; health. The first step in identification and - establishment of a framework for limiting reduction of latent deficiencies in the chain of risks to as lower a level as possible; hazards causality was achieved in the field of aviation.

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Thus, two years after the air disaster of through the reduction of human factor error 1977 that occurred in Tenerife, when two reduction and through the use of all available Boeing 747 aircraft crashed on the runway, resources, in the process of problem solving; causing the death of 582 people aboard, the  A system that takes into account defining National Aeronautics and Space elements such as: Administration (NASA) organized a workshop 1. The manner in which safety is affected on the topic of “Resources Management on the by the behavior and attitude of a crew’s Flight Deck”. As a result of debates, human members; error or the pilot’s error was no longer 2. The crew is an indivisible whole, an considered the main cause of air crashes. Thus, individual; the conclusion was that flights safety does not 3. The training is performed more rely only on the pilots’ possibilities, practically than theoretically; skillfulness or capacity of flying their aircraft 4. A clear description of each member’s or on the good functioning of the technique, responsibilities; but also on existent interpersonal relationships 5. The preservation of the subordination within the crew, relationships that may alter relation and equally, the formation of an the reaction capacity or the attention of any effective crew; crew member holding responsibilities in the 6. The possibility for the members of the flight deck. Consequently, NASA introduced crew to re-analyze and improve their the CRM term (Cockpit Resource performance. Management), a concept based on warning One of the settings for the crew resources crews against deficiencies in information management is represented by Threat and management, decision making and Error Management - TEM, a concept that communication among the air crew members implies the recognition and avoidance of errors and of leadership from the flight deck. that are part of the operational activity. The The term and also concept of CRM was mere observation of errors, without identifying intensely spread world wide and it was the factors contributing to the error, makes it developed so that it was implemented in each hard to understand what is to happen. Threats and every sector of human activities, not only and the manner in which the crew are aware of related to aviation organization, although them and manage them were included as initially it was met with reticence. Once the observations so that to allow for the CRM had developed, it was replaced by Crew description of a specific event and of the entire Resource Management or Company Resource instance that may lead from the phase of threat Management, in accordance with various to catastrophe. necessities. The three concepts of TEM are as follows The foundation for the development of the [5]: threats, errors and the undesired aircraft actual CRM concept was represented by state (unwanted position of the aircraft). unbeatable realities of the human nature: The term threat refers to external - the human being is subjected to error; conditions that endanger the flight safety - the human being is unique, people have during the aircraft operation. Threats may be various personalities, specific cultures, each defined in terms of events and errors that: individual holding special talents and - Occur without being initiated by the crew; aptitudes. - Increase the piloting and the flight complexity; 3. WHAT IS CRM? - Require increased attention on behalf of the crew for maintaining the safety condition of CRM stands for the correct use of all the flight. existent resources (crew, aircraft, flight One threat that was not identified and controls, information) for the purpose of annulled in due time is correlated with the obtaining maximum performance regarding crew error (piloting error). In other words, a the operational effectiveness [4]. threat that is incorrectly managed represents an  It is a training method meant to optimize error. Accordingly, error is defined as being human performance in adequate interrelating an action or the crew’s lack of action that:

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

- Leads to a deviation from the course of positions in state and in the military. The flight intentions or expectations of the crew; was international, of the VIP type, considered - Decreases the flight safety due its surpassing to be “A” class. safety measures; As a result of the radio contact with the - Increases the probability of an unwanted “Korsaj” ATC, communication was in event to occur. Russian, not in English, so as international The undesired (difficult to control) position standards required. The crew’s level of of the aircraft may be defined as the aircraft knowledge of Russian was not known. trim for which altitude, speed or configuration: Nevertheless, it was proved by the CVR - Emerge from the crew’s piloting errors (Cockpit Voice Recorder) that the PIC’s (Pilot (inadequate actions or lack of action); in Command) level of knowledge of - Endanger obviously safety measures. phraseology in Russian was SATISFACTORY. 4. WHY CRM? The beginning of the series of events that were about to lead to catastrophe is Examples or theories regarding the represented by the first pieces of information importance of CRM are numerous. But why is given by the Korsaj ATC, regarding the training for CRM necessary, or, why does meteorological conditions: fog, visibility 400 the crew have to act as a unitary whole? meters, improper landing conditions. The crew Further, we will focus on a case study related gives the read back and acknowledges the to crew teamwork during flight; we will received information. The same information attempt to highlight threats, errors as well the regarding visibility conditions are given out in undesired position of the aircraft at a certain an evident emotional manner by the pilot of a moment, the crew ineffectiveness due to different aircraft, of the same nationality, who external pressures and vulnerabilities that may had landed previously on Severny aerodrome, lead to catastrophe. suggestion that he might attempt to land. 4.1. Case Study. It was a dull day, with In this moment, the only wise decision of low temperature and fog. It happened the military passenger transport aircraft would somewhere in the Russian Federation airspace. have been to divert its route to an alternate The sky was overcast with Stratus clouds, the aerodrome. However, the PIC requested from flight level was around 3800 meters, and the the ATC approval of approaching in the ground was not visible. On approach, at intention of an attempt to land. approximately 1000 meters away from the The aircraft crew intercepted the slide path. threshold the aircraft hits some tree tops than The approach in these conditions was a crashes against the ground. As a result of the classical one (2 NDB – Non Directional impact, all people aboard died. Beacon and radar approach) due to the lack of For landing, the crew established radio ground advanced operating system (ILS – contact with the ”Severny” military aerodrome Instrument Landing System). ATC announced by means of the ATC call sign ”Korsaj”. It the crew that the minimum descent altitude - was a military passenger transport aircraft, of MDA using this procedure was 100 meters Russian production, but which did not belong (should the crew not have visual contact with to the Russian Federation. Aboard it there the ground upon reaching the altitude of 100 were 8 crew members and some other 88 meters, either in terms of runway markings or passengers, each of whom occupied high

45 AIR FORCE beacons, the crew has to initiate missed informal, fact that was revealed by the names approach). Along the slide path: they used to call one another. - PIC descended below 100 meters without All these factors, each taken separately, interacting with the crew; may have negative effects for the activity and - the navigator was reading the altitude using a behavior of the PIC. When combined, these radio altimeter and not a barometric altimeter; factors may result in an air catastrophe. - one of the altitude gauges was set on standard pressure (1013 hPa), which led to the 5. CONCLUSIONS & display of three different values of the altitude; ACKNOWLEDGMENT - the crew did not react at any of the ”TERRAIN AHEAD” cautions, nor against The decision made by the PIC to attempt the ”PULL UP” warning; an approach is based on the psychical pressure - PIC ignored the CP indications of missed put on him (and on his crew) to come to approach at an altitude of 65 meters on the approach by all means. This pressure is put radio altimeter; mainly by the attendance aboard of the state - the vertical descent speed was very high President and by the presence aboard the flight (8m/s represents almost the double of deck of the Chief of Air Force Staff, who did recommended speed); not react in any way at the sight of unfavorable - the cruise speed was 300 Km/h instead of meteorological conditions from the final phase 265 km/h. of approach. Mentioned should be made that, The last minute decision to initiate a two years before this incident of the aircraft missed approach at an altitude of under scrutiny, the PIC of the aircraft had been approximately 10 meters high (on the radio the copilot – CP – of another VIP transport altimeter) represented an instinctive, rapid and flight in which, due to security reasons, the uncontrolled thought that probably appeared at PIC of that flight made the decision of landing the moment when the PIC noticed the height on a different aerodrome. The steps taken based on ground markings. against him affected his profession negatively 4.2. Crew errors. Following the quick [3]. Throughout the last twenty five minutes of analysis of the sequence of events, here are the flight the PIC was highly charged some of the errors made by the crew at the emotionally, which was reflected by a conflict moment of clear evidence of threats: of interests: should he land at all costs or - The crew did not make the decision of should he choose a second aerodrome?! using a different aerodrome, despite the The lack of leadership abilities of the PIC, unfavorable meteorological conditions and as well as evidence with regard to crew’s without taking into account the pilots flying responsibilities, finally resulted in a tragic air experience; crash. The fact that upon MDH, the PIC did - The interception of the slide path at a not inform about his excessive descent speed, higher altitude, which led to the increase of the crew’s behavior lacking decision making speed and the maintaining of the vertical speed and communication effectiveness, as well as at a rate much higher than the recommended the erroneous reading of the altimeter, by the one and even below the MDH (Minimum navigator, represented grievous consequences Descending Height) of 100 meters; of the absence of CRM training. - PIC did not execute the missed approach at The case study under debate was based on the altitude of 100 meters high; data collection and official investigation - Neither of the pilots initiated final descent resulting from the air catastrophe of the 19 of when they heard the TWAS (Terrain April 2010, from Smolensk, the Russian Awareness and Warning System) warnings; Federation, in which the Tu-154 aircraft - The ineffective use of the CRM under belonging to the Polish Air Force was heavy weatherl conditions; involved, killing all passengers aboard, among - The inexistence of any cautions on behalf whom the president of the State. of the previously landed crews against The current paper is intended to be one in cancelling their landing intention, although search for evidence of existent vulnerabilities some relationships between pilots were on the flight deck, during flight, and not a

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

conclusion for the events that led to the tragic contemporane, Editura Brasse’s Defeuse event occurrence. publishes 1986. Traducere C.Av.M./1998, This work was possible with the financial p. 102. support of the Sectoral Operational 3. INTERSTATE AVIATION COMMITTEE Programme for Human Resources (IAC) Final Report Tu-154M tail number Development 2007-2013, co-financed by the 101, Republic of Poland, p. 120. Available: European Social Fund, under the project http://www.mak.ru/russian/investigations/2 number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/138822 with the 010/tu-154m_101/finalreport_eng.pdf title “Transnational network of integrated (March 2015). management of intelligent doctoral and 4. JAR-OPS 1 Subpart N Section 2 AMC OPS postdoctoral research in the fields of Military 1.943/1.945(a)(9)/1.965(b)(6)/1.965(e) - Science, Security and Intelligence, Public Crew Resource Management (CRM). order and National Security – Continuous 5. Threat and Error Management, and formation programme for elite researchers - Assessment of CRM SkillsThreat and “SmartSPODAS”.” Error Management (TEM) – Concept and model, p. 23. Available: http://lup.lub.lu REFERENCES .se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&rec ordOId=1981926&fileOId=1981944 1. C. Cioacă, Managementul riscului extrem (December 2014). de securitate în sistemele aeronautice, 6. Kaczynski plane crash explained: Full Editura Academiei For elor Aeriene minute-by-minute reconstruction. ”Henri Coandă”, Bra ov, p. 12. Available: https://www.youtube.com/ 2. Gropman, L. Războiul în a treia dimensiune watch?v=ucfMbPt8xRw (January 2015). şi Eseuri asupra forţei aeriene

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“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

HUMAN FACTORS CONTRIBUTION TO AVIATION SAFETY

Iulia Mădălina Dumitru*, Mircea Boşcoianu**

* The Faculty of Technological Engineering and Industrial Management, Transilvania University of Braşov, Romania, ** Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Braşov, Romania

Abstract: In approximately 75-80% cases of aviation mishaps the main cause were human performance deficiencies. Human error is rather the starting point than the end in the investigation and prevention of aviation mishaps. One of the most popular models for analyzing the human factor and its role in aeronautical activity is the SHELL model. The components of this model are: software, hardware, environment, liveware. The system need for human factors is determined by their impact in two major areas: system efficiency and the health of operational staff. The most important applications of human factors are in the field of preventing and managing human errors through education in the human factors.

Keywords: aviation safety, human factors, human error

1. INTRODUCTION: WHAT ARE flaws, poor training, incorrect procedures or HUMAN FACTORS? operating manuals. In the modern approach to aviation safety, human error is not the end but The human element is the most flexible, rather the starting point in investigating and adaptable and valuable part of the aeronautical preventing aviation events. environment, while being the most vulnerable. Early concerns in the field of human Because most aviation incidents and accidents factors were centered on flight crews and are the result of decreased human demonstrated the danger of ignoring the performance, there is a tendency to attribute human element as a part of the socio-technical the causes of these mishaps to human error. system (the aircraft). System-induced errors However the term "human error" does not help such as those related to misreading the flight in the prevention and investigation of aviation instruments or the wrong selection of cabin events; although it shows us where the system contacts were reduced through a better design failed it does not tell us anything about the of the pilot-cabin interface. Understanding the causes that led to the failure. Also the term predictable dimensions of human capabilities "human error" hides the latent factors that and limitations and applying this knowledge in should be revealed in order to prevent aviation operational environments is the main concerns accidents. For example, errors attributed to of human factors. Other early concerns in individuals may actually be caused by design human factors were related to the effects on

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the human body of factors such as noise, cold, from the initials of the components: Software heat, vibrations and accelerations [1, 4, 5]. (procedures, symbols), Hardware (machines, In time, the study of the human factor has aircraft), Environment (environment, the expanded and developed to include aviation context in which L-H-S system works) and maintenance activities. In approximately 75- Liveware (the human). This model has only a 80% of aviation mishaps the main cause was a didactic value and aims to facilitate a better decrease in human performance. Aviation understanding of human factors. engineers and mechanics are subject to the influence of a unique set of human factors that can lead to errors in aircraft maintenance working at heights, in difficult weather conditions, in an environment where the noise level is very high or under time pressure. A scientific paper presented at a conference of the Royal Aeronautical Society shows the growing trend of maintenance occurence of errors per million flights. The number of errors has almost doubled in a period of 10 years (see Fig 2. Hawkins model Figure 1) [3]. A. Liveware. The center of this model is the human, the most sensitive and flexible system component. People, however, are subject to considerable variation in performance and its limitations, most of which are predictable in general terms. Liveware is the core component of the model; all the other components should be adapted to "fit" with it [3]. Fig 1. Maintenance occurence of errors per B. Liveware-Hardware. This interface is million flights most often considered when talking about man Research has shown that training in human - machine system: designing seats depending factors can save money and can reduce the on human body characteristics, designing number of incidents and accidents, thus displays depending on the characteristics of minimizing human casualties and property sensory information processing, or the cockpit damage. A civil aviation company reported controls with proper control. that following a two-day training program on C. Liveware-software. This interface is human factors had a 68% reduction in about man and procedures, manuals and incidents on the ground, a 12% reduction in checklists, symbology and computer software. work related injuries and a 10% reduction of D. Liveware-environment. This interface working overtime. Also, the same company was among the first addressed. Initially, the reported savings of about $ 60,000 for that first steps were to adapt human to the year. environment (helmets, flight suits, oxygen masks). After that the trend reversed to adapt 2. SHELL MODEL the environment to humans by introducing pressurization and air conditioning, For a better understanding of human soundproofing. This includes also perceptual factors, a gradual approach needs to be taken illusions generated by environment, but also with the help of the "SHELL" theoretical aspects of political and economic constraints. model. The figure below illustrates this model E. Liveware-Liveware. This interface is using squares representing different elements about interpersonal relationships. of human factors. The model name comes Traditionally, education, training and

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

performance evaluation was done individually procedures and regulations led to the accident. for each person. In this interface we are The absence of timely action of the regulatory concerned with leadership, cooperation body to resolve a known problem in air traffic between team members, teamwork and terminology was also listed as a factor interpersonal interactions. Also the scope of (NTSB/AAR 75-16); this interface is staff/ management 3. In 1977, two B-747s collided while on relationships, work climate, organizational the runway at Tenerife, with a loss of 583 climate and the pressures of the organization lives. A breakdown in normal communication that may affect human performance. procedures and misinterpretation of verbal messages were considered factors (ICAO 3. THE IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN Circular 153-AN/98).; FACTORS 4. In 1982, a B-737 crashed after take-off in icing conditions in Washington. Erroneous About three in four accidents result from engine thrust readings (higher than actual), and human error made by individuals apparently the co-pilot’s lack of assertiveness in healthy and with the necessary qualifications. communicating his concern and comments The source of these errors can result from about aircraft performance during the take-off improper design of equipment / procedures, run were among the factors cited (NTSB/AAR from inadequate operating instructions or 82- 08) [1]. deficient training. The human and financial Efficiency. The need for human factors is costs of low performance have become so big not reduced only to aviation safety. Work that an unprofessional approach to human efficiency is also affected by not applying or factors is no longer possible [3, 4]. lack of knowledge about human factors. The system need for human factors is Proper placement of displays and controls in determined by their impact in two major areas the cabin also improves performance. If crew which interact so closely together that factors members are well trained and evaluated they influencing one implicitly affect the other area. will have better performance. These areas are: The health of opperational personnel - System efficiency; Among the factors that affect the health of - The health of operational personnel. operational personnel we encounter fatigue, System efficiency circadian rhythm disturbation and sleep Safety. To demonstrate the impact of deprivation. Other factors affecting the human factors on aviation safety we will physical or mental health are: temperature, present some examples of aviation accidents in noise, humidity, light, vibration, workplace which they played a decisive role: design and space. 1. In 1974, a B-707 crashed during Fatigue. It is considered a condition approach at Pago-Pago in Samoa, with a loss resulting from insufficient rest, but also a of 96 lives. A visual illusion related to the range of symptoms associated with circadian black-hole phenomenon was a cause factor rhythm alterations. Acute, chronic or (NTSB/AAR 74-15); emotional fatigue can lead to dangerous 2. In 1974, a B-727 approaching Dulles situations and loss of efficiency. Hypoxia and Airport in Washington crashed into Mount noise are also contributing factors [1, 2]. Weather, with a loss of 92 lives. Lack of Health and performance. Certain clarity and inadequacies in air traffic control pathological medical conditions -

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gastrointestinal, heart attacks, etc. - led to pilot The second direction in controlling error is incapacitation, and sometimes they result in an to reduce the consequences of persistent aviation mishap. human error using cross-monitoring through Stress. Stress is associated with life cooperation between crew members and events, but can occur in situations where designing equipment to allow reversibility. mental workload is high, such as taking off, Training and evaluation. Education and landing or in-flight emergencies. training are seen here as two separate elements of the training process. Education 4. HUMAN FACTORS APPLICATIONS encompasses a broad set of knowledge, values, attitudes and skills required to build a Human error management. To limit psychological skill foundation on which later and control human error, we must first the professional skills will be acquired. understand how it occurs. Error causes are Training is a process focused on the different, as are the consequences of the same development of skills, knowledge and attitudes type of errors in different situations. Some specific to a particular job or to the execution errors may occur due to lack of attention, of a particular task. Adequate and effective negligence, others occur due to faulty design training can not be achieved if through of equipment or may be the result of normal education was not created an appropriate reactions of a person in a given situation. The foundation of knowledge, attitudes and skills latter can be repeated, but its occurrence can [1]. be anticipated. 5. CONCLUSIONS & Erros at the models interfaces. Each of ACKNOWLEDGMENT the components of the SHELL model can be a source of error. Liveware-Hardware interface Knowing how people function is very is responsible for errors due to improper important in aircraft accident and incident placement of displays and control devices. investigation. The main goal of human factors Liveware-Software interface can generate application is to understand why people and delays and confusion due to inadequate maps organizations involved in design, manufacture and documents. Errors associated with the maintenance and management of aircraft Liveware-Environment interface are caused by operations make errors that may have the environmental factors (noise, temperature, potential to lead to aircraft accidents. vibration, etc.). In the Liveware-Liveware The purpose of understanding why people interface the main concern is the interaction make errors is to produce safety reports and between people, since it directly affects crew recommendations that will help prevent performance. aircraft accidents. Information processing. Perceptual The study of human-machine interaction process is a fertile ground for the error. transposed in theoretical models, like SHELL, Expectations, personal experience, attitudes, helps us to achieve a systematic and thorough motivation and the level of excitation of the understanding of why humans make errors. sense organs have a direct influence on The authors wish to thank the “Henri perception and can be sources of errors. Coandă” Air Force Academy of Braşov for Control of human error. Control of supporting the research necessary for writing human error is performed in two directions. this article. First there is a need to reduce the frequency of errors. This is achieved by ensuring a high REFERENCES level of competence for the operational personnel, designing controls to meet the 1. ICAO - INTERNATIONAL CIVIL required anthropometric characteristics, AVIATION ORGANIZATION checklists, manuals, adequate maps, noise (1989). Human factors digest no 1. reduction, vibration and other stress generating Fundamental human factors concepts. conditions.

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

Circular 216-AN/131. ICAO (Montreal, 4. CIVIL AVIATION SAFETY Canada), 1989. AUTHORITY AUSTRALIA (2013). 2. UNITED KINGDOM CIVIL AVIATION Safety Behaviours: Human factors for PUBLICATION (CAP) 716: Aviation engineers. Disponibil la adresa Maintenance Human Factors (EASA Part- http://www.casa.gov.au/wcmswr/_assets/m 145). Disponibil la adresa www.caa.co.uk/ ain/lib100215/hf-engineers-res.pdf docs/33/CAP716.pdf. 5. Cioaca, C., Panta, R., Bo coianu, M., An 3. ICAO - INTERNATIONAL CIVIL Analysis of the Possibilities to Improve the AVIATION ORGANIZATION (2003). Human Factor Efficiency in Air Traffic Human Factors Guidelines for Aircraft Management. 16th International Maintenance Manual Doc 9824 AN/450. Conference The Knowledge-Based Disponibil la adresa Organisation, “Nicolae Balcescu” Land http://www.hf.faa.gov/opsmanual/assets/pd Force Academy, Sibiu (2010). fs/ICAOHF.pdf

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“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

UNMANNED AIR VEHICLES IN ROMANIA. STEPS TO THE FUTURE

Ion Magdalena*

* Teamnet, Bucharest, Romania

1. THE EUROPEAN CONTEXT FOR civilian aircrafts be controlled, so that it can USING UNMANNED AIR VEHICLES be avoided any danger for civilian aircrafts. Starting 1960, the unmanned air vehicles Lately, unmanned air vehicles became a were most commonly used in the military presence of growing importance in military, field, performing mostly surveillance and civilian, scientific and economic activities, recognition activities. Subsequently, to the developed by different states of the world. end of the XXth and beginning of XXIst Unmanned air vehicles are aircrafts century, the interest in the research and without human crew on board, which can be development of such means have led to the operated from a distance or perform flights emergence of a real industry, within which autonomously, having dedicated sensors on new technologies were adopted, allowing for board for various military and civilian a large variation of products in the field and a applications. According to the principles of permanent increase of their performances. air safety, unmanned air vehicles are Thus, there has emerged unmanned air considered to be projected, built, operated and vehicles specialized in collecting relevant maintained in activity for air traffic activities, information, at tactical, operational and and their equipments are also qualified, strategic level, in order to discover and mark according to the relevant provisions in the the targets, and, more recently, for hitting field of aeronautics. various objects. The use of unmanned air vehicles was set A significant number of European states up for the first time by the provisions of the use unmanned aircrafts, especially beginning Chicago Convention, on December, 7th, with the second half of the eighth decade of 1944, Article 8 stating that: "Any aircraft able XXth century. At an initial stage, they to fly without a pilot aboard cannot overfly imported these means from the main without a pilot the territory of a contracting manufacturers - USA and ISRAEL. Lately, it State without a special authorization of the is recorded an increase of the European respective state and in accordance with the States' interest for developing their own provisions of this authorization. Each industries in this field, focused on contracting State commits to take the manufacturing small and medium size necessary measures so that the pilotless flight unmanned aircrafts, command-control of such an aircraft in the open regions of the systems, components and various sensors. The achievements in this field are mostly

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based on the results of the researches maintenance, as well as for the reception, conducted according to each state's own processing, interpretation and transfer of contributions. information to the upper echelon, the Also, there are programs developed based beneficiary of research missions. on the collaboration between the large At the beginning of the 2000s, the manufacturers in the field, especially for unmanned research squadron was dissolved manufacturing unmanned aircrafts of high and the aircrafts were stocked and altitude, height and endurance, such as those subsequently destroyed, except one, which is used for fight, extent to which it is remarkable currently in the Museum of Romanian the French-Israeli collaboration for achieving Aviation. the HARFANG unmanned aircraft, the one The introduction, in 1999, in the between firms in France, Sweden, Greece, endowment of the Air Forces and the Switzerland and Italy for developing the equipment with unmanned aircrafts of nEUROn system. In addition to these, there American production of the SHADOW 600 are the actions conducted in Great Britain, by type represented an important step forward on BAE Systems company, in order to the direction of using the unmanned air manufacture the drone TARANIS, to mention vehicles in the Romanian Army. The just a few of the actions conducted currently squadron operated, until 2003, as part of the in Europe. Romanian Air Forces, and afterwards was transferred under the subordination of the 2. THE ROMANIAN EXPERIENCE IN Military Information Direction. USING UNMANNED AIR VEHICLES

In 1987, the Romanian Military Aviation was endowed with the VR-3 unmanned research aircraft system of Soviet production, which equipped an unmanned research squadron.

The SHADOW squadron was used in many actions in the operation areas outside borders, with important results in ensuring relevant information of forces during the development of military actions. Besides the surveillance, recognition and The squadron was provided with 12 intelligence systems, presented above, for unmanned, reactive, VR-3 aircrafts, of training and performing machine gun 950km/h of speed, the maximum flight ceiling shootings, artillery and surface-to air missiles, of 5000m and the action ray of 200km. Among in time, there were used about 800 unmanned these, eight aircrafts could perform aircrafts produced in Romania, from the A- photogrammetry missions, and four aircrafts TM series, manufactured in a department of were specialized in video research, for which 80 workers, especially set up in the Furniture the transmission of information was done via a Factory in Târgu-Mure , radio connection to a ground station. VR-3 unmanned aircraft system was completely autonomous and dislocable, the staff having the entire technological support needed available for the preparation of control systems and equipments, maintenance on ground, preparation for launching, launching, recovery, transportation and aircraft

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

the unmanned aircraft ATT-01, manufactured importance of using these means to collect by Electromecanica Crângu lui Bot Company, information for various fields of military and civilian activity. In this context, The National Institute of Aerospace Research (INCAS) produced the prototype IAR-T, a mini pilotless aircraft of a weight of 20kg, being equipped with a video and FOX TF -1 unmanned aircraft system system in real time, with the maximum speed produced in France. of 180km/h, an endurance of 30 minutes and a From those presented above, one can maximum ray of action of 10 km. It was conclude that the Romanian Army was designed to be used especially in the field of endowed not only with important unmanned scientific research, but due to the lack of air vehicles, the only indigenous systems being orders, it was no longer developed. those provided for training and performing shootings by the subunits, units and great defense units of the air space with the ground station.

At its turn, The National Aviation Institute S.A. produced the prototypes of two pilotless aircrafts, ARGUS S and ARGUS XL, both of them being left out in the research- development stage. 3. ROMANIAN ACHIEVEMENTS IN THE The pilotless aircraft ARGUS S was FIELD OF UNMANNED AIR VEHICLES designed to perform surveillance missions, being projected for a maximum weight of 140 In Romania, there was interest in building kg and a maximum speed of 240 km/h, with a a certain type of unmanned aircrafts, but these, ray of action of 200 km in autonomous flight. most of the time, remained at the project stage, The take-off and landing are radio-controlled or various prototypes or demonstrators were from the ground, by an operator, while the manufactured. cruise flight is based entirely on the systems Usually, the research-development on board. activities were conducted in research institutes The ARGUS XL system is a pilotless and universities in the filed, and recently, by aircraft in Canard configuration, built entirely private companies, on projects financed from out of composite materials. The wings and tail institutional funds. surfaces are detachable, and the main landing Up to now, the Romanian governmental gear is an elastic blade, equipped with authorities refrained to manifest interest in mechanical brakes and is not retractable. The developing projects with unmanned aircraft nose gear is fixed, with direction and oleo- systems, although the events taking place pneumatic piston. lately at global level show the need and

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The HIRRUS system is designed to fulfill missions in the military and civilian field, being destined for surveillance and recognition, for real-time data collection, needed by military or civilian decision-makers in order to take the necessary measures. It can Within the Environmental Engineering be equipped with a gyrostabilized camera for Science Faculty of "Dunărea de Jos" daytime filming, gyrostabilized University there is set up a Center of monochromatic sensor for night time or color Excellency on Environmental Issues, where an photo module for daytime. unmanned air vehicle was manufactured, with a flight autonomy of 150km, which can be used for surveillance, reconnaissance, drafting cadastral maps, environmental and biodiversity observations. The Military Equipment and Technologies Research Agency within the Ministry of National Defense is currently developing the microsystem of unmanned aircrafts SACT5-BOREAL. The Romanian recent achievements, especially those in the private sector, prove the Romanian experts' capacity to design and produce unmanned air vehicles at a technological level comparable with the one reached by large manufacturers worldwide, Developing a research-development thus being created the premises for developing project, financed from their own funds, S.C. a new secondary branch of the aerospace TEAMNET INTERNATIONAL S.A. has industry in Romania. However, the until now achieved two types of drones, possibilities for manufacturing them depend, OIM-I and OIM-II, HIRRUS mini - on one hand, on the limited financial resources system, with ISR (intelligence, surveillance, of producers, and on the other hand, on the low reconnaissance) capacities and currently interest of the Romanian authorities to handles the development of the SIGNUS purchase such systems of internal production. tactical unmanned air vehicles. OIM-I and OIM-II aircrafts reach 4. THE FUTURE OF UNMANNED speeds between 50m/sec. and 80m/sec., reach AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS IN ROMANIA ceilings of 3000 m, with action rays of 30 km and 100 km, have an autonomy of one hour In the military field, considering the and six hours respectively, being able to importance given to information, surveillance satisfy any requirement for training and and recognition in real time for squads, as a performing shootings with machine guns, consequence of them being continuously artillery and ground-based rockets, in improved the unmanned aircraft systems will specialized shooting ranges. clearly emerge as extremely important means for the preparation and performance of military actions, with important influences on the results. Under these conditions, the management of the Romanian Army will have to take an extremely important decision, regarding the introduction of the unmanned aircraft systems

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

in the army endowment, especially in the which can be practically achieved in all areas fields of data collection, surveillance and of social, economic and scientific activities. reconnaissance (ISR - intelligence, To this extent, we are making apparent the surveillance, and reconnaissance) as well as preoccupation of the aeronautics authorities to the preparation of defense squads in the air find practical ways to extend the use of air space while using the target-drones. space by the unmanned aircraft systems. Also, the participation of the Romanian However, it is noticeable that actions are Army to military actions in the theaters of taken towards cancelling all restrictions related operations outside national borders, under the to the use of air space by unmanned air aegis of UNO, within NATO or comprised in vehicles and integrating them in the controlled military alliances, shall have as a basic air space, which will allow the extension of the requirement the use of UAVs, in the tactical fields in which it could have applicability. field as well as at operational or strategic level. Currently in the USA, FAA (Federal Nevertheless, one of the lessons learned Aviation Administration) has authorized for revealed the role of increased importance of the first time that two unmanned air vehicles - the information structures in collecting, PUMA and SCAN EAGLE - act in the civilian processing and making available of field, in the controlled air space. This process information needed to commanders at all will also continue, as it is in an advanced stage levels, in real time, while using, at large scale, in other states, as well. the unmanned aircraft systems. It should also be mentioned the fact that At the same time, the special forces units, the diversification in the civil field is part of the actions to be undertaken, will determined by the high number of sensors depend on the real-time information about the which can equip the unmanned aircraft objective or forces they are to act upon, systems. These can be day and night cameras, situation in which the information provided by photogrammetry, cartography and cadaster the unmanned aircraft systems shall prove to modules, communication means or various be extremely useful. devices for the analysis of the atmosphere and An increased importance will gain the use the ground. of unmanned aircraft systems by the military Considering these, it is expected that the units of battalion-type, as the basic elements in use of the unmanned aircraft systems, in the collecting relevant data for the preparation and daily activity or in emergency situations, in development of actions against the enemies, the field of internal affairs, aims at the their surveillance and monitoring, as well as supervision and monitoring of borders, road for assessing the effect of strikes on the forces traffic and the areas where natural disasters and objectives of the enemy. and catastrophes were produced, for assessing In the civil field, the use of the unmanned the effects of disasters and natural calamities, aircraft systems in Romania is at a starting search-rescue of survivors, as well as for point. There were various actions in this field, supervising and monitoring critical structures. but most of the time, they were performed In the field of agriculture, the unmanned sporadically, or consisted of demonstrative aircraft systems, provided with specialized flights. sensors, will be used to supervise and monitor The experience gained worldwide with crops, determine their growth degree, the such systems, shifted the focus on applications emergence and spreading of pests, supervision

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and monitoring of animal herds in the pasture main operation basis will be set in the Air Base areas or irrigation systems, raising necessary SIGONNELA, in Italy. data for performing cadaster works of A new probable direction of action in agricultural and non-agricultural lands, forests Romania in the future was open by the and localities, as well as for achieving the European Council Summit, in December 2013, protection of agricultural property. in which there were analyzed the problems of A field where the unmanned aircraft the EU member states in participating to the systems will be used at a large-scale is the achievement of four programs meant to protection of the environment, a field where develop the capacity of the European states to the applications will focus mostly on act in crisis situations - fuel supply while in environmental and climate change monitoring, air, satellite communications, information surveillance and research of forests, census of security and unmanned aircraft systems. wild animals, establishing the pollution level Regarding the need to develop an of the atmosphere, soil and waters where European unmanned aircraft system, there disasters and natural calamities were produced, was agreed to create a work group for surveillance and monitoring of watercourses elaborating the requirements and technical and the Danube Delta, the inspection of dams description for a system of medium altitude and protection works against floods, collecting and great endurance (MALE), to which data for designing maps for hydrographic member states should confirm their intention basins, as well as photogram for the areas of to participate in. Meanwhile, France and interests belonging to them, research and England started the operations for the monitoring of pollution sources and polluted achievement of a UCAV, program to which areas, surveillance of environmental incidents, Italy will also join. especially in nuclear plants and companies To this extent, Romania will have to with a high risk of pollution of the atmosphere, analyze the possibility to achieve such a soil and waters. system, either by initiating their program, or The important applications which can be by adhering to the European program. achieved in the field of transport for the The development of a national program for transport surveillance and monitoring on the the production of the unmanned aircraft Danube River and the main transport means, systems could be Romania's answer to the the surveillance and monitoring of harbor challenges at the beginning of this millennium, activities and large railway hubs. among which the relevant and timely A programme of extreme importance information, especially that it becomes more which Romania is part of is the programme and more important the role played by real- ALLIANCE GROUND SURVEILLANCE time information, in the management of all (AGS). It was to be achieve according to a areas of activity. Having at the basis the NATO initiative, adopted at the Summit in experience already gained while using various Chicago, in May 2012, which until now, 14 unmanned aircraft systems, as well as states adhered to. It is intended to purchase manufacturing such systems, it is necessary to five unmanned aircrafts GLOBAL, HAWK develop an autonomous program of unmanned and the command and control systems needed. air vehicles, in order to cover the needs in the The system will be operational starting 2017 military as well as civilian field. A first step and will be operated by a NATO structure, would be to manufacture an unmanned air following that the information obtained be vehicle with dual use - civilian and military - made available to all 28 member states of of a small weight of 150 kg, based on certain NATO. The AGS system will be able to operational requirements elaborated by the handle the surveillance of an extended ground main users of such systems. surface, with platforms which will perform from big heights, on long periods of time, under any conditions of time and weather. The

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

NATO BOMBING IN THE FORMER REPUBLIC OF YUGOSLAVIA

Diana Manolache*, Ciprian Chiş*

*”Carol I” National Defense University, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: Within this work, we approached the bombing operation in Yugoslavia, named „Allied Force”, that was a part of the War which led to the establishment of Kosovo’s status. The development period of this operation, including bombardment operations, was 78 days, between 24th of March and 10th of June, 1999. In the conducted study, we chose to use the scientifique observation as method of scientifique research as well as we used the comparative-historical method and in terms of the techniques used, we focused mainly on documentary analysis, available with an extensive bibliography. In the conducted study, we have highlighted some dealt less aspects of the subject, and also, items related to the strategy used by combatants during the conflict emphasizing the pros and cons of strategic air power. From these elements can be formulated numerous lessons learned useful in future conflicts, and also, possible research directions.

Keywords: Yugoslavia, NATO forces, bombing actions, aircraft.

1. INTRODUCTION The regulations, including the territorial ones, which took place during and after the The bombing operation in Yugoslavia was actions of all kinds from this conflict area, called „Allied Force” and was a part of the were framed within the provisions of United War led to the establishment of Kosovo’s Nations Security Council Resolution no. 1244. status. The development period of this In fact, the separation of the Kosovo province operation, including bombardments (region) from Yugoslavia was performed operations, was 78 days, between 24th of under the temporary and interim March and 10th of June, 1999. administration of the United Nations and this The official code name of this NATO is, including nowadays, strictly monitored by operation was „Operation Allied Force”. The NATO troops that are camped in several areas United States called it „Operation Noble of the province. Anvil”, while Yugoslavia called it, incorrectly and ironic, „Merciful Angel”. 2. THE BELLIGERENT PARTIES The result of this operation is provided in the Kumanovo Treaty: the Yugoslav troop’s The belligerent parties were represented by withdrawal from Kosovo and the the NATO coalition on the one hand, and the establishment of a NATO force in the area, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on the other known as KFOR (Kosovo Force). hand.

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The NATO coalition led by the US General The French Navy operated the Super Wesley Clark (SACEUR-Supreme Allied Etendard, while the French Air Force operated Commander of Forces in Europe) consisted of the Mirage 2000 aircrafts. military forces of the following countries: The Italian Air Force integrated in this Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, operation 34 Tornado aircrafts, 12 F-104 France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, aircrafts, 12 AMX aircrafts, 2 B-707 aircrafts, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, while the Italian Navy designated and operated United Kingdom, United States and other air, Harrier II aircrafts. sea and land NATO forces. The military The British Royal Air Force provided and technique used by NATO troops totalized operated Harrier GR7 aircrafts, Tornado 1,031 aircrafts, 30 attack ships and submarines ground attack jets as well as some support and the specific Force called „Hawk”. aircrafts. The Yugoslav President, Slobodan Other states as Belgium, Denmark, Milošević conducted military operations of his Germany and Turkey provided and operated F- own troops, and, at the end of the conflict, he 16 aircrafts belonging to their Air Force was still in power. Thus, we couls say that he structures. survived the entire battle and he declared the The Spanish Air Force was designated to outcome of the conflict represented a major deploy a definite number of F-18s and KC-130 victory for Yugoslavia. Many political figures aircrafts. stated this was an oppinion shared by few The Canadian Air Force deployed a people. At the end of the hostilities, he and number of 18 CF-18 aircrafts, and i tis other Yugoslav political seniors and military believed that these aircrafts were responsible figures were indicted for war crimes by the for 10% of all bombs dropped during the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former attack operations. These aircrafts were armed Yugoslavia. A very important aspect was the with both guided and unguided „dumb” arrest of Milošević in case in which he would ammunitions, including the Paveway series of have left Yugoslavia. His orders and directives laser-guided bombs. generated violent actions and made from This operation, respectively the bombing Yugoslavia a country treated as a pariah by a campaign marked the first time when lot of states belonging to the international Germany, through its Air Force structure community. The conflict badly affected the actively participated in combat operations economy of the country, and a year later, the since the end of World War II. Yugoslav popular disillusionment with the However, NATO forces relied mostly upon Milošević regime led to his overthrow in the Americans and the proven effectiveness of October 2000. its air power and air superiority by using the F- After the ending of combat operations, in 16, F-15, F-117, F-14, F-18, EA-6B, B-52, December 2002, the Queen Elizabeth II KC-135, KC-10, AWACS, and JSTARS approved the awarding of the Battle Honour aircrafts. These aircrafts operated from bases „Kosovo” to squadrons of the Royal Air Force situated throughout Europe and from aircraft that participated and conducted military carriers in the region. Also, the American B-2 actions in the conflict. The awarded military Spirit stealth bomber obtained its first units were: Nos 1, 7, 8, 9, 14, 23, 31, 51, 101, successful combat role in „Operation Allied and 216 squadrons. Also, this well-deserved Force”, all while striking from its home base reward was extended to the Canadian in the continental United States. squadrons deployed to the operation, 425 and 2.2. Yugoslav Forces. The Yugoslav 441. armed forces were composed of military units 2.1. NATO Aviation. A major and very from Air Force and Navy and were led by important element of the operation was Yugoslav president at the time, Slobodan represented by NATO air force elements, Milošević (who was also the Supreme relying heavily on the United States Air Force Commander of the Yugoslav Army), by and Navy. Dragoljub Ojdanić (the Chief of Yugoslav

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

Military Staff), by Svetozar Marjanović (the conflict that was triggered for determining the Deputy Chief of Yugoslav Military Staff) and status of Kosovo province. by Nebojša Pavković (the 3rd Army The operation was, itself, the first time Commander). Thus, Serbia engaged in this when NATO used military forces without the conflict about 114,000 soldiers, 20,000 approval of the United Nations Security policemen, 15,000 volunteers, 14 MiG-29 Council against a sovereign nation that has not aircrafts, 46 MiG-21 fighter planes, 34 fighter brought a threat to a NATO member. jets Soko J-22 Oraos, 1,400 artillery pieces, The bombings carried out by NATO during 1,270 battle tanks and 825 armoured fighting this operation is the second major operation in vehicles. the history of this organization, after the During the military actions, in terms of campaign of 1995 - the bombing campaign military technology, NATO lost 2 AH-64 carried out by NATO troops in Bosnia- Apache helicopters, one F-117A Nighthawk Herzegovina, also against the Yugoslav troops. aircraft was shot down, a second F-117A The bombings from 1999 led to the Nighthawk aircraft was damaged, and two A- withdrawal of Yugoslav forces from Kosovo 10 Thunderbolt II aircrafts were also damaged. province, to the establishment of an UNMIK However, an F-16C aircraft was shot down, an mission (an interim UNO mission in Kosovo) AV-8B Harrier aircraft was destroyed and 21 and ended the Yugoslav wars of the 1990s. UAV-s were reported lost. In terms of human lives, NATO officials stated that three soldiers 3. THE STRATEGY were captured and two soldiers died in the crash of one of the two shot down AH-64 The „Allied Force” Operation consisted, Apache helicopters. This second AH-64 mainly, of aerial missions carried out at high Apache helicopter crashed 40 miles from altitudes had the aim to destroy the Yugoslav Tirana. The two crewmen, Army Chief military infrastructure. The ground forces were Warrant Officers David Gibbs and Kevin not used because NATO wanted to minimize Reichert died after the impact. the risk of losing their soldiers and, also, the On the other hand, Serbia’s balance sheet avoiding of the media and the public eye is much higher, respectively 1,031 killed criticism on the possibility of inefficiencies soldiers and police officers and 299 wounded that could be proven during the conduct of soldiers. According to NATO estimates, there actions carried aut by these forces. were between 5,000 and 10,000 killed Serb NATO aviation bombed strategic, soldiers and in terms of military equipment economic and social objectives, such as and technique, there were shot down or bridges, military facilities, government destroyed 6 MiG-29, 4 other planes were buildings and official institutions buildings, destroyed at the ground, one J-22 Orao aircraft strategic facilities, instalations in Belgrade and was also destroyed and 22 armoured vehicles Pristina and, also, some factories. To hit the and artillery pieces were destroyed during well camouflaged and heavily defended military operations from Kosovo, including 14 targets, NATO used long range cruise missiles. tanks. After the third day of bombing, NATO The bombardment on Yugoslavia destroyed almost all strategic military targets conducted by NATO was a military operation in Yugoslavia. that has not been authorized by the UN and Long time after these events, it was aimed the discouraging or the ending of the discussed whether not the capitulation of

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Yugoslavia in the Kosovo War from 1999 was c) there must be a difference in military the result of the air power established by capabilities so that the opponent (the enemy) NATO forces. to be unable to fight or even to inhibit the Despite of all actions of NATO forces, the exercise of air superiority over its territory. Yugoslav Army troops continued to attack the Serbia, a relatively small and poor Balkan fighters of the KLA (Kosovo Liberation state, faced a much stronger opponent, Army). respectively NATO coalition, which included A big minus sign for NATO during this both the UK and USA, extremely strong stage of the campaign was the controversial nations in terms of military capabilities and, bombing from the People’s Republic of China implicitly of air forces capabilities. embassy in Belgrade. Most notably was the d) Carl von Clausewitz once defined „the fact that three Chinese reporters were killed essential force of the enemy” as the „the and twenty others were injured, and NATO gravity center” of this. Thus, if the gravity claimed that this incident was a mistake. center of the Yugoslav fighting force had been 3.1. Arguments for strategic air power. destroyed, the will to resist of the Yugoslav As stated by John Keegan, the capitulation of state would also be removed. In Milošević's Yugoslavia in the Kosovo War marked a case, the gravity center was the holding, turning point, a milestone in the history of the respectively the maintaining of a total control conduct of a war. This conflict „demonstrated in his hands. He had the ability to manipulate that a war can be won only because of the the inflation (causing a hyperinflation), he also power and air supremacy”. By comparison, the imposed sanctions and restrictions on the diplomatic efforts failed even before the war demand and supply and he granted various started itself, while NATO oficials decision to facilities to the strong business owners from develop a big land force represent the moment Serbia to the idea of support him during his when the Yugoslav president, Slobodan mandate. But the deteriorating of economic Milošević, accepted a peace agreement. power of the Serbian state, which reached a In order to be conducted in an uniform point of minimum profit, determinated the manner and without the support of other major players to threaten Milošević with their combat elements, it is necessary that the air unsupport in the case in which the air power to meet several factors. These factors campaign will continue and will cause major can be met all together very rarely, but they and costly damages that will affect the were met all together during the conduct of the infrastructure so necessary for the proper military operations in Kosovo. These factors performance of their business. refer to: 3.2. Arguments against strategic air a) the bombardment must be able to cause power. significant damages, but it is necessary to 1. In terms of diplomatic: minimize the generation of human victims. At 1.1. According to British Lieutenant-General, the same time, it aims to create a certain Mike Jackson’s declarations, Russia’s decision pressure among the population and must from 3rd of June, 1999, to support the West determine the fighting parties to end cause and to determine Milošević to surrend hostilities, not to extend them. It is said that was a turning point that took „the greatest the way how the air power was exercised in contribution to the completion of hostilities”. the Kosovo war was able to create this kind of Thus, the capitulation of Yugoslavia took pressure. place the same day. b) the regime must be resistant reported to the 1.2. Milošević’s condemnation by the United pressure among the population. As it was Nations as a war criminal (on 24th of May, demonstrated, by the overthrow of Milošević’s 1999) gave Russia the possibility to diplomatic regime a year later, the Serbian government support the United Nations, which seemed has shown a low authority and it depended unlikely at the beginning of hostilities. very much by the income support within the 1.3. The Rambouillet Pact from 18th of March, country. 1999 (agreed also by Yugoslavia) would have

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

been accorded NATO forces the rights for order to reach the proposed target. These transit, bivouac, maneuver, camping and estimates clarified the position of NATO access on the entire territory of Serbia. But leaders, especially those from USA, that a land once Milošević capitulated, NATO forces operation would not have had any support and were granted access only in Kosovo region. maybe no plausible success. In the light of 1.4. The International civil presence in Kosovo these analyzes and comparisons, American was held under UN control, which allowed the leaders strongly reaffirmed their faith that an Russian veto and prevented the emergence of air campaign is much more indicated. NATO some threats to the interests of the Serbian leader’s refractoriness to use ground forces nation. created serious doubts about the idea that 2. The competing land operations - KLA itself Milošević would have been capitulated by undertook operations in Kosovo and achieved facing or by fearing of a land invasion. some success against Serb forces. The Yugoslav army abandoned a border point in 4. THE OPERATION Morinë area, situated next to his outpost at Kosare, in the north-west part of this area. But, On 20th of March, 1999, the OSCE the outpost from Kosare remained under the monitors of Kosovo Verification Mission command of Yugoslav forces during entire withdrew from the province, stating „the period of the conflict, which led to the deteriorating security situation” and on 23rd of establishment in the province of a power line, March, 1999, Richard Holbrooke returned to a point of supply and subsequently led to the Brussels announcing the failure of peace talks domination of the territory from Junik area. and negotiations. A few hours before this Also KLA broke and entered few kilometers statement, Yugoslavia announced on national area in the south-west part of Pastrik Mount television post the emergency situation, region. Notwithstanding, the biggest part of respectively an „imminent threat of war ... this area remained under Serb control. against Yugoslavia by NATO forces” and 3. The potential land attack - the American started a massive mobilization action and General Wesley Clark was „convinced” that began of troops and resources. On 23rd of the planning and the preparations of a land March, 1999, at 10:17 p.m. UTC, NATO interventions would be determined Milošević Secretary General, Javier Solana, made the to concede. The Yugoslav troops capitulation announcement that he ordered General Wesley occurred on the same day that USA President, Clark the „initiation of an air operation in the Bill Clinton, held a conference, highly air space of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia”. mediated and publicized, with the four chiefs On 24th of March, 1999, at 19:00 UTC, of American Services in order to discuss the NATO troops started the bombing campaign options for the deployment of a land force in against Yugoslavia. case in which the conduct of air operations 4.1. NATO Operations. The bombing woul have been failed. campaign conducted by NATO in Serbia 4. With all these stated, France and Germany involved 1,000 aircrafts which operated from vigorously opposed to a ground offensive and air bases from Italy and Germany, and the continuously supported this position for USS Theodore Roosevelt transport ship that several weeks, as of April 1999. French was stationed in the Adriatic Sea. estimates suggested that an invasion would At the dusk of 24th of March, 1999, F/A- require an army of about 500,000 people in 18 Hornets aircrafts of Spanish Air Force were

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the first NATO aircrafts planned to bomb 4.4. Incidents that took place due to air Belgrade and perform operations such as combats. During the night of 24th to 25th of SEAD (Suppression of Enemy Air Defence). March, 1999, Yugoslav Air Force arised the In the same time, from the ship and first five MiG-29 aircrafts in order to combat submarines, there were also launched BGM- the first attacks of the Allied troops. 109 Tomahawk cruise missiles. Two of them took off from the airport in During the ten weeks of the conflict, Niš were vectored to intercept targets situated NATO aircrafts performed over 38,000 in southern Serbia and southern Kosovo combat missions. The air power was region, but, on their flight path, they were reinforced by an Apache helicopters battalion intercepted by NATO fight aircrafts. belonging to US Army. One of those two MiG-29s, piloted by Originally, the campaign was intended to Major Dragan Ilić, was forced to an destroy the Yugoslav air defense, the military emergency landing due to the failure of one objectives of strategic importance and units of engine, and later on, during the conflict, this the Yugoslav ground troops. Among other aircraft was used as bait. The second MiG-29 targets, there were also took in the viewfinder aircraft, piloted by Major Ilijo Arizanov, was objectives as: the bridges across the Danube, overthrown by a USAF F-15C, piloted by factories, power stations, telecommunications Lieutenant-Colonel Cesar Rodriguez. facilities, buildings belonging to the Yugoslav The second pair of MiG-29 aircrafts took party „Leftists” (political party led by off from the Batajnica Air Base, being piloted Milošević's wife), and Avala Television by Major Nebojša Nikolic and Major Ljubisa Tower, too. Kulačin. They were engaged by a USAF On 14th of April, NATO planes bombed aircraft, piloted by Captain Mike Shower who areas near Koriša, regions populated by managed to strike and to knock down the Albanians ethnics, who were used by aircraft piloted by Nikolić, while Kulačin Yugoslav forces as human shields. missed the firing with the rockets. During this 4.2. Yugoslav Operations. The Serbian air combat, a part of MiG-29 flight systems Television declared in several times that more broke and determined him to make great refugees columns fled the Kosovo region efforts to return to base. Finally, arriving at the because of the bombings carried out by NATO Batajnica Air Base, he realized that he could aviation and not due to military operations not land because the air base was under the undertaken by Yugoslav troops. fire of Allied forces and he decided to change The Yugoslav part and the Western the flight path to „Nikola Tesla” Airport from supporters stated that the big refugees’ exodus Belgrade, where, otherwise, he managed to was caused by a massive panic among the land safely. There, he hid this MiG-29 under Kosovo-Albanian ethnicity population, panic the tail of a nonfunctional airliner plane that that was generated, mainly, by the fear of was parked on the airport. bombings carried out by NATO aviation. The fifth and the last MiG-29 aircraft rose 4.3. Air combat. An important part of the by Serbs that night in order to combat Allied war was represented by the struggle between aerial targets was piloted by Major Predrag the Yugoslav Air Force and Allied Air Forces. Milutinović. Immediately after the takeoff, the F-15s and F-16s aircrafts of the US Air Force aircraft’s radar and the electric generator (USAF), flying mainly from the air bases from failed. Shortly after these incidents, he was Italy attacked the defense of Yugoslav forces, warned that he was spotted by one fire control as well as the Yugoslav combat aviation but, radar, but he managed to escape the enemy mainly, sought to incapacitate, as soon as due to several evasive maneuvers. In his possible, the yugoslav MiG-29 aircrafts, which attempt to avoid other unwanted meetings, he was known they were in a pretty bad shape approached to the airport from Niš with the due to the lack of spare parts and due to the intention to land, but the plane was hit by a lack of a proper maintenance of these. 2K12 Kub missile fired by Yugoslav troops and he was forced to catapult.

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

So, in that night, Yugoslav Air Force raised Jeff Hwang. One of the MiG-29 pilots, Major five MiG-29 aircrafts, three of them were shot Slobodan Perić launched at least one rocket down, one of them was badly damaged, and before being hit, then he managed to catapult. the fifth returned to base in a poor condition Later, he was found and brought back to and it was no longer used for waging warfare. Yugoslavia by the Republika Srpska Police. No pilot was killed; only one of the five pilots The other pilot, Captain Zoran Radosavljevic was injured and needed a few days to recover. did not eject (there are not known the reasons A closer examination of the available data why he did not proceed at catapultation) and indicates the fact that Major Arizanov was hit died due to the violent impact. and shot down by Colonel Rodriguez while On 27th of March, 1999, the 3rd Battalion Major Nikolic and Major Kulacin were belonging to the 250 Missile Brigade, engaged by Captain Showers, who, at least, hit commanded by Colonel Zoltán Dani, equipped and shot down Nikolic. with Isayev S-125 „Neva-M” missiles (called On the morning of 25th of March, Major by NATO as SA-3 Goa missiles) shot down a Slobodan Tešanović, due to some technical F-117 Nighthawk american plane. The malfunctions, damaged the MiG-29 aircraft Yugoslavs operators from the observation and which he piloted it, near the landing area of the identification equipment in the composition of Ponikve Air Base, after a previous landing air defense system found out that they are able attempt, being also forced to catapult. to detect F-117 planes with Soviet radar During the war from Yugoslavia, the J-22 stations considered „obsoleted” due to the fact Orao and G-4 Super Galebs attack aircrafts that these operated on long wavelengths. The conducted approximately 20-30 combat hit pilot managed to catapult, being recovered missions against KLA, on Kosovo territory. by search and rescue forces, somewhere near The attacks were carried out from low Belgrade. This was the first and the last time, altitudes and caused many human casualties. so far, when an invisible plane was hit and In one of these missions, deployed on 25th of shot down. March, 1999, Lieutenant-colonel Života Duric On 5th, 6th and 7th of April, Yugoslav died when the plane he piloted it, a J-22 Orao MiG-29 aircrafts were tasked to intercept plane, hit a hill in the Kosovo region. There NATO aircrafts, but each time, the Yugoslav has never been established, in a firmly way, pilots were out of combat due to malfunctions which was the cause of this aeronautic event: a or different damages of the aviation systems malfunction during the aircraft flight, a pilot from the aircrafts board. error or an enemy attack carried out by KLA On 30th of April, 1999, some American forces. The certain aspect of this fact is that sources confirmed that a second F-117A NATO representatives stated they had no aircraft was damaged. Although the aircraft implication in shooting down of this aircraft. returned to the base, it is believed that it has In the afternoon of 25th of March, 1999, never flown again. two Yugoslav MiG-29 aircrafts took off from On 2nd of May, 1999, a USAF F-16 the Batajnica air base with the mission to aircraft was shot down near Šabac, by a SA-3 combat a NATO aircraft that flew towards missile, launched by the 3rd Battalion of the Bosnia. During this mission, the two pilots 250 Missiles Brigade. The pilot was ejected crossed the border line. Thus, they were and he was rescued. In the same day, an A-10 engaged by two F-15 aircrafts of USAF. Both Thunderbolt II aircraft that deployed an aerial MiG-29s were hit and shot down by Captain mission in the airspace over Kosovo region

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was heavily damaged by a Strela 2 surface-air killing in Kosovo and the pictures of refugees missile launched from a portable shoulder fleeing Serb oppression for their lives makes it device. The pilot was forced to make an clear that this is a fight for justice over emergency landing in Skopje. Also, a Harrier genocide. Also, it was clear that approximately jet piloted by an American pilot crashed while 100,000 military-aged men missed, and most returning from a training mission towards on probably these may have been murdered. its way to USS Kearsarge, the amphibious ship Another important aspect of our study is designed for assault and transportation. The the position of NATO leaders and their Allies, pilot ejected and he was also saved. due to the fact that, before the beggining of the On 4th of May, 1999, a Yugoslav MiG-29 operations, they were not decided whether aircraft piloted by Lieutenant-Colonel Milenko they support or not the leadership of Yugoslav Pavlović was shot down at a low altitude, just President, Slobodan Milošević. Following this above his native town of Valjevo, after a air study, we are able to state that NATO forces fight with two F-16s of USAF. It is possible operations prevented the ethnic cleansing; the that the airplane to have been hit by a Strela 2 genocide in Kosovo region, and, in this way, rocket fired by Yugoslav troops. Following NATO leaders undertook a lot of efforts. All this event, the Yugoslav pilot lost his life. the actions conducted by Serb forces On 11th of May, an A-10 aircraft was determined many civilian casualties and duet o slightly damaged during the execution of a this fact, we could make a comparison task carried out in the airspace over Kosovo. between the events from Kosovo and the Also, NATO forces lost two attack events occured during the Holocaust, but at a helicopters AH-64 Apache (one on 26th of smaller scale. We can affirm that Serbian April and the second on 4th of May, in forces committed genocide or that there are Albania, near the border with Yugoslavia, many evidences of the genocide created by during a training mission. That event resulted Serbian forces. Through their violent, criminal in the death of the two members of the crew, and inhuman actions, Yugoslav forces as it is written in the beginning of this article). determined abhorrent actions on a large scale. NATO officials reported they lost 21 Nevertheless, after few months there were UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles), due to presented the conclusions of NATO bombing. technical problems or malfunctions or due to Between these conclusions, it is interesting to enemy actions. A part of these UAVs, at least remark the number of dead found bodies that seven, were from German troops and five of was approximatively 2,200, with a total these UAVs belonging to the French troops. estimate not exceeding eleven thousand. While the Third Yugoslav Army Commander On 11th of March, 1999, the American stated that 21 UAVs belonging to NATO officials voted a plan committing 4000 troops forces were shot down by Yugoslav forces, to the NATO peacekeeping mission. another Yugoslav general affirmed that the This work was possible with the financial Yugoslav air defense, along with units of the support of the Sectoral Operational land forces shot down 30 UAVs. Programme for Human Resources Development 2007-2013, co-financed by the 5. CONCLUSIONS & European Social Fund, under the project ACKNOWLEDGMENT number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/138822 with the title “Transnational network of integrated Attitudes towards the campaign - In management of intelligent doctoral and favor of the campaign. NATO leaders were postdoctoral research in the fields of Military convinced that all their decisions, regarding Science, Security and Intelligence, Public the airstrikes, were deeply justified. Also, their order and National Security – Continuous decisions were directed for the keeping of formation programme for elite researchers - calm situations. We found out that official “SmartSPODAS”.” sources from Clinton’s Secretary of Defense alleged that the appalling accounts of mass

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

REFERENCES 8/beginning-lot-like-kosovo.html, (August, 2014). 1. „NATO Operation Allied Force”. 5. „Operation Allied Force - Operation Allied Available:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO_ Force in Kosovo”. Available: http:// bombing_of_Yugoslavia (January, 2012). militaryhistory.about.com. (September, 2012). 2. „Yugoslav&Serbian MiG-29s”. Available: 6.”Operation Allied Force - Order of Battle” http://www.acig.org/index2.php(March, 2009). Available:http://www.globalsecurity.org/milita 3. „NATO's 1999 bombing of Yugoslavia”. ry/ops/allied_force_orbat_trends.htm (July, Available: http://thewaythetruthandthelife.net 2009). (August, 2011). 4. „It’s beginning to look a lot like Kosovo (or not)”Available:http://americablog.com/2014/0

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“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

FOUNDATION OF THE EARLY PILOTING SCHOOLS IN ROMANIA

Eduard Mihai*, Oliver Ciuică*

*Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coandă” Air Foce Academy, Braşov, Romania

Abstract: The current paper focuses on the topic of the early schools of piloting due to the fact that, on the one side, on the 1st of April, 2015, we celebrate the 20th anniversary of “Henri Coanda” Air Force Academy of Brasov – the successor of the Romanian military aeronautical education, and on the other side, in our opinion, knowledge of traditions of the military piloting school stands for a necessity when forming and professionally training military pilots. The history of the Romanian piloting school represents the foundation of the local military aeronautical education, both at present and for the future.

Keywords: aeronautical education, school of aviation, pilots

1. INTRODUCTION of the first Romanian pilots, all of which assuring the optimum conditions for the We can state that Romania’s foundation of the Romanian military aviation. contribution to the founding of aviation, through its national pioneers, was sound and 2. THE PILOTING SCHOOL FROM the Romanian aeronautics left its imprint on CHITILA the early world aeronautics. Among the Romanian inventors who contributed to the The Romanian lawyer Mihail Cerchez, flight development by means of apparatuses born at Bârlad, Galati County, is the initiator heavier than the air, a distinct role was played of the first school of piloting in our country. by Traian Vuia, Aurel Vlaicu and Henri While in Paris, Mihail Cerchez got fascinated Coanda. In this context, the emergence of a by the flights performed by the aviation school or schools of piloting in our country pioneers, such as Traian Vuia, Alberto Santos- was inevitable; consequently, in the following Dumont or Louis Blériot. Animated by the sections of this paper, we are going to detail on frenzy of flight and motivated by the these aspects. appearance of the schools of piloting in At the beginning of the past century, in France, Cerchez returned to his own country in Bucharest, there were established the earliest the summer of 1909 and decided to establish a schools of piloting. In this respect, airships school of piloting. from other countries were purchased; specially Being in possession of a reduced financial designed workshops were set for the support, Mihail Cerchez found himself in the maintenance and repairing of the technique, position of asking for help from friends and and, at the same time, there started the training acquaintances, so as to accomplish his dream,

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and on the 20th of November he managed to apparatuses, lacking good aerodynamic record a constitutive document entitled performances and holding poor feasibility. The “Company Contract”. Cerchez, together with biggest disadvantage of the time was the fact other twenty-nine people, on the one side, and that the flight instructor could not participate the Romanian state, on the other, makes legal in flight together with his trainee, since aircraft the birth certificate of the company meant “to were not double-seaters and the pilot under exploit the air locomotion under all its training had to learn all the flight maneuvers aspects” [3], at the Ilfov Court of Justice. on the ground. The company starts its activity in the Throughout the month of July of the year summer of 1910, on the field near Chitila, 1911, the School of Piloting from Chitila where the first aerodrome of the Romanian scored its first successes. Out of its trainees, aviation was settled. The Romanian lawyer two officers that proved to be more advanced managed to have five hangars built over there, in their training, managed to start their flight some workshops necessary for the training sessions requested for the obtaining of construction and repairs of the airships, stands their pilot Licenses. Accordingly, on the 9th of for the lookers-on and some administrative July, the Second Lieutenant tefan buildings for the employees. Once the Protopopescu obtained the first License issued infrastructure had been completed, Mihail in our country, followed by the Second Cerchez purchased four aircraft fro France: Lieutenant Gheorghe Negrescu, with his third two biplane aircraft of Farman type that were License issued on the 17th of July. destined to carrying out the training flights of Another achievement of the school the future pilots, one Demoiselle aircraft and a established by Mihail Cerchez is represented Wright aircraft for the ground instruction. by its participation, with two Farman aircraft, Later on, Cerchez managed to have the in the army’s maneuvers from Moldova, in the Farman aircraft constructed in his school’s fall of the year 1911. The School of Piloting workshops, under a French patent. from Chitila supported the 3rd Armed Corps of Nicolae Filipescu, the Minister of War at our army and obtained pretty satisfactory that time, foreseeing that aviation might be results for that time. used during military operations, at Mihail Unfortunately, due to the wreckage of the Cerchez’ recommendation, approved of the airships and upon the commander of the pilots- future military pilots to be trained at the trainees’ recommendations, major Macri, School of Piloting from Chitila. toward the end of that year, the state ceased Starting with the 1st of April 1911, the the financial support of the School of Piloting School of Piloting from Chitila received “six from Chitila and decided to settle a new school officers: Major Ioan Macri, Captain Fotache at Cotroceni, which was this time subordinated Ionescu, First Lieutenant Stelian Boiangiu and to the armed forces. Mihail Cerchez tried to Second Lieutenants Ştefan Protopopescu, recover the logistics of the school from Chitila, Gheorghe Negrescu and Ştefan Druţu”[5] to but, in the absence of airships and specialized be trained as military pilots. Meanwhile, the flying personnel, and most importantly, in the Ministry approved the funding for the absence of financial resources, Lawyer construction of four Farman aircraft, at the Cerchez was forced to close both the school school’s workshops, so as the first military and its premises. pilots should be trained on them. Thus, we can Mihail Cerchez will be considered, by the state that the first school of piloting began its history of the Romanian aviation, the initiator activity in Romania, having the six officers for of the very first training school for pilots, of its trainees, to whom Polihroniade Vacas, a the first airdrome and of the first premises for volunteering adolescent adhered later on. fixing and building airships, just the same as The first pilots-trainees put enormous his school of piloting, even if its existence was efforts in their flight training on the aircraft rather short, will be remembered by the history found in the school’s logistics because all the of the local aviation as the place where our aircraft of the early time were fragile

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

first aviators-pioneers of the Romanian army Corps” [2] and executed reconnaissance and were trained and specialized. intelligence missions in favor of the troops deployed between Roman and Pascani. 3. THE PILOTING SCHOOL FROM COTROCENI 4. THE MILITARY SCHOOL OF PILOTING FROM COTROCENI Returned from France, Prince George Bibescu “brought with him one Voisin Canard “Based on the High Decree of 27 of March aircraft and one Blériot aircraft (the airship 1912” [2], on the 1st of April, 1912, the that managed to cross its constructor across Military School of Piloting was established, the English Channel), having the intention to and it replaced Price Bibescu’s school, under establish a piloting school. For the same the management of Major Ion Macri. The purpose, later on, he ordered three more latter had completed some courses in Paris, Blériot aircraft. The school began its activity and, upon his return to Romania, brought to on the field nearby Cotroceni, in the summer the country the project necessary for the of 1911, less than one month after the Piloting construction of a new Farman aircraft, model school from Chitila had begun its activity.” [3] of 1912. The Ministry of War, upon the In the month of April, 1912, the Minister of recommendation of Prince Bibescu, in his War ordered that 20 officer belonging to all capacity as the school Principal, ordered the army branches should be deployed to this deployement of three officers to this school – newly founded school to learn how to fly an “Lieutenant Mircea Zorileanu and Nicolae aircraft. The flight training of the first Capşa of the Cavalry, and Lieutenant promotion of trainees-officers of the School of Constantin Istrate of the Navy” [5], for the Piloting from Cotroceni took place in two purpose of their obtaining the pilot Licenses. stages: the former one comprised flying two- After being granted the army’s support, seaters Farman aircraft, under the supervision Bibescu brought three more Blériot aircraft to of the flight instructors – the Second his school. Lieutenant Ştefan Protopopescu and Gheorghe Found in a real competition with the School Negrescu, whereas the latter implied the of Piloting from Chitila, George Bibescu’s continuous training on Blériot airships, under school was to gain notable results at the time the supervision of the flight instructors, the when Lieutenant Mircea Zorileanu obtained Lieutenants Mircea Zorileanu and Nicolae the second pilot’s License conferred in our Capşa. the School of Piloting from Cotroceni country, on the 15th of July 1911, and Second was under the command of the Engineers and Lieutenant Nicolae Capşa obtained the pilot’s it displayed a very good organization for that License no. 4, on the 18th of July. time. During the first year of the school, only Similarly with the school managed by Lieutenant Simion Chi căneanu managed to Mihail Cerchez, another achievement of the graduate and he was conferred the pilot’s school of Cotroceni was the participation, with License no. 5, on the 16th of June. This fact three Blériot aircraft, at the maneuvers was due to a reduction in the flight activity, executed by the army troops that had taken after the month of June of the year 1912. The place in Moldova, in the fall of 1911. The reduction in the flight intensity was partly School of Piloting from Cotroceni was active caused by the accident of the 20th of June, within the “Army Group North, the 4th Army when Lieutenant Simion Chişcăneanu died,

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and on the other side, due to the lack of 6. CONCLUSIONS & airships that broke so often that the ACKNOWLEDGMENT maintenance workshops could not keep up with the repairs. The next year the school The existence of the piloting schools, the managed to have 15 pilots licensed, among training of the officers-pilots at these schools, whom was Sergeant Polihroniade Vacas, who as well as the successful use of airships- had participated at the military maneuvers during the military maneuvers from 1911 and from the fall of the year 1911, but because of 1912-, constituted the reasons that made the some misunderstandings he only gained his Romanian authorities to approve of the law for license so late. the foundation of the Romanian military The military school of piloting from aviation. Thus, on the 1st of April, 1913, the Cotroceni trained numerous pilots. Until law was voted and it granted the establishment Romania’s participation in the First World and functioning of the MILITARY War, many of them had proved their value AERONAUTICS as a distinct branch of the during the battles of the years 196 and 1917. Romanian armed forces. This law was published in the Official Record no. 15 of 20th 5. THE FLYING SCHOOL OF THE of April, 1913 as the “LAW FOR THE NATIONAL AERONAUTIC LEAGUE ORGANIZATION OF THE MILITARY AERONAUTICS” [2], whereas, for the history The fourth school of piloting mentioned by of the Romanian military aviation, the day of the annals of aeronautics was established in the 10th of August, 1913, when the Permanent the year of 1912, from the initiative of the Corps of Aeronauts was established through same enthusiast, George Valentin Bibescu, the High Decree no. 305, remained the most who had not given up his desire of promoting important. the aeronautics. Through his and other In conclusion, we can state that the contemporary people’s effort, on the 5th of understanding and awareness of the May 1912 the National Air League was component phases of the forming process of founded. It was meant to “equip the Romanian military pilots start from the identification of Army with airplanes” [1], fact mentioned by the historical landmarks of the Romanian article 1 of the league’s Charter. As a result, school of aviation, necessary for its integration the collection of funds was possible in a within a continuum. relatively short interval of time, which allowed This work was possible with the financial for a new aerodrome to be constructed at support of the Sectoral Operational Baneasa and also for the National Aeronautic Programme for Human Resources League School of Piloting to be established. Development 2007-2013, co-financed by the In order to equip the school, Bibescu European Social Fund, under the project purchased six aircraft, out of which four were number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/138822 with the Blériot monoplanes and two were Farman title “Transnational network of integrated biplanes, afterward, he proposed to the management of intelligent doctoral and Minister of War to agree with his training of postdoctoral research in the fields of Military military pilots. “The Minister approved of his Science, Security and Intelligence, Public proposal…, at the same time the Minister order and National Security – Continuous ordered the deployment of the two flight formation programme for elite researchers - instructors, Mircea Zorileanu and Nicolae “SmartSPODAS”.” Capşa- who had worked for the second stage at Cotroceni, and their two Blériot monoplanes to the school from Baneasa, together with the trainees that had been selected for the school from Cotroceni”.[2]

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

REFERENCES la istoricul aeronauticii, Bucureşti: Editura Militară (1966). 1. Costescu, G., Începuturile aviaţiei române, 5. Vasiu, C.P., Şcoala aripilor româneşti, Bucureşti: Tipografia Presa (1944). Bucureşti: Editura Militară (1978). 2. Iordache, C-T., Pruia, A., Despre învăţământul aeronautic din România, Bucureşti: Editura Redacţia Publicaţiilor pentru Străinătate (2009). 3. Negrescu, G., Din amintirile unui vechi aviator, Bucureşti: Editura Militară (1977). 4. Şendrea, C., Gudju, I., Iacobescu, G.,

Ucrain, C-T., Aripi româneşti. Contribuţii

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“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

ECONOMIC COOPERATION AND REVITALIZING THE NATIONAL DEFENSE INDUSTRY, DETERMINANT FACTORS IN STRENGTHNING THE FUNDAMENTAL NATIONAL INTERESTS IN THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY AND NATO

Ovidiu-Gheorghe Moşoiu*

*Faculty of Aeronautical Management, „Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: The national interest focused on the development of the state’s economy also includes national defense industry that can create dual-use products, civilian and military, into a European framework coordinated through European policies and strategies. Perhaps, the increase in budgetary allocations for the military (2% of GDP) can provide the context of retooling this industry and also rip up orders required for specific production. During this process, the cooperation inside EDA and NATO as well as adjusting the production to the actual requirements of the weaponry common market will play an important role.

Keywords: national interest, national economy, national defense industry, European and national economic policies, business/companies, industrial-technology parks, technology, retooling.

