EXPLORING SPIRITUALITY IN FEMINIST PRACTICES - EMERGING KNOWLEDGE FOR SOCIAL WORK
DIANA COHOLIC
A thesis submitt ed in fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
School of Social Work, University of New South Wales August, 2001
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT xi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii
INTRODUCTION xvi
CHAPTER ONE – SPIRITUALITY AND SOCIAL WORK 1
INTRODUCTION 1
CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION, ISSUES OF DIVERSITY AND THE SECULAR NATURE OF SOCIAL WORK 2 Concept ualizat ions of Spirit ualit y 2 Conceptualizations of Religion 5 Valuing Diversity 6 The Secularization and Professionalization of Social Work 8 Values and the Professionalization of Social Work 10 Anti-religious Sentiment in Social Work 12
RATIONALES FOR THE INCLUSION OF SPIRITUALITY IN SOCIAL WORK 15 Issues in Social Work Processes 16 Spirituality and Coping 17 A Holistic Approach 18 Effectiveness of Spiritually Influenced Practice 18 The Need for Knowledge and Research 19
SPIRITUALLY INFLUENCED PRACTICES 21 Altered Conceptualizations of Helping Processes and Human Nature 22 Social Justice Activities 23 Prayer and Meditation 23 Making Meaning 24 Addictions and Self-Help Groups 24 Intuition 25 Two Examples of Practice Model Development 26
CONCLUSION 29
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CHAPTER TWO – FEMINIST SOCIAL WORK APPROACHES AND FEMINIST SPIRITUALITIES 32
INTRODUCTION 32
FEMINIST SOCIAL WORK THEORY AND PRACTICES 33 Background and Overview 33 Principles and Assumptions Informing Feminist Social Work 35 Values in Feminist Social Work Approaches 37 Diversity and Inclusivity 38 Men and Feminism 39
SPIRITUALITY AND FEMINIST SOCIAL WORK – FEMINIST SPIRITUALITIES 42 Feminism and Spirituality 42 Feminist Spiritualities 44 Spiritual Influences in Feminist Practices 46
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL WORK KNOWLEDGE – CURRENT INFLUENCES 50 Brief Overview of the Development of Knowledge 50 The Art of Social Work Practice 52 Shared Social Work Practices, Values and Knowledge 55 Future Directions 57
CONCLUSION 59
CHAPTER THREE – THE RESEARCH PROCESS 62
INTRODUCTION 62
EPISTEMOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH STUDY 63 Qualitative Methods 63 Feminist Methods and Principles 64 Grounded Theory Methods 66
THE RESEARCH DESIGN 68 Research Questions 68 The Use of Semi-Structured Interviews 70 Sampling Method and Sample Size 72 Sample Description 75
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IMPLEMENTATION OF THE RESEARCH 78 The Interview Process 78 Researcher Bias 80
THE RESEARCH ANALYSIS 82 A Grounded Theory Analysis 82 The Development and Organization of Practice Principles 84 Focus Groups – Action Research 86 Implementation of the Focus Groups 87 Analysis of the Focus Group Processes 88
CONCLUSION 90
CHAPTER FOUR – SPIRITUALITY AND FEMINIST SOCIAL WORK APPROACHES 92
INTRODUCTION 92
SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION 94 Concept ualizat ions of Spirit ualit y and Religion 94 Personal and Professional Values – Affiliations with Religion 96 Personal and Professional Values – Non-affiliations with Religion 98 Anti-fundamentalist Values 100
FEMINIST SOCIAL WORK PERSPECTIVES AND SPIRITUALITY 103 Conceptualizations of Feminist Social Work Approaches 103 Convergences Between Feminist Social Work and Spirituality 106 A Holistic Practice Approach 108 The Future of Feminist Social Work Perspectives 112
SPIRITUALITY – A MARGINALIZED KNOWLEDGE 114 The Secular Nature of Social Work and the Marginalization of Spirituality 114 Personal Values and Practice Experience 117 Personal Values and the Lack of Spiritual Knowledge 119
CONCLUSION 121
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CHAPTER FIVE – THE PROCESSES OF SPIRITUAL EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT 123
INTRODUCTION 123
SPIRITUALITY AS A DEVELOPING PROCESS 124 The Process of the Development of Spirituality 125 A Reflective and Questioning Perspective 127 The Struggle of Spiritual Development 128 Transformative Experiences and Spirituality 130 The Influence of Family and Culture on Spiritual Development