1. INTRODUCTION focused on ensuring the national security in the ally context, but also on the developing the Romania, member state of the most national economy, increasing internal stability, powerful political and military organizations, providing jobs for the population, well-being is geographically located in an area where and economic growth, protection and social stability is always questionable and neighbors inclusion applying the National Strategy of from the east are now in a state of conflict Sustainable Development, EU 2020 Strategy generated by the policy pursued by Russia, a and common European policies. These strong country from the military point of view, desiderates can be achieved through existence with democratic demands, but which has and continuously manifestation of fundamental unsolved issues with many former partners national interests related to good governance from the former USSR. Romania owes to a and efficiency of public administration at all policy of good neighborhood, stability and levels and the effectiveness of the fight against cooperation regarding the implementation of corruption of specialized state bodies which NATO’s and EU’s similar policies, being took over most of the politicians, magistrates interested in having democratic, stable and or other social categories, people who should flourishing states in its proximity.Given the represent us and be the society’s role model. current regional security, national interest is

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Sustainable economic development and created, and on a long-term, prosperity of the healthy is a priority at national level and at the Member States depends on the quality of the same time in all government programs. industrial base. Strengthening the real Romania should make an effort to reassemble economy involves maintaining and developing existing gaps towards Western European the services and goods providing companies countries, by implementing all the principles necessary for the progress of the society and of market economy and free competition the wellbeing of the European citizens. within the internal/common European market. Furthermore, overall EU industrial policy aims In these circumstances it can attract foreign to stimulate economic growth and bring at the investments that can generate jobs, people can same level the industry performances of the build their future in the country, it can stop the member states, relying on his advanced massive emigrations and poverty and it can technology available in most sectors. create welfare by increasing the number of According with the Europe 2020 strategy persons belonging to the middle class, this way "for a smart, sustainable and favorable for achieving a social balance. Investments in inclusion growth" EU consider creating a new education, health and research in the European industrial revolution that aims to implement framework created by Horizon 2020 program innovative technologies, create jobs and may bring hope of revival to Romanian improve competitiveness, in the context of economy. some realities that could affect the process, Within national economy, a very important namely to reduce energy sources and raw element is the national defense industry that materials, aging European population or can create dual-use products, civilian and climate changes that affects the environment military, in a coordinated European framework and people in general. of European Defense Agency (EDA), thus An important feature between European overcoming the uncertainty and provisional and national economic relations is that the EU, state which this country is currently in. through European Commission, represents the Perhaps, once budgetary allocations for the international interests of the member states, military increased (2% of GDP), the including the economic field, ensuring conditions of modernizing this industry and participation on global trade, in favorable also the necessary commands for particular terms, as a result of the opening of global production will be provided. During this markets. EU Commission also seeks the process, cooperation within EDA and NATO competitiveness level of European industry by as well as production adjustment to the actual developing a biennial report on structure and common weapons market requirements will industry productivity analysis. Coordination at play an important role. European level, of the environment in which companies develop their business activities, 2. FEATURES OF THE RELATIONSHIP maintain opportunities for economic growth, BETWEEN POLICIES AND employment and wellbeing in the context that COMMUNITY ECONOMIC most European companies tend to integrate STRATEGIES WITH NATIONAL into global value system. ECONOMIC POLICY The European forums manifest increased attention for development and access financing Through “Orizont” 2030 project, Romania IMMs and entrepreneurship because they will allocate a considerable amount from its provide more than 65% of total employment, budget for development assistance, taking into participating substantially to GDP. account the implementation of Community European industrial policy provides cooperation policies for development, measures to support the internationalization of regarding the support of all EU initiatives. companies, innovation and the single market. The European Union is interested in the A major importance in facilitating exports propper running of the economic system have technical regulations for manufacturing of products being exported, promoting

“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

harmonization and compatibility of technical influence on economic, monetary and currency regulations for the mutual recognition of policy. assessments and conformity tests. These things The efficient functioning of the single see their usefulness when it comes in question market, precise coordination of economic the clusters, which are based on materials of the policies and functioning of the banking system same class of use, and aimed complementarity in following an uniform set of rules, without the use of final products, which is very important doubt leads to economic recovery and in the weapon industry and military equipment resolving the economic crisis in which EU and at European and Euro-Atlantic level. humanity find themselves, in a faster and In order to consult trade partnership controlled way. between stakeholders (various enterprises or European Commission looks at how the national clusters of EU State Members'), the national authorities implement EU rules by European Commission launched international "Internal Market Scoreboard". Members States contacts throughout specially established are required to implement EU legislation structures such as the Transatlantic Consumer correctly and timely, and otherwise Dialogue and Transatlantic Business Dialogue, Commission has regulatory instruments by and various structures between the EU and downgrading infringement procedure. In these third parties in the world. This has a major cases, investigations made by the Commission positive effect for both civil and military may result in the intervention of the European industrial cooperation among States Member, Court of Justice, which finally may establish alleviating their work. coercive measures on the offending State Rules set by the Single Market are the Member. same for all companies of State Members, The level of tax rates and citizens’ taxes is increase transparency and create a propper the attribute of Members State. The value of the framework for fair competition. Common tax is set by the state but the union role is to economic policies, applicable throughout the check whether the fees comply with its Union, come to reinforce the need for objectives with regard to employment, if cooperation in various fields within the facilitates the implementation of freedom of European Economic Area. The single market movement and respect the laws of fair represents that area without frontiers of the 28 competition at the enterprise level and citizens state members, in which people, capital and non discrimination. businesses have freedom of movement and For proper operation of the single market, becomes an open space where competitiveness European standardization organizations and innovation are encouraged and legislative develop voluntary quality standards (quality harmonization becomes mandatory. and technical criteria for technological Union legislation, which confirms the processes, services and products) that replace existence and propper functioning of the national standards in order to assist consumers, internal market, stipulates some rules on consolidation of European technological customs union and goods trade-in between leadership as well as with the objective of Member States, things that come to facilitate promoting competitiveness and sustainability. economic cooperation in union’s internal With their help, is encouraged companies matters. Such rules are valid to all types of cooperation at national and European level? military and civilian industrial, agricultural or An important role in economic and fishery products, but which have a major technological development is played by the

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key enabling technologies (advanced into four areas as following: integrated materials, micro and nanoelectronics, networks, cross-border mobility for citizens photonics and biotechnology, nanotechnology, and companies, digital economy and actions to semiconductors etc.) which are used in order strengthen cohesion and increase the benefits to increase industrial production and reliability enjoyed by consumers. of industrial products with civil or military The basic elements that characterize the use, being also in attention of European policy single market, trade policy and the Commercial makers aimed at reviving the European Relations of European State Members are: economic growth and ensuring the representation of State Members in international competitiveness of products internationally. trade relations of the European Commission; The assistance of European industrial free trade agreements; customs union; protection sectors, mostly the State Members’ industries, of intellectual property rights; foreign direct involve among other, an increased attention to investment; raw material supply chains; loyal ensure not only a good quality of raw materials competition. that help increase the competitiveness of At European and national level, have finished products, but also the support of those emerged a number of associations and agencies industries in which Europe remains the world to promote and support the development of leader such as automotive industry, chemicals national and regional industries. These include and rubber, the European tourism industry and APITSIAR (Association of Industrial, various branches of the defense industry. Technological, Scientific and Business The online environment gains increasingly Incubators Parks in Romania) and EURADA larger importance, so more and more (The European Association of Development transactions take place on the internet bank Agencies). APITSIAR Association was payments, information sharing, online founded in 2005 in Brasov, currently having a education etc. Benefits of Digital Agenda for number of 34 members organized in individual Europe materialize also in current problems of industrial parks or group of parks in order „to day-by-day life, such public health, road safety promote and protect the interests of its by eCall system (car’s automatic call to 112 members, to promote sustainable development emergency number in case of an accident), of industrial parks, technological, scientific and intelligent transport etc. Union supports business incubators, attracting domestic and citizens and companies to resolve problems foreign investment and specialized providing arising in their country or between them, assistance to its members and potential through cooperation and information system investors and their representation in dealing network, like the Consumer Protection with national and international bodies and Cooperation Network and SOLVIT network, authorities”[13]. Since 2006 is a member of the Enterprise Europe Network or information EURADA, European regional association with points of single contact. members in all EU countries, which aims to The European Commission aims to inform and debate EU policies in an organized streamline the single European market concurrently with the development of industry throughout the economic recovery which had and European partnerships based on activity of serious briefs after the economic crisis. The industrial parks. At the same time supports the measures in this respect concerns economic effort of member associations for the timely growth, jobs, equally access to finance for implementation of measures to finance business newly established enterprises, improving opportunities. Through an active attitude people working conditions and daily life, EURADA members can generate bills of the mutual recognition of professional European Commission to support their practical qualifications of the European citizens work. between State Members. In order to implement Through the European association of the measures listed, the European Commission industrial parks are increasing international established in 2012 further action by the economic contacts, from USA to China and SINGLE MARKET ACT II project, grouped Japan and from Europe to Australia. In the

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same context must be assessed APITSIAR produced and that exports were lower than activity as an associate member in the imports. After 25 years of democracy, Romania International Network of Associations of became an outlet country, where consumption, Science Parks and Innovation (IASP) that moonlighting, tax evasion and the number of concern strengthening the links between pensioners is increasing, declining production industrial, technology and science parks, for and declining employment. Instead, at the economic and employment global growth beginning of 2015, there is a tendency to return . to normality, considering receipts gathered into 3. REVITALIZING OF NATIONAL the budget. Lately, national exports have been DEFENSE INDUSTRY, DETERMINANT increasing in the context of the auto industry FACTOR IN STRENGTHNING progress and export of raw materials or semi- NATIONAL INTERESTS IN THE EU finished. AND NATO To understand the present, we need to see what happened in the economy after 1990. The Government and diplomacy must change transition to a market economy in which the the outlooks to the existing situation and must state no longer invests in underperforming bring the country to an external confidence enterprises and factories and lack of level, which can be a real pivot area with competitiveness of products and businesses on economic, trade and good neighborly relations the open market under conditions of increased with all states in South-Eastern Europe and the competition internationally, is the leading cause wider Black Sea area. Reputation, as basic for many factories to close, but some performing actor of European security environment, companies maintained and expanded their area cannot be achieved only throughout achieving of influence after infusion of capital and the security objectives, socially and retooling. Therein are also added foreign direct economically, related to compliance values investment cases, especially at the level of and national interest. The relationship between IMMs and development of numerous shopping achievement of the concrete objectives of centers. sustainable development in the EU and In the product taxation context, some external credibility should lead to companies, on the initiative of entrepreneurs improvement of the country's reputation, eager to earn big profits in short time, were which will have an effect on safety and redeployed in other countries in Eastern Europe increase the standard of living of the or Asia, where production costs are lower and population. If, from the security’s point of employers and entrepreneurs see their objectives view, Romania enjoys the confidence of his achieved, but without taking into account the allies and partners considering us a stable and social costs that occur as a result of such powerful element in economic terms, our maneuvers and economic capital. country is not at the level that can and wants to Free movement of people, goods and have. However, compared to other zonal capital, are the requirements of the European actors, Romania demonstrates economic single market and companies’ migration stability and good governance. phenomenon occurs in all democratic states that After the `89 revolution, characteristics of have implemented rules of market economy. the national economic situation are related to the The question is how to keep companies in their economic downturn and the deficit that occurred country, to increase the level of foreign direct across the country, that spent more than investment and ensure job growth, respectively

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higher living standards for the population, at the The main company with the production same time stopping young people leaving the designed for the Romanian national defense is country and people skilled in various trades. ROMARM. This military technology company Some problems can be resolved along with full has a specific production oriented towards EU integration while adapting full European following areas: Explosives, ammunition and economic policies and strategies at national infantry weapons, armored vehicles, artillery level, including standardization activities that systems, missiles and missile systems. In involve accessing European investment funds. addition to production for military purposes, On the other hand, the relevant national the company has a civil purpose production, legislation should be reviewed, regulating the sales and marketing activities, import-export ratio of budgetary revenues and private so within the law to ensure the development companies, establishing incentive measures for and basic activities in the area. ROMARM entrepreneurs concurrently with eliminating national company coordinates and controls the corruption which nowadays is revealed each operation of subsidiaries in the country, develops day. their budget income and expenditure and verifies Defense industry could not have a different its execution, supports the work of subordinate path, than the one manifested in the national branches in order to improve the products, their economy. Therefore, the defense industry after marketing and the tasks for which it was 1990 went into a decline due to fewer orders founded. from the Romanian Army (which had entered At the end of 2014, the Ministry of Economy into a reorganizational process / resizing and has drafted a bill on improving the defense reform) and structures from the Ministry of sector in order "to protect essential security Interior in conjunction with decreased foreign interests and national security of Romania by: orders. Companies with special activity profile  increasing the competitiveness of had been restructured, many specialists were economic operators to satisfy the defense fired, being provided for a short time social interests of Romania; protection throughout financial compensation  meeting the needs of procurement in and the fact that not all factories were closed the institutions within national defense system, in the defense industry till now, is due to the public order and national security, in interest of national defense and state peacetime, to the imposition of states of siege, intervention which cannot afford to give up emergency, mobilization or war, taking into military/ special production capacity, account national interests and government necessary for structures involved in the commitments undertaken in relation to NATO process of national security/ national defense and the EU; capabilities, in the context of an unstable  support endowment effort of the security environment. institutions within SNAOPSN (National Nowadays, companies that are part of the Defence System, Public Order and National weapon industry have losses and employees Security to include Ministry of Defense, and utilities are paid with money from the Ministry of Interior, Romanian Intelligence national budget support through subsidies and Service, External Intelligence Service, Security reduction / debt cancellations that were and Protection Service, specialized structures recorded. Government support is provided for of the Ministry of Justice; Special periods in which companies have not orders Telecommunication System) to respect the and firm agreements and these companies can obligations assumed by Romania through afford to keep employees needed for the treaties and international agreements; production of SNAOPSN materials and  stimulating investments in national weapons necessary for peace, in the event of defense industry, scientific research, crisis or war. Administrative activities, repairs, technological development and innovation; protection, conservation or maintenance are  connecting the national defense carried-out in this period by employees. industry to the European defense industry

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activities, developing cooperation in the field, contemporary operational and security maintaining and increasing internal and environment. It is also understood the external sales markets, respecting NATO importance they attach to and how the standards and access to technology and know- government tries to ensure the functioning of how high performance; the industry of such interest for the Romanian  protection of economic operators in the state. national defense industry in order to satisfy Investments in defense industry aim among procurement requirements of the institutions of other amenities, renewing manufacturing the SNAOPSN” [6]. technology, infrastructure, energy According to this project, the defense consumption and last but not least, human industry is wanted to be coordinated by the resources. For ensuring these and acquisitions1 Ministry of Economy and organized into seven in the profile policy, the government appeals areas of strategic importance as follows: to the essential interests2 of security and command and control systems; ammunition cooperation programs in the EU [7] who are and infantry weapons; explosives; research- based on research, development and innovation, development and innovation; technical while ensuring employment growth. At maintenance for defense and security; national level, research is encouraged, aerospace and missile; armored and artillery development-innovation for and within the systems. Activity in the field of defense national defense industry through partnerships, security and preservation industry will be excellence centers - production units and adjusted according to the training plan for the specialized research, technology parks, active defense of the national economy and finance participation in the EDA programs. will be achieved through ANRSPS (National SNAOPSN needs are beyond the means of Administration of State Reserves and Special national defense industry production, in cases Issues), based on the same plan. If allocated of so-called special products of some PSA and funds aren’t provided, an analysis procedure is their maintenance system. Therefore, in this initiated in order to take a decommissioning regard, these items can be ensured through decision over the capacities, in the case they purchases from foreign partners and also induce losses and may not be maintained from through cooperation agreements but with the the financing sources of the economic consent of the Romanian Government. operator. Maintenance of special products required for This law provides specialists’ training and SNAOPSN can be achieved through their remuneration arrangements for the maintenance centers especially set up. propper functioning of the defense industry. Also, the funding sources for investments are specified. Therefore we can conclude a 1 in case of an aquisition contract based on a defense funding sufficiency and the possibility that the cooperation program of within the EU, notifying defense industry to benefit from necessary National Authority for Regulating and Monitoring recovery funds, based on viable plans and Public Procurement / ANRMAP is mandatory closely related to European partners in the EU. 2According to the draft law on national defense Being classified, we do not have access to industry, essential security interests represent national interests which serve to ensure the vital functions of Romania’s industry National Security Master- safety, defense and national security, sovereignty, plan content, but we can infer the importance independence and integrity of the country and national of profile industry in the context of uncertain infrastructures

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4. CONCLUSIONS & Excellence, Competitiveness and ACKNOWLEDGMENT Responsibility in the Field of Romanian Fundamental and Applied Scientific In accordance with industrial, research and Research”, contract number POSDRU innovation policies, the Digital Agenda for /159/1.5/S/140106. This project is co-financed Europe, trade policy, competition policy, by European Social Fund through Sectoral CSDP or strategies in the EU legislation, Operational Programme for Human Resources including EDA, at national or European level, Development 2007-2013. Investing people! can form clusters / groups focusing on IMMs, research institutes, educational structures and REFERENCES technology transfer, to ensure the necessary SNAOPSN products, manufacture some 1. Consiliul European de la Bruxelles, 11-12 competitive products for more than 5 years decembrie 2008, Concluziile Presediţiei and increase cooperation in military affairs. (2008). International promotion of the defense 2. CN Romarm SA, Raportul industry and cooperation at European level is administratorilor pentru exerciţiul considered through the European Market of financiar (2013). defense equipment and by the development of 3. European defence matters, research and the base of European technological and technology: the European option, a industrial of defense, corroborated with a magazin of EDA, Issue 07 (2015). process of retooling of existing production 4. European Parliament, The development of capacities in national industrial resort. a european defence technological and At national level, in the near future, the aim industrial base, Bruxelles (2013); is seeking for privatization of economic 5. Guvernul României, HG nr. 1157, operators with production for the defense sector Bucureşti (2013). and which have a 100% state invested fund or 6. Proiect de lege privind industria naţională state majority, based on criteria established by de apărare, Bucureşti (2014). the Government for restructuring, improvement 7. European Commission, HORIZON 2020, and value to specific activity. Investors which The EU Framework Programme for are able to access such opportunities must Research and Innovation (2014-2020). maintain production company profile; have a 8. European Commission, SINGLE MARKET modern technology and an advanced know-how. ACT II project (2012); The state maintains investments at these 9. Statutul asociatiei nepatrimoniale a companies in an amount of at least 20% from “Parcurilor industriale, tehnologice, company fund and the contract will contain the stiintifice si incubatoarelor de afaceri din line that the new investor cannot change the Romania”. business profile of industrial operator before 5 10. Strategia de securitate naţională a years starting from the time the initial României, Bucureşti (2007); investment had been made and for a maximum 11. Strategia Naţională pentru Dezvoltare percentage up to 50% of production capacity Durabilă a României, Orizonturi 2013- existing at the time of privatization. At 2020-2030, Bucureşti (2008). privatization it can also participate in 12. Strategia Europa 2020, Bruxelles (2010). associations of existing employees, either for 13. http://www.apitsiar.ro/ro/acasa.html. majority or for quotation. 14. http://www.agerpres.ro/economie/2015. This paper has been financially supported 15. http://romarm.ro/informatii-despre- within the project entitled “Horizon 2020 - companie/istoric/. Doctoral and Postdoctoral Studies: http://www.apitsiar.ro/ro/acasa.html. Promoting the National Interest through

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THE INTEROPERABILITY OF THE INTELLIGENCE SYSTEM – A SALIENT PREREQUISITE FOR ACQUIRING INTELLIGENCE COMPATIBILITY

Ilie Paun*

“Carol I” National Defense University, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: The information cycle is a means by which the efficiency achieved while conducting joint operations is assessed in terms of information management. In this respect, the information cycle is a model that allows for data to be translated into information to the benefit of decision makers and all parties concerned.

Keywords: intelligence, information

1. INTRODUCTION and capabilities. That requires military force operationalization for each mission and a The increased role of information in number of mandatory intermediate stages economic, social, cultural and military areas before deployment in the theatre of operations: has contributed to the development and force projection, staffing, endowment, increased importance of the concepts and training, evaluation and certification. The fields based on this like: information warfare, military force designed for various missions information based war, information systems, needs to have specific information and information operations, information power, execution systems able to act in accordance etc. with the specificity of a theatre of operations. International commitments are politically Therefore, to this end, during the made; however, it is the military that needs to operationalization of the new structure a translate these into practical terms. Thus, the number of principles and methods need to be military decision makers need to have the employed to design and size the systems along necessary forces deployed outside the national with system analysis. territory, but each such military mission Information power changes the manner of requires a military structure with the right conducting wars and thus determines armed capabilities and able to tackle the conditions in forces to also take into account its relationship the area of operations or to fulfill each and with the actions undertaken. every goal of the mission. Depending on the way command structures It is our opinion that each mission is unique manage to gain and use information, they can as a result of the circumstances under which it plan, organize, coordinate and control unfolds and the goals it pursues, requiring a subordinated forces so that the missions are military structure that has the necessary size successfully conducted, and as much as

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possible, with fewer resources and human noting that these activities aimed at collecting casualties. data and information is useless if the During the conduct of operations, intelligence cycle works inefficiently, if the commandants have access to a great quantity information does not reach the planners and of information. The fields of interest are varied the commandants in a timely manner and in and the pool of information is diverse since the such a way that it can be instantly used. focus is on understanding the adversary and During operations commandants have the confrontational environment and also on access to a great amount of information related acquiring an accurate understanding of the to every aspect of the theatre of operations and situation and one’s own capabilities. of the battle field. The available information Information outputs can be many and hence covers a large number of fields concerning may stifle the command and control system of both own forces and the adversary’s such as: the force. Therefore, the information that size, identity, equipments, location, refueling needs to be delivered to the commandants status, number of losses, replenishment, fuel needs to be carefully selected. If the latter are reserve, available ammunition, etc. An equally overloaded with nonessential information, they large amount of information concerns the area are not able to accurately asses the threats in of operations and details like climate, weather, their area of responsibility and, as a terrain, socio-political influence, to name just consequence, cannot make the right decisions. few. Selection of the information to be delivered to commandants is to be of particular 2. THE INTELLIGENCE SYSTEM - AN concern: if they are stifled with non-essential ESSENTIAL ELEMENT OF THE information they are not able to assess the MILITARY SYSTEM impact of the threats in the battlefield and hence cannot make the right decision. Any planning of military actions relies on One of the basic requirements for action the information that is available. Every planning is that every commandant identifies commandant tries to timely foresee the what information is needed concerning allied intentions of the adversary in order to make and enemy forces from the very beginning in correct decisions and thus accomplish the order to make a decision and elaborate the mission assigned within the parameters operations order – OPORD. The questions already established. requiring answers are included in the Technological progress has heavily Commander’s Critical Information influences human activities, military ones Requirements = CCIR. These questions can be included. In this respect, a modern intelligence formulated from the moment a commandant system needs to be capable to continuously assumes command for the new mission and acquire information about the area of continues all along mission analysis and operations, the adversary, weather forecast, planning. Based on CCIR, intelligence etc. However, the mere gathering of this is planners elaborate Commanders Priority insufficient since it further requires that it is Intelligence Requirements = PIR. These are analyzed and disseminated with a view to the key questions that truly require answers so enabling a forecast on the adversary’s that the commandant is enabled to prepare and intentions and possibilities. successfully conduct military action. The possibilities to gather data are Military forces consist of intelligence unlimited; however, the planning area requires structures that meet operational requirements. information from specific fields. Therefore, They are designed depending on the type of the military intelligence analysts analyze and missions in order to meet the information interpret the data required based on their needs of commandants at various decision experience and skills. The result of this making levels. The commandants of tactical process consists in a set of information that combatant forces need tactical information and allows commandants to prepare and conduct therefore the subordinated intelligence force is battles under their own terms. It is worth

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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015 designed in such a way that it meets the need optimal parameters for the intelligence system. for this type of information. The leadership of the military structure is to The intelligence force must focus on impose the working of the intelligence system identifying the causes of the local problems so that it has access to information in a and the means to be employed by the constant manner, in the fields of interest, in the commandant to defuse tense situations and already agreed form and through the convened modify the behavior of the main political and channels. The quality of information military leaders in the area. The goals of underpinning future decisions and the intelligence activities are to anticipate the command of the mission are indicators of the evolution of the situation and, in particular, to proper working of the intelligence system. forecast the likely deterioration of the security There are a number of elements that are environment or humanitarian problems in the characteristic of intelligence systems. area. Regardless of their nature, military or other, The participation of several nations under a the intelligence system consists of data, unique command in order to accomplish the information, intelligence, information flows goal of multinational operations requires and circuits. interoperability at several levels: operational, The military intelligence system relies on a procedures, doctrine, technical, etc. number of resources: human, theoretical and In intelligence terms, all of the above material. To operationalize a unit in order to requires information supply to the forces of the collect information requires specialized various nations involved and receiving technology. information from them. The flow of One of the most evolved types of information is both among military structures technology needed by the intelligence systems and between the latter and non governmental to collect IMINT intelligence is represented by organizations. Consequently, a set on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). The latter intelligence procedures and criteria for can be equipped with a wide range of sensors information dissemination for is required for and technology that enable IMINT structures each multinational operation. to conduct a wide array of missions. One way to solve the problem of One of the advantages of using UAVs is the standardization in the intelligence area is to capacity to conduct missions under highly use existing agreements (for example NATO threatening conditions that may lead to highly STANAGs) as a starting point for establishing valuable casualties and to transmit intelligence a common ground for interoperability. Since in “real” or “almost real” time. each multinational operation is unique, these The successful accomplishment of missions standards are modified and adapted to the on behalf of the IMINT structures in various specificity of the mission. The interoperability theatres of operations has contributed to an of the intelligence system is to be established increased interest for UAVs on behalf of the based on procedures and agreements that military and not only. In this respect, the use include clear dissemination criteria, the of these vehicles in other operations like boundaries for information dissemination, monitoring key areas, environmental control, definitions of specific terminology, fire detection and monitoring, anti terrorist taxonomies and other filed related guidelines. operations, etc. has also raised a lot of The supply of valuable and timely interest. information depends on the existence of

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The employment of UAVs in the past actions provided the intelligence structures and the decision making factors important data about events and activities in the area of responsibility in a short period of time. Many of these platforms are technologically enabled to transmit data in a digital form so that the intelligence process is shortened and the military leader benefits from “real” or “almost real” time intelligence. Besides the endowment of the system with the technology required by various intelligence Complementary actions sources, an information (hardware and Early and simultaneous planning software) subsystem must be also established Dissemination of all necessary information within the intelligence system. Unity of effort The information system needs an internal Harmonization secure network identical to the one that the Fig. 2 Basic principles underpinning military structure already has. Additionally, intelligence interoperability the intelligence system must have terminals within the main networks used by NATO or by Maintaining unity of effort – the personnel the states from within multinational coalitions: in the intelligence area, regardless of their NATO SECRET, ISAF SECRET, CENTRIX, affiliation, must view threats both from a NIPRNET, SIPRNET etc. The software part national perspective and a multinational one. of this system is to include interfaces that Any threat to one of the elements of the allow communication with databases (CIDNE, coalition or alliance made by a common ANALYST DESKTOP, PATHFINDER, etc.). adversary is a threat to the whole coalition/alliance. 3. THE INTEROPERABILITY OF THE Accomplishing harmonization – differences INTELLIGENCE SYSTEM among coalition partners’ doctrines and intelligence procedures are inevitable. The interoperability operational procedures, Therefore, an important element for efficient doctrines, technology, etc. of the forces intelligence activities at multinational level is involved in alliances or coalitions renders their the availability at all levels to make the efficiency and effectiveness. Thus, the necessary harmonization in order to eliminate “interoperability” concept requires a joint the major differences in this area. definition. Therefore, it is important that the Early and simultaneous planning – the development of capabilities is focused on planning for operations done before taking intensifying interoperability among their own actions is called early planning. The principle armed forces and with those of the alliance or is applied by identifying the types of of the coalition in order to endure effective intelligence that can be disseminated to the multinational operations. forces of the other nations at the beginning of Interoperability in the intelligence area is the operations. Moreover, the procedures and established based on procedures and the agreements in the intelligence area agreements that stipulate clear criteria and allowing access to information are needed so boundaries for information dissemination, that planning by various parties at different definitions of specific terms and other filed times during the operations is possible. related guidelines. Dissemination of all necessary information The basic principles to be applied in order – every coalition member must supply useful to accomplish interoperability in the intelligence to the other partners and also intelligence area presented in Figure 1. comply with the existing national and coalition procedures and agreements.

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The data on the sources and the methods 4. CONCLUSIONS & employed to obtain information are shared ACKNOWLEDGMENT with the other coalition members only upon obtaining approval from the national agency The judicious organization of the responsible for these aspects. intelligence system in operational units is a Force protection is another area where this factor contributing to the efficiency of the principle must be applied. Any information military structure and is to rely on the method concerning force protection is critical and must of systemic analysis. The latter allows the be immediately revealed to the decision identification of the current status, the current making factors and troops. weaknesses, as well as the actions to address Even if some information from certain these and thus achieve efficiency. sources cannot be disseminated, the resulting The intelligence system in operational units intelligence outputs are to be structured in a can be established by putting into practice all manner that makes it possible for partners to the ideas presented by this paper. Moreover, it be informed on certain aspects related to it. needs to continuously update in accordance The successful application of this principle with the latest technological and scientific also requires that the C(J)2 personnel is developments. familiar with the national doctrines, Regardless of the level of performance of procedures, agreements in the intelligence an intelligence system in operational units, this field. If all these are respected and the is heavily influenced by the changes in the principle is employed, an efficient information surrounding environment, the inputs, the flow is ensured among the elements of a intelligence deliverables, the goals of the multinational force. information system, etc. Complementary actions – all efforts in the All of the above results in reduced intelligence area of every nation must be efficiency, stopvepipes in information flow, complementary. Each nation has its own system errors – to mention just a few of the intelligence system with its inherent strengths, problems that may occur. weaknesses and capabilities. The host country Therefore, the mere concern for designing a – fro example- can significantly contribute to modern intelligence system in operational force protection given its available capabilities units and coordinating all the stages leading to in the field. Complementary actions contribute the operationalization of these units is not to overcoming certain difficulties and to enough. eliminating the weaknesses within the Competitiveness in the intelligence field is intelligence systems of certain troops. All maintained through the continuous analysis of capabilities and national resources in the the intelligence system from within intelligence area must be made available in operationalized units and this aims at order to include them into the intelligence “conducting a complex study on existing process from within the theater of operations. information flows and activities, the amount of In order to plan and coordinate multinational processed information, the scope of the operations in the field of intelligence intelligence system and the endowment with collection it is essential to establish a unit in the technology that allows highlighting the charge with managing intelligence collection. strengths, the limits and weaknesses of the current intelligence system in order to establish the general requirements” that are to

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underpin the improvements in the intelligence 3. JP 2-01.3, Joint Intelligence Preparation of system of operationalized units. the Operational Environment, Washington The comprehensive understanding of the DC, SUA, 2009 intelligence system of operationalized units 4. Nicolaescu, Gheorghe, Simileanu, Vasile - must rely on systemic analysis since this Restructurarea sistemelor informaţionale, method allows for grasping the likelihood of a Editura Top Form, Bucureşti, 2005. system to disintegrate given its loose 5. Savu, Gheorghe - Metode moderne de relationships or stovepipes. Lack of prelucrare şi distribuire a informaţiilor coordination, overlapping structures, militare obţinute prin cercetare, destinate communication blockages among various conducerii strategice la pace şi pe timp de elements, rigid planning, lack of coherence război, teză de doctorat, Editura Academiei among goals, delayed correlations lead to de Înalte Studii Militare, Bucureşti, 2000. imbalances and hence to the need to 6. Williams, Reginald J., Kendall, Rocky - reorganize the system. Operationalizing Effects-Based Operations, Continuous improvement of the intelligence an EBO Methodology Based on Joint system by employing all sources is mandatory Doctrine, USA, 2002 so that missions can be accomplished as a 7. Wilson, Michael - Towards an Ontology of result of highly credible information, good Integrated Intelligence and Conflict, decision making and, ultimately, highly Decision Support Systems Inc, aprilie 2001 diminished casualties among one’s own 8. Costinel ANU A, Studiile prospective i troops. Intelligence interoperability and analiza de intelligence: de la managementul compatibility can be acquired by connecting riscului la reducerea incertitudinii, în our intelligence system to the allies’ system George MAIOR, Ionel NI U, coordonatori, and this is an essential prerequisite for Ars Analitica, Editura RAO, Bucure ti, including defense information management 2013, pp.230-246 into the framework of integrated defense 9. Sun Tzu, Arta Războiului, Barnes & Noble resources management. Inc. New-York, 2003 This work was possible with the financial 10. CODREANU, Aura. Fluxul support of the Sectoral Operational informa ional neîntrerupt – condi ie de Programme for Human Resources bază a managementului integrat al Development 2007-2013, cofinanced by the apărării,pg. 50-57, în RÂPAN Florian, European Social Fund, under the project Marin ILIE (coord.) Premise ale number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/138822 with the managementului integrat al apărării, title “Transnational network of integrated Bucuresti, Editura Universitatii Nationale de management of intelligent doctoral and Aparare "Carol I", ISBN: 978-973-663- postdoctoral research in the fields of 621-9 Military Science, Security and Intelligence, 11. CODREANU, Aura, Simetrie, asimetrie si Public order and National Security – atipism in actiunile militare contemporane. Continuous formation programme for elite In: Stabilitate si securitate regionala. researchers”- “SmartSPODAS”. Sesiune de comunicari stiintifice cu participare internationala, Bucuresti, 9-10 REFERENCES aprilie 2009. Sectiunea 3: Strategie militara, ISBN 978-973-663-718-6 (general), ISBN 1. FM2-0, Intelligence, Headquaters 978-973-663-726-1. Departament Of Army, USA, March 12. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the- 2010JP2.0, Joint Intelligence, Defence study-of-intelligence/index.html Department, iunie 2007 13. http://www.ssu.gov.ua/sbu/control/en/publi 2. JP2-01, Joint and National Intelligence sh Support to Military Operations, Washington 14. http://www.dia.mil/college/publications/ DC, SUA, octombrie 2004 15. http://www.centerforintelligencestudies.or g

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16. http://www.dtic.mil/ 17. http://www.globalsecurity.org 18. www.defenceandstrategy.eu 19. www.departmentofintelligence.com 20. www.nato.int 21. www.globalsecurity.com 22. www.foreignaffairs.org. 23. http://www.fas.org/irp/world/index.html

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INSTRUMENTS FOR THE EVALUATION OF THE AERODYNAMIC PERFORMANCE OF WIND TUNNELS

Vasile Prisacariu*, Ionică Cîrciu*, Sebastian Pop**

* Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Braşov, Romania, ** Transylvania University of Braşov, Romania

Abstract: Wind tunnels are installations which generate air flow around a model or one of its components in the test room in order to perform aerodynamic experiments. The current article aims at reviewing the experimental wind tunnels as well as the visualization techniques used.

Keywords: wind tunnel, visualization technique, test room, air flow quality

1. INTRODUCTION closed-circuit or open-circuit ones; see figures 1.1 and 1.2 [1]. The closed-circuit subsonic Wind tunnels are installations which wind tunnel has some advantages: superior air generate air flow around a model or one of its flow, low operating costs, mostly uniform flow components in the test room in order to in the test room, the fan compensates only for perform aerodynamic experiments measured the air flow losses, silent performance unlike by a set of sensors. According to the way in the open-circuit wind tunnels. Its which the air flow is entrained, wind tunnels disadvantages are the high construction costs, classify in open-circuit and closed-circuit wind the need of air cooling installations and the tunnels while experiment duration classifies dumping of the exhaust waste. them in continuous-flow and intermittent-flow wind tunnels (with vacuum storage tank, with pressure tank). Depending on the speed reached in the test room area, these installations fall in different categories as follows: low-speed subsonic wind tunnels (M ≤ 0,5); high-speed subsonic wind tunnels (0,5 ≤ M ≤ 0,9); transonic wind tunnels (0,9 ≤ M ≤ 1,3); supersonic wind tunnels (1,3 ≤ M ≤ 5,0); hypersonic wind tunnels (M > 5,0). 1.1. Subsonic wind tunnels. These wind tunnels are mostly continuous- flow and of incompressible flow speed. They are shaped like variable section tubes (convergent-divergent) and can be

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Fig. 1.1 Closed-circuit wind tunnel Consequently, wind tunnels with pressure tanks (up to 10 atm.) are largely used.

Fig.1.2 Open-circuit wind tunnel Fig. 1.3 Open transonic wind tunnel [2, 3] 1 – main compressor; 2 – heat exchanger; 3 – 1.2. High-speed subsonic wind tunnels. honeycomb and screens; 4 – first and second (flexible) nozzles; 5 – test section with ventilated Due to the high speed of the flow, the air walls (allow mass flow out from test section to warms up and influences the precision of the establish transonic regimes); 6 – plenum chamber experiment if appropriate measures are not (adjusts pressure in the test section); 7 – reentry taken. Therefore, a cooling installation is flaps (return mass to the main circuit); 8 – second needed. The simplest option is evacuating throat (forces shock formation top revent flow some of the warm air at the entrance of the disturbances from moving backward into the test collector and collecting cold air behind the section); 9 – injectors (provide extra momentum to diffuser from the outside environment. the main flow, saving main compressor power 1.3. Transonic tunnels. They may be requirements); 10 – diffuser (decelerates the flow); continuous-flow, closed-circuit wind tunnels 11 – blow-off (exhausts mass flow injected); 12 – or intermittent-flow, open-circuit wind tunnels. plenum extraction and re-admission ports. Reynolds numbers must be around 6x106 for 1.5 Hypersonic tunnels. Such wind 0,1% turbulence in order to obtain data as tunnels have been required by the field of similar to the one in real flight conditions as aerospace. An intercontinental ballistic missile possible. When Mach numbers are close to 1, can reach a 10,000 km distance during flight the blockage or choking effect occurs in the M=22. At such speeds, dissociation, ionization wind tunnels with solid wall test area. This is and formation of compounds such as the nitric characterized by the fact that, in spite of the oxide occur. Ionization can lead to magnetic rise of the compression level, the Mach field interaction and the acting forces during number does not grow anymore, which leads the flight can change. The research method in to the impossibility of experimenting with a the hypersonic field employs hypersonic wind Mach number close or equal to the unit; see tunnels which use air or helium to reach M > 5 figure 1.3. by means of retention in diffusers. Once these 1.4. Supersonic tunnels. According to Mach numbers are reached, the decrease in their way of functioning, these installations temperature is so significant that the work area fall in two categories: intermittent-flow wind is in danger of liquefying. If air is being used tunnels and continuous-flow wind tunnels. The as working area, it is previously heated to intermittent-flow wind tunnels classify in wind prevent liquefaction after retention. If helium tunnels with vacuum storage tank, wind is used though, problems disappear as it tunnels with pressure tanks, and combined liquefies at much lower temperatures than air. wind tunnels. They can function as transonic Therefore, M = 30 can be achieved with no ones as well. Due to the speed conditions, the heating. current and future requirements impose Re>6x106 Reynolds numbers which can only be achieved through pressure variation.

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2. THE WIND TUNNEL. COMPONENT through the tunnel. The axial ones are PARTS commonly used with classical wind tunnels. In order to reduce vortices generated by the As shown in figure 2.1, the components of blower’s rotor, two identical blowers spinning the wind tunnels are the following: in opposite directions are sometimes mounted The confuser is placed before the test consecutively. Turbulence reduction screens section and has the task of increasing air flow and different profiles are often introduced velocity up to value Vc and of decreasing along the wind tunnel circuit. They are turbulence in the test room. There are several mounted the farthest from the test room. If the types of confusers, with main geometrical speed of the blower is constant, the air flow is characteristics of a confuser with section adjusted by means of a vane. variation in one plane and double curvature Connecting elements are generally needed and curvilinear generators. in closed-circuit wind tunnels and they connect the main component parts. They are mainly curvatures and pieces ensuring passage from one section to another such as is the passage from the circular section of the blower to the rectangular flow section.

3. VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS

Visualization of the experimental air flow is necessary for collecting an image of the Fig. 2.1 Components of a didactic subsonic wind flow around the model as well as for testing tunnel [4] flow theories. Suitable visualization The test room is where the model for techniques can help in visualizing light flows studying is placed and the usual natural (for example, vortices) or heavy flows conditions are created. In the transversal characterized by tack effects (for example, section, the test room can take different shapes boundary layer flows, and separation areas). depending on the tunnel destination, the most often used being the rectangular and circular ones while octagonal and elliptical ones are rarer. The diffuser is placed in continuation of the experiment chamber and it needs to be created so as not to allow air flow detachment from its Smoke [9] walls. Turbulence reduction screens are used to reduce air flow turbulence and to favorably lead the flow towards other important components such as the confuser. The blower/ The fan is the power source of the installation which ensures air circulation

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Wires [8]

Laser [14]

Oil [7]

Doppler Effect [15] Fig. 3.2. Optical visualization techniques

4. STANDARDS REGARDING AIR Powder [7] FLOW QUALITY Fig. 3.1. Non-optical visualization techniques Visualization of the flows in the test room To generalize and validate test can be achieved through two techniques: non- results, a set of norms and recommendations optical and optical. Non-optical methods make have been issued, such as those of SAE use of a series of agents such as smoke, (Society of Automotive Engineering) which fluorescent coloring agents, powder, gas blobs, have been published in wind tunnel testing fiber piles, oil, and colored wires [5, 6, 7]. reports, namely SAE J2071 JUN94 norms , Visualization through optical methods is [16]. The minimum recommendations for performed with specific markers (smoke obtaining the proper quality of the air flow in particles, oil drops) and image illumination the test room (open) of a wind tunnel are the and image recording devices (cameras) see following: figure 3.2. The optical methods are used to Angular aberration in relation to plane view compressible flows by means of the xOy :    5.0  ; following main means: shadows, Schlieren imaging, interferometry, and velocimetry with The angle between the air flow direction laser and Doppler Effect [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and the transversal plane xOy is considered 15]. to be positive for upward deviations;  Angular aberration in relation to plane xOz :    5.0  ; The angle between the air flow direction and the longitudinal plane xOz is considered to be positive for left to right deviations;  Uniformity of flow speed distribution: Δv  %0.1 ,defined as:  Interferometry [13]

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v-v pressure, the way in which the boundary layer Δv  100  [%] (1) v  is formed, the geometry of the test room, and the blocking rate. where: v - local speed (from its The current article has been documented measurement point); with support from “Transylvania” University v - reference speed; and “Henri Coanda” Air Force Academy of  Bra ov.

 Degree of turbulence: T  5.0 % ; REFERENCES  Uniformity of pressure distribution along

the direction of the air flow, Ox :   01.0p ; 1. * * * (2009), https://www.grc.nasa. defined as: Available: gov/www/k12/airplane/ tuncret.html (March 2015).  pp p  x  (2) 2. Filho, J.B.P.F., Ortega, M.A.L., Góes, q C.S. Prediction of transients and control reactions in a transonic wind  Length of the constant pressure area: Tunnel, Journal of the Brazilian Society  /l(  0.1)L ; of Mechanical Sciences, ISSN 0100- according to length L, specific to the model 7386, vol. 22, no.2/2000, (2000). for study; 3. Goethert, B.H., Transonic Wind Tunnel  The thickness,  * [mm],of the boundary Testing. Pergamon Press, N. Y., p. 397 (1961). layer in motion:  %10 ; according to the value of the minimum 4. http://www.aerolab.com/wp-content/ distance between the model for testing and uploads/2014/08/AEROLAB-EWT- the walls of the test room. Brochure.pdf (March 2015). 5. Wisnoe, W., Nasir, R.E.M., Kuntjoro, 5. CONCLUSIONS & W., Mamat, A.M.I. Wind Tunnel ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Experiments and CFD Analysis of Blended Wing Body (BWB) Unmanned Wind tunnels are experimental installations Aerial Vehicle (UAV) at Mach 0.1 and for didactic and research activities meant to Mach 0.3. 13th International confirm the results obtained through Conference on Aerospace Sciences & theoretical and/or numerical methods CFD. Aviation Technology, Cairo, Egypt, p. The reliability of results provided by the wind 14, (2009). tunnels is directly proportional to the quality 6. Mahmood, M. Flow Visualization in of the air flow generated, to the precision of Wind Tunnels, King Fahd University of data collection equipment, to the quality of the Petroleum & Minerals Kingdom of design of the test element (the experimental Saudi Arabia, p.17. model) and, last, but not least, to the methods 7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oil_flo used in the experimental process. wvis_on_straight_wing.jpg (May 2014). Test results generally depend on a set of 8. Wisnoe, W., Nasir, R.E.M., Kuntjoro, parameters from the test room as follows: the W., Mamat, A.M.I. Wind Tunnel air flow quality, the reference dynamic Experiments and CFD Analysis of Blended Wing Body (BWB) Unmanned

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Aerial Vehicle (UAV) at Mach 0.1 and Mach 0.3. 13th International 14 Lăncrăjan, I., Nae, C., Pricop, M.-V., Conference on Aerospace Sciences & Damian, D., Udrea, M. Air flow and Aviation Technology (2009). environmental wind visualization using 9. Mahmood, M. Flow Visualization in a cw diode pumped frequency doubled Wind Tunnels, King Fahd University of nd:yag laser. INCAS Bulletin 1 (2009). Petroleum & Minerals Kingdom of 15 Meyers, J.F., Development of Doppler Saudi Arabia, p.17. Global Velocimetry for Wind Tunnel 10 http://history.nasa.gov/SP-440/ch1- Testing, NASA Langley Research 2.html (April 2015). Center, 18th AIAA Aerospace Ground 11 Settles, G.S. Modern Developments in Testing Conference, June 20-23, Flow, Visualization. AIAA Journal, vol. Colorado Springs (1994). 24, No. 8, pp. 1313-1323 (1986). 16 http://www.sae.org/search/?qt=J2071&s 12 Ristić, S. Optical methods in wind ort=relevance&sort-dir=desc& display tunnel flow Visualization, FME =list (March 2015). Transactions 34, p 7-13 (2006). 13 Hunter, W.W., Foughner, J.T. (eds), Flow visualization and laser velocimetry for wind tunnels, Proceedings of a NASA workshop held at Langley Research Center Hampton, Virginia March 25-26 (1982).

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SHORAD SOLUTIONS FOR THE AIR FORCES SYSTEMS UP-GRADE

Marius Rădulescu*, Vasile Şandru**

*Electromecanica, Ploieşti, Romania, **Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Braşov, Romania

Abstract: From time-to-time, due to the new technological development, the generation of weapon systems must be changed, air defence equipment included. The Romanian Air Forces is about to introduce in operations first unit of multirole fighter, alongside to increasing presence of allied aircraft on Romanian AFB’s. For this main reason and few others, the Air Defence – those belonging of RoAF especially – requires correspondingly upgrade. The work-paper analyses actual air defence infrastructure and proposes two applications. These should be capable to improve the efficacy parameters in relative short time and for a good cost / performance report. This kind of programs strongly involves the local industry for integration, training and maintenance.

Keywords: SHORAD, missile, integration, RAP, communication

1. INTRODUCTION founded, followed in ‘80s by the R&D and production capacities, especially for short East-European area was much time range missiles. connected to doctrines, tactics and weapon The ADMS CA-94 and CA-95 is technologies considering a possible major representative for this period. open confrontation between coalitions leaded by the heading superpowers as US and Russia. In these conditions the GBAD, in all its aspects, constantly was preoccupied the Romanian military thinking, especially Figure 1 - CA-94 VSHORAD because our country has many time must face to an enemy aerial superiority. In our country the AD equipment production have a tradition starting with the guns produced under licence before WW2 (caliber 75mm model Vickers and caliber 37mm model Rheinmetal), indigenously developed centralized fire control devices, alongside of the ammunition production. Regarding the ADMS, in the ‘60 –’70 decade few maintenance facilities were Figure 2 - CA-95 SHORAD

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Its destination was the ground forces The Romanian partner had in charge the protection using IR homing missiles. The missile, the launcher and the missile launching Romanian industry produced also the support interface, crew training and field range equipment for school, check, maintenance and logistics, while German partner had in charge training. the FCS integration, supplies, special testing CA-94 MANPADS uses an IR homing facilities. The mixed ADS was tested in real missile while the CA-95 represents a SP, light firings and out-passed the initial requirements. armored and amphibious system, both in the light and mechanized infantry units’ 2. SHORAD SYSTEMS vs. THREAT endowment. 2.1 New operational trends and new Table 1 - Characteristics of the used missiles system requirements. U/M A-94 A-95 The new security environment, supposing Missile caliber [mm] 72 120 more flexible tasks and tactics raise in front of Operational ceiling 2,300 2,800 [m] the air defence infrastructure and weaponry Slant range 4,200 4,200 Target maximum speed 0.75 0.9 adequate arrangements. Regarding the roaf [M] Missile average speed 1.5 1.5 missions, two appear direct connected with Warhead 0.8 HE 2.8 HEF actual defence configuration: [kg] Missile weight 10 30 - improvement of the SHORAD to MR SSKP 0.22 0,33 GBAD in centralized multilayer C2I structure; - assurance of the AFB close self-defence. The local industry development and Concerning mainly the enemy evolving at low integration capacity in missile weaponry was level, the modern battlefield imposes to AD clear demonstrated by the common systems few peculiarities, like: Electromecanica Ploieşti and Krauss Maffei - a wide targets diversity including fighter- Wegmann program aiming to mix the German bombers, helicopters, cruise missiles, U©AV’s SPAAG Gepard with the Romanian CA-94 and stand-off munitions; VSHORAD, with good operational results. - high density of the attacks; - growing of the attacks coordination level; - intensively use of the ECM/ furtive tactics to blind or decoy the defensive systems; - communications networks disturbing; - ELINT systems use to locate the AD pattern and to setup the SEAD operations. All this considerations required the AD configuration concordant with the threat evolution. One widely used tactics is to assure a gradual response of the aerial threat, with an Figure 3 - Gepard/CA-94 Mixed ADS increasing firepower, high SSKP, short reaction time and self-defence capability in proximity of the protected disposal. Especially for the high value targets, AD systems must be capable to reject the saturation attacks. In order to accomplish this task is strongly recommended that these systems to have some characteristics, as: - high automation level; - improved C2I / C4I capabilities; - good ECM resistance; - short reaction time;

Figure 4 - Field range fire results - multiple target engagement.

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The general menaces against which the Based on the Diehl of Germany and EMP SHORAD’s must be ready to intercept are of Romania MoU, the SIRET SHORAD uses represented by fighter-bomber multirole and the IRIS-T missile in modern system ground attack fixed wing aircraft, attack and architecture, with local or centralized working support helicopters, cruise and ballistic mode, as independent platform or integrated missiles, UAV’s and UCAV’s and artillery element into a multi-layer AD network, for a rockets. range of 10 km and a SSKP of 0.95.

2.3 IRIS-based SHORAD – an industrial cooperation opportunity IRIS-T is a short-range, dual command (link and IIR guidance), vertical launch and high accurate ground-to-air missile, identically for the air-to-air use. Figure 5 – Targets catalogue The main missile characteristics are: It can be observed that the threat catalogue o Weight < 90 kg presents a wide range of characteristics, o Length  3 m demanding a high agility and flexibility of o Maneuverability > 40 g defense. The modern SHORAD’s assure these o Average speed > Mach 2 requirements at a good cost/effectiveness o Kill probability  95% report. o Range ground-to-air 10 km o Altitude ground-to-air 6 km 2.2 Proposal for SIRET SHORAD Its aspect and envelope are presented in the The exposed reason imposes to gain a following figure. technological joint deal with a powerful western ally supplier, in measure to propose an up-to-date high-performance SHORAD, based to a state-of-the-art dual purpose air-to-air and ground-to-air missile. Figure 7 - IRIS-T missile aspect

IRIS-T is the result of cooperation between a NATO-member consortium including Germany, Norway, Italy, Spain, Greece and Austria. Its 5th generation remarkable features include: - thrust vector control; - advanced maneuverability; - accurate IIR processor; - countermeasures resistance; - high SSKP; - anti-missile capability. Figure 6 – SIRET for Ground Forces SHORAD The SHORAD development based on a state-of-the-art missile represents for the local

101 AIR FORCE industry and especially for the Electromecanica Ploieşti (EMP) a good opportunity to access new technological level and to have a significant participation into the system integration work.

3. APPLICATIONS FOR AIR FORCES

As derivative of this comprehensive concept, the Air Forces could benefit of the some relatively easy developments, as: - A sort range AAM reserve directly and other aerial platforms (IAR-99); Figure 10 - Integration with MRAD Hawk XXI

- Integrated SHORAD system layered Any accepted variant should have in with MRAD Hawk XXI and the future HSAM. background a national integration schedule

containing a large participation of the local industry regarding the production, integration, maintenance and training for the whole system.

4. CONCLUSIONS

This vision offers a significant

Figure 8 - Covering the low level gaps participation of the local industry and even of some R&D local organizations in order to - Close self-defence for AFBs implements the technological requirements The variants for Air Forces can be simpler into the local military infrastructure. Between and respectively cheaper than the basic SIRET the fields identified we can looks to: system, because: - Integration of launching system; - No necessary own search & track radar - Vehicle production & integration; having integration with the available sensors; - C3 hardware integration; - No necessary the mobility specific for - Integrated Logistic Support; the Ground Forces AD system, nor its ballistic - Documentation & training. protection. An example of system integration shows that the local industry has a wide range of sub- assembly for development and production.

Figure 9 - Towed IRIS-T SLS launcher Figure 11 - The dual role missiles offers a wide field The integration of the battle management of technological transfer to the local industry sub-system in an open architecture allows the access to all AD resources of zone. The option for a local-integrated SHORAD assures to the user local long term

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maintenance and training facilities and even Bucharest, April 2 – 3, 2015, ISSN 2285- the possibilities of the further upgrade 8318, volume 2, pp. 59 – 64. programs in cooperation with the basic product 3. Oglage, L., Conducerea forţelor şi provider. mijloacelor de apărare antiaeriană din fâşia diviziei pentru NATO, Forţele Terestre nr. 2 din 2009, Buletin de teorie militară editat de Statul Major al Forţelor Terestre, http://www.rft.forter.ro/2009_2_t/02- fenmil/05.htm. 4. Rǎdulescu, M., Calefariu, E., Boşcoianu, M., Ciufudean, C., Aspects Regarding Technical and Economic Upgrade Figure 12 - Local training for operators and Elements in the Case of an A.D. Missile maintenance personnel System, Proceedings of the 14th WSEAS EMP is capable to assure main local Conference - Advances in Mathematical industrial facilities and also to concentrates a and Computational Methods, ISBN: 978-1- local (Romanian) R&D and industrial 61804-117-3, Sliema, Malta, 7 – 9 consortium to accomplish our part of system November, 2012, p. 236. development engineering and integration 5. Rădulescu, M., Şandru, V., Prelungire de work. In this respect, EMP as local partner can resursă, revitalizare şi modernizare pentru assume the organization of the computer based complexele de rachete antiaeriene, Revista training facility, the local operating training Gândirea Militară Românească nr. 5 pp. facility, the maintenance facility or even a 70–79/2013 ISSN 1454-0460 local Centre of Excellence for Missile 6. Rădulescu, M., Mihăilescu, C., Marinescu, Systems. M., Some Aspects of the Air Defense Missiles Up-Grading, New Challenges in REFERENCES Aerospace Sciences Conference (NCAS 2013), pp 129-133, ISSN 2344-4762, 1. Băluţă, S., Pearsică, M., Axente, C., The ISSN-L 2344-4762, Bucharest, Romania, command and control structure of the 7-8 November (2013). mobile Short Range Air Defence systems, 7. Rǎdulescu, M., Şandru, V., Advanced use The International Session of XI-th of the e-resources in the research activities Scientific Papers, AFASES 2009 - regarding to missile integrated systems development, code 10.12753/2066-026X- Scientific Research and Education in the th Air Force, 20-22 May, Brasov, I.S.B.N. 14-120, 10 International Conference 978-973-8415-67-6, p. 19. ’eLearning and Software for Education’, 2. Constantinescu, D., Rădulescu, M., Euro- Book of Abstracts, Bucharest, April 24-25, Atlantic integration for a high- 2014, ISSN 2360-2198, p.97 (2014). performance Romanian SHORAD, 8. Şandru V., Rădulescu M., Ciufudean C, Proceedings of the 11th International Boşcoianu E. C., Critical Aspects Scientific Conference ,,Strategies XXI”, Regarding the Integration of Low Cost Up- National Defence University ,,CaroI”, grade Architecture in High-technology Assets for Defense, Mathematical Methods

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for Information Science and Economics, WSEAS Conferences, Montreux, 2012, ISBN: 978-1-61804-148-7 (2012). 9. Şandru, V., Rădulescu, M., Requirements for ground-based air defense integrated systems, RECENT Journal vol 14 Nr 3 (39), 2013, pp.186-190, Universitatea Transilvania, Braşov, ISSN 1582- 0246(2013), http://www.recentonline.ro/039/Sandru- R39.pdf 10. Şandru, V., Boşcoianu, M., Comparative analyse regarding to kill probability one of the main criteria of Air Defense integrated systems, Revista INCAS BULLETIN, Vol 6 Issue 3 / 2014 pp. 57-67, ISSNL 2066 – 8201, DOI:10.13111 / 2066 – 8201.2014.6.3, Bucureşti (2014). 11. F.T./A.A./3.1 – Manualul pentru luptă al batalionului de artilerie/rachete antiaeriene din cadrul Forţelor Terestre, Sibiu, (2005). 12. Technical and commercial materials of the Electromechanical Plant of Ploiesti – State Own Company and Diehl Defence Holding GmbH.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This paper was supported by the Sectoral Operational Programme Human Resources Development (SOP HRD), ID134378 financed from the European Social Fund and by the Romanian Government.

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NIGHT WATCHBIRD UAV SYSTEM: AN EFFECTIVE TOOL IMPROVING FORCE PROTECTION CAPABILITIES IN THE WAR THEATRES

Róbert Szabolcsi*

*Donát Bánki Faculty of Mechanical and Safety Engineering, Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary

Abstract: The Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) or Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) are widely used today in real time, high precision reconnaissance missions. The UAS can lean on various types of the UAVs, whilst this paper deals only with multirotor UAV application. The special flying abilities of the multirotor UAVs (e.g. vertical take-off and landing, hovering, flying at extremely low altitudes and airspeeds etc.) open new areas in UAV applications. Challenges of the modern era put many problems to be solved such as problems of safeguarding in civil life, handling disaster management tasks, and, finally, solution of force protection tasks in operational theatre, or out of war theatre. Author will lay down a brand-new concept of the UAV system, applied nightly (or in bad visibility, during the day) to improve efficiency of the solution of the safe-guarding problems, and, also improve efficiency of the solution of the force protection problems, and reduces human resources needed for this purpose.

Keywords: UAV, multirotor UAV, Night Watchbird UAV system, force protection, war theatre, conceptual design of air robot systems, system definition, flying and handling qualities of Night Watchbird UAVs.

1. INTRODUCTION Being member of the NATO NTM–I-team mentoring pilot-course of the Joint Staff No doubt the unmanned aeriel systems are College, Al Rustamiyah, Iraq, the author of promising tools applied in both public and this article had gained experiences in force civil applications. The publication of the protection activity in desert war theatre in the European Committee’s "Flightpath 2050 – Middle-East. Europe’s Vision for Aviation” is dealing with Both military and non-military UAV main trends of evolution of the aviation, applications define further requests for including UAV-technologies, till the year of designers to design and produce UASs with 2050, deriving main tasks to be solved those attributes pre-defined by the users. maintaining the goals proposed by EC. This The goal of the author is lay down basic strategic document can be effectively used principles of the brand-new UAV although in military UAV applications and reconnaissance system concept applied in missions, i.e. in force protection tasks military missions to improve force protection maintained by military units serving in war capabilities established before using theatres. conventional methods and tools.

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2. PRELIMINARIES, RELATED WORKS with design of the optimal flight path design of the UAV. The term Watchbird firstly mentioned and used by English writer Robert Sheckley 3. NIGHT VISION SYSTEMS AND (1928–2005). In his science fiction story IR-IMAGES written and published in 1967 he described a UAV-based reconnaissance system used in The Night Watchbird UAV System is a new crime prevention actions of the modern concept of the autonomous UAV recce system societies [1, 2] (Figure 1). supporting solution of the force protection taks of the military units serving mainly in war theatres. The proposed system is a reconnaissance system, which executes simultaneously the data acquisition, data storage, data transmission to the ground control station, with preliminary data assessment to support commanders to take fast and correct decisions. Fig. 1 UAV recce system by Robert Sheckley [1, There might be a simple question: whether 2]. (Source: www.google.com. Downloaded: 07 a new technical system can generate new tasks Dec 2014.) solved by the military staff, and if so, how the staff must be prepared for solution of these The FAST-System is described in [3], new tasks. underlining advantages and disadvantages of It is easy to agree that due to physical and the proposed system, although focusing on mental overload of the staff, any new initiative bottlenecks of the recce sytem. There is a in the war theatre might not be requisite with series of scientific articles published by the new loads meaning new skills in UAV author dealing with flying and handling maintenance. Due to complexity of this qualities of the UAV systems. The UAV problem, UAVs are maintenaced in war systems applied in military missions might theatre by special units especially prepared for have system of requirements given in articles UAV maintenance and repair. Considering this of [4, 8, 9, 14], whilst UAVs applied in non- fact, the proposed UAV-system would not put military missions can have requirements as any additional overload onto military staff; it they are defined in publications of [5, 6, 7, 11, must act autonomously, supporting military 12]. UAVs applied in D3 (Dirty-Dull- fighting units with real-time information. Dangerous) missions migh be designed using It is easy to see that the basic idea can extra-cheap concept, due to conditions of their realized in remotely-controlled UAV-recce missions (e.g. monitoring nuclear powerplant system having joint ground control stations catastrophies, etc.). Due to difficulties of with abilities and resources to control the decontamination of theirs UAVs are used as UAV recce flights, in case of necessity, to non-reusable ones with no obligations of the repair UAVs, or to change them for new ones, successful and safe landing [13, 14]. In article if it is required. [10] the author investigates advantages of the The ground control station has in the staff propulsion systems applied by the UAV. The personnel certified by given authorities (i.e. fixed wing and the rotary wing concept was European Aviation Safety Agency, evaluated to show how to select the Department of Transportation, Federal appropriate UAV type fitting best the user’s Aviation Authority USA, NATO, national requirements. The flight dynamics and authorities) to fly the UAV, to maintain and to dynamical models of the multirotor UAV repair UAVs. (quadrotor-type) are outlined in [15, 16]. This paper would not evaluate questions of Articles of [17, 18] show application of the airspace management. The reason is that in LQ-based preliminary design of the flight war theatre the airspace mostly segregated control systems of the UAV. Article [19] deals providing privilege for military aviation. In

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this particular case, unless otherwise specified, security systems, the decision of the duty the UAVs can be flown as per the request of officer is based upon his skills, knowledge and the given war situation. experiences busy with many subjective The basic vision and requisite condition of elements of his. the author is: the military camp has a special, secure platform, or landing zone able to incorporate of (3-4) UAVs on this physical platform. As a rule: UAVs have serial numbers for their take-offs derived by theirs level of technical status. The pre-defined serial number system can be rearranged during flight service of the UAVs with the consideration of the worthiness to fly, with technical status of the UAV, and finally, with pre-derived system of logical rules and conditions. For that purpose the UAV on-board diagnostics is a prerequisite Fig. 2 Infra image of the creauture. one. (Source: www.google.com. Downloaded: 07 Dec The basic mission of the brand-new, 2014.) proposed by the author multirotor Night Watchbird UAV System is the identification of The Night Watchbird UAV System is a new the event (fact) of the incursion into the security system able to identify: military base having some mechanical  the event of incursion into military base; shielding (e.g. concrete walls, wired fences  the intruder, making difference between etc.), and alerting military staff on duty. ’human’ and ’not human’ intruders; Large military camps and bases can have  intentional, or unintentional incursion of the conventional security systems based upon human intruder. If intentional incursion of static cameras of given spectrum. If the ground the human is identified, he will be grab and control station is not equipped and not escorted by the UAV till ground forces take prepared with necessary tools and kits to actions. support decision making of the military person The UAV of the Night Watchbird UAV on duty, although information from cameras System can fly in fence (borderline) patrol can be evaluated with large time delays, which mission whether in stelth, in other words, in worsen the effectiveness of the solution of the silence mode, or in normal flight regime force protection tasks, and, reduces level of generating large emissions to show its flight. security of the military camp. The first method can be applied effectively if Figure 2 shows a night vision infra image incursion into camp is intentional one, whilst of a ‘creature’. Using this image it is very second method can be applied in case of difficult to decide whether it is a human or deterrence of intension of the incursion non-human being. Moreover, in general, it is showing skills of the security system to human difficult to decide whether it is a living, or a intruder. non-living organism. Having no automated data evaluation system in conventional

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4. NIGHT WATCHBIRD UAV SYSTEM Fig. 3 Military base in desert area. APPLIED FOR FORCE PROTECTION (Source: www.google.com. Downloaded: 07 Dec MISSSIONS IN DESERT AREA WAR 2014. Redrawn by the author) THEATRES The walls being controlled at the military base are colored in Fig 3 in red. The length of The force protection in war theatre military the walls is measured in kilometers. For actions is the key factor. Its importance is vital military duty personnel having limited forces, and undesputed. The military success is often it is difficult to action in right way with and basically determined by human factors. If appropriate and sufficient force. However, the the military staff safe in his camp, for the next static borders of the military camp suggest mission he can be prepared very effectively, applying effectively the UAV-technology for and the next battle would be won with high recce purposes to minimize time delays in probability with minimized losses. If there is detection and identification of the event of no safety, no rest in the camp, the military unit incursion. Due to main features of mechanical can loss some skills, or use them with reduced elements of the force protection system in case effectiveness. of military base protection one must deal only In war theatre, the level of safety is with intentional intrusion of the human coded via colours. The top level of safety is intruder. coded via ’green’ colour. The arming stance in these green-zones is: having short-barrel 5. BASIC CONCEPT OF THE NIGHT personal weapon, no round in the chamber. In WATCHBIRD UAV SYSTEM AND war theatre, the weakest level of safety is REQUIREMENTS provided in ’red’ zones. The arming stance in these red-zones is: having short-, and long- The new UAV applications are mostly driven barrel weapons with necessary amount of by demand of the users guiding path of ammunition, first round in the chamber. The evolution of the UAVs. Main principle is to combat uniform contains body-armour and have appropriate technical skills to solve main helmet, too. tasks of the UAV flights. The main Figure 3 shows a military base in the requirements derived by UAV users are Middle-East desert area, inserted into published in the author’s scientific papers of populated area busy with insurgent actions. [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. The base has large dimensions, there is large The first phase of the UAV design is the area to defend and provide safety at minimum conceptual, simetimes the pre-conceptual levels. The static elements of the force design stage. The new concept of the UAV protection system are conrete walls, T-walls, recce system proposed in this article also has concrete shelters, fences. The walls have many missing definitions and criteria. The gunner-towers with large calibre, long barrel Night Watchbird UAV System conceptual guns inside, applied mainly against vehicle- design requires new definitions, new logical borne improvised explosive devices (VBIEDs) conditions and logical rules. Copceptual driven by insurgents into check-points, or into design means and requires solution of the walls of military bases. following problems:  definition of the main tasks of the UAV recce system. This is a key element of the system of requirements.  definition of the technical parameters of the UAV recce system.  definition of the UAV flight envelope. The flight envelope predicts many technical parameters of the system, i.e. propulsion system favoured by experts.  definition of the flying and handling qualities of the UAV recce system. There

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are many actions taken by EASA to space for taxiing and ground maneovering determine flying and handling qualities of of the quadrotor UAV. The UAVs serving the UAVs applied in public aviation for at a given platform must have wheels for economical reasons. Worth to mention that taxi purposes, and, onboard systems of the there is an existing NATO STANAG 4671 UAV must be prepared for solution of the applied by the Military dealing with UAV docking problem. airworthiness problems.  selection of the type of the UAV applied in  definition of the type-, and airworthiness the recce system; criteria for the UAV recce system. Due to  taxiing on the ground platform; lack of regulations in the field of public  docking to charge/recharge batteries; (civil) UAV applications, there are new  ground-diagnostics of the UAV systems. actions taken by international and domestic The OBD-technology applied principally organizations to compile norms and rules for monitoring the energy supply system of accepted by lawmakers and UAV-experts; the UAV.  solution of problems of the airspace  definition of the sense procedure. There are management at the national level, as the many sensors available for application. Due minimum; to main motivation to provide night vision  definition of the ground control station capabilities the sensor unit can be easily supporting UAV recce system. The ground defined, and determined. station is important segment of the UAS  definition of the intentional, illegal system, mainly determined by type of the intrusion. The logical conditions and rules UAV being flown. must be outlined, and technical parameters  description of the UAV type. There might allowing giving such alert might be be applied the rule of chosing appropriate designed. The military base has check- by parameters UAV. points to entry human personnel and  definition of the flight phases. The flight military techniques, so any intrusion via must be segmented into flight phases, and borderlines can be considered for illegal into parts of flight phases. The normal one. flight must be defined, and definition of the  definition of the unintentional, illegal emergency flight must be given to separate intrusion. This is a large dilemma how to them, and to create plan of activity and design decision making process able to procedures to be followed in emergency make difference between intentional, and flight situation. unintentional intrusion. If the military base  solution of flight safety problems. Flight has weak mechanical defence, or at its safety has many aspects starting with borderlines there are missing mechanical technical and finishing with human factors. defence, an unintentional intrusion into the A new maintenance system must be base can happen. established involving those aspects of flight  definition of the alert procedure. After safety known from conventional, piloted derivation of the intrusion attributes, an flights. alert signal must be given to duty staff ta  design of the landing zone of the UAV. take appropriate actions. Landing zone must be safey having enough

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 on-board decision making process. If the 6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK UAV is prepared for that, on-board evaluation of the information msut be done The multirotor Night Watchbird UAV to give alert signals. System can represent a new element of the  ground decision making process. If data existing military force protection system. from the UAV are transmitted to the ground Signals and information provided by the UAV control station, there might be applied an recce system can be used by many staffs automated decision making process. requiring them. The most of the system  conceptual and preliminary desing of the elements still in conceptual phase, there are UAV automatic flight control systems; many legal and technical problems to be  definition of the flight plan of the normal solved that way that regulations support new flying day; initiatives involved in this concept.  definition of the take-off maneouver; The newest element in multirotor UAV  definition of the cruise/navigation flight ground taxiing and maneuvering is the phase; wheeled-maneuvers on the UAV platform, and docking for charging batteries.  execution of the flight, data acquisition, data storage, data transmission; The proposed autonomous UAV-recce system has privileges highly appreciated by  return-to-home mission of the UAV; those military leaders responsible for security  the landing maneouver; of the large transit camps of war theatre. As an  state transitions between flight phases; example, Camp Striker in BIAP, Iraq, had had  definition of the types and forms of the dozens of thousands of military personnel collision avoidance problems. Collision travelling for R&R, and after returning back to avoidance can be defined in following military service. The military techniques relations: UAV-non UAV aircraft; UAV- available the same time at the base could be UAV; UAV-static objects; UAV-single counted as techniques of the military brigade, bird; UAV-swarm of bird. There are many sometimes a division. aspects to be considered. The most The strategic military bases, such as dangerous avoidance situations must be airports can have borderlines measured in handled, i.e. the UAV must execute dozens of kilometers. It is easily can be emergency maneuver to avoid collisions. determined that conventional force protection  definition of the loss of thrust problem. In can require very large resources, and case of application of the quadrotor UAV, a sometimes can have low efficiency. Force scenario must be prepared to continue flight protection of those military bases having static mission, or to abort it and execute borderlines can be easily improved by using emergency landing. Flight dynamics and UAV technology widely used and applied for flight performances of the UAV must be reconnaissance purposes. evaluated thourougly to make correct The use of UAVs in given force protection decision in this sensitive situation. problems can meet many problems having no  definition of the onboard failures leading to solution till today. For example, detection and the end of the flight. Very important to have identification of the intentional, human a list of failures leading to aborting flights intrusion requires definition of the set of to provide flight safety at given levels biometrical parameters of the human being defined in flight maintenance regulations. (e.g. blood pressure, speed of respiration, size of pupils, color of the face, partial oxygen The mentioned above problems does not mean content of the blood etc.) describing stress of the complex set of its to be solved. Problems of the given person. The problem is that many of UAV pilot selection and training also in the focus of attention today, and represent an urgent problem those humans are able to manipulate these to be solved very soon. parameters e.g. able to reduce speed of respiration. It is easy to agree that there are many unconventional problems requiring unconventional solutions.

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Future work of the author is to investigate követelmények vizsgálata - az "Alpha"- in deep details those problems defined above csoport. Műszaki Tudomány az Észak- to support UAV-manufacturers in pre- alföldi régióban 2008. Elektronikus conceptual and conceptual design phase of the Műszaki Füzetek V., ISBN: 978-963-7064- UAV recce system. 19-7, pp(23-33). It is easy to agree that complexity of the 7. Szabolcsi Róbert, Pilóta nélküli system high level enough so that find solutions repülőgépekkel szemben támasztott to those problems listed above requires wide- követelmények vizsgálata: a "Bravo- range knowledge and skills. For that reason, csoport". Repüléstudományi Közlemények last year the first Hungarian UAV cluster (ISSN: 1417-0604) (eISSN: 1789-770X), called ‘Unmanned Aerial System Cluster’ was 1/2008, pp(1-14). established incorporating organizations 8. Szabolcsi Róbert, Egy felmérés margójára - representing Hungarian Academy of Sciences, néhány gondolat a pilóta nélküli institutions from higher education and repülőgépek polgári és katonai industrial partners. alkalmazásáról. Szolnoki Tudományos Közlemények (ISSN: 1419-256X) (eISSN: REFERENCES 2060-3002), 1/2008, pp(1-12). 9. Róbert Szabolcsi, Conceptual Design of the 1. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/29579/ Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Systems Used 29579-h/29579-h.htm for Military Applications. Scientific 2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert Bulletin of "Henri Coanda" Air Force _Sheckley Academy, ISSN: 2067-0850, 1/2009, 3. http://idokjelei.hu/2014/09/stresszmero- pp(61-68). kamera-a-kinai-jaroroknek-a-veszelyes- 10. Szabolcsi Róbert, Forgószárnyú és/vagy elemek-kiszuresere/ merevszárnyú UAV alkalmazások. 4. Róbert Szabolcsi: Some Thoughts on the Műszaki Tudomány az Észak-Alföldi Conceptual Design of the Unmanned régióban 2010. Elektronikus Műszaki Aerial Systems Used in Military Füzetek VII., ISBN 978-963-7064-24-1, Applications. XVI. Repüléstudományi 978-963-7064-23-4, pp(39-46). Napok Konferencia CD-ROM kiadványa, 11. Róbert Szabolcsi, Conceptual Design of Budapest, 2008.11.13-14, ISBN 978-963- the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle for the 420-857-0, pp(1-8). Firefighter Applications. CD-ROM 5. Róbert Szabolcsi, Conceptual Design of Proceedings of the 12th International Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Systems for Conference on Scientific Research and Non-Military Applications. Proceedings of Education in the Air Force, AFASES 2010, the 11th Mini Conference on Vehicle ISBN 978-973-8415-76-8, pp(1-4). System Dynamics, Identification and 12. Róbert Szabolcsi, Conceptual Design of Anomalies VSDIA 2008, Budapest, the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle for the Hungary. ISBN 978-963-313-011-7, Police Applications. CD-ROM pp(637-644). Proceedings of the 12th International 6. Szabolcsi Róbert: Pilóta nélküli Conference on Scientific Research and repülőgépekkel szemben támasztott

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Education in the Air Force, AFASES 2010, és azok vizsgálata. Repüléstudományi ISBN 978-973-8415-76-8, pp(1-4). Közlemények, ISSN 1417-0604/eISSN 13. Róbert Szabolcsi Extra-Cheap Solutions 1789-770X, 2/2011., pp(1-11). Applied for Non-Reusable Unmanned 17. Róbert Szabolcsi, UAV Controller Aerial Vehicle Technologies. New Synthesis Using LQ-Based Design Challenges in the Field of Military Methods. CD-ROM Proceedings of the Sciences 2010: CD-ROM Proceedings of 13th International Conference of “Scientific the 7th International Scientific Conference, Research and Education in the Air Force”, ISBN 978-963-87706-6-0), pp(1-12). AFASES 2011, ISSN 2247-3137, pp(1252- 14. Szabolcsi Róbert, Légi robotok 1256). alkalmazása D3-missziókban. XVII. 18. Róbert Szabolcsi, LQ-Based Preliminary Magyar Repüléstudományi Napok Design of the Multirotor UAV Automatic konferencia CD-ROM kiadványa, 2011., Flight Control System. Proc. of the 17th ISBN 978-963-313-032-2, pp(1-9). International Conference The Knowledge- 15. Szabolcsi Róbert, Katonai robotok Based Organization: Applied Technical számítógéppel támogatott tervezése - Sciences and Advanced Military QUADRO LAB szakmai műhely alapítása Technology, ISSN 1843-6722, pp(187- az új, nemzeti közszolgálati egyetemen. 197). Multidiszciplináris Tudományok: a 19. Szabolcsi Róbert, UAV extremális repülési Miskolci Egyetem Közleménye, ISSN pálya tervezése. Szolnoki Tudományos 2062-9737, 1/2011., pp(31-42). Közlemények, ISSN 1419-256X/eISSN 16. Szabolcsi Róbert, Multirotoros 2060-3002, 1/2011, pp(11-18). légijárművek repülésdinamikai modelljei,

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NATO STRATEGY TO DEFEAT ENEMY FORCES IN THE HYBRID WAR

Daniel Ştefănescu*

*Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: The current paper brings forward the present issues concerning the challenges of the new types of armed conflict in its hybrid form. The need for preparation in order to adequately prepare to react to the new national/regional security challenges, such as the conflict at the western European border, in particular, has forced NATO to improve its response capacity. First of all, NATO is required to identify a conflict in which the organization rules are not the well-known ones. For such situations going beyond the limits of Article 5 and even Article 4 of the Treaty of Alliance, the immediate reaction as well as the North Atlantic Council (NAC) authorization for action is very difficult to achieve. In such circumstances NATO policies need to be seriously reconsidered in terms of flexibility. The current paper, therefore, draws attention to the need of reconfiguring the framework for defining conflict nowadays and hence the appropriate ways to respond.

Keywords: hybrid threats, hybrid warfare, hybrid tactics, deterrence policy, destabilization

1. INTRODUCTION 2. HYBRID WARFARE

Nowadays, we are facing a difficult period The latest military conflicts have of time generated by advanced technology use, demonstrated that the belligerents use new globalization and violent extremists. All these methods and state-of-the-art technology in resulted in hybrid threats in which state and order to plan and shape conflict. The non-state actors make use of various, more or technological advances and the globalization less legal forces and means, combining diverse have ensured the legal and material foundation tactics and technologies to achieve their goals. for the belligerents. These confrontations do not submit to Although civilian and interstate conflicts classic warfare rules as the parties involved happen more frequently, their strategic and use conventional and unconventional as well operational effects have had little impact on as military and non-military capabilities, the West. combined tactics, terrorism and crime and Looking into the more recent military disorder [1]. conflicts, military analysts have classified war generating threats as follows: - conventional threats; - unconventional threats; - hybrid threats.

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Future threats are evolving by incorporating biological and chemical weapons, improvised new ideas and capabilities while divesting explosive devices and information warfare. others through atrophy. This approach to conflicts is a potent, complex Furthermore, many contemporaneous variation of warfare. By combining kinetic writings on the future threat deal directly with operations with subversive efforts, the the means by which an adversary may fight aggressor wants to avoid attribution or (precision guided mortars, cyber warfare, retribution. Hybrid warfare can be used to armed unmanned aerial systems) without a describe the flexible and complex dynamics of coherent understanding of the ways in which the battlespace requiring a highly adaptable adversaries will approach both strategy and and resilient response [3]. warfare to serve their political objectives Lt. Col. Bill Nemeth, United States Marine (deterrence through low scale attrition, active Corps, described hybrid warfare as “the defense, war on the enemies’ infrastructure contemporary form of guerrilla warfare” that and economy). We intend to provide a clearer “employs both modern technology and modern description of the emerging threats that forces mobilization methods” [4]. will confront and to frame a more specific Retired United States Army Col. Jack problem set for use in guiding the design of a McCuen presents hybrid warfare as the focus future joint force that is as agile and adaptive of activity of asymmetric warfare, fought on as the threats we may face in the future. three decisive battlegrounds: (1) within the Future threats will be entities or movements conflict zone population; (2) home front that continually scan the environment for population; and (3) international community opportunities, and threaten to or apply [5]. violence to affect the will and psyche of others David Kilcullen, author of the book “The to achieve their political objectives. Accidental Guerrilla”, states that hybrid Hybrid threats lead to hybrid warfare. warfare is the best explanation for modern Hybrid warfare concept appeared and conflicts, but highlights that it includes a evolved within the military thinking of the last combination of irregular warfare, civil war, decade as a theoretical response to the insurgency and terrorism [6]. necessity to adapt armed forces to the new Hybrid war combined a variety of military realities of an unclear conflict environment. activities, resources and applications to reform Even terms, tools, and techniques that hostile governments, movements, or trends in Russia has employed in Ukraine are new, politically, socially, and economically unstable hybrid warfare concept is not. At the begining conditions, characteristic of failing/failed of World War II, German disguised in Polish states. In addition, includes a full spectrum of uniforms and shot down German regular military intelligence capabilities, armaments, forces to provide justification for the entire nonconventional weapons, support units, and world for Hitler’s invasion of Poland. combat equipment, available for instant The Soviets would regularly establish employment if opposing elements of regular friendly “governments” of exiled communists forces or irregular insurgents, terrorists, or and fellow-travelers to legitimize their foreign other non-state actors ever cross the hostility military invasions and occupations. The threshold and constitute a direct threat to or Chinese have advanced warfare strategy that threaten these non-hostile activities [7]. includes information, media and psychological In comparison to conventional warfare, the elements. “centre of gravity” in hybrid warfare is a target The hybrid warfare concept first appeared population. The adversary tries to influence in 2005 in the article entitled “Future Warfare. the policy-makers and key decision makers by The Rise of Hybrid Wars” [2]. combining kinetic operations with subversive Hybrid warfare is a military strategy that efforts. combined irregular warfare, conventional In his 2007 work entitled “Conflict in the warfare and cyberwarfare. More over, hybrid 21st Century. The Rise of Hybrid Wars”, Frank warfare describes attacks by nuclear, Hoffman highlights the special adaptation

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ability of the adversaries who prepare and and effort during the last years to stay abreast employ different asymmetrical capabilities and of new threats, especially in cyberspace. methods. Therefore, future conflicts cannot be NATO is a collective security alliance classified as conventional or irregular as the which is able to deter threats and defend its most capable of the opponents will aim at populations in the event of conflict. The combining multiple capabilities and capacities collective use of force needs authorization of in a complex typological mixture while the North Atlantic Council (NAC) – which constantly keeping approach methods unclear. requires the identification of an armed attack The challenge will not originate in a single against a member as understood by Article 5 state choosing a particular approach but in of the Washington Treaty. The NAC authorize states or groups that choose the entire arsenal military action only by the Alliance unanimous available as well as the technologies and votes. Hybrid warfare tactics present tactics which are applicable to own geography difficulties vis-à-vis NAC – authorized and culture. collective action as their ambiguity makes Russia may be the main example in terms them difficult to detect and define accurately. of hybrid war but others states also own the A strength point of hybrid tactics is that resources and the will for it. For instance, they can progress incrementally towards a competing for resources combined with geo- threatening situation while remaining under the Article 5 [8] threshold. It is obvious that strategic tensions and a huge Chinese Diaspora avoiding Article 5 violations is in Russia’s turn South China Sea region into another interests, as NATO’s military superiority has “hybrid war” hotbed. effectively removed conventional warfare The situation is similar in the Middle East. from the suite of practical options. As a result, The ethnic and religious tensions there can a form of strategic competition targeting the contribute to “hybrid war”. Iran has invested political, economic, and societal vulnerabilities huge sums of money in developing electronic in the West, while remaining concealed and intelligence. It owns huge amounts of energy below the threshold of conventional response, resources and a media-controlled regime. If is the only viable option for Russia today to international negotiations are successful by the achieve its goals. end of the year and Iran takes its place back in The new field for the strategic competition the international economic system, a between NATO and Russia is subject for the significant evolvement of the “hybrid war” in Article 4 level. Article 4 of the Washington Teheran can be the unintentional effect, as a Treaty states: “The parties will consult new and strong regional politics tool. together whenever, in the opinion of any of them, the territorial integrity, political 3. NATO STRATEGY TO DEFEAT independence or security of any of the Parties ENEMY FORCES IN THE HYBRID WAR is threatened.” The challenge to Article 4 is coming to a unified and coherent NATO is a military alliance that never understanding of the threat is difficult when covers the full spectrum of hybrid warfare perceptions are different around the 28 challenges. NATO has a lot of instruments at member states. its disposal. The Alliance spent a lot of money

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2014 forced NATO to reanalyze the new caliphate in the state structures in the international security environment in which Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region they are operating. In the East, the since the WWI. international behavioral norms established by The group’s capacity to organize that NATO, were challenged by Russia’s territory, using a mix of conventional tactics annexation of Crimea. Using force to alter and terrorists, and recruiting thousands of Ukraine’s established border called into fighters from the entire world gives it a question assumptions about the sovereign particularly new challenge in the domain of territorial integrity of European states – non-state armed groups. Daesh achieved introducing doubt into the post-Cold War important stocks of powerful weaponry and a interest of a Europe increasingly whole, at lot of cash when it overran Iraqi forces in peace, and free. Mosul; this, in addition with there’s ability to Rhetoric evoking spheres of influence and maintain control over oil fields placed in protection of “Russians everywhere” provoked occupied territory, allows for it to be relatively fears that Russian President Vladimir Putin self-financing. Daesh’s violent campaigns was even challenging the very notion of the have disrupted local populations and broken pluralistic nation state – the reality of the vast down state authority through a vast area majority of the nation states in existence today. causing an increased outflow of mass Despite all of this, the grand strategic vision migration and arms, drug, and human driving Russia’s actions remains unclear [9]. trafficking within its areas. President Putin is trying to alter a problem NATO deterrence policy for hybrid warfare which he seen it to be counter to Russian is based on a rapid military response. It has interests. He want a new geopolitical map for three potential weaknesses. First, it is difficult Europe. Putin’s vision for a new Europe for all member states to agree on the source of appears to be one wherein closer European a conflict, creating a problem when they have political and economic union stalls, and the to vote for a collective action. Second, fighting role of the United States declines to a point alone is insufficient to counter irregular where the Euro-Atlantic security community threats. Although it will be a rapid response, splinters. New Russian military doctrine, deploying military force to a hybrid warfare published on 2014, stated that Russia area will turn out as “too little too late”. considered NATO and US efforts in Central Sometimes, the conflict evolves under the and Eastern Europe to be a direct threat – a radar. Finally, a deterrent built upon military memory of the days when NATO and Russia force alone will not be credible. NATO cannot tried to forge a partnership after Soviet Union use the strategy of massive retaliation, or rely collapsed. exclusively on one course of action, fighting NATO faces a new unstable era from the against irregular threats. States which appear Middle East to North Africa to the Sahel. vulnerable to destabilization could adopt early There are powerful non-state armed groups measures to increase the resilience of their which continue to grind away at state security. structures and leave a host of problems in their NATO can apply for a flexible policy and wake from resource depravation to mass strive to deter prospective adversaries with a migrations to intense localized conflict. The lot of means: reinforcing links between new threat which has grown recently is the rise domestic agencies, intelligence sharing, of Daesh with its base of operations in Syria increased role of NATO’s Special Forces and Iraq. Daesh’s rapid advance in Iraq during political will and investment, force the summer of 2014 brings the control over mobilization, political authority. extensive areas of both Syria and Iraq. The group has the capacity to attract pledges of 4. CONCLUSIONS allegiance from other groups from North Africa and the Sahel. Recently Libya shows Future conflicts will make use of no the appeal of the group’s message of forming a conventional or asymmetrical actions

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exclusively but of a combination of these. The REFERENCES enemies will employ a combination of traditional, asymmetrical and disruptive 1. Cruceru V., On hybrid war concept as methods to achieve operational and strategic presented in the American military superiority. Consequently, hybrid threats refer thinking, Bulletin of the National Defense to the evolution of contemporary actors, the University (2014). need of sustained national effort to effectively 2. Mattis J. N. & Hoffman F., Future Warfare: respond to them in due time. The Rise of Hybrid Wars, U.S. Naval The diversity and complexity of the issues Institute, Proceedings Magazine raised by hybrid threats confirm the need of (November 2005). finding something more than technical or 3. Canada Free Press: "War on Terrorism: regional answers. Therefore, a suitable Defining hybrid warfare". security strategy is needed to stand against 4. Nemeth W. J., Future War and Chechnya: A hybrid threats effectively operationally and in Case for Hybrid Warfare, Monterrey CA: a unified manner. Naval Postgraduate School (June 2002). Additionally, flexible command and control 5, 6 http://armedforcesjournal.com/2009/10/ structures need to be established to quickly 4198658 (April 2015). adapt to the tactics, methods and means 7. Colonel Margaret S. Bond, Hybrid War: A employed by the new actors that put into New Paradigm For Stability Operations practice hybrid threats. In Failing States, U.S. Army War The best means of countering hybrid College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania warfare is to prevent it before development. It (2013). is more difficult to deal with irregular threats 8. *** Washington Treaty, Article 5. once they become an overt attempt at Available: http://www.nato.int/terrorism/ destabilization. The open fire exchanges, as it five.html (March 2015). happened in Ukraine, signify that a hybrid 9. www.nato-pa.int; Hybrid warfare: NATO’S conflict has evolved to its later stages. Those new strategic challange?, draft generak kinds of actions could easily escalate into an report, Julio MIRANDA CALHA insurgency with no foreseeable political or (Portugal), General Rapporteur (March military solution. For instance the conflict 2015). from Ukraine could be a “frozen conflict.”

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THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TERRORIST TARGETS IDENTIFICATION PROCESS

Constantin-Valentin Bordei*

*”Carol I” National Defense University, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: In contemporary realities of a multipolar world dominated by dynamism, in which uncertainty follows an ascending path, the management of risks associated to terrorist actions compels deciding factors to concentrate efforts in managing relevant data (geopolitical context; favoring factors; opportunities; vulnerabilities, threats, challenges and risks; religious conflicts, inter-civilization conflicts, interests, political-ideological; activities, illegal manifestations and actions, hostile, deviant, destabilizing or other perturbative factors). An analysis of the history of the combat of the terrorism confirms the fact that the best method to defeat terrorism is to locate and isolate terrorist activities, monitor and destroy them through “surgical actions” using the most efficient assets, avoiding unnecessary losses or extension / amplification of the effects. Given the wide variation of the ways of display, difficulty of anticipation of location and release moment of terrorist acts, as well as the impossibility of outlining a standard profile of terrorism, the activity of terrorist target identification represents a complex process which involves a thoughtful analysis of terrorist threats areas, the study of the specific threats spectrum, and an efficient management of the data.

Keywords: terrorist targets, targeting, stability

1. INTRODUCTION guidelines, provides resources and synchronizes the actions. For the purpose of Terrorism has been perceived as being an covering operational needs the terrorist isolated phenomenon, with a limited area of organizations retain departments specialized manifestation that transformed to a global in recruiting, propaganda, funding, and threat able to continually improve the related logistics. The admin headquarters adjustment capacity to contemporary security where operations are designed and planned environment, without respecting any rule, or where the terrorists train themselves are speculating vulnerabilities or human or generally conspiratorial, in private areas judicial weaknesses. uncontrollable by authorities, but there are With the Cold War ending and the last countless examples in which have been used years accelerating trend of the globalization, religious edifices, buildings of charity/ terrorist networks have adapted the beneficence organizations or spaces/ lands organizational structure as well as the belonging to firms/consorts with unclearly command-execution relations, thus stated object of activity. witnessing to an organized destructing Critical infrastructures targeted by process, with dispersed groups and cells terrorists represent those targets that are coordinated by a core that sets general material (real or virtual), informational or

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organizational that have a symbolic value or easily shaken, human terrorist targets can be are essential/vital to representative ideologically indoctrinated, blackmailed, community, and their engagement have a corrupted, used or forced to take steps to major and immediate impact at the public violent actions that lead to committing viewpoint level. Given the major risk of terrorists attacks. The recruitment of the being the target of terrorist actions and the terrorists has its bases into identification of implications/effects/consequences, the human vulnerabilities and sensibilities, importance of providing protection and finally leading to persuasion of these prevention of attacks on these targets individuals to committing reprehensible acts. represents a major goal of all the structures Usually, are sought persons that consider with responsibilities in the field of security themselves oppressed/disadvantaged (ethnic and maintaining public order. or religious minorities; young individuals Preferred locations of terrorist attacks with extremist views; anti-system young remain crowded areas in big cities with individuals or who want to revenge the death minimum security possibilities (train of someone close or an idol; people that feel stations, markets, sports facilities, cinemas, unjust; people that want to feel important, schools, theaters, bars and intensive willing for adventurous/ dangerous circulation streets), and the trigger moment is sensations, are easy to influence or have so called “rush hour” specific to every deviant/ abnormal psycho-behavioral issues particular target (depending on: number of etc.) who, under different methods (money, victims, possibility of an audience or large promises, lies, threats, blackmail etc.) are live broadcast). convinced, up to fanaticism, to commit The main challenge in prevention and atrocities on followers without having any direct confrontation of terrorism is represents remorse, even with the risk of their own the globalization and the unpredictability of lives. terrorist threat both by widening of For instance the Islamic State of Iraq and manifestation area and the intensification of ash-Sham (ISIS) generates and issues media coverage and by the continuous brochures (guidance books, handbooks etc.) improvement of modus operandi and the wherein they portray behavioral models of action speed. Actual potential of terrorism raising children in the spirit of the Islamic demonstrates that the prevention of this radicalness, as a future generation of jihadist phenomenon is vital to ensuring international fighters, able to revive the Islamic flame after stability and security, but also to defending they are capable of wielding a weapon. the interests and national values, regional, Lately, as a part of the irrational actions individual etc. of terrorist organizations can be observed Combating risks generated by terrorist that, increasingly more often, the woman is threats consists of terrorist targets used both as a tool to fulfill terrorist goals identification, removal of critical and as well as a target of their attacks. vulnerabilities that can be exploited by Suicide bombers aim women as targets, terrorists and applying of measures in order together with other categories of victims, to counterattack the impact/destructive acknowledged as being helpless and pacifists effects (physical, systemic, ideological, in the collective mental (children, elders, informational etc.) adapted to respective persons with disabilities/handicaps etc.), circumstances, on the bases of directives/ most of all from the perspective of mass plans or security strategies, protection and media impact, proving once more that there direct or indirect action/ intervention. are no rules in terrorist actions. The death of one or more close (husband, 2. TERRORIST TARGETS father, son, relative etc.), out of belief or simply the wish to overcome given classical On the background of some condition (the symbol of the family, of life dissatisfactions and beliefs that cannot be and of love; inequality in rights with men in 2 120

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some areas or cultures etc.), women are more authorities, advertising organizational power often and more efficiently used for terrorist on a large scale, promoting objectives and actions, networks recruiting and involving purposes to public opinion, winning new them on the basis of the following adepts or supporters etc.). The selection of considerations: the targets, in the first place, aims to  mass media/public opinion impact, in influence an audience (readers, listeners, particular the suicide attacks; spectators etc.) wider than the intended  achievement of surprise through the target, and also to disturb some activities or unforeseen of the situation; discredit state authorities.  avoiding personal body checks or Along time counteraction strategies have detention enforcement by the authorities; been designed, but the optimal solution that  the possibility of easily hiding would strike a balance between enforcement weapons, ammunitions, and explosives under tools and the power to persuade is yet to be clothing items. found, most of the times unsatisfactory, Terrorist targets may be of human nature, inconclusive and ineffective. material or ideological, real or virtual, as As a conclusion, understanding and follows: multi-factorial analysis of terrorist entities, of  isolated individuals or human their targets and of favorable conditions of collectives who plan, execute, promote or executing attacks represents the basis in the support terrorist acts; research of the terrorist phenomenon, as well  institutions, sects/ cultures, as of the identifying the most efficient organizations (political, military, non- methods and means to prevent and counter governmental, religious, ethnic etc.) that the risks, threats and terrorist actions. facilitate, support, commit or promote the conduct of terrorist actions; 3. PREVENTION OF TERRORIST  propaganda-making entities (media/ EVENTS virtual space) promoting ideologies, terrorist The main strategic form of preventing activities or carry out actions in their benefit; terrorism is considered, unanimously, by the  physically bounded areas specialists of this domain, intelligence (infrastructure elements/ constructions) or acquisition. In this sense, the intelligence fixed/ mobile means occupied by terrorists or structures must offer, as soon as possible, that harbor them or their facilities; information on real and potential threat that

 financial systems and resources used terrorist organizations represent. All by terrorist or in support of the actions information gathered will traverse the stages executed by them. of evaluation and processing, so that they can Terrorists’ targets are selected in relation be disseminated to deciding factors as soon to the assumed objectives and ideology, so as possible in a usable form, in order to be that their employment in violent actions able to preemptively intervene with the goal produce the planned effect both through the of thwart terrorist elements’ foreseen actions. symbol that they represent, and damages and The new configuration of contemporary victims produced as well as through threats originating in some of the non-state amplification of the consequences (panic actors, undetectable, diffuse and specially the broadening, compromising accountable

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unprecedented amplification of terrorism Intelligence analysis of areas presenting constitute the coagulant of international terrorist risk constitute a process of cooperation in intelligence domain. The judgment, logical, and structured able to prevention of a terrorist event is ensure development possibilities/trends of unquestionably more efficient than it’s events, hypotheses, strong/vulnerable point, countering, being mainly conditioned by the capabilities and probable courses of action of predictive- anticipatory efficiency of terrorists. Anticipation and diminish of the Intelligence structures, by the possibilities of risk generated by terrorist actions is a protecting the vulnerabilities/weak points, by desideratum of all intelligence organizations the volitional-reactive capabilities of belonging to forces that aim to combat deciding factors, and also by the terrorist manifestations. context/existing situation of the investigated Shaping actions for combating terrorism potential risk. presumes an analytic typology based on the Early warning represents a proactive need to locate fragmented entities, which process of organizing and directing of the relate to each other and of whose actions do joint effort in order to prevent some risks not fit within standard operating model, in a associated to terrorist phenomena or complex environment dominated by management and minimization of their unknown and ambiguities. impact on planned targets to be engaged by The unique and relevant image of battle terrorists. space achieved at force nominated for Within the early warning process I have counter must lead to profound understanding identified 5 phases: of local, regional, and international issues of  detection of incipient elements of a untraditional enemy in order to be able to potential terrorist crisis; establish the most appropriate ways and  gathering, sorting and analysis of the means to influence his will and the factors information; that can affect both our own actions and  forecast of the evolution and impact of those of the enemy. Surveillance, detection the event; and identification assets of the targets must  commencing of the warning; allow founding of centers of gravity,  monitoring of the specific elements that identification of decisive points and key lead to the terrorist action. possibilities of terrorist entities, an aspect Prevention of surprise in case of a that can permit enhancement of own terrorist violence is achieved through capabilities and the successful completion of provision of some warning intelligence the mission. products over terrorist intentions in order to Following study of the documents that protect the intended targets and to dispose or investigate terrorist phenomenon we estimate reduce the planned destructive effects. as being relevant/key factors in identifying Establishing the needs and requests for person suspect of extremist manifestations or information as well as gathering them both potential terrorists, the following analytic from open and covered sources demands elements/ components: attention, skillfulness, discretion, patience,  familial environment (specific and professionalism. relationships, number of members, Efficient managing of information shortcomings, status/social position, religion, regarding terrorists represents a complex and ethnicity, influences, habits/ customs, mandatory process for countering them. rivalries/ adversaries, closed ones etc.); Opportune delivery of information (time,  relational environment (family/ friends, moment, relevance, accuracy etc.) in work/school, collectivity, entourages, conjunction with analysis, prediction, and membership and status in various dissemination capabilities are essential foundations/organizations/circles, intensely requests in countering terrorist actions. lived experiences within elitist/usual/ decaying environments); 4 122

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 level of education (institutions, commercial centers or industrial sites; specialization, locations, performance, skills) educational institutions; touristic, cultural,  information sources (written media, and sports sites etc.) or airways, naval, internet, radio/television, presentations/ railway, road, and underground access speeches, circles/institutions); points, without having plausible reasons for  the occupation (performance/attitude doing that; towards work/ perception within the  persons interested in procuring institution etc); substances (explosive, chemical, biological,  hobbies/preferences/ambitions/goals; radioactive etc.) or who manufactures, poses,  strong points (intelligence, character, transport or manipulate illegal weapons, courage etc.) an weaknesses (alcohol, drugs, ammunitions, substances and other gambling women/men, luxury/money, and ensembles/parts that could be used with physical/mental deficiencies addictions); terrorist purposes;  behavior (normal/ maladaptive/  suspect individuals who ask baseless incoherent, constant/ adapted)/ temper; questions regarding the program of  financial situation (debts, unjustified institutions and daily important moments in money, lack of control etc.); their schedule that implies diminish of  miscellaneous (religion, age, ethnicity, vigilance or moments of maximum marital status/children, health etc.). agglomeration (shifts of guards, beginning/ Proactive attitude and civic education can ending of the working hours, assemblies/ represent key to terrorist prevention. All we meetings etc.); need to promote is creating a collective group  actions, of any nature, through which against terrorism without ignoring, they try to paralyze or disturb the running of neglecting or refusing the existence of this institutions/strategic objectives of high phenomenon, but, more than that, to involve, importance, with major repercussions for contribute and participate to its counter even humane collectivities. through the simple provision of some In order to provide these information civil information to competent institutions. In this population must know to whom they need to sense, every citizen can easily observe cues address and, especially, to trust the contacted of indicators that can generate terrorist risks, authority. This participatory attitude of the as follows: civil environment can be developed only  prolonged and unjustified stationing of through education/training that leads to some individuals in the proximity of areas profound understanding of the phenomenon with great importance (foreign diplomatic and to acknowledgement of the role of the missions; headquarters of national and citizens for terrorism prevention, as well as international institutions; military facilities/ to encouraging an adequate civic behavior installations; scientific laboratories and and to removal of the potential factors/fears research centers etc.) who take pictures or that can affect combative spirit. videos of these objectives such activities are Reality demonstrates that terrorists forbidden; originate from all social environments, have no age or gender and do not belong  persons that persistently study crowded exclusively to an ethnic group or religion, places (train or subway stations; highways or thus design, anticipation, identification and heavy traffic routes; ports or airports; big

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clear defining of a target or terrorist action in procedures to undergo, but also the active time and space represents the biggest involvement in protecting targets (including challenge for the action of countering security of activities and objectives of terrorism. Thus any information that can national importance that can be potential prevent, anticipate or alleviate a terrorist targets of terrorist attacks); attack is valuable and must be managed  listening to and encouraging persons professionally and timely opportune. that consider themselves, justified or not, the object of a recruitment by the terrorist 4. CONCLUSIONS entities and warranting discretion and protection for interlocutors; Terrorist threats are characterized by  real-time monitoring of all available ambiguity through the nature of locations, information pertaining to past or ongoing means, operating procedures and attackers’ actions, with analyses and interpretations profile, and training for countering them made by specialists; consist of scenarios based on statistics, active  centralization and formulation of intuitive models, contextual equations, likely proposals, suggestions and variants or targets and o variety of information more or courses of action proportionate to threat level less processed, truthful and important for a that are tangible, argued and feasible will be specific situation. made available to deciding factors. An efficient and coherent process of Therefore we can conclude that terrorist intelligence can lead to removal of attacks may take part in developed as well as uncertainty, to acknowledge and in underdeveloped countries, both in understanding of the potential environmental democratic or dictatorial regimes, the risk, to anticipate future terrorist nature condition of manifestation being division of events or to substantiate decisional support public opinion in pros and cons, or the which is the basis for the lethal or non-lethal generated effect to produce even more chaos, active reactions that will lead to instability, uncertainty etc., so that terrorist prevention/defusing a terrorist crisis or to entities say their name, demonstrate their capture/destroy the terrorists. aggressiveness, various power dispersed The best method to defeat terrorism capabilities, but without “showing their face” through preventive means constitutes as a palpable whole, well defined and localize, monitor and isolate them as well as delimited. preparing to counter, through the conduct of the following activities: REFERENCES  preparation of the legal framework 1. Chi , I., Popa, C., Contemporary adequate for handling terrorist crisis and terrorism, Bucharest, Editura ANI (2007). doctrinaire concepts to prepare and act 2. Gîrleanu, C.G., Money laundry and regarding countering the terrorist terrorism financing phenomenon, Editura phenomenon, the projection of specialized Vladimed-Rovimed (2011). forces and training of the personnel and 3. Moinescu, R., Terrorism – between risk identification of needed equipment and factor and threat, Editura Sitech (2012). means; 4. Simileanu, V., The asymmetry of terrorist  continuous surveillance of key/critical phenomenon, Editura TopForm, Bucureşti areas exposed to threats and risks, as well as (2003). analysis of terrorists’ trends in order to 5. Toma, G., International terrorism. identify any clue that can reveal future or Reactions of regional and global actors, under preparations actions; Editura Institutul European (2013).  informing and training of the 6. Voinescu, G.-V., The terrorist impact on population, pointing out risks that they are world economy, Editura Economica exposed to, size of the threat and operating (2011).

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THE MILITARY AUTHORITY – THE DECISIONAL SUPPORT OF THE MILITARY ADMINISTRATION

Paul-Marian Fusea*

*“Carol I” National Defense University, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: The military authority represents the essence of the military administration’s right to impose its decisions. The military authorities are public authorities invested by law with the exercise of public power. The military authority imposes considering its legal operational substitutes, respectively the delegation of authority and the transfer of authority. The delegation of authority, as an institutional process is characteristic to the military administration of the state of affiliation, while the transfer of authority is characteristic to multinational military administration.

Key words: administration, military authority, authority delegation, authority transfer

1. INTRODUCTION searching for the references in the legislation to the military authority notion, we find it, In the area of conceptual boundaries firstly, in the law regarding the civil status, in regarding the military administration, the basic which it is stipulated that in the documents for feature of enforcing prerogatives within the granting the citizenship, given that a territory military administration, in the applied state of is under the military administration its operational formula, is the military jurisdiction, are presented: “… extracts from authority. the civil status documents which were issued It is considered that the military authority by the military authorities under the law”. A is represented by the military administration’s more pronounced use of the phrase it is found right to command, to give directives, in in the Law regulating activities specific to the situations stipulated by law. military administration, specifying issues like: “the goods are commandeered only based on 2. THE MILITARY AUTHORITY the order issued by the military authorities”; “The delivery order of the commandeered 2.1 The military authority in the goods will compulsory include the nomination Romanian legislation. of the issuing military authority, and the The digression, from the specific beneficiary military unit, the legal base of the comprehension of the military authority, as it commandeering, identification data of the is found in the Romanian legislation, indicates goods, of the owner or the possessor, as well exceptional situations, in which the military as specifications of the place and the place administration has de decisive role. Thus, and term of the delivery of the goods”; “The

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commandeering order will compulsory that the goods susceptible to be seized by the include: the name of the issuing military Romanian custom or fiscal authorities or on authority, and the beneficiary unit, the legal their behalf will be made available for the grounds of the request, the name, surname and respective authorities.” … “the sending state’s the address of the requested person, the term military authorities will have the right to and the location where to be presented”. In exercise the penal jurisdiction or the another normative act, regulating the military disciplinary competence conferred by the law administration’s activity in the term of the of the sending state in relation to persons state of siege, quoting the military subject to that state’s military laws” … “the administration’s role, there are specified it’s sending state’s military authorities will have legal rights, more important being the the right to exercise their exclusive following: “In exercising the attributions in jurisdiction on persons subject to that state’s their duty in the period of the state of siege or military laws for the offenses, including to its the state of emergency, the military security, incriminated by the sending state’s authorities issue military commands having legislation, but not by the Romanian law.” force of law (…)… “the information regarding The interwar localization of the operational the state of siege or the state of emergency, concept relative to the military authority, as an excepting those referring to natural disasters, efficient operational instrument of the military are published only with the notification of the administration acts, is identified in the military authorities” … “The military constitutional enactment of the military power, commands are issued on the period of the state in which, in fact, it was appointed the public of siege by the minister of national defense or power of military nature of the state. Specific the Chief of General Staff, as exclusive but also significant of that period, is the military authorities at national level, when the opinion that “the military authority through state of siege was established on the entire which the public order and state security is territory of the country.” … “The military done is the Commander besides which it exists command includes (…) the issuing military a court (The military Commander of the authority, the legal grounds, the period of Capital, the army commandments and certain application the date, the stamp and the division commandments). All these signature of the issuing authority” … “On the commanders exercise these powers either period of the state of siege, (…) a) the directly, either by delegating certain application by the military authorities of the attributions, on the garrison commanders from measures provided in the approved plans the respective juridical circumscription.” according to the provisions of the present Allowing certain preliminary conclusions emergency order and the decree of regarding the operational concept of military establishment, is compulsory.” authority/ military authorities, it can be Likewise, the defined role of the military affirmed that: in the present Romanian authority is cited in the law regarding the legislation, the collocation military Agreement between the member states of the authority/military authorities does not have a North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the strong use, this being an effect of the sluggish participant states to the Partnership for Peace, change in the defense and security culture after in which are defined, especially the military December ’89 from the communist mentality authorities of the sending state, as well as the to the democratic evolution paradigm: lacking main attributes, stipulating: the military a definition to conceptually explain the authorities of the sending state are those collocation military authority or military authorities invested with command authorities, some have comprehensively attributions and with attributions of applying subordinated, with the same meaning, names the legislation of that state regarding the of some military institutions with a very members of its force or the civilian powerful and well known public image – The component” … “The sending state’s military General Staff or the staffs of all the services authorities will grant all the support to ensure (forces), the area military centers, the specific

126 commandments; the late and somehow feeble the temporarily subordinated personnel” … affirmation in the specific juridical literature of the provision according to which “the the notion of military authority, can be command act includes the authority and the explained also by the fact that, in the same responsibility for the efficient use of the semantic sense, the collocations “military available resources and for planning the bodies” and “military staff” were largely used, action, organizing, coordinating and the having assigned, subliminally, the meaning of control of the forces in order to accomplish military authorities. We record that, according the missions” … the organizational role of the to the operational defining of the military deputy commander, defining it as “the invested authority, this concept does not refer to the authority taking part to the act of command relations present inside the military body, or within the boundaries established by the the military institution, but exclusively to the commander”, as well as the role of the chief direct relations of the latter with the citizens or of staff, as “authority invested with exercising the public authorities. the act of command on the staff, he can make Regarding the military specific legislation, decisions regarding the entire base, only in the but also the internal normative acts arising absence of the commander or his deputy”. from it we encounter the collocation – military Likewise, in the supporting section of the of authority, in the Military disciplinary the Regulation we find defined “the legally regulation, in the issue from the year 2000. In assumed authority” as “the right to issue the body of the Regulation, the topic regarding orders, which a military assumes according to “The military authority and the obligations normative acts in force, to hierarchy of ranks, arising from it”, is treated separately, however, positions and competences in the field”. in its following normative development, there There are committed to memory, in this are more common the terms “commanders”, advocacy, the rules in force of the military “superiors”, “hierarchical chiefs”, “military discipline. The document assigns one structures”, “upper echelon”, all being used distinctive sector to the military authority, subliminally with the meaning of military which entitles the supposition that the authorities. We find that, probably because of references to institutional roles of the military a breach in the process of elaboration, in the hierarchy are dealt with having the conceptual context of the definition of the misbehaviors it support of the military authority. It is withhold is appreciated that “the lack of respect for the as representative for this exposure the commanders, superiors, equals or inferiors in assertion according to which “The rank ant for the authorities”. The wording as commander/chief represents the military such leads indirectly towards the supposition authority legally invested with responsibilities that the authorities referred to are exclusively and rights for exercising the acct of command civilian. We appreciate that this is a hiatus of in a military structure”. In the spirit of a theoretical process of defining the military endemic conclusion, it can be assessed “the authority, the construction of this concept not military authorities as being public authorities being fulfilled in institutional paradigms. invested by the law with the exercise of public However, the document that frequently power, which have attributions of command uses the notion of military authority, in certain and of applying the military legislation in their way establishing this concept in the profile area of responsibility in times of peace, crisis literature, is the General regulation for and war, exercising it under civilian control conducting military actions. Being from the public constitutional authorities, by systematically subscribed to the notion of military bodies with unipersonal or collective authority, we can find the concept in phrases character, in compliance with the rules and that target and regulate: the stipulation principles of the public law.” according to which “the commander is the authority legally invested or assumed which exercise the act of command on the personnel of the subordinated structures, as well as on

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2.2 The authority transfer and the the participant multinational forces at such a authority delegation. The approach of the mission can be assimilated, from the prospect military authority concept requires considering of the administrative and commandment acts its operational legal substitutes, respectively, by which it is responsible, to the multinational the authority delegation and the authority military administration. Thus it results a fist transfer, very important in exercising the feature of the authority transfer. If the administrative and commandment acts of the authority delegation operates al all the levels military administration. The concepts are of the military administration, the authority recorded and defined, according to the manner transfer consists of the full transition of they act in the operational space of the military operational leadership of the participant forces administration. The delegation of authority is at the mission in the responsibility of military realized according to the general rules, through leaders, others than those belonging to the which, in certain situations provided by law, it national structure. The authority transfer is a is used exercise the specific attributions of the very well developed procedure, preceded by public offices, by persons, other than the one the assuming by the military administrations fulfilling the institutional holder of the of the states participating in the multinational position. In this respect, the military normative force, but also by the political decision-makers system contains clear provisions, stating that in the respective countries, by consensus, of according to the situation, “The commander of the Rules of Engagement. These are the military unit, in exercising the act of “directives issued by the political/military command, can temporarily assign, through authority, towards the military structures delegation of competences, part of his duties participating to the military operation in and responsibilities to subordinates”. The which there are specified the circumstances descriptive analysis of the commander’s and the limits within which they can initiate or attributions, indicate that the regulated amount continue combat actions with the opposing of those (32 responsibilities, defined and forces”. Legally based, the exercise of the delimited through distinct phrases), only two national political control over the military and are not be delegated, respectively, the the assumed understanding of the military responsibility of “providing the operational necessity, the Rules of Engagement guarantee capacity of the unit” and the obligation to the transfer of authority the administrative and “inform the deputy/chief of staff with operational framework of the multinational necessary data for taking over the command.” forces, without malfunctions, stagnations or Regarding the authority transfer, this specific involutions. procedure is specific to the operational context The authority transfer has a series of in which it is engaged a multinational force. It features which personalizes is a specific is the manner in which, according to rules procedure of the multinational military assumed in consensus, the unique military administration, significant being: command of all the forces taking part to the  The authority transfer is produced mission is assured, regardless of the country of without altering the principle of the command origin. This means that all but one of the unit, which determines the operational participant national military forces admit being cohesion of the multinational forces, any under the command of a foreign military. Also national contingent, part of the multinational it means that the transfer of authority force, can receive orders and instructions represents the manner to provide continuous exclusively from the commander of the force, and unitary, from the point of view of concept also by utterly from the multinational military and all the participant forces, the leadership for administration; the multinational force, in other words, of the  The authority transfer doesn’t affect organization and execution by the the administrative and jurisdictional authority multinational military administration of the under which the commander of a national assigned missions. From the conceptual contingent acts, these being under the perspective of this topic, the leading body of operational authority of the multinational

128 military administration, remaining fully context”, Colocviu Strategic magazine, no. subordinated to the national authorities of the 5/2009. country of origin (it isn’t a double subordination, the subordination to the 4. A.N.-2, The general regulation for national authorities avoiding the separation of conducting military actions, Bucharest, responsibility towards the resources, order and Military Publishing House, 1998. discipline of the forces in command);  The authority transfer gives the 5. Joint doctrine for multinational operations, military authority a well-defined juridical Bucharest, 2001. framework, in the administrative and commandment acts of the multinational 6. Law no. 61 from April 24th 2000, for the military administration. While the application of the Agreement between the organizational interior of the national member states of the North Atlantic Treaty contingent the participant forces are subject to Organization and the participant states to national legislation, in the multinational forces the Partnership for Peace, regarding the these fulfill exactly the administrative and status of their forces, signed in Bruxelles at commandment acts of the organization and June 19th 1995, The Official Monitor no. execution, and the accomplishment of the 185 from April 28th 2000. missions, in accordance with the standard documents and procedures of operating the 7. Law no. 119 from October 16th 1996, multinational alliance or coalition. republished and actualized, regarding civil status documents, Official Monitor no. 339 3. CONCLUSION from May 18th 2012.

The presented conceptual arguments, 8. Law no. 132 from July 15th 1997, regarding entitle the conclusion that the military the commandeering of goods and services authority, through its operational features, in public interest, Official Monitor no. 161 represents the decisional support of the from July 18th 1997. military administration. Moreover, the military administration’s authority legally consists in 9. R.G.-3, The military disciplinary the act of command, in fact in making use of regulation, approved by the Order of the it, as a method of accomplishing acts and minister of national defense no. M. deeds of administration and command. 70/2000, with the subsequent modifications and completions. The order wasn’t published in The Official Monitor of REFERENCES Romania, Part I, because it covered defense and national security topics. 1. Dragoman, I., Military Authorities Acts, LUMINA LEX Publishing House, 10. The military discipline regulation Bucharest (2003). approved by the Order of the minister of National Defense, M.64 from June 10th 2. Negulescu, P., Administrative law treaty, 2013, published in The Official Monitor no. vol. I, II, 4th Edition, Graphical Arts 399 bis, July 3rd 2013. Institute, Bucharest (1934). 11. The internal regulations in military 3. Pargulescu, I., Lt-Col, Sancila, L., Col. (r.) units, approved by the Order M.92, from prof. univ. dr., “The command and control September 17th 2008, published in The of the structures of forces from the Official Monitor no.815, from December Romanian army during participating to 5th 2012. post conflict missions, in multinational

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12. The Govern Emergency Ordinance nr. emergency, The Official Monitor nr 22 1/1999, regarding the conditions of state of from January 22nd 1999. siege, and the conditions of the state of

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“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

LOGISTIC DECISION MAKING PROCESS INSIDE THE MILITARY ORGANISATION USING EXPERT SYSTEMS

Marius Milandru*

*Territorial Internal Audit Section No. 5, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: Inside military organisation, logistic’s management has its’ own architecture, it is made off structural elements, with functionalities which are directly related to their interpedencies and connections. From its components, an important role is being held by logistic decision subsystem, this being used at all levels, and which is characterised by dynamism. Logistic decision holds a central role inside management process; this has to be approached through conceptual delimitations and role, involving the existence of many alternatives in order to facilitate the efficient one. The artificial intelligence tehniques lead to utilize the ’’expert” systems in many domains and scopes, one of them is the logistic decision making process.

Keywords: military organisation, logistic, decisional subsystem, logistic decision, expert systems.

1. CONCEPTUAL DELIMITATIONS During peace time this represents a special RELATED TO LOGISTIC DECISION complexity, the variety depending on the type, nature, characteristics and the quality of the The logistic decision subsystem is a decisions taken. component of logistic managerial system We can conclude that the logistic decision which represents the assembly of decisions is the main component of logistic decision taken inside, those being applied accordingly process, a tool through functions of logistic to objectives established by military structures management could be trained. In practice, and their managerial architecture. logistic decision can be compared or equate Through logistic decision subsystem all the with a standard formula, this being adequated 5 specific functions of logistic management to concretely situations of military logistic are used, the main percentage beeing held by domains during peace time. prevision, this one could be found in all Inside military organisation, in relation logistic decision processes. with other types of organisations, logistic The logistic decision subsystem can be decision becomes the action which reunited compared with a command system which has material, human, financial, informational the role of adjusting, correcting and resources with specific character, in order to streamlining the logistic activities inside any accomplish military objectives and tasks. military structure at all levels (service Brigades and bellow units unfold their branches, headquarters, brigades and bellow). activity under the influence of events, with diverse frequence and types, which are not all,

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become logistic decision problems but can be represents a special importance, because, it is solved in a certain way. So that an event could related to some characteristics as: information to become a logistic decision problem, it has to volume and structure, the methods of using fulfill the main condition of obtaining the information and the decision of taking courses same result using different paths with different of action, indicators’ system (estimates) for characteristics. analyzing consequences and results. Inside any military structure, appearance of Establishing systematization (evalution) logistic decision problems will be generated by criterias and logistic decision frame is a the following situations: complex problem, influenced by multiple -the situation in which disruptive factors effects when it will be materialized. created an imbalance between operational and For example, taking a decision related to functional subsystems with negative results in procure and use a more performant medical achieving logistic objectives and its mandatory equipment than those which are already in use, to reestablish the system functionality at can be framed inside the group of “technical standard parameters; decisions”, but during equipment using and -the situation in which it is a balance exploatation can be obtain effects that will between those 2 subsystems in order to realise determin achievement or increasing the proposed logistic objectives but where the performance indicators. manager wants high class performances. Using the equipment can lead to social The diversity and complexity of decisional effects, especially if it has new and upgrated problems which have to be solved by logistic technologies integrated, which will ask for managers ask for a systematization related to high qualification of medical personnel certain criterias or elements. through different courses. Of course, the Criterias are different but all have a same problem can be solved through supervising of common element which is to “order and make the decision in a group with similar effects. easy decident work”. The diversity of From the data presented above it results systematization criterias of logistic decision that, in most of the cases, the logistic decisions problems determined different points of view inside military structure could have triple regarding their hierarchy, phenomenon dimension: tehnique, financial – economical explained through their way of approach and and social one. Most important criterias and criteria’s importance. elements which are used to group logistic The systemic approach of military decisions are: destination, hierarchically level organization allows grouping of logistic of decident, problems which have to be solved, decision problems according to those three substantiation level, events asessment, essential components of functioning: inputs, decidents number, etc. logistic processes, outputs. System inputs are Present days, in logistic manager’s related to marketing, suppling and activity, there are a great number of decisions transportation functions and are referring to based on empiric analysis or rough material resources, procurements and their information which are available during logistic quality. decision making process. The logistic processes which are taking The scope has to be concordance between place inside brigades and bellow structures level of efficiency and numbers of superior determin a great number of decision problems, decisions according to available resources. The with a high degree of complexity. activity of optimizing the report between the The outputs generate various decision objectives established by the manager and the problems which are related, mainly, to: available resources has to be done quantities of goods and services which have to sequentially, according to each military be ensured, maintenance services, medical logistic domain. assistance. The activity of training in logistic decision The systematization of logistic decision process has three levels: organisational, making process, according to some criterias, informational and methodological.

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“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

The evolution of Romanian society, of Inside the military organisation, the military organisation and also of national and logistic management has its own architecture, regional security environment, determines the being made of structural elements, its process of taking the logistic decision to fulfill functionality depending directly on some requests. interdependencies and connections between They are mandatory in order to achieve, them. efficently, all those functions related to the The evolution of technology in I.T. domain where they are issued. industry is very fast, the bound from one to another technical generation being realised in 2. USING THE EXPERT SYSTEMS IN short periods of time. The I.T. systems THE PROCESS OF TAKING DECISION performances grow from one year to another, sometimes much faster, so one could say that The theory of systems and systemic artificial inteligence is characterized by a thinking and also their conceptual continuous dynamic. delimitations determin disputes, contradictions Once since the I.T. has appeared, and evolutions in all scientific domains especially the computers, a new word has been (mathematics, astronomy, economy, created “the artificial intelligence”, which is sociology, military science). part of information technology. The apeareance of systemic thinking was The natural and also artificial intelligence tied with the process of thinking; even from have at their bases processes, mechanisms and antiquity Aristotle gave a definition, whose logical reasonings, the difference being that quote was “the whole is greater than the sum the artificial inteligence can reach maximum of its parts”. performances, results and established Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1950) defines the objectives can be realised in optimal times. system as “an assembly of elements which The appereance of artificial inteligence interact in order to accomplish a common was immediatly after The Second World War, objective using an assembly of material, and was related to fascination or curiosity and informational, energetical and human concretized through creation of some resources”. programs which could resolve puzzles or play The development of systemic thinking is some games. almost similar with the evolution of society, of After that, those programs were upgrated organisations, including military one, this and were necessary to add more knowledge, being faster in evolution than other because of rules, theorems, which lead to resolving and economical activities intensification and also demonstrating complex problems. because of I.T. technological revolution. An important period of developing the The system, in especially literature, is artificial intelligence was between 1965-1975, defined as “mass of identifiable and related when some equipments, named “machines”, components and conections which evolv through their programs, could understand the according to laws, and / or plans and / or natural language (ELIZA an PARRY established tasks” or “an assembly composed programs) for example: dialogues or tales even of parts each of them having its own laws and simulations. partially independently", [Arsac, J. The most important period was the Informatics, Romanian Encyclopedic evoluated expert systems period when Publisher, 1973, p. 179.]. artificial intelligence becomes more lucid,

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more critical with itself even more pragmatic, which has a text editor used from 2 menus: for the first time appearing efficient expert main and consulting one. If the selection is systems, these being utilised in industry made from main menu, the user will point the (XCON was used for configuring some file name which has to be edited. calculation systems). When it is started, VB-Expert editor will From that moment the evolution was functioned as a normal text editor where the continuous, exploating the artificial inteligence user can use specific commands to edit, in order to acumulate more knowledges, to through functional tastes. make judgments and logical processes, to take In the case of logistic decision, when data decision and leading some material processes are introduced, it has to follow some steps: and of course cooperating with human factor - the introduction of data related to legal through a common language, realising aspect and specific rules (as organisation, table interaction between expert system and user. of equipments); We can say that expert systems are - the scope of analysis; components of the artificial intelligence - the establishing of the logistic situation apllied to economical, technological processes (risk, certainty, incertainty); and also to management, to financial - establishing criterias (including those for mechanisms or statistics. performance); The expert systems represents high - establishing the rules and the clasification complexity programs which incorporates high matrix; level knowledges, using the human experts - the introduction of questions which background in a multitude of domains, some system will have to answer; of the programs being used to resolve complex - finding the optimal decision course. problems or to obtain performant solutions or This type of expert system can be used results. especially in the resources domain, supply and The architecture of expert systems ressuply and also in transportation field where represents a general structure of artifical logistic decisions are required to be performant intelligence systems with some particularities and optimal. which derive from representation modes, Another example of using the artificial knowledge organisation and utilisation for inteligence is the utilising of some programs as expert aplications [Marian Zaharia, Claudia Excel, through it can be created optimal Cârstea, Liana Sălăgean, Artificial inteligence conditions for each criteria (tastes through we and expert systems in assisting economical can select the options of maxim and minim decisions, Economic Publisher, Bucharest, with implications in data processing). 2003, p. 33]. In the case of using the expert systems in 4. CONCLUSIONS & decision taking process, only the identified ACKNOWLEDGEMENT problems will be used, these problems have to be very clear and well issued; the scope of Mathematic and economical models as resolving is to obtain a result for each tools of aquiring knowledge, used through unknown. decision making process has to be done taking These parameters will be obtained as a account different factors interactions and the result of a logical reasoning, from where will final result will be a comparison between depart, using the bases of a logistic problem, proposed and realised objectives / tasks. taking into account the situation, thus a The content is changing, during military conclusion will be drown. units activities, lead to a logistic decision The mechanism used for unwinding the process with a dynamic character and a reasonings is the engine of interferences, this continous training. being the fundament of any expert system. Utilising the expert systems in logistic An example of expert system for assisting decision process can be seen as a modern the decision process is VB-Expert editor, method of optimising activty, because of the

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“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

fact that it offers the posibility of upgrating the Encyclopedic Publisher, Bucharest, decision act and initiate premises of obtaining (1973). a high performance status through: 2. Minculete Ghe., Vasilescu M., Logistics -realising a focus of decision activity; management during peace time, Bucharest, -identifying the ways of implementing Muzeum Publishing House, (2002). adequate decision; 3. Minculete Ghe., Service and support -can be considered as base for continuing management elements, Bucharest, National the increase of decision processes quality; Defense University Publishing House - facilitate the control of logistic processes. „Carol I”, (2005). This paper has been financially supported 4. Minculete Ghe., Modern approaches in within the project entitled “Horizon 2020 - logistics management, Bucharest, National Doctoral and Postdoctoral Studies: Promoting Defense University Publishing House the National Interest through Excellence, „Carol I”, (2009). Competitiveness and Responsibility in the 5. Răduţ N., Bujor E., Logistics bases and Field of Romanian Fundamental and Applied tehnical support of military operations, Scientific Research”, contract number Bucharest, Military Tehnical Academy POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140106. This project is Publishing House, (1998). co-financed by European Social Fund through 6. Niculescu O., Verboncu I., Management Sectoral Operational Programme for Human and efficiency, Bucharest, Nora Publishing Resources Development 2007-2013. Investing House, (1994). in people! 7. Zaharia M., Cârstea C., Sălăgean L., Artificial inteligence and expert systems in REFERENCES assisting economical decisions, Bucharest, Economic Publisher, (2003). 1. Arsac, J. Informatics, Romanian

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“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

INSTITUTIONAL GOVERNANCE STRATEGIES OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN THE PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS OF THE REPUBLIC OF ECUADOR

Elena Popovici*, Rosa Elena Pinos Neira**

*Business Administration Faculty, Escuela Superior Politecnica de Chimborazo, Riobamba, Ecuador, **Natural Resources Faculty, Escuela Superior Politecnica de Chimborazo, Riobamba, Ecuador

Abstract: Institutional governance strategies of human resources of public institutions in developed countries are based on the relationships existing between the entity and the human resources it uses, being responsible for the way in which the objectives of the institutions are defined and accomplished, with the help of employees efficiently selected and recruited. Elaborating, implementing and monitoring these strategies in the area of human resources leads to the accomplishment of the main objective of the institution, meaning, serving the citizen in an efficient and effective manner. This paper presents a theoretical study on institutional governance models of human resources in public institutions. The study of these strategies leads to the possibility of adapting them, for being utilized by public institutions in the Republic of Ecuador. The purpose of this research is to propose an institutional governance model regarding human resources management, adapted to the culture and traditions of this country that could be a useful instrument for managers and administration councils of public institutions.

Keywords: human resources, institutional governance, inventory, management, strategies.

1. INTRODUCTION economic perspective, it is necessary to harmonize working procedures with the The achievement of institutional objectives existent legislation, as well as to modernize the takes place by building an efficient remuneration systems, to professionalize institutional governance environment, the human resources as far as competence is policies of which are followed by the entire concerned. The political aspect is fulfilled by team made by managers, employees and decentralizing and ensuring flexibility of external environment. The way in which the public services, directing them towards team will put into practice institutional competitiveness between the public and strategies leads to the long-term organization private sector, initiating, applying and success, one of the essential factors being the monitoring reforms of technological strategy for using human resources. Within modernization. this context, the focus is on the way in which The social aspect regards improving the the process of efficient human resources relationship between employees and management is conducted, with all its aspects: management and measures for developing economic, political and social [9].From an individual responsibility within working teams

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[8]. At the same time, employee satisfaction strategies in this field can be considered, by becomes a major aspect, in the context of the employees, as being ineffectual and achieving her/his objectives, as an important difficult to implement. These can be perceived indicator of organization success [7]. The as an obstacle for innovation, and the manner strategies elaborated within the framework of a or organizing operational structures and well-performing management include the procedures, as bureaucratic and lacking management of human resources, with all the diversity [12]. components: policies, culture, value and In addition, applying inadequate practices [10]. governance strategies for human resources leads to the current reality, meaning that, 2. CONTENTS although unemployment rate worldwide is high, employers experience a lack of Human resources management is directly candidates with the necessary experience and linked to the organization performance, reason aptitudes for occupying critical positions; there for which it should be treated as a strategic is an emerging trend of introducing, in the priority [5]. In developing countries, human resources strategy, distinct policies innovative management of human resources in regarding the remuneration of human talent public institutions is somehow limited by the [10], for additional compensation of legislation framework. However, for fulfilling performance. the requirements of an efficient management, The role of developing human resources strategies can be elaborated in order to strategies [6], in a competitive environment modernize and adapt it, according to the can be analyzed from the perspective of the international norms for development. These way in which the manager – employee guiding lines have the role to integrate human relationship is built, on common action lines. resources management in the institutional These concern: 1) ensuring workplace safety, management, determining the public through the elaboration of policies for institutions to build their own institutional reducing incidents by appropriately instructing governance policies [11]. Obtaining the them, as well as the administration of physical adherence of the entire personnel to fulfill the risks and compensations for health loss, tasks that lead to reaching the intended results, through health insurance; 2) personnel represented by general and specific objectives, selection and employment with the help of will ensure a climate of participation and programs related to the promoting policies of capitalization each employee’s potential. The the organization, for recognizing the manner in which the manager will know how competencies of the already employed to use the existing human resource’s potential, personnel; 3) continuous training and his decisions and actions will always have an development of employees competencies as effect on the nature of the relationships well as of additional competencies, which between the organization and its employees, constitutes an important factor in the leading them to success or failure [2]. evaluation and promotion processes; 4) using adequate payment programs, focused on 3. METHODS competence and performance, with additional incentives for talented employees, by The strategic administration of human introducing in the organization policies criteria resources is built on the framework of for performance evaluation and, according to institutional governance, with policies, these, granting benefits for talented instruments and procedures that lead to the employees, within the framework of current development of a tight connection between the budgetary constraints; 5) personalizing the two factors, the employed human resources relationship between manager and employees, and the performances expected of them[4]. At by using specific measures of creating a closer the same time, one should take into connection, in order to create a team with consideration the fact that, adopting without a shared interests, the entity and the employee prior analysis of standardized governance having common goals.

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“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

4. RESULTS compliance of work ethics, for maintaining an efficient work environment, programs for We propose a model for building an analyzing work quantity and quality by: environment favorable to the institutional standardizing the quantity of work, governance of human resources, for public establishing the minimum time necessary for institutions in the Republic of Ecuador. It performing each task; standardizing the quality implies the implementation of three strategies, of work, establishing evaluation criteria for the generic details on the main action lines for quality degree of the tasks performed. each of them being presented below: 4.2. Technological strategy, focused on 4.1. Human potential strategy, focused developing employees potential and aptitudes, on capitalizing on human resources, in order to in order to increase their efficiency level in the raise awareness on achieving institution case of a future introduction of new objectives, by teams, manager and employees. competitive technologies. In this context, the The action lines taken into consideration for main action lines of the manager concern this strategy refer to, on one hand, actions establishing the institutional vision, strategy regarding the employee, and on the other hand, and objectives, medium and long-term, actions regarding the manager. The actions establishing personnel policies adequate to the regarding the manager include: elaboration of institution purposes, which are further personalized methodologies for recruiting, transposed into actual working tasks, recorded selecting, employing an promoting personnel, in the work contract and job description; with details on establishing recruitment determining specific evaluation criteria for criteria, selection tests, negotiating contracts employees’ professional performances and and control of compliance with work ethic analyzing the possibilities for future extension, rules, inventory of needed/existent positions, if needed. Policies regarding capitalization on their description and analysis, elaborating the human resources can be developed, by job description model; elaborating and drawing a promotion and remuneration plan, adopting policies for ensuring the permanent according to the employee’s innovative existence of efficient human resources, by contribution to the increase of productivity; creating a data base of own employees policies for incentivizing employee talent, by including their qualifications and professional drawing a plan of granting financial benefits level, professional experience, other relevant (promotions, salary raises) or non-financial data, possible preferences for working in a (granting diplomas, public mentions of the certain area/position/job; listing external employee’s contribution, others). recruiting sources, public or private agencies 4.3. Work environment strategy, focused for having immediate access, if needed, to on improving work conditions and eliminating another potential employee. stress. Within this strategy, the manager’s role The actions regarding the employee is to evaluate work conditions, both through concern the way in which she/he, through ensuring employees health in a specialized her/his actions, shows willingness to actively environment, preferably through medical contribute to the future development of the consulting offices that serve the institution, as institution. The organization can elaborate well as through ensuring an adequate, familiar policies for ensuring knowledge and space for recreational activities and drawing

139 MANAGEMENT common recreational programs for managers Pensamiento & Gestión, Online. and employees. Available: http://www.redalyc.org/pdf/ The actions regarding the employee 646/64615176005.pdf, (April 2015) concern policies on consulting employees, 5. Guest, D., Human resource management with the help of questionnaires, on possible and corporate performance: recent ways of eliminating stress and implementing empirical evidence, DTI Economic Paper adequate measures. Relaxation programs can no.13, College London Seminar, (2015) be introduces, such as: opening gyms and 6. Mayhew, R., The Strategic Role of Human massage rooms, special spaces where they can Resource Managers, Online. Available: listen to ambient music, dancing rooms, http://smallbusiness.chron.com/strategic- exhibitions with employees’ or their family role-human-resource-managers-11782. members’ artistic products, others. html (April 2015) 7. Menezes, L., Job Satisfacion and Quality 4. CONCLUSIONS Management: An Empirical Analysis, Available: http://www.cassknoledge.com/ Performance indicators for public entities research/article/job-satisfaction-quality- activity can include organizational culture, management-cass-knoledge#sthash. improving decision taking, information jeOfLHZg.dpuf, (March 2015) sharing, human resources retention, safety, 8. Ministère de la Fonction publique et de la absenteeism, satisfaction or workplace Réforme administrative, Human complaints [1]. The implementation of Resources management strategies to successful strategies concerning corporate support organizational changes, Online. governance of human resource in public Available: http://www.dgaep.gov.pt/media institutions shows its results through the way /0601010000/lux/hrmorgchanges.pdf, in which it manages to create and maintain a (April 2015) pleasant and motivating workplace for the 9. Mintzberg, H., "Structure et dynamique des internal participants which is, at the same time, organisations", Editions d'Organisation. competitive in relation to the external Available: http://www.cnam.fr/servlet/ environment. com.univ.collaboratif.utils.LectureFichier gw?ID_FICHIER=1295877018134, REFERENCES (April 2015) 10. Schuler, R., Stategic Human Resouces 1. Avasilcăi, S., Sava, A., Managementul Management: Linking the people with the performanţei, Iassy, Tehnopres, in Strategic needs of the Business, 2012. roumanian, (2001) Available: www.sciencedirect. 2. Armstrong, M., A handbook of human com/science/article/pii/00902616929003 resource management practice, 10th (April 2015) edition, Cambridge University Press, 11. Stanciu, S., Ionescu, M., Managementul (2006) resurselor umane, in roumanian, 2014, 3. Brockway, J., Mattson, R., Human Online. Available: http://comunicare.ro/ Resource Management Strategy: Pay for cursuri/u3/ManagemenntulResuselorUma Talent Model Helps Employers Retain ne.pdf (April 2015) Key Employees, Talent Management 12. Watkins, M., Neal, PJ., Millennial in Magazine, Online. Available: Training, 2014, Online. Available: http://www.adp.com/tools-and-resources/ http://www.workforce.com/articles/21004 adp-research-institute/insights/insight- -millennial-in-training, (April 2015) item-detail.aspx?id=694D5DC5-5A55- 41DC-A17B-41D8AB7F40A0 (March 2015) 4. Castro, A., Direccionamiento estratégico y crecimiento empresarial: algunas reflexiones en torno a su relación,

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“HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

RESEARCH ON CADETS’ PREFERENCES AND REQUIREMENTS REGARDING THE GUIDED PHYSICAL TRAINING AND SPORT ACTIVITY

Mădălin Slăniceanu*

*Faculty of Aeronautic Management, „Henri Condă” Air Force Academy, Braşov, Romania

Abstract: As a result of my cadets’ reluctance to attend practical sessions of military physical training, a situation generated by the content of the imposed curriculum, I have taken the decision to carry out some research on their preferences regarding physical training activities. The only way to engage them in an active and continuous manner whilst at the same time ensuring that they enjoy such activities is to adapt the requirements to the cadets’ needs. This can be achieved by pursuing the graduate’ s model from the physical development point of view, by cultivating physical abilities and by developing motor abilities specific to the military field. The present paper identifies the purposes of physical training, adapted to the requirements of the end product’s beneficiary, namely ”the graduate from the higher military institution”, and to the cadets’ needs in accordance with the educational ideal. Based on the information processed from the questionnaires, the research results indicated a greater need for collective rather than individual sports activities, in spite of the fact that participants are fully aware that it is only by training individually, as well as by getting at least satisfactory scores in the topic areas of the discipline that one can pass physical fitness tests, and achieve the minimum.

Keywords: physical training, sport for everyone, guided activity, individual training

1. INTRODUCTION Regardless of their background, cadets should actively and consciously commit to Just as J.J. Rouseau used to ask his their continuous training by carrying out generation „to make in such a way that the guided group or individual training. exercises for the mind and the body become It is due to the fact that the cadets’ relaxing activities one for the other”, a widely preferences have never been taken into acknowledged fact even nowadays, the entire account before, not even when approaching teaching staff, ranging from participants to the the topic areas imposed by the rules and those guiding the newer generations, should regulations in effect, that we are now analyze and recognize the importance of doing confronted with a serious situation: practice physical training as an instrument to educate sessions of military physical training have and train the young military man as a future become an issue for the cadets, who have organization leader, specialist, fighter, responded to this by going absent with or educator and citizen. without leave, resorting to medical certificates especially during those sessions regarded as

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irrelevant by the cadets, or by going on leave specific training constitute a serious drawback for reasons such as completing term papers for that the military high school graduate is faced basic or specialized disciplines. with when enrolling a higher education military institution. Regardless of their training 2. RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS environment or methods as used throughout the 4 years preceding their university studies, Using as a starting point the hypothesis it has been noted that young cadets are not that physical training is an inherent part of the used to “physical combat”, only to virtual educational process, being compulsory for the combat as experienced in front of a screen; entire military personnel [1], and therefore for what is more, most of them have not even the military cadets, I intend to prove that by developed their physical and motor abilities, wisely combining “business with pleasure” not which are rather specific to gymnasium only will the cadets’ level of training increase, education level [6, 7]. but the teaching staff will also feel rewarded for their efforts. 5. MATERIAL AND METHODS Given the principles, characteristics, and objectives of the military physical Subjects: 60 cadets in the 1st year, of training, as listed in the rules and regulations various backgrounds, (46 from the military [2], yet less frequently applied in practice, my system and 14 from the civilian one). intention was to outline that my research Research protocol hypothesis, namely that by applying the The entire activity was carried out at the specific topics to the topic areas, as presented „Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, the drill in the documents governing the organization square, between 01-30.09.2014. Taking of the military physical training, yet adapted to advantage of the initial basic training the the cadets’ requirements and preferences, the subjects were undergoing, I wanted to identify rate “of active and conscious participation” their motor ability training level before they [3,4] in physical training sessions will be actually entered their first year of military superior to the mandatory participation rate education. due to the fact that any activity guided by For starter, a questionnaire was specialized personnel is always more efficient administered regarding general personal, than the one carried out using empirical anthropometric, pathological, and methods by the personnel that is trained physiological information specific to physical unilaterally and is less specialized in the training and sports (disciplines/ branches / military field [5]. physical fitness tests as part of the PT sessions in secondary school and organized sports 3. THE AIM OF THE RESEARCH competitions at high school level). Also, I have presented sports and PT activities Our research sets out to present the cadets’ organized within the academy [8]. preferences and, based on them, how to Individual questionnaire approach the educational process based on the Student pedagogical principles currently in effect, Military high school / civilian high school: adapted to the cadets’ preferences and Identification data: BI / CI following the general and specific objectives Information: - personal: of the military education. - date of birth: - anthropometric: 4. RATIONALE FOR SELECTING THE - height: TOPIC - weight: - physiological: The main reason for approaching this - blood pressure research topic is my personal observation that - heart rate satisfactory general training and inadequate - respiratory rate

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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

Do you practice any performance sport? activities such as sports for everyone, and the Which subject/branch/ type? set-up of a pool of candidates from which to Name of the Sports Club/Association. select candidates for performance sports. Do you have any medical recommendations/ restrictions? For what type of effort? 6. CADETS’ PREFERENCES The following are organized by the Academy: In order to identify the cadets’ training - military training lessons/sessions on topics level, their motor abilities were tested by related to these areas: repeating the same physical fitness tests that a. Running in diverse terrain, fast running, are required for admission to academy throwing hand grenades for training (physical skills track and 2 km long distance purposes race) (Fig. 1, 2, and 3). b. Self-defense – judo, karate, tae kwon do and close combat with individual gear c. Gymnastics 7% 7% d. Obstacle course for military men 9% 31% belonging to all services e. Ski training f. Swimming and swimming across rivers. 22% - training sessions for military summer and 24% winter sports competitions, military judo championships, pentathlon, tae kwon do, swimming skiing orienteering self defense military atletics - sports clubs (mass sports activities /sport for obstacle course gimnastics everyone): aerobic tae bo, aikido, climbing, air trekkers, athletics, basketball, mountain cycling, hiking, football, handball, swimming, Fig. 1 Compulsory topic areas karate (Shito-ryu, Shotokan), kiting, sports orienteering, paragliding, cross-country skiing, extreme skiing, snowboard, table tennis, tennis, volleyball. - disciplines, branches, physical fitness tests that one has carried out during PT sessions and of which one has participated in sports competitions (athletics, combat disciplines, gymnastics, swimming, winter sports, sports games). Results have revealed the subjects’ preferences regarding compulsory topic areas within the military physical training, sports disciplines and branches for which national competitions are organized and in which military institutions participate, mass sports

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6% 4% Cadets from military high schools 7% 23% 9% 13%

9% 19% 11% 12%

swimming firing duel karate/tae kwon do orienteering 87% skiing atletics judo penthatlon admited repeled military patrol Fig. 4 Results of tests preceding the initial test

Cadets from civilian high schools Fig. 2 Performance sports

30%

3% 2% 2% 2% 14% 3%3% 3% 4% 12% 4% 70%

4% admited repeled 5% 10% 5% 10% 8% 8% Fig. 5 Results of tests preceding the initial test swimming paragliding climbing alpine skiing A week after the physical fitness tests, the snowboard tennis entire group was challenged to achieve the voleyball orienteering minimum performance standard required for football basketball the entire military personnel within the handball aerobic tae bo Romanian Armed Forces (push-ups, sit-ups, aikido atletics long distance skiing karate non contact running in diverse terrain for 3km – the boys - kiting karate full contact and 2km – the girls), in accordance to the age groups (Fig. 6).

Fig. 3 Sports clubs

After cadets were divided into two groups, military and civilian, depending on the type of secondary education, in order to have a clear image of the quality of the training undergone before, I organized the above mentioned tests, and the results obtained are shown in figures 4 and 5.

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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

25 7. CONCLUSIONS AND 25 23 RECOMMENDATIONS

20 20 Given the level of training and the 17 preferences, the physical training and sports 16 15 teaching board together with the sports council, 15 14 12 and in accordance with the documents that 10 10 10 govern the organization of physical training

students 10 8 and sports both in general, and in the army, have decided to modify the curriculum for the 5 military physical training by attaching a greater importance to cadets’ preferences, whilst also complying with the rules and regulations of the 0 vw w s not s military physical training. epithet Cadets are recruited to practice performance sports based on their personal

push ups sit ups running decision/option and not because it is compulsory. Sports activities in the form of Fig. 6 Results of tests for the minimum sport for everyone should aim at improving the performance standard required set physical and motor abilities both in formal and informal settings (as free time Results were then centralized and analyzed, activities). and a situation regarding their current level of training as well as their needs in terms of 8. CONFLICT OF INTERESTS motor abilities was drafted (Fig. 7). The latter were compared to the physical training Nothing to declare requirements and the vision of the physical training and sports commission within the 9. COMMENTS academy. The present paper capitalizes on the results revealed by the author’s preliminary research 6% 4% 19% as part of his PhD thesis. 19% REFERENCES

30% 1. Balint L., - Teoria educaţie fizice şi 22% sportului, Editura Universităţii 1 2 3 4 5 6 Transilvania, Braşov, 2003. 2. Didactica generală a educaţiei fizice şi

Fig. 7 Cadets’ physical training level sportului, Editura Universităţii Transilvania, Braşov, 2003. 3. Niculescu M, Metodologia cercetării ştiinţifice în Educaţie Fizică şi Sport, Edit. Tritonic.

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4. Raţă E., Schipor D., Structuri 6. Turcu, I. – Metodologia cercetării în motivaţionale implicate în practicarea educaţie fizică şi sport, Editura activităţilor sportive de către studenţi. Universităţii Transilvania, Braşov, 2007. Sesiunea de comunicări ştiinţifice cu 7. Canadian Forces, Expres Operations participare internaţională, Olympia, Feb. Manual (4-th Edition), 2010. 2004, 229-235. 8. Regulamentul educaţiei fizice militare, 5. Scurt C., Slăniceanu M., Condiţia fizică- Bucuresti, 2013. indicator al calităţii vieţii – Editura Academiei, Braşov, 2012.

146 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

CONCEPTION OF COMPETENCES DEVELOPMENT OF AIR DEFENSE OF ARMED FORCES

Milan Sopoci*, Marek Walancik**

*Armed Forces Academy of general M. R. Štefánik, Liptovský Mikuláš, Slovak Republic, **Academy of Business, Dabrowa Górnicza, Slovak Republic

Abstract: The article deals with present problems of Air Defense – modernization, organization structures, weapons, moral and material effeteness and economical (financial) costingness. It evaluates and critics lately accepted conception of Air Defense development, which is not real in present conditions and possibilities. The article confronts some opinions with present development of Air Defense in some NATO countries and shows on possible solution processes and cooperation within membership states.

Keywords: Air Forces, Air Defense, weapons, possibilities, modernization, structure, armament

1. INTRODUCTION An analysis of the experience gained in the Since what people invented the aircraft field of AD in the local wars made it possible started to deal with and thoughts about their to highlight and, in practice show a wide range use in wars and conflicts. The first combat use of directions and trends that characterize the of the aircraft was carried out at the beginning development of the new branch of the armed of the 20th century in the local wars. In forces. It concerned these directions and October 1911 in a military conflict Italy with trends: Turkey, carried out by the Italian pilot on the - increasing the role of AD in the war; first reconnaissance flight in Bleriot airplane - decisive role of land means of AD in the watching the movement of Turkish troops. In fight with air attack enemy means; November 1911, another Italian plane throw - shift of combat aviation activities and down on the Turkish position 4 heavy artillery hence the AD to small heights; grenades and in January 1912, the Italian plane - the need for protection of the AD means throw down leaflets calling for Turkish against warfare battle means; soldiers to surrender. In February 1912, the - the use of new means of aviation to the Italians used aircraft for the first time in this penetration of the AD-system; war, to the execution of the photographic - combat readiness AD – the first pre- image of the combat theatre. Soon it was condition for the successful destruction of the necessary to seek ways of defense against this air enemy. new kind of armed forces. The scene is getting The role of land means of AD substantially air defense. increased in destroying of air enemy. Just compare:

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- in the WW1, a total of 15% of planes - acquisition of SAMOC (SAM-OC) in were shoot downed by AD means; accordance with the objective forces A2900, - during WW2, was a number of downed Figure 1-3; aircraft by AD 40%; - modernization of SA-10 (PLRK S- - in the local wars in Asia and the Middle 300PMU) IFF system, Figure 4; East, the number of downed aircraft by AD - upgrading/ replacement of SA-6 (PLRK raised up to 90%. 2K12KUB), Figure 5; - ensure objective forces L1400. 2. THE CURRENT STATE OF AIR Of those measures was partially realized DEFENSE (AD) OF THE ARMED modernization 3D RL ST-68MSK the system FORCES OF THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC AD S-300PMU a part of the projects for the (AF SR) Objective Force 2008 (CS 2008) L1400, other projects have been not implemented. Of the conclusions and recommendations of the AD study from 2003, which was processed on the basis of the requirements of the Ministry of Defense of the Slovak Republic from 2001 through NATO AD committee for AD (NATO Air Defense Committee – the NADC, it follows that(1): - to ensure the defense of the whole of the territory of the Slovak Republic would require substantially more AD systems than in current time, however, it is not sustainable from an economic point; - the use of AD means must be prioritized and combined with tactical aircrafts; - it is necessary to integrate an independent air surveillance radars missile groups to supply the decentralized command system (to supply primary RL information). These recommendations, however, failed. To strengthen operational capabilities (an extension of the capacity of land AD means) was not realized due to the lack of financial resources. Use of the AD means in the framework of the recommendations within Figures 1-3 SAMOC for AD systems combination with the air force is provided according standard operating procedures at random in. The inclusion of independent surveillance radars to the missile groups has been carried out. The supply the primary radar information for the using of AD fire means is provided only in the SA-10 system (S- 300PMU). The "long-term plan of the structure and development of the Slovak Armed with a planning perspective in 2015" in 2004, to achieve the desired air defense capabilities have been proposed the following main steps Figures 4-5 SA – 10 and SA – 6 AD systems [2]:

148 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

The main project objectives in AD were AF SR has limited operational capabilities filled only partially and did not solve the AD, which allows a defense only part of the achievement of the desired operational critical infrastructure and part of units of AF - capabilities. The current organizational figure 7. structure of the AD is shown in Figure 6. AD brigade

83/29 170/0 178/0 200/0 255/10

Command AD group SA- AD group SA - AD group - Supply units and staff 10 6 IGLA

A - 10 Figure 6 Organization structure of AD brigade – current state

Figure 7 Defense of critical infrastructure by AD means

3. PERSPECTIVES OF AD To supply the required commitment of the DEVELOPMENT Slovak Republic is crucial that the anti-aircraft missile wing possessed: Last year was created new model * The January 1, 2018 capabilities: “Conception of competences development of - C3 SAMOC at the wing level Air Defense of Armed Forces“. As suggested - GOC at group level by the "Basic model AF SR 2024", the - MSAM – M intention is to maintain one anti-aircraft - MANPADS and C-RAM. missile wing Figure 8 [3]. * The January 1, 2021 competence: - HIMAD with TBMD.

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AD missile wing

Command AD group AD group AD group Supply units and staff HIMAD s TBMD SBAD SBAD

Figure 8 Organization structure of AD wing

In realization this target state will be - Anti-aircraft defense systems with long- assumed from composition of several branches range HIMAD with TBMD of missiles systems which combat capabilities (up to 200 km, change of range from the complement each other and at the same time current medium-range to long range to be eliminate restrictions on other branches of AD secured by new radar and new anti-aircraft systems, their command and control will be missiles); provided by automated systems C2 (SAMOC - Anti-aircraft missile sets medium-range and GOC) and will be connected to NATO MSAM-M (up to 80 km); operational networks -Table 1. - Anti-aircraft missile sets very short- * Target state: range MANPADS (up to 6 km); The target state of the AD of AF SR will - Anti-aircraft defense systems against created – Table 2: arriving munitions C-RAM - Command and Control System (rockets, mortar shells and artillery shells up to (SAMOC, GOC, ASV ASTRA AD); 6 km). Table 1 Tasks of AF SR with AD means No Tasks of AF SR Unit of AD Notes 1. The continuous maintenance Group - IGLA To favor battalion group allowances SR to NATO high (MANPADS) readiness forces (HRF) 2. Mechanized Brigade in low group SBAD To favor Mechanized Brigade readiness NATO Forces 3. Keeping forces necessary to support antiaircraft missile the forces of high and low readiness. wing 4. Air Defense Critical Infrastructure antiaircraft missile Group of ground AD means - SBAD wing

Table 2 Draft of AD systems for new structure SAMP-T PATRIOT Characteristics of AD system S-400 (ASTER 30) PAC-3 Targets chanels 6 10 9 TBMD Áno Áno Áno Recco distance 400 150 km 180 km Range (min/max) 3 / 240 km 3 / 120 km 3 / 160 km Range to TMBR (min/max) 5 / 60 km 3 / 35 km 3 / 20 km Altitude (min/max) 5 / 30 000 m 15 / 20 000 m 60 / 24000 m Guidance TVM distance / active distance / TVM Max. speed of target 4 800 m/s 2 000 m/s 2 200 m/s Time to ready > 5 min >10 min. > 25 min. Price (mil. €) 500 400 1 100

150 “HENRI COANDA” “GENERAL M.R. STEFANIK” AIR FORCE ACADEMY ARMED FORCES ACADEMY ROMANIA SLOVAK REPUBLIC INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

3.1. Cost Analysis. The total cost for the areas of management and the use of force, capital construction in the years 2013 - 2024 training, material and technical equipment. for anti-aircraft missile wing represent 5,954,840, - €. Buying new AD systems or 4. COMMENTS AND OBJECTIONS TO major modernization of existing systems costs THE PROPOSED DEVELOPMENT would require billions of Euros. It is not within CONCEPT AD the power of the Ministry of Defense and even the Government. 4.1. Motion weapon systems. The concept To achieve technical and technological envisages the AD systems long, medium, compatibility of communications and small and short range. This proposal does not information systems: comply immediately for three reasons: - By the end of 2016 to purchase an 3.1 Establishment of air defense system of automated system command SAMOC; different range could afford at the time the - By the end of 2017 to purchase CSLA which had more than 350,000 men, two automated command of 3 GOC; armies, 10 divisions and creates a front - figure - By the end of 2019 to implement the 9. "Mode 5 IFF" and "Mode S" on the newly The organization of such groupings has procured RL technique; logic and justification: AD system long range - Ensure the continuous performance of as a front mean; AD system medium range the tasks interoperability in response to the than military means; AD system small range current requirements of NATO and the EU in as division means; AD system short range as regiment means.

Figure 9 AD units in operational formation of front CSLA

4.2. Operation of AD systems. The in terms of cost exploitation weapon systems. proposed conception is also disadvantageous The diversity of systems creates excessive

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requirements for the operation of equipment, terrain sharply reduces some combat supply of spare parts, carry out repairs, care, characteristics. This fact may be mentioned the tuning and controls demand quality staff and following two examples of the use AD technological background. Estimate can systems SA – 10 (S-300 PMU) and SA – 6 calculate that the above provision is needed an (2K12 – KUB) on Middle and in Eastern additional 50% of the purchase price AD Slovakia. From Figure 7 and in Table 3 that system. the measure killing zone and restrain zone is 4.3. Use of combat possibilities of AD substantially reduced opposite optimal systems. In Slovakia, the extremely rugged conditions. Table 3 Data Optimal positions Middle SR East SR

SSbr Nstr. SSbr Nstr. SSbr Nstr. AD system SA 10 (S – 300) 5311 4285 18,64 962 746 3 2802 2333 15 SA 6 (2K12) 1183 674 11,65 690 288 6,73 905 212 9,87

2 -1 Data for target with Sef = 1m , vc = 300ms , trends in the available financial and material Hc = 300m, S – kiling zone, Sbr – protect area resources and the achievement of operational Nstr - number of fires capabilities necessary for the smooth We can see the reduction of fire execution of the tasks of defense, national and possibilities: international crisis management. Based on the a) Middle Slovakia – SA-10: SPUP more assessment of operational needs and economic about 80%; Sbr more about 85%; Nstr 6 times; opportunities, we should focus on middle SA-6: SPUP more about 45%; Sbr more about range 1-2 of AD systems and 2-3 AD systems 55%; Nstr 1.8 times; PLRK small or short range. b) East Slovakia – SA-10: SPUP more about 46%; Sbr more about 48%; Nstr about REFERENCES 20%; SA-6: SPUP more about 21%; Sbr more about 1. Evaluation of Air defense of AF SR, 32%; Nstr about 15%. NADC team, Zvolen 2003. These figures indicate that in conditions of 2. Long-term plan of the structure and the rugged terrain are not combat possibilities development of the Slovak Armed with a of AD systems medium and long range so far planning perspective in 2015, MoD SR, used as in AD systems small and close-range. Bratislava, 2004. 3. Conception of competences development of 5. CONCLUSION Air Defense of Armed Forces, MoD Bratislava 2014. Development of Air Defense of Air Force Slovak should ensure elimination of negative

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INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE of SCIENTIFIC PAPER AFASES 2015 Brasov, 28-30 May 2015

RELATIONSHIP MOTIVATION - VOCATIONAL MATURITY TO STUDENTS TO PRACTICE SPORTS CONTACT

Florin Marian Antonescu*, Petronela Sorina Vîrban**

*Faculty of Law, Romanian-German University of Sibiu, Romania, **Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: The present study aims to asses the maturity, vocational level and motivation of a group of 23 students who practice contact sports and institutionalized children, in order to identify relationships that, at group level, between their motivation to practice sport and the level of: decision, goal-oriented and trust, as well as vocational maturity factors. Results confirmed that vocational students are motivated for success, determined and goal oriented students are motivated by standards of performance and goal oriented students are extrinsically motivated. What we didn't get is a positive correlation, statistically significant between vocational maturity as a factor of confidence and motivation. One can say our group is not motivated by trust vocational level. It can be put down to the fact that these children come from institutional environment, which has not cultivated a sense of confidence.

Keywords: motivation, vocational maturity, students, sports performance, contact sport

1. INTRODUCTION intentions, desires, motives, interests, aspirations, beliefs. 1.1 Motivation. Man runs many activities: 1.2 Vocational Development / vocational eating, playing, learning, collects works of art, Maturity. Super (1996) proposes a number of assaulting their peers, helps them, etc. A vocational development stages, starting from common feature of these activities is the stage of growth, in early childhood, and motivation, their first chronological element. going through the exploration phase, To know a person's motivation equates to stabilizing and maintaining careers and final finding the answer to the question ''why'' does disengagement or withdrawal in advanced he undertake the activity. The answer is ages. Each stage requires a certain task difficult, because the causes are multiple development. Vocational maturity of the triggers and can not be reduced to external person is the extent to which the person can stimuli. The activity, the reactions are cope with the condition for the effective triggered from internal causes; Motivational functioning of the person concerned in stage system components are numerous, varying roles and prepare the person for passage to the origin, way of meeting and function, next stage. Steps are representative of school classification and their explanation is age and growth stage exploration stage. Tasks controversial. Most psychologists now accept specific to development stage of growth are that human motivation includes needs, trends, self-knowledge and knowledge occupations.

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These next steps are basal elements, without Balanescu”. Thus, as of February 2014 three considering that the process of self-knowledge times a week, after classes, children from and knowledge of the occupations ended. family homes St. John, Gabriela Constantin, Exploration phase is characterized by: Danube, Asaloni, My House, they usefully crystallization, specification and spend their free time pleasantly. Along with implementation of vocational options (Super, other children in the community, children of Savickas and Super, 1996). This means that Giurgiu DGASPC (foster homes) are involved adolescents evaluate their skills and values and in physical training and tactical activities make the choice for a general field under section wrestling Municipal Sports Club (crystallization), then specify this option Danube Giurgiu. The activities conducted (specification) and follow the implementation under the guidance of Florin Antonescu, CSM of the option. coach Giurgiu Danube 1.3 Research methodology. The research objective: is to identify at the research group, motivational aspects, as well as vocational maturity level, these two aspects of students who practice contact sports can influence their further life. Knowing that motivational factors are those who mobilize an Chart 1: Number of pupils by age action-oriented person, highlights the possibility of a close relationship between the The graph above presents the number of level and type of student motivation and students participating in the study, depending choice, decision and vocational orientation. on their age. So: we can easily identify: a For a small group of participants ,so as in case student of 11 years, 4 students 12 years, 5 , the research to practical purpose is to provide students 13 years, 5 students 14 years, 14-year relevant information for the coach ,for the 4 students, 3 students of 16 years and a student team, providing information about the of 17 years. motivational factors but also develop vocational maturity level, both at group level and individual level. Correlation motivation- vocational maturity place the athlete both in group level, but also as individual data, with that, the coach becomes conscious of the potential of student's motivational level, and the coach may steer them as a future sports Chart 2: Distribution of participants by age men. Hence and support for this research. levels and the sport A general OBJECTIVE The study is to identify the existence of positive relationship The No.2 graphic presents the age group between student’s motivation practicing between 11 and 13 (m = 12.40, SD = .69), and contact sports and vocational maturity. group students aged 14-17 years old (m = The hypothesis of the study is that there on 15.00, SD = 1.00) 4 practice wrestling and direct and positive relationship between Judo. students' motivation to practice contact sports Tools: two instruments were for and vocational maturity. motivational factors and one to determine the 1.4 Method. level of vocational maturity. These are: Scale- Participants: The study has 23 participants, Lynn Ray about the reason for success / they are part of a group of 50 children in achievement. It is a self-assessment scale foster care in family homes in Giurgiu, consists of 14 items. The instrument is a belonging to the General Directorate of Social translation-adaptation of the scale developed Assistance and child Protection Giurgiu, and validated J. J. Ray from University of New participate in organized sports activities in South Wales, on the basis of old scales (Lynn, the gym of High School ”Viceamiral Nicolae 1969, and Smith, 1973) and is a measure of

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motivation for achievement and personal Decision .58 success. Orientation towards a goal .68 Academic Motivation Scale (AMS), the Confidence .50 authors: Robrt J Vallerand, Luc G. Pelletier, For inferential data analysis, nonparametric Marc R. Blais, Nathalie M. Briere, Caroline B. test was used, Spearman's bivariate correlation Senecal, Evelyne F. Vallieres (1992-1993). It because the small number of participants and has 28 items and five subscales: motivation the deeds that following the Kolmogorov- generated by interest accumulating Smirnov test, there was normalcy in data, it information, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic was decided to assign ranks, scores, variables motivation, motivation for performance measured to be able to use a non-parametric standards, responsible for learning motivation. test. Questionnaire for determining vocational As will be seen in Table 2, the average maturity (CAMI): created by John O. Crites correlation exists between: motivation for in 1978. It contains 28 items and three success of students who practice contact sports subscales: Scale decision guidance, scale- and vocational maturity factor size decision, purpose and reliable scale. which may mean that students who have Procedure: Data was collected by the already taken a decision in terms of career they coach after informing them about the purpose are more motivated for success. Anna Roe, of research but not least, the legal matter and specialist in clinical psychology believes that use of data for research purposes. Both parties each person inherits a certain tendency to use agree, finally, a random, selecting 23 students their own "psychic energy" in a specific way. out of 50, to avoid the possibility of His theory is based on three components, identifying subjects in the study. Participants being influenced by Gardner Murphy's understood the instructions and reply to theoretical concepts and Abraham Maslow. answer items. Gardner Murphy's influence is found in the use 1.5 Results. The research results were of the concept of channeling psychic energy in processed with SPSS v.13. establishing the influence he has on the choice After analyzing descriptive data resulted the of vocational life experiences from childhood. following table (Table 1) where we can see the Anna Roe is also based on A. Maslow's theory internal coefficient consistency of the scales about the needs and prioritizing them. The applied. third component is the influence of genetic Table 1. Variables internal consistency factors in decision making vocational as the coefficient measured structure hierarchy of needs. Scale Cronbach Alpha We can see three correlations average Motivation for Success .74 intensity: goal-oriented students were Motivation- interest generated .6 8 predominantly intrinsic motivation type, which by accumulating information can create prerequisites for a bigger Motivation- intrinsic .78 conditioning during training, as well as better Motivation-extrinsic, .61 defined tasks in which the student can respond Motivation for performance .54 promptly; students who have a motivation standards. based on performance standards, they also Motivation- responsible for .75 have vocational maturity as determinants of learning

155 SOCIO-HUMANITIES decision and orientation effect, which The state values (15-16 years) introduce emphasizes the natural course of things, the idea of serving society. Teenagers seem to namely, athletes who know their purpose, and become aware that they can meet their labor butter orientate for this, they made a decision needs; is the period when the first signs may based and sustained level of performance- appear of a future careers (ex.: doctor) energetic who aims to reach; Regarding humanitarian reasons rather than the status of orientation brings purpose and need of support that activity. from motivation to learn, what emerges from The state transition (17-18 years old) is a the positive correlation between the two calm stage. Young people understand that we concepts. "The process of maturation of must take responsibility for the consequences interests on the one hand characterized by of their own decisions. This stage differs from widening their scope and, on the other hand, the previous in that the young have more selectivity: the multitude of objects and independence in its actions. Start external activities interest at this age begin to stop factors awareness work. preteen strongly to one or which are thus two Table 2. Spearman test interests - pivot, the other is polarizing around RANK of aturitatea_voc RANK of RANK of them. In this way, cognitive interests rientarea_spreaturitatea_vocmaturitatea_ scop decizia increderea intertwine with the professional - human Corelatie cu testul SpRANK of Motivatie_p Correlation Coef ,309 ,528** ,119 Sig. (2-tailed) ,151 ,010 ,588 characteristic phenomenon of vocation. "(I. N 23 23 23 Drăgan after 1975, p. 45-47). RANK of motivatia_inCorrelation Coef ,078 ,210 -,321 Sig. (2-tailed) ,723 ,335 ,135 What was not identified in the study, N 23 23 23 RANK of motivatia_inCorrelation Coef ,299 ,391 -,111 namely the absence in the study group, Sig. (2-tailed) ,165 ,065 ,614 statistically significant correlations between N 23 23 23 RANK of motivatia_exCorrelation Coef ,554** ,398 ,073 trust factor and motivational dimensions of Sig. (2-tailed) ,006 ,060 ,739 N 23 23 23 students, practitioners of contact sports? In this RANK of motivatia_p Correlation Coef ,529** ,560** -,151 case, we can take into account that all students performanta Sig. (2-tailed) ,009 ,005 ,492 N 23 23 23 come from family homes, or maternal family, RANK of motivatia_ Correlation Coef ,471* ,230 -,137 responsab_pt_invata Sig. (2-tailed) ,023 ,291 ,534 the car is actually in these young people, in N 23 23 23 terms of their social status, trust as a valuable **.Corelatia este semnificativã la nivelul 0.01 (2-tailed). *. condition is poorly delineated , which is Corelatia este semnificativã la nivelul 0.05 (2-tailed). demonstrated by numerous other studies, based on research on self-esteem Brown and 2 CONCLUSIONS Dutton (1995). Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad and Helma (1950): These four experts from Starting from the objective and the general different backgrounds (economist, psychiatrist, assumption study, covering the results, we can sociologist and psychologist) believes that the say that at this group study found positive first 25 years of a person can be divided into relationships between the two concepts: three periods: fantasy; During attempts / motivation and vocational maturity. Also it flirtation; realistic period. can be stated that ACES students, aged Stage interests (11-12 years) - stage where between 11 and 17 years, and their decisions children begin to realize the need to identify a are motivated sports career and oriented in vocational directions. The choice is made order to start a successful career also, extrinsic based on the intrinsic potentiality of the work reasons and standards performance itself, how pleasant is that activity. Often, the requirements. Also, as we have seen, are choice reflects identification with one parent, distrustful of the future, which can be usually the father. explained by the lack of psycho-emotional Stage Capacity (13-14) is introducing the support due to their status of institutionalized concept of novelty skill in vocational children. considerations. Increased degree of identification with the father and its influence in choosing vocations; increase the influence of others.

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3. LIMITS OF RESEARCH Guidance and Counselling. 30. 4, 432-450 Education at a Glance OECD Indicators. The boundaries of this research are OECD (2008), 72-100 extremely small number of participants, not 5. Sharf R. (2006) Apply ng Career including data in a complete psycho-emotional Development Theory to Counseling. assessment and not including the profiles for University of Delaware, Thomson Brooks / the students. Failure applying parametric tests. Cole, (Chapter 3) In the future we like to continue 6. Smitina A. (2009) Students Risks to drop- RESEARCH including overcoming the out and relation with vocational identity, limitations. http://ktl.jyu.fi/ktl/iaevg2009fin/full_papers 7. Super, DE (1974) Vocational maturity REFERENCES theory. Measuring maturity for vocational counseling and evaluation. Washington, 1. So, EL, & Ryan, RM (2000) Self DC: National Vocational Guidance determination Theory and the Facilitation Association of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and well being. American Psychologist, 11, 68-78 2. Erikson, EH (1968) Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton 3. Holland, JL, Daiger, DC Power, PG (1980) My Vocational Situation. Palo Alto, CA, Consulting Psychologists Press 4. B. Law, Meijers F., G. Wijers (2002) New perspectives on career and identity in the contemporary world. British Journal of

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THE PROJECT-BASED LEARNING IN THE HIGHER EDUCATION - THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL ASPECTS

Ramona-Cristina Balanescu*

*Teaching Career Training and Social-Humanistic Sciences Department, Politehnica University of Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: In the educational practice, the project-based learning is well-known and used as a teaching- learning method, and also as a complementary evaluation method, both in the pre-university and higher education. This complex method was first used by J. Dewey and W. Kilpatrick, in the United Stated, and it implied replacing the classical study subjects with the performance of practical activities, having a real purpose (learning-by-doing), starting from the Pupils’ spontaneous interests. It was believed that by doing so, by solving real issues, knowledge could be acquired, and abilities could be built. The project- based learning can take a variety of shapes, depending on the subject specificity the project is prepared for, the approached topic complexity (imposed or chosen, preferred), the age of the Project-Creators, their creative skills, the workmanship of the Teaching Staff, who must stimulate the Project Initiators’ efforts, to encourage them during the activity performance, regardless of whether it is performed at individual or micro-group level. This article presents both some theoretical aspects related to the project- based learning method and its features, and some aspects regarding how it was applied in the artistic higher education, within the National Music University in Bucharest.

Keywords: project-based learning, teaching-learning method, complementary evaluation method, authentic evaluation, artistic higher education

1. INTRODUCTION (THEORETICAL Unlike the traditional methods, states I.T. INSIGHTS) Radu–who performs the evaluation of Amongst the concerns on the minds of school/academic results obtained over a specialists in the field of education sciences is limited period of time and, usually, covering a also the study of those teaching-learning- wider or smaller content area, but nevertheless evaluation methods proposing that the theory a defined one – “the alternative evaluation be entwined with the practice in the didactic methods have, at least, two features: on the one process, thus stimulating both the Teachers hand, assess the results in close connection to and the pupils or students. Amongst the the training/learning, many times, teaching-learning methods, the ones meeting simultaneously to it; on the other hand, they this requirement would bathe active- concern the school/academic results obtained participative ones, and amongst the evaluation over a long period of time, aiming at creating methods -the complementary evaluation abilities, acquiring skills and, above all, methods.

159 SOCIO-HUMANITIES changes in interests, and attitudes, correlated imposing the performance period and to the learning activity”.[7, pag. 223-224]. initiating them in the (individual or collective) Moreover, A. Stoica highlights the work stages and techniques. advantages of the alternative evaluation According to D.S. Frith and H. G. methods [8, pag. 124-125], mentioning that Macintosh [apud 4, pag.275], performing a using the complementary evaluation methods project implies going through the following leads to the creation of the authentic stages: evaluation. This is a relatively new concept 1. Identifying an issue/topic/subject; referring to the evaluation of the 2. Collecting, organizing, processing Pupils’/Students’ performances through and evaluating the information related to complex work tasks. Furthermore, the the chosen issue or topic; authentic evaluation in not managed strictly 3. Elaborating a set of possible formally. Thus, the Students complete work solutions to the issue; tasks not only during the course, seminar or 4. Evaluating the solutions and laboratory work, but also at home, the time deciding on the best choice; period being flexible: from several hours or 5. * (optionally) Applying the solution days up to several months, one semester, or opted for, which implies elaborating an even an academic year (in the case of the implementation plan, with stages, portfolio performance). Therefore, the resources, responsibilities, manners of authentic evaluation aims both at evaluating evaluating the obtained results. the process the task is performed through, and The Students shall enjoy support, guidance, at evaluating the final product. counselling, but also interim evaluations, Hereinafter follows a list of the main during the project performance, performed by complementary evaluation methods the the Teacher. Teachers use (both in the pre-university and The abilities which can be evaluated higher education):systematic observation of during the project performance are the the Student’s activity and behavior; paper; following: observing and choosing the work essay; evaluation sheet; questionnaire; methods; using the bibliography appropriately; investigation; project; portfolio; conceptual handling the information and using the maps; Master’s/Bachelor’s degree thesis; self- knowledge; ability to reason and use simple evaluation. procedures; ability to investigate, analyze, Amongst them, the project method holds synthesize and organize the material and relevance for this paper, which aims at being a prepare a product[6, pag. 595-596]. plea for the higher use of the project method in For issuing a project evaluation that is as the Romanian educational system, highlighting objective as possible, the Teacher must below the benefits it has. envisage (both for the interim evaluations, for Thus, the project is a complex method of the final one, when the project is delivered, individual or group evaluation, recommended defended) certain general evaluation criteria, to the Teachers for the summative evaluation. criteria related, on the one hand, to the quality Furthermore, some authors consider that the of the product (project), and on the other hand, project “can be used in the case of Pupils in to the quality of the process (the Student’s the upper classes of high-school and of activity). Students for learning topics lending Several of these criteria are presented themselves to multidisciplinary, herein below: Setting forth the project interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary scope/objectives and the content structure; approaches. Sometimes, it is used as an Individual activity performed by the Author evaluation test for graduating a vocational (investigation, experiment, enquiry, etc.); school, an industrial or art school, as well for Results, conclusions, observations. Appraisal graduating a faculty in the technical, art and of the project success, in terms of efficiency, architecture fields”. [2, pag. 531] validity, applicability, etc. Project presentation The project subjects are imposed by the (communication quality, clarity, coherence, Teacher or chosen by the Student, the Teacher synthesis ability, etc.); Project relevance

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(usefulness, interdisciplinary connections, can become more efficient if the technique of etc.). breaking the bigger project down into smaller The project evaluation strategy is of a projects, easier to approach is used. Thus, the holistic nature, which must be clearly defined use of the project method, on a large scale, in through the criteria negotiated or not with the the Romanian educational system, would have Students, but which they are made aware of, so motivational benefits, both for the Teachers, as to value the Author(s)’ exclusive effort in and for the Pupils or Students, would provide preparing the project. The appraisal grids can the latter with the possibility to join the theory be successfully used in evaluating projects. and the practice together, would thus prepare The second part of the paper shall provide them for life, and offer them the possibility to examples related to these criteria. capitalize on their creative ideas. The study (micro-research) was performed 2. STUDY DESIGN at the National Music University in Bucharest, where the Author of this paper performs her 2.1. Problem statement. The basic activity as an Associate Teaching Staff. training programmes for the Teaching Staff in 2.2. Research Purpose. The research our country include topics specific to the purpose aims at identifying difficulties, errors, subject matter of Pupil Class Management, but typical mistakes which can occur in the Pupils’ they leave out approaching certain issues, or Students’ elaborating projects, in order to situations when different management provide recommendations as to how to use the knowledge should be applied (such as the ones project method, useful to the Teaching Staff related to the Educational Programme Design (in the context of the project elaboration and and Management, for instance). The subject implementation). matter mentioned above is only studied during 2.3Research Hypotheses. Has the the 2nd level of the psychological and Students’ personal previous experience got pedagogical training module. We consider that any influence on the project (requested work certain knowledge specific to the mentioned task) performance (elaboration)? subject matter is required not only for the Is the lack of teaching experience in the Teachers-to-be, but that it can also be Master’s Degree Students (in their 1st or 2nd introduced to the class, as an integral part of academic year) an impediment in identifying the Pupils’ learning experience. At the same valid problems whose solution can be time as transferring the knowledge, certain determined through the proposed projects? logical-thinking, problem-solving and 2.4 Research methodology decision-making skills should also be 2.4.1 Research sample practiced. It is important to get used to aspects This study was performed on a sample of related to the time management, 81 students in their 2nd year in the Master’s communication, planning, evaluation, and Degree Programme, all majors (Compositional team work not only in the context of studying style and language, Musicological synthesis, subject matters such as the Project Conducting stylistics, Jazz and pop musical Management or the Educational Programme cultures, Musical education and religious Management, but also in the context of musical cultures), students who are studying, everyday-life. The complex task management this semester, as part of the 2nd level of the

161 SOCIO-HUMANITIES psychological and pedagogical training We developed a matrix, where we entered module, the subject: Educational Programme the criteria and sub-criteria based on which we Design and Management, the subject matter analyzed every single project, the grades for mentioned above in the problem description. each criterion being granted on a scale from 1 We mention that some of the Students are to 5. Here are some of them: Topic complexity already Teachers in the state or private music (relevance, usefulness, interdisciplinary educational system, and some of them give connections), Approach completeness, Project classes of instrument playing. The random structure (objective elaboration, objective sampling may not be representative for the correlation to the activities), Efficiency, entire population the sample was selected validity, applicability, Elements of novelty and from. originality, etc. 2.4.2 Data collection procedures The projects designed by each team were The method used in this investigation was analyzed by using the content analysis - the content analysis method. It “consists of combining the qualitative and quantitative describing, explaining or theorizing a approaches consisting in rating projects on a testimony, an experience, an event of a five points scale for each of the pre-established phenomenon through specific systematization criteria and describing the way the projects and classification methods. Although it is used met those criteria. A mean value for each in the qualitative data analysis - considered by project was computed. The means were some authors to be a quasi-qualitative method recorded in order to identify low scores (Muchielli, 2002)-the content analysis also (1to2.5), medium scores (2.51 to 3.5), and high includes an important quantitative element”. scores (3.51to5). In the qualitative analysis, [5, pag. 63] the Author was interested to conduct an in- During the seminar activity, at the classes depth investigation in order to identify usual on the subject of Educational Programme errors and vulnerable areas of the Students’ Design and Management, the Students responses. received the work task to prepare a micro- A cluster matrix was designed in order to project, having an imposed structure. The pursue the requirements of such a combined starting point was the identification of a analysis. problem they faced in the teaching practice, and then, starting from that, the project was to 3. EMPIRICAL RESULTS AND be a solution to the identified problem DISCUSSION (mentioning the title, place of performance, duration, objectives, target group, actions, The recorded scores and the applicable responsible persons, deadlines, resources, frequencies are shown in the table below: partners, expected results, evaluation, etc.).We Table 1 Scores in projects’ assessment mention that this task was given at the Score Frequency beginning of the semester, in order to identify Low scores 14.8% some of the Students’ difficulties, and to take Medium scores 29.6% improvement measures in the teaching activities during the classes. It was an initial High scores 55.6% evaluation test, which was based on their previous knowledge, on their professional and Total: 100% personal experience and, particularly, on their As it can be noticed, most of the recorded creativity. Each project was prepared in micro- scores are medium and high, the latter having groups, each group consisting of 3 students. a frequency higher than 50%. 2.4.3 Data analysis procedures Moreover, errors and vulnerable criteria THE DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION were determined, as shown in the chart below WERE PERFORMED BY RESORTING TO (see Fig. 1): QUALITATIVE METHODS (ANALYSIS, SYNTHESIS, AND COMPARISON) AND QUANTITATIVE ONES (STATISTICAL ANALYSES).

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Fig. 1 Mean values for cluster criteria had a positive contribution to the completion of the received work task (the project elaboration), thus validating the first hypothesis, as well. The performed research was a finding one, which helped and guided the author in subsequently teaching the class on the Educational Programme Design and Management to her Master’s Degree Students, and it can become the base for future researches in the field. We recommend the Teachers using the project method to pay attention, in coordinating the Students’ projects, to aspects such as: the topic relevance and usefulness (if

chosen by the Students), elaboration of the The difficulties the students encountered in objectives and their correlation with the elaborating the projects are: the ones related activities, the project success appraisal in to identifying a real, necessary and useful terms of efficiency, applicability, validity, problem in the Romanian educational system, permanent Students’ motivation, and, not least uncertainties or ambiguities in identifying the of all, appraising and encouraging their problem, which, further on, leads to an originality, and creativity. inappropriate project title, superficiality or improper wording in elaborating the 5. CONCLUSIONS objectives, a lack of correlation between activities and objectives, low chances for the For an effective educational system, the proposed projects to become applicable. The Teacher must create a balance between the use problematic criterion is the criterion 5, related of traditional evaluation methods (oral, written to the elements of novelty and originality. and practical tests) and the alternative ones, and using the project, as a complex teaching- 4. THE RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS learning-evaluation method, of a training nature, is preferred since it offers the Students Given the results obtained above, the enough and varied possibilities to prove what research purpose, of identifying difficulties, they know (as a set of knowledge), but, errors or typical mistakes, was reached. especially, what they know and can do (as a Furthermore, it is difficult to identify a real set of talents, skills, and abilities). problem that the Romanian educational system “The project distinguishes itself as a is facing, because of the lack of teaching global, interdisciplinary method, susceptible of experience. Thus, the second hypothesis stimulating and developing, on a number of proposed is validated. It is true that, in the levels, the personality in the making of the absence of the teaching experience, the ones we are training. It is, at same time, an Subjects’ previous life and learning experience excellent method of testing, verifying the

163 SOCIO-HUMANITIES pupils’ intellectual capacities and their creative 6. Popescu, V. Vasile, The evaluation si skills, their energy and willpower, including of autoevaluare in procesul de invatamant certain social and moral qualities (cooperation (Assessment and self-assessment in the and team spirit, honesty, etc.) having both a educational process), in Pedagogie. Curs diagnostic, and a prognostic value”. [1, pag. universitar (Pedagogy. University Course), 87-88] D.P.P.D, U.P.B.,Bucharest: Printech Publishing House (2004). REFERENCES 7. Radu, Ion T, The evaluation in procesul didactic (The assessment in the didactic 1. Cherghit, I, Neacsu, I, Negret-Dobridor, process), Bucharest: Didactica si Pedagogica I, Panisoara, I-O, Prelegeri Pedagogice Publishing House, Colectia Idei Pedagogice (Pedagogical Lectures), Iasi:Polirom Contemporane (2000). Publishing House (2001). 8. Stoica, Adrian, The evaluation 2. Diaconu, Mihai, Jinga, Ioan progresului scolar de la teorie la practica (coordinators), Pedagogie, manual adresat (The school progress assessment, from theory studentilor si profesorilor care se pregatesc to practice), Bucharest: Humanitas pentru definitivarea in invatamant si obtinerea Educational Publishing House, Colectia gradului didactic II (Pedagogy, handbook for Repere (2003). the Students and Teachers preparing to complete de permanent teacher certification process and obtain the 2nd teacher degree), Bucharest: A.S.E. Publishing House (2004). 3. Moldoveanu, Mihaela, Introducere in pedagogie (Basics of Pedagogy), Bucharest: Printech Publishing House (2004). 4. Oprea, Crenguta–Lacramioara, Strategii didactice interactive (Interactive teaching strategies), Bucharest: Didactica si Pedagogica Publishing House, RA, Colectia Idei Pedagogice Contemporane (2006). 5. Popa, N.C., Antonesei. L., Labar, A.V., Ghid pentru cercetarea educatiei. Un abecedar pentru studenti, masteranzi, profesori (Guide to the education research. An ABC for students, Master’s Degree Students and Teachers), Iasi: Polirom Publishing House (2009).

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STRESSING FACTORS IN AVIATION

Angela Bloguţ*

*“Vasile Goldiș” Western University of Arad, Romania & Individual Office of Psychology Angela Bloguţ, Timisoara, Romania

Abstract: Due to the price and consequences of stress generated by work situations, during the last decades, most of the researches have mainly oriented towards it. Occupational stress was initially studied at the level of managers (stress of the executives), the study was subsequently enlarged to those professions with more intense demands and with a high risk degree: pilots, workers in the oil industry and nuclear centers, nurses, policemen, military etc., and it is accepted nowadays that occupational stress is present in all the activity fields and in all professions. Some professional categories are more powerfully affected, as compared to others. This category, more affected, also includes surgeons and the remaining staff employed in the medical care system, the staff in the field of social work, education, pilots, air traffic controllers, terminal operators, policemen etc.

Key words: stress, traumatic, burn-out, specific, coping, stressors, strategies

1. INTRODUCTION represents a permanent comrade of life being neglected. The adaptation possibilities of the The word “stress” has been used so often human being are more and more demanding lately, that it started to lose its meaning of due to modern life, with all it assumes. Under “danger”, “tremor”. Most of the diseases of the such conditions, stress became an issue we third millennium include stress that is awful permanently deal with, both extra- fatigue, irritation, unbearable pressure we are professionally and professionally. Systemic object of due to the crazy speed of our restless stress, understood like a syndrome, life, due to acerb competition, running for the characterized by an inter-waved multitude of money, loneliness, lack of communication, specific and nonspecific responses of the body depression. The term of stress, come from to the action of stressors, including both the medieval English - distress - (trouble, lesion, and the wear of the body and the difficulty, and unpleasant situation), means suffering felt, it always has a psychic structure. unspecific response of our body to any This is the so-called secondary psychic stress. demand. Although the term itself does not But there is also a primary psychic stress, mean only nervous pressure, consequence of where the stressors injure the scope of the the action of harmful factors (stress can be a psychic, leading to absurd subjective pleasant thing, without negative experiences, discomfort, and anxiety. The consequences), only indicating the adoptive negative or indifferent stimuli are perceived as demand of the body, in the daily language having harmful significance and therefore, stress is related to overload, that fact that it disproportionate, non-adaptive conduct

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changes occur. Psychic stress is induced most stress or eustress, that beneficial stress which often by language. But the structures altered may mobilize personal resources and leads to by psychic stress are both material (the central occupational satisfaction and success. nervous system, and mental (psychic processes If the symptoms of stress are relatively as such). simple to recognize, its causes are difficult to The Air Forces, by the nature and guess. In the thousand studies dedicated to it, specificity of their duties, generate its origin is localized both in highly banal facts occupational stress. The military environment – lack of material safety or excess of positive – more than any other – is strongly ions -, and in complex facts, usually spiritual: individualized in the society by a series of deaths, divorces, separations etc. Stress often characteristic elements which may represent results from conflicts occurred between two or occupational stress sources. We regard here several individuals, having a different the social liability of the military profession manifestation: the desire of communication and the structure of the military organization opposes to the desire of solitude, the desire of (hierarchic, linear, multi-level, rigid, which independence, dependence, desire of involves a hierarchic authority, an exclusive competition, of cooperation, desire to do what vertical subordination). Such organizing you like, to abide by social obligations. requires conformism and, even, a relative Naturally, if we are to know which of such unification, the military environment being conflicts we face, we shall know better how to relatively closed, therefore limiting the remedy the stress they lead to. connections with the outside, and if seen as The psychological and emotional stress liberty restrictive it can become frustrating for factors may appear due to several causes. Such the individual. The values promoted by the cause may relate to the job (flight difficulties military organization are sometimes at the beginning of the career or a stressed differentiated by those of the civil environment relation to chiefs and mates) or to the family – for example, the military requests altruism, (marital or financial issues). The result of while the civil environment is marked by the psychological stress shall impose overload of increase of individualism; the military the pilot and the appearance of weak environment claims abidance, subordination, professional results. The factors concurring to adaptation as premises of success, the civil such type of stress are: focusing on one single encourages autonomy, self-improvement, problem and distraction from the flight; weak tolerance as premises of success in life and analysis capacity; easy loss of orientation; profession etc. Under such conditions, if the distraction from initial duties; resigned attitude pilot does not understand such differences, in front of the problems; tiresome, early does not accept them or considers them breakdown. incompliant with civil life, he / she feels Most militaries accept stress as normal in constrained, frustrated, stressed. Other their specific activity, but the problems appear pressure sources for the pilot may also be when its effects exceed the individual’s deprivations, restrictions, dangers, and doubt, strength of coping. Military psychiatrists and physical and psychic intense demands. Some psychologists describe, depending on the statistics look like aircraft pilots, decision of intensity, the following types of stress: which deals with human lives, suffer from a) Basic stress – is determined especially by hypertension as consequence of the stress, in a the interpersonal relations set within activities proportion forth times higher than the other and based on personal attributes: age, professional categories. These specificity education, physical condition, previous elements of the military environment do not experience, skills, convictions, attitudes, self- automatically launch occupational stress. The esteem etc. Such type of stress is not too mode the individual intercepts, interprets and serious and can benefit from effective evaluates on the one hand, the stressors, and management if treated before reaching a level on the other hand, his/her capacity proportions beyond control. For such purpose, it is to handle them, determines the appearance of necessary to identify the stress sources, to

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know personal limits and a good time 2. STRESS IN AVIATION management. b) Cumulative stress – consists of We identified in aviation types of stress discomfort, lasts for more and is more serious specific to the developed activity: than basic stress. Discomfort may lead to Physical Stress. Unexpected fear, as for breakdown, intense tiresome, “burn-out” example perception of physical danger, depression and other manifestations such determines the brain to get quickly ready for person is incapable to face. action. Suprarenal glands release the c) Traumatic stress – is the result of adrenaline hormone which physically stressing situation, appears suddenly and stimulates the body to face the threat– fight or violently and the individual can no longer run. The pulse grows rapidly, certain blood continue his/her activity. This type of stress veins contract in order to guide blood to the may be immediately signaled, few hours/days body areas which need it. Performances may or even months/years from the impact to a intensity and, in the limits of experience and stressing event and is characterized as acute training, the response to such stimuli may be stress. This is the most harmful as it erodes the quick and precise. The decision to “fight or capacity of the person to adapt and may lead to run” depends on several factors, including the serious health issues. personality and aptitude for the activity to be Any demand for the individual may be a deployed and for the level of perception of possible stressing factor seeing the overload of dangers. the individual, the incapacity of adaptive Non-physical stress. Some stress situation response to the agents in the surrounding does not necessarily come from perceived environment, if the situation is not correctly physical threat but from some intellectual, managed. Therefore, the body is worn out and psychological or emotional causes. They may high suffering degree is generated. In case of be the pressures imposed by time, decisions pilots, even combining minimum demands difficult to make (to continue the flight in may lead to fatigue (a radio call from the soil worse and worse weather conditions or to while the pilot makes a difficult maneuver to change direction and to land at a reserve reach lateral wind in turbulence conditions, airport), and lack of trust, strange interpersonal low or night visibility, faulty operation of relationship or emotional overstimulation. equipment on board). A lower demand may Some psychological or emotional demands, as awake our interest, determining the settlement for example a loss, may imbalance for long of the situation and the growth of attention to term or chromicise, while intellectual pressure the alert level. Over-demand may lead us to an shall prepare you for a quick mental activity. inferior action area, in the area of “panic”, The stimuli may increase or decrease which has as effect a weak performance in our performances. The way the pilot faces a actions. The target is, certainly, a demand level situation depends on his/her active awareness which we shall successfully face and which status. A part of the stimuli increase the status shall be as low as possible, below the over- of active awareness (feeling of fear), others demand, but not as low as not to react at all. inhibit it (fatigue). A low level of awareness is related to profound sleep, tiresome, sleep deprivation, lack of motivation, a low body temperature. A high level of awareness is related to fear, panic, ad lack of trust. Both a

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very low level of awareness and a very high strong vibrations the globe of the eye starts level of awareness lead to weak performances. vibrating making it almost impossible to read There is, between these two extremes, an boar apparatuses, maps or to survey the optimum area where the active awareness airspace. Even if the vibrations of the aircraft status determines optimum performances for are impossible to reduce, the construction of the fulfilment of duties. The measure of the chairs may diminish body vibrations, in performance depends on the response speed to case they are well assembled and equipped a given situation, on the intensity and accuracy with buffers. of the response, on the optimum coordination Stress generated by turbulence. of the response, on the quick modification of Turbulence leads to irregular movements of the response if the situation changes. the aircraft, varying from small trepidations, to High temperature stress (hyperthermia). very large movements which may damage the In a high temperature environment, more than aircraft. Turbulences create discomfort both 35 degrees C, the body fights to keep its for the pilots, and for the passengers who are temperature to 37° C preventing hyperthermia. also object to unexpected G forces, which may The breathing rate, blood pressure or pulse lead to motion sickness. All this makes it grows in such situation. In moist atmosphere, harder to control the aircraft. skin transpiration does not evaporate and the Stress generated by noise. Excessive noise tendency is for the human body to overheat. In in the cockpit, especially high frequency and order to reduce such type of stress, it is enough loud, determines the appearance of stress and to control the temperature of the work tiresome. Industrial limit for noise is 85dB and environment and the most important, to drink exceeding such limit recommends hearing liquids, especially water, before any thirst protection. The noise in the cockpit is 75 – sensation installs, this being already an 80dB, and this is the background noise only. indication of dehydration. However, the noise of the communication Low temperature stress (hypothermia). radio station adds to it (more than 90dB), noise In a cold environment, the body automatically which leads to stress and irritation and hence sends more blood to the central areas than to to tiresome. Over the level of 80dB, hearing the extremities. This is an attempt to keep protection is used. Faulty receipt of messages internal temperature of approx. 37°C by is also stress; therefore, having high quality reducing heat losses through the skin. The heat headphones shall reduce such risk. loss is made by: a) radiation in the open areas Stress generated by discomfort. By the of the skin, especially around the head, scalp nature of their trade, pilots are forced to stay in which has lots of surface blood veins; b) small cockpits for long periods of time. The conduction, when wind passes onto the skin stress caused by being in a noisy aircraft, with and takes over some of the heat exhaled by it high vibrations, and by the usual flight (also known as cold wind factor); c) demands, as for example, turbulence, evaporation of sweat from the skin. In low navigation, radio communications etc., may temperatures, the fingers from hands and legs lead to accumulation of tiresome. The most may be cold, the muscles may be stiff and indicated mean to fight against this type of weak, and the status of the body shall be stress is for the pilot to be fit, well rested tiresome and drowsiness, followed by tremble, before the flight, and properly positioned in this is the attempt of the body to generate more his/ her chair. heat by muscles activity. Stress produced by sickness. Sickness Stress generated by vibration. The may very easily lead to overload and vibrations transmitted to the body from the predisposition to tiresome. The body shall use plane by the chair, the safety belt and the floor a part of its energy in order to fight against may determine a discomfort, which shall sickness and, therefore, a small amount of distract the pilot from the main duties and may energy shall remain for the other duties. lead to tiresome. A vibrating board panel Human performances shall be lower than makes it harder to read the apparatuses. Due to usual. If accompanied by headaches, infections

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of the upper respiratory tract, light wounds, Stress from the place of work. Most of the stomach aches or coughing access, it is not pilots live the experience of fear related to the advisable for the pilot to start the flight. future flight, but this is not normal, as the Airsickness/ motion sickness may even induce awareness level is high, to the best disinterest to what happens. This phenomenon understanding level which leads to good does not only limit to beginners and to results. However, a stressed pilot, overloaded passengers, but, seldom, it may also happen to due to the problems during the flight, may be experimented pilot. A pilot may be as well at an awareness level which leads to good object of useless stress unless regularly or well performances, customary situation in case of fed, in this case, the result being low student-pilots or beginners but also in case of hypoglycemia. the most experimented. The stress generated by eye fatigue. Eye Psychological and emotional stress. It can fatigue may occur due to faulty sight and weak be caused by personal problems. Therefore, lighting. Faulty sight may be corrected by domestic stress may be dangerous for the pilot. glasses or contact lenses. The solution for If the focusing power during maximum weak lighting is turning on the lights so that demands is affected by the problems at home the needed comfort is created. During night, if (death in the family, divorce or financial the lights in the cockpits are too strong, eye problems), a responsible pilot shall stay at soil fatigue may occur, in case the pilot looks out due to own initiative. This type of stress may for searching for other aircrafts, or in order to lead to insomnia, chronic tiresome, emotional notice weather evolution. instability and dangerous flight operations. Stress occurred by intermittent lights. Beyond the controversies and disputes Intermittent light has the role to focus attention existing in the problem of occupational stress, on other machines or aircrafts. The sight of there are three essential concepts channeling intermittent lights shall make you more alert. researchers’ preoccupations in the field: If intermittent light does not adapt to sight, it stressors, their effects on people and coping becomes bothering and tedious. As well, when modalities to stress. the plane is in the clouds, its own intermittent Stressors (stressing factors) represent any lights may become stressing. occupational-organizational condition which Stress generated by focus. This type of needs adaptive responses from the individual. stress may result from keeping high There are various taxonomies which group performance level for a long time (for stressors. The most often quoted stressors in example, piloting the aircraft during the specialty literature are: ambiguity and role turbulences, IFR, or even horizontal flying conflict, work overload, danger of accidents VFR, log time in case of experimented pilot). and rhythm of work, situational constraints Stress occurred by the lack of sleep. The imposed to the individual by the organization lack of refreshing sleep creates tiresome and etc. Please find that stressors are not the same the pilot must stay awake in order to face the for all people, therefore, the same situation flight demands. The pilot must fight to stay may be for some real stress source, while for awake and this focusing effort leads to a high others, just a challenge. stress level, even strong tiresome. The solution Effects represent those individual reactions is, of course, rest and refusal to perform the to the action of a stressor, while the “tensions” flight mission. created are aversive effects on the individual. The most frequent examples of effects are: –

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psychological effects (depression, burnout, in case of anxiety, depression, high blood tiresome, fatigue, hostility, depersonalization, pressure etc. anxiety, frustration etc.); – physical health issues (various physical pains, ulcer, REFERENCES cardiovascular diseases, hormonal imbalances) – behavioral effects related to the organization 1. Băban, A., Stres şi personalitate, Cluj- and individual (absenteeism, work Napoca, Editura Presa Universitară performance, staff fluctuation, occupational Clujană, 1998 accidents, abuse of harmful, toxic substance, 2. Beehr, T.A. & Schuler, R.S., Stress in of tobacco, alcohol, drugs, marital issues, Organizations in Personnel Management, accidents, suicide etc.); The most serious Boston, Allyn & Bacon, 1982 consequence of uncorrected occupational 3. Cooper, C.L. & Pazne, Causes, Coping and stress is “burnout“ or the fatigue syndrome, Consequences of Stress at Work, New nervous wear which appears as result of long York, John Wiley, 1998 term stress at the place of work and evolution 4. De Vito, J., Human Communication. The of which is divided into three steps: ● physical Basic Course, New York, Harper & Row fatigue – tiresome, frazzle, insomnia, lack of Inc., 1988 energy, weakness, chronic tiresome etc; ● 5. Mc’Grath, J.E., Stress and Behavior in mental fatigue – negative attitudes oriented Organizations, Chicago, 1976 either towards work, mates, partners, 6. Gîdiuţă, J., Sava, D., Decizia militară, customers, collaborators, chiefs, job and even Bucureşti, Colecţia Statului Major General family; ● emotional fatigue – depression, 7. Iahandescu, I.B., Psihologie Medicală, helplessness, dispersion, disappearance of Bucureşti, Editura Infomedia 1997 previous satisfactions etc. 8. Lazarus, R.S. & Folkman, S., The Concept of Coping. In Stress and Coping: an 3. CONCLUSIONS Anthology, New York, Columbia University Press, 1991 Coping methods (management of occupational stress). Like in case of stressors, there is much taxonomy which groups various prophylaxis strategies and stress control both individually, and organizationally. Newmann & Beehr (1978) group the coping strategies of individual occupational stress into four categories: – psychological strategies (organizing own life, realistic evaluation of own person and own aspirations); – physical/physiological strategies (diet, physical exercise, sleep); – strategies to change own conduct / spare time management, using relaxing response, cultivating friendships for social support); – strategies to change the work environment (employment in a less demanding place of work or changing the occupation, changing the organization, in favour of another one, less demanding). There are lots of studies which show the effectiveness of individually oriented coping methods which lead to significant improvements, but unfortunately, short term,

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ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT: NEEDS, DESIRES, REQUIREMENTS

Ileana Mihaela Chiriţescu*

*Department of Foreign Languages, University of Craiova, Romania

Abstract: Since adolescence, the human being seeks to know himself. From an early age, the child- adolescent should be advised to decide what he wants to achieve in life. A good start is always a gain in life. At 14 years old, it is normal for a teenager to be responsible on what has to done. Parents should advise them that the future should not be left in the hands of dreams and hopes. Parents should teach teenagers to have a sense of responsibility, to be responsible for their own value, to discover their desires and beliefs. Teenagers should be advised by the family and by the teachers at school, to give their best to know the values of life and seek answers in themselves. Also, teenagers should be advised not to be controlled by others, believe in their own feelings, and be brave to change things for the better when they think they can do this. The teenager has the ability to rebuild himself, to build his way and to create his opportunities. Also, each adolescent must decide three major aspects of his life. These are: what profession to choose, what place to have in society, who he chooses to be his life partner for being happy together.

Keywords: adolescence, identity crises, changes, desires

1. INTRODUCTION when the first impulses and feelings are manifested; the teenagers are guided by family „«Adolescence» is a psycho social- almost in everything they do. In biological stage of development that preadolescence, they try to impose their views, corresponds to changes in many areas which but some of them fail because, often the family accompany the transition from childhood to believes that a teenager has not the capacity to adult hood. The working definition of 14, 15 years to decide for him. Unfortunately, adolescence we use is the stage of life that this attitude displayed by the family is not starts with puberty and ends at the time when good because it can reduce or even destroy the the person has attained a reasonable degree of dreams and desires of a teenager, and its independence from his parents. Once in high ability to get what he wants in life. school or its equivalent, the vast majority of The preadolescent discovers the pleasure of teenagers have al ready undergone the playing with words and situations therefore biological changes of puberty”.[1] should be allowed to discover his creative The period of transition from childhood to spirit. adulthood is between 10 and 14 years. This is Adolescence itself occurs around age 16, called pre-adolescence. Even this is the time 17. Now occur the main physical changes, and

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the young cannot deny his evolution because „A very good test that adolescents should of changes of the body. do it would be to take a piece of paper on During the transition from childhood to which to split into two. In the first column on adolescence and then adulthood, a young live the left, they should write their defects, and in many identity crises. It is a very difficult task the second column on the right, the qualities. to overcome the struggle with his own In the left column, teens must pass all the conscience, to gear away from family and things they do not like at them. They must be meet new stage of his existence. very careful not to omit anything. When they Teenagers vary both, in terms of their have completed the list, they should tick the identity and in terms of choice of existence. At most annoying defect, in their opinion. After 18, a young should choose his path in life, that, they have to check the list again, should choose a college or another. At this carefully. This time, they should tick the age, the biggest changes happen. things they could do to change the most annoying defect. For example, if the most 2. EXISTENTIAL COORDINATES annoying defect is the shyness, a teenager FOR AN ADOLESCENT must be honest and write what could help him to not be shy. 2.1 Make an inventory of qualities and In the left column, they must write all defects! Around the age of 14, when teenagers strengths: qualities, talents and abilities that start to realize the values of life, they want to others admire at them. Teenagers should write establish their existence. This is the age when about their physical attributes, about strong teenagers are isolated from family and friends character traits, about personality traits, because they want to understand better the achievements, talents, areas that they know, mysteries of the world and they will set their skills, attributes which he can offer as a own priorities. Relations with others can be student at the school, as colleague, as son/ left out. daughter, nephew/ niece; inclined to a certain Parents and teachers should actively profession (technical or intellectual participate in this phase of discovery of inclinations), artistic or musical talent adolescents, should be with them, support (painting or decorative art, singing, playing an them and understand them without violating instrument), hobbies and sports (skiing, the right to privacy of their thoughts and dancing, crocheting, football). It is possible feelings. that this project cannot be achieved at the first However adolescence is a difficult stage in attempt. the life of a teenager who is just of the However, in this way, the teenager will be beginning to understand how the world works motivated to measure its potential so he will and how it is the natural order of the events. develop a sense of personal worth and he will Therefore, teenagers are sensitive and they have more confidence. A teenager must go through a period of testing, so they can be understand since 14 years, he is unique in this easily touched by the negative things. Adults world and no one else is identical with him, should behave well with teenagers, they must because he has unlimited potential”.[2] explain how life works and what dangers are, The hardest fight for a teenager has, is to but without exaggerating explaining the control his thoughts. So unconsciously, the consequences to which we all are exposed at teenager will feel worthless. That is why, it any time. would be necessary for a teenager «to be set» Teenagers should be warned by family and to think positively. Researchers recommended teachers how to react to hazards and how to for adolescents to have, some quotes or prevent them. There are several types of passages inspired by books. It’s a big hazards. Some can be avoided by us, others are psychological difference between saying or independent of our power. At 16, teenagers thinking, and reading a passage from a book. feel inferior to others. Sometimes they feel 2.2 There is someone or something that helpless, they feel worthless. can always protect us? „Teenagers may be

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strongly affected by natural disasters or man- live a natural disaster or a terrorist act, it is made, such as earthquakes, health necessary that teenagers know that this risk emergencies, terrorist attacks or acts of war. exists and that they can always rely on Even indirect contact with such events through authorities. media can test their ability to cope. Teenagers It is possible that at 14, 16, 17, adolescents are generally more aware of world events and joke about these disasters. It is normal for become more interested as children. They are them to overcome the emotional shock through able to imagine frightening situations in more a joke. Also, it is normal that some teenagers detail and can be very or extremely upset by scare and respond with verbal violence. Then, images of destruction. Teenagers are already adults should divert the conversation to deep dealing with many physical, social and feelings and tell them that fear is normal and emotional specific to their age. As they adults also are afraid, but we all need to be struggle to develop their own identity and calm and rational, especially in these extreme values, they tend to put things in question, or situations. to adopt attitudes that range from cynicism to It is mandatory that at school and at home, idealism. teens discuss with teachers and family about Disasters can undermine their belief that current issues in the world. If teenagers discuss the world is a safe place their trust in their global juncture, they will better understand the parents or some institutions or even their events and the context in which they certainty that life has meaning and that a better happened. Psychological preparation is very society is possible. important for all of us, but especially for It is normal for teens worry, be sad or fragile souls. Family and school routine helps confused or afraid when disasters, terrorism or a lot in keeping calm and rational thought. war make the headlines. They need adults Adults should keep a relaxing atmosphere and around them pay attention to their emotions be always ready to discuss with teens about and their reactions” [3]. their fears and questions. When teenagers are worried or sad, they should be allowed to exceed this short stage. 3. CONCLUSIONS Adults should ensure the teenagers of their unconditional support. They should tell them Always teenagers have resources and they they are not alone and that always are feel full of energy. Therefore, it would be great protected from family, school, security organs for parents to enable them to participate in of the country to which they belong. sports which they wish or to participate in But it is possible that parents are not various campaigns to collect or to help people entitled to help children in everything they in need. need. Therefore there are institutions dealing Teenagers have a great capacity to adapt. with human security and they should develop Therefore, they should be encouraged to programs in schools for children-teenagers to follow one direction or another, because, know that they can appeal to people with surely, they are able to accomplish many specialized training to help them when they things they did not know that they can do. need it. Teenagers feel safe when they know Adults need to advise teenagers to be honest the concrete measures taken by the authorities with them-selves and not to exaggerate their in case of disasters. Even if no one wants to defects or infirmities.

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Certainly, we all are destined to be good and useful. It is true that the most difficult task that has to fulfill an adult it to act as a real adult in front of teenagers. Teens need landmarks, the pillars of strength, strong examples to be able to develop in harmony and trust. Clearly, adults did not solve and answer to every problem or question, but they are bound to be able to meet the needs of teenagers in one way or another.

REFERENCES

1.Offer, D., Ostrov, E., Howard, K.I., Atkinson, R.. The Teenage World: Adolescent self-image in ten countries, New York: Plenum (1988). Available: http://www.springer.com/us/book/9780306 427473.2. 2. Van Pelt, Nancy L., Curtenie completă, Bucureşti: Casa de Editură Viaţă şi sănătate (2004). 3.Agence de santé publique du Canada, Faireface aux événements stressants, Comment aider les adolescents, Ottawa: K1A OK9 (2005). Available: http://www.phacaspc.gc.ca/publicat oes-bsu02/pdf/comment-aider-vos adolescents_f.pdf. 1. Agence de santé publique du Canada, Faireface aux événements stressants, Comment aider les adolescents, Ottawa: K1A OK9 (2005). Available: http://www.phacaspc.gc.ca/publicat oes-bsu02/pdf/comment-aider-vos adolescents_f.pdf. 2. Offer, D., Ostrov, E., Howard, K.I., Atkinson, R.. The Teenage World: Adolescent self-image in ten countries, New York: Plenum (1988). Available: www.springer.com/us/book/978030642747 3.2. 3. Van Pelt, Nancy L., Curtenie completă, Bucureşti: Casa de Editură Viaţă şi sănătate (2004). 4.http://www.ncmle.org/research% 20summaries/ressum5.html.

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THE ARTICULATION AND AGGREGATION OF INTERESTS IN THE ANALYSIS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES COOPERATION

Cătălin Cioaca*, Horaţiu Moga**Ioana Constantinescu***

*Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania, **National Agency for Fiscal Administration, Brasov, Romania***New Life Foundation, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: This work is a part of a more complex project, with the goal of offering decision making factors an efficient and flexible instrument for specific actions of the cyberwarfare, with the help of the theory of international relationships. The developed model extends the concepts of articulation and aggregation of interest between the developmental pluralist political sociology and the collective action in cooperating relations between the states, using four case studies. The articulation and aggregation of interests of industrial cooperation policy in the information’s technology of the great powers include dependent variables (actor behavior) but also independent ones (perception and standard identity).

Keywords: articulation and aggregation of intrerests, identity theory, information technology, cyberwarfare, foreign policy

1. INTRODUCTION state actors. The cyberspace becomes the confrontation field among heterogeneous The cyberwarfare is defined as a coalitions, between state actors, but also non confrontation performed with informational state, fact that cannot be determined by classic resources by the means of network (internet). theories [3] which separate on more levels of As a relatively recent phenomenon (after the analysis the interaction between actors. year 2000), the cyberwarfare appears between By articulation of interests [4] it is state actors and/or non-state actors in described the process by which political actors cyberspace. From these reasons, the defines a common interest. Same authors, by cyberwarfare has two components: aggregation of interests, define the process by engineering (computer science) and which more actors with different interests can international relations theory [1]. Choucri identify a form of action than can satisfy their (2007) considers that the articulation and interests. In this study, by articulation of aggregation of interests are primary forms of interests it is define the process of negotiation typical organizations, specific to any form of among more actors in order to reach a political system in any historical period of common goal. The interests of the actors, humanity [2]. The international political arena when talking about the aggregation of can be considered an extension of the interests, might be divergent, but the cyberspace in which articulation and coherence of the common means, as the aggregation of interests serve at the outlining participation of the actors at this system of the objectives and means of the state and non- social interaction, asks for a previous process

175 SOCIO-HUMANITIES of articulation of interests. The analysis takes government, this is defined by the standard place in the context in which two great identity. emerging powers (Russian federation and The standard identity represents a set of China) seek an alteration of the USA meanings the actor attributes to a certain hegemony in the semiconductors domain perception. For this reason, two entries of a through industrial cooperation in the military conflictual type can have different meanings and civilian applications. for two different actions (for one it might not This study suggests a new approach of the mean an act of hostility and for the other one it articulation and aggregation of interests in might mean a revolting behavior). which state and non-state actors can take part The exit represents the actor’s behavior at a in. The classic paradigms of the action’s certain perception towards the environment in sociology, collective action or the international which it operates. Its behavior can be a relations, does not converge for the unitary conflictual or a cooperate one with other state treatment of a heterogeneous coalition formed or non-state actors. The type of output is by state and non-state actors. In this study, the dictated by the identity comparator which treatment of coalitions will be realized by the analyses the perception of the actor towards use of structural symbolic interactionism. the exterior environment, or standard identity. In this research, the analysis unit is the 2. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY technological cooperation in the domain of COOPERATION AMONG GREAT semiconductors between Russia and China, as POWERS a factor of enrichment for these two states, in relation with the USA’s hegemony. 2.1 Some aspects regarding structural Dependent variables are the articulation or symbolic interactionism. In the structural aggregation of interests between Russian and symbolic interactionism, the identity concept is Chinese government, and independent defined by four elements: the input, the variables are the perception of the Russian standard identity, the comparator and the government towards Western or Chinese output [5]. The identity is a characteristic political interests and towards semiconductor attached to the political actor, be it a person, technologies from the Western or Chinese social group, state or non-state actor. The industries. Other independent variables are the identity, when speaking of a state actor, is the standard identities resulted from Russian perception that the steering group has towards political objectives or the development of the the foreign policy of other states, the actions of semiconductor industry in the Russian non-state actors, other international political Federation (Fig. 1). processes. The articulation of Russian-Chinese For example, in the case of the Russian interests comes as a result of the Federation, the sanctions required by the intergovernmental agreements in domains such western world in the Ukrainian are inputs as IT, finances, science-technology-education involving conflicts. The Chinese-Russian etc. Moreover, the aggregation of Russian- cooperation to build the pipeline “Power of Chinese interests is a consequence of the Siberia” is a cooperative type of input. So, common projects resulting from the generally, the inputs represent the perceptions intergovernmental agreements. The of the leaders that are implied in the process of cooperation from the IT domain was a result of foreign policy have towards the international the development and applications of the political processes with various connotations microprocessors in the military domain, being of messages that accompany these perceptions. performed in three main directions: The identity is defined by a set of  the development of large computing meanings or messages that the actor attributes systems for research and simulation of to perception. If the sanctions of the occident various scientific organizational-managerial have a hostile character towards the Russian processes (e.g. B2 Spirit Bomber and M1A1 Abrams battle tank);

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Fig.1. The relationship between independent and dependent variables of Russian-Chinese aggregation and articulation processes

 the organization of computer networks two conceptions there were defined, in time, the with client-server systems (architecture processors developed by the INTEL/AMG which originally served the companies in CISC’s architecture, and in RISC’s administrative and logistics of a modern one, specific to the products developed by the army); Sun and Motorola manufacturers. The Sun  the introduction of equipping the Company, being at that moment a producer of Western armies with new models of computers and not semiconductors, created an weapon systems (e.g.: smart munitions international consortium of American and or modern telecommunication platforms) Japanese producers of semiconductors which which include systems of information provided circuits for Sun’s computers. Thus, gathering, processing/filtering, data SPARC International occurred, and the SPARC storage and transmission. processors in RISC’s architecture in the mid 80’s. 2.2 Russian’s Perception towards These would have a major impact in the Western Semiconductor Technology. For development of Russian processors of casual use the first two types of computing systems, ELBRUS from the 90s [7]. there were imposed general use For the specialized microprocessors type microprocessors (GUM), which are present DSP, ever since the beginning there was the nowadays in a variety of computing Texas Instruments components, which imposed systems (e.g.: tablets, laptops, complex via its product, TMS-320. This is a mathematic servers, etc.). For the last class of systems, processor specialized in complex calculus. there were used digital signal processors Through its specialized architecture, it (DSP). These have in their components, represented a basic product for aero-spatial and besides the architecture of a classic GUM, aeronautics military electronics, but for specialized circuits dedicated to complex processing television signals, audio, video or mathematic operations, needed in domains telecommunications as well. It was a patent that like speech processing, image processing or inspired the DSP manufacturers for the mobile telecommunication processing. phoning from the 90-2000s. Ever since the beginning, the GUM After 1980, the microelectronic revolution of family had a competition between two microprocessors brought, as a military families that were different by construction contribution in the military balance East-West and still competing. The two families were during the period of the Cold War, an obvious Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC), advantage for NATO and USA regarding and Complex Instruction Set Computer conventional weaponry. Because of the new (CISC) [6]. Between the champions of the models of semiconducting circuits, the easy

177 SOCIO-HUMANITIES weaponry succeeded for the first time in Foxcon, which produce systems based on history to change the balance of forces at INTERL technology in CISC architecture. the expense of heavy weapons on the Likewise, for the market of big computer battlefield. system, a great contribution was the Chinese The fall of the communist system in the academic environment, which began developing 1989-1991 and the occurrence of the its own large computer systems. This paved the globalization phenomenon led to the spread People's Liberation Army the opportunity to align of semiconductor technologies in the with the new trend of the early 80s, "the Army of former socialist countries. The great the third wave" [9]. beneficiary was China, Russia remaining a For the two zones of products remembered, great incubator of patents in the domains of the People’s Liberation Army could begin the two concepts (GUM and DSP) (Tab. 1). extensive structural reforms: reducing staff, 2.3 Russian’s Perception towards improving logistics and resource management in Chinese Semiconductor Technology. the Chinese military body; the development, Through its profound economic reforms of along with the academic and university world, of modernization, China signs into a new a wide range of projects locally, through the internal stage of its internal evolution, but assimilation of military technology, aviation or especially international. Via its closeness to naval. Moving the production from the USA and USA, initiated in the early 70’s, China Europe in the Asia-Pacific area made from China comes again in contact with the Western the ‘floor of the world’ [10]. world. In the twenty-first century, China managed to The emerge on the Chinese market of become the main manufacturer of the great manufacturers of calculus telecommunication systems, semiconductors, technology was made after the second half computers, and for the subcontractors of the big of the 70s, through the big American American producers of weaponry (Raytheon, enterprises that produced main frames (e.g. Lockheed Martin, Boeing, Northrop Grumman IBM, DEQ, or CrayCC) [8]. The great step and General Dynamics). An impossible thing to occurs in the 80s, when the first do in the 70-80s – to obtain semiconductor’s manufactures of semiconductors and technology from the USA, was realized by the modern computer technology appear. globalization in the 90-2000s, via American For the market of computers and producers which left to China with sensitive servers, in China there are several famous technology. producers, including Legend Group/ Lenovo, Founder Group, Great Wall Group,

GUM DSP China dominates technologically Data center and Russia dominates the design There are no such products. experience and patents. The benefits of Chinese experience in the China dominates the hardware development of switching and routing, the Computer technology (servers and clients Russian Federation, because of the Networks area). experience in design, has great

development potential. China dominates in the sensor technology, Rarely are present in such type Intelligent weapons and Russia dominates in its DSP design and of products. telecommunication standards. Tab. 1 The hardware potential for growth and development

The intake of American semiconductor allowed the occurrence of a public-private technology on the Chinese market and the consortium to promote a standard Chinese development of their own facilities, both in the microprocessor for the consumer market, but printed circuit boards and semiconductors, also for military applications. This Longson

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processor (initially named Godsone), [14]. The development of semiconductor nowadays reached the fourth generation [11]. industry in the USSR led to the development It presents an RISC architecture with a MIPS of an entire computer industry. From set of instructions and the capacity to emulate independent computer system or PC type to the set instruction for INTELx86. large system of mainframe type (ELBRUS) or It is considered than it will be the standard onboard computers, aircraft, missiles or future for the products on the internal Chinese complex space techniques. market, a fact that creates a discomfort to the An original approach was the development Western manufacturers for their future of electronics on tubes and their products [12]. miniaturization so that in the USSR until the One of the advantages of the Chinese late 80s there were build analog computing microprocessors in the future fight with the systems based on electronic tubes. An example American ones is the independence of the of this is the board computers of MiG-23, Chinese industry of the necessary machinery which could perform combat missions in needed for such a semiconductor factory. This radioactive environments. Involvement in the was produced in three countries: USA, Japan, large computers area was performed both in and Netherlands. Now China is the fourth the academic and in the industrial one, producer. resulting ELBRUS mainframes family. These 2.4 The Russian Standard Identity – were used both on the research and in the The Russian Semiconductor Technology. Soviet Army’s logistic system. The Soviet Union, and later the Russian At the end of the 90s, the ELBRUS 2000 Federation, represents a strong foundation in architecture was acquired fraudulently by the research and design in the electronic INTEL and integrated in the ITANIUM industry. The main obstacle was Russia’s microprocessor’s patent [15]. In the 90-2000s, outdated technological support, compared to the ELBRUS 2000 microprocessors work with the semiconductor industry in the West. a double set of instructions. The first set is the After World War II, the Soviet Union, original ELBRUS-SPARC one and the because of the ideological conflict with the possibility of using a written translator in the USA, was deprived of access to the new Linux core. which translates the x86 technology – however, this thing was achieved instructions (alike Transmeta processors). The by the use of the secret services. Thus there system’s architecture is getting better because appeared the city of Zelenograd, a Valley of of the borrowed elements from the SPARC Silicon in USSR, where were produced the architecture, but the number of processors is necessary integrate circuits for the increased as well – two, then four, and this industry/Soviet army, programmes of research year it is expected a release of the system with were run and staff was personally prepared for 8 cores. Around 2010-2011, the ELBRUS 2C+ the manufacturers in the electronic domain systems (which contained two unities GUM [13]. and 4 units of DSP ELVEES type – the RISC- Even though it didn’t possess a industrial EPIC architecture), were executing faster than base such as the American one, in a CIA report the INTEL/AMD the matricial and vectorial it is considered that the Soviet Union, although calculus, because of the four co-unities DSP, at 25% of the USA’s production in but slower the office operations in case of semiconductors, had a promising potential for operating with Word and Excel documents. development and diversification of products They weren’t more efficient than

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INTEL/AMD in office processing documents,  struggle against US hegemony and against but much more efficient in the military Prompt Global Strike doctrine; systems – systems INTEL/AMD [16].  struggle between traditional values and The ELBRUS systems with two cores are “promoting immorality, destruction of the embedded in anti-missile system, missile type traditional family and institutionalized S-300/400, the plane model aircraft Su-32/32, dehumanization”. Su-33, Su-35, Su T-50 PAK FA, and other antiaircraft systems like Tor-M1/2 or Patsir. 3. THE ANALYSIS OF ARTICULATION The ELBRUS family is a good basis for AND AGGREGATION OF INTERESTS the development of Russian microelectronic industry in terms of the new embargo caused In this study it is examined the way by the Ukrainian crisis. Russian Federation understands fighting Since the 90s, in Russia have appeared against the US hegemony and which are the private companies that developed systems of processes of articulation and aggregation of DSP (e.g.: Neuromatrix), Global Navigation interest promoted in this research. (GLONASS), revolutionary architectures for To promote an offensive foreign policy market products with high computing power against USA, the Russian Federation has the (e.g.: the Multiclet patent); For large systems Chinese support. As retired Colonel Liu of mainframe type and data center, in Russia Mingfu wrote in his work on “Chinese has developed T-Platforms, a large Dream”, China’s goal is to be the exchange for manufacturer company of High Power the role of tomorrow’s US worldwide Computing. T-Platforms, with Rosnano and hegemony. To do this, China is pursuing a Roselectronica, taking the ARM Cortx-57 8- special relationship with Russia through core and 64-bit over 2GHz patent processor, cooperation in the energy sphere, military, have initiated a new Russian processor project technical, scientific and technological [18]. called BAIKAL. Along with ELBRUS, In the nearly four decades ago of BAIKAL is the new line that Russia wants to modernization, China has reached compete the systems based on x86 technology technological level near Japan, scientists and of American type. The Kremlin wants a academics Chinese are attending international reconfiguration of the entire Russian state scientific conferences or teaching at all apparatus by giving up the IT infrastructure of prestigious universities around the world. This Microsoft-Intel/AMD type and implements an unprecedented development of China offers infrastructure of ELBRUS/BAIKAL hardware, Russian Federation an important ally and with a Debian Linux operating system. creates a Russian-Chinese strategic binomial In support of this project, besides „Soviet as a counterweight for the Nippon-American Silicon Valley” in Zelenograd, a few years ago binomial in the Pacific Ocean basin. The the building of another „Russian Silicon future confrontation in the Asia-Pacific basin, Valley” began in Skolkovo. Architecture in the but also at the global level, depends on two new center is not layered as it was in important variables: Zelenograd, but cluster. Technology research 1. How will the transition of power happen areas are of the technology of information, between US and China? (peacefully through energetic technologies, nuclear technologies, international institutions and political biomedical technologies, aerospace and consultations and permanent diplomatic or telecommunication technologies. through military confrontation). Analyzing the context of foreign policy of 2. How stable will be the Pivotal Global the Russian Federation, President Vladimir Nuclear Deterrent system? (this is based on Putin, in a speech to parliament in 2013, mutual nuclear deterrence system between defines the future lines of foreign policy as three actors: the Us, China and Russia). follows [17]: Sutyagin (2014) considers that the reason  struggle against capital to evade state which prompted the Kremlin to choose the control through off shore activities; path of fight against US hegemony is the post-

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Cold War situation, when the international company Continental Motors, the world’s only influence of the Russian Federation and its manufacturer of drones engines with pistons international voice had not been heard by the (used to Global Hawks in US and at Heron by United States. The only leverage that Russia the Israelis) which allowed the development of may limit US influence is: Russian veto right the ambitious program with Chinese drones in the UN Security Council; tools like gas and [21]. oil; Russian Nuclear Triad [19]. Aggregation of interests of the policy in the The articulation of interests of Russian industrial cooperation in the field of foreign policy for an international joint manufacturing semiconductor products and IT objective against US hegemony, was building can be achieved in three major directions of an entire system of formal/informal development of an army of “third wave” type, relationships, bilateral or multilateral format. through joint projects in the area of computer To challenge the US, Russian-Chinese systems and microprocessors. binomial has several options of tools, not just At the Russian experience (large computer the military. On financial terms, the two great systems, High Power Computing systems), powers pursue what is called “de-dollarization adds the Chinese (data center, software of the global economy”, that the international development). Future cooperation in the field financial system replaces the US dollar with of large computing system can be gold transactions and to prevent a part of the implemented in software through the joint economy of future international economic development of software platforms on Linux cataclysm produced by the big US commercial architectures, starting from the Russian deficit. Another way is to create an alternative experience of ALT Linux/ Debian Linux, financial institution from IMF to World Bank, namely the Chinese one in Red Flag Linux. Asian Bank for Investment and Infrastructure Systems in an open source type of Linux, and based in Beijing [20]. the software industries in the two countries can In the semiconductor technologies field have a huge development potential in the field exist agreements of governmental cooperation of office package software, databases or between the Russian and Chinese parties development tools necessary for engineering (nanotechnologies, software development, applications, tools needed for part researches communications and satellite navigation and logistic organization of a modern army in system, interoperability between GLONASS the information age. satellite navigation and the Chinese one, The distance between the integration Beidou). Although China possesses advanced capabilities of semiconductor products that microelectronics technology in the US level, it develop in the West or China is relatively imports from Russia due to lack of experience small, and the distance between semiconductor in certain areas of semiconductor devices, such industries in Russia and the West can be as telecommunications and radar technique reduced based on the development of new AESA/PESA (Kashin, 2014). production capacities, and processing One area in which Chinese experience is important equipment in China. This will particularly rich is that of optoelectronic ensure that in the next 10 years the Russian devices, system cameras or sensors in various Federation will be independent electromagnetic with special character. China technologically, both to West and China. has rich experience in working with Sagem of The two great powers cannot develop self- Frace. Also, cooperation with the Austrian sufficiently in a global world and

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interdependent, but must each find niches of 5. Burke, P. J., Stets, J.E. Identity Theory. cooperation, namely separation, in economic Oxford University Press (2009). relations in the IT area. 6. Tanenbaum, A.S. Structured Computer Organization. 5th edition, Pearson Prentice 4. CONCLUSIONS Hall (2006). 7. Bochannek, A. The Elbrus-2: a Soviet-era Both the Russian Federation and china, as high performance computer. [online]. a standard identity in the sphere of common Available: objectives, have the erosion of the US http://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/the hegemony (to transfer decision by the US to -elbrus-2-a-soviet-era-high-performance- the world countries in BRICS group). In this computer/ (October, 2014). area the identity of the articulation of interests 8. Pecht, M. China's Electronics Industry, standardly requires a set of common William Andrew Publishing (2007). objectives, such as de-dollarization of the 9. Toffler, A. Al treilea val. Ed. Politică, global economy; creating alternatives to the Bucure ti (1983). US institutional instruments; the 10. Buchanan, P. Is War in the Cards for complementarity of the two economies and 2015? [online]. Available: their integration. http://original.antiwar.com/ In terms of the articulation of interests buchanan/2015/01/01/is-war-in-the-cards- between the two great powers in the area of for-2015/ (February, 2015). industrial cooperation in IT and semiconductor 11. Cliff, R. The Military Potential of China’s industry, we conclude the following: Commercial Technology. [online].  the area of software development in both Available: countries is similar or even superior to http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pub many western states. Many western s/monograph_reports/2001/MR1292.pdf companies have branches in Russia and (December 2014). China, and these braches play strategic 12. Hanlon, M. Godson-2 Microprocessor Is roles in the many upward trends of these China’s Great Leap Forward, Says In- companies. Stat’s Microprocessor Report. [online].  the hardware has the potential for growth Available: and development in new standard identities http://www.gizmag.com/go/4317 (which the armies of the two countries can (December, 2014). acquire) and the national semiconductor 13. Zelenоgrad Innovation and Technology industries, are summarized in Table 1. Centre (ZITC). Official site. [online]. Available: REFERENCES http://www.zitc.ru/index.php/en.html (January, 2015). 1. Kurian, G.T., The Encyclopedia of 14. Office of Scientific and Weapon Research Political Science. CQ Press (2011). (OSWR), Soviet Microelectronics: Impact 2. Choucri, N., The Politics of Knowledge of Western Technology Acquisitions. An Management. The UNESCO Forum on Intelligence Assessment. [online]. Higher Education, Research and Available: Knowledge, Massachusetts Institute of http://www.foia.cia.gov/sites/default/files/d Technology (2007). ocument_conversions/89801/DOC_000499 3. Higley, J., Burton, G.M., Field, G. L. In 603.pdf (January, 2015). Defense of Elite Theory. American 15. Hachman, M. Intel Hires Elbrus Sociological Review, vol. 55, pp. 421-426 Microprocessor Design Team. [online]. (1990). Available: http://www. 4. Almond, G., Verba, S. Cultura Civică. eweek.com/c/a/ITInfrastructure/Intel- CEU Press şi Editura DU Style, Bucureşti Hires-Elbrus-Microprocessor-DesignTeam (1996). (December, 2014).

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16. Encyclopedia of Safety (EOS) New [online]. Available: Russian computers: features, details, https://www.youtube.com/watch? explanations. [online]. Available: v=UUPKQi4Nbc0 (November, 2014). http://survincity.com/2013/10/new-russian- 20. Mândrăşescu, V. Banca de dezvoltare computers-features-details-2/. (November, ruso-chineză - o alternativă pentru FMI. 2014). [online]. Available: 17. Mândrăşescu, V. Putin este liderul global http://romanian.ruvr.ru/2014_06 al conservatorilor. Radio Vocea Rusiei. _06/Russko-kitajskij-bank-razvitija- [online]. Available: alternativa-MVF-9346/ (January, 2015). http://romanian.ruvr.ru/2013_12_ 16/Putin- 21. Kashin, V. On Opportunities for Western este-liderul-global-al-conservatorilor-6960/ Technology Imports Substitution Through (December, 2014). Greater Cooperation with China. [online]. 18. Callahan, W.A. China's grand strategy in a Available: http://mdb.cast.ru/mdb/4- post-western world. 2014/ item1/article1/ (December, 2014). https://www.opendemocracy. net/william- callahan/china%E2%80%99s-grand- strategy-in-post-western-world (February, 2015). 19. Sutyagin, I. Russian Countermeasures against New Missile Technologies, 2014.

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SATISFACTION AND PERFORMANCE WORK - DIMENSIONS RELEVANT FOR THE ORGANIZATIONAL YIELD

Georgiana Corcaci*

*Department of Psychology, "Petre Andrei" University, Iasi, Romania

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to present the psychological dimensions relevant to the work of organizational dimensions that are closely related to job satisfaction and performance, with profit and organizational performance. In this paper we will refer only to some of these dimensions, which have shown from numerous empirical studies that are relevant to organizational performance. To achieve the applicative approach, we propose the following objectives: 1. Identifying characteristics of dimensions of organizational climate, environment specific security and protection of companies from Iasi, 2. psychological intervention on organizational climate improvement.

Keywords: trust, satisfaction, cohesion, psychosocial stability

1. INTRODUCTION the company/ institution). The second objective of psychological evaluation of staff Any psychological assessment has certain is to create a climate conducive to individual objectives that apply regardless of the stage in and collective performance, which translates which the analysis or evaluation methodology climate individually by contentment, used. A prime objective of psychological satisfaction, professional fulfillment, and not evaluation is to facilitate individual and by identifying with the company/ institution organizational performance, be it the selection and its mission. At the organizational level, of candidates who have psychological this second objective has a corresponding characteristics closest to the open position concept clearly, but I might call "stimulating requirements (selection training), whether it's environment", "participatory culture" or psychological evaluation to identify potential "organizational harmony." (Armstrong, M. professional development (career 2014). Given that we live much of our lives management) or consulting the employee working, sometimes at the same firm- about the issues, concerns or opportunities that institution is important for her to bring us arise in the working collective (organizational satisfaction, we accomplish, not to give us the climate analysis), final result that we want to feeling that time is lost or obligation. Because obtain or to influence, is performance. if this happens, we lost so we as employees Performance or performance at work, visible and the organization we belong to, as an at first individually and then collectively, lead employer and user of our time and effort. ultimately to the profit and creating new All staff psychological assessment development opportunities (individually and at procedures aimed at achieving the two

185 SOCIO-HUMANITIES objectives, although in every action, they are groups work, quality of labor relations and formulated as specific targets (identify the best social environment, the system of evaluating candidate, identify training needs, define the work of existing shares to training and grounds for dissatisfaction professional promotion, information systems and identify resistance to change etc.). Do not communications, management style and forget the fact that the two objectives are methods, etc. interdependent. For example, scientific Determines the organizational climate research has shown that employees with higher factors fall into two categories: 1. Objective - job satisfaction achieved higher performance working conditions, age group and its than other employees; professional components, the training of staff members, the dissatisfaction was associated with both low remuneration of employees. 2. Subject: a) productivity and with absenteeism, accidents individual related factors - the conception of and illnesses. (Pitariu, H. 2000). On the other man, professional competence, leadership hand, obtaining a recognized performance, style, pedagogical tact, fairness distribution individual or collective, increase confidence tasks, assessing work efforts and results, and job satisfaction and performance creates incentives, knowledge work and life issues new premises. faced by people, prestige and authority. b) Beyond the organization's overall factors related to the collective - cohesion, management efficiency, communication mood, morality group work force of collective problems often occur within a group or opinion. between departments, employee job The relationship between the two factors satisfaction, motivation and agreement to is not about cause - effect, but an interaction payment system, the practical organization of mediated by individual and collective current activity or the quality of hierarchical characteristics of the group in question. relation. Can be no question of achieving Therefore, psychosocial climate has a lot of major shifts in the institution, changes usually tests, not caused by events, isolated positive or are expected of all kinds of rumors and negative. A single failure in activity does not therefore can accumulate dissatisfaction, work install a climate of tension, just as a conflict, open or hidden, between the heads, reward does not lead to a collective good collective or hierarchical structures. climate. But small facts fulfill a particular role It becomes clear that in terms of human when it collects in individual and collective resources for the smooth management of an memory and, over time, contribute to the institution is not always enough jobs / deterioration working atmosphere. The mood functions are well defined; the tasks are clear is a synthetic indicator of the psychosocial to all employees as professional selection climate. It is generated by ideas; feelings and exams to be well made assessment procedures aspirations that stabilized, due to a higher or the work to be performed correctly and with consciousness and of enduring beliefs cannot finality stimulating. Interventions are needed be easily shaken. From the psychological point and other managers from HR, interventions of view, the mood is defined as available to that include analysis of organizational climate, members of a collective dominant, (Zlate, M. p.176). Organizational climate can characterized by confidence in the group, self- be described as affective components confidence, about the role played in the group, (feelings, fears, feelings, positive or negative), commitment to group work and willingness to cognitive (beliefs, opinions, rumors), behavior strive group to achieve goals. (involvement, slow, absenteeism, protests, Cole G. (2000) for individual morale as a etc.). And obviously the size that I already did phenomenon, but determined group. Theories reference - communication, job satisfaction, on moral are expressed as a combination of organization, etc.. Organizational climate factors that are considered to represent depends on the quality of actions for ensuring elements of satisfaction or dissatisfaction the physical and social environment - without generators: 1. Stimulating factors - cohesion, organizational dysfunction and functional - the optimal management, high level of that is how the formation and structure micro training, self-confidence, lack of fatigue and

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illness, decent, success in training, motivation, Table 2. Tenure of employees: correct assessment of group members and the Tenure-year 2008 2009 2010 head of hierarchy, etc.. 2. Negative factors - Numeric 22 13 55 increased intensity of stress, lack of cohesion, Percentage 20,93 % 15,12 % 63,95 % poor process management, fatigue, poor training, inadequate skills formats, poor Table 3. Level of schooling of employees: motivation, lack of self-confidence, passivity, School Education Higher High etc. Vocational Education School Numeric 18 70 2 Multitude of factors that determine moral Percentage 20,93 % 77,91 % 1,16 5 act simultaneously, but the amount, direction and meaning of their influence is dependent on Table 4. Marital status of employees: situational context of objective and subjective. Marital Married Unmarried It is vital to select and act each time on that status dominant factor influencing the positive and Numeric 67 23 morale within the group. "Organizational Percentage 73,26 % 26,74 % climate analysis provides invaluable 2.1. Methods, techniques and evaluation information in the form of suggestions or procedures. The methodology is conceived solutions to solve specific problems, possible as a variant of operational research, being leverage to motivate employees, descriptions simultaneously a modern design and a method of possible future threats or opportunities for of psycho-sociological investigation that development of efficient business or firm- combines the knowledge and diagnosis of institution" (Armstrong, M., 2006). status quo and behaviors functions of assessment, intervention and prognosis of staff 2. APPLIED RESEARCH APPROACH morale. Practical effectiveness of the methodology is directly related to how to Our research aims to identify the comply with certain principles, such as: a) the characteristics of dimensions of organizational responsibility for quality assurance, objectivity climate, specific environmental protection and and timeliness of analysis and morale; b) to security firms and psychological intervention achieve and maintain among staff morale has a on organizational climate improvement. The collective leading role in relation to individual sample investigated. For the smooth running morale, c) the positive-negative affect staff of research have been a lot of 90 employees of morale team morale decisive military groups. I security companies and protection of Iasi, used to achieve research-based questionnaire under contract, with average age between 20- survey, observation, interview and 40 years old mostly based on a year, married, questionnaire as a tool to record and analyze with a level of secondary schooling. the psychological state of mind. 2.2. Description. Mood questionnaire Table 1. Numerical and percentage distribution analysis is structured on four main dimensions by age of employees: that define this area: trust, satisfaction, Category 20 – 25 25 – 30 30 – 35 35 – 40 cohesion and psychosocial stability. Trust and Age years years years years satisfaction with every three overtones Numeric 20 27 19 24 (relevant for individual morale), and Percentage 23,26 % 26,74 % 22,09 % 27,91 %

187 SOCIO-HUMANITIES psychosocial cohesion and stability, with four obtained is calculated in hundredths, overtones (collectively important for morale). transforming the notes are rated according out Here is the main significance of the size relationship: a) Unsatisfactory (0 - 1,50); b) considered in the methodology: Partially satisfactory (1.51 to 3.50); c) - TRUST is the basic size of individual Satisfactory (3, 51 to 6.50); d) Good (6.51 to morale with a complex psycho-social 8.50); e) Very good (8.51 - 10). content. It simultaneously shows a 2.3. Interpretation of results. To achieve personality trait (high capacity assessment, goals, using specific instruments work, we self and action) and an invigorating mood, proposed to analyze the psychological optimistic, safe in their own and collective dimensions relevant to organizational activity, success. This dimension refers to: a) namely to identify psychosocial characteristics confidence b) confidence in leaders, c) trust of organizational climate, with an important in logistics equipment used. role in maintaining and stimulating the activity - SATISFACTION is an emotional-affective of employees. Assessing organizational state, which deeply influences the positive climate in the work group assessed were morale, especially its role regulating, purchased, processed and interpreted supporting and mobilizing effective action information about mood and attitudes mental for us. This dimension refers to: a) favorable or unfavorable working group to satisfaction with the working and living carry out its tasks, from interpersonal conditions, b) job satisfaction, c) the relationships vertically and horizontally satisfaction given by the welfare state. rewards and punishment system, opportunities - COHESION is an essential condition. for career development, etc. Designates bonds of unity, solidarity In this took into account objective factors, between group members, relations under subjective, which can positively or negatively which it operates powerful, coherent and influence the psychosocial climate, the relatively autonomous. This dimension conclusions and direct observations of direct refers to: a) interpersonal relations, b) leaders, discussions with staff, the leadership engaging in tasks c) adaptability; d) the and participation in certain practical activities. force of collective opinion. In table 5 present the results obtained by - PSYCHOSOCIAL STABILITY mainly questionnaire on mood and confidence ratings means the ability to perform assigned duties appropriate size. group, to act consistently effective, competent, providing a relaxed atmosphere Table 5. Results obtained in confidence psychosocial positive. Overtones: a) quality dimension. of training, b) the normative, c) stability of Dimension TRUST leadership, d) psychological stability. Under size Self Trust Trust The questionnaire includes 33 items confidence chief technical relating to physical factors, psychosocial and Average 8,84 8,57 8,46 psycho individual that can positively or General 8,62 negatively influence the state of morale. average The response is assessed on a Likert scale of Rating Very good intensity from 1 (minimum) to 10 (maximum), Interpretation: Trust is relevant to depending on the individual opinion of each employees of security firms and protection by employee (rating scale in 10 steps). General the expression of feelings and attitudes that are appreciation of the state of morale and of strong motivating forces in domestic certainty every size, and indicator variables is made that has a very good training, high through five grades, which correspond to the commitment to the heads, which are evaluation scale of 10 steps, notes, as follows - characterized by professional competence VERY GOOD - Grades 10 and 9, good - Notes through style effective management, the 8 and 7, ENVIRONMENT - grades 6 and 5, principled and fairness, commitment to the SATISFACTORY - Unsatisfactory grades 4 organization's mission. This is highlighted by and 3 - Notes 2 and 1. Since the media is notes that were given great confidence in chief

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and in itself, logistic equipment, this resulting Table 8. Psychosocial dimension stability in average size 8.62, corresponding to a very Dimensi Psychosocial stability good rating. ons Under Quali Normativ Leaders Psychol size ty ity hip ogical Table 6. Satisfaction dimension stability stability Dimension SATISFACTION Average 8,34 8,92 8,27 8,68 Under size Working Job Social Average 8,55 conditions satisfaction status general Average 8,53 8,32 8,43 Rating Very good General 8,43 average Interpretation: The psychosocial Rating Good dimension stability were assessed with very Interpretation: Employee satisfaction is good grades normative, psychological reflected by the joy and pleasure expressed by stability, training and management in terms of success in business, the satisfaction on stability (s direction), the averages obtained fulfillment of needs, goals and aspirations, and were assessed with a good grade. Media in this felt the fullness of recognition of merit. dimension is 8.55, corresponding to very good Employees said they were satisfied with the qualifier. The results allow us to belief that the socio-professional status held, and in particular organization is functional psychosocial working conditions which are provided with climate, characterized by high trust in leaders the fitting line and solve personal problems and in themselves, strong collective opinion, that arise, and thus job satisfaction, this positive interpersonal relationships, a good dimension obtained average 8.43 adaptive capacity, psychological stability, corresponding good qualifier. normativity and training high.

Table 7. Cohesion dimension. 3. CONCLUSIONS Dimensi COHESION on The results of the questionnaire on mood, Under Interperso Engagi Adapt Collectiv shows that the working group analyzed, the size nal ng in ing e opinion climate is optimal psychosocial, functional, relations tasks characterized by trust between team members, Average 8,55 8,06 8,51 8,77 collaboration and mutual aid, communication, General 8,47 average optimism, positive interpersonal relationships, Rating Good open expression of ideas, initiatives, strong Interpretation: The cohesion dimension, cohesion and collective opinion, the lack of good grades were given force of collective tension and conflict. opinion, the existing positive interpersonal Strengths of the work group studied are: relationships in the organization, both normative (8.92), confidence (8.84), the force horizontally and vertically, members of the of collective opinion (8.77), psychological capacity to adapt to new situations and stability (8.68) confidence in leaders (8.57) ; engaging them in their duties. At this size they positive interpersonal relations (8.55), working obtained average 8.47, corresponding good and living conditions (8.53), ability to adapt to qualifier. new situations (8.51). Of course there are

189 SOCIO-HUMANITIES complaints mostly related to the salary and and increase employee job satisfaction, loyalty financial incentives - as activators of economic and keeping them in the organization, which motivation - concerned, without doubt, an means in fact achieve a fundamental purpose important place among the other categories of of organization. stimuli able to maintain a high level of mood. However their place and role is not as REFERENCES important as you might think at first sight. Although the economic motivation remains a 1. Armstrong, M., Armstrong’s Handbook of significant stimulation of the propeller work, Human Resource Management Practice, which is treated with respect at work, 1518 Walnut Street, Suite 1100, recognition and personal development, play a Philadelphia PA 19102, USA, Thirteenth major role in boosting their performance. edition (2014). Most of the strengths listed above are 2. Armstrong, M., A Handbook of Personnel. considered psychosocial factors of satisfaction Management practice, Kogan Page, and the use by line managers, can lead to London (2006). increased job satisfaction and performance. 3. Cole, G., Personnel management, Editura Heads must ensure that employees benefit Codecs, Bucureşti (2000). from a balanced system of appropriate rewards 4. Pitaru, H., Human resource management and needs met because of factors motivating - performance appraisal, Edition-II, exclusively pecuniary - that could work spores Editura All Beck, Bucharest (2000). of subjective value - recognizing individual 5. Zlate, M., Leadership and Management, achievements and encouraging communication Polirom, Iasi (2004). in the workplace are decisive in obtaining the participation of employee’s performance. In conclusion, the importance of psychosocial climate is that it can influence the efficiency

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IRRATIONAL BELIEFS, PROFESSIONAL STRESS AND PERSONALITY IN THE MILITARY

Constantin-Edmond Cracsner*, Lidia Mogoşan*

*Faculty of Psychology, Ecological University, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: The study covers relations between the distorted or convictions irrational beliefs, the different magnitudes of occupational stress and their influences on the personality traits in the military. The study was conducted on a sample of 90 military of different professional categories (officers, low ranking officers, non-commissioned officers and soldiers/other military professionals). From the study, we can draw some robust findings, as such: in a certain measure distorted convictions/irrational beliefs may interact directly both with professional stress, as well as with some personality traits; on a greater extent, professional stress interacts directly with the personality structure and may augment the interaction between the distorted convictions/irrational beliefs and the military’s personality. Psychological assistance offered to the military personnel, as support or intervention, should be aimed at simultaneously reducing the role of the magnitude of the stressors and of the distorted beliefs/irrational convictions on the personality of the military.

Keywords: stress, distorted convictions, irrational beliefs, personality, psychological assistance

1. INTRODUCTION 1990, Young, 1990, Beck 1995, Taylor 1996, Alford & Beck, 1997, Williams & al., 1997, In the contemporary society, psychology's Leahy & Holland, 2000 Holdevici 2009, Clark mission is to contribute, along with the other & Beck, 2010, etc. .). sciences, at increasing the efficiency of human The cognitive therapeutic approach of activity at both individual and organizational various mental disorders (Beck, 1995 Leahy, level. In this regard, out of the various fields of 2003) integrates a number of essential psychology, major roles are assigned to components of rational-emotive therapy clinical psychology, psychological counselling developed by Ellis (1994, 2004, 2011), thus and psychotherapy. harmonizing the concepts related to: cognitive In terms of theory and cognitive- distortions which make the stressed person behavioural therapy strategy, the triad vulnerable to negative life events that will be composed of distorted beliefs, automatic interpreted in a catastrophic and exaggerated negative thoughts and maladaptive behaviours manner; at different levels of cognitive with regard to self, society and the world, integration - thoughts, beliefs and negative might be viewed as the major directions of cognitive schemes which make the person therapeutic intervention as stated by many enter automatisms and become fragile; experts (Ellis, 1962 Beck, 1979, Anderson, furthermore, emotions emphasize the already

191 SOCIO-HUMANITIES weakened role of resistance to frustration and gaining control, all under the pressure of of cognition invasion with categorical and persistent negative emotions (Clark & Beck, inflexible imperatives (Leahy & Holland, 2000 2010, p.284-295 ). Holdevici, 2009). Therefore, the literature provides empirical From the perspective of the cognitive evidence and theoretical assumptions about the model there were developed counselling and presence of some interdependent relations psychotherapeutic intervention strategies, between distorted beliefs, professional stress demonstrated empirically and scientifically and personality traits. and validated for various disorders especially This study aimed to identify the existence on axis I and axis II of the DSM-IV-R (APA, of such relations in a military structure, in 2000). Out of these, psychotherapy and order to ensure knowledge and specialized treatment for stress disorder is a major psychological support for the specialised direction of action. For the military, military personnel. occupational stress, in its most dramatic and probable form - posttraumatic stress disorder 2. METHOD (PTSD), can be approached theoretically and practically, from the perspective of the 2.1. Objectives. Within this research there are cognitive model put forward by Clark & Beck formulated three objectives: theoretical, (2010), which is based on three cognitive methodological and practical. models developed by Ehlers & Clark (2000), The theoretical objective is to study the Brewin, Dalgleish & Joseph (1996) and Foa & relationships between the dimensions of al. (1998, 2004), which apart from the distinct distorted beliefs, personality and military perspectives, share " the fundamental occupational stress level, given the assumption that PTSD symptoms are the result requirements, demands and specificities of the of erroneous beliefs and estimations on profession, on the one hand and military trauma, as well as of dysfunctional encoding status, on the other hand. and recovery of memory and trauma" (Clark & The methodological objective is the Beck, 2010, p .285).Therefore, the proposed application of psychological tools with which model deals with PTSD as a cognitive to assess the size of irrational beliefs, organization disorder on three interrelated professional stress level and the size of various levels of conceptualization: the etiologic level, personality traits of the randomly selected the automated processing level and the subjects within a military unit. strategic processing level (Clark & Beck, The practical objective is to demonstrate 2010, p.285-286). In essence, developing the assumptions’ validity regarding the inter- trauma is a dynamic, hyper-complex, relationships between irrational beliefs, multiphase and multi-level interaction: the professional stress and personality traits in the etiologic level connects the traumatic military environment. experience with pre-existing vulnerability and 2.2. Hypoyheses. In this paper we present associated with some personality traits and only two of the assumptions that have been dysfunctional cognitive schemes; the made within the research, as follows: automatic, or primary, processing level uses I1 - in the military environment, the maladaptive cognitive structures for traumatic existence of irrational beliefs generate a high memories and for self convictions, on world level of professional stress; and future beliefs, where the biases of I2 - the irrational beliefs, occupational attention and memory favour the threats, stress and status indicators (age and allowing a erroneous recovery of the traumatic professional occupation) influence the memory, traumatic intrusions and manifestation of personality traits; physiological stimulations; the strategic, or 2.3. Variables. In this research there were secondary, processing level allows for a established two categories of variables, as negative estimate of intrusions and follows: stimulations in the efforts to find self safety, through denial and avoidance actions, or by

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a) dependent variables: personality traits position, age, education, marital status etc.). and their emerging manifestations, measured For this study we retained only two status using a personality questionnaire; indicators - SI, i.e. age - AG and occupation or b) independent variables: the size of the socio-professional military status - O. psychological instruments used to measure 2.6.2. Personality Questionnaire (SID) is a irrational beliefs and the level of stress factors, psychological assessment tool used in the as well as the dimensions of certain status army (SEPA Archive, 1992). It has proven its indicators. ecological validity in highlighting the main 2.4. Participants. The study included a features of personality, deemed important to group of soldiers (N = 90, 100% men, Mage = the efficient performance of the military 33,24 years, SDage = 7.2, age rank: 21-56 Also, service (Chiţu & al., 2005, p.86-92). Having N = N1 + N2 = 90, where N1 = 45 (50%) non- premised on a theoretical model of the ideal commissioned officers (NCOs) and N2 = 45 soldier, able to undergo the military (50%) military personnel (officers, low educational process in optimal conditions, ranking officers and other foremen). The there were determined three factors, absolutely distribution of the military professionals on necessary, for woking efficiently: stability - S; staff or personnel bodies, is as follows: eight integration - I; dynamism – D, thus given the officers (8.9%) and 37 low ranking officers acronym SID. Stability Factor - S is composed and other foremen (41.1%). of 30 items, which make up two subscales: a) 2.5. Procedures. The study was directed to stability of self - Ss, with 20 items, expressing verify the established hypotheses and, in this self-control in critical situations, the balanced respect there were used certain investigative character of actions and decisions, the tools to gather the necessary information. emotional adequacy in certain situations; b) The gathered information were summarized emotional stability - Sem, with 10 items, in relevant databases and were processed by which highlight the general affective tonus, the various specific methods of descriptive and overall allure of emotional moods, their inferential statistics, such as trend calculations dynamics in time. Integration factor - I has 30 of central values (mean, median, mode, items that make up the three scales: a) standard deviation) correlation study and sociability - So, which expresses the ability to regression analysis. initiate and maintain interpersonal 2.6. Instruments. The data were collected relationships, desire and need for from the application of three tools that have communication and involvement in the life of measured the irrational beliefs, professional the group, with 11 items; b) Cooperation - Co, stress magnitude and the dimensions of which highlights the possibilities for personality traits for some subjects in the cooperation with individuals and groups, the military. Also, an individual form was used to tend to avoid, not to generate or to settle record the status indicators. conflicts and tensioned situations, tolerance These tools are presented below: and adaptation capacity, with 10 items; c) 2.6.1. The individual form is a tool for friendship - Fr, which expresses the patience collecting information on a range of indicators and tact manifested towards others, of status (data identification, military rank, understanding their problems and difficulties,

193 SOCIO-HUMANITIES peer acceptance, with 9 items. Dynamic factor dull and non-stimulating character, or the - D groups 30 items, which consist of three harmful conditions in which it takes place. The scales: a) activism - Ac, expressing dynamism, use of time factor - AT highlights stress energy, pleasure and speed of action, responses arising from the lack of ability to excitement, with 20 items; b) ascendance - As, plan ones own spare time, voluntary overflows which identifies the force of self, the with tasks that often force the person to run individual's ability to reveal, to impose its own out of time, thus, creating conflicting feelings personality and ideas, with 8 items; c) towards the person’s family, the failure to objectivity - Ob, which expresses the ability to separate professional and personal activities, realistically and accurately assess the current which would imply making time for relaxation life and activity problems, with two items and rest. Lifestyle factor - RV underlines stress (SEPA Archive, 1992). For this study, internal responses produced by an imbalance between consistency is as follows: stability factor - S, α activity and rest, intense exercise and = .556; integration factor I, α = .719; dynamic unbalanced nutrition. This factor also reflects factor - D, α = .518; the entire questionnaire - the effects of accumulated stress in other areas, α = .725. both translated by compensatory behaviours 2.6.3. Stress Level Questionnaire (SLQ) (overeating, abuse of stimulating products etc.) was designed by J. Abraham (1985). The and by weakening the overall body resistance, questionnaire assesses the overall intensity of thus increasing the risk for disease. The stress on the six factors, which are sources and internal consistency of the questionnaire is α = also its manifestation areas, such as: ambiance, .885, for the present study. damaging ego/self harm, interpersonal 2.6.4. Rating Scale for vulnerability to relationships, occupation, use of time and stress - adapted (SEVS-A) is modelled after lifestyle. The questionnaire contains 84 items The Shortened General Attitude and Belief and has an increased sensitivity due to the four Scale (SGABS), which was designed by possible answers for each item, graded Lindner, Kirkby, Wertheim and Birch (1999, according to the intensity of the event in p.651-663) to measure irrational beliefs, question. The ambience factor – A, highlights largely considered to be stress generators the stress responses generated by the lack of (David Lynn Ellis, 2010 Macavei, McMahon, privacy in terms of psychological space, which 2010, Owings, Thorpe, McMillan, Burrows, the person has the feeling that he, or she, can Sigmon, Alley, 2013). As the name implies, not control and within which does not The Shortened General Attitude and Belief experience peace and relaxation, accompanied Scale (SGABS) is a short version of the by the perception of physical space as General Attitude and Belief Scale (GABS), uncomfortable. The self harm/damaging ego whose scientific validation was conducted by factor - EP highlights stress responses Bernard (1998, p.183-196). SGABS was expressed by feelings of personal failure translated into Romanian and adapted by consisting of fear, anxiety, inability to assert, Simona Trip (2007) and can be found in the guilt, devaluation, avoidant and submissive paper "Clinical Evaluation System" published behaviour. The interpersonal relations factor - by RTS in Cluj-Napoca and coordinated by RI illustrates stress responses of guilt and Daniel David (2007). The scale was adapted disappointment affecting family relationships, and calibrated from a cultural standpoint for financial difficulties, sexual problems, the the military professionals (S.P. Archive, inability to maintain lasting relationships of 2009), thus being used as a scale for assessing friendship, insufficient and unsatisfactory vulnerability to stress (SEVS). The scale is relationship with oneself. The occupation applied in order to identify people who have factor - AP demonstrates stress responses due high potential to generate stress. The scale’s to the inability to organize ones workload, the dimensions in terms of irrational beliefs, inability to refuse additional tasks and to appears to be effective predictors of a delegate responsibilities when they become broadened psychopathological spectrum (Sava overwhelming, the inability to ask for help, or & al., 2011, Bridges, Harnish, 2010, Terjesen, to request appropriate rewards, show the job’s Salhany, Sciutto 2009, Chang, D'Zurilla, 1996

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Muran, Motta, 1993 Wertheim, Poulakis, irrationality global scales was α = .86; high 1992). The scale is based upon the theory that scores indicate higher levels of irrational people who formulate their wishes in terms of beliefs. imperative needs, have a high potential for In this study, the internal consistency of the generating emotional stress (Ellis, 1994 Ellis, overall score scales for irrationality was α = 2004 Vernon, 2010, Ellis & Ellis, 2011). The .83. measurement of the degree to which people 2.7. Results. In accordance with previous formulate their desires in terms of imperative theoretical assertions, irrational beliefs needs, which they internalize, can be generate stress, which in turn affects ones accomplished by evaluating their irrational personality and behaviour. cognitions (Zurawski, Smith, 1987, Lindner & However, Table 1 shows that there are no al., 1999, MacInnes, 2003). Irrational beliefs significant simultaneous correlations between are logically incorrect, absolutistic and the dimensions measured by Shortened dogmatic in nature; they also are inconsistent General Attitude and Belief Scale (SGABS), with the objective reality, causing negative and Stress Level Questionnaire (SLQ) and maladaptive emotions, which block the Personality Questionnaire (DIS) and Status capacity to achieve the individual’s aims Indicators (SI), but a few, which we shall (Lohr, bong, 1981 Lindner & al., 1999, David explain below. Lynn Ellis, 2010). The test includes 26 As can be seen in Table 2, we reversed the statements grouped into 8 specific subscales order of the variables in the regression (Lindner & al., 1999, Tripp, 2007 Macavei, equations. McMahon, 2010, Sava & al., 2011), which Although theories generally state that covers the following dimensions: the need for irrational beliefs, stress and status indicators achievement – NR, the need for approval - should be predictors of personality behaviour, NA, the need for comfort - NC, absolutist we used them as criteria, while personality, requirement of justice - NJ overall assessment namely the stability dimension of it, we of self - EP, the overall assessment of others - considered as predictor. This decision allowed EC, rationality - R and irrationality IB. the simultaneous look at the relationship The usage of The General Attitudes and between the two categories of variables, as Beliefs Scale – Short Version (GABS-SV) well as testing their interactive effect, without (Lindner et al., 2007) allowed the measuring affecting, from a statistical perspective, the of a global score for irrational beliefs - IB as a degree of relation between variables. result of the first six dimensions above. We hereby present the data in Table 2. In another study (Sava & al., 2011), a Case one: stabilitate - S din SID şi nevoia de ranking of the irrational beliefs scales was aprobare - NA din SGAVS stability - S from made, in accordance with their internal SID and the need for approval - NA from consistency, thus: the distribution obtained SGAVS are in negative and significant from α = .57 for the overall evaluation of correlation (r = -.212, p <.05); the statistical others - EC (other- downing) to α = .85 for the results of the regression equation show that R overall evaluation of oneself - EP (self- = .212, R2 = .045, ΔR2 = .034, β = -.212, p < downing); the internal consistency score of .05, which demonstrates a good ability for

195 SOCIO-HUMANITIES making predictions; from the statistics of and personality traits (Leahy & Holland, 2000 change’s effect results that R2c = .045, Fc = Clark & Beck, 2010). More specifically, our 4.135, Sig. Fc = .045, and D-W = 1<1,8 < 3 findings, in case one, is consistent with the which reinforces the idea of a good ability for specific relationship between the predictor making predictions. Case two: based on (need of approval) and the criterion (stability inductive reasoning, we find that the need for of personality), which shows that a structured, approval - and the need to achieve NA - NR in mature, stable and balanced personality is SGAVS present a strong, positive and better aware of its social and professional roles significant correlation (r = .362, p < .01); and responsibilities and feels less the need for furthermore, the need to achieve - NR in approval and supervision. Also, in a somewhat SGAVS and Self harm – PE in SLQ correlate similar manner, in the second case it appears strongly, positively and significantly (r = .286, that the personality structure, through the p < .01); Self harm - PE and the need for dimension of stability, relates negatively to comfort - CN from SGAVS show a strong, aspects that can lead to self-harm, namely to positive and significant correlation (r = .234, p self-esteem (Sava & al., 2011) and positively < .01); Self harm - PE in SLQ and irrational to the need achievement. In the third case as beliefs - IB in SGAV correlated positively and well, the results show that the stability of the significantly (r = .260, p < .05); age - AG (SI) personality structure maintains the related and the need for approval - NA in SGAVS rapports between the Ego and the need to correlated in negative strong and significant achieve, while the standardized β coefficient result (r = -.311, p < .01); ); the statistical values change to various degrees, whilst results of the regression equation are R = .552, keeping their rank contribution to the R2 = .305, ΔR2 = .255, β (PE) = -.503, p < .01 variability criterion. Consequently, the and β (NR) = .369, p < .05, which shows a possible harms of the Ego would adversely good ability for making predictions where the affect the stability of the whole personality two predictors are concerned; the statistics of (ΔβPE = 51,3% - 50,3% = 1%), while the need change’s effect results in R2c = .305, Fc = for achievement, even if it would have a 6.069, Sig. Fc = .045, and D-W = 1< 1,6 < 3, positive influence on personality’s stability, which reinforces the idea of a good ability for would lose significantly in terms of its making predictions. Case three: the results contribution to variability ΔβNR = 36,9% - obtained in case two lead us to give up four of 21,1% = 15,8%). the predictors, i.e. NA, NC, IB and AG as the From the perspective of the ego-personality values of the tests of significance are not rapport, more specifically between self-harm/ acceptable; from the regression equation damaging ego (PE) and personality stability statistics results R = .495, R2 = .245, ΔR2 = (S), any aspect adversely affecting the Ego .228, β (EP) = .211, p < .05 şi β (NR) = -.513, will produce significant changes in the p < .01, which show a good ability for making structure of personality, through its predictions; from the change’s effect statistics destabilization. In this regard, the specialty results that R2c = .245, Fc = 14.148, Sig. Fc = literature offers numerous and consistent .000, and D-W = 1< 1,5 < 3, which reinforces arguments, of which we retain only the the idea of a good ability for making following: a) if a person is unstable, it is predictions. As shown in the last two columns because one’s core, meaning the ego is of Table 2, according to F test of significance unstable, and the discrepancies between the of the ANOVA model, in all three cases, various manifestations of the ego, particularly multiple regression coefficient is statistically those unstable, duplicated and accentuated, significant (Sig.= .000). correlate with a wide variety of emotional 2.8. Discussion. This research supports our vulnerabilities interpreted as negative general hypothesis, resulted also from the psychological states of personality or literature review, thus, by empirical evidence personality psychological discomfort (Zlate, and theoretical assumptions, confirming the 2002); b) if there are discrepancies between presence of interdependent relationships certain aspects of the ego (real ego - ideal between distorted beliefs, professional stress ego), then they are associated with the

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emergence of emotions related to rejection, relations, either in the sense of entropy disappointment, dissatisfaction, and if those (imbalance), or in the sense of incompatibility appear among others (real ego and expected relations between the need for achievement ego), then they generate negative emotional and the need for a stable personality. states of fright, fear, agitation (Higgins, 1987). We agree with the studies found in the From the perspective of the distorted scientific literature which show that the beliefs - personality rapport, namely the need relations of incompatibility between the need for achievement (NR) and stability of for achievement (NR) and stability of personality structure (S), emerges the idea that personality structure (S) are generating in a significant proportion, the constraints professional stress and even PTSD (Gabor, within the motivational structure affect the Jianu & Prisăcaru 2014 2013, Cracsner, 2003 stability of personality structure. In this respect Foa, & Rothbaum, 1998). too, the present study is consistent with the We also consider that the results of the literature, which, based on theoretical study also highlight a number of limitations assumptions and empirical research, highlights related to: the relatively small number of extensively the motivation-personality evaluated subjects; the investigated sample relationship, especially the association group was established randomly; the structure between motivation, performance and job of the lot is uneven where professionals or satisfaction. Without being considered staff bodies are concerned, and genderwise - restrictive and unilaterally we present as the study population is represented exclusively arguments only those theories on motivation by men. which focus needs’ satisfaction: the needs’ hierarchical model (Abraham Maslow, 1954), 3. CONCLUSIONS the two-factor motivation-hygiene theory Occupational stress in the military is (Frederick Herzberg, 1960), the AAP theory present in the life of the combatants, being (Achievement, Affiliation, Power) of the three driven by various military connections relating motivational agents (McClleland, 1961), and to the military’s type of work, echelon, career the ERG theory (Existence, Relatedness, development, employment relations, structure Growth) concerning other three motivational and dynamics of organizational climate, factors (Clayton Paul Alderfer, 1969). etc. (Cracsner 2003, Gabor & al., 2013, 2014). If for the need of achievement Through this study, we tried to highlight predictor (NR) measured for this study, we how and in which manner some of irrational associate the superior needs to achieve of the beliefs or distorted convictions and personality (the necessity of esteem and self- professional stress can influence the military’s realization - Maslow, assessing performance - personality. Herzberg, the need for self-fulfilment and As a consequence, we have analyzed the power - McClleland, need for development - relationship between stress levels, values and Alderfer), than their influence on stability in personality dimensions, but also the emotional the sense of personality or homeostasis balance of the military, based on correlations becomes more explicit and intuitive between different variables (age, occupation, (equilibrium), when there are compatibility size of the measurement tools), all leading to

197 SOCIO-HUMANITIES both the confirmation and validation of the harm), arguing that, on the one hand, the hypotheses, but furthermore, helped to identify personality can be evaluated according to a some favourable conditions of stress certain type of resilient behaviour management, especially PTSD (Cracsner, performance-oriented, but on the other hand, 2003 Foa, & Rothbaum, 1998), as well as the non-resilient amplitude in situations which certain managerial and professional measures can damage the ego, the self image and in order to provide assistance and explicit self-esteem (Sava & al., 2011, David, psychological intervention in the military 2007 Trip, 2007). (Gabor, Jianu & Prisăcaru 2014, 2013). Hence, the present study generates several The identification of positive significant solutions on establishing strategies and means correlations, between the socio-professional to prevent, limit or eliminate irrational beliefs category, the measured dimensions of stress and distress effects, and these should be a and age reflect the need for compatibility management priority, due to the high degree of between the job requirements, the skills of the risk, danger and unexpected, which call for all military personnel and their levels of the physical resources of the human being in experience in service, as well as approaching the modern armed struggle. stress. The stability and integration dimensions of REFERENCES the personality structure are found to be good predictors for an effective stress management, 1. Alford, B.A, & Beck, A.T., The Integrative but also critical in achieving an efficient Power of Cognititiv Therapy, New York: management of human resources in the Guilford Press (1997). military. 2. Anderson, J.R., Cognitive Psychology and Its Achieving significant positive correlations Implications, New York: W.H. Freeman and between the various measured dimensions of Company (1990) stress (ambiance, self-harm, interpersonal 3. Beck, A.T., Cognitive Therapy and Emotional relationships, use of time, employment, and Disorders, New York: International University lifestyle), prove that the knowledge and proper Press (1979). management of internal and external factors of 4. Beck, J.S., Cognitive Therapy: Basics and stress, allow for an optimal functioning of the beyond, New York: Ghe Guilford Press military personnel. (1995). The identification of several positive 5. Bernard, M. E.. Validation of the General significant correlations between the different Attitude and Belief Scale. Journal of dimensions of irrational beliefs and Rational-Emotive and Cognitive -Behavior maladaptive convictions (need for Therapy, 16 (1998). achievement, need for approval, the need for 6. Brewin, C.R., Dalgleish, T., & Joseph, S., A comfort, the absolutist requirement for justice, dual representation theory of posttraumatic the global assessment of oneself, the overall stress disorder, Psychological Review, 103, assessment of others and the degree of 670-686, (1996). internalization of all the other necessities 7. Bridges, K. R., Harnish, R. J. Role of transferred into the unconscious as forms of irrational beliefs in depression and anxiety: irrationality) allows for a better understanding A review. Health, 2, 862-877. (2010). of military vulnerability where stress is 8. Chang, E. C., D'Zurilla, Th.J., Irrational concerned, and provides multiple opportunities beliefs as predictors of anxiety and for the prevention, prophylaxis and depression in a college population, psychotherapy of individual and organizational Personality and Individual Differences, stress. Volume 20, Issue 2, February 1996. The usage of the multiple linear regression 9. Chi u, Gh., Voloşin, L., Velescu., M., in the present study, revealed the relationship Alecsoaie, A.M, Verza, C.. Studiu comparativ between the criterion variable (the stability of şi perspective în selec ia psihologică a the personality structure) and predictors tinerilor la recrutare şi a recru ilor în variables (need for achievement and self- vederea încorporării. În Cracsner, C.E.

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(coord.). Psihologie aplicată în mediul Anxiety Disorders, New York: Guilford militar, Bucureşti: Editura U.N.Ap. (2005). Press (2010). 10. Clark, D.A, & Beck, A.T., Cognitiv 21. Lindner, H., Kirkby, R., Wertheim, E., & Therapy of Anxiety Disorders: Science and Birch, P. A brief assessment of irrational Practice, New York: The Guilford Press thinking: The Shortened General Attitude (2010) and Belief Scale. Cognitive Therapy and 11. David, D., Lynn, S. J., & Ellis, A. (Eds.). Research, 23 (1999). Rational and irrational beliefs: Research, 22. Lohr, J., Bonge, D.. On the distinction theory, and clinical practice. New York, between illogical and irrational beliefs and NY: Oxford (2010). their relationship to anxiety. Psychological 12. David, D.. Sistem de evaluare clinică. Reports, 48, 1981. Cluj Napoca: RTS (2007). 23. Macavei, B., & McMahon, J.. The 13. Ehlers, A., & Clark, D.M., A cognitive assessment of rational and irrational beliefs. model of posttraumatic stress disorder. In D. David, S. J. Lynn, & A. Ellis (Eds.), Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 319- Rational and irrational beliefs: Research, 245 (2000). theory, and clinical practice (pp. 115-147). 14. Ellis, A., Ellis D.J.., Rational Emotive New York, NY: Oxford (2010). Behavior Therapy. Washington, DC: 24. MacInnes, D., Evaluating an assessment American Psychological Association (2011). scale of irrational beliefs for people with 15. Ellis, A., Reason and Emotion in Psycho mental health problems, 2003, PubMed, therapy, Revised and Updated. Secaucus, [online], http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pub NJ: Carol Publishing Group, (1962, 1994). med/12838819, Available: 25.03.2015. 16. Ellis, A.. Rational emotive behavior 25. Muran, E.M., Motta, R.W., Cognitive therapy: It works for me; it can work for distortions and irrational beliefs in post- you. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books traumatic stress, anxiety, and depressive (2004). disorders, Journal of Clinical Psychology, 17. Foa, E.B., & Rothbaum, B.O., Treating the 49 (1993). trauma of rape: Cognitiv-behavioral therapy 26. Owings L. R., Thorpe, G. L., McMillan, for PTSD. New York: Guilford press (1998). E. S., Burrows R.D., Sigmon S. T., and 18. Hembree, E.A., & Foa, E.B., Promoting Alley D. C.. Scaling Irrational Beliefs in the cognitive changes in posttraumatic stress General Attitude and Belief Scale: An disorder. In M.A. Reinecke & D.A. Clark Analysis Using Item Response Theory (Eds.), Cognitive therapy across the lifespan: Methodology. SAGE Open, April-June 2013: Evidence and practice (pp. 231-257), 1–10, DOI: 10.1177/2158244013484156 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press [online], Available: http://www. sgo.sage (2004). pub.com, 25.03.2015. 19. Holdevici, I., Tratat de psihoterapie 27. Sava, F.A., Maricuţoiu, L.P., Rusu, S., Vîrgă, cognitiv-comportamentală, Bucureşti: Ed. D., Macsinga, I.. Implicit and Explicit Self- Trei (2009). Esteem and Irrational Beliefs, Journal of 20. Leahy, R.L., & Holland, S.J., Treatment Cognitive and Behavioral Psychotherapies, Plans and Interventions for Depession and Vol. 11, No. 1, March (2011).

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28. Taylor, S., Meta-analysis of cognitiv- behavioral tratments for social phobia, Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 27(1), 143, p. 498- 510, 1996. 29. Terjesen, M. D., Salhany, J., & Sciutto, M. J. A psychometric review of measures of irrational beliefs: Implications for psychotherapy. Journal of Rational- Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 27 (2009). 30. Trip, S., Scala de atitudini şi convingeri generale, forma scurta – GABS-SV (trad.). În David, D.. Sistem de evaluare clinică. Cluj-Napoca: RTS (2007). 31. Vernon, A.. Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy Over Time, Washington, DC: American Psychological Association (2010). 32. Wertheim, E.H., Poulakis, Z.. The relationships among the General Attitude and Belief Scale, other dysfunctional cognition measures, and depressive or bulimic tendencies, Journal of Rational- Emotive and Cognitive Behavior Therapy, 10, (1992). 33. Williams, J.M.G., Watts, F.N., MacLeod, C., & Mathews, A., Cognitive psychology and emotional disorders, England, Chichester: Willey (1997). 34. Young, J.E., Cognitive therapy for personality disorders: A schema-focused approach, Sarasota, Fl: Professional ResourceExchenge (1990). 35. Zurawski, R.M., Smith, T.W.. Assessing irrational beliefs and emotional distress: Evidence and implications of limited discriminant validity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34(2), (1987). 36. *** Chestionarul-SID, Arhiva S.E.P.A., Bucureşti: M.Ap.N. (1992). 37. *** Scală de evaluare a vulnerabilită ii la stres - S.E.V.S.-A, Arhiva S.P., Bucureşti: M.Ap.N. (2009).

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Table 1. Means, standard deviation and inter-correlations among the study’s variables (N = 90)

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Criteria - Irrational beliefs 1. Achievement (NR) -- 2. Approval (NA) .362** -- 3. Comfort (NC) .590** .577** -- 4. Justice (NJ) .601** .453** .744** -- 5. Self-downing (EP) .329** .500** .441** .348** -- 6. Other-downing (EC) .234* .299** .511** .491** .311** -- 7. Irrational beliefs (overall) (IB) .759** .658** .860** .821** .617** .582** -- 8. Rational beliefs (RB) ------Criteria - Dimensions of stress 9. Ambiance (A) ------10. Damaging ego/Self harm (PE) .286** - .234** - - - .260* -.262* .637** -- 11. Interpersonal relationships (RI) ------.689** .658** -- 12. Occupation (AP) ------.637** .634** .689** -- 13. Use of time (AT) ------.598** .531** .650** .714** -- 14. Lifesyle (RV) ------.465** .297** .445** .492** .537** -- 15. Total stress value (TS) ------.799** .769** .846** .886** .852** .664** -- Criteria- Dimensions of status 16. Age (V) ------.312** .233* .236* - .240* -- .311** 17. Ocupa ia (O) ------.349** .372** .432** .432** .363** .295** .463** .508** Predictors - Dimensions of personality 18. Stability (S) ------.212* - - - - - .219* ------.324** .452** .400** .361** .390** 19. Integration (I) ------.394** -.253* - .329** .493** -- .400** .589** .365** .421** .469** .516** 20. Dinamism (D) ------.230* - -.266* - .382** .530** --1 .279** .495** .285** .364** .358** 21. Total personality score (P) ------.323** - - - .769** .861** .778** .420** .640** .349** .492** .448** .530** Means 10.84 8.76 9.79 10.18 8.16 8.93 57.19 16.16 12.00 19.73 18.72 25.56 28.23 22.01 126.1 33.24 2.41 25.86 25.73 16.38 67.97 SD 3.80 2.47 3.77 3.66 2.94 3.10 14.90 2.72 3.45 4.59 4.46 6.12 5.53 4.57 23.28 7.19 .65 2.93 3.45 2.83 7.44 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

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Table 2. A summary table of hierarchical regression predicting stability (S) and the criteria identified in three cases

2 2 2 Stability (S) R R ΔR β Sig. R c Fc Sig. Fc D-W Case one .212a .045 .034 .045 4.135 .045 1.8 Approval -.212 .045 Case two .552b .305 .255 .305 6.069 .000 1.6 Ego injury - EP -.503 .000 Achievement - NR .369 .018 Approval - NA -.113 .391 Comfort - NC -.098 .593 Irrational beliefs - NR -. 084 .743 Age (AG) .079 .431 Case three .495 .245 .228 .245 14.148 .000 1.5 Ego injury - EP .211 .033 Achievement - NR -.513 .000 Dependent variable: Stability a. Predictors: (Constant), Approval b. Predictors: (Constant), Ego Injury - EP, Achievement - NR, , Approval -NA, Comfort -NC, Irrational beliefs - NR, Age - AG c. Predictors: (Constant), Ego Injury - EP, Achievement - NR Legend: R - multiple correlation, R2 - the proportion of the predicted value variation in relation to the value of combined predictors, ΔR2 - R2 corellation in accordance witht the number of predictors and subjects, β - standardized coefficients used to 2 2 predict the standardized values, Sig. - Significance of regression coefficients, R c – the effect on R by removing each predictor, Fc – the value of the change’s effect, Sig. F c - the significance of the change’s effect , D-W - Durbin-Watson test on the condition of independence of errors, F - the significance test in the ANOVA model, Sig. - the significance of the F test

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CAREER COUNSELOR’S/CONSULTANT’S ROLE FOR A PROFESSION

Elena Oliviana Epurescu*

*Department of Training for Teaching Career and Social Sciences, Politehnica University of Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: The purpose of counseling is to offer students the possibility to explore, to discover and to clarify the optimal ways to live their own life, to a happy existence. Initially, counseling was wrongly identified with psychotherapy, only afterwards the two were clearly separated from a theoretical point of view. Between these two there are major differences: counseling is a proactive action, while psychotherapy is a postfactum intervention (as remedy, as therapy). Student and professional counseling represents all the optional and consultative actions realized through pedagogical means, general and specialized, subordinated to the technological dimension of the education and from the methodological point of view represents the psycho-pedagogical assistance of teachers, parents and students for a knowledgeable choice regarding school and carrier.

Keywords: counseling, career, profession, counselor, consultant

1. INTRODUCTION from careerism, perceived as a tendency to be hypocrite, with all the possible means. A good definition of the term counseling is Profession, respectively a career found in a psychology dictionary, edited in represents: a succession of jobs or planned Romanian, in 1981, where M. Golu defines it activities or not, involving elements of as the action through which it is followed to advancement, employment and personal suggest the model to proceed or to behave that development along a defined timeline. has to be used in a certain situation or in (F. Clark, 1992) general, in life and in day to day life. The counselor is: a supervisor, agent of The counseling means: a relationship; change, supporter of the disadvantaged, listening to the other; preventing crisis; a trainer, consultant, adviser, agent of person helped by another guided by certain development, mediator, evaluator, coordinator, theories and models. psychotherapist, and researcher. The purpose of counseling is reached The career consultant is the person with through information, discussions; collaborative specialty higher education that counsels clients decision making; offering it in the education regarding different professions, gives field. information and support. Career, a word with French roots, it is understood in Romanian as a profession, occupation and in extenso as a wellbeing, or as a good status in the society that is different

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2. COUNSELOR’S PERSONALITY The traits of the counselor are synthesized by G. Egan, in its known model: the In the context of professionalization, the relationship capacity, empathy, authenticity, counseling and advising activity, team work challenging, exploratory spirit, probing, with all the stakeholders is needed to create a questioning, personal development, altruism, bridge between the counselor and the client, to creativity, humor. (G. Egan, 2006) support efficient cooperation among work, In relationship with his client, the family and community. attitudes of the counselor are: unconditional The counselor assures this connection acceptance, empathy, positive thinking, through proposing, organizing and carrying the congruency, collaboration, respect and adequate activities of counseling and advising, responsibility. (E. Cocoradă, 2004) that are centered on the beneficiaries’ need, Unconditional acceptance represents the but also on educational programs that have the recognizing attitude of client’s dignity and purpose to eliminate any obstacles faced along personal value, with its strong and weak the way. points, with qualities and defects, with positive The list of difficulties that require and negative attitudes, sterile and constructive intervention from the psychology counselor interests, thoughts and behaviors, without can be as follows: criticizing, judging, controlling and especially,  adaptation difficulties: problems of without conditioning. adapting to the social or professional Positive thinking has the purpose to environment, refusal of the work improve less developed aspects of the human. collective; Through his activities, the counselor must  difficulties regarding career planning: focus on developing client’s self-image and difficulties in taking career related respect, his personal responsibility. The vision decisions, unemployment perspective of the world must be in a positive note, being  relationship problems given by self-trust and other people’s trust.  behavioral difficulties: aggressiveness Collaboration is the ability of the control and channeling its energy in counselor to involve a group of people in positive activities, negative behaviors, personal development decisions. intimidation; The respect-partnership relationship  personal difficulties: identity crisis, means that the role of the counselor is to help problems in maintain friends’ the client to find the most relevant information relationships, the incapacity to meet so he can take responsible decisions. others’ expectations, low self-esteem, drug Congruency is about the consistency of use, depression, anxiety. counselor’s behavior and beliefs, emotions and The main activities of the counselor are: his personal values that defines the being informed about the services offered in authenticity of one’s existence. the field of counseling, sending educational Useful behaviors: using the tone of voice and professional offers, using occupational according to the client’s emotional comfort standards and profiles; identifying the needs, maintaining a good eye contact, using possibilities of mobility for education, of gestures that confirm that the client is listened, training and of work; psycho-pedagogical using smile, optimal physical distance, relaxed counseling and assistance, coordinating and open posture, a tone of voice that sends educational activities that develop the security. following competences: self-knowledge and Avoidable behaviors: lack of visual personal development, interpersonal contact, staying far from the client, sarcasm, communication and relationships, learning and pointing fingers, closing your eyes, talking to information management, career planning, fast or to slow. entrepreneurial education and lifestyle Empathy is the ability to put you in the management. place of another person, to understand the he At the basis of his training are his traits thinks, feels and behaves with others. Empathy and attitudes. is developed through assuming verbal and

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nonverbal communication skills, using open to choose the ideal distance and his office ended questions, avoiding criticizing the other should have a sofa and at least one chair. The person and negative feedback. client will the furthest or the closest distance The communication skills represent the from the counselor depending on his degree of key to success in the process of comfort. communication and counseling and when we Using touch – shoulder tap, hand shake – talk about communication techniques we have is dependent on the situation and on each to acknowledge a list of desirable behaviors, individual client, so the counselor has to but also a list of ones to avoid. decide if using a gesture that involves touch is The nonverbal communication skills useful for the relationship or not. contain the following elements: eye contact, The verbal communication skills contain body posture, pauses, voice’s tone and the following elements: active listening, intensity, physical distance, touch and warmth. coordination, reflection, challenging and Maintaining eye contact means the success summarization. of an honest and open communication. Active listening is the active process of Usually, the eye contact with the client is interception, processing and interpretation of beneficial and can lead to an honest, open and the message, of the public and of the trustful counselor-counseled relationship. contextual stimuli in the framework of The body posture is the first aspect that communication. It is the basic counselor’s client notices at the counselor and it should ability to encourage the client to talk openly transmit professionalism, security and and freely. relaxation. Reflection is expressing the counselor’s Pauses in discussions with the clients have understanding of the content, as well as the the role to encourage them to re-gather their emotional state sent by the client. Reflecting thoughts. client’s feelings and experience gives him the The tone and intensity of the voice is the belief that he is listened to and what he lives or best way to reflect the emotional status of a expresses is important. person. It is recommended to have a The reflection process is directly linked congruency between counselor’s and client’s with the feedback that the counselor is voice. offering. An efficient feedback has to: focus The gestures and facial expressions largely on the positive aspects, to be specific, reflect the emotional status of the actors. The concrete, descriptive, not evaluative, to offer counselor must check for them to be in compartmental alternatives; to address the accordance with what messages he behavior of the person and not the person in communicates. Also, the personal gestures general. must be monitored by the counselor, especially Challenging is a technique of in situation in which he knows that his client communication with high impact that brings has some tics. the client to a certain level of conversation: The physical distance is about the degree openness and honesty. Out of this reason, the of comfort of the individuals regarding the counselor is able to use it only after he gets to management of their personal space. The a solid relationship with his client. counselor has to offer to his clients the liberty

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Summarization is the way to gather and put Consultancy is an activity of solving a together, to focus in an organized manner the specialty problem by a specialist or most significant aspects of the interlocutor’s organization, that consists of elaborating, speech. It is used to recap the content of a arguing and explaining a solution or some speech, to close a conversation or open a new viable alternatives. one on certain topic. The professional counselor works: at The desired behaviors are: using terms undergraduate level, graduate level, work and accessible to the client, summing up the unemployment offices, in private institutions client’s speech; using active listening, calling or other similar state institutions. the client by his name, using humor, adopting The target groups are: pupils, students, a positive attitude towards the client, clarifying youth and adults. client’s questions and giving objective The necessary competencies of the feedback. counselors are: And the avoidable behaviors are: cutting  methodological competencies – of the client, giving useless advice, blaming or theoretical and practical training for using judging the client, using “why…” questions to specific means for psychological many times, minimizing the client’s stories investigation; and avoiding uncomfortable topics.  workforce related competencies – having Identifying or naming the client’s the knowledge about ways of training, sentiments trough “affective words” or employment procedures, occupations’ “metaphors”. description; Usually, the affective messages that can be  competencies about using the separated from the client’s account include communication techniques – these assures experiences and sentiments from one of the the quality of the relationship established following domains: affection, anger and fear. between the counselor and the counseled, The affective words are grouped in 5 being an important factor for determining categories: joy, competency, love, happiness the efficiency of the activity; and hope.  competencies of intervention and The anger feelings are grouped in 4 negotiation – the necessity to negotiate the categories: attack, rejection, defense and fight. condition of work’s framework. The fear feelings are grouped in 5 An AIOSP study regarding the required categories: fear, doubt, sadness, pain and competencies for a career counselor reveals avoidance. aspects like: The metaphors are expressed through  professional and ethical behavior; phrases like: “I reached the bottom” or “I am  capacity to lead and persuade; like a bomb ready to explode”.  sensibility to cultural differences; Reflection can also express the results of  capacity to use theories and research in behavior’s observation by the counselor. For practice: conceiving, applying and an efficient reflection it is recommended that evaluation of career counseling programs; the message to be analyzed from 3 points of view: the verbal content, the feelings it  communication capacity; expresses and the nonverbal behavior of the  conciseness of professional limits; client.  capacity to use computer and information technology; 3. CAREER COUNSELOR’S/  capacity to work in team of professionals; CONSULTANT’S PROFILE  knowing the process of professional evolution during a person’s lifetime. The career consultant is the person A reference inventory of the professional having higher specialty education that competencies required for the career counselor counsels clients on the subject of different profession it is offered by IAEVG profession of the working environment, offers (International Association for Educational and information, provides consultancy and support.

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Vocational Guidance) established 11 key skills identifying options, taking decisions and in and 10 specialized skills. solving difficulties. The key competencies are available for all From the perspective of 21st century practitioners, no matter what the context in professionalization, the required skills for a which they work and the specific skills are good professional career are: attributed to certain counseling work.  competencies for a multicultural and The key skills are: intercultural perspective to answer to  adopting an ethical behavior and a diverse clients; adequate professional attitude in fulfilling  necessary competencies to prepare users to the roles and responsibilities of the job; select and utilize available information  knowing how to counsel and support the with the help of new communication and clients in the learning process for informational technologies; developing a career and in solving the  ability to offer counseling to a greater personal problems of them; number of people;  proving openness and interest towards the  global approach of counseling services cultural differences of the clients and offered to adults. properly evaluating them to interact in an The counselor must prove professionalism efficient way with all kinds of people; and knowledge of the ethical code through:  integrating theory and research for career  maintaining professional standards; guidance, professional development,  admitting own limits of competency; counseling and consulting;  offering counseling services only for the  capacity to conceive, implement and situations for which he is ready; evaluate programs and interventions in the  being a competent professional; field of guidance and counseling;  continuous improving;  being aware of own capacities and  customization of the intervention limitations; according to the age, gender, ethnicity,  being able to effectively communicate with social and cultural context, language and colleagues and clients, using and adequate educational level of the client. language; An ideal profile of a career counselor’s  being up to date to new information skills with a master specialization, according regarding education, training, employment to NCDA (National Career Development trends, workforce and social aspects; Association, USA), includes:  being open to social and multicultural  knowledge of counseling theories and aspects; associated techniques;  being able to efficiently cooperate in a  knowledge of the career development team of professionals; models;  knowing the process of developing a career  individual and group evaluation abilities; during the whole lifetime.  information and resources; The specific skills in counseling are  promotion and management of programs; reflected in determining the self-assessment, in  mentorship and performance growth; the purpose of clarifying the self-image, in  ethical and legal aspects.

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4. CONCLUSIONS California: Brooks-Cole Publishing (1999). In Romania, we can’t talk yet about a clear 4. Capuzzi, D., Gross, D. Introduction to the legal framework, the counselor profession counseling profession (3th edition). borrowing a series of ethical rules from Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon psychologist, educators and sociologists. Publishing (2001). We are expecting that in the near future, 5. Clark, F. Total career management. along with the adjustment of the legal McGraw Hill (1992). framework, that a professional code of conduct 6. Cocoradă, E. Consilierea în coală - o to be defined, as a sign that this profession abordare psihopedagogică. Sibiu: Editura overcame the interim moment and gained its Psihomedia (2004). well defined space in the Romanian 7. Egan, G. Egan’s skilled helper model: professional landscape. developments and implications in Counseling/consultancy as it presents counseling. Canada by Routledge (2006). today is more of a social phenomenon than a 8. Holland, J. L. Making vocational choices: profession just like any other. a theory of vocational personalities and It is, probably, one of the very few jobs work environments. Englewood Cliffs: that implies an interdisciplinary effort and a Prentice Hall Publication (1997). holistic vision on the child’s personality, 9. Institutul de tiin e ale Educa iei. today’s student, tomorrow’s adult and Consilierea carierei adul ilor. Bucure ti: specialist. Editura Afir (2003). 10. Jigău, M. Consilierea carierei. Bucure ti: REFERENCES Editura Sigma (2001). 11. Neac u, I. Empatia i modelarea 1. *** Dic ionar de psihologie. Bucure ti: competen elor pentru profesia didactică- Editura Albatros (1981). Perspectiva Psihoeduca ională, în 2. Ali, L., Graham, B. The Counseling Pedagogie. Fundamentări teoretice şi Approach to Careers Guidance. London: demersuri aplicative. Ia i: Editura Routledge (1996). Polirom (2002). 3. Axelson, J. A. Counseling and Development in a Multicultural Society.

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STRESS IN MILITARY FIELD

Diana Ilisoi*, Ana Maria Furtuna**

* Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania, **Department of Psychology, “Spiru Haret” University, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: Hypothesis: Stress in military field has a significant impact on employees. Objectives: To explain what stress is, how it works, how to extract the maximum benefits from it and how to reduce to a minimum its inconveniences, what is occupational health and occupational stress, individual and situational factors delimitation.

Keywords: Stress, military, factors, impact, health, benefits, reduce, inconvenience.

1. INTRODUCTION employee - working environment having as aim to value the individual, improve the We start off by assuming that stress in the quality of life and promote the wellbeing at the military has a significant impact on place of work, the optimal adaptation to the employees. Mental stress is a demands and professional stress, work safety, psychophysiological response of the individual to prevent accidents, optimizing the who is forced to face situations for which he relationship between work and personal life. has not been prepared, who anticipates failure and gives great significance to the 3. CLASSIFICATION OF STRESS consequences resulting from his inability to resolve the situation.[1] Taking into account the nature of stress We can say that stress is a normal and agents, stress can be classified as follows: necessary part of life, which man cannot - Mental stress: here we will find the escape. Stress may cause temporary combined action of multiple stressors agents. discomfort, but can also induce long-term - Occupational stress: this is determined consequences. We note that if in excess, stress by the joint or not action of physical or can alter the health of the individual and his chemical stressors. welfare, however, for an amount of stress is - Preoperative and postoperative stress: it needed. is based on the characters of psychological stress, to which is added, as multiplication 2. OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH agent, the anticipation of pre-operative and post-operative stress. We are talking about a modern integrative - Underload stress: this is determined by concept of organizational psychology, which the changing nature of business, such as the focuses on the quality of the relationship obligation to perform certain repetitive,

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monotonous tasks, for which the subject finds R. Williams and B. Smith, vol. II of the no justification; a source of stress may being book "American Soldier", states the 12 even one’s inactivity.[3] features of the struggle that generates stress: - Danger to life, to some parts of the body 4. STRESS IN THE MILITARY and health; - Fever; insufficient food, water and One can define the army as a social group clothing; of people organized per subunits, units and - Long term work, insufficient sleep; large military units whose activity is carried - Lack of sexual relations; out based on the provisions of the constitution - Lack of trust and sympathy (kindness); and defense laws, military regulations, orders - Loss of comrades and looking at the and dispositions of commanders, equipped, wounded and the dead; trained and maintained by the state in view of - Limited opportunities for travel; leading wars of defense or offense and - Failure and limited opportunities for maintaining and restoring the rule of law. targeting; As opposed to other social activities, - Inner conflict between sense of duty and through a variety of conditions and specific personal integrity, acceptance standards of features, military activity contains important living in the community and the requirements potential sources of stress, being among the of the fight; most stressful professions. - The feeling that man is nothing (he is We have noted that military conflicts that way / tool); use an extremely wide range of means of - Lack of private life and permanent combat with particularly destructive constraint of collective life (group), etc. [1, 2]. consequences, use a variety of forms and And mental fatigue due to noise from the methods of combat, including ideological battlefield, may even affect massively the influencing and subtle psychological ability to react of a fighter, to handle weapon, persuasion, which capitalize the great transmission and complex research systems. advantages of massive and rapid dissemination The factors that help install a state of of messages that contemporary mass – media discomfort are the rapid deployment in areas has and with which it skillfully exploits all with special climatic conditions, where they human weaknesses, to challenge the are more dangerous than the enemy’s guns. It intellectual and physical abilities of warriors. is well known that prolonged exposure to Prompt recognition of the presence of extreme weather conditions alter endocrine stress in military personnel is of outmost rhythms and progressive training is required to importance, being the first step in controlling adapt. and stopping this phenomenon, ensuring Any external or internal stimulus that fulfillment of tasks without loss of efficiency. exceeds or falls below a certain threshold may Both individual and collective methods and be a source of stress and can affect behavior techniques can be used to decrease the and mental activity of a person. intensity or limit the negative effects of this Methods that can help us defend ourselves phenomenon, together with the identification from stress: of stress.[4] The immunological system, receives By increasing the pace of demands and stress messages and gradually deteriorates, if changes in the environment, stress in the army, the individual does not externalize emotions. It especially on the battlefield, can affect the is recommended that people express emotions, moral of troops, mitigate and combat not suppress them, this being the best method capability of the military units, jeopardize of preventing physical and mental illness. military life and influence certain parts of the Some of the "weapons" efficient in body and health. neutralizing aggression stress, as per a "guide" put together by specialists in psychosomatics from the University of Boston are:

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- After you have suffered a psycho- affective shock caused for instance by the loss of a loved one, try to exteriorize your feelings; - When something in your family life makes you unhappy, speak your mind; - Do not impose yourself lifestyle changes that are overwhelming, try to know your capacity to adjust; - The regular deep breathing technique provides a better oxygenation of the brain and calms the palpitations cause by anxiety, learn to relax; - Cultivate your friendships: loneliness is particularly harmful to health, therefore, do not lead an isolated life; - Movement is health; - Keep your health intact. It is possible to overcome the attacks of stress. that stress can be foiled attacks.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Activity in the military field contains important potential sources of stress, being from this point of view, one of the most stressful professions.

REFERENCES

1. Col.dr.Gheorghe Arădăvoaice, Mental stress in armed struggle. Publisher: Academy of Advanced Military Studies, Bucharest 1993. 2. http://www.e- scoala.ro/psihologie/managementul_stresul ui_in_armata.html 3. http://www.e- scoala.ro/psihologie/stres_agresivitate_med iul_militar.html 4.http://biblioteca.regielive.ro/referate/psiholo gie/stresul-in-domeniul-militar- 147431.html?ref=doc

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HUMAN SECURITY PSYCHO-MORAL CONSIDERATIONS

Cristian Vlad Irimia*

**“Mihai Viteazul” National Intelligence Academy, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: The concept of security should be reported to the mental capacity of humans to live in normality conditions, namely emotionally balanced, to have a morally behavior, to realize the mission and the meaning of life, to progress and to grow spiritually by acquiring the cultural and religious values. Whereas the human is a "bio-psycho-cultural-moral" creature, also the concept of security should cover both the cognitive dimension and spiritual aspirations of the people. The security rules turn into beliefs as far as it is reflected in all the psyche’s plans: cognitive, affective and volitional. The introversion of moral values, psycho-therapy, the mental life balance, responsibility, represents premises for strengthening the human security concept. The security of post-ancient society is in danger without ecclesiastical moral, but also, the Christian religion will accomplish its meaning if it will make its presence felt in current society, and if the Church through its mission will be more involved in current issues.

Key concepts: responsible freedom, self-monitoring, self-awareness

1. QUALITY OF LIFE - Over time, the concept of "security" has PREREQUISITE FOR THE taken different forms and meanings, but DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN because of the changes that have occurred on SECURITY CONCEPT the international scene and the emergence of new security challenges, it remained "a The term "security" comes from the Latin concept not fully developed." words "Securitas" and "securitatis" which "The complexity of this concept should be express both, the absence of danger and a state based on human nature, because security’s of calm and peace. subject, at any level is man that transcends all In Romanian, the term is attested in the boundaries. In this case, what should be Chronicle of George Şincai, with the meaning emphasized in security studies is precisely the of "being safe from any danger", "be safe", individual security or, as some experts calls it, "having a sense of confidence and tranquility human security. This includes a number of due to the absence of danger." rights and freedoms, set out in the Universal The notion of "security" means premises Declaration of Human Rights. and circumstances that determine not just a The most important aspect of human feeling or a fact that generates trust, peace, security is the quality of life, which is an protection, defense against danger or lack of evaluative concept and is the result of danger, but also measures which determine the reporting living conditions and activities that prevention of any danger. make up human life, to needs, values and

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human aspirations. It is noted that this concept, be the best way of adapting the individual, the refers both to the objective conditions in which result of self-knowledge and self-control." human life is established and also, how L. B. Krause and Joseph Nye noted that subjectively, each individual evaluates its own "neither economists nor political science life. The most important social and professionals have not paid sufficient attention sociological indicators that measure the to the complexity of the concept of security, objective conditions are: failure to achieve including its instrumental role in the basic rights and freedoms of man and, in amplification of other values." particular, low quality of life that adversely The tint of security concept lies in the affects the achievement of security at all levels answer to the questions: "What should I do?" and fields. As it is shown in the literature, and, especially, "How should I act within my human security is not a zero sum game, but on existence?" namely, "What are my moral the contrary, its components are debt?" both, to me and to others. This topic interdependent. assumes that I must act so as to realize during In other words, systems of national, zonal, my existence a double agreement: an regional or global security cannot be built in agreement with me and an agreement with the environments in which the individual does not others. To be able to achieve this agreement, I feel protected. If an individual is threatened, have to convert my impulses in noble goals, then both security group to which belongs, and oriented in superior actions, in terms of other related communities are threatened. If all axiological-moral actions. In this process, a societal groups want to achieve and preserve crucial role lies with my conscience that tells security status, then, they must be based on the me what should I and should I not do." insurance of individual security, on the basis Therefore, conscience and moral debt is the of the inherent connection of humanity. core of actions that converge on social Therefore, in our opinion, the security analysis security. should be based on human security, not states "The existence is one of the most important or groups of states, whereas individual is the dimensions of the person, who - along with her basis of all social organization." inner "bio-psycho-cultural-moral" organization According to the National Defense College - defines and individualizes it, as something (Canada): "National security is maintaining an unique." acceptable lifestyle for people and compatible We know that: "Every person is a paideia with the needs and aspirations of all others. It and for that reason, thru the embedded values includes the absence of armed robbery and it acquires new dimensions and meanings, and coercion, lack of internal subversion and its study will exceed the limits of descriptive absence of political economic and social type of general psychology. Its understanding erosion, which are essential for quality of life." is possible and complete only if you appeal to "National Security" issue turns out to be a cultural factors and moral values." problem of security system in which, The concept of security should be reported individuals, states and the system itself, play a to the mental capacity of man to live in hub- role, in which, economic, social and normality, to balanced living soul, to behave environmental factors aren`t so important as morally, to fulfill their purpose and meaning of the political and military are." life, to progress through knowledge and work One aspect that develops the concept of and grow spiritually by adopting religious human security concerns the possibility of a values. person to adapt to life situations; implying a Since man is a "bio-psycho-cultural-moral" consistent answer that the person gives to the being, the concept of security ought to cover external world by adopting certain attitudes, both the cognitive dimension and spiritual reactions, actions and behavior patterns. So, aspirations of the people. one new security feature represents the The presence of the Church in the field of "normality condition, which is considered to human security is justified by the fact that "man is the being of value, the result of

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education, thru which internalizes its moral, humble, more simply, more natural more spiritual, cultural and religious values. But the sincere, more genuine in his behavior, creating human being is the product of formative an atmosphere of clean familiarity." factors of socio-cultural and moral-religious model’s values; it is what man becomes by 2. MORAL THERAPY - AN ESSENTIAL imitating or by internalization of models." COORDINATE OF SECURITY So, proved the fact that "influence of moral and cultural patterns makes man, natural In a vivid and intimate relationship with being, to be transformed into a person, a moral God, man, acquires health of the soul, sonship, being ", we realize that there is an peace, the feeling of security and stability, interdependence between morality and hope and personal fulfillment. security. One of the premises of modern In this sense, the psychologist Constantin security is the ability of the individual to be Enăchescu, testifies: "Any rescue has a deep "human". moral and spiritual significance, as it This quality of humans is exploited by represents an act of reparation, a comforting religion and "embodied" by the Church by note with a value of a genuine form of moral human, perfectly made, which it is translated therapy of my ego. It is the act of restoration by word - holiness. of my being. Return to original condition will The way of being, of thinking, of behaving, of not be the equivalent of a final acceptance of a saint, shape the ideal that must seek modern the limits Nietzsche′s amor fati love type of security concept. reconciliation with fate, but it will be the act To illustrate this statement, I used the by which I entrust myself to a authority characterization of saints made by Pr. Dumitru located above me, which I find to have Stăniloaie, as follows: "The saint has nothing protective virtues, through which, depends my trivial, nothing rude, nothing vile, nothing fate. This austerity will restore my peace and affected, nothing dishonest. In him it is my safety, which will permanently cancel updated in a climax degree: delicacy, inner anguish of my being. My salvation is sensitivity, transparency, purity, shyness, related to a supreme authority, whose moral attention to the mystery of others. He sees the virtues are absolute and where, I find myself. soul states of the other and he avoids By this, any act of rescue, will have both a everything that would displease them, moral and a metaphysical, spiritual although he doesn’t avoid helping them significance, I will design both, in the divine overcome their weaknesses. He reads the least person, in God, ended by admitting that I'm articulated need of others and promptly part of it. Since this moment, the unrest that fulfilled it, but also their impurities, skillfully interiorizes me, will be replaced with openness hidden, exerting a purifying action, even by gave me by the hope. All these, prove, soft power of his purity. From him, however, that the human person is, continuously radiates a spirit of dedication to paradoxically, complex, bringing into it the all, without any care of himself, a spirit that psychological, moral and metaphysical heats the others and gives them confidence dimensions. But this fact, which gives its that they are not alone. He is innocent lamb, stability and consistency, is simultaneously, ready to self-aware sacrifice and also the condition of its progress and perfection." unwavering wall that offers an unwavering The religious dimension, by its morality support. And yet, there isn’t someone more and its lessons, is relevant to security, since:

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"every person projects his own life according wrong life, disregarding the danger to which to its ideals and aspirations, in relation to a they expose. The intelligence will put a severe particular system of cultural, moral and censure on desires, thus avoiding errors and spiritual values, which belongs to it, and which preserving linear and balanced flow of life, it have been acquired through education, which is reflected in the mood and in the represented by the place it occupies in the moral state of the person." world in relation to the other." From the perspective of St. Fathers, human A secure world cannot be built only thru reason can be strengthened by prayer and state laws, but especially thru the formation spiritual discernment acquisition. and strengthening of human consciousness. Happiness and mental integrity of man are What is this consciousness? "Moral some of the effects of living in a secure consciousness represents the property of environment. "Soul’s health is given by the human spirit to capture and to feel moral value peace and the steady inner of the psychic life. and to explain this feeling through normative Moral health is given by the happiness that judgments (M. Bernes)" gives individual, internalization of moral "Moral values complement inner soul values, of virtues". forces. They assign a meaning. They will be, The attitude towards life, the way of ultimately, moral profile of that person. The building and of leading your own life is not will and the power of action, its firmness. This only a matter of vital-biological order, related man will be his master and master of his to psychological capacities, but, primarily, is a actions. It is the model of a farm personality, moral one. Values and moral norms constitute fully constructed and ready for life, able to the guiding principles for any individual." adapt and withstand to any situation, overcome Security education should acquire religious all obstacles, solve all situations and to rise teachings, because they sum up all ethical above fate. " laws. "The superego restricts from the moral Morality, showing him the worthy way to point of view, all actions of the ego thru moral forward in life and equipping him with consciousness, which represents the court of qualities and powers to progress, despite individual responsibility, of the personal ego inherent difficulties and obstacles of life, can to its acts and its conducts. The principles of be called "the heart of security." moral psychology sphere, develops into The person who enjoys the atmosphere of individual, with the formation and maturation security is only "active man, a psychologically of the superego. This process, which began in motivated person, who feels that is doing childhood, having as a primary model the something useful, necessary, good, useful, and origin family, will continue throughout its live, durable. A dynamic person, concerned or following the circumstances and the events passionate about what she does, that engage that individual will come in contact. In this others. In addition, she has a kind of regular, regard, an important role rests to education and constant activity, which stimulates her and to social life." which is dedicated, leading to the end the Beyond the primacy’s dilemma between action taken." moralization of the individual and eradication "Both, morality and religion meet in a of evil in his historical, social and political complementary relationship concerning the manifestation, church, emphasizes man's human person. Both have therapeutic virtues personal change. Yannaras Christ in his work and their mechanisms of action converge in "moral freedom", states that: "When they were the general plan of psychotherapy." defeated, the failure and the existential sin, in Human security is simply: "Using life in a the personal life of one man, the result is positive direction, good, that is based on the always a social event of an unexpected scale individual's intelligence, which controls it. and also of an unlimited dynamism. Everyone Between requirements and options is is responsible for fulfilling the universal life, determined a permanent state of equilibrium, in the unlimited sphere of existence and thereby avoiding the excesses accepted by the personal freedom. "

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proving exactness in its mission to preserve as 3. IMPLEMENTATION OF MORAL well, divine image of man. VALUES IN SOCIETY, AN ESSENTIAL COORDINATE OF SECURITY 4. PRO-SOCIAL BEHAVIOR, HUMAN RESPONSIBILITY, SELF-CONTROL The Church, in her attempt to make AND SELF-AWARENESS - PRINCIPLES timeless the divine message to people, causing OF SOCIAL SECURITY human freedom to embody Christian morality in collective conviviality of people, Another dimension of social security is transforming the world in the spirit of "pro-social behavior". The concept of pro- releasing of passion, love, justice and social behavior was defined as the conduct communion, but also, for managing the "oriented to help, to protect, to support, to the common good in the direction of improving others development, without expectation of living conditions, reducing arbitrary external rewards." autonomous structures, a fair distribution of "Research on helping behavior (a category goods, etc. of pro-social behavior), started with a tragic If no networking with God, inevitably lead event, that took a significant echo at the time: to total preservation and imperative the killing of a young female, Kitty Genovese, empowerment of biological existence, in New York, in the street, in 1964, a crime at transforming the world into an arena of which, 38 people attended in silence, behind antagonism and rivalry, where individuals seek the curtains, without any reaction. Since then, by any means to satisfy individual the issue has raised many experimental independence, then, truly, the implementation approaches, all, concerned in finding the most of moral values in society, thru Church, is a appropriate strategy to mitigate the perverse goal and an essential coordinate of security. social phenomenon, accentuated by Ecclesiastical morality, proposes to every anonymity." This situation constitutes a clear man, that, through dedication and love, to picture, of what means the vulnerability of recapitulate itself, the whole world, by saving social security system. Problems of this kind, it from a natural need, to give it the joy of can be prevented thorough a solid education of finding the authenticity of the existence. human security; and a central role in this, "The moral of the Church itself, creates a occupies the cultivation of the moral social coexistence and a specific way of using conscience. the world, so, a civilization, a universal "An important role in the activation of pro- attitude of life, which can be found in politics social behavior plays the implicit social norms. and economics expressions." (Christ True unwritten rules, often stronger and more Yannaras) viable than the main official rules, prescribe Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a the type of behavior they "expected", or cultural, legal, political and theological result, "normal", and what behavior is described as marking the intersection between church and "abnormal". "Subscribing to this idea, we state. We could conclude, that the Church, believe that the involvement of the Church in from its origins to today, denounced the society, can lead to the formation of a behavior actions of society’s alteration, tried to correct appropriate to a human security environment. the moral deviations of the ruling power of the An important coordinate, underpinning people, preached by all means the virtue, human security is "moral responsibility - a

217 complex attitude, with a reflective nature- REFERENCES censored character, representing everything that forces me as a person, to do for myself 1. Buzan, Barry, „Popoarele, statele şi frica, and for others. This is the act of inner Ediţia a doua, traducere din engleză de responsibility of my person, in front of my Vivia Săndulescu, Editura Cartier, own moral conscience, in relation to my ideas, Chişinău, 2014 acts, statements or my conducts." 2. Enăchescu, Constantin, „Tratat de This moral responsibility, that we owe our psihologie morală”, Editura Polirom, 2008 way of being and acting, is born and 3. Gavreliuc, Alin, „Psihologie strengthened by evangelical precepts. interculturală”, Editura Polirom, 2011 Human security depends to a large extent of 4. Stăniloaie, Pr. Prof. Dumitru, „Teologia "fundamental condition, as a psychological Dogmatică Ortodoxă”, vol I, ediţia a doua, and moral gift of a human, which is the state Editura Institutului biblic şi de misiune al of equanimity. It is felt as an inner state of BOR, Bucureşti, 1996 well, like a thanksgiving that procures 5. ***http://revad.uvvg.ro/files/nr5/Nicoleta satisfaction and optimism, comfort and safety. Lasan-Securitatea concepte in societatea Peace of mind is acquired through a lengthy contemporana.pdf exercise of self-knowledge, through an 6. ***https://ro.scribd.com/doc/64271425/Ori exercise of an ongoing effort of self-control." ginea - şi-evoluţia-conceptului-de-securitate Security’s coordinator principle is 7. ***http://cssas.unap.ro/ro/pdf_studii/eleme prevention. This draws our attention and sends nte_noi_in_studiul_securitatii_nationale.pdf us to investigate the cognitive forum and the man’s soul, because here, are the roots of all ACKNOWLEDGMENT human acts. This paper is made and published under If human is grown and learned to live in the the aegis of the Research Institute for spirit of the Gospel and he is integrated into Quality of Life, Romanian Academy as a the communion of the Church, there are part of programme co-funded by the chances of success that moral self-control to European Union within the Operational work for the benefit of human security. Sectorial Programme for Human Resources "The principle of self-control is the act of Development through the project for Pluri moral censorship, on which rules of the and interdisciplinary in doctoral and post- superego exerts constantly on personal self, doctoral programmes. Project Code: whenever it seeks to make, or to take action. It POSDRU/159/1.5/S/141086. is the principle of accountability, whereby, an individual, providing the consequences of his acts, will refrain from making them or not. It is a principle of self-evaluation of the consequences or behaviors of a person from psychologically and morally." Social security is not intended to restrict the man, but proposes launching the life naturally and healthy, after "the principle of responsible freedom." Determine human not to think of evil, through responsibility learning, means to predict actions that can destabilize social security; because: "Moral responsibility is not only censorship. It is, first of all, the limit that I’m allowed and which I should not, I’m not allowed to outweigh thru my intentions or my actions." 218

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THE TERRORISM AND ITS PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Irina Ioana*

*“Carol I” National Defense University, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: Terrorism is essentially a weapon that depends on the transmission of a threat to the general public, as public opinion is the only factor that can press political actors to meet the terrorist’s power demands. Thus, terrorists quickly accepted an important lesson: the media are crucial in their campaigns. The terrorist act itself means almost nothing, while advertising is everything. The result is a generalized state of panic and uncertainty resulting from the possibility of carrying out such an attack in any place at any time. Terrorism can be considered a threat not only to national and international security, but more than anything, an attack on the psychological welfare of all people who are knowledgeable about this phenomenon. The consequences of terrorism can be most of the times felt even without ever experiencing up-close such an appalling event. This paper intends to merely sketch the psychological effects which terrorism inflicts, as the subject is wide and in ongoing research.

Keywords: Terrorism, psychological, effects, consequences, pathology

1. INTRODUCTION inattentive observer can take terrorism for what it is not: an irrational, barbaric act of What is terrorism, if not a show in violence. essence, a drama that exists only by the echo it When analyzing its mode of action, it is raises in the media? Any attack is wanted, clear that none of its acts is a matter of carefully planned, orchestrated according to its chance. It is not violence for the sake of target: the public opinion. violence! Instead, the attacks are planned and When seeking information on an attack, meet a strategy based on political ideology and one is struck by the appearance of a violence it is always finalized by a goal, such as the that seems unbridled, unchecked and conquest of power or the autonomy, or take- uncontrolled, chaotic and unfair to over, of a territory. This can only be achieved indiscriminately innocent victims. Exploding through a program and tools adapted to its bombs, automatic weapons that take the crowd realization. This is, indeed, terrorism: a to target, hijacking, men and women taken weapon in the service of a goal, or, more hostage, sometimes brutally executed by the accurately, a fighting technique acting as an aggressors, atrocious and shocking influence process in the context of subverting unexpectedness – that is terrorism. What is the established power and psychologically striking is the sudden emergence of events obliterate populations. Such an ambition returned to the incomprehensible and cannot result from disordered action relying on unacceptable in terms of reason. Thus an violence alone. The latter is necessary, no

219 SOCIO-HUMANITIES doubt, but not just any kind of violence. An dynamic which leads one’s thoughts towards attack is therefore directed by a scenario which future actions. An attack is thus never an end regulates precisely all the details, actors, in itself, but the promise of all the attacks that places, terms, victims, according to a protocol will certainly succeed from that. developed in advance where every aspect was The psychological consequences of evaluated and decided for the specific terrorism have been described following the opportunities it presents in terms of creating attacks in Munich in the 1972. The social and dread and chaos. political climate of the time also favored the The terrorist violence is anything but recognition of "psychological victims" of haphazard, and tends, instead, to an organized terrorism, but also made it clear that retaliation modus operandi where improvisation and follows soon after. randomness have little space and its main The first epidemiological studies are stand is the mass media, whose deployment is initially relied on the knowledge acquired turned to the terrorists’ advantage by carefully during military conflicts in the second half of manipulating the symbols they the 20th century, particularly during the scripted. Terrorism uses very precise choices Vietnam War. Subsequently, several studies whose combination represents the basic on the psychological effects of attacks in equation of the terrorist action. This mix of Europe or in the context of the Israeli- elements represents, in the mind of a terrorist, Palestinian conflict have shown a sometimes sufficient force in regard to the sought high rate of depressive disorder and post- psychological impact, which is considered traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among more devastating than the act itself. In fact, the victims. [2-5] The analysis of this literature, terrorist action abounds in horror as the however, faces a problem often imprecise perpetrators make a huge effort to exceed the definition of "psychological victim" of a limits of dreadfulness. terrorist act, as well as extremely diverse methodologies, particularly in regard to 2. PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES measurement tools or screening for psychiatric disorders. [5] The group studied is often 2.1 Mental disorders caused by terrorist incomplete, based on hospital records, acts. insurance or even police regularly away Contrary to what one might think tourists or foreign language patients. [2-4] It terrorism is not expressed primarily in the field will eventually expect the attacks in New York of reality, but in that of potentiality. It is less in 2001 and Madrid in 2004 to appear several well defined by the actions it implements, as it epidemiological studies on a large scale, is by those the terrorists announce for future illustrating the major psychological realization. All past and present actions merely consequences of these events, both among the offer the support and certification for its future direct victims than in the general population ones; they endorse the issued threats and base (Table 1). their credibility. So that terrorism is never As seen in the table below, PTSD varies summarized in an action, but locked in the from 2.7 to as high as 18%, this maximum manner of a compressed spring, in a tense being reached in the cases of individuals who Table 1 - Prevalence of psychiatric disorders seen after attacks [6-14] Prevalence of psychiatric Psychiatric disorders Local Population National Population disorders seen after attacks within individuals involved on site Post Traumatic Stress 12 – 18% 7,5 – 11,5% 2,7 – 4,3% Disorder Depression - 8 – 10% - Anxiety Disorders 39% - - Alcohol or drug incidence - - 38% Psychiatric medication - 7,7 – 8,1% - Alcohol use - 17,5 – 24,6% - Nicotine - 9,7 – 9,9% - Marijuana - 2,7 – 3,3% -

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were on site at the time of the event. the symptoms escalate from anxiety, stress, Depression has a prevalence of 8 to 10%, fear, insomnia, and irritability, to depression, present within the local population. Anxiety post-traumatic stress disorder, and substance Disorders show the highest predominance, of abuse. 39% in the case of individuals involved in the The female population, the precarious, or terrorist attack, followed closely by alcohol or living alone, and patients with a psychiatric drug use in the national population - 38%. history are at increased risk of psychiatric Psychiatric medication, alcohol abuse, nicotine complications, especially in the form of PTSD. and marijuana consumption also record a [3, 4, 17-20] Advanced age seems sometimes growth in numbers. be a protective factor, although it appears 2.2 Individual psychosomatic effects. The inconsistently in the literature. [2, 6, 17, 21] psychological trauma induced by a terrorist act Patients physically affected by the attack or typically follows three stages, succeeding over having felt a threat against their bodily time (Table 2). The victims initially have a integrity (physical proximity, hearing or vision legitimate reaction to stress and fear, tailored of site of the attack) have an increased risk of to the violence and unpredictability of the developing post-traumatic stress syndrome. [3, event. During this period especially, victims 22, 23] This risk is correlated to the extent of try to make contact with their loved ones for physical injuries, especially aesthetically reassurance about their condition, or only to (amputation injuries face or hands) and the obtain support and comfort. [5] This first loss of a loved one (family, friend, colleague) phase gradually fades and can leave room for in the attack. [3, 5, 22, 23] sleep disorders, anxiety or aggression The emergency services (fire, police or manifestations. Finally, a variable proportion ambulance) face directly the victims of the of the affected individuals subsequently attacks and also the at-risk population. They develop psychiatric complications, particularly are sometimes the target of terrorists, whether in the form of post-traumatic stress disorder or deliberately (second attack after the first depressive episodes. explosion in a market in Tel Aviv) or As shown, the reaction’s length varies unintentionally (collapse of the World Trade from a few hours to a long-term response and Centre in New York). Studies of rescuers who Table 2 - Sequence of psychological reactions after a terrorist attack [15, 16] Time phases Duration Characteristics Immediate reaction Hours to a few days anxiety, stress, fear, confusion, activation of the autonomic nervous system response

Intermediate reaction A week to several months nightmares, insomnia, hyper-vigilance, aggressiveness, irritability, somatic disorders (dizziness, headache, fatigue, nausea )

Long-term reaction ≥ one year depression, anxiety and somatoform disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, substance abuse, sleep disorders

221 SOCIO-HUMANITIES spoke in New York or Oklahoma City have (fatigue, difficulty in breathing, headache, confirmed a high rate of psychiatric nausea, etc.) are sometimes grouped under the complications in the form of post-traumatic term mass psychogenic illness. [32] They stress disorder or depression, associated with have been described in military conflicts (the excessive alcohol consumption. [24] Gulf War), industrial disasters (nuclear Curiously, the rescuers’ spouses also have accident at Three Mile Island) or after deadly post-traumatic stress signals with a frequency attacks (World Trade Centre in 2001).The higher than that of the rest of the population. majority of these symptoms is related to [25] anxiety disorders, rather than a real disease. Children are the ultimate particularly [33] This type of clinical manifestations may vulnerable population, at risk of psychiatric become dominant in case of a CBRN complications either during direct exposure (chemical, bacterial, nuclear, radiological) with or by proximity to the event, or when a attack, whether real or fictional, and induce a member of their family is hurt. [26- major panic, as experienced by the health 28] Alarmingly, the images transmitted by the services during the anthrax crisis. [34] The media play a key role in the onset of main challenge for primary care physicians symptoms of post-traumatic stress. [4, 18] The would be to identify cases of proven severity of psychological harm is thus directly pathologies, among a multitude of correlated to the exposure to these images. [6] manifestations of anxiety. [16] For example, during the attacks on the World 2.4 Concept of resilience. Contrary to Trade Centre in 2001, American children have popular belief, the collective reaction of faced an average of three hours of live images, society rarely expresses itself in the form of to up to five hours or more in 25% of cases. panic or aggression. Instead, there have been [4] The effect of media on adult patients is noticed community support initiatives, definitely the same, albeit in a lesser extent. materialized in the form of blood donations, [14, 29] spontaneous help to extract the victims from 2.3 The psychological consequences on the debris, or to accommodate victims. [16] the community. Terrorist acts not only reach The attacks in Madrid and London have individuals but also their families, colleagues, demonstrated the capabilities of the civilian neighbors and ultimately the whole of population to overcome the event and to society. The impact goes far beyond the continue their daily activities despite her fears individual direct victims. Following an attack, to live in the same vicinity of the site of the it is thus frequently observed in the general attack. This individual and community population the occurrence of risky behavior, capacity to overcome the trauma of the attack with an increase in tobacco, alcohol and has crystallized around the concept psychotropic drugs, an increase in risky sexual of resilience, currently spearheading civil behavior, and a worsening of the peer strategy against terrorism. [35] The attacks relationships. [5, 7, 21, 30, 31] The economic remain difficult to avoid, thus the concept of and employment impact is also notable. resilience aims to prevent its consequences on Following the attacks on New York in 2001, the population and to limit the potential gains nearly a third of Manhattan’s residents have that could benefit terrorists. In this sense, had to change one way or another professional resilience almost has a deterrent effect and can activities, combined with periods of be considered a real counter-terrorism unemployment. [19] strategy. It tries to minimize the emotional and Also the use of public transport (London psychological impact and to strip the terrorist Underground, Madrid train station), is act of its terror potential, unifying the entire challenged with frequent avoidance reactions population against the perpetrators of the and community phobias. attack. [35, 36, 37] This concept of resilience In the extreme situations, diffuse applies to several levels of the society: symptoms not explained by the attack itself • Individual resilience: the individual ability to were sometimes observed in the overcome the trauma, spontaneous reactions to population. These protean manifestations

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help other victims, as individuals show the be assessed and assisted in order to deal with tendency to gather in support groups. the consequences of the event. The privileged • Societal resilience: the ability of the affected position of the primary care physician allows target to survive, to keep its habits, its for playing a key role here, by detecting and independence and its rights. identifying patients at risk of developing • Political resilience: the ability of political symptoms of depression or post-traumatic structures to overcome the event and meet the stress. [42] The decision of a secondary population (the attack in Madrid’s main referral to specialist treatment can be based on railway station is excellent bad-example, as some anamnestic and clinical indices. the lack of clarity and unity was very costly to Aznar’s government). 3. CONCLUSIONS & The importance of accurate information ACKNOWLEDGMENT and its quality, as given by the authorities, that the population recognizes and trusts is the Attracting domestic and international cornerstone of the concept. [38, 39] The public attention on "the noble goal" pursued medical staff, fire-fighters, managers of public by the terrorists in their need of solving transport, municipal authorities and leaders problems caused by a conflict in a region on civil society, play a key role here. [40] The an ideology, the "injustice and persecution" reports sent out to the population (information that is subject to a social group is the core about possible attacks, counter-terrorism objective of these type of violent groups. In strategy), the credibility of contingency plans fact, public opinion is the main force to whom and the existence of similar episodes when the terrorism in terms of propaganda and authorities proved to be in control of the psychological effect is addressing. Thus, by situation (see the IRA bombings in the London raising even a small segment of the population, area, or the Israeli-Palestinian conflict) also terrorism causes a polarization of society in allow for a better reaction of the whole terms of supporters and adherents. society. [17, 40, 41] Apparently comprehensive and clear, the 2.4 Psychological Support for victims. definitions of terrorism yield inevitable gaps Most direct or indirect victims of a terrorist act and generalizations, if you submit them to a are able to gradually deal with the stress of the synchronic and diachronic comparative event and do not require psychological analysis. Such an attempt was made by Alex P. treatment. [17, 41] Contrary to some media Schmidt and Albert I. Jongman in their paper belief, the spontaneous appeal of the general on Political Terrorism published in 2001. They population to professional psychological help identified and scrutinized 109 definitions of is thus extremely limited. Using a systematic terrorism given in different periods, effort debriefing is also highly controversial and may which led to the identification of recurrent even be counter-productive, or at best useless. elements: violence, force - 83.5%; political act [38, 39] Directly injured individuals or those - 65%; focus on terror fear - 51%; threat - who have suffered the loss of a loved one, or 47%; psychological effects and anticipated people who cannot escape the fear of the reactions - 41.5%; discrepancy between attack, are nevertheless likely to develop targets and victims - 37.5%; deliberateness, psychiatric complications and should therefore planned, systematic, organized action - 32%;

223 SOCIO-HUMANITIES methods of combat, strategy, tactics - 30.5%. formation programme for elite researchers - As terrorism does not have a unanimously “SmartSPODAS”.” accepted definition, if we were to link the words above, we would most probably come REFERENCES up with the most accurate description of this phenomenon. 1. Abenhaim L, Dab W, Salmi LR. Study of Terrorism depends on the spread of a Civilian victims of terrorist attacks (France threat to the general public, as public opinion 1982-1987). Journal of Clinical is the only factor that can push the political Epidemiology 1992. actors to meet the power demands of terrorism, 2. Jehel L., Duchet C., Paterniti S., Louville given that political power has as a rule the P., Carli P., Evaluation des troubles refusal ab ovo to negotiate with terrorists, psychotraumatiques des victimes d’un because such a process implies the recognition attentat terroriste. Une étude prospective. of the partner’s legitimacy. As such, putting Medical Catastrophe Urgences pressure on the general public gives terrorists Collectives 1999. the leverage they need to constraint the 3. Verger P., Dab W., Lamping D., The political class. psychological imp act of terrorism: An Terrorists quickly learnt and accepted a epidemiologic study of posttraumatic stress major lesson: the media are crucial in their disorder-associated and factoring in campaigns; the terrorist act itself is almost victims of the 1995-1996 bombings in nothing, while advertising is everything. France. American Journal of Psychiatry The result is a generalized state of panic 2004. and uncertainty resulting from the possibility 4. Schuster M., Stein B., Jaycox L., A of carrying out such an attack in any place at national survey of stress reactions partner any time. The second effect they pursue is after the September 11, 2001, terrorist targeting symbols of the concerned entity or attack. National English Journal of known personalities. The result in this case is Medicine 2001. general moral decline especially where the 5. Dab W., Abenhaim L., Salmi L.R., confidence in the system's ability to control a Epidemiology of post-traumatic stress terrorist threat is concerned. The most telling disorder in victims of attacks and political in this respect is the strategy of Al-Qaida in compensation. Public Health Journal 1991. the past decade. 6. Schlenger W., Caddell J., Ebert L., Influencing the violence, calling for Psychological reactions to terrorist terrorism to achieve its goals, is a complex attacks. Findings from the national study of phenomenon that does not fit into the classical American's reactions to September 11. scheme of manipulation in which “A” JAMA 2002. influences “B” acting on emotions, interests or 7. Vlahov D., Galea M., Resnick M., background. In the democratic system, the Increased use of cigarettes, alcohol, and game is played by many participants: terrorist marijuana among Manhattan and New York organizations, the media, the public, state residents after the September 11th terrorist authorities, and the political power. attacks. American Journal of Epidemiology This work was possible with the 2002. [Medline] financial support of the Sectorial Operational 8. Galea S., Vlahov D., Resnick M., Trends Programme for Human Resources of probable post-traumatic stress disorder Development 2007-2013, co-financed by the in New York City after the September European Social Fund, under the project 11terrorist attacks. American Journal of number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/138822 with the Epidemiology 2003. [Medline] title “Transnational network of integrated 9. Boscarino J., Adams R., Figley C., Mental management of intelligent doctoral and health service use 1-year after the World postdoctoral research in the fields of Military Trade Centre disaster: Implications for Science, Security and Intelligence, Public mental health care. General Hospital of order and National Security – Continuous Psychiatry 2004. [Medline]

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10. Boscarino J., Galea S., Adams R., Mental 19. DeLisi L., Maurizio A., Yost M., A survey health service and medication use in New of New Yorkers partner after the 9/11, 2001 York City after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. American Journal of terrorist attack. Psychiatric Services 2004. Psychiatry 2003. 11. Marshall R.D., Galea S., Science for the 20. Nandi A., Galea S., Tracy M., Job loss, community. Assessing mental health after unemployment, work stress, job 9/11. Journal of clinical Psychiatry 2004. satisfaction, and the persistence of [Medline] posttraumatic stress disorder one year after 12. Stein B., Elliot M., A national the September 11 attacks. Journal of longitudinal study of the psychological Occupational Environmental Medicine consequences of the September 11, 2001 2004. terrorist attacks: Reactions, impairment, 21. Bleich A., Gelkopf M., Melamed Y., and help-seeking. Psychiatry Journal 2004; Solomon Z., Emotional impact of exposure 13. Miguel-Tobal J., Cano-Vindel A., to terrorism among young-old and old-old Gonzalez-Ordi H., PTSD and depression Israeli citizens. American Journal of after the March 11 Madrid Geriatric Psychiatry 2005. [Medline] bombings. Journal of Traumatic Stress 22. North C., Nixon S., Shariat S., Psychiatric 2006. [Medline] disorders among survivors of the Oklahoma 14. DiMaggio C., Galea S. The behavioural City bombing. JAMA 1999. consequences of terrorism - a meta- 23. Galea S., Ahern J., Resnick M., analysis. Academy of Medical Emergencies Psychological sequelae of the September 11 2006. [Medline] terrorist attacks in New York City. National 15. Lacy T.J., Benedek D.M., Psychological English Journal of Medicine 2002. impact of terrorist incidents. Physician's 24. North C., Psychiatric Disorders in rescue guide to terrorist attack. Humana Press, workers after the Oklahoma City bombing. 2004. American Journal of Psychiatry 2002. 16. Lacy T.J., Benedek D., Terrorism and 25. Pfefferbaum B., North C., Bunch K., The weapons of mass destruction. Managing the impact of the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing behavioural reaction in primary care. on the partners of fire-fighters. Urban Southern Medical Journal 2003. Health Journal (Medical Academy of New 17. Rubin G.J., Brewin C.R., Greenberg N., York) 2002. Simpson J., Wessely S., Psychological and 26. Pfefferbaum B., Pfefferbaum R., Gurwitch behavioural reactions to the bombing in R., Children's response to terrorism: A London on July 7, 2005. Cross sectional critical review of the literature. Current survey of a representative sample of Psychological Report 2003. Londoners. British Medical Journal 2005. 27. Hoven C., Duarte C., Mandell D., 18. Silver R.C., Holman E.A., McIntosh D.N., Children's Mental Health After disasters. Poulin M., Gil-Rivas V., Nationwide The impact of the World Trade Centre longitudinal study of psychological attack. Current Psychological Report 2003. responses to September 11. JAMA 28. Pfefferbaum B., Nixon S., Krug R., February 20. Clinical needs assessment of middle and high school students following the 1995

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Oklahoma City bombing. American Journal 35. Henrontin J., Resilience: The missing of Psychiatry 1999. counter-terrorism strategies. Diplomacy 29. Ahern J., Galea M., Resnick M., 2005. Television pictures and psychological 36. Glass T., Schoch-Spana M., Bioterrorism symptoms after the 9/11 terrorist and the people. How to vaccinate a city attacks. Psychiatry 2002. against panic. Clinical Info Dissemination 30. Pfefferbaum B., Vinekar S., Trautman R., 2002. The effect of loss and trauma on substance 37. Bonanno G., Loss, trauma and human use behaviour in individuals seeking resilience. American Psychologist 2004 support services after the 1995 Oklahoma 38. Durodié B., Wessely S., Resilience or City bombing. American Clinical panic? The public and terrorist attack. Psychiatry 2002. Lancet 2002. 31. Rose C.S., Ress B., HIV Transmission 39. Foa E., Cahill S., Boscarino J., Social, Risk Behaviours among HIV-positive psychological, and psychiatric individuals. Stress and coping in the interventions following terrorist attacks: aftermath of 9/11. Nurses Association Recommendations for practice and AIDS Care 2002. research. Neuropsychopharmacology 2005 32. Jones T., Craig A., Hoy D., Mass 40. Wessely S., Victimhood and resilience. psychogenic illness attributed to toxic National English Journal of Medicine 2005. exposure. National English Journal of 41. Bleich A., Gelkopf M., Solomon Z., Medicine 2000. Exposure to terrorism, stress-related 33. Clauw D., Engel C., Aronowitz R., mental health symptoms, and coping Unexplained symptoms after terrorism and behaviours among a nationally war: An expert consensus statement. representative sample in Israel. JAMA Journal of Occupational Environmental 2003. Medicine 2003 42. Gordon R., Bali 12 months on... 34. Hall R., Hall R., Chapman M., Medical Australian Family Physicians Journal 2003. and psychiatric casualties Caused by 43. National network of emergency conventional and radiological (dirty) psychological help (RNAPU), 2006. bombs. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2006.

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GUNS FOR HIRE: PRIVATE MILITARY COMPANIES AND THEIR STATUS UNDER INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW

Cosmin Ivanciu*

*Faculty of Aeronautical Management, “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: An increasing number of states are more and more frequently employing private military companies to be present in areas where armed conflicts are occurring and require them to fulfill tasks, traditionally fulfilled by military personnel. The preponderant idea among international public judgment is that the best way of action is to shape out a framework for such service providers. Bringing into picture two examples from Iraq Theatre of Operations, as starting points, this paper aims to highlight the amplitude of this phenomenon, analyzing its variation, in number of employees, from 2010 to present days within the Afghan Theater of Operations. Following the overview of the private military companies industry, a brief outline will be granted on the law of mercenaries in international humanitarian law. The difficulty of looking upon these private military company employees as combatants or civilians in accordance with the legal international humanitarian law definitions and that the concept of mercenary is unhelpful for regulating these companies will then be debated. The paper will sum up with some general suggestions that states may wish to take into consideration when trying to legalize these private military companies status and with an overview of elements of the Romanian law in relation to mercenaries, private military and security companies.

Keywords: private military company, international humanitarian law, mercenary, combatant, civilian.

1. INTRODUCTION military equipment. It offers its services in support of military operations enrolling former However out of the common road seems to militaries as civilians to carry out passive or be, currently new security or military defensive security. assistance providers rise up in the private Often addressed as mercenaries, they do sector. Private military companies (PMCs) are not fall under the international humanitarian becoming a worldwide well-known law definition for this category of personnel occurrence. These quite new entities perform and modern-day PMCs prefer to refer to their tasks in uncommonly blurred situations where staff as security contractors or private military the action of pointing out the boundaries contractors. The definition of mercenary between legal and illegal is a demanding job. under international law is so exclusive that it is The new business branch of security provided difficult to outline who would actually qualify by private companies is responsible for as a mercenary. A repeatedly and notorious handling large amounts of weapons and quotation belongs to Geoffrey Best and fully

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explains this inconvenience: “any mercenary these PMCs have about themselves. Held who cannot exclude himself from this under the auspices of the United Nations, an definition deserves to be shot - and his lawyer assembly of specialist on the subject of PMCs with him”[1]. industry pointed out, into a report, that all The initial point was the statement that these armed entities maneuvers in a field of “these private military companies act in a void, activity valued at US$100 billion[4]. Therefore, virtually free from legal restraints”[2]. this fellowship represents a compelling strength that will not dissipate all at once. 2. BRIEF SCOPE OF THE INDUSTRY PMCs play a worldwide substantial role, frequently with strategic effect on both the March 31, 2004. City of Fallujah. Iraq. process and consequences of conflicts. Four employees of the US-owned private As for the types of services they provide, military company Blackwater are ambushed Peter Singer separates PMCs into three and killed by an angry Iraqi crowd, their business sectors: corpses incinerated and mutilated, and then 1. “military provider firms supplying hung sinisterly from a bridge. As a response, direct, tactical military assistance that can because the city of Fallujah was like a painful include serving in front-line combat; thorn for the US forces since their arrival in 2. military consulting firms that provide Iraq, the following assault that involved both strategic advice and training; participation of US forces and Blackwater 3. military support forms that provide contractors on Fallujah in April 2004, using a logistics, maintenance and intelligence total disproportionate means of attack, have services to armed forces”[5]. resulted in raising questions about the From instructing military personnel in connection between the military and these former Yugoslavia, in collaboration with contractors and the exactness of addressing regular armed forces, raising encampments for them as civilian contractors. dislocated individuals in Macedonia, helping Second example refers to the participation US Central Intelligence Agency in South of employees of the private military company America in its fight against drugs and CACI in the mistreatment of inmates at the protecting oil pipe lines and diamond mines in Iraqi Abu Ghraib detention facility and the Africa to a wide variety of tasks performed in attention drawn by the tasks these contractors Iraq and more recently in Afghanistan, private are performing, as well as to their military companies have been implicated in an accountability for human rights abuses they extensive range of missions and expanded may commit. their tentacles all around the globe. “In These two incidents[3] draw the public Angola, for example, domestic laws require opinion attention on the feeling of mightiness extraction companies to bring their own security forces, many of which may end up [6] [1] engaged in battles with local rebel groups” . Geoffrey Best: “Humanity in Warfare: The History of International Law of Armed Conflict”, Governments may use, also, private military Columb ia University Press, 1980, p.328, ISBN-10: companies in order to elude some imposed 023105 1581, ISBN-13: 978-0231051583. [2] Heather Carney: “Prosecuting the lawless: Human rights abuses and private military firms”, [4] UN Document E/CN.4/2005/23 - “Report of the George Washington Law Review, vol. 74, 2006, p. 323. Third Meeting of Experts on traditional and new forms [3] Shaista Shameem, United Nations former Special of mercenary activity”, paragraph 12. Rapporteur on the right of people to self-determination [5] Peter Singer: “Corporate Warriors: The Rise of and the application of that right to people under colonial the Privatized Military Industry”, Cornell University or alien domination or foreign occupation, officially Press, New York, 2007, ISBN-10: 0801474361, ISBN- refers to these two incidents in her annual report, “Use 13: 978-0801474361. of mercenaries as a means of violating human rights [6] Peter Singer: “Corporate Warriors: The Rise of and impeding the exercise of the right of peoples to self- the Privatized Military Industry”, Cornell University determination”, UN Document E/CN.4/2005/14, Press, New York, 2007, ISBN-10: 0801474361, ISBN- paragraphs 49 and 50. 13: 978-0801474361.

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constraints, like it is, for instances the number like a counter weight to local armed forces in of regulate army troops being sent in missions countries where the political institutions have abroad. no, or no longer, a real authority. Also, In Afghanistan, although the RSM outsourcing some military services, like (Resolute Support Mission)[7] presence is logistics or maintenance, can be justified by a twisting down, “the increase in the contractors desire of seeking efficiency and allowing the to troop ratio is yet another indication that regulate military forces to focus on the main, although the vast majority of troops are more important, combat missions. leaving Afghanistan, a private army will Real or not, these advantages are counter remain in the country for years.”[8] balanced by some important disadvantages. A brief analysis of these numbers (figure Private military companies’ employees are 1), from 2010 to 2015, proves that, indeed rather motivated by financial gain then by a RSM troops are, slowly but surely, being sense of duty and they do not follow a military replaced by a subcontracted private army. hierarchy. As resulting from the analysis, even if the troops are leaving Afghanistan their tasks are 3. MERCENARIES UNDER taken over by the private military companies, INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN proven by the exponential increasing ratios. A LAW comment is, also, needed to be done. The number of private contractors represents only The root for the mercenaries’ status finds those employed by U.S. companies, but not its place of birth within the Protocol necessarily Americans. These figures only Additional I (adopted on 8th of June 1977) to count those contractors employed by the U.S. the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, Department of Defense. Taking into account relating to the Protection of Victims of that many other institutions or private International Armed Conflicts. companies use these contractors, too, the ratios Also, their status is defined in two other are even higher or even more disproportionate. international conventions: first comes the Using private military companies may have International Convention against the some possible advantages like rapid Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of deployment, the mitigation of public opinion Mercenaries adopted on 04th of December on use of regular armed forces or they can act 1989 by United Nations General Assembly Resolution A/RES/44/34, entered into force on

20th of October 2001 and, secondly, [7] The Resolute Support mission (RSM) is a new NATO-led mission to train, advise and assist the Convention for the Elimination of Afghan Security Forces and institutions. The mission Mercenarism in Africa, entered into force on was launched on 1 January 2015, immediately following 22nd of April 1985. the stand-down of the International Security Since the mercenary conventions Assista nce Force (ISAF). appropriate delimitation for mercenary term [8] David Francis: “U.S. Troops Replaced by an that is comparable to that established in Article Outsourced Army in Afghanistan”, The Fiscal Times, 47 of Protocol I, I shall use that definition. 2013. See it at .

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Figure 1 US nationals ISAF/RSM to Number of (from ISAF Private private US to private Year ISAF/RSM troops contractors[10] contractors contractors ratio troops number)[9] ratio 2010 130.930 [11] 90.000 88.000 0,67:1 0,97:1 2011 130.313 [12] 90.000 101.789 0,78:1 1,13:1 2012 102.508 [13] 68.000 109.564 1,06:1 1,61:1 2013 84.271 [14] 60.000 85.528 1,01:1 1,42:1 2014 28.360 [15] 18.180 45.349 1,59:1 2,49:1 2015 13.195 [16] 6.839 39.609 3,00:1 5,79:1 b) does, in fact, take a direct part in the “A mercenary is any person who: hostilities; a) is specially recruited locally or abroad c) is motivated to take part in the in order to fight in an armed conflict; hostilities essentially by the desire for private gain and, in fact, is promised, by or on behalf [9] Figures reported on the RSM official website on of a Party to the conflict, material the same placemats as the total figures of RSM troops compensation substantially in excess of that (see below notes 11 to 16). promised or paid to combatants of similar [10] Ian S. Livingston, Michael O’Hanlon: “Afghanistan index”, Brookings Institute, 10th of ranks and functions in the armed forces of that February 2015. Party; [11] Figure reported on November 15, 2010 on d) is neither a national of a Party to the International Security Assistance Force official website. conflict nor a resident of territory controlled See it at by a Party to the conflict; (last visited on 25th of April e) is not a member of the armed forces of 2015). a Party to the conflict; and [12] Figure reported on December 08, 2011 on has not been sent by a State which is not a International Security Assistance Force official website. Party to the conflict on official duty as a See it at member of its armed forces.”17 (last visited on 25th of April One is possible to be framed as mercenary, 2015). if, cumulatively, fall under all these six [13] Figure reported on December 04, 2012 on conditions. This definition is simply too International Security Assistance Force official website. restrictive and infeasible. It’s an undisputable See it at reality that nowadays international conflicts (last visited on 25th of April are supported by many countries around the 2015). world. And, also, take into account that there [14] Figure reported on December 01, 2013 on is not only a probability, but certitude that the International Security Assistance Force official website. majority of these private security companies’ See it at employees are nationals of a party to the (last visited on 25th of April conflict - subparagraph (d). So, after all, 2015). Geoffrey Best was right in his statement about [15] Figure reported on November 07, 2014 on the huge opportunity of driving through the International Security Assistance Force official website. stipulations of this definition. See it at Analyzing the status of private military companies’ employees usually stops with (last visited on 25th of April 2015). [16] Figure reported on February 25, 2015 on Resolute Support Mission official website. See it at [17] Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions (last Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 visited on 25th of April 2015). June 1977, art. 47, paragraph 2.

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framing them if they qualify as mercenaries. effort, depriving them, even more, of a But this assessment doesn’t answer the possible civil status. But nobody is allowed to question of how private military companies’ breach the norms of international humanitarian employees are allowed to behave in conflict law and, so, these civilian contractors may be situations. If it’s tried to regulate the PMCs trialed under their national jurisdiction and in status, it is imperious to deliberate upon accordance with the national norms on whether their employees are civilians or mercenarism (if that certain state has specific combatants. norms incriminating mercenarism). Combatants are “members of the armed With the increasing use of private military forces of a Party to a conflict (other than companies’ personnel around the world, now medical personnel and chaplains), that is to more than ever it’s necessary to regulate their say, they have the right to participate directly activity. in hostilities”[18]. Being a combatant exempts There is much confusion over human rights one from any criminal charges (such as killing mistreatments executed by private military an enemy), as long as his behavior doesn’t companies. All these non-state entities must be break international humanitarian law norms accountable for violations of human rights and and, furthermore, grants him prisoner of war is, also, necessary to show the responsibility of status. individuals under international humanitarian Since PMCs employees are not members law. One option for building human rights of the regular armed forces, the conclusion is legally stringent for private military companies that they cannot be assimilated to combatants, is to concept them as institutionalized so they do not benefit of a prisoner of war agencies. Another way is to write human rights status, fact specifically mentioned in the stipulations promptly into contracts assumed Protocol I to Geneva Conventions, first with these PMCs. These solutions do not paragraph of article 47. necessarily represent the law as it stands now, From international humanitarian law point but rather reflect the direction in which the law of view, somebody can be a combatant or a should go. civilian. Therefore PMCs employees may be Another idea would be to create a assimilated with civilians. But a civilian is convention that would specify the minimum defined as “any person who does not belong to control standards, such as a new system of one of the categories of persons”[19] defining granting the functioning license that would combatants. But many PMCs employees take include an exact list of the activities performed direct part in hostilities while others, although by a specific PMC. they do not directly take part in hostilities, they bring a certain advantage to the war 4. ELEMENTS OF THE ROMANIAN LAW IN RELATION TO [18] Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions MERCENARIES, PRIVATE MILITARY of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of AND SECURITY COMPANIES Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977, art. 43, paragraph 2. The Romanian Constitution adopted in [19] Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of 1991, as amended by Law no. 429/2003, Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 qualifies that “the organization of military or June 1977, art. 50, paragraph 1.

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paramilitary activities outside a State authority Above all, Romania ratified the Additional is prohibited.”[20] Protocols I and II to Geneva Conventions from Therefore, the State may not enroll, 12 August 1949, by Decree no. 224/11 May dispose, financially support or instruct 1990. mercenaries. Moreover, the concept of private Romania also signed the International military companies is not codified by the Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Romanian domestic law. Financing and Training of Mercenaries As far as the activity of private security (December 4, 1989) on December 17, 1990, companies is concerned, the Romanian but the text was not, yet, ratified. legislation in the field, Law no. 333/2003 regarding the security of objectives, goods, 5. CONCLUSIONS & valuables and the protection of individuals, ACKNOWLEDGMENT along with its implementation norms, Government Decision no. 1010/2004, allows Being motivated by their own profit, it for the private companies to act strictly in the seems that private military companies will field of protection and security, any remain an integrate part of the security involvement in military or paramilitary environment in the predictable future and it is activities being a crime. an unquestionable need of improving the Specialized security and protection regulations, either by national or international companies may have, according to the law, measures. It’s understandable why they will one or more fields of activity, such as always have pretenders for employment, since safeguarding services for objectives, after the end of The Cold War and the possessions and objects of value, for the completion of the world’s bipolarity, once the transport of possessions and objects of value armies start reducing their personnel, there is a or specialized personal protection services large amount of specialized military work (bodyguards), as well as counseling services force, especially former special operations in all these fields.[21] fighters that found themselves in harsh To start a legal way of functioning these financial situation. companies have to obtain a license issued by These private military companies operate the General Inspectorate of the Romanian in extremely obscure circumstances where the Police, with the prior approval of the border between a legal behavior and an illegal Romanian Intelligence Service. Licenses can combat conduct is difficult to be identified. be renewed every three years.[22] Individuals carrying and using weapons or As for sanctions, the law specifies the fulfill other essential military functions, under crimes specialized security companies are any circumstances they cannot be framed as punished for (among others, performing civilians. Those individuals carrying weapons actions of aggression, constrained execution, can permutate in an effortless manner from a debt recoveries, labor conflicts or opposition defensive to an offensive posture and can to actions of restoring order by the competent perpetrate human rights violations. They public authorities) and they are punishable cannot be assessed to combatants or with imprisonment for a period of 6 months up supporting the combatants under international to 3 years or with a fine if the action is not a humanitarian law either, since they are not part crime.[23] of the armed forces or in the chain of command, and often belong to a large number

[20] The Constitution of Romania of 1991, article of different nationalities. PMCs employees 117, paragraph (4) cannot, mostly, be considered to be [21] Law no. 333/2003 regarding the security of mercenaries in the sense given by the objectives, goods, valuables and the protection of definition of mercenaries as stipulated in the individuals, republished in Official Monitor no. international conventions. 189/18th of March 2014, article 19, paragraph 4. 22 See above note 21, article 31, paragraph 1. Private military and security companies 23 See above note 21, article 57. operate in a legal vacuum: they pose a threat to

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civilians and to international human rights law New York, 2014, ISBN-10: 1591847451, and this happen when PMCs stop taking orders ISBN-13: 978-1591847458. and start taking over. Once the military’s 4. Jeremy Scahill: “Blackwater: the rise stretchiness it’s increasing more and more, day of the world’s powerful mercenary army”, by day, the more governments are going to Nation Books, 2008, ISBN-10: 156858394X, hand over many of their functions to ISBN-13: 978-1568583945 outsourced armies, because for some war is 5. Mark Bina: “Private military big business and this fact is accepted by some contractor liability and accountability after governments and the need to have a clear Abu Ghraib”, John Marshall Law Review, vol. definition for this category of personnel raises, 38, 2005. in order to distinguish them from other 6. Heather Carney: “Prosecuting the categories existing nowadays within a modern lawless: Human rights abuses and private battlefield. military firms”, George Washington Law This work was possible with the financial Review, vol. 74, 2006. support of the Sectorial Operational 7. James Coleman: “Constraining modern Programme for Human Resources mercenarism”, Hastings Law Journal, vol. 55, Development 2007-2013, co-financed by the 2004. European Social Fund, under the project 8. Laura Dickinson: “Government for number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/138822 with the hire: Privatizing foreign affairs and the title “Transnational network of integrated problem of accountability under international management of intelligent doctoral and law”, William and Mary Law Review, vol. 45, postdoctoral research in the fields of Military October 2005. Science, Security and Intelligence, Public 9. Michael Schmitt: “War, international order and National Security – Continuous law, and sovereignty: Re-evaluating the rules formation programme for elite researchers - of the game in a new century – humanitarian “SmartSPODAS”.” law and direct participation in hostilities by private contractors or civilian employees”, 6. REFERENCES Chicago Journal of International Law, vol. 5, January 2005. 1. Peter Singer: “Corporate Warriors: 10. David Francis: “U.S. Troops Replaced The Rise of the Privatized Military Industry”, by an Outsourced Army in Afghanistan”, The Cornell University Press, New York, 2007, Fiscal Times, 2013. ISBN-10: 0801474361, ISBN-13: 978- 11. Convention (III) relative to the 0801474361. Treatment of Prisoners of War, Geneva, 12 2. Robert Young Pelton: “Licensed to August 1949. Kill: Hired Guns in the War on Terror”, 12. International Convention against the Broadway Books, New York, 2007, ISBN-10: Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of 1400097827, ISBN-13: 978-1400097821. Mercenaries, 4 December 1989, UNGA Res. 3. Erik Prince: “Civilian warriors: The A/RES/44/34, entered into force 20 October inside story of Blackwater and the Unsung 2001. Heroes of the War on Terror”, Penguin Group, 13. Convention for the Elimination of Mercenarism in Africa, Organization of

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African Unity, Libreville, 3 July 1977, CM/817 (XXXIX), Annex II, Rev. 3, entered into force 22 April 1985. 14. Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977. 15. UN Document E/CN.4/2005/23 - “Report of the Third Meeting of Experts on traditional and new forms of mercenary activity”. 16. UN Document E/CN.4/2005/14 - “Use of mercenaries as a means of violating human rights and impeding the exercise of the right of peoples to self-determination”. 17. UN Document E/CN.4/1997/24 – “Report on the question of the use of mercenaries as a means of violating human rights and impeding the exercise of the right of peoples to self-determination”. 18. The Constitution of Romania of 1991. 19. Law no. 333/2003 regarding the security of objectives, goods, valuables and the protection of individuals, republished in Official Monitor no. 189/18th of March 2014.

Web: 1. http://www.thefiscaltimes.com/Articles /2013/05/10/US-Troops-Replaced-by-an- Outsourced-Army-in-Afghanistan#page1 2. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/mosl ive/article-1360216/How-make-killing-Kabul- Western-security-crisis-Afghanistan.html 3. http://www.nato.int/isaf/placemats_arc hive/2010-11-15-ISAF-Placemat.pdf 4. http://www.nato.int/isaf/placemats_arc hive/2011-12-08-ISAF-Placemat.pdf 5. http://www.nato.int/isaf/placemats_arc hive/2012-12-04-ISAF-Placemat.pdf 6. http://www.nato.int/isaf/placemats_arc hive/2013-12-01-ISAF-Placemat.pdf 7. http://www.nato.int/nato_static_fl2014/ assets/pdf/pdf_2014_11/20141111_141107- ISAF-Placemat-final.pdf 8. http://www.nato.int/nato_static_fl2014/ assets/pdf/pdf_2015_02/20150227_1502- RSM-Placemat.pdf

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FACILITATION OF LEARNING AT A DISTANCE TRAINING PROGRAM

Nicoleta Litoiu*

*Department of Training for Teaching Career and Social Sciences, Politehnica University of Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: Education experts pay more and more attention to the concept of life-long learning correlated with the e-learning and distance learning programs. Facilitating learning during a distance learning course requires a series of simultaneous and different processes which take place in a virtual space, wherein there is intervention and exchange using ICT between the defined and shared learning objectives, the tutor service the individual learner and the participants amongst themselves. The present paper addresses to all those education experts (researchers, teachers, counsellors and psychologists) who ask themselves questions about how to improve the actual context of education and training, contributing to the development and implementation of the “learning facilitation” concept. The paper’s aim is to present an overview on this concept related to the learning environments and to the authentic assessment in the context of distance learning. Moreover, we propose an outline of a development of a distance training program in the e-learning context in order to offer the learners an integrated and comfortable environment in cognitive, operational and socio-affective terms, thus allowing them to experience success in their learning.

Keywords: distance training program, facilitation of learning, e-learning, learning environments, authentic assessment

1. E-LEARNING – A FREQUENT In a lifelong learning society, learning ALTERNATIVE FOR A BETTER itself is perceived as a process that transcends EDUCATIONAL APPROACH work, home or school; it can happen anywhere and is essential to our personal development. Learning is the key to productivity, Learning is also critical to our ability to adapt competitiveness and prosperity, overcoming and compete, especially in the digital the barriers of opportunity, resource capacity, economy. and accessibility. Such a society, which is According to this society’s challenges, an called also an “E-Learning Society”, would be adequate approach to learning and educational enabled through a distributed, standards-based assessment will take into consideration new repository system linked by ubiquitous opportunities for a better continuous broadband networks, complete with professional development. This approach will appropriate tools, applications, and standards. measure accurately not only outcomes and curricular standards, but also will help drive

235 SOCIO-HUMANITIES the system as a whole; towards increasing time, location and physical space is sometimes effectiveness taking into account the the key to learning experiences that go well challenges of the knowledge based economy beyond what is possible in the classroom. For and society. example, innovative use of online simulations Taking into account all of these, education can greatly reduce the cost and time to learn experts pay more and more attention to the complex skills, as when a medical student concept of life-long learning correlated with practices procedures. the e-learning and distance learning programs. One specific dimension of scientific and Facilitating learning during a distance learning technological progress that is already having a course requires a series of simultaneous and strong effect on the tertiary education sector is different processes which take place in a the information and communication virtual space, wherein there is intervention and revolution. Today, technological innovations exchange using ICT between the defined and in informatics and telecommunications are shared learning objectives, the tutor service the once more revolutionizing capacity to store, individual learner and the participants amongst transmit, access, and use information. The themselves [6]. accelerated pace of technological development The present paper addresses to all those has made access to knowledge a crucial education experts (researchers, teachers, requirement for participation in the global counsellors and psychologists) who ask economy. The impact of new information and themselves questions about how to improve communication technologies (ICT) has the actual context of education and training, significantly changed the speed of production, contributing to the development and use, and distribution of knowledge. The co- implementation of the “learning facilitation” ordination of these processes and the different concept. The paper’s aim is to present an learning activities derived from them implies overview on this concept related to the managing the e-learning and distance learning learning environments and to the authentic environment by the tutor support service. assessment in the context of distance learning. Managing the e-learning/distance learning Moreover, we propose an outline of a environment involves [1]: development of a distance training program in a) putting the learning, the e-learning context. b) support and monitoring strategies into Most of us still think of effective learning practice, as taking place with learners and experienced c) blending how these works together in teachers interacting face-to-face, perhaps order to offer the learners an integrated ideally one-on-one or in small groups. and comfortable environment in Whether such an approach is ideal in every cognitive, operational and socio- situation can be debated. For example, in post- affective terms, thus allowing them to secondary settings, on-campus students will experience success in their learning. sometimes opt for online learning activities in preference to those of the classroom. 2. FACILITATION OF LEARNING IN Regardless of its theoretical limitations, THE DISTANCE TRAINING reliance on face-to-face instruction is an PROGRAMS expensive model to implement and is often not feasible for learners in remote locations or in 2.1 Authentic assessment issue facing the e- dispersed groups. Nor does it reflect the learning approach. Many claims have been realities of available space in schools. made in recent years about the potentially When face-to-face learning is not possible, positive effects of new forms of assessment on not affordable or not sufficient to meet the the quality of the teaching and learning educational goals, e-learning and distance process and the standard of outcomes learning can provide a cost-effective produced by the process [5]. It is argued that complement, provided we understand when the quality of teaching will be improved, with and how best to use them alongside other respect to both curriculum coverage and modes of learning. Escaping the constraints of teaching methods, if higher-order skills and

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competencies such as problem-solving, the program to the learners, aspects investigation and analysis are included in what concerning formative assessment should is to be assessed. Thus assessment is being have a predominant place. The participants identified as a key mechanism for monitoring must be informed about how assessment and intervening in the educational process, will be carried out, and the dates when it with attention being paid to the role of will take place. Moreover, in the induction assessment in the education system as a to the course, the tutor support service must system, and with key research questions being make certain that the assessment objectives framed less in terms of the extent to which have been understood both as a learning assessments measure what they purport to situation and source of information about measure and more in terms of what impact what the participants are learning. assessment might have on the instructional  Clarity of activities. In setting process. out the activities, the transparency of what By definition, authentic approaches to is being assessed and the basis on which a assessment will engage students in more judgment is made are essential premises so complex tasks than extended assignments that the formative assessments comprise an which might involve the investigation of a important source of information for the problem and the production of essays or learner. From this point, the need to include reports, charts, diagrams, practical artefacts the anticipated performance as far as and so on [1]. Some of these tasks and knowledge, skills and attitudes are products could be set and marked by agencies concerned and a description of the criteria outside the school, but this would leave them that will be applied to grade the results as at a level of artificiality, which would deny the satisfactory become clear. It is therefore more ambitious claims for authentic necessary to take two steps: assessment. In line with all of these, leaving a) describe the objective being unassessed the processes of investigating, assessed; the competences related to analyzing and problem-solving which points it, the assessment criteria (with the out the importance of authentic assessment. levels of anticipated outcome). In the e-learning approach, taking into b) when introducing the activity, it is consideration the preparatory phase of the not sufficient to announce the topic course, the implementation of the formative and describe the activities that the assessment activities and setting-up what type participant should carry out. Rather they will be is mandatory. The carrying out of it is necessary to specify the these activities should comply with certain performances. Even when the conditions in keeping with the concept of assessment of knowledge is facilitation of e-learning and with the terms of emphasized, when formulating a the learning contract. question it is fitting to provide Some suggestions for carrying out appropriate indications so that the formative assessment in the e-learning context interpretation of what it is claimed is [1]: being assessed is indeed correct.  Opportunity for information. In the phase  Opportunity for implementation. that provided pre-course information about Formative assessment activities form a

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continuous process from the start to the conclusions of the tutor. The record of end of the course. During the delivery results must guarantee the required of a program, the learner needs to have level of confidentiality. opportunities to gather evidence which 2.2 Learning environments in distance shows what their progress is like training. To summarize, it is hopeless to try to towards the anticipated performance. It describe and analyze all kinds of different is for this reason that in programs with learning environments that are currently in use fixed timetables it is advisable to carry in distance education and training contexts. out the assessment activities in line However, taking the risk of over-simplification with the plan which was ratified by the and of overlooking some possibly important participants in the induction process. cases, we present the following arrangements Any modifications to the assessment for learning environments, as Adelina schedule owing to unforeseen Guastavi has described [1]. institutional circumstances, or to Each learning environment analyzed has extension of the delivery time for the specific features which influence not only the course must be agreed upon with the conditions for learning, but also the quality of participant as far in advance as training, as a whole: possible. a. home-study environment  Type of activity. Right from the start This is the more clear-cut situation for the opportunities must be sought for so-called «pure» distance education learning learners to check that they have regime: students use their homes to study their acquired knowledge, that they can learning materials, to watch and listen to video practice new skills and that they are and audio didactic units, to operate their capable of demonstrating the required computer equipment and related courseware, performance. Therefore, the formative to write assignments, questions or comments assessment activities must not be tricks to be mailed to the teaching system. The to catch the learner out. The evidence current improvement in quality and diversity that the learner gathers can be written of telecommunication services may contribute documents, physical products, to reduce even more the need for physical supervisor testimonials or even when displacement to contact the teaching system: dealing with demonstration of instead of attending face-to-face tuition processes, the practical activities can sessions, the distance education student may be recorded on video, audio-cassette, have access to the same kind of information etc. through fax, e-mail and computer  Authorship. Considering the current conferencing; the same means may be used to discussions on the validity of distance provide horizontal contacts with other students learning assessment and the difficulties following the same courses, as well as for that can occur in guaranteeing the contacts among the members of the teaching identity of the author, some institutions staff. believe it advisable to apply authorship Keeping this kind of limitations in mind, it control procedures by contracting with is generally accepted that, despite the very local professionals who act as significant costs associated with the supervisors during the carrying out of production of quality, specific distance the assessment activity. education learning materials, one of the major  Recording of results. A rigorous record advantages of a home-based learning of the formative assessments environment is its resulting comparatively low contributes to the transparency of the per capita teaching cost, as it does not require criteria applied. This record facilitates a permanent allotting of physical areas, tracking work and support needs and proportional to students numbers, dedicated to also makes possible a subsequent presence learning activities. review of the results when the learner b. training- or study-centre wishes to appeal against the environment

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In many educational or training situations of features influencing the building of good it is necessary to provide a dedicated space for relationships in distance learning, or collective presence- learning activities, even if supporting individual or group distance a distance education-like methodology is in learning processes. In an attempt to compare use. This may occur for different kinds of the characteristics of the traditional and the reasons, such as: the need to provide a new learning environments (Table 1), we technological environment for the learning present a summarization based on the activity itself; the need to provide a meeting information included in the Adelina Guastavi’s place for students in a distance education paper, “Deliver a training program. Module 4: regime, wherein they may find guidance and Facilitate the distance learning” [1]: tutoring provided by the organization itself, as well as some complementary facilities (library, Table 1. Learning environments 1 databases, viewing and communication Traditional learning New learning equipment, etc.); when dealing with in-service environments environments education or training, where some part of the Trainer-centered Learner-centered current working time is made free for Single method A combination of methods educational purposes. Single media Multimedia c. hybrid environments Information delivery Information exchange A number of educational organizations Passive learning Exploratory learning operate in the so-called «dual-mode» regime, Factual learning Critical thinking whereby distance education as well as Reactive response Proactive reaction conventional presence learning methodologies Individual work Collaborative work is used, either within the same program or, Isolate, artificial context Authentic, real-word alternatively, at different types of programs; context this situation occurs in many higher education institutions, as well as in professional training 3. THE OUTLINE OF A TRAINING organizations. The dual mode of operation PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT IN THE E- tends to stimulate some degree of mix (either LEARNING CONTEXT conceptual or practical) between methods, materials and learning environments. Given the complexity of distance learning From a different point of view, we think courses, and the relatively limited experience that conventional education, based on a of Romanian education institutions in the area significant amount of interaction between to develop and implement long and mid-term teachers and students taking place in school training programs based on a major e- like environments, will evolve in the sense of Learning component, a team approach should encouraging the students to include an be used. Experts in education, in curriculum increased component of self-learning activities development, in the different subjects in their daily routines, as well as introducing approached and in DL courses, internal and more flexibility in curricula, assignment external, have to work together for developing schedules and progression rhythms. the curriculum framework, the distance In the learning process, the specific education guidelines and the DL courses itself. environment plays an important role in terms

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The programs’ design should be based on a the importance of such short activities. In such competences-oriented approach. The case, when starting the preparation of the curriculum framework of the training program assignment, they might realize to have many defines: questions and doubts and very little time to  Methodological principles; seek support before the deadline.  General framework for defining However, encouraging the accomplishment teaching profession related of the short activities could help participants to competences; come across questions and doubts gradually  A set of specific competences for along the learning process, and to get to the each subject; end of the reading phase with solid bases for  Principles for defining study plans; the preparation of the assignment. If such  Study plans (subjects, number of encouragement is carried out through the hours and type of didactical Forum, using the e-learning platform, all activities, number of credits, participants can benefit from questions and evaluation); clarifications arisen in the discussion.  Outline of subject, structured, Therefore, the training materials should be mainly, on: identification data, adapted to distance learning technology. Each general presentation, specific module’s design need to include at least the competencies, content, evaluation, mention of the following aspects: methodological approach,  introduction: is orienting the bibliography. participant in what it concerns the The content covered by the training learning and evaluation activities materials has to be relevant to the training specific to the module; needs of the participants. Along with the  learning objectives, that a traditional content, the courses have to include participant must attain for specific modules adapted to the training needs successful completion of the of attendants, referring to the residential area module; (rural/urban, local specific), the status of  the content of the module; participants (level of experience in particular  auto-evaluation tests (with feedback fields), status of the training program loops to the textual materials); (professional development/professional  assignments, required for reconversion) etc. participants to complete and send to Taking into consideration the specific of the tutor, allowing the continuous the training program carried out at distance, evaluation during the program; we expect that participants start reading the  application, study-cases and training materials, once the courses’ study had simulations, as appropriate; begun. From this perspective, estimating this  additional readings, either attached participants’ behavior, at the end of each to the basic materials or as referrals chapter, throughout the different units, it will in a bibliography; be a good idea to insert a text-box with ‘key  a conclusive evaluation mechanism points for reflection/action”, stimulating the for the participant to demonstrate participant to undertake small research and completion of the module (may apply the concepts outlined in the chapter to include tests, a portfolio, a their country/working situation. Such short presentation etc.). activities are not explicitly part of formative Beside the elements of content presented assessment, but their accomplishment puts the above, the modules may contain icons, participant in an advantaged position for the illustrations, graphs, etc. and have to be successful completion of their final formatted in such a way in order to assure an assignment. easy and attractive pathway for the reader. On the other hand, participants might not The modules may be provided to the have yet read the assignment question, and participants into printed and/or CD-ROM read through the learning material overlooking format. An e-learning platform for trainers and

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trainees’ use could be also developed in order to the average successful performance of the to host, not only the modules’ content and participants; bibliography, but also the applications, the (iii) intervening in problematic trainer’s feedback, a forum for discussions etc. circumstances and contributing to the As far as the individual learning is resolution of individual and group difficulties; concerned, the addressing of expressed needs (iv) working in co-ordination with other – such as queries, doubts, and information professionals and members of the team; requests – through the tutorial service and (v) introducing modifications in the individual e-mail correspondence should be learning and support strategies, based on given specifically to the context, keeping in information generated by the monitoring mind the criteria for constructive feedback, process. and empathetic listening. In reviewing the conditions under which measurement might have most impact on 4. CONCLUSIONS education and training, we could also explore the role which authentic assessment might play This paper builds upon those issues in our definition of high standards. From a concerning the e-learning environment, training program’s perspective, a special proposing an outline of a long/mid-term attention should be paid to both the theoretical training program based on use of e-learning problem of adequately conceptualizing and capability to support anytime, anyplace, life- articulating how it is that higher-order skills long learning and universal access to high- and understandings can be taught, and the quality e-learning content, overcoming the practical problem of whether or not trainers barriers of opportunity, resource capacity, and are able to implement new teaching methods accessibility. and explore new contents. There is also the Managing the e-learning environment question of trainer involvement in the involves putting the learning, support and assessment process itself. monitoring strategies into practice, blending In this context, the proposed framework of how these works together in order to offer the a long/mid-term training program at distance learners an integrated and comfortable describes an alternative learning approach, environment in cognitive, operational and using the benefits of e-learning specific socio-affective terms, thus allowing them to technologies. Moreover, the impact of these experience success in their learning [1]. kinds of educational experiences requires by Putting the above-mentioned strategies into stakeholders and end-users an increasing practice in a coordinated way means bringing awareness of the professional training into play the classic skills of implementation meaning, contributing to the specific skills and supervision that a training program development, but using a collaborative e- requires, such as: learning environment. (i) having clarity about the direction of the processes and the objectives of the activities; REFERENCES (ii) implementing the learning and support strategies in such as way that they contribute 1. Guastavi, A. (coord.),. Design, deliver and evaluate training programs. Competency-

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based training of trainers, International communication tools, Journal of Online Training Center of ILO, Turin (2003). Learning and Teaching (JOLT), online 2. Littlejohn, Alison (ed.), Reusing On-line journal, vol.2, no.4 (2006). Resources – a sustainable approach to e- 5. Verduin, J.; Clark, T.,. Distance education: learning, Kogan Page, London (2003). the Foundation of Effective Practice, Jossey 3. Samson, G., E-activities – the key to active Bass Publishers, San Francisco (1991). online learning, Routledge Falmer, Taylor 6. ***. Open and Distance Learning. Trends, Francis Paperback (2002). Policies, and Strategies Considerations, 4. Sparks, P. & Mentz L., Enriching Online UNESCO (2002). Learning and Teaching with new

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PROFESSIONAL TRAINING PROGRAMS FOR PRACTITIONERS IN CAREER COUNSELING

Nicoleta Litoiu*

*Department of Training for Teaching Career and Social Sciences, Politehnica University of Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: Despite the fact that the students express needs and expectations related to the career counseling process, many times, counselors face the situation of lack of appropriate expertise in order to help them to manage the various educational, social, communicational, relational contexts. Real life situations generate a wide range of challenges for the counselors to cope with in terms of emotional and socio-affective reactions and behaviors. In these situations, counselors experience difficulties and need themselves advices and supervision in order to adapt their interventions to the particular aspect of the client/student. From this perspective, the present paper is aimed to present a couple of professional training programs in the specific field of career counseling in order to strengthen the need of training and the alternatives the counselors may benefit to, improving their level of competency and areas of expertise, and consequently, ensuring o higher quality of the counseling process. From my point of view, for development of the career counseling’s domain, we need to have its representatives well-trained, involved and engaged in the process of empowering the meaning of counseling.

Keywords: career counseling, counselor, training in counseling, supervision in counseling, certified supervision professionals

1. THE NEED OF TRAINING IN from specialized services about career choices CAREER COUNSELING AREA and development. A small number of students, probably one out of five students visits, at least Studies of the characteristics of the once during the university studies, in a career universities’ students suggest a diversity of counseling center. needs for career guidance training programs. A Therefore, is a huge discrepancy between formal research carried out in 2012 in seven of the formal answer to a questionnaire exploring the most prestigious Romanian universities what the students would like to have or benefit (from Bucharest, Brasov, Sibiu, Cluj, Iasi) from, in terms of learning facilities or shown that almost one half or more of students specialized services, like counseling and investigated recognized the need of help with guidance for a job or career, and the real educational and vocational planning. On the situation in universities, in terms of students’ other hand, the reality reveals a different face determination and motivation to attend a of the coin, confusing and contradictory, in career guidance program/session, for instance. terms of students’ interest and desire to benefit We are all, experts in education or counseling,

243 SOCIO-HUMANITIES teachers in higher education system, and time for convince each person working in employers, used to explain this lack of the educational system to become aware of students’ interest for anything else, but career counseling benefits and fight against academic performance, by saying that career skepticism about the worth of career counseling/planning/guidance has no longer counseling goals and objectives. tradition in Romanian education system. The truth is that students themselves, and the 2. SPECIFIC TRAINING PROGRAMS IN society at a large, have no culture of COUNSELING – PRACTICAL BENEFITS supporting professions like psychologist, counselor, etc., they are not customized to go On the one hand, it seems to have a easily to a counselor for specialized help. One tremendous need for training of career of the explanations of this situation is closely counselors at the level of these professionals related to the understanding of cultural working in education or in social sector of influences on career development in Romania, society. In this process of delivering specific during the former communist regime. training programs are involved mainly From other perspective, at the same level universities, ONGs and local teachers houses, of scientific interest, the practitioners in career each of them at different extents of counseling field, including here all those professionalism and quality of services. The people delivering specialized services of duration of training programs varies from vocational counseling in public or private several days/weeks to several months. institutions, claim the need of specific training, Obviously, the depth of contents’ approach as in-service training or as part of continuous varies accordingly, as well as, the consistency professional development. of the training program, which might be a Despite the fact that the students express simple and focused training course or needs and expectations related to the career integrated into a specific bachelor or master counseling process, many times, counselors program, correlated with other subjects, face the situation of lack of appropriate relevant for the general understanding of the expertise in order to help them to manage the domain. various educational, social, communicational, On the other hand, at the same level of relational contexts. Real life situations awareness the need of training, we notice the generate a wide range of challenges for the need of supervisors’ training, in order for them counselors to cope with in terms of emotional to train as many as possible counselors, trying and socio-affective reactions and behaviors. In to normalize the existing situation in the these situations, counselors experience counseling system, where the lack of difficulties and need themselves advices and validation and feedback on the conducted supervision in order to adapt the interventions interventions influences directly, not only the to the particular aspect of the client. quality of the counseling process, but also the From this perspective, the present paper is confidence/self-confidence of the counselor. aimed to present a couple of professional In the next sections of the paper we will training programs in the specific field of career describe two professional training programs in counseling in order to strengthen the need of the career counseling area, two educational training and the alternatives the counselors experiences addressing specifically to the may benefit to, improving their level of practitioners or those who intend to do that in competency and areas of expertise, and the next future. consequently, ensuring o higher quality of the 2.1 The Global Career Development counseling process. From my point of view, Facilitator. This first training experience for development of the career counseling’s described refers to one of the most consistent domain, we need to have its representatives career counselors’ training programs, in terms well-trained, involved and engaged in the of the content and assumed objectives, process of empowering the meaning of developed in many countries worldwide, counseling. We, as career counseling namely the Global Career Facilitator professionals, need commitment, enthusiasm Development (GCDF) program [7,9]. This

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program is developed by the Center for  Assessment skills – how to use under Credentialing and Education (CCE) from supervision, informal assessments in United States of America [7] and is aimed to order to help clients involved in career offer country-specific standardization and development interventions, to make recognition to career development their own decisions, informed and professionals from 16 countries worldwide, appropriate; including Romania. The program is  Technical/digital skills – understanding customized to respond different nations’ and use of computer applications, characteristics, taking into consideration their related to the career development field; specific needs to approach different topics  Labor market – how to approach the according to the different countries’ reality. labor market, globally and nationally, In Romania, the authorized GCDF training according to the specific resources, provider is NBCC-Romania (National Board opportunities and trends in the of Certified Counselors – Romania) [9], which occupational domains; is part of the European network run by EBCC  Employability skills – how to prepare a (European Board for Certified Counselor, portfolio for job searching, strategies Lisbon), having a consultative and and specific techniques for different educational/training role in supporting career vulnerable groups on the labour counsellors’ professional development. market, as women or universities’ The GCDF program is not only a training graduates, for instance; program, but also, more important, a  Training clients and peers – design and certification program. The career consultant is implementation of specific training the graduate of the GCDF program. The programs; duration is 120 training hours and the program  Promotion and Public relations – is based on a manual approved by the CCE – design and implementation of specific Europe. The career consultant‘s twelve areas strategies for promoting career of expertise covers, in terms of knowledge and counseling services; skills, the following major topics [5]:  Management skills – program/project  Career Development Models, referring management, communication to the general understanding of career management, time management, stress development theories, models and management; techniques, and their application to the  Supervision – be aware the situations specific national background; when supervision is needed and how to  Helping skills – basic skills of proceed it; communication in order to facilitate  Ethical and Legal issues – be informed career development processes; about the regulations and act according  Diversity in Counseling – skills for to the GCDF Code of Ethics. adapting specialized counseling As one of the master trainers of the GCDF services to the diversity of human training program I try in practice to keep the nature, to the special needs of various balance among these areas of expertise, groups of population; reinforcing the need of basic knowledge and skills for every counselor. At the same time,

245 SOCIO-HUMANITIES based on these twelve areas of competencies, underlying the fact that the certification has counselors develop and consolidate a filled a gap in the professional development of reflexive, systemic way of thinking, well helping professionals. oriented in situations and self-confident in Due to its international origin and in order interventions. to address needs in various contexts and 2.2 The Basic of supervision in helping cultures, this certification program in professions. The second training experience is supervision ensures cultural relevance and related to the supervision process and to the adapts to the specifics of helping profession’s training programs on supervision, specifically. circumstances. Up to now, the program has As I already mentioned, in Romanian career been delivered in Romania, Greece, counseling system there are very few people Macedonia, Germany, Cyprus, Portugal and working as supervisors, because of the low Bulgaria. level of interest about the supervision process The Certified Supervision Professionals and the low level of awareness as far as the (CSP) certification has multiple benefits for all need and the practical benefits of supervision actors involved. For supervisors it increased are concerned, as well. In this context, the awareness of beliefs, roles, and factors that can initiative of organizing a training program on influence the supervision process; develops a supervision process represents a big step set of skills and tools for individual, triadic forward in order to train supervisors working and group supervision and increases awareness in career counseling. I was one of these about the role of supervision in continuing supervisors, contributing in this way to the professional development. For supervisees it gradually development of the career benefits in the understanding the supervision counseling domain. The supervision training process and developing the ability to organize program, entitled “Basic of supervision in a system for peer supervision and to conduct helping professions”, is delivered by the same such sessions. For the clients it leads to an Romanian private provider as GCDF program, increased personal/professional satisfaction. NBCC-Romania, in collaboration with the There are no doubts, in the countries where EBCC [7,9]. the helping professions are well-regulated, Areas of competency covered by the supervision is one of the most frequent professional training program in Basic of activities of the helping professionals. In supervision refer to the following components Romania, these issues are still under debate, [6]: and the professional and certification  Purposes of Supervision recognized bodies are in their progress of  Theoretical Frameworks and development. Step by step, practice of Models of Supervision supervision in career counseling becomes a  Types of Supervision guarantee of professionalism, motivating the  Roles and Relationships in counselors to develop a higher level of Supervision expertise.  Multicultural Issues in Supervision The both training program mentioned  Supervision Interventions above are, at the same time, certification programs, offering to the attendants the  Professional Development of possibility to practice as career Supervisees counsellor/consultant or career supervisor,  Legal and Ethical Issues in immediately after the training graduation. Supervision Members of many professions and fields This is an introductory course, which seek certification as GCDF and CSP: combines the theoretical framework and Vocational guidance specialists, career practice, a valuable instrument for any counselors, mental health counselor, who searches for answers or for counselors/specialists, school counselors, clarifying specific contents or for validating pastoral counselors, coaches, psychiatric experiences in the field. The feedback of the nurses, psychiatrists, psychologists, social participants after the training has been very positive, appreciating the high standards and

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workers, human resources specialists and other specialized sites are only few ideas about how helping professionals and paraprofessionals. ICT can contribute to the improved career counseling services. One of these ICT 3. ONLINE PLATFORMS FOR CAREER applications, which lately draw the COUNSELORS PRACTITIONERS practitioners’ attention, is represented by the specific platforms/portals dedicated to offer The training programs for ICT skills’ career counseling services. development need to address to the following The counseling platforms/portals are aimed critical points, already identified by the to support the professional development of the practitioners in the career counseling field: practitioners in career counseling field. Among  to offer models, professional standards other benefits, the counseling platforms, being and good practices in order to allow specifically addressed to the counselors’ objective evaluation of the existing community, provide them available and useful resources referring to ICT use in resources, such as [8]: counseling, and to the development of  theoretical and practical models, the ICT’s counseling contents, as well;  study-cases,  to develop new attitudes for  good practices, practitioners regarding to ICT use in  books’ reviews and counseling process, as support tools in  specific instruments. current counseling activities. All of these resources are usually free of Besides basic ICT skills, available in a charge, and help professionals in counseling large rank of professional situations, it should field to manage various situations during the pay attention to acquire new competencies, not process, to cope with the difficult and only for the counselors’ practice to carry out emotional issues, giving them the opportunity traditional counseling activities in non- to share and also learn together. traditional styles, but also for providing At the same time, the instruments available complementary counseling services in an on these portals are able to support not only innovative and flexible approach. the online counseling concept, but also the How is possible to offer specific face to face counseling process, and the counseling services using ICT tools? How development of specific workshops and career could we change the relationship between the events. The instruments are free of charge and client and the career counselor? Is still focused on various contents, such as [8]: possible to use the same traditional methods  communication skills, and practices, following the same ethical  time management, principles? What new counseling activities  stress management, could we undertake based on online platforms?  project management, In this context, it will be relevant for the  decision-making strategies, argumentation to mention some of those ICT creativity, specific tools, web-based, supporting the  counseling process. Nowadays, the Web 2.0  leadership and applications, including social media,  teamwork. videoconferences, blogs, forums, and

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Each of these instruments includes in is that these kinds of training programs presentation the guidelines for administration, develop core competences that should be which turn this experience into a real and included in the education and training of all helpful learning experience or professional/ the future helping professionals, including the personal development opportunity. Across the career counsellors. Europe, there are many examples of counseling platforms, using ICT tools and REFERENCES applications. These examples and good practices have inspired several Romanian 1. Borders, L. D., Brown, L. L., The new counselors to take initiative and carry out the handbook of counselling supervision. New first platform dedicated exclusively to York, NY: Routledge (2005). practitioners in the career counseling field: 2. Bradley, L.J., Ladany N., Hendricks, B., forcounselors.ro. [8]. Whiting, P.P., & Rhode, K. Overview of One of the most interesting idea regarding Counseling Supervision, In Ladany, N., to ICT tools’ use in counseling imply the Bradley, L. J. (Eds.), Counselor capitalization of the great potential of social Supervision, 4th ed., (pp. 3-14). New York, media, which contribute to help people, NY: Routledge (2010). especially the young adults, to promote 3. Bronson, M. K.,. Supervision of career themselves, to build a personal brand and an counseling. In Ladany, N., &Bradley L. J. online identity, to use networking for social (Eds.), Counselor supervision, 4th ed.( pp. contacts and job opportunities. 261-286). Philadelphia, PA: Brunner- Routledge (2001). 4. CONCLUSIONS 4. Goodyear, R.K. & Guzzardo, C.R. Psychotherapy Supervision and training. In As a trainer involved in the both, career S.D.Brown & R.W.Lent (Eds) Handbook of counseling and supervision processes, working Counseling Psychology, New York: John in the largest technical university in Romania Wiley (2000). – University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest, 5. Szilagyi, A. A-M., Career Consultant’ and coordinating the university’s career Handbook. (pp. 30, 92). European Institute counseling center, I have attended or Publishing House, Iasi (2008). coordinated numerous seminars, workshops 6. Szilagyi, A., Stanciu, A. Basic of and training programs specific to the career supervision in helping professions, counseling domain. Not the last, as Teaching guidelines, Supervision Training practitioner, I have conducted many individual Program, Bucharest (2011). or group counseling sessions. Exercising my 7. ***www.europeanbcc.eu/supervision/certif professional roles I had to rely on my initial and ied-supervision-professional/ continuous professional training in this filed, 8. ***www.pentruconsilieri.ro (2015). valuing the great potential of each training 9. ***www.nbcc.ro program attended in order for me to become a better professional. My belief as supervisor and trainer in career counseling training programs

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THE TEACHER-PARENT EDUCATIONAL PARTNERSHIP, HEALTH PROMOTION PROGRAM - SPECIFIC CASE - DENTAL HEALTH

Roxana Maier*, Alina Marian*

*“Vasile Goldis” Western University, Arad, Romania

Abstract: The current study suggests a foray in the teacher-parent dynamics, with the goal of attracting the latter in an authentic partnership, useful in the child’s education. The endeavor comprises the analysis of 143 pupils on several health dimensions and the engagement of the parents in prevention activities, as well as in solving the children’s health problems. The dimensions which this endeavor has centered upon are: the promotion of health and well-being, the prevention in the oral hygiene area, a healthy nutrition, the introduction of sports in the free-time activities of children. This study only presents the prevention area in the oral hygiene domain. The program we offer consists in 6 meetings with the parents in which the themes of discussion are centered on the dental health of the child between 7-8 years old.

Keywords: teacher-parent dynamics, dentition, oral hygiene, prevention, health.

1. INTRODUCTION of the child from a somatic, physiologic, metal, emotional, social and spiritual point of Macbeth, cited by Bunescu sustains that view. In order for the student to understand there are four reasons why the school and the health as a value, and for him or her to attend family are trying to establish lasting liaisons and keep it there are a few necessary between each other [1]: the parents are legally endeavors, which concern the prevention side, responsible for their children’s education, but also the intervention one in case of schooling being just a part of that education, sickness. The orientation towards healthy research highlights the influence of the habits is conceived as an educational action, in parental attitude upon their children’s which the psychological preparation of the scholastic results and the social groups pupils/young people is made for the choice involved in the schooling institution have the and development of efficient solutions for right to influence the manner in which the staying healthy or for getting over the illness, educational processes are developed in the if the latter comes their way. The school. In this intersection of the family with psychological preparation refers to the the school through the common interests accumulation of knowledge, the formation of liaised with the pupil’s education one can habits, the development of abilities, the retrieve health as a value. In what concerns formation of motivations for healthy choices, health we are interested as teachers, but the development of self-knowledge and a especially as parents the optimal functioning better contact with the sole possibilities of the

249 SOCIO-HUMANITIES body both in terms of its construction and in  The agreement of different variables (in terms of its healthy build. An important role in liaison with the development in laps or this endeavor is played by the school, which is leaps, or with the unharmonious or considered a central factor in the orientation incorrect development, etc.) and counseling in terms of health, through the It is thus inherent that, in this endeavor, the instructive- educative process, though the parent to be the one accompanying and even knowledge and the given information, through coordinating the steps of the child, as many of the continuous preoccupation for the the decisions concerning health are impossible development of the child/young, trough the to be taken at young ages, and even slightly development of the self-knowledge, as well as later towards the teenage years/ The child/ through attracting parents as partners in this young does not have the vision of the whole endeavor. Moreover, it must be mentioned that (as is my health), doesn’t value health enough these educational actions must be permanent, until an adult age and does not always with a weight and importance that differ understand the gravity of the sickness and the depending on the educational cycle and with a necessary steps to overcome it. different content, reported constantly to the One of the dimensions in liaison with the child’s age group. The participant to this health is the one connected to dental health. process regarding health must become an For sensitizing the parents on this subject there active part of it as the decision to a better or have been initiated, in many schools in Arad, worse health belongs to him or her – starting actions described on the following dimensions: exactly from this point of the pupil’s  Sharing flyers on oral hygiene themes engagement as a decision-maker for health,  Scheduling children to dental screening resides the need to be accompanied by the activities – both evolution-wise, and parent, until the moment he or she is capable health-wise and then presenting the to make his or her own correct decisions. results to the parents The general structure of relevant  Orienting the parents towards healthy information for the choice of healthy habits habits in terms of their children, towards can be represented as follows: overcoming dental problems that arose  Orienting parents towards specific medical offices for overcoming the respective problems that arose Health Self- knowledge For a success of this counseling process, Information The assumed choice the teacher/headmaster and the counselor take of healthy habits the following into consideration:

 What are the parents’ values in terms of health – what do they understand by it and The objectives of the healthy habit what exactly are they willing to do to counseling are: maintain and better their child’s health  What are the real possibilities of  The knowledge of its own body- the overcoming the problem (dimension height-weight bearing, muscular masse described by the medical values of the etc. child in terms of physical development,  The knowledge of several health genetics, illnesses developed on the way, indicators – given by blood tests and the etc.) general practitioner’s evaluations  What are the possible obstacles they could  The knowledge of the age related encounter requirements and the physical  What are the personal resources of both development due to them themselves, and the child  The knowledge of the relation between  What are the determined health objectives the physical development and the and how adequately can they be psychological, emotional, intellectual accomplished. one.

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The understanding of the child’s dental taken care of correctly, these will develop health starts from the baby’s first months, cavities very fast, and the child, the future when the first teeth appear – moments which a adult, will lose one of the pillars of permanent parent experiments and lives at maximum dentition, much faster than he or she should intensity, especially due to the child’s pain. [2]. The precocious loss of the 6 year molars The first steps for a better health start with the brings with itself anomalies of growth and hygiene, so that; in the first years of life it is development of cheekbones, which is why a important for the parent to habituate the child proper care, a daily brush and even their with the custom of brushing teeth. Even sealing once with their eruption in the oral though the operation in itself is not carried out cavity are imperiously necessary. correctly at all times, the implementation of this teeth-brushing ritual is important for the 2. THE STUDY child’s program. Subsequently, when the child will grow up, he or she will be instructed and Objectives: will assimilate the correct brushing technique, 1. The sight of the starting indices in terms of however until that moment it is important to the growth of the first permanent teeth and know that, for a good dental health, the teeth of the child’s dental health in general (if must be brushed at least twice a day. and how many teeth have cavities, if they Afterwards, at around the age of 3-4 years old, need braces or not) depending on the child’s receptivity and 2. The emphasis of aspects that need mending psycho-somatic development, it is a good in the children’s dentition, the initiation of moment to visit the dentist’s for the first time. information and prevention activities in The child would thus be able to accustom him terms of dental health, activities done with or herself with the equipment from the the parents and the emphasis of the doctor’s cabinet, the dental labor will be indicators to follow in overcoming the explained to him or her in an understandable problems occurred at a dental level. language and possibly, if the child accepts, the The hypotheses of the study: dentist can perform a professional teeth- 1. The starting indicators in terms of the brushing technique. This first visit is very growth of the first teeth and the important, the child understanding that the evaluation of the dental health levels dentist and his or her office is a sort of constitutes a premise to build a playground where he or she can find out prevention and intervention program at interesting things about their teeth and their the oral hygiene habits level health, that the doctor is there to explain how 2. There are significant differences in to take care of their teeth and to help him or dental health at the level of the classes her in case of need. This first visit has an studies after the active engagement of essential role in “striking a friendship” with parents in parenting activities on this the dentist and thus being related to the theme compliance to treatment in case of need. For the realization of the suggested hypothesis, Around the age of 6, the first definitive molar the endeavor initiated in the targeted schools in teeth appear. These ones often appear without Arad, in terms of oral health and hygiene is the child or the parent to notice. If they are not covered in the following stages:

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Phase 1 - with an investigative function – In monitoring the growth of the permanent function that is created through assembling teeth, we took into account the chronology of systematic activities created with the goal to their eruption as follows: obtain data regarding the growth of the first  at 6 we grow the first inferior and permanent teeth and the child’s dental health superior molars and the central inferior in general (if and how many teeth have incisors cavities, if they need braces or not)  at 7 we grow the central superior Phase 2 – informative function – function that incisors is often done by the counselor together with  at 8 we grow the inferior canines and the dentist that took part in phase 1, but it can the first superior premolars also be done by the teacher/headmaster along  at 9 we grow the inferior canines and with the dentist. This function refers to the the first superior premolars specific demands of each child and their “The deflections of 6-12 months from these conveyance to the respective parents. To this, dates can be considered, as appropriate, in one can also add knowledge on the dental normal limits. The smallest deviations are evolution, of the possible solutions, of the observed at the teeth that grow between 6-8 possible interventions (an informative years.” [3] meeting). After the monitoring process for the Phase 3 – the formative/educative function – observation, at each class of the starting function that consists of the realization of a set indicators in terms of the growth of the first of actions which will result in the formation of permanent teeth, one can determine the fact healthy habits in terms of dentition (3 that, at the level studies, the children are in the meetings – 2 with the parents and one with the normal limits in terms of the appearance of the children, in which one discusses the types of permanent teeth. necessary interventions, their role and the The resulted situation, at the end of the place of the prevention flyers, presenting types dental control in terms of the dental status is: of braces, educational actions for a healthy dentition etc.) Total number of students 143 Phase 4 – the daily process integration function - the last stage of the dental health Students with cavities 98 preparation and also a way to check the Students with no cavities 45 success of the first 3 stages (one meeting to check the results). Students with The study has been realized in the cavities period between October 2014 and February Students with no 2015. cavities Sample description: The study comprised the participation of 5 classes of study from a primary school in Table 1. Dental status Arad, 3 third grades and 2 second grades. The The distribution of the cavities at the children’s age is between 7 and 8 years with temporary and permanent teeth level is: the age average of 7,88. The total number of Students with cavities 98 children was 143 and, due to the fact that their Temporary tooth cavities 37 gender does not influence their dentition, this Permanent tooth cavities 61 indicator was not utilized in the study. Results and Discussions Temporary tooth Hypothesis 1. Starting the study from the cavities Permanent tooth analysis, in each class of the starting indicators cavities in terms of the growth of the first permanent teeth and the evaluation of their health state, one can realize a prevention and intervention Table 2. Distribution of the cavities at the program at a dental health habits level. temporary and permanent teeth

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participant classes were visited once again. Students with cavities- initial 98 The results obtained after the activities in evaluation terms of dental health are the following: Treated students 64 Untreated students 34 Moreover, at the same control, several children were found to have dent-maxillary anomalies, which will, in time entail the Treated students dentist’s intervention, but among these, 5 were Untreated students presenting mandibular prognatism, thus being urged to take on a dental consultation.

Table 4. Distribution of the dent-maxillary Total number of students 143 anomalies (February) Students with dent-maxillary 81 We have observed an amelioration of the anomalies dental health of all the children who took part Students with no dent-maxillary 62 in the study. Moreover, among the children anomalies who were urged to visit the dentist, 3 were already with mobile braces.

Students with dento-maxillary anomalies 3. CONCLUSIONS & Students with no dento-maxillary ACKNOWLEDGMENT anomalies

The challenge of working with a class of

Table 3. Distribution of the dent-maxillary pupils and with their parents is very difficult, anomalies (December) and even more difficult to work with several At the end of this monitoring process a different classes at the same time. Besides this personalized program was created for each inherent burden there is the joy of managing to child attract parents in an authentic partnership, Hypothesis 2: these hypothesis targets the centered on the children’s needs and also on results obtained beginning with the starting their health. The existence of such an endeavor indicators and creating prompt parenting creates a working space which facilitates the activities centered on dental health. Moreover, access to the child’s health, the discovery of a in terms of the hygiene and care of teeth there better health model, the understanding of the were activities created for the student classes. role each parent has in remedying some health The parents’ information session on the reality problems, the relationships of the family with of dental health of each child was centered on the health concept. We also explore the bringing to light the reality of each child and feelings lived in each of the suggested on what solutions there are for the given exercises – how important was for the solution situation. All the children who have problems to be found in time, how comfortable or not were given a referral towards a dental comfortable each of them felt with their role of consultation. After finalizing the activities, in being an engaged or less engaged parent, how February 2015, the children from the well they understood what health and

253 SOCIO-HUMANITIES prevention mean and how was their discovery. REFERENCES The work patterns were chosen for the children depending on their age and were thus 1. Bunescu, G., The democratization of easy to achieve. The dialogue initiated with the education and the parents’ education, The parents brought to light the possibility of Pedagogy Magazine no.3, March 1993, choosing differently in terms of their Publication of the Educational Sciences children’s health. It is good to know that it is Institute, (1993) much easier to prevent that to treat. 2. Podariu, A., Pop, I., Grivu, O., Baila, A., Sometimes, though, due to the lack of Prevention in dentistry, Mirton Publishing House, Timisoara,(1995) information or the neglect, parents do not 3. Grivu, O., Bratu, E., Voinea, C. The normal manage to prevent their child’s dental and pathologic dental growth, Helicon problems, and the repercussions on the dental Publishing House, Timisoara, (1995), pg.135 system are of bigger importance as the child grows and develops.

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CREATING A-HA MOMENTS IN TEACHING PRACTICE. ROUTINE VERSUS ADAPTIVE METACOGNITIVE BEHAVIORS IN TEACHERS

Loredana Manasia*

*Department for Teaching Training and Social Sciences, Politehnica University of Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: This paper focuses on adaptive metacognition research in Romanian teachers in upper secondary education. The article describes the results of a hybrid quasi-experimental research study conducted on high school teachers. The research was conducted in three phases: profiling teachers regarding their level of metacognitive competence, involving teachers in metacognitive training activities, and investigating the changes in teachers’ adaptive behavior. The initial sample of teachers was divided into two groups, namely the control and treatment group. The subjects in treatment condition were engaged in a metacognitive approach based on erotetic techniques. The results of the research express that adaptive metacognition improves by using scaffolding tools such as erotetic matrix. The article discusses the research results and presents two case studies in order to describe the nature of metacognitive behaviors in teachers. We conclude the paper by presenting the A-HA approach, designed to help teachers to improve their metacognitive capabilities.

Keywords: adaptive metacognition, regulation, metacognitive strategies, teacher training

1. INTRODUCTION Teachers engage in complex mental activity as they monitor and regulate their Over the passing time, metacognition’s thinking as they teach [1]. In addition, teachers relevance in the field of education increased are strategic as they apply instruction, solve and propelled the concept among the most problems that arise in the classroom, and forceful concepts in educational research area. adjust their teaching to individual student The term metacognition refers to a general human ability to think about one’s own thinking. The object of metacognition is diﬀerences [2]. Despite this wide accepted regular thinking. This capacity is thought to reflect a wide range of semi-independent faculties which allow individuals to form idea, little research has speciﬁcally examined representations of their own mental states and teachers’ metacognition, especially in the mental states of others [5]. In a traditional Romania. Lin, Scwartz, and Hatano [4] point way, research has focused more on students’ that conventional applications of metacognitive capabilities rather than those of metacognition must be reanalyzed when teachers. In this article we propose a switch on researching teachers’ metacognition. The teachers’ metacognition. rationale behind this affirmation focus on the

255 SOCIO-HUMANITIES complexity and uniqueness of the teaching transfer a particular context-related strategy to activity. In the context of teaching, solving another similar but new concept. Schraw [8] problems requires time and profound describes metacognition as a multidimensional reflexing. Further, finding a good solution for set of general skills rather than domain a specific problem depends on successfully specific. blending competing values [4]. For instance, The article consists of four sections as these values may refer to teacher, students, follows. The first one was dedicated to a brief parents, school culture. Moreover, in review of the metacognitive literature. The traditional approaches of metacognition the second one presents the research design and object of metacognitive activity are individual methodology used to investigate adaptive thoughts and cognitive processes. In addition, metacognitive behaviors in high school teaching is challenged to adapt to environment teachers. We describe routine metacognitive and students’ requests. Metacognitive behaviors and their instructional effects in the literature names this suite of phenomena third section. The fourth section focuses on a adaptive teaching, reflective adaptation or set of methods and tools to stimulate adaptive adaptive metacognition. metacognition and improve teacher quality. Adaptive metacognition involves both the adaptation of one’s self and one’s environment 2. RESEARCH DESIGN AND in response to a wide range of classroom METHODOLOGY variability, argue Lin and his collaborators [4]. Following a conceptualization proposed by 2.1 Research problem statement and Parsons, Davis, Scales, Williams and Kear [7] interrogations. If we assume that in the context of this paper adaptive teaching is metacognitive competence is a core of defined as a teacher’s action that was non- teaching activity, the author’s focus is to routine, proactive, thoughtful, and invented; evaluate adaptive metacognitive behaviors in included a change in professional knowledge order to develop a set of methods and tools to or practice; and was done to meet the needs of scaffold adaptive instruction in classroom. instructional environment. These referred The interrogations guiding this study were representations enable one to form, challenge, as follows. I1: To what extend teachers use and revise ideas of what is believed, felt, adaptive metacognitive strategies while dreamt of, learnt or feared in a number of teaching and interacting with students; I2: rapidly evolving contexts [5]. Despite all these Adaptive metacognition in teachers can be benefits, metacognition is not easy-to-research improved through specific methods and phenomenon. activities? According to Veenman [9], one of the 2.2 Research objective. The main goal of reappearing problems with metacognition the study was to develop a suite of tools to research is the “fuzziness” of the concept and scaffold adaptive metacognition in teachers in its constituents. This fuzziness is not only due upper secondary education. to a proliferation of terminologies. Researchers 2.3 Sample. The research sample included also debate on the constituents of the construct 122 Romanian teachers, in upper secondary of metacognition and their interrelationships. education, residents both in urban and rural Starting with Flavell and Brown (in the ’70s), areas, from two counties (Giurgiu and Valcea) many authors often make a distinction between and the capital city. The sampling method metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive followed a theoretical and realistic approach regulation or management. The latter is based on the criterion of relevance. The sometimes referred to as executive or self- teachers were purposefully selected based on regulatory processes. Thus metacognition is their experience in teaching (little or no not a very new concept in the field of experience, moderate, and high experience). education sciences, there is still a debate on We fully acknowledge that the sample may not the general or specific nature of metacognitive be representative for the whole population of skills. Kuhn and Dean [3] explain that Romanian teachers. metacognition designates one’s capacity to

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2.4 Data collection procedures. The following section of the article will focus on research was based on a quasi-experimental these tools. correlational design, implemented as follows. The last phase of the research project The pretest phase consisted in surveying the describes the posttest phase were both teachers teachers in order to evaluate their initial level in treatment and control groups followed the of metacognitive competence. A questionnaire interview protocol and solved critical issues. was designed to serve this purpose. After the 2.5. Research instruments. Metacognition completion of the questionnaire, the subjects can be assessed by many different methods were divided randomly into two groups. Due and tools. Metacognitive literature often makes to geographical distribution, the treatment a distinction between on-line and off-line group included 42 teachers, fewer than the methods, depending on the time they are control group (n = 45). 35 teachers refused to applied. Due to geographical and other limits, continue the research project. Both subjects off-line methods were applied namely the from the treatment and control group (n = 21) COMEGAN-ro questionnaire and situational participated in in-depth interviews aiming at interview protocols. COMEGAN-ro identifying types of contexts and variables questionnaire is a self-report questionnaire activating metacognitive behaviors. measuring metacognition on six scales: A number of teachers in treatment group (n knowledge about persons, tasks, strategies and = 13) accepted to deliver a class by following metacognitive planning, monitoring and a given scenario. The researcher designed regulation. The questionnaire comprises 36 different types of lesson plans according to Likert rated items: 6 items load on each scale. teachers’ domain of activity or discipline. One This research instrument was translated into scenario type focused on blending digital Romanian, adapted and validated on teachers educational content and traditional instruction. population, having a very good score of the Another type of scenario was based on internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = .89, problem-based learning strategies and virtual with positive inter item correlations). The learning environments. The third scenario type original instrument was designed by Pallascio, focused on collaborative learning in virtual Daniel, and Lafortune [6]. learning environments. Teachers were told to Unlike the COMEGAN-ro questionnaire, follow the lesson plans and when they feel the interview protocols proposed prospective something is wrong or don’t feel comfortable approaches, where subjects were invited to about the lesson’s progress they can switch express their intentional behavior in different back to their own approach. situations. In addition, routine and non-routine All the teachers in treatment and control situations were presented to the teachers. The groups participated in activities were they subjects proposed solutions for those issues or were asked to analyze a number of teaching critical events [4]. situations and to provide solutions for those The first routine situation described critical issues in class. apathetic students, who say frequently they The profiling phase was followed by the don’t care about the lesson’s subject. Another training phase. Based on the results of the routine situation depicted disturbing students pretest inquiry, a set of metacognitive tools who are not paying attention to the teacher, was designed, named Tools for thinking. A talk to each other making noise. A non-routine

257 SOCIO-HUMANITIES issue went on a student’s reaction to a case Table 2 Statistical indicators of metacognitive study on human rights (a wide topic ranging factors in teachers multiple disciplines). The student says to the Factors of metacognition Mean St. Min. Max. teacher that human rights should not exist dev. Knowledge about persons 3.49 .72 1.86 5.00 because people are not equal and those living Knowledge about 3.60 .72 1.67 5.00 in rural areas or poor countries have no chance strategies to succeed anyway. Investing in poor people is Knowledge about tasks 3.53 .86 1.33 5.00 a waste of resources, points out the student. Planning ability 3.54 .73 1.83 4.83 The fourth non-routine situation refers to a Monitoring and control 3.64 .75 1.63 5.00 Regulation 3.47 .78 1.00 5.00 moment when a student becomes upset because of a poor grade and says to the teacher A preliminary conclusion sustains that it is it is all his or her fault. The student argues that needed to develop adaptive metacognitive teachers do not explain very well and has a behaviors in order to improve teachers’ not-easy-to-understand style. capacity to deal with different types of issues

in classroom. Qualitative data provided by 3. RESEARCH RESULTS AND interviews and lessons’ observation indicates DISCUSSION an interesting phenomenology of metacognitive behaviors in teachers. In order This section details the results of the to describe these behaviors we will present the inquiry based on COMEGAN-ro questionnaire case studies. and interview protocols. In addition, two case 3.2. Case study 1: blending digital studies are presented based on the lessons that educational content with traditional teachers delivered by using the pre-established instruction. The first case study discusses lessons plans. The author made all the metacognitive adapting behaviors of a observations during the lessons delivery. geography teacher with 7 years of teaching 3.1. Distribution of metacognitive experience. The lesson plan followed by the competence among teachers. The teachers teacher was based on blending digital participating in research reported their selves educational content with traditional with medium to high levels of metacognitive instruction. The lesson started with a brief competence (see Table 1 and Table 2). routine activity consisting of reviewing the Significance tests conclude there is a previous lesson and presenting the topic of the statistically significant difference between the new lesson. At one specific moment she tried dimension of metacognitive knowledge and to use the digital resources to sustain the metacognitive regulation or management (p < period of practice. The teacher chose to use .01). low interactivity learning objects instead of

highly interactive ones. She played a cue- Table 1 Initial level of metacognitive competence of teachers points movie and asked questions. When a Metacognitive competence and its components student asked if they are allowed to go through Metacognitive Metacognitive knowledge another learning object, the teacher argued that competence Mean = 3.54; St. dev.1 = .65 object requires a lot of time and will solve it Mean = 3.55 Min = 2.01; Max = 4.75 some other time. The lesson flowed to the St. dev. = .63 Metacognitive management moment of the assignment of homework. Min = 2.22 Mean = 3.47; St. dev.1 = .78 This situation reveals that teaching may Max = 4.74 Min = 2.15; Max = 4.79 take place in non-routine contexts and teachers need to face them. In this specific context, Table 2 synthesizes values of statistical certain metacognitive knowledge about the indicators computed for each of the six factors tasks oriented the teacher to adopt a defense of metacognitive competence. Regulation has metacognitive behavior by avoiding that task. the lowest mean, with a statistically significant Students disagreed with teacher’s decision. In difference comparing to other factors. a very well-planned structure of the lesson, the integration of highly interactive digital content may result difficult. During the training phase

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this teacher began the transition to an adaptive students will find difficult to work in groups to teacher based on focusing more on finding the organize their selves. This teacher began to do problems, analyzing them and looking for off-line metacognitive work right after the solutions from different points of view. lesson delivery by identifying issues in his 3.2. Case study 2. Problem-based behavior, in students’ behavior and task- learning and collaborative work in related issues. One solution proposed was to classroom. This case study presents a non- suggest to students to use their mobile phones routine context in which teacher is challenged to search for more information about the to adopt different instructional strategies. This problem. case focus on the experience of a biology 3.3. The phenomenology of teacher with 10 years of experience in metacognitive behaviors in teachers. This teaching. He was invited to propose to his research study makes a contribution to the students a low-structured problem to be solved understanding of adaptive metacognitive in a collaborative manner. The lesson flowed behaviors in order to analyze the impact of from a routine-based review of previous their lack and to find ameliorative solutions. topics, presenting the new subject (the teacher These case studies underline that teaching does gave a lecture and the students took notes). At not involve only routine activities but also the practice moment, the teacher presented the provoking issues. These issues are built on task (a low-structured problem) and invited the different variables that are not in complete students to solve it without giving any other harmony. The main goal of the Tools for details or instructions. A moment of confusion thinking training programme was to help followed then, because the students did not teachers to find on-line solutions to solve have enough intellectual and informational provoking issues. In order to better understand tools to solve the task. They did not have a teachers’ needs, narrative data were analyzed. planning phase and they started directly to In this section, the author provides a argue on different points of view. Other description of teachers’ metacognitive students in the groups adopted a lurker behaviors. strategy saying „is just a school task let’s write The most frequent behaviors focused on something down to be done”. In this time, the metacognitive movement, metacognitive teacher was not involved actively in students’ narrowing, and the bulldozer strategy. activity. When each group presented its The first phenomenon we focus on is the solution, the students engaged in a debate over metacognitive narrowing. From a behavioral whose ideas were correct and the teacher had point of view, metacognitive narrowing difficulties to manage the class and to assess describes that teachers solve provoking issues the solutions. by reducing the metacognitive spectrum In this context, the provoking issue for the usually to two factors: implementation and teacher consisted of three different variables to monitoring. More often, planning and be managed: his own behavior, students’ regulation are suppressed. In addition, teachers behavior and the learning context. The teacher encounter difficulties to integrate actively their encountered difficulties in managing those knowledge on persons and tasks (see the case variables. As he mentioned during the of the biology teacher). debriefing discussion, he did not thought that

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Metacognitive movement appears as a A factual solution was considered an consequence of the lack of metacognitive answer saying that: „As far as I know, the strategies needed to regulate teachers’ own teacher should ask the student why he/she cognition and students’ intellectual activity. In thinks in that way (in relation to the nn-routine this case, the teachers will transfer their case of the student who disagrees with human responsibility to plan, monitor or regulate a rights). A factual solution designates an solving task process to the students as answer with no or low involvement of teacher presented in the case of biology teacher. The in solving that provoking issue. These results of applying such strategy are mostly solutions have the lowest level of complexity. negative in the way that teachers translate their The procedural solutions focused on action responsibility to the students as the last answers where teachers referred to their selves available solution. and provided a medium to high involvement The bulldozer strategy is another solution: “I shall try to discuss with the metacognitive strategy, consisting in solving a student, trying to explain the importance of the task or a problem without paying enough human rights and to find good examples to attention to the request or monitoring the support my point of view”. solving process. As a circular reaction, this The conditional solutions are the most strategy conducts to poor academic results and complex ones in the sense they link competing low appreciation of students’ work. Both variables: group’s opinions, teachers’ opinions teachers presented in the case studies adopted and instructional context: “I shall try to find the bulldozer strategy in the sense that they out other students’ opinions and if they agree applied the lesson plans without asking any with the student in discussion I shall animate a clarification questions even they had the debate on this. If the group disagree with him, occasion to address them. The teachers did not I shall ask them to bring examples and analyze carefully the tasks and suppressed the arguments”. planning phase, a crucial moment when facing new situations. Fig. 1 Percentage of participants who were able to In order to provide teachers with generate solutions for provoking issues in posttest appropriate strategies to promote adaptive instruction the training programme focused on analyzing provoking issues and finding flexible solutions. During the intervention, the teachers had been involved in the process of making decisions and giving solutions for their own problems rather than observing other people and commenting. After the training delivery, both the teachers from the control and treatment group Significant differences can by identified by were invited to solve provoking issues known comparing the number of solutions provided in form the pretest phase and new ones. the pretest (see Fig. 2) and posttest phases. In Qualitative and quantitative differences the case of the treatment group the number of appeared in the posttest phase. Each group solutions increased quantitatively and generated an equal number of solutions. Based qualitatively. A slight difference between pre- on a coding matrix, the answers were coded test and posttest can be noticed in the control into three categories: factual solutions, group but we assume there is the effect of procedural solutions, and conditional retesting the subjects. solutions. For all the three types of solutions The COMEGAN-ro questionnaire was not the participants in the training condition were applied in the posttest phase. We consider that able to generate a higher number of solutions the training programme taking place during 80 the subjects in the control group. The results of hours is not enough to improve all the factors the coding operation are presented in Fig. 1. of the metacognitive construct. Thus it was preferred the qualitative approach.

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questions to ask are: What do I know about Fig. 2 Percentage of participants who were able to this?, What I need to know about this?, What I generate solutions for provoking issues in pretest would like to know about this?. These questions drive the subject from a factual solution with low or no involvement to a high- involvement one based on stimulating teacher’s curiosity about that situation. After the identification of needed information and variables, the participants provide solutions. These solutions are assessed based on another erotetic matrix described in Table 3.

Table 3 Erotetic matrix to scaffold regulation 3. A-HA APPROACH. TOOLS TO Before During After SCAFFOLD ADAPTIVE activity activity activity METACOGNITION What did I do right? What did I do In this section we describe the A-HA wrong? approach designed to scaffold adaptive What I will do metacognition: provoking issues-based again? training. This approach is meant to support What I won’t repeat again? teachers to evaluate on-line and off-line routine and non-routine situations and to In addition, especially for low experienced provide positive solutions to cope with those teachers, an erotetic matrix for off-line situations. The goal of this approach is to evaluation was designed. Teachers are invited prepare teachers to respond to different to use frequently this matrix in order to situations that can appear in instructional become more sensitive to routine situations contexts. Furthermore, we aim to provide them and to identify the elements of novelty (see with appropriate strategies to analyze and Table 4). differentiate from routine and non-routine situations. To support this approach we Table 4 Erotetic matrix to analyze routine and non- identified a number of frequent situations or routine situations recurrent problems in instructional sets (e.g. Answers apathetic students, bad attitudes on school, low What did I do? motivated students, and disturbing students). Why did I do? The A-HA approach is based on erotetic Which was my reaction? techniques, namely asking the right questions What did I learn? Goal setting in order to solve a specific situation.

According to different types of questions, A very important element of this matrix is goal erotetic matrix were designed. The Start setting, challenging the subject to adopt matrix aims to help subjects to decompose a prospective behaviors. specific situation in terms of known and needed to know information. The three main

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what teachers should learn and be able to 4. CONCLUSIONS do. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass (2005). 2. Duffy, G. G., Miller, S. D., Parsons, S. A., We conclude our article by summarizing Meloth, M.. Teachers as metacognitive the findings of the research study in relation to professionals. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, the importance of developing teachers’ A. C. Graesser (Eds.), Handbook of metacognitive competence. As argued in metacognition in education (pp. 240-256), previous sections of the paper, there is a Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum (2009). growing interest for metacognition research in 3. Kuhn, D. & Dean, D.. Metacognition: A sciences of education. Schools, students, Bridge Between Cognitive Psychology and parents, and teachers change. Classroom Educational Practice. Theory Into Practice. management strategies are not enough to offer Issue 43(4), 268-273 (2004). appropriate solutions for specific instructional 4. Lin, X., Schwartz, D., Hatano, G. Toward situations. Provoking situations and events Teachers’ Adaptive Metacognition. may appear. In other words, one size does not Educational Psychologist. Issues 40(4), fit all. Thus, teacher are challenged to offer 245-255 (2005). solutions to increase the quality of instruction 5. Lysaker, P. H., Erickson, M., Buck, K. D., and to promote visible learning. To solve these Procacci, M., Nicolo, G., Diamggio, G.. situations teachers need complex Metacognition in schizophrenia spectrum metacognitive competences. The research disorders: Methods of assessment and revealed that teachers self-reported with associations. European Journal of medium to high levels of metacognition. Psychiatry. Issue 24(4), 220-226 (2010). Unlike the quantitative approach, qualitative 6. Pallascio, R., Daniel, M. F., Lafortune, L.. data revealed a specific phenomenology of Pensée et réflexivité. Théories et pratiques. metacognitive behaviors affecting teachers’ Sainte-Foy (Quebec): Presses de responses to non-routine situations. To discuss l'Université du Quebec (2004). the first interrogation launched in this article, 7. Parsons, S. A., Davis, S. G., Scales, R. Q., we say teachers are more likely to have routine Williams, J. B., Kear, K.. How and why metacognitive behaviors rather than versatile teachers adapt their literacy instruction. In ones. In this case an ameliorative intervention S. Szabo, M.B. Sampson, M. Foote, F. is needed. Falk-Ross (Eds.), Mentoring literacy Furthermore, we proposed an approach professionals: Continuing the spirit of designed to improve metacognitive capabilities CRA/ALER after 50 years, Commerce, TX: of teachers, namely the A-HA approach, based Association of Literacy Educators and on erotetic techniques. In relation to this Researchers (2010). training programme, the second interrogation 8. Schraw, G., Moshman, D.. Metacognitive focused on the impact of the A-HA approach. Theories. Educational Psychology Review. Posttest data proved there are significant Issue 7(4), 351-371 (1995). differences between the two moments of 9. Veenman, M. V.. Learning to self-monitor testing. The teachers in the treatment group and self-regulate. În R. Mayer, & P. were able to propose a higher number of Alexander (Ed.), Handbook of Research on solutions to solve provoking issues. Learning and Instruction (pg. 197-218), Our intent is that the A-HA approach will New York: Routledge (2011). help to set up further research in the metacognition field and help teachers to significantly increase their metacognitive capabilities.

REFERENCES

1. Bransford, J. D., Darling-Hammond, L.. Preparing teachers for a changing world:

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THEORETICAL APPROACHES ON LEARNING FACILITATION IN MENTORING

Gabriela Carmen Oproiu *

*Teacher Training Department, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: Within the professional insertion process of the mentee teacher, an important role is held by the mentor and the professional relation that is established between the former and the latter. The mentor needs to facilitate the beginner’s inclusion in the organizational environment (the school) and guide him in the teaching career. Within this context, it is learning facilitation that we refer to, rather than the learning process itself, where the methods used by the mentor are specific to adults’ education. The paper deals with a theoretical approach on several aspects of learning facilitation in mentoring, specifying the fact that learning facilitation produces changes both in the mentee and the mentor’s role. Taking into account the fact that facilitation represents a new learning culture, that involves support, counseling and responsibility, communication has become extremely important within the professional inclusion process. In the present paper I am going to identify the main communication difficulties encountered by the mentee at the beginning of his teaching career. I am also going to present a few recommendations related to providing an effective feedback. Feedback in mentoring needs to be offered as often as possible, in order to guide and orient the mentee, as well as to convince him/her to remain in school after the mentoring period is over.

Keywords: mentor, mentee, mentoring process, facilitation`s method, communication, feed-back

1. INTRODUCTION Mostly associated with the direct, face-to- face contact between individuals, namely those Mentoring is becoming a more and more who are experienced in a field and possess widely-used concept in teachers’ formation. certain abilities to convey it- the mentors-and There are many definitions of mentoring in the those who need support-the mentees, specialized literature. Mentoring can be mentoring represents an extremely important approached as a complex learning process, by step in the professional inclusion process. which an experienced person in the field, the Basically speaking, a mentor supports a mentor, deals with an information transfer, or person, the mentee, all throughout a transition contributes to the formation of competences of process, in order to cope with new situations a person at the beginning of his/her career, the similar to the one when the mentee is mentee. integrated in the organizational culture of the school. Mentoring is a process the essence of which consists in conveying abilities and

263 SOCIO-HUMANITIES information from experienced people to 2. Online mentoring performed by beginners [1]. means of the e-learning platform, by Mentoring is, most often, associated with using information technology. Such a direct, face-to face contact between relation is the result of the mentee’s individuals, involving mentors - people who observation and counseling from the are experienced in a certain field and possess mentor’s (tutor’s) part, where certain skills in order to convey these skills, communication is moved to the virtual and mentees - people who need the mentors’ environment and has its specific support. We could say that a mentor supports features. the mentee in his or her completing a transition Irrespective of the mentoring type, the process, in order to cope with new situations, process is based on a series of principles: such as his or her integration process in a  Acknowledging the differences school’s organizational culture. between individuals regarding learning A mentor can be defined as “a person who style, motivation, interest. helps someone to develop himself/herself by  Personal and professional learning; more specifically, a professional who development is a matter of personal works for a person, a group or an organization choice. for the personal or organizational  Encouraging people towards self- development.” [3]. development. The concept of professional inclusion  Encouraging collaboration, not refers to integrating a young beginner or a new competition. employee in the professional environment for  Reflecting on past experiences. which he/she received specific training. In the  Developing the ability of context of the necessity of teaching career transferring and applying the learned professionalization, the professional inclusion lessons to new situations. of mentees entering the educational system has In the present paper the main become a must. communication difficulties encountered by the As legally stipulated by OMECTS mentee at the beginning of his teaching career 5485/29.09.2011, any person who possesses are identified. Also, a few recommendations certified experience within the educational related to providing an effective feedback are system at school or high school level, who presented. Feedback in mentoring needs to be holds a permanent teaching position, who is a offered as often as possible, in order to guide beholder of the first teaching degree, and who and orient the mentee, as well as to convince continuously attends teaching development him/her to remain in school after the courses can become a professional inclusion mentoring period is over. mentor . The objectives of this type of mentoring 2. FACILITATING AS A are different from the ones of teaching practice LEARNING PROCESS IN mentoring. A professional inclusion mentor MENTORING aims at integrating the mentee in the school, his/her preparing for designing, organizing and In the mentoring activity, an important role developing effective didactic activities. is represented by the effective implementation Taking into account the way in which the of learning strategies, of mentees’ support and relation mentor-mentee is accomplished, we monitoring within the professional inclusion can identify two types of professional process. inclusion mentoring. Therefore, creating a collaborative learning 1. Face-to-face mentoring. Either formal environment, which is comfortable from the (within organized programs) or social and affective point of view, has become informal (by developing a one-to-one a condition that leads to successfully relation), this type of mentoring completing a mentee’s professional inclusion involves direct, face-to-face contact experience. between mentor and mentee.

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The whole mentoring process is organized  Contributes to finding the answers; around the mentee. He/she is the one who  Gets involved in discussions and takes part in making decisions related to what debates; he/she is going to learn, the most suitable  Solves problems. learning strategy, within the limits of the At the same time, the mentee produces and learning content. shares information and knowledge, but he/she Within this context, we are talking about also learns in collaboration with other trainees. learning facilitation, rather than a learning It should also be mentioned that learning process itself, and the methods used by the facilitation also produces changes in the mentor are specific to adults’ education. facilitator’s/mentor’s role. Facilitation has the meaning of “guiding, The mentor becomes a collaborator, a orienting the person who learns on how to learning partner, who is able to provide the define his/her learning direction, to determine mentee with more options and responsibilities his/her aims and specific objectives, to within the professional inclusion process. The discover his/her own learning pace and keep facilitator/mentor provides support in learning control on his/her own learning process.” [2] facilitation, as follows: “Facilitation is the process by which a person  He/she asks questions supports other people to complete their activity  Listens and improve their communication style.”  Provides constructive feedback; (Farrell&Weaver).  Encourages Therefore, facilitation is not a formation,  Motivates teaching, assessment, or control process; it Controls involves the following: 

- ensuring effective reciprocal Special attention should be granted to the communication; communication role within the professional -avoiding intrusion, aggression on the inclusion process. Interactive learning personal space; relations cannot be built without - avoiding strict rules and regulations; communicating well. - helping the mentee to interact with his The main communication difficulties peers; encountered by the mentee during his/her - availability for the mentee’s probation period depend on the following requirements. factors: From the pedagogical point of view, the - The style of the relation that is built person who learns assumes an active role between the mentee and the mentor, which is within the facilitation process, a role which is to a great extent conditioned by the reflected in his/her interest in the mentoring communication manner between the two. This activity. Learning facilitation determines is the reason why –in order to give real support changes in the trainee’s role. to the mentee- the mentor needs to convey Therefore, the mentee becomes an active messages that cover not only the intellectual participant in the learning process: aspects of communication, but also the  Participates in formulating the affective ones, in a clear and personalized questions; manner, making use of his/her sense of humor,

265 SOCIO-HUMANITIES encouraging the mentee’s autonomy, praising answers the mentee’s message, but he him/ her on his/her strong points, and changes the subject. As a result, the stimulating the mentee to improve the weak mentee may feel confused. points. We recommend positive listening, which - Intonation of the voice and clarity of involves the following: expression represent another essential aspect  Increased interest in the person who of communication between mentor and speaks and the message he conveys; mentee. The mentor needs to pay attention to  Reflection on what the speaker the way he/she formulates the questions intended to say; addressed to the mentee, so that the latter is  Attempt to find out what has not been stimulated and encouraged to communicate in said. a friendly manner. During the discussions, the  Listening followed by questions. It is mentor can also refer to the mentee’s daily considered an active form of listening. activities, the social context within which The mentor confirms the reception of he/she activates, etc. the message, by formulating questions, In communicating with the mentee, such as: Who? Where? How? When? listening represents more than the mentor’s Special attention should be granted to passive act of paying attention during a the question Why? We recommend discussion. Listening involves concentrating avoiding passing judgement. The one’s attention on the discussion, the context mentor should give positive feedback, and the interest that the mentor shows to the encourage the mentee to analyze and person who conveys the message. Active study thoroughly. listening involves providing the person who  Empathic listening is considered to be transmits the message with appropriate the maximum level that listening can feedback! reach. Mentors prove their empathic There are several types of listening: capacity, by imagining themselves in  Listening without paying attention. the mentee’s place. This is a situation when the mentor In order to avoid the mentee’s behaves as if mentee conveyed no demotivation, the mentor can complete a series message at all. He/she does not look at of actions: the mentee in the eyes when he  Answer the mentee’s requirements as communicates, is distracted by other soon as possible; activities, which can be demotivating  Start communication on an optimistic for the mentee. When not offered the note; address the mentee in a friendly appropriate feedback (either verbal or manner; nonverbal), the mentee may interpret  Invite more dynamic people to the mentor’s lack of reaction as: “No collaborate and stimulate people who one is interested in my contribution”, are not so willing to interact; accompanied by the subsequent  Periodically send demotivation. encouraging/motivation and/or  Listening followed by passing a congratulation messages; judgement. There is listening and  Not discriminate; avoid creating tense feedback in this situation, but it atmosphere; involves just negative judgements, Frequently send suggestions on the without pointing out the positive  manner the projects should be aspects and the mentee’s effort. This elaborated; type of listening might inhibit the mentee and lead to his/her shrinking  Make the mentee aware on the into his self and avoid communicating practical importance of what he/she with the mentor. learns;  Listening followed by deviating from  Suggest to the mentee that he/she the topic. In this case, the mentor should make notes on his opinions,

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things that have not been clarified,  Feedback should be offered comments, encountered difficulties, immediately, in order to and mention them to the mentor. change/strengthen the mentee’s Feedback is vital in the mentoring activity behavior and not after a while! and represents a necessity in guiding the In conclusion, in the mentoring process, professional inclusion process, in order to the feedback given by the mentor to the motivate the mentee and also to convince him mentee should be constructive for the mentee, to remain in school after he finishes the very positive and motivating. mentoring period. The mentor needs to provide positive 3. CONCLUSIONS & feedback, by active listening, which involves ACKNOWLEDGMENT listening and formulating questions, and also getting involved affectively, by empathic Mentoring is a dynamic and complex listening. Apart from the above-mentioned activity that takes place in a sequence of steps. aspects, feedback should be perceived by the The way in which these steps are taken mentee as an effective communication relation depends on effective communication between with the mentor. the mentor and the mentee. Feedback in mentoring should be provided In all stages of the mentoring process, the as frequently as possible, in order to orient the mentor must prove good communication skills mentee and indicate him that he is following to provide guidance and support his younger the right path. colleague. In order to provide effective feedback, one However, the decisive factor in the success should take the following recommendations of a communication remains the mentor. into account: Throughout the relationship, the mentor is  Feedback should be focused on more of a facilitator, he doesn`t give lessons to positive aspects; the mentee, he supports and encourages in  Feedback should be constructive and order to achieve the objectives. not centered on criticism, ironical At present, face-to-face mentoring is observations, etc.; becoming an essential step in the Romanian  The aim of feedback is to support the teachers’ professional formation, as a result of mentee and not assess or judge him; recent legislative initiatives.  Feedback should be descriptive and not It can be referred to as implementing an evaluative or critical. We recommend activity that represents a process of gradually to avoid the words “good” , “bad”, or acquainting the mentees with the typology of similar ones, because they do not say communication forms and the types of anything about the behavior that the relations that can be established within the mentee should express/demonstrate; face-to-face or distance activities, as well as  Feedback should provide alternatives; the working manners that are specific to the  Feedback should be concrete and two parties involved, the mentor and the specific in order to help the trainee to mentee. take progress;

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REFERENCES

1. Ezechil, L. (coord.), Mentor`s Guide, Piteşti: Paralela 45 Publishing House (2009). 2. Liţoiu, N., Learning Facilitation in Distance Education, Bucharest: Politehnica Press Publishing House, (2011). 3. Potolea, D., Noveanu, E., Encyclopedia Dictionary .Educational Science, Bucharest: Sigma, Publishing House, (2008). 4. Pânişoară, I.O., Effective Communication, Iaşi: Polirom Publishing House, (2006).

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MEDIATIZED WORD. INFORMATION. EDUCATION. MANIPULATION

Anca Păunescu*, Laviniu Lăpădat*

*Department of Applied Modern Languages, University of Craiova, Romania

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to propose a twofold approach on the subject matter at hand, namely: a “positive” outlook which seeks to demonstrate that the media in general, and television in particular, are perceived as having a well-defined role in informing and educating the public; and the second one would be a “negative” spin on the situation which would expose the untold purpose of the media – manipulation. The education achieved through mass-media in an informal one, encompassing the totality of influences which exist outside the classic school environment and its adherent extra-curricular activities. In certain situations, this may very well provide a chance, an opportunity to those who lack access to basic information or education, individuals living in secluded areas, disoriented young people, destitute groups, or families living their lives isolation. Mass-media affirms a system of values which advocates for the public right to information. Its educational role is paramount to the proper functioning of a free, civil, and democratic society, as it combats corruption and power abuse. Media is the gatekeeper to our very way of life, promoting a standard of civil defense which guards against the threats of injustice.

Keywords: media, education, manipulation, dominance.

1. INTRODUCTION extra-curricular activities. In certain situations, this may very well provide a chance, an The aim of this paper is to provide a opportunity to those who lack access to basic twofold approach on the subject matter at information or education, individuals living in hand, namely: a positive outlook which seeks secluded areas, disoriented young people, to demonstrate that the media in general, and destitute groups, or families living their lives television in particular, are perceived as isolation. having a well-defined role in informing and Mass-media affirms a system of values educating the public; and the second one which advocates for the public right to would be a negative spin on the situation information. Media is the gatekeeper to our which would expose the untold purpose of the very way of life, promoting a standard of civil media – manipulation. defense which guards against the threats of The education achieved through mass- injustice. media in an informal one, encompassing the There are several circumstances under totality of influences which exist outside the which education and information of young classic school environment and its adherent people take place. The media represents that

269 SOCIO-HUMANITIES group of factors of education, called to interest groups. The right of citizens to amplify, create, or diversify knowledge and information involves the possibility of a behavioral experiences of individuals. Press person to have access to all information along with other factors: church, school, sources. The meaning given by Article 31 of family, cultural institutions should not work the Constitution defines the concept of independently or isolated but together by information saying that “citizens only have combining their functions. Most importantly, access to information of public interest, not the instead of competing against each other, it is state Secret" is clear. crucial to establish and maintain a relationship The purpose of education in human values of mutuality and reliability among these is the accession to independence and educational environments. professional competence. The media has no The media today is perceived as an power of control, like state institutions, but the essential component of the modern world, with impact on society is overwhelming, develops a universality that is not ascribed to any other critical spirit, creates currents of opinion, type of institution. Written media, radio, and launches, and propels personalities and public television can act on: individuals, groups, figures. But not everything circulated bears the institutions, or even society as a whole. At the stamp of validity and relevance of value, for same time, it could affect the human example: a slapstick film, a useless product, a personality: on a cognitive level by changing drug that proves to be injurious to health etc. the image of the world, on an affective level by creating or changing attitudes and feelings, 2. MEANS OF INFORMATION AND and on a behavioral level by disrupting the COMMUNICATION individuals’ way of acting and reacting. The system of values that media claims to 2.1 A SWOT Analysis of the Media. In promote: the right to public information, the last century, the media has developed an freedom of speech and information, and also impressive, overwhelming, platform in speech, the access to information. Its educational role expression, and communication. “Competition is paramount to the proper functioning of a between newspapers, competition between free, civil, and democratic society, as it newspapers and television stations stands the combats corruption and power abuse. The test of time. TV journalists are forced, due to facts may be accompanied by reviews and the fact that a competing television media comments involving the journalist’s covered the flood, to seek to cover items that personality provided that he does not distort others have not had” [2]. the events by presenting biased or malicious In past centuries, the media was in its formulations, all of these aspects constituting seriousness era, available only to a small circle the tradition of the old European journalism. of initiates, Enlightenment thinkers who Other times, the media can be criticized for discovered it as a necessity to enlightenment, creating worthless cultural products, being empowering representatives of the popular considered as a powerful means of mass classes in an effort to develop autonomous manipulation and gradual destruction of thinking training, elevated and even critical personality at both individual and collective analytical prowess. levels. A SWOT analysis is used to identify and From this perspective, the media creates evaluate the following aspects: Strong Points, false needs and offers the public artificial Weak Points, Opportunities, and Threats pleasures imperceptibly turning that audience 2.2 Weaknesses. We can say that we are into slaves. dealing with thriving business information The information itself has virtually no pouring plentifully without the possibility of value pertinent to the subject of education if it verifying whether the informational material is is not intended to judge, interpret different true or false [11]. Communist legacy media contexts [1] strongly influenced the nature of a current lack An uninformed or less informed individual of a clearly defined political system, relevant is a citizen who is easy to manipulate by to central control, attitudes of journalists

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formed in the fifty years of communist rule The programs and the amount of contributing to the maintaining of the old information provided entails forming a system. Mass media today “remains more of a common consistent baggage of ideas and political than an informational tool” [7], images, and the effects may trigger desired or according to Peter Gross’s observations, undesired changes in the way different people “perpetuating the communist enthusiasm for are defined and in particular the extent to manipulation being unfamiliar with the themes which the information they need is made and events of the day, a tool for control rather available to them. than education; the repercussions of such The press is a factor of global solidarity, misinformation and manipulations thriving in meeting the needs of individuals: a state of civic and political infantilism” in communication, adapting to the community, which most Romanians are maintained [1]. perpetuating the common values and Journalistic manipulation: the opposite identifying itself with those models that the hypostasis always aggressive and threatening, community considers to be ‘landmarks of we have today envisioned the image of a action’. Also it is making efforts to change the subject controlled by the power press owners. old identity: combatting ideological This phenomenon is defined as a ‘Lap-dog’, indoctrination, endeavoring to mobilize the when the dog licks the hands of its master. population, combat the personality cult, acting Limiting the media, manufacturing controlled as a compelling vector of truth, creating a new reports results in loss of credibility. image, obtaining credibility, the pursuit of 2.3 Strengths. One of the media’s strong unlimited roles for freedom and social points is its ability to act like a ‘watchdog’, evolution: educational, formative, the very regarding the proper functioning of state consciousness of the free people, voice of the powers (legislative, executive and judicial). It critical spirit. is recognized as the fourth state power, 2.4 Threats. Mihai Coman believes that monitoring how everything is respected and the classical forms of limitation and influence defended, overseeing the constitutionality of burdening the mass media might be: a rigid the rule of law and the power it has transferred legislative framework and system of unto the citizen in order to help him resist the regulations, economic pressures, political abuses Power. conventions through hegemony (and Through the press the people will always neutralizing the imposition of an ideology) have a voice, and that voice shall be their denying access to information by manipulating absolute guarantee for freedom and protection journalists [4]. against all types of abuse. There is a ‘pursuit of profit’ in the press Mass media protects all social categories today, which is likely to disappear under the for one reason or another seeing beyond economic pressure. Some analysts provide interests or particular problems in the power solutions that seem to be at hand: to turn to structure, acting as a ‘watchdog’ - always in an other institutions in various areas of activity, aggressive and threatening stance – “acting on able to assure the existence of alternative behalf of the public drawing attention towards forms of financing. abuses of power” [4].

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The problem with wooden language, which with the political phenomena, the influence seeks not to inform but to impress the receiver can be positive or negative” [10]. Despite the through an incantation emptied of content, methodological difficulties in solving this placing the information submitted at the end of problem, one thing is certain for sociologists: sentences that start with superfluous platitudes “No summary of the effects, however brief, also represents a threat to the media as we could neglect the role of the media in know it. supporting, strengthening and orientating Besides this, the danger of low morality in patterns or in maintaining social control and guidance shows an aesthetic detachment in sometimes in shaping the symbolic legitimacy relation to the serious problems of uncollected of a government” [14]. ways in which veracity tends to blur the Centuries ago Sun Tzu glorified boundaries between reality and fiction. manipulation by disinformation, deception and 2.5 Opportunities. “A positive step for the division. future of Romanian journalism if and only if “If the code relative to the rewards and young people will be able to influence the punishments is clearly drafted and profession and society in more ways than they implemented expeditiously, then you can use wish to change their older brethren” [7]. the crowd as if it were a handful of people” - Freedom – “a free market of ideas” a [13]. Or consider the known guile of Ulysses competitive space, a space balanced only by and the gift offered to the Trojans: a wooden the logic of supply and demand (intellectual) horse inside of which the Greeks were hidden “may face a space where different streams of in order to conquer the city - encompassing all opinion can converge” [4] modern manipulation techniques. Since the Changes occur based on innovative visions early years of school we learn that even the and progress is made not by respect for Dacians were skilled in inventing wiles to traditions but by challenging the beaten path. mislead opponents on their intentions or the Hegel used to think that history progresses number of fighters available. through the worst of events. In our century, we saw the emergence of It is important for man to form the specially designed psychological weapons: personality of the modern individual, radio and print media have contributed a lot facilitating the handling of media messages in from this standpoint especially during the two order to decrypt the meanings of various world wars, as precursors to the television information relating to media operative sectors media. “The first Gulf War was an overall so as to select and appropriate information success in handling all modern media sources. It is about the sources relating to the techniques. The images of prisoners had a issuing of new codes of reading itself, we are strong emotional impact on the enemy, like connected simultaneously to alternative issuers those scenes in which soldiers came out of the thus neutralizing false information, activating underground shelters and kissed the winners’ the skills needed to communicate with peers, boots, contributed substantially to the behaviours that can perform and process demoralization of the enemy and their mass through various exercises and educational surrender” [12]. practices. The Second Gulf War brought a new formula: the embedding of journalists in teams 3. MANIPULATION AND of fighters, on-site, thus making journalists DOMINATION radiate emotion to the general public whose hearts are ‘ticking’ with love towards the “The effects of (political) changes in the ‘hero’ that transmitted, sometimes live, every media reinforce attitudes; or even change them event with spectacular effect. We are again altogether. The impact is greater on the dealing with the notion of manipulation. undecided, especially if they say the same Very convincing, as was the live thing at the same time (= consistency) or when experience is the media experience of the analyzing a small number of problems (= Revolution of 1989, which generated more strength). Depending on how the media deals feelings of doubt, mental bewilderment

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because of manipulated news, false rumors protocols achieved through subliminal and misinformation. perception [5]. Modern European society tries to explain, Informational manipulation is basically the but also to define the need for handling method by which the actual act of domination individuals, and for that, we must admit that: if and media influence extends in order to our system of accumulation allows us, then the disseminate modified information throughout media domination will undoubtedly occur. the world, aided by the development of The French, for example, launched the communications technologies, diversification concept of psychological field actions aimed at of media outlets that broadcast the information two levels of organization. The first relates to contributing to the achievement of this reality. strengthening its own psycho-moral actions of The term propaganda originally had a mental protection. The second level includes neutral sense, which is to spread the faith, then actions of demoralization, poisoning and an opinion, a certain doctrine. Propaganda disinformation of the enemy [9]. continues to be associated with lying and The concept of manipulation itself leaves manipulation. It can be open, and would freedom for interpretation. Perhaps this correspond to all modern public relations unravels all the confusion of terms under services, and covert (hide its origin), based on which we analyze and comment on the libel, slander and defamation. phenomenon. We are talking about Black propaganda is the most effective, manipulation “when a particular social addressing the most pressing issues and giving situation is created intentionally to influence the impression that there are sources in the the reactions and behavior towards the desired enemy territory. It may use the most perverse effect of the manipulator” [5]. means of causing panic, confusion, tension, Another feature of manipulation indirectly insecurity, by rumors, false alarms and phone concerns itself with the concept of distance, calls, blackmail, imitating the voice of between the one who manipulates the one personalities known or psychological pressure manipulated. First it acts on the unconscious on them (threats, seizure). force of suggestion which is very large and the The grey propaganda, does not specify the individual acting under pressure is not aware source, but openly operates against the of this influence. opponent, addressing topics that capture public Therefore, cracking or changing the hungry for the sensational. Depending on the reference system may be easier as the shock method predominantly used propaganda may caused by formulas (slogans) can elicit a have emotional support, factual or persuasive strongly emotional response. There is talk of [3]. grooming and handling information, although The first aims to provide the deliberate both are intertwined. provocation of strong emotional feelings and Among the techniques that illustrate the adhesions using images, verbal formulas and effectiveness of these effects or events, which symbols with great emotional gravity. This are all generative, we can detect “the foot-in- propaganda manipulates the population the-door technique”, “the door-to-the-nose vulnerable because of a low level of education, technique” bait strategies, manipulation

273 SOCIO-HUMANITIES especially in areas of the world where poverty envelopes belonging to the National and illiteracy prevail. Examination and Assessment Service (SNEE). Propaganda with factual support is based Only a few minutes after the fact, the Ministry on concrete facts and specially chosen criteria of Education was informed about the daily generally intertwined with the persuasive, management of employee negligence SNEE. through skillful use of rhetorical rules for The reporter went to a police station and capturing the emotional and intellectual handed over the sealed envelopes. What were audience. It is of great importance to ensure the consequences: The Minister of Education protection because “confrontation occurs on sacked the Director of SNEE and the the battlefield of the human psyche, where Romanian Prime Minister announces opinions, beliefs and attitudes, are consistently resignation of the state secretary for school reinforced or modified in the desired education. direction” [8]. Effects of manipulation: the newspaper 3.1 Countering Manipulation. The Adevărul devotes the front page to the story, strategy of countering should be aimed at the and almost all other publications take on the source (from where manipulation originates), subject. But there was no issue of journalistic understand the factors that mediate fairness involved. Following this, conclusions communication, motivation, technical means, are drawn towards terrible generalizations, the characteristics of targets, always monitor political statements are made in haste, and the the effects arising due to manipulation, and subject enters the media agenda. Nobody explore new methods of countering them. addressed the issue of deception regarding the At an individual level, it requires a level of reporter who had no formal quality regarding analysis and thorough self-analysis, alternating the matter. The purpose and consequences are moments of detachment with involvement [5], all that matters. the identification of discontinuities, the search Revista 22, through its editor Bogdan for hidden motivations, the use and Diaconu, published an article in July 2006, to comparison of independent information trigger public awareness into action. Diaconu sources and even a certain independence from condemns the newspaper’s gesture, stating: the mainstream mentality. “The action of the media escapes from the Eventually, we cannot escape manipulation truth and profession of journalism, easily. We are often dominated, but in fact we legitimizing a morally bankrupt journalistic manipulate ourselves at times, nobody forces approach. From now on, everyone will do the us. same, proving flaws, incompetence, errors, If aggression is an attribute of power and and frauds utilizing incorrect and immoral power is knowledge, victory shall favor the methodologies. This will encourage: 1) an one who knows more. Everything is innovation in investigative journalism, namely, manipulation, conscious or not, negative or creating events; 2) an old practice, but lawful, positive, depending on whose interests are undercover investigation by falsifying identity, satisfied. The dominator is aware that his borrowing an official capacity; and 3) the domination brings forth an imperceptible introduction of new functions in the utility of a influence over the person or group concerned. free press in a state of law, namely the press Wars come and go, victories and failures controls state institutions. The inventor is the are often reversed, history judges and the Romanian press as a whole - with its lack of history is written by the winners. Only accountability, professionalism, values and manipulation remains eternal, as a weapon of self-analysis” [6]. deception and awakening, as a weapon that In journalism, according to the teachings of does not kill, but only poisons and cripples our David M. Friedman, “documentation is not fragile intellects. theft [...] it is perfectly legitimate to consult, 3.2 Recent acts manipulation. In July ask to borrow or buy any documents from their 2006, a reporter of the newspaper Adevărul rightful owners, but it is dangerous to sneak in posed as a representative of the School without authorization” [6]. Inspectorate in Dambovita, and took 40

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Ethical codes prohibit practices such taking 4. CONCLUSION formal qualities. According to the Charter of the French journalists' professional duties, “A A message will stream across multiple journalist worthy of the name will not permit stages in order to reach its media zenith, from the use of securities or qualities that they have the release of that pertinent information, its to resort to dishonest means to obtain subsequent transference inside the pages of a information or to abuse the good faith of newspaper, until the final conception of intact someone”. The Code of Ethics for Romanian information. journalists says that “The use of unfair means The obsession with media manipulation to procure news shall not be allowed”. exists within a paradoxical functional paradox, 3.3 Another blatant example of as it is often ludicrous and justified at the same manipulation. In the September issue of the time. newspaper Gardianul we encountered an On many occasions, The term article which stated that “The Rroma man “manipulation” is wrongly used, launching Valeriu Nicolae had bamboozled UEFA and ridiculous theories that someone is “watching through his action he had done his country of from above”, but basically the Romanian press Romania a grave disservice”. has all too often fostered its own existence The article sadly demonstrates that racism between extremes, and luring its audience in Romania is not only limited to a handful of down this dangerous rabbit hole as a result. football hooligans, it is also very much present We have debated, analyzed and in mainstream media as well. exemplified this phenomenon, through the The article starts with the following thorough understanding of the entire statement: “After Steaua’s home pitch was informational chain: influence, persuasion, suspended by UEFA, the vice-president of the propaganda, advertising, intoxication, European Bureau for Rroma Information, hypnosis, brainwashing, neuro-linguistic Valeriu Nicolae, took credit for this communication, misinformation and abominable attack against Romanian football”. manipulation, Not only does the article initiate and If the audience is vigilant and duly warned manipulate feelings of racial hatred, through over these phenomena, then he/she shall learn the expression pattern Rroma X…, but the the necessary technique needed to resist media author of the article himself directly manipulation. commandeers emotional functionalities of racism by referring to the event as an REFERENCES “abominable attack against Romanian football”. The article published by the 1. Antonesei, Liviu. Polis şi Paideia. Şapte studii newspaper Gardianul, has all the makings of despre educaţie, cultură, politici educative. blatant incitement towards racial hatred. Ia i: Editura Polirom (2005). 2. Bourdieu, Pierre. Despre televiziune. Urmat de dominaţia jurnalismului. Bucureşti: Editura Meridiane (1998).

3. Cristea, Dumitru. Tratat de psihologie socială. Editura Protransilvania (1998).

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4. Coman Mihai. Introducere in sistemul mas- comunicare şi publicitate. Bucureşti: media. Bucure ti: Ed.Polirom (2007). Editura Tritonic (2002). 5. Ficeac, Bogdan. Tehnici de manipulare. 11. Salavastru, Constantin. Raţionalitate şi Bucureşti: Editura Nemira (2004). discurs. Perspective logico-semiotice 6. Friedman, David Milton. Bunul gust al asupra retoricii. Bucure ti: Editura libertăţii. Bucure ti: Editura Humanitas Didactică şi Pedagogică. (1996). (2004). 12. Stavre, Ion. Reconstrucţia societăţii 7. Gross, Peter. Mass media şi democraţia în ţările Europei de Est. Iaşi: Editura Polirom româneşti prin audiovizual. Bucure ti: Nemira (2004). (2004). 13. Tzu, Sun. Arta războiului. Bucure ti: 8. Hariuc, Constantin. Protecţia împotriva agresiunii psihologice. Bucureşti: Editura Editura Antet (2002). 14. Watson, James. Succeeding in science: Militară (1994). Some rules of Thumb, Science (1993). 9. Hentea, Călin. Propagandă fără frontiere, 15. Watson, James, Anne Hill, A Dictionary of Bucureşti: Editura Nemira (2002). Communication and Media Studies, 3-rd 10. Popescu, Cristian Florin. Dicţionar explicativ de jurnalism, relaţii publice şi Edition. London: Edward Arnold (1993).

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SEARCHING FOR SHREDS OF ORDER. THE STRUCTURE OF TODAY’S INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM

Silviu Petre*, Gheorghe Săvoiu**

*Center of East-European and Asian Studies, SNSPA Bucharest, Romania, **Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of Piteşti, Romania

Abstract: After a brief introduction, dedicated to historical desire and philosophy of the international relations (IR) and order or to its specific personalities and their spiritual bridges to contemporary trends, this paper follows the demarche based on three sections. The first section dwells upon different IR schools of thought, the second grapples with the original notion of the alliance capitalism and the third sketches the basic tenets of the grape shaped international system while conclusion outlines direction for future research.

Key words: alliance capitalism, international relations (IR), international order, inequalities, polarization

1. INTRODUCTION between the age of Saint of Augustin and today. Both now as in the dawn of Middle It is not very original to say that today’s Ages as reflected in De Civitate Dei: world remains gripped somewhere between war and peace; between stability and „We are at the dawn of a new epoch that instability. It is not probably threatened by a may well be as chaotic as that one and that looming global conflict such as were the XX may come upon us more quickly because of the century cascade of hegemonic clashes (1914- way the electronic and communications 1918; 1939-1945, supplemented by a Cold revolutions, combined with a population War- 1945-1990) but still has to respond to boom, have compressed history. […] In The numerous crisis of different sorts, from City of God, St. Augustine revealed that it is financial recessions, wide spread hunger, the the devout — those in search of grace — who structural impotency of national economies to have no reason to fear the future. And as the generate work opportunities for both young tribes of old now slowly come undone in the and senior people, transnational terrorist unstoppable meat grinder of developing-world networks or pandemics that irradiate urbanization, religion will be more necessary seemingly out of nowhere to test the limits of than ever as a replacement. Alas, extremist modern medicine. From a more taxonomical Islam (as well as evangelical Christianity and perspective, one needs to reassess notions such Orthodox Judaism in the West) may make as nation-state, great/small power, sovereignty. perfect sense for our age, even as its nemesis In an exercise in historical philosophy, may not be democracy but new forms of Daniel Drezner draws comparative bridges military authority. Late Antiquity is useful to

277 SOCIO-HUMANITIES the degree that it makes us humble about what states but describe an international awaits us. But whatever comes next, the environment where anarchy and security charmed circle of Western elites is decidedly dilemmas are mollified by rules, international not in control.” (Kaplan, Foreign Policy, 19 organizations, channels of communication, all December 2013) wrapped up by the economic interdependence In order to alleviate some of those that swept away since 1960s till today. methodological problems our article proposes Unfortunately, none of those authors did not the grape metaphor with predictive potential use to the fullest the potential of economic for short-to-midterm dynamics in the thinking. international system. Thus, our suggested The world that emerged after 1991 did not model envisaged a picture shaped by both fully vindicate nor validate any of the major great power rivalry as well as interdependence. paradigms in IR. It did not entail a global More so, even though great power rivalry will counterbalance against the United States, or not vanish, the risk of direct clash runs low, the breakdown of the nascent European Union but at the same time one may notice an as some realists would have argued. At the increased probability that those great powers other end nor has ushered unbridled pace and become eager to assert their regional open-to-all prosperity as many liberals have hegemony and force themselves upon smaller wished. As for the victory of market-driven neighbors. development, it may have proved wrong The reminder of this paper contains three Socialist dirjisme, but Marxism will have sections. The first dwells upon theoretical reasons to reveal disequilibrium as long as the shortcomings of different IR schools of gap between the have and the have-nots thought, the second grapples with the notion of gushes, North-South divide traps millions in alliance capitalism and the third sketches the daunting poverty or middle class dwindles in basic tenets of the grape shaped international OECD countries as many studies demonstrate. system while outlining direction for future Concerning global trends in armed research. conflicts, 1991 marked a turning point with lowering in this sense but at the same time the 2. THE UNDERUTILIZATION OF number of worldwide refugees embarked on a NEOCLASSICAL ECONOMICS IN ascendant path: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

The behavioral revolution helped the systematization of social sciences. Borrowed models from neoclassical economy and cybernetics opened new fertile paths to research and brought closer the perennial ambition of transforming humanities into something more akin to hard science. Especially for the study of International Relations behaviorism strove to move away a still essayistic domain, largely tributary to history into a predictive algorithm. Thus, Kenneth Waltz argues that states should be considered rational actors behaving according to costs-benefits analysis. Drawing upon that he linked the overall systemic stability with the number of great powers/poles occupying the map. On the same veneer while expanding the Waltzian perspective, ground- breaking theories of Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye maintain the rational actorness of

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Source: Center for Systemic Peace, 2013 GDP nominal value, in Billions US. Dollars Two other important rates, namely the rates Table no. 2 of economic growth and global trade volume 100.000,00 growth, reveal the specific gap between these 90.000,00 80.000,00 international economic major results, and 70.000,00 describe a perennial increase in the domestic 60.000,00 50.000,00 macroeconomic interdependences, for the both 40.000,00 valid periods of analysis, the first being based 30.000,00 20.000,00 on the real facts, during 1980-2014, and the 10.000,00

0,00 second as a medium-term forecast or 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 prognosis, for the period 2015-2020 (Table no. 1, based on statistical data of Global economic World GDP Advanced Economies G7 Economies knowledge at your fingertips, IMF, Spring Source of data: Global economic knowledge at Catalog 2015). your fingertips, IMF, Spring Catalog 2015,[on- The world economic growth and the world line] Available on: trade volume growth, in percentage value http://new-allirs.rhcloud.com/info/Global- Table no. 1. economic-knowledge-at-your-fingertips,-IMF,-

15 Spring-Catalog-2015/ The relative decline of the middle class, 10 together with the increasing polarization and 5 inequality, described as the three major

0 contemporary economic and social trends, have been detailed and finally aggregated by -5 Thomas Piketty (Piketty, Postel-Vinay,

-10 Rosenthal, 2006, pp.236-25; Piketty, 2014), in his latest regional or global researches, in -15 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 published papers and books: World GDP growth World trade volume growth “Between 1987 and 2013, the highest global wealth fractiles have grown at 6%-7% per Source of data: Global economic knowledge at year, vs. 2,1% for average world wealth and your fingertips, IMF, Spring Catalog 2015,[on- 1,4% for average world income. All growth line] Available on: http://new-allirs.rhcloud.com/info/Global- rates are net of inflation (2,3% per year economic-knowledge-at-your-fingertips,-IMF,- between 1987 and 2013)” (Piketty, Zuchman, Spring-Catalog-2015/ 2014, p.93) The macroeconomic results, through the What finally resulted instead of expected general trends of the structure of GDP formal world cohesion was a hybrid combination that or current value in billions US Dollars reflect a cuts through several methodologies. Thus we contradictory process (Table no. 2), but this is may take notice of a multilayered cake where: just relative and formal, if the analysis does - great powers tailor a century style not apply demographic corrections, using GDP concert and become aware of the per capita and different tendencies between of necessity to shoulder planetary the highest wealth's level and the average responsibilities. Hegemonic wars are dimensions of the same indicator: less probable now due to the existence

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of nuclear weapons; (Mandelbaum, flows, have acquired new regional, national Winter 1998-1999, pp.20-38) and international trends, being placed in a - regional blocs formed and continue to continuous and contradictory inter-layer mature based on geo-cultural proximity dynamics, very much like some physical and economic parity; phenomena in the theory of stationary waves - nations try to stay connected to (expansions of regional layers are offset by the international finance albeit with a contractions of international and global strata). protectionist twist, courtesy 2008 (Săvoiu, Iorga Simăn, Crăciuneanu, 2012, crisis; pp.5-27) - outsourcing generates a multinational By redefining the globalized and structuring division of labor and rewrites context of international relations in the global geopolitical alliances. economy (vertically launching the local company or corporation, in regional, national 3. THE ALLIANCE CAPITALISM - A and transnational or international networks). THEORY BUILDING CONCEPT Each entity is transcendent temporally, and has subsequently managed, through spatial A new kind of free market economy, or alliances within horizontal networks, to more precisely a new capitalism, is emerging generate specific inter-relational layers, and and developing under the eyes of the theorists, finally a type of capitalism completely original and especially of the practitioners concerned by excessive concentration. A survey, with modern relations and realities. The conducted at the end of 2011 by the Swiss reasons and arguments for that new inceptive Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich process are mainly related with the economic (Glattfelder, Battiston, 2011, online), managed sphere. According to the authors of this article, – via processing a database comprising about there are premises, which are amplified 37 million companies and investors around the through their importance and impact, and also world, as well as the then existing 43,060 exogenous factors that have accelerated and transnational corporations (in keeping also are still accelerating a process of doubtless with their share of property, which reunited crystallization of the new capitalism of them, as well as customizing their alliances. First, a functional prerequisite of characteristic alliance through network nodes) international relations, built solely on their – to confirm the final setting up of the new economic basis, identifies the fact that the kind of capitalism. The major features of modern economy is more and more alliance capitalism combine the five principles substantially rewarding all those who managed of contemporary globalization and another to fully achieve things, and thus closed the so three axioms of modern alliance. much needed economic cycle of the existence Thus, the principles of internationalization of mostly balanced international relations, (initiated in trade relationships and completed providing energy resources, raw materials and in political, etc. relationships), liberalization new technology for producers, bringing their (generating more and more open international products and services to the market and relations by easing the economic restrictions thereby making possible the balance of imposed to governance in interstate dynamics), meeting potential demand by offering real universalization (derived from the process of supply, in international markets where the rapid innovation and technological change, consumer is in fact bounded by the national impacting on international relations), economies. The phenomenon of incentives and modernization (extension of the social rewards have generated, over time, structured structures of the classic capitalist world to the alliances, networks derived from their de facto flexible ones of modern alliances, etc.) and node, defined by companies or corporations deterritorialization of the world (as a transiting nationality, reverberating and consequence of a new reality, where space redefining trans-nationality, and the layers of tends to no longer include distances and the political fabric, or materialized political borders, following a set of alliances an power, having become structural and energetic increasingly adapted type of capitalism) are

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supplemented by the axiom of guaranteed second ring or network of concentration by negotiation of the win-win type (for the investigating their control over the regional signatories of the alliance), the axiom of and national level – including 737 corporations imposed negotiation of the win-lose type with which owned circa 80%. the rest of the companies located outside the The scope of the global economy and the alliance, as well as the axiom of the network of expansion of alliance capitalism continuous contraction of space or the network via transnational companies or corporations external to the alliance. Figure no. 1 Globalization has become “the inexorable integration of markets, nation-states and technologies to a degree never witnessed before, and that empowers corporations, countries, and individuals to reach around the world farther, faster, deeper, and cheaper than ever before, and in a way that is enabling the world to reach into corporations, countries, and individuals farther, faster, deeper, and cheaper than ever before” (Friedman, 1999; 2005), but also the more detailed (and deepest) Source: Vitali, Glattfelder and Battiston, 2011 p. 6 ”integration of countries and peoples of the There is also criticism of the liaisons world, due to the severe reduction in transport dangereuses nature of these new alliances, and communication costs by the bankruptcy of which appear to be the natural result of the barriers to flows of goods, services, capital, monopolistic character of international life by knowledge and human capital” (Stiglitz, increased connectivity through risk sharing at 2002); it becomes, from a possible historical the expense of those situated outside the process, a practically fulfilled process, alliances (Battiston, Gatti, Gallegati, especially as a result of alliance capitalism, Greenwald, & Stiglitz, 2012, pp.1121-1141), which dominates contemporary international and also by constantly influencing the relations. investment processes of mergers and Some of the findings of the research acquisitions, outlining a systemic risk of conducted by the Swiss Federal Institute of access in the international relations for those Technology in Zurich, resulting from that are not part of the alliance. processing the largest database until then, Investment, by its component having the identified a process of network control of the greatest involvement in the medium and long exploitation revenues, or in other words a term, not hot at all compared to portfolio control of transnational companies over investments, i.e. foreign direct investment national companies, of national companies (FDI), represents a 20% share in global GDP over local companies, and emphasized that at and is ranked second among the most the first level of concentration of transnational important exogenous factors of alliance companies feature only 147 transnational capitalism. The alliance reinvests in its own companies or corporations, which already held economic spaces, or the spaces that are 40% of the exploitation revenues, generating a potential signatories of the agreement or

281 SOCIO-HUMANITIES alliance partnership, and never outside it – the model the landscape of today’s international essential cause being mainly lack of control politics. over the repatriation of earnings (thus, We shall follow the same path of the repatriation becomes an obsolete concept, its structuralisms. For both Waltz and Keohane meaning becoming closer to returning to the hold the premises that market represents a space of the alliance). homogeneous environment bound by like- What is easily identifiable as the third and minded units bound by profit seeking (with the last major exogenous factor of alliance only difference being their seize). However in capitalism is reshaping partnerships and reality market brings together all kinds of alliances in the increasingly diverse and actors, private and governmental, local and complex temporal and spatial contexts of transnational with different functions and areas contemporary world. The unions, alliances and of activity. Michael Gerlach, above mentioned, consortia supplement and fill all this universe studied how the Japanese culture harmonized of alliances, focused on monetary principles public agencies with keiretsu, banks along (the European Monetary Union), on free trade other enterprises in generating welfare areas, on complementary resources and (Gerlach, 1996). The alliance capitalism model technologies, dilating the reference spaces to helps us to explain: one-continent and even many-continent 1) how market involved actors can be dimensions, etc. simultaneously rival and still Summing up, the remarkable investigation cooperative or bound by certain rules undertaken by the Swiss researchers (Vitali, (transparent practices, legality etc); Glattfelder and Battiston, 2011) confirms the 2) how economy creates division of maturation of a phenomenon of transformation labour and specialisation (some make of modern capitalism into an alliance goods; other services, and other engage capitalism, which is actually preparing in money lending). globalization at its maximum expansion, as the Point 1) has correspondence in international original limit of potential alliances. politics where nuclear weapons and multilayered interdependence limit the 4. THE CHALLENGE OF behavioral exaggeration of all important actors CONSTRUCTING A MODEL OF (Mandelbaum, 1998-1999, 20-38). INTERNATIONAL POLITICS BASED With respect to the 2) point, we should ask ON THE ALLIANCE CAPITALISM ourselves why nation-states cannot conceived NOTION as performing different roles and behaving according to a systemic division of labor? In the last section we push forward what we Thus some of them are agro-industrial, other chose to baptize: “the grape-shaped model” of base their economy on tertiary sector, while international politics which basically outlines others act as fiscal havens! Concerning that in the foreseeable future (15-20 years) security one can also notice differences great powers will choose to cooperate in spite between great, regional and smaller powers, or of their continuing rivalries but, at the same between status-quo entities and revisionist time, they are more prone to dominate and entities. One of the best examples for all said even conquer their near abroad. above is the entanglement between the United We have seen in statistics that the States and People’s Republic of China. The contemporary international relations and noun coined by Niall Ferguson realities oscillate between imbalance and and Morris Schularick described in early balance; being placed in a continuum space- 2000s a symbiosis with America cast as the time dimension, similar with no man's land in big spender and China as the big lender international conflicts, and thus neither war (Ferguson, Schularick, The Wall Street Journal nor peace can dominate. online, 5 Feb 2007; Ferguson, The Telegraph, Now that we have been acquainted with the 94 Feb 2007; Bernstein, The New York Times, notion of alliance capitalism, it remains to be November 4, 2009; Karabell, The Huffington examined how one can employ in so as to Post, November 13 2009). Another sample,

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caught in an ongoing drama is the relationship John Dunning eclectic paradigm which dresses between NATO/EU and Russian Federation. the alliance capitalism notion helps explains After 1991, a weakling Russia, still recovering how firms invest based on geographical after the Soviet collapse dwell on the brink of consideration and display eagerness to acquire failure and was substantially helped by the immobile assets: ” Contemporary economic Western world. At the same time, events are suggesting that the nature and supranational organizations in the like of composition of a country or region’s NATO and EU pushed their realm closer to comparative advantage, which has been Russian borders to the irk of Kremlin (Tsai, traditionally based on its possession of a 2003, pp.68-69). When Moscow recovered due unique set of immobile natural resources and to oil revenues and a more nationalist elite, it capabilities, is now more geared to its ability changed the third world money borrower to offer a distinctive and non-imitable set of image with a boastful neoimperialist face bent location bound created assets, including the to recover former glow (Perovic in Perovic, presence of indigenous firms with which Orttung, Wenger, 2009, pp.1-21; foreign MNEs might form alliances to Mearsheimer, Foreignn Affairs, complement their own core competencies. [..] September/October, 2014; Petre, CSEEA, May .. it may be inferred that as the dynamic gains 19, 2014). from spatial clustering and network linkages become more pronounced, so will the locational choice of firms become a more critical strategic variable. It also follows that national and regional authorities should pay more attention to the fostering of immobile complementary assets and cluster related public goods as part of their policies to attract and retain mobile investment.” (Dunning, 2000, pp.163-190, esp.178) In the language of strategy we can translate economics in order to understand why the motives behind the race to pinpoint geographic, mineral and economic locations , and most importantly why several emerging powers are bent to assert themselves in the proximity (see China, Japan, and Vietnam play Another category that should be taken into in South China Sea; Russia’s push in Ukraine consideration by an alliance capitalist based IR and Southern Caucasus or Central Asia, Iran theory is the failed states. Hovered by shoddy involvement in Iraq to shape the course of the institutions, massive poverty, non-governance country and stop the spread of ISIS). (O and often safe havens for terrorist networks Europă sigură într-o lume mai bună. Strategie there are the equivalent of toxic assets which europeană de securitate, 2003, pp.3-4 ; can hamper a solid market. Friedman, The Atlantic, 24 December 2013 ;

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Grumaz, Adevărul, 13 January 2015; Conflict 13. Keohane, R. After Hegemony. Barometer 2014, 2015, pp.19-20 ) Cooperation and Discord in the World The authors of this article argue that an Political Economy, Princenton, Princeton alliance capitalism inspired IR theory has a University Press, 1984 fertile potential to read the dynamics of a 14. Mandelbaum, M. Is major war obsolete?, multipolar world where globalism and Survival, vol.40, no.4, Winter 1998-1999, regionalism will be riddled by probable local pp.20-38. conflicts, and where we need a concerted 15. Mearsheimer, J.J. 'Back to the future: effort to better the future. instability in Europe after the Cold War' International Security 15, 1, Summer REFERENCES (1990), pp. 5-56 16. Mearsheimer, J.J. Why the Ukraine Crisis 1. Battiston, S., Gatti, D. D., Gallegati, M., Is the West’s Fault. The Liberal Delusions Greenwald, B., & Stiglitz, J. E. Liaisons That Provoked Putin, Foreign Affairs, dangereuses: Increasing connectivity, risk September/October (2014) sharing, and systemic risk. Journal of 17. Perovic, J. Introduction: Russia energy Economic Dynamics and Control, vol power, domestic and international 36(8), (2012) pp. 1121-1141. institutions in Jeronim Perovic, Robert W. 2. Bernstein, R. Chimerica: A Marriage on the Orttung, Andreas Wenger, Russian Energy Rocks?, The New York Times, November 4 Power and Foreign Relations: Implications (2009). for Conflict and Cooperation, Routledge, 3. Dunning, J.H. The eclectic paradigm as an 2009, pp.1-21 envelope for economic and business 18. Petre, S. Neoclassical realism or the theories of MNE, International Business inability to accept neo-neo synthesis. A few Review 9 (2000) 163–190, esp. 178. thoughts, CSEEA, 19 May (2014) 4. Ferguson, N., Schularick, M. Chimerical? 19. Piketty, T.. Capital in the 21st Century, Think Again, The Wall Street Journal Harvard: Harvard University Press (2014) online, 5 feb (2007). 20. Piketty, T., Gabriel, Z. Wealth and 5. Ferguson, N. Not two countries, but one: inheritance in the long run. p. 93 (2010) Chimerica, The Telegraph, 04 Mar (2007). [on-line] Avalable on: 6. Friedman, T. The Lexus and the Olive Tree, http://www.insee.fr/en/insee-statistique- London: Harper Collins (1999) publique/connaitre/colloques/acn/pdf15/acn 7. Friedman, T. The World Is Flat: A Brief 2014-session5-4-texte.pdf History of the Twenty-First Century, Farrar, 21. Piketty, T., Gilles P-V., and Rosenthal, J.J. Straus and Giroux (2005) Wealth Concentration in a Developing 8. Friedman, U. The Global Conflicts to Watch Economy: Paris and France, 1807-1994, in 2014, The Atlantic, 24 December 2013. American Economic Review, vol 96(1), 9. GERLACH, M., ALLIANCE CAPITALISM: (2006) pp.236-25. The Social Organization of Japanese Business, 22. Săvoiu, G., Iorga Simăn, I. and California: University of California Press Crăciuneanu, V. The Phenomenon of (1997) Concentration - Diversification in 10. Grumaz A. Lumea in 2015. Conflicte şi Contemporary Globalization, Romanian provocări, Adevărul, 13 Ianuarie (2015) Statistical Review, vol. 60, no. 4, (2012) pp. 11. Kaplan, R. D. Augustine’s World–What 5-27. Late Antiquity says about the 21st century 23. Stiglitz, J. Globalization and Its and the Syrian crisis, Foreign Policy, 19th Discontents, New York: W.W. Norton & of December (2013). Company (2003). 12. Karabell, Z. The U.S. and China: The 24. TSAI, M-Y. FROM ADVERSARIES TO Defining Issue of Our Day, The Huffington PARTNERS? CHINESE AND RUSSIAN Post, November 13 (2009). MILITARY COOPERATION AFTER THE COLD WAR: CHINESE AND RUSSIAN MILITARY COOPERATION AFTER THE COLD WAR,

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GREENWOOD PYBLISHING GROUP INC., (2003) PP.68-69 25. Vitali, S., Glattfelder, J. B., & Battiston, S. The network of global corporate control. PloS one, 6(10), e25995 (2010) [on-line] Available on: http://arxiv.org/pdf/1107.5728.pdf 26. Waltz, K.N. Teoria politicii internaţionale (The Theory of International Politics), translation from English by Nicoleta Mihăilescu. Foreword Lucian-Dumitru Dîrdală, Bucharest: Polirom, 2006, pp.97- 199 and passim *** CONFLICT BAROMETER 2014, THE HEIDELBERG INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT RESEARCH (HIIK), HEIDELBERG, 2015, PP.19-20, AND PASSIM *** GLOBAL ECONOMIC KNOWLEDGE AT YOUR FINGERTIPS, IMF, SPRING CATALOG 2015,[ON-LINE] AVAILABLE ON: http://new-allirs.rhcloud.com/info/Global- economic-knowledge-at-your-fingertips,- IMF,-Spring-Catalog-2015/ *** O EUROPĂ SIGURĂ ÎNTR-O LUME MAI BUNĂ. STRATEGIE EUROPEANĂ DE SECURITATE, 2003, PP.3-4 [ON-LINE] AVAILABLE ON: HTTPS://WWW.CONSILIUM.EUROPA.EU/UED OCS/CMSUPLOAD/031208ESSIIRO.PDF

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ASPECTS OF PROFESSIONAL BURNOUT AMONG NURSES

Lavinia-Maria Pruteanu*, Viorel Robu*

*Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences, “Petre Andrei” University of Iasi, Romania

Abstract: This paper focuses on the job-related burnout among nurses working in Romanian public hospitals. The correlational study conducted on a convenience sample of 106 nurses working in two public hospitals aimed at highlighting aspects related to the perceived intensity of specific burnout emotional and behavioral manifestations among nurses and their relationships with other variables, i.e. age, length of service as nurse, family status, and emotional intelligence – an individual ability that plays an important role in optimal adjustment to specific nursing demands. Even though in the current sample the level of burnout dimensions was moderate, comparative data revealed significant differences between nurses differentiated by the hospital they worked in. For the whole sample the emotional intelligence score was a negative predictor of the sense of professional failure accounting for 12.6% of the variance in this dimension of burnout. This result suggests that nurses who show a lower ability to manage their own emotions are at higher risk to experience a sense of professional failure and dissatisfaction.

Keywords: nursing, burnout, emotional intelligence, correlational study

1. INTRODUCTION considered to be demanding and requiring a high level of professional commitment. The The topic of burnout has emerged in the most common operational definition of literature over three decades ago [9, 12, 14]. burnout has been suggested by C. Maslach and Job-related burnout was conceptualized as one S. E. Jackson [9] to describe this psychological of the negative consequences of prolonged condition among professionals in fields occupational stress, which occurs when an involving the delivery of immediate aid. employee is no longer able to cope with stress According to this definition, burnout is at work (Pezet-Langevin, 2001). Job burnout is characterized by three related dimensions: a) not a disease and should not be confused with emotional exhaustion which is the feeling depression. experienced by some employees that they do Burnout and its organizational implications no longer have any emotional resource to cope have their roots in people-oriented, helping with professional demands; from this point of professions in which workers continuously view, emotional exhaustion must be deal with people and their problems: nurses, distinguished from physical or mental doctors, educators, social workers, exhaustion; both physical and emotional psychologists, firefighters, policemen, rapid exhaustion are facets of chronic fatigue intervention teams etc. Subsequently, the syndrome; b) depersonalization (cynicism) is concept was extended to other occupations the negative attitude (i.e., indifference,

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coldness) towards the beneficiaries of their 2.2 Participants and procedure. Data professional service; c) sense of professional were collected through a self-administered failure (the employee feels to be unproductive standardized protocol. One hundred and six and having a low professional efficacy). nurses (16 men and 90 women) responded in Maslach Burnout Inventory/MBI [9] is the this study. Of participants, 40 were working at most widely validated instrument which the “Sf. Ioan cel Nou” County Emergency assesses the frequency and/or intensity of Hospital in Suceava and 66 at the “I. M. burnout dimensions. Georgescu” Institute of Cardiovascular Empirical studies have been focused on the Diseases (ICVD). The average length of effects of job-related burnout in relation to a service as a nurse was 12.95 years (SD = 7.86; number of indicators related to organizational range: 0.33-39 years). The average length of efficiency, employee performance and service in the job held at the time of data attitudes towards work [7, 14]. There is also collection was 10.74 years (SD = 7.44 years; substantial empirical evidence on the range: 0.25-36 years). The units or clinics the relationship between burnout and indicators of participants worked in as nurses were: medical physical and mental health in employees [3]. therapy for patients with cardiovascular In addition to a number of factors related to disease (33% of participants), cardiovascular certain characteristics of the nursing (e.g., role surgery (31.1%), general or pediatric surgery, conflict, role ambiguity, supervision and internal medicine, pediatrics or ophthalmology control, work overload) a very important role (2.8% of participants each), other medical in the genesis of burnout among nurses is specialties (e.g., plastic surgery, diabetology played by interpersonal factors, i.e. emotional and metabolic syndrome, gastroenterology, exigencies which are specific to nurse-patient orthopedics, obstetrics and gynecology, etc. – relationship [4]. Thus, feeling emotionally 17% of participants). The mean age of overburden in the relationships with patients participants was 36.91 years (SD = 6.76). Over seems to play a crucial role in the emergence three quarters of participants were married, the and intensification of professional burnout remainder being unmarried (18.9%), divorced among nurses. Other variables found to have (3.8%) or having other relational statuses. consistent relationships with the intensity of Almost a third of respondents (32.1%) had no specific burnout manifestations among nurses children in care, while 37.7% had one child, were: the amount of time spent with patients 27.4% - two children, and the remaining - 3 and working with patients with poor survival children. prognosis [4], frequent exposure to pain Participants were recruited through experience and patient death [6], age [1, 5] – convenience sampling of the medical staff at this factor shows the most consistent two public hospitals. Nurses completed the relationship with burnout [cf. 7] or emotional protocol with questionnaires at work or at intelligence [2, 11, 13]. home, after giving a verbal agreement to participate in the study. Responses were 2. THE PRESENT STUDY anonymous to encourage honesty. 2.3 Measures. For data collection nurses 2.1 Aim. Starting from the operational completed three standardized questionnaires. definition proposed by Maslach and Jackson The first questionnaire covered a range of [see 9] and empirical evidence reported in the demographic and occupational characteristics. literature, this study aimed to deal with issues The second questionnaire [MBI; see 9] related to: a) perception of the intensity of operationalized the dimensions of burnout. In burnout manifestations among nurses working this study we used a translated and adapted in various public hospital unit or clinics; b) version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory- some variables that are related to burnout General Survey (MBI-GS). Nurses were asked among nurses. The current study was both to respond to a pool of 20 items scored on a comparative and correlational. seven-point Likert-type scale as follows: 1 – very little intense; 2 – little intense, 3 – quite

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little intense, 4 – moderately intense, 5 – quite highest score = 6.57); d) a moderate to high intense, 6 – intense and 7 – very intense. For level of emotional intelligence (M = 125.33; each dimension, a total score was computed as SD = 10.55; lowest score = 90; highest score = the average scores of the corresponding items. 150). The distributions of scores on burnout High (between 5 and 6.50) or very high dimensions and emotional intelligence were (between 6.51 and 7) scores were interpreted quasi-normal, because: a) the absolute values as increased subjective feeling of emotional of skewness (asymmetry) ranged from 0.27 to exhaustion, depersonalization, and sense of 0.57 (they were not significantly deviated from professional failure. Investigations conducted the zero value which is specific to a normal by Maslach and Jackson [9] showed a good distribution); b) absolute values of kurtosis reliability (internal consistency and test-retest were between 0.21 and 0.75; c) values for the correlation), concurrent, discriminant, and Kolmogorov-Smirnov (z) test used to estimate criterion-related validity of MBI [see also 8]. the normality of distributions were not For the sample of nurses who participated in statistically significant (range of z: 0.74-1.50; this study, the internal consistencies (estimated range of associated statistical significance with Cronbach’s alpha coefficient) were: 0.83 thresholds: 0.052-0.633). (emotional exhaustion), 0.78 (sense of Gender-based comparisons of the study professional failure), and 0.62 participants were not performed due to the (depersonalization). small number of males and significant Emotional intelligence self-assessment was discrepancy between male and female performed by using the Self-Reported subsample sizes. However, starting from the Emotional Intelligence Test/SREIT [15]. This premise that, among nurses, to the high-level measure is based on the conceptual model job duties and strain the family responsibilities proposed by J. D. Mayer and P. Salovey [see are added, resulting in an increased 10] and includes 33 items scaled on a five- vulnerability to stress symptoms, we compared point Likert-type scale: 1 – strongly disagree, the scores on burnout dimensions according to 2 – disagree, 3 – neutral (neither disagree nor marital status and number of children. None of agree), 4 – agree and 5 – strongly agree. For the demographic characteristics had a each participant, a total score was computed significant effect on burnout scores. Thus, (by summing the scores for the 33 items) married nurses (N = 80) had slightly lower which indicated the level of emotional mean scores on emotional exhaustion (M = intelligence (possible range: 33-165). A high 3.49, SD = 1.20) and depersonalization (M = score was interpreted as a high level of 2.20, SD = 1.13), and a higher mean score on emotional intelligence. In this study, α = 0.77. the sense of professional failure (M = 3.22, SD 2.4 Results and discussion. Considering = 1.22) compared to unmarried nurses (N = the possible range for score variation on the 20) – M = 3.90 and SD = 1.01 on emotional questionnaires administered to nurses, we exhaustion, M = 2.42 and SD = 1.20 on obtained: a) a moderate level of emotional depersonalization, M = 2.87 and SD = 0.94 on exhaustion (M = 3.56, SD = 1.14; lowest score sense of professional failure. However, = 1; highest score = 6.33); b) a low sense of differences between means were not depersonalization (M = 2.29, SD = 1.14; statistically significant: t = - 1.37 and p = lowest score = 0.75; highest score = 5.25); c) a 0.172 on emotional exhaustion; t = - 0.78 and moderate to low sense of professional failure p = 0.435 on depersonalization; t = 1.20 and p (M = 3.14, SD = 1.16; lowest score = 1; = 0.231 on sense of professional failure.

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Moreover, the values of one-way ANOVA F- For whole sample of nurses, the test were not statistically significant (the correlations among scores on burnout independent variable was the number of dimensions and age and length of service were children: N = 34 – no children, N = 40 – one not statistically significant: r = - 0.02 and p = child, and N = 32 – two or three children): F = 0.815 (age), r = 0.02 and p = 0.836 (total 0.23 and p = 0.792 on emotional exhaustion, F length of service as a nurse), r = 0.01 and p = = 2.57 and p = 0.081 on depersonalization, and 0.875 (length of service in the current job) – F = 0.90 and p = 0.408 on the sense of emotional exhaustion; r = 0.05 and p = 0.558 professional failure. (age), r = 0.003 and p = 0.997 (total length of However, the scores on emotional service as a nurse), r = - 0.03 and p = 0.688 exhaustion and depersonalization were (length of service in the current job) – significantly related to the hospital nurses depersonalization; r = 0.01 and p = 0.922 worked in. Thus, compared with nurses (age), r = 0.08 and p = 0.387 (total length of working in Suceava County Hospital, those service as a nurse), r = 0.07 and p = 0.432 who were employed at the “I. M. Georgescu” (length of service in the current job) – sense of ICVD had significantly higher mean scores on professional failure. these two burnout dimensions: t = 5.03 and p < Of three burnout dimensions, only the 0.001 on emotional exhaustion, t = 3.26 and p sense of professional failure showed a < 0.01 on depersonalization. Nurses working significant correlation (negative, as expected) in ICVD also had a slightly higher mean score with emotional intelligence score (r = - 0.35; p on sense of professional failure, but the < 0.001). For the other two dimensions of difference was not statistically significant (t = burnout, the statistical significance of 0.69; p = 0.489). In addition of general nursing correlation with emotional intelligence was care, nurses working in cardiovascular surgery marginal. Data of a bivariate linear regression and medical treatment units of ICVD (a analysis (which included the constant in the renowned health care facility that serves a equation) revealed a statistically significant large number of patients in the Moldavia model (R = 0.35; F = 14.96; p < 0.001). region) also perform other specific activities Emotional intelligence was a significant depending on the nature and level of demands predictor of the sense of professional failure [13]. Thus, the staff working with score (b = - 0.03; SE = 0.01; β = - 0.35; p < cardiovascular patients provides preoperative 0.001) accounting for 12.6% of variance in nursing care to patients undergoing cardiac this burnout dimension. Data were convergent surgery. Specific to these patients is the risk with those reported by T. Brand [2] who, in a (often potentially fatal) of cardiovascular large sample of nurses, found consistent disease symptoms, requiring permanent correlations between the sense of professional vigilance from medical staff and a high level failure and three dimensions of emotional of professional responsibility. The nurses are intelligence: recognition and expression of employed at the “I. M. Georgescu” ICVD have emotions, understanding emotions, and to perform a large volume of medical managing emotions. In the research conducted procedures according to strict clinical by Brand the scores on the dimensions of protocols, requiring quick reaction, good emotional intelligence explained together professional knowledge and an implicit 18.1% of the variance in the sense of assumption of the consequences of their professional failure. actions. On the other hand, the clinical The result we obtained in this study can be sensitivity of cardiovascular patients who are explained by the importance of emotional to receive a very strict protocol before surgery intelligence in the adjustment to the emotional may be an additional source of pressure and demands that are specific to nursing work. stress. The peculiarities of nursing-related Thus, many nurses perceive their own work as activities carried out in “I. M. Georgescu” invisible to others, undervalued and very ICVD may partially explain the results we complex [11]. Often, nurses believe they obtained. successfully overcome the negative emotional

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states, but they feel emotionally exhausted. an integrative manner. Thus, the perception Some empirical evidence suggests that nurses and identification of emotions require the with high levels of emotional intelligence emotional information processing, while the more easily adapt to specific occupational emotional facet implies the use of emotions to stress. Emotional intelligence allows nurses to improve cognitive processes. The fourth facet prevent the specific manifestations of burnout implies the self-regulation of emotions and other negative ideations [11]. Le Blanc et according to the specific tasks which the al. [6] showed that oncology nurses with a low individual has to solve or life situations he/she level of emotional intelligence are more likely goes through. By its integrative nature, to experience burnout when faced with job- emotional intelligence contributes to cognitive related emotional demands and do not have and emotional adjustment as well as to adequate coping resources. Therefore, nurses personal development. In nurses experiencing need specialized training to develop skills for high levels of cognitive, social and emotional managing their own emotions and to improve strains, emotional intelligence can be of the ability to help patients to cope with their important instrumental value. own negative emotions. REFERENCES 3. CONCLUSIONS 1. Alimoglu, M. K., Donmez, L. Daylight One of the most important result of our exposure and the other predictors of study is the negative relationship between the burnout among nurses in a University sense of professional failure and emotional Hospital. International Journal of intelligence. According to Mayer and Salovey, Nursing Studies, 42, 549-555 (2005). emotional intelligence is an individual ability 2. Brand, T. An Exploration of the that involves both cognitive as well as Relationship between Burnout, emotional domains [10]. Emotional Occupational Stress and Emotional intelligence is composed of four abilities that Intelligence in the Nursing Industry. are dynamically interconnected in the daily Unpublished Master Dissertation, human functioning: a) the ability to perceive University of Stellenbosh (2007) [online]. and identify emotions in oneself and others; Available: http://www.etd.sun.ac.za the ability to express emotions in different (March, 2015). interpersonal contexts; b) integration of 3. Faragher, E. B., Cass, M., Cooper, C. L. emotions into the cognitive system and of their The relationship between job satisfaction influences on knowledge that an individual has and health: A meta-analysis. already gained through experience; c) the Occupational Environmental Medicine, ability to understand the significance of 62, 105-112 (2005). emotions, the relationships among various 4. Garrosa, E., Moreno-Jiménez, B., Liang, emotions, and their implications in personal Y., Gonzalez, J. L. The relationship and interpersonal functioning, and d) the between socio-demographic variables, job ability to manage the emotions in different stressors, burnout, and hardy personality interaction situations, in solving various life- in nurses: An exploratory study. related problems or in coping with stressful International Journal of Nursing Studies, demands. Mayer and Salovey suggest that the 45, 329-486 (2008). four facets of emotional intelligence operate in

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5. Koivula, M., Paunonen, M., Laippala, P. 11. Nel, J. A. Job Characteristics, Emotional Burnout among nursing staff in two Intelligence and Wellness in a Nursing Finnish hospitals. Journal of Nursing Environment. Unpublished Dissertation Management, 8, 149-158 (2000). for the Degree Magister Commerce in 6. Le Blanc, P. M., Bakker, A. B., Peeters, Industrial Psychology, North-West M. C. W., van Heesch, N. C. A., University (2005) [online]. Available: Schaufeli, W. B. Emotional job demands http://www.dspace.nwu.ac.za (April, and burnout among oncology care 2015). providers. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 14, 12. Pezet-Langevin, V. Qu’est-ce que le 243-263 (2001). burnout ? Comment les entreprises 7. Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., Leiter, M. peuvent-elles y remédier ? În Cl. Lévy- P. Job Burnout. Annual Review of Laboyer, M. Huteau, CL. Loche, J.-P. Psychology, 52, 397-422 (2001). Rolland (sous la direction de), RH. Les 8. Maslach, C., Jackson, S. E., Leiter, M. P. apports de la psychologie du travail (pp. Maslach Burnout Inventory. In C. P. 435-451), Paris: Editions d’Oganisation Zalaquett, R. J. Wood (Eds.), Evaluating (2001). Stress: A Book of Resources (pp. 191- 13. Robu, V. Epuizarea profesională în rândul 218), London: The Scarecrow Press, Inc. asistenţilor medicali din clinicile de (1997) cardiologie [Professional burnout among 9. Maslach, C., Jackson, S. E. The nurses working in cardiology clinics]. measurement of experienced burnout. Anuarul Universităţii “Petre Andrei” din Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 2, 99- Iaşi – Serie Nouă [Yearbook of “Petre 113 (1981). Andrei” University of Iasi – New Series], 10. Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., Caruso, D. R. IV, 728-759 (2009) (original in Inteligenţa emoţională ca Zeitgeist, Romanian). personalitate şi aptitudine mentală 14. Schaufeli, W. B., Buunk, B. P. Burnout: [Emotional intelligence as Zeitgeist, as An overwiew of 25 years of research and personality, and as a mental ability]. In R. theorizing. In M. J. Schabracq, J. A. M. Bar-On, J. D. A. Parker (Coordonatori), Winnubst, C. L. Cooper (Eds.), The Manual de inteligenţă emoţională. Teorie, Handbook of Work and Health dezvoltare, evaluare şi aplicaţii în viaţa Psychology (2nd ed., pp. 383-425), West de familie, la şcoală şi la locul de muncă Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. (2003). [Handbook of Emotional Intelligence: 15. Schutte, N. S., Malouff, J. M., Hall, L. E., Theory, Development, Assessment, and Haggerty, D. J., Cooper, J. T., Golden, C. Application at Home, School, and in the J., Dornheim, L. Development and Workplace] (pp. 101-123), Bucureşti: validation of a measure of emotional Editura Curtea Veche (2011) (translated intelligence. Personality and Individual from English). Differences, 25, 167-177 (1998).

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FIGHTING SCHOOL FAILURE IN MATHEMATICS

Monica A.P. Purcaru*, Gabriela Câmpean*

*Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science, Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania

Abstract: In the present work, we present examples of several methods to fight school failure in mathematics. In the first paragraph, we define the notion of school failure. In the second paragraph, we deal with the fight against school failure using differentiation and individualization with the help of group interactive methods: Cube, R.A.I., Jigsaw, Brainstorming, Quadrant, Reciprocal learning and teaching. The associated working tools are presented and exemplified with differentiated and individualized teaching activity. In the last paragraph, we analyze and illustrate the role of the ameliorative methods in the fight against school failure in mathematics. Other ways of reducing school failure are being listed and exemplified: interdisciplinary, teaching math games, the use of appropriate teaching materials and e- learning tools.

Keywords: e-learning tools, learning difficulties, mathematics, student assessment, teaching methods. MSC2010: 97C60, 97C70, 97D40, 97D70.

1. THE SCHOOL FAILURE IN School failure is a negative alternative, an MATHEMATICS un-favorability of school performance [1]. Knowing the individuality of students is an The Romanian society develops itself important factor in the prevention, discovery primarily through the educational system. In and fight against school failure. the educational process, its efficiency is of major interest, i.e. school success or failure. It 2. FIGHTING SCHOOL FAILURE IN is therefore important to prevent school MATHEMATICS USING failure. School failure at mathematics occurs at DIFFERENTIATION AND classes and even at some educational levels. It INDIVIDUALIZATION can lead to a series of future failures in the student's life, while passing through the A cause of school failure in mathematics is educational steps successfully will help the occurrence of learning difficulties at this stimulating and giving him self-confidence. subject. One way to reduce or even eliminate School failure indicates backwardness in these learning difficulties is the differentiation school, un-fulfillment of the mandatory and individualization of work, creating requirements of the educational process, it working groups or teamwork. reflects the discrepancy between the Differentiated work with students during requirements, possibilities and results [3]. math lessons, in groups or teams, can be done using some interactive group methods.

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1. If AB=5cm, AC=6cm, BC=4 cm, Examples: then the perimeter of the ABC triangle At the CUBE method, the sides Apply and is...... cm Describe will contain items of low difficulty, 2. If a field is a square with a side the sides Compare and Associate will contain length of 25 m, then the land area is: items of medium difficulty and the sides a) 625m2 b) 100m2 c) Analyze and Argue will contain items of 50m2 d) 62,5m2 increasing difficulty. Sheet no.2 (Complex computational At the R.A.I method, the difficulty of the problems) stated question will be directly proportional to 1. A section of the roof in the shape of a the mathematical knowledge of the student trapezoid with bases of 12 m and 6 m and with who is being asked. a height of 4.5 m is covered with tile. The expert sheet of the JIGSAW method a) Calculate the surface area of the roof will contain two subthemes having items of section; reduced difficulty, other two subthemes with b) If for 1 m2 of roof are needed 8 tiles, items of medium difficulty and the last two how many tiles are needed to cover the roof subthemes having items of high difficulty. section? Using the BRAINSTORMING method, the 2. In a triangle with a perimeter of 90 cm, spontaneity of the given answers will stimulate with sides directly proportional to the the creativity of all the students from the numbers 3, 5, 6, calculate the triangle side classroom. lengths. At the QUADRANT method, the Sheet no.3 (The problems of computing worksheets distributed among the groups of which require creativity) students will be designed differently. 1.The non-parallel sides AB and CD of the At the RECIPROCAL TEACHING AND trapezoid ABCD intersect in point P. LEARNING method, in each group of four: Knowing that AB=8, AD=12, DC=15, the Questioner will ask clarifying questions for BC=9, calculate the lengths of PA, PB, PC, himself, the Summarizer will make a brief PD. summary of the theory read, which will refer 2. In triangle MNP, MN=10, NP=12, PM=8. to the previous questions, the Clarifier will be Calculate the lengths of the segments required to have an overview and try to answer determined by the inner bisectors of the these questions, while the Predictor will opposite sides. imagine a generalization, or the subsequent Examples of group-level worksheets course of the theory studied. (recovery sheet A, development sheet B) - Differentiated teaching activity during the eleventh grade mathematics class can be organized using the Topic of the lesson: Applications of following appropriate tools: individual determinants in analytic geometry worksheets with progressive levels of A difficulty: recovery - for students who have 1) Write the equation of the line AB as a difficulties in accumulating knowledge, determinant and as a general Cartesian form if development - for students with a level higher a) A(1,3); B( - 2,5); b) A(2, -3); B( - 1,5); c) than average. Also, the homework has to be A( 2,0); B( 0, 3). differentiated, in order to encourage all the 2) Specify which of the points A, B, C are students. collinear, where: a) A( - 2,5), B(2,3), C( -1,4); Example of differentiated treatment b) A ( 1,1), B(3,3), C(5,5); c) A( - 3,2), B(1,2), Sheets of exercises with increasing difficulties, C(8,2). seventh grade –„ Rectangles” 3) Calculate the area of the ABC triangle The first sheet includes easier problems, the where: a) A(2,1), B(1,5), C( -2,4); b) A(1,1), second consists of medium level problems and the B( 2,2),C(3,4); c) A (3, 2), B (6, 4), C (9, 10). third contains more difficult ones. The teacher 4) Specify which of the points: A( - 3, - 3), B( guides and helps more the students with fewer 3,6), C( - 2,1), belong to the line: 3x -2y + 3 = opportunities in solving the problems. Sheet no.1 (Simple problems of calculation) 0.

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Examples of misconceptions in B mathematics: 1) Calculate the area of the quadrilateral, with Primary school edges: A(1,2), B( - 3,4), C( - 1, - 2), D( 3,2). - there are confusions between the triangle 2) Demonstrate that ABCD, where: A( 0,7), B( and rectangle or between the inside and 6,5), C( 5,2), D( - 1, 4), is a rectangle and then outside of a geometrical figure; calculate its area. - during the transition from oral calculation 3) Consider ABC triangle, with: A (2, 3), B (4, (in which the numbers to be added up or - 1), C (5, 2) and D (1, 2). Demonstrate that subtracted are written in line) to written the projections of D on the sides of the ABC calculation, the students do not correctly triangle are three collinear points. arrange the terms/factors in order to perform 4) Consider ABC triangle, with edges: A( - 1, - that operation; 2), B( 2, 3), C( -1, 4). Determine the M point - students make mistakes at the algorithm inside the triangle, for which: SAMB = SBMC = of calculation of the unknown term; SAMC . - students make mistakes at the composing Also in order to fight school failure in and decomposing of natural numbers, in the mathematics, individualized activities are very recognition of tens digit and the units digit; useful and must be carried out with students - students do not know the neighbors of who have a low level of intellectual even and odd numbers; development, in order to help them acquire the - students do not command the correct minimum knowledge required under the ordering of numbers from least to greatest; program. This type of activity involves - frequent errors occur at the exercises of adjusting the volume of information and addition and subtraction with crossing tens teaching methods to the capabilities of each barrier; student. - the months of seasons or the own date of birth are not known etc. 3. FIGHTING SCHOOL FAILURE IN - there are difficulties in associating the MATHEMATICS THROUGH terminology higher, lower, with the AMELIORATIVE MEASURES corresponding operation; - the data of the problem is not being Of particular importance in the fight against consciously read or analyzed and therefore it is school failure in mathematics is the taking of not correctly solved; ameliorative measures by the teacher, mainly - the assignment of the exercise is not aimed at the correction of essential mistakes carefully read and therefore its requirement is for each student, as well as of those typical for being confused; the whole class. It is recommended to analyze - mistakes occur in identifying the first the mistakes and their ways of reparation in factor of multiplication and in writing the the classroom. It can be suggested to the products; students to carry out exercises containing - the expression: “with....more” is confused typical misconceptions which must be with ,,by... times higher” identified. - mistakes occur in identifying the factors when the product is known;

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- difficulties arise at transposing the date, there is usually an interval of 6-7 weeks. problem’s statement into exercise; The remediation of the situation described can - the association between the name and be achieved in several ways, but a maximum operation (product, addition, subtraction, ratio) efficiency is given by an intensive additional is not correctly made; training program, held at the school outside the - due to inattentive reading of the class hours. The basic elements of this statement, there are common mistakes at dual - program are: choice items; 1. organizing daily additional training sessions - difficulties arise at using the signs <, >, = (one hour maximum) on the fundamental in simple inequalities; topics of algebra and geometry for students - mistakes occur in enunciating a problem who obtained low test grades; according to a literal formula. 2. each topic of training is accompanied by a Secondary school short test with 2-3 exercises from the area - mistakes occur in divisibility problems; related to the topic being addressed; - mistakes occur in exercises with directly 3. each topic must contain a small amount of and inversely proportional measures; theory and many examples; it is preferable that - difficulties occur at the triangle and circle the topics which are currently given one or two geometries; hours in the class schedule to be divided into - mistakes occur in applying the short smaller sub-themes at the preparatory calculation formulas; meetings. - there is not a good command of the 4. the preparation of low-achieving students in rationalization of a fraction; mathematics should be done with small steps, - there are difficulties in applying the and the suggested exercises must be addressed theorem of the three perpendiculars. in turn at the blackboard by all the students of High school education the training group; - mistakes occur in exercises with radicals 5. at the end of the week, a summative of a degree greater than two; assessment is applied, consisting of the topics - mistakes occur in operations with vectors; tackled in the current week; - difficulties arise at the demonstration P 6. at the end of the month, a two-hour test can (k) => P (k+1) for the mathematical induction; be applied, consisting of the topics covered in - mistakes occur in calculating the the current month, but, after the completion of derivatives of composite functions; the intensive training, a final test is -there is not a good command of the mandatorily applied; application of the Darboux’s theorem; 7. all the applied tests are afterwards being - difficulties arise at problems with punctually discussed with the students; all the recurrent sequences; problems are being solved on the blackboard - the limits in which the “plier’s” theorem by involving those students for whom the is being used are not recognised; solving of those problems was proved difficult - mistakes occur in the calculation of or impossible. primitives which use variable change methods; Option no.2- to remedy the observed situation - mistakes occur in the demonstration of 1 Investigation through carrying out some inequalities using the properties of discussions with students and/or their parents sequences. in order to identify their opinion of the poor Examples of ameliorative methods in results obtained. mathematics: 2. Questionnaires that will include short and 1. At the simulation exam from the eighth clear questions related to the outcome. As all grade, half of the pupils pertaining to a class students will answer the same questions, an achieved grades below 5. Possible methods to objective image of the causes which led to the repair this situation are indicated below: poor results can be created; Option no.1- to remedy the observed situation 3. Systematic observation of student behavior Summative evaluation is usually applied at the through notation and processing of this data; end of April. Until the national assessment

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4 Self-assessment tests, in order to evaluate - The class is divided into two groups, the their own level of training. group who has assimilated the representation 5. The teacher carries out a remediation plan of the function (group I) and the group who by identifying common weaknesses in the has to be assisted in order to represent the preparation of students (worksheet with the function (group II). eventual mistakes; presenting exercises with - The basic notions related to the first degree wrong "solution" and obviously false function are being repeated: domain, co- conclusion and identifying the mistake along domain, representation of a point in the with the students; recapitulation and fathoming Cartesian system xOy. of notions for the categories of problems and - The students from group I are asked to give exercises where mistakes have been observed; examples of direct proportionality: distance students need to practice solving different made-duration, amount-total price etc. types of tests with various types of items); -Students are divided into sub-groups of 3-4 6. The teacher discusses with the students all persons Ia, Ib,...., respectively IIa , IIb, ... each their uncertainties and clarifies what they did subgroup Ia is associated to a subgroup IIa. not understand. Those in the first "value" group will have to 7. The application of modern methods of compose simple exercises for those in group teaching and learning such as computer II: axis representation of positive and negative training. Being a very attractive tool, it can numbers, calculating f(x) for different values help students both at increasing their interest of x, representing the pairs of values (x, f(x)) in mathematics and at enhancing their in Cartesian system. understanding of its contents. Computer -Students in subgroups II have a plenary assisted learning can contribute to the presentation of solving one of the exercises development of reasoning, imagination and suggested by group I. creativity, as well as the ability of self- - The level of difficulty increases if there is assessment. progress: it moves on to graphical 8. Evaluation by computer. Unlike traditional representations of functions, the fields of evaluation methods, computer-aided definition modify or diversify, values of assessment is objective. functions are being calculated using graphical 9. The use of evaluation sheets. These will methods. include various exercises and problems to be Interdisciplinary work has also triggered solved by students during the lesson. The good results in the fight against school failure evaluation sheet is useful also for the teacher in mathematics, as well as using mathematical to obtain feedback, upon which he can make teaching games, since they can be used suggestions and addenda. differentially. 2. The organization mode of the class is Example: (fifth grade) 4 groups are being explained and the designed tasks are established: geographers, historians, literates, exemplified for a teaching sequence which is biologists. Each group receives one sheet with aimed at differential treatment, knowing that workloads, as follows: approximately half of the eighth graders being Group 1: Geographers evaluated do not master the plotting of a first Alin and Mihai make a trip by following the degree function: route Brasov - Bucharest- Constanta. Alin

297 SOCIO-HUMANITIES travels by train and Mihai travels by coach. increase in students „sympathy” towards this Using the table of distances, calculate: subject, and also to the efficient lesson a) How many kilometers did Alin make by achievements, this way obtaining progress in train; mathematics for students with learning b) How many kilometers did Mihai make by difficulties. coach; Thereby, using the e-learning AeL c) Draw the route map of the two boys. Educational platform as a support for teaching Group 2: Historians and learning, for testing and assessment, or Stefan the Great ruled Moldavia between other interactive blackboards, educational 1457-1504, while Mircea the Elder ruled softs, didactic games, assisted by computers, Walachia between 1386 -1418. tutorials, as complementary tools instead of a) For how many years did each of them rule? using alternative classics methods for teaching b) With how many years more than Mircea the will stimulate the interest, the self-confidence Elder did Stefan the Great rule? and the creativity of students in mathematics. c) Post on the map the photos of the two rulers All of this will lead to the removal of in their region of reign. backwardness, minimizing the typical Group 3: Literates mistakes, even obtaining progress at this Using the table, calculate: subject. a) In what year was Mihai Eminescu born? b) In what year was Ion Creangă born? 5. CONCLUSIONS c) If Mihai Eminescu and Ion Creangă died in the same year, by using the data previously By differentiation and individualization, the discovered, for how many years did each live? quality of learning at the mathematics classes Group 4: Biologists is rising. The multitude and variety of the By calculating the additions and subtractions, sheets which the students are independently you'll find out: resolving is educating their attention, their a) How many insects can a frog swallow in 24 capacity of memorizing, this creative hours; 458 028 – 457 728 = imagination and their thinking flexibility. By b) How much does the largest frog in the intensifying individual and differentiate work, world weigh; 865 738 -165 734= weak students obtain satisfaction in tasks c) The frog reproduces by laying eggs. Find accomplishment, gaining confidence in their out how many eggs can a frog release. own strength, and the good ones manifest a -6 748 = 5 474 desire in working additional exercises and Also, the systematic use of associated increasingly harder problems. teaching materials will lead to the Interactive methods enhance the attention improvement of outcomes related to and the interest of students, these ones mathematics. becoming from spectators, actors. The Hence, the use of educational software, involvement of the students in resolving group interactive tables and e-learning platforms tasks is improving communication and train also the low-achieving students in determines development in the group cohesion mathematics, and the handling of teaching grade. materials helps them understand the concepts Not all the methods are applicable, but the faster. professor needs to learn to adapt and to perfect his theoretical methods depending on the 4. E-LEARNING TOOLS AND THE scholar necessities, therefore the creativity of SCHOOL FAILURE IN MATHEMATICS the professor is needed in the lessons success. All the methods presented in this paper, Using an e-learning platform for the used separately or altogether, lead to the teaching-learning-testing process has become a progress of students who have difficulties in modern didactic means nowadays. learning mathematics, as they managed to If in the mathematics class the professor is meet the performance standards specified in using e-learning tools, this will lead to a the curriculum and also to gain self-

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confidence. The joy of success will increase 2. Partenie, A. Să ajutăm corect copiii their motivation for learning and effort toward care întâmpină dificultăţi în învăţarea self-improvement, as well as increase their matematicii, Editura Eurobit, independence in solving the problems, rhythm Timişoara, 2005. of work and pleasure to solve additional 3. Popescu, V., V., Succesul şi insuccesul exercises and problems. şcolar – precizări terminologice, forme de manifestare, cauze, Revista de REFERENCES pedagogie, nr.12, 1991.

1. Bontaş, I., Pedagogie, Editura ALL, Bucureşti, 1994, 1998, 2001.

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ETHICS ON THE HORIZON. TOWARDS A COMPLEX ASSUMPTION OF A SECURITY CULTURE

Ştefan Răzvan George*

*“Mihai Viteazul” National Intelligence Academy, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: Military professionals face complex moral and ethical problems: not the garden-variety questions about whether one may lie, cheat, or steal, but rather sophisticated problems arising from conflicting legal and moral duties-and with a focus on important national security interests. In that sense, there could be great utility in codes of ethics that assist practitioners in addressing unique problems. The codes must not be an umbrella, a protection for the hierarchy and politicians. The codes must be a guide and a help. The soldier must be supported by his nation and must receive extensive education and training on military ethics.

Keywords: military ethics, code of ethics, ethics dilemmas, statement of core values

1. INTRODUCTION 2. THE IMPORTANCE OF MILITARY ETHICS CODES Armed forces will not be respected by their own populations, media and public opinion, if What is required of soldiers is however their behavior is not proper. considerable. It is one among many reasons In sum, military ethics is at its core why the war should remain the last resort, practical and professional. It is meant to be the because it places the combatants in handmaid of the profession of arms. It exists to tremendous dilemmas and difficulties. The assist thoughtful professionals to think through codes must not be an umbrella, a protection for their real-world problems and issues. As in any the hierarchy and politicians. The codes must other field of applied professional ethics, only be a guide and a help. The soldier must be those who have taken the time to understand supported by his nation and must receive the sphere of professional activity belonging to extensive education and training on military the profession are really in a position to be of ethics. much assistance. That requires learning the Here are the meaningful conclusions of the profession’s vocabulary. It necessitates a deep editors on a very important journal in ethics understanding of the constraints under which domain, Martin L. Cook and Henrik Syse, the profession carries out its duties. It even editors of Journal of Military Ethics. After requires an understanding of the internal years of managing scientific contributions structure and dynamics of the military about military ethics, in a preview presentation profession, for example, the role of rank, of their journal issue, they conclude that „it promotion, division of military specialties, etc. might be helpful to explicitly articulate our

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core understanding of what military ethics is followings duties of a good soldier: fulfillment and ought to be”[1]: of the mission; spirited research of victory Firstly and most importantly, military and/or refusal of the defeat; service of the ethics is a species of the genus “professional Nation, Fatherland, State, People, Party; ethics”. That is to say, it exists to be of service physical bravery and moral courage, up to the to professionals who are not themselves sacrifice of one’s own life; sense of honor; specialists in ethics but who have to carry out discipline and respect for hierarchy; the tasks entrusted to the profession as comradeship and contribution to unit cohesion; honorably and correctly as possible. professionalism and exemplary behavior; Secondly, critical assessment is a neutrality, restraint; respect for traditions; fundamental component of military ethics, honesty, unselfishness and frankness; understood as professional ethics. Most true discretion, no disclosure of secret information; professions have a body of law, giving both an ethical (moral) behavior. permissions and restraints to the profession In all studied cases, the soldier has to distinct from those of ordinary citizens. So fulfill his mission, serving his fatherland, State explorations of the limits of current legal or Nation, putting his life at risk. It is not the guidance, and proposals for modification of soldier's aim to kill an adversary, on law to be relevant to changing patterns of delegation of his State, but it is sometimes the military practice, make a practical contribution result of his actions, when he uses lethal force, to the body of professional military ethics. in the last resort, in fulfilling the mission. Thirdly, historical contributions that It is evident that these documents must not present the contributions to critical thinking be only statements of good intentions. Their about war and the military profession are an content has to be taught, known, checked, essential piece of a comprehensive applied, and the faults must be punished. The understanding of professional military ethics. situations are thus very different, regarding the Fourthly, we have the contribution of presentations and the contents, depending on religion to professional ethics. This is a the countries and their various histories, complex field. Certainly for many individuals, cultures, traditions, legal backgrounds. the connection between their religious Most of the codes ask in fact the soldier, convictions and their professional activity may who is now in most countries a professional, to be deep and integral. However, confessional be firstly a good human being and citizen, specific beliefs cannot serve as the basis of a applying values such as patriotism, general professional ethic in a pluralistic professionalism, honesty, integrity, solidarity. society. In an integrated approach of a possible Lastly, in a profession which requires future unique European army, it has been courage and spirit, non-rational appeals that questioning this new role that European motivate have a role in encouraging those very citizenship empowers the multiethnic troops. attitudes and behaviors. So, here are proposals made by student cadets The follow lines brings us a challenging of French Military Academy (Ecole perspective of analyze the roots of conduct Coëtquidan), Saint-Cyr [4]: codes in military domain around the world. Art. 1: True to his country and defender of The study started in 2011 in the framework of the European Identity, the soldier serves with a partnership between the French association loyalty and honor respecting cultural Civisme Défense Armée Nation (CiDAN), and differences and the desire to keep national the foundation Charles Léopold Mayer for the independences. Progress of Mankind, and came to some Art. 2: Attached to the history and culture interesting conclusions, common creeds and of the continent, the European soldier lives in behaviors, but some local specificity also [2]. accordance with the European democratic The author says that all documents have values and traditions which he commits for. studied around the world [3] identifies many Art. 3: Professional Soldier, able to take common points, generally stressing the initiatives, he must maintain his physical and

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intellectual capacity to adapt to any needs to be part of the overall organization circumstance. behavior. Art. 4: Trusting in discipline and integrity, 2. For ethics education and training to be he obeys orders, respects laws, customs of war effective in the military, valuing the ancestors and international conventions. and traditions despite the contemporary trend Art. 5: With dignity, the European soldier towards relativism and fragmentation at the lives in the respect of the military and political level of national symbols should be a focus in hierarchy; he shall safeguard national interests the military. and security of the people and of Europe. 3. Given the two-fold role of cadets and Art. 6: Member of a group of fraternal employees of the Ministry of Defense (i.e. solidarity and struggle, and proud of his both a military representative and a citizen), commitment, he acts with dedication, humor ethics must underpin educational endeavors. In and candor; and work on cohesion, esprit de addition, difficult as its outcomes may be to corps and the dynamism of its unity. assess, ethics education and training should be Art. 7: Aware that he may be required to approached in an integrated manner. Thus, the take the life of his opponents, he seeks to values, competencies necessary to uphold fulfill his mission to the end, sometimes at the them should be carefully formulated and risk of his own life and that of his comrades, planned for every career step a military takes superiors and subordinates , with the will to in terms of education and training. Last but not win or defeat. the least, one should not forget that education Art.8: The victory and future peace as his in general and ethics education in particular is objectives in the long term, the European about developing formal competences. soldier controls his strength and respects 4. Ethics education and training must take opponent or enemy without ideological into account the cultural and national features. discrimination. At the moment, most of the case studies Art.9: He protects the poorest, and strives presented in ethics classes are developed based to promote justice and dignity by his example on the characteristics of cultures different from and his modesty; he does his best to offer a the Romanian one. noble image of the armed forces and his unit. 5. The goal of introducing ethics in an Art.10: Fully-fledged citizen, the European integrated manner into the curricula of the soldier is a key player in the society to which higher education defense institutions in he fully belongs and in which he must act for Romania is to enable undergraduates, the common good. graduates and postgraduates to make informed, educated decisions in order to reduce the risk 3. MILITARY ETHICS IN EDUCATION of misdeeds and faulty steps. Thus, by involving those attending career courses and The experience in military education of who, most likely, will fill in high ranking some researchers is welcome to underlined for positions in the Ministry of Defense several the case of ethics issue. In their opinion, to goals can be achieved: inculcating/instilling teach military ethics is to ensure the into the mind of future decision makers the existence/to strive for meeting (some) of the arguments in favor of approaching ethics following prerequisites [5]: education and training in an integrated 1. The military becomes a second family manner; using their knowledge in a relevant of the cadets. That means teaching ethics manner in order to bridge the gap between the

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‘old guard’ and the ‘new guard’, elaborating its-kind conference, "Intelligence materials related to ethical issues that can be Professionalism: Ethical Basics, Codes of used as future reference for educational and Ethics and the Way Ahead." The goal of this training purposes. first conference was to discuss the importance Another study is inspired from the of instituting ethical codes to assist Romanians combat experience, with soldiers intelligence professionals as they encounter and commanders who acquired different morally ambiguous situations. competencies along years of communication In a way this conference, together with with the field [6]. other affiliation think-tanks and intelligence The observations and lessons learned from community gave birth to the very new the theatres of operations are a good indicator National Intelligence Strategy of USA, for those in charge with designing, delivering lunched in autumn of 2014. and evaluating military education and training For the first time in the largest democracy courses/programs that new behavioral of the world, as a result of events uncontrolled standards are imposed by environment and, leakage of classified information there’s the hence, wise innovative and knowledgeable question of deep evaluation to a set of techniques need to be swiftly put in place. In professional ethics values which should be this respect, as with any effort towards undertaken by intelligence operators. adaptation, we believe that one of the untapped These principles are stated below, and ingredients of success is meta-knowledge and, reflect the standard of ethical conduct expected given the area of our research and interest, of all Intelligence Community personnel, military ethical meta-knowledge. However, for regardless of individual role or agency this ingredient to be properly dosed in the affiliation and to set forth in a single statement education and training processes aiming at the fundamental ethical principles that unite building upon/instilling/encouraging discovery and distinguish intelligence professionals. or reflection upon the ethical values of oneself Here are the proposals for an Intelligence or of others the researchers/educators/ trainers Community Codes of Ethics, after a tour of need to become fully aware of the untapped participants [7]: knowledge pool of those who have already 1. Service. Our shared commitment to our participated in one or more missions abroad. national security mission must have priority, Thus, through the marriage of the taking precedence over parochial interests, knowledge and expertise of academic organizational as well as personal. We have an professionals and the meta-knowledge gained uncommon mission, and it requires selfless by the military the issue of how to better dedication to our nation and its citizens. approach ethical education and training from a 2. Integrity. We must have the courage to didactical viewpoint may be partially seek and speak the truth to power . . . to our addressed. However, one more ingredient is leaders and policymakers, our superiors and required for the recipe to come out right. In subordinates, our colleagues and co-workers, this respect, our source of inspiration is civil accepting the consequences of doing so even life and, more specifically, indoor team in the face of personal or professional building games as action learning techniques adversity. employed by companies to develop the talent 3. Accountability. We must hold ourselves and skills of their employees. personally accountable for achieving results, as well as for adherence to all the laws and 4. WHAT ABOUT INTELLIGENCE? rules that govern how our most sensitive ANY CODES AND ETHICS missions are to be accomplished. DILEMMAS? 4. Professionalism. We must always foster a competitive, highly trained, and proficient On February 16, 2012, the National workforce. The value of intelligence starts Intelligence University (NIU) hosted a first-of- with our people. Professionals in the intelligence field protect their sources and

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methods and disclose both corruption and responsibility to treat each person with questionable activities pursuant to law, rule, fairness, compassion, and decency. regulation, and executive order. 5. Loyalty. We will serve the American 5. Duty. We must stand ready to deploy, people, be true to the U.S. Constitution, be engage against, and destroy the enemies of the consistent with the law, and obey the leaders United States of America, both foreign and of the U.S. government. We hold the domestic. Duty to our country comes before protection of the American way of life a sacred individual desires. duty. 6. Agility. We must be adaptive to our 6. Diversity. We are committed to diversity rapidly changing world using mission-driven because a wider range of backgrounds and professionals who embrace innovation and experiences makes us a stronger learning initiative. organization and more effective in meeting our 7. Tradition. "You can't move forward if mission. Our employment policies prohibit you don't understand your past." The IC is the discrimination. result of much more than the National Security 7. Collaboration. We strive to share and Act of 1949. We cannot afford to make the disseminate our work to the widest possible same mistakes again ... the legacy we leave audience. Members of the IC will cooperate behind is directly related to the work we do with each other for the betterment of the today. country. The same conference have released 8. Courage. The defense of the nation also a cover of fundamental military behavior, requires both moral and physical valor. We specific to organizations and personnel that aim to exhibit both. comprise the IC, so here is the Statement of 9. Trustworthiness. We recognize that the Core Values: work we do is inconsistent with openness and 1. Integrity. We will be honest, fair, transparent government. We will mitigate this impartial, and unbiased as we collect, report, by sharing as much as possible and analyze, and disseminate information. We will declassifying records. The inherent secrecy of be true to the law and report wrongdoing if it the IC requires extra vigilance to adhere to this is encountered. Professionals protect their code of ethics. sources and methods, and they disclose both During this period of the ethical code’s corruption and questionable activities pursuant birth, other professional voices call to be to law, rule, regulation, and executive order. discussed the issue of the "jurisdiction" of the 2. Excellence. We will perform our duties intelligence profession. So, the participants in a manner that fosters a culture of excellence discussed, but did not agree on, the jurisdiction and high quality in everything we do. Our of the profession: Does the "profession" work ethic must reflect this goal. include collectors, analysts, and others defined 3. Accountability. We firmly believe that by our unique mission? Or, does the our mission is a public trust. We will live up to "profession" also include administrative and this trust through safeguarding our resources support personnel not necessarily unique to the and being good stewards of the American tax intelligence community? What does it mean to dollar. be intelligence professional? 4. Respect for Others. We recognize the In the meantime, a well known American inherent dignity and rights of every person, expert on intelligence, Michael Andregg, story and we will do our utmost to fulfill our

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us how “surveys a dozen U.S. intelligence NRO was "afraid of ethics." A prescient agencies in early 2012” [8]. person, that one, and a better public affairs So Mr. Andregg tells us about Dr. Jan officer than most. One contrast would be the Goldman, de founder of International Journal NSA whose unnamed public affairs officer of Intelligence Ethics, few details from his sent me these exact words: "Good Afternoon, research work for ethics in intelligence. Thank you for your email and your interest in During years, dr. Goldman were the highest the National Security Agency. Due to the promoter of intelligence ethics around the current ops tempo, we are unable to assist you western IC: “he provides much more detail on at this time. Please visit our web site, agency "ethics" codes than I will here in his www.nsa.gov, for information regarding the Appendix A (pp. 379-93) on "Principles, Agency. Have a great day." Of course, ops Creeds, Codes and Values". He had to work tempos are high everywhere; we thoroughly like a dog to get those, even though he was understand that. But this is also a perennial employed by the Joint Military Intelligence excuse to avoid ethical issues in many College, had security clearance, and was bureaucracies. They are just too busy to be working on an ethics PhD. Jan still had to pull bothered with ethical issues.” teeth from chicken's lips because the bureaucracies truly are afraid of ethics. Many 5. CONCLUSION U.S. agencies would not respond to his requests for text on ethics no matter what Military professionals face complex moral assurances he gave. Knowing this background, and ethical problems: not the garden-variety I decided to do a simple survey in 2012 to see questions about whether one may lie, cheat, or if things had moved forward during the last steal, but rather sophisticated problems arising decade. Maybe, but the bureaucracies were from conflicting legal and moral duties-and more reticent with me and I was less persistent with a focus on important national security than Goldman.” interests. Moreover, practitioners are often Now, M. Andregg try to prove the called upon to make decisions in a time- resistance of system to the ethics issue: “So I sensitive uncertain environment, with varying called and/or emailed when calling was not context depending upon mission (practice) encouraged the following components of our areas. In that sense, there could be great utility U.S. intelligence community on or very near in codes of ethics that assist practitioners in January 19, 2012: ODNI, CIA, NSA, FBI, addressing unique problems. DHS, NGIA, National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), DEA, Department of State's INR, REFERENCES Treasury, Energy, and the DIA. I spared the uniformed services on the theory that DIA and 1. Martin L. COOK & Henrik SYSE, Editor ODNI would do it for them. To each, after a notes, Journal of Military Ethics,Vol. 9, call I sent a standard email request for any No. 2, 119_122, 2010, Available: information they could provide, with three http://www. tandfonline.com/doi/full/ specific questions: 1) Does your agency have a 10.1080/15027570.2010.491320 code of ethics specific to it? 2) If so, may I get 2. http://www.cidan.org/documents/Comparai a copy? 3) And if so, how does your agency son%20des%20Codes%20de%20conduite try to teach ethics to its employees? “ %20janvier%202012.pdf Here are the answers Andregg received: 3. The study was pursued in the framework “The most substantive response came from a of the International Society for Military public affairs officer in the usually extra- Ethics in Europe (EURO-ISME). The secretive NRO. He did this because 1) he was author of this article got documentation a human being with a conscience, and 2) in from around the world including: Europe conversation with his partner in the office (France, Germany, United Kingdom, (who suggested blowing me off) he offered Netherlands, Portugal, Finland, Spain, that they did not want people thinking that the

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Romania); outside Europe (Colombia, ACKNOWLEDGMENT USA, Russia, Kirghizstan, Israel, Japan, This paper is made and published under the Senegal, Canada, China); International aegis of the Research Institute for Quality Organizations (United Nations, of Life, Romanian Academy as a part of Organization for Security and Co- preogramme co-funded by the European operation in Europe, Office for Democratic Union within the Operational Sectorial Institutions and Human Rights, Economic Programme for Human Resources Community of West Africa States); Development through the project for Pluri 4. European Code of Conduct, Towards A and interdisciplinary in doctoral and post- European Code of Conduct for Military doctoral programmes. Project Code: and Peace-keeping Forces, Composed by POSDRU/159/1.5/S/141086. French and International Cadets of the French Military Academy (Ecole Coëtquidan), Saint-Cyr; 5. Aura Codreanu, Dr. Donald A. Maccuish, Teaching Military Ethics In The Romanian Military Education Establishments, Journal of Defense Resources Management 4:2(2013): 109-122, Available: http://journal.dresmara.ro/issues /volume4_issue2/10_codreanu_maccuish.p df; 6. Aura Codreanu, Donald A. Maccuish, Military Ethical Meta-Knowledge And Indoor Team Building Games. From Promise To Praxis, in JoDRM Volume 5, Issue no. 2 (9), October 2014, Available: http://journal.dresmara. ro/issues/volume5_issue2/06_codreanu_m accuish_vol5_issue2.pdf; 7. Christopher E. Bailey,Major Susan M. Galich, Codes of Ethics: The Intelligence Community, in International Journal of Intelligence Ethics, Vol 3, No 2 (2012), Available:http://journals.fcla.edu /ijie/article/ view/83454/galich; 8. Michael Andregg, Do Intelligence Bureaucracies Fear Ethics, and If So, Why?, International Journal of Intelligence Ethics, Vol 3, No 2 (2012), Available: http://journals. fcla.edu/ijie /issue/view/3.2.

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CRITICAL THINKING IN DEVELOPMENT OF CREATIVITY

Marilena Ticuşan*, Hurjui Elena*

*Faculty of Psychology and Pedagogy, “Spiru Haret” University, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: Deep democratic transformations in Romanian society, its natural tendency to integrate in the structural assembly of the contemporary world, requires the development of science, culture and improvement of the whole education and training system. Considering the increasingly acute need for natural resources, prestigious analysts of the contemporary society argue the need for a higher exploitation of people's creative potential. The fullest exploitation at national level of the human intelligence and creation is therefore required. Educational ideal of Romanian school is the free, full and harmonious development of human individuality, the autonomous and creative personality formation. The ability to think critically is acquired over time, allowing children to manifest spontaneously, without limitation, whenever there is a learning situation. They should not feel out of their element, should not be afraid of the reaction of others to their views, they learn to trust their power of analysis, of reflection. The thinking and creativity potential develops in a framework which requires independence, investigation, originality. The fundamental purpose of child psychological counseling is his/her optimal psychosocial functioning. The counselor is meant to help with the harmonious development of the child by applying cognitive, motivational, emotional and behavioral intervention strategies, both at individual and group level. In terms of learning, knowledge by the preschooler of the changes occurred along with completing the curriculum, the development of critical thinking and creativity in group, the counselor dealing with general and specific learning problems at individual and group level, considers, on the issue of intervention.

Keywords: critically, creativity potential, critical thinking

1. INTRODUCTION information and generate new ideas. Critical thinking is an active, coordinated, complex Critical thinking is a way of approaching process, like reading and writing, speaking and and solving problems based on convincing, listening, which involve thought processes, logical and rational arguments, which involve beginning with the active accumulation of verifying, evaluating and choosing the right information and ending with taking well- response for a given task and reasoned reasoned decisions. rejection of the other alternative solutions. Although some believe that the At the same time, critical thinking is the development of critical thinking is a process learning to interact with information actively, too difficult for preschool children due to child to bring the pros and cons, evaluate them to intelligence development stages (described by determine the truth value, to transform

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L Piaget), this is possible using intuitive instruction and formative action aims at support. producing cognitive, affective-motivational, There will never be such consequences, and attitudinal and behavioral changes in the children will certainly reason better, but it will student's personality, the one always subject to not be to their detriment, as the use of training. To handle information well, the child interactive methods, procedures and work will have to apply a set of thinking skills that techniques increases confidence in their own would give him the ability to sort information powers, in the performances obtained, efficiently. To do this, he/she will have to go contributing to the intellectual, moral through a systematic process of analysis and development and their socialization. Thus critical reflection. The teacher must equally children actually participate in the act of offer him/her learning and thinking learning, increasing their responsibility and framework. This framework provided must level of involvement. It is not the early give the child the opportunity to realize where practice of critical thinking that brings harm, he/she is in terms of thinking so that he/she but its inadequate or partial practice can lead can pursue and monitor his/her own thinking to the development of a typical behavior, of a processes when learning independently. passive child who expects everything for Education has gained new contents over the granted, and the effect will not be negligible past decades, covering an enlarged area and but, morally, it will be harmful and new finalities, based on democratic values and educationally counterproductive. modern aspirations of individuals, coupled with innovation and reform in education. Thus, 2. THEORETICAL APPROACH the role of kindergarten has become more complex, departing from its initial, formal Effective thinking is developed through essence of transmission of knowledge, and collaborative work, which means working in actively focusing on the formation of attitudes pairs, in groups. Collaborative working is and behaviors, on building capacities. Among effective if there is a transition from the other things, this complex role aims at: respect for the ideas of others to self-  achieving education to adapt to confidence, the transition from concrete to changes (every child is helped to abstract, from intuitive thinking based on the develop his/her own potential, to be expression of opinions without reflecting on creative, motivated to learn throughout them to logical thinking which supports some life, to be able to solve problems, to conclusions based on assumptions, communicate and collaborate with approaching things from many perspectives. others; The methods for developing critical thinking,  promoting the values of an open applied to the group, can develop a set of society (with emphasis on valuing attitudes and behaviors by forming diversity, development of cooperation interpersonal relations between children: skills, participation in decision making,  communication skills, tolerance, critical thinking);  ability to understand,  equalization of opportunities (children  transfer of information, who are at risk, for various reasons, are  interdisciplinarity and helped to succeed in terms of education transdisciplinarity and social integration, kindergartens The polyvalence of these methods has significantly contributing in this way to proven effective from the earliest age because, the equalization of opportunities by by practicing these methods, the child became practicing inclusive education); a small researcher, willing to continuously The following are important for the explore everything around him/her. formation of children as performing adults: Living in a rapidly changing society, the  emotional intelligence - the ability to student will have to critically, creatively and motivate yourself and persevere in the productively give a meaning to the face of frustration, to adjust your informational universe met. Educational moods, to be earnest and to hope;

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 practical intelligence - the ability to be traditional methods of learning, of attentive to what is happening and transmission and assimilation of information. choose the viable out of several action Modern methodology operates changes options. related to weight, especially valuing, From this perspective, it is considered that: increasing the formative potential of classical  every child is able to learn, and the methods by emphasizing their heuristic and purpose of education is to develop the active-participatory character. potential of each and every one of Modern education promotes active learning them; methods, learning based on the acquisition of  children's skills may be changed conceptualized experience of mankind, but through effective training; also on its own investigation of reality and the  intelligence is not distributed formation of knowledge and experiences differently (some children are more through personal effort. Training no longer intelligent, others less intelligent, but means determining the preschooler to store there are several types of intelligence knowledge in his/her mind, but to learn to take to be identified, developed and part in the production of new knowledge. valorized for each child);  the role of education is not to select 3. RESEARCH DATA those able, but to develop the potential of each child. In the context of the new education reform, The role of modern teaching methods is to a strong focus is, naturally, on developing create a situational context, so that the learner creativity in the group and critical thinking in is engaged and participates actively in preschoolers, a sequence of "extensions" being achieving the objectives of teaching, it is attached for each class, a way in which the characterized by constant opening to renewal, teacher can develop this aspect of human innovation. personality. The main trends of renewal and Purpose: - highlighting work techniques modernization of training methodology would and methods within the instructional - be: educational process and their effectiveness in - making full use of methods for the developing creativity in the group, by psycho- activation of preschoolers, their pedagogical experimental research. effective participation in the The following are established as research acquisition of knowledge, skills, objectives: abilities; - the use of teaching strategies designed - acceleration of formative character of to develop creative abilities in the all training methods used in teaching group, and critical thinking in and learning activity; preschoolers; - implementation, as a matter of priority, - training the intellectual resources of of child-centered active-participatory preschoolers, the application of which methods. may lead to superior results in the Increasing the share of active-participatory instructional – educational activity. methods does not mean giving up the

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The research was conducted on a sample of of the thinking ability, intelligence, and 25 subjects, children in the middle preschool memory. group. - Independent variables - are the changes Since we worked with a single group, the introduced to influence the evolution of the structure of the subjects sample was performed educational facts in order to study their effects. by gender, and the sample contains 11girls and These were: teaching and learning strategies, 14 boys, their age ranging between 4-5 years. active-participative methods that encourage Starting from the constant that the preschoolers to put into play their imagination, instructional-educational level of the family of understanding, their power of anticipation and origin would be a variable with information provide an opportunity for affirmation and possible in the subsequent psychological exploitation of creativity in the group. evolution and development of children, it is - Dependent variables - include the changes shown below the structure of the sample by the occurred as a result of the application of instructional-educational level of the family. experimental measures, are those to be Families with middle school education: 4 measured and explained. As a dependent Families with secondary education: 17 variable of the experiment performed, we can Families with higher education: 4 nominate the preschool performance, Another constant in which the emphasizing the creative factor. psychological evolution and development of The research was conducted in three stages: children is favored or disfavored is the family initial stage (pretest), formative stage and final climate, as well as the environment in which stage (posttest). they grow and which have a great influence in During data collection on children at the terms of their further development, is shown beginning of the school year, we can observe Organized family 19 very large training differences between Disorganized family 6 children: some come from family The type of research used was formative. environments with a broad culture, others from Formative research aims at introducing in the modest or even poor cultural environments. investigated group several progress factors of The initial test consisted of oral and some ways and means of cognitive-intellectual practical tests applied on each category of capacity development from the point of view compulsory activity from kindergarten: of critical thinking in preschoolers, as well as language education, mathematics activity, of creativity in the group, for the purpose of environmental education, education for discovering and developing critical thinking in society, practical activities, music education, preschoolers, these being discovered and visual arts, and physical education. Analyzing exploited by comparing the initial situation to the responses of subjects after applying the the final one. By comparing the performances initial tests, it is found that the students have of preschool children before introducing new critical thinking. It can be said that every child teaching methods against those obtained after thinks critically, and the creativity in the group using them, we will know whether the is monitored and developed during preschool. methods used are effective or not. In the second stage of the research, within Research has also a constructive the instructional-educational activities, work component, because they sought the with subjects is performed using ways and observation and recording of the effects of means of developing cognitive-intellectual applying an instructional, individualized, capacities, given that the active-participative child-centered process, regarding cognitive- methods transform the preschooler from object intellectual manifestations within to subject of learning, he/she taking part in instructional-educational activities. his/her own training, the preschooler intensely Knowledge tests were chosen as engages all efforts, as well as the motivation investigative tools, consisting of a series of for knowledge, develops his/her intelligences tests developed to record the presence or and motivation for learning. Within the absence of a skill, and also the knowledge research, the development of intelligence and level of preschoolers, the level of development creativity of children involves stimulating in

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them the courage to expose their ideas, to  focusing, interrelations and social develop a working strategy and not to expect and emotional issues, learning pace solutions from the teacher. (slow or wrong); Interactive methods used during the  use and exercise of logic and research have been successfully applied in all mathematical structures (arguments, categories of activities, with the purpose of algorithms, thinking operability), developing thinking flexibility, developing the  decision-making, originality of preschoolers’ responses; enables  conflict management and complex free spontaneous manifestation of the communication process, etc.; imagination of children. The methods and procedures used develop the critical thinking REFERENCES of preschoolers, skills specific to creativity in the group. 1. Birch, A.,. Psihologia dezvoltării, Editura The formation and development of critical Tehnică, Bucureşti (2000). thinking and creativity in groups was sought 2. Bocos, Dacia-Musata,. Instruire interactiva, by using these methods. Editura Polirom, Bucuresti (2013). In the third stage, the posttest, subjects 3. Cameron, Julia., Lively, Emma,. Cum sa participating in the experiment, respectively cultivi creativitatea copiilor. Exercitii middle preschool group, were given final tests, pentru stimularea inventivitatii si with a number equal to the tests in the initial exprimarii de sine, Editura Polirom, Iasi stage. The tests were given in order to (2013). determine the critical thinking existing in 4. Cerghit, I.,. Metode de invatamant, Editura preschoolers, as well as the development level Polirom, Bucuresti (2006). of creativity in the group of each subject. 5. Dumitru, I.Al.,. Dezvoltarea gândirii critice These tests were given following the şi învăţarea eficientă, Ed. De Vest, implementation of both modern and traditional Timişoara (2013). methods, within integrated and traditional 6. Noack, Karsten,. Tehnici de creativitate, activities. Editura ALL, Bucuresti (2006). 7. Oprea, Lacramioara-Crenguta,. Strategii 4. CONCLUSIONS didactice interactive, Editura Publishing House, Bucuresti (2010). In terms of learning, knowledge by the 8. Piaget, J.,. Psihologia copilului, EDP, preschooler of the changes occurred along Bucuresti (1970). with completing the curriculum, the 9. Roco,Mihaela,.Creativitate si inteligenta development of critical thinking and creativity emotionala, Editura Polirom, Iasi (2007). in group, the counselor dealing with general 10. Salavastru,Dorina,. Didactica and specific learning problems at individual psihologiei, Editura Polirom, Bucuresti and group level, considers, on the issue of (2006). intervention, the following: 11. Simister, C,J,. Jocuri pentru  construction and functionality of dezvoltarea inteligentei si creativitatii general learning tools: abilities, skills copiilor, Editura Polirom, Bucuresti (2011). and general and particular capacities;

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12. Verza, E., Verza, F.E.,. Psihologia vârstelor, Ed. ProHumanitate, Bucuresti (2007). 13. Vrabie, D., Ştir, C.,. Psihologia educaţiei, Ed. Fundaţiei Universitare „Dunărea de Jos” Galaţi (2004). 14. Vrabie, D.,. Psihologia educaţiei, Editura Geneze, Galaţi (2002). 15. www.e-scoala.ro

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EDUCATIONAL ASPECTS OF ASSESSMENT

Marilena Ticusan*

*Faculty of Psychology and Pedagogy, “Spiru Haret” University, Brasov, Romania

Abstract: In terms of education, the evaluation acquires certain specificity, given that the whole educational activity is directed and reported to a system of values of culture, science, literature and art, philosophy and morality, of human and social quality. While it is desirable, finding new, truly original evaluation methods and techniques is more difficult. The current ones, with their air of modernity are only transformations of the traditional methods, but their use is more relevant and accurate. The analysis of the educational aspects of the evaluation using a variety of evaluation methods, the proposed actual investigations were not only a prerequisite, a starting point in the construction of the work, but gradually crystallized as one of its general conclusions: the success of reform depends on the extent it ensures the junction of the restructuring process of the evaluation with specific pedagogical process. School practice confirmed how important the use of all forms of evaluation is - initial, formative, summative, knowing the training level of students, improvement of the teaching approach by applying several evaluation methods and techniques. The final conclusion was that an objective evaluation of school results in terms of extracurricular valuation criteria should be considered because the school of the future must not prepare information duplicators but full and socially integrated personalities, capable of autonomous construction of life and social and useful participation to the modernization of education and of the society in particular.

Keywords: evaluation methods, personality, education

1. INTRODUCTION of this experience so that the society may evolve, prosper and develop continuously. The evolution of a society is based on the To identify and illustrate the need for experience of past generations who have left evaluative process in the educational contexts their mark on values and principles that guide we can address, in general, the relationship human and social activity. People who between teaching - learning – evaluation using represent the current/present generation the spiral illustrated above. However, the actively contribute to this evolution by implications of the evaluation are not limited completing the human experience with new to a single perspective but aim at capturing as values, knowledge and ideals. The many lines / levels where it proves its responsibility of the next/future generation is usefulness and effectiveness. Among these, the represented by the continuous refining, following can be identified: shaping, improvement and enrichment action  the students personal level  the teacher’s level

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 the training-educative process level  evaluation of processing and adjustment  the level of the group the student procedures of scientific contents to age and belongs to individual peculiarities of students;  the education system  evaluation of educational strategies  the macro-social level. designed, organized and implemented by the teacher; 2. THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL  evaluation of educational partnership APPROACH activity (student - student, student - teacher, teacher - teacher); 2.1 Theoretical approach. Regarding the  evaluation of the effectiveness of the first level, the student's one, the school relationship teaching - learning - evaluation; evaluation should not aim only at verifying the  evaluation of the quality of the educational student and his/her positioning in a particular program etc. school hierarchy but to highlight the positive From the education system perspective, the aspects that he/she has, the success in some evaluation target on the one hand the areas, the gaps that should be "covered" etc. In institutional system and its operation, and on the context of the education system (and the other hand the legal regulations relating especially the Romanian one) that proposes to thereto: school curriculum, educational form and to develop certain skills, school programs, courses, curriculum, graduation, evaluation should be in the same direction to school manager activity etc. All these are identify the extent to which these skills were intended "to provide information on the system formed. Moreover, it is necessary for this status based on which decisions are taken to process not to stop here, but to contribute adjust it. (...) The evaluation is a process of effectively to exploit those skills in different gathering information and assessing the school, educational or professional contexts. condition of evaluated phenomena that help One of the essential dimensions of school decision makers to make a rational evaluation is represented by the student's choice"(I.T. Radu, pg.20-21). awareness of the results obtained in his/her The instructive and educational activity school activity, related to those expected by primarily involves the designing action the school, by the system, by the parents or by depending on the proposed educational the society. Going further with this idea, the objectives. Similarly, the evaluation activity student must be guided in this awareness must be designed to identify the evaluation process, but also on identifying the efforts objectives, the necessary methods and tools, necessary to reach those projected and the favorable educational context for this performances through educational objectives. activity. According to Cucoş (Cucoş, pg.398), School evaluation also has implications on a the main questions to be addressed by the particular aspect of the student's personality, teacher during the design are: namely his/her self-image because, especially  What are the framework objectives and the at young ages, the student builds his/her image reference objectives in the curriculum to be of himself/herself also through the reactions of achieved in the instructive and educational others to him/her, on the opinions of others in process? what concerns him/her. At the instructive -  What are the minimum, medium and high educational process level, the evaluation performances the students can reach? serves at highlighting the strengths and  When and for what are they evaluated? weaknesses of educational activities (taken  What are the types of evaluation to be together) in order to improve this process. approached? Thus, it is about:  What are the age and individual  evaluation of the procedures for the peculiarities of students? selection of scientific contents based on  What is the appropriate evaluation method established educational objectives; in order to respect the principle of objectivity?  What are the tools with which I will achieve the actual evaluation process?

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 How can the data obtained from the The instruments used during the psycho- evaluation be used in order to improve the pedagogical research were the observation instructive and educational process? book and the psycho-pedagogical sheet and the The evaluation design is a difficult process methods used were: observation, experiment, that results in efficient instructive - educational case study, analysis of work products test, and process by identifying the results and to systematize and measure the results performances obtained by the students during obtained the statistical - mathematical methods the process, and the ways, in which it can be were used. improved, reformed or corrected. During frontal activity and during The recurrent verification of students and independent work, observation was used. The informing them operatively on their progress analysis of student work products was used to in learning, contribute to the educational evaluate the preparedness of students, carried effects of the evaluation and to their out by checking homework books and class motivation for learning. notebooks, of independent work sheets, 2.2 Research data. The purpose of the examinations. research was to highlight that a quality The experiment was the main method of learning (through various and attractive investigation. The pedagogical experiment methods and techniques, through educational involves creating new situations by games) and a properly designed evaluation, introducing changes in the course of lead to significant improvement of learning educational action with the purpose of outcomes. verifying the hypothesis that initiated these Hypothesis: the evaluation methods and innovations. techniques by proper use and integration into From the comparative analysis of the mathematics and environmental education results obtained by the two samples at the lessons lead to an increase of the efficiency of initial test it was found that the results are learning the studied concepts and thereby similar in both classes (78% for the increase school performance of primary school experimental sample and 81% for the control pupils. sample). In terms of scores, it was found that In order to demonstrate this hypothesis the the experimental sample obtained a higher intention was to initiate a pedagogical research percentage in "Very good" (4 pupils) than the aimed to prove the efficiency of evaluation control sample (3 pupils), in "Good" the methods and techniques in mathematics and experimental sample obtained a higher environmental education classes. percentage (7 pupils) and the control sample The research was organized on samples of obtained a lower percentage (6 students), in pupils of small school age (8-9 years). Two "Sufficient" the experimental sample (3 second year classes have been targeted, the pupils), and the control sample (4 students) experimental class (progress sample) and on obtained a higher percentage. which we applied the experimental factor The first step in reorganizing learning was (progress factor), and the control class (control the application of active methods, the use of sample) on which no intervention was game exercises and games with a higher performed. degree of complexity in the communication and updating mathematical concepts and

317 SOCIO-HUMANITIES solving a greater number of exercises and believe in the person, in the human potential of problems to ensure understanding for each development. pupil the tasks required and their easy solving. The analysis of the educational aspects of During the training process, the evaluation the evaluation using a variety of evaluation of the preparedness level of students is methods, the proposed specific investigations essential, as it is an objective method of were not only a prerequisite, a starting point in highlighting their school progress and school the construction of the research, but gradually performance in various learning disciplines crystallized as one of its general findings: the and represents a means of regulating and self- success of reform depends on the extent it regulating both the learning and the teaching ensures the junction of the evaluation activity. restructuring process with specific pedagogical The ameliorative intervention stage had a process. strong formative character, consisting of the Thus, both the proposed objectives and the application of various teaching methods in any assumptions that using various evaluation type/variant of lesson. methods and techniques of school results This second stage of the experiment aimed contribute to increased school performance to increase school performance by using with stimulating learning motivation were evaluation methods that can take the form of validated (of course, beside other factors such interactive games. Attractive evaluation sheets as: development of thinking, intelligence, were used (for both oral and written assimilation of new knowledge, will, use of evaluation) to make up for the gaps and certain teaching-learning methods or forms of difficulties the children had. organization etc.) The experimental sample results improved School practice confirmed how important by 10% in "Good" (45% vs. 30%), and what is the use of all forms of evaluation is - initial, encouraging is the decrease of “unsatisfactory” formative, summative, knowing the students’ results by half the initial percentage (10% vs. training level, improving the teaching 22%). approach by applying several evaluation The control sample changed the percentage methods and techniques. only in “Good” (45% versus 30%) and Evaluation has provided evidence on "Sufficient" (15% versus 25%), the proportion students’ training, acquiring taught knowledge, of the number of "Insufficient" scores their practical application, formed remained unchanged. competences and skills. To achieve an effective formative Systematic examination and evaluation evaluation, during the teaching unit, an using several methods have highlighted the evaluation test was developed for the difficulties faced by students in their training, environmental education class, which was enabling the teacher to organize future applied on second grade pupils. activities specifically to prevent falling behind The angle from which we tried to approach in learning. in this research the subject of evaluation was Thus, we have noted the importance of new that of the specific educational process. directions imposed by the evaluation reform in An evaluation act is not a final action, but the education process: the use of all forms of the beginning of a new action. The evaluation evaluation, combining traditional and does not conclude an educational effort, but it alternative methods, involving docimological opens the way to efforts to improve the tests combined with evaluation through knowledge and behaviors of the partner investigation, assays, reports, portfolios, (student). evaluation by scores based on performance 2.3. Findings. Evaluation helps man to descriptors, all of which support the students, progress, to rethink its conduct, to self- helping them to form their active, creative program. It is not a seal, a label. To evaluate personalities, able to integrate into new means to see ahead, to engage in action to societies. improve, to become a co-partner in the effort of the person subject to evaluation. It means to

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The improvement of examination and participation to the modernization of education grading actions of students’ training can be and society in particular. performed in several main directions:  during the examination action, the teacher REFERENCES must formulate work tasks so as to encourage the students to think, to ask them not only to 1. Cerghit, I.,. Sisteme de instruire reproduce the information, but to select and alternative, Editura Aramis, Bucureşti process it; (2002).  diversity of evaluation forms and methods; 2. Cucoş, C.,. Psihopedagogie, Editura  improvement of the examination tools and Polirom, Iaşi, (1998). techniques; 3. Dumitriu, C.,. Strategii alternative de  recurrence of verification of knowledge and evaluare. Modele teoretico– granting scores based on performance experimentale, EDP, Bucureşti, (2003). descriptors. 4. Kincses, Irina – Vasilica,. Metode şi procedee didactice, Editura Vladimed – 3. CONCLUSIONS Rovimed, (2011). 5. Lisievici, P.,. Evaluarea în învăţământ. The experiment conducted confirms the Teorie, practică, instrumente, Editura superiority of the evaluation and assessment Aramis, Bucureşti, (2002). method of school performance using various 6. Manolescu, M.,. Teoria şi metodologia evaluation methods and techniques. evaluării, Editura Universitaria, (2010) In conclusion, one can say that the 7. Radu, I.T.,. Evaluarea în procesul evaluation methods, especially the alternative didactic, EDP, Bucureşti, (2000). ones, favor the identity of student uniqueness, 8. Radu, I.T.,. Teorie şi practică în evaluarea nurturing creativity. eficienţei învăţământului, EDP, Bucureşti, The final conclusion that we reached was (1981). that the objective evaluation of a school result 9. Stoica, A.,. Evaluarea progresului şcolar – in terms of extracurricular valuation criteria de la teorie la practică, Editura Humanitas also should be considered because the school Educaţional, Bucureşti, (2003). of the future must train not information 10. Tomşa, Gh.,. Psihopedagogie preşcolară şi replicators but full and socially integrated şcolară, EDP, Bucureşti, (2005). personalities, capable of autonomous construction of life and social and useful

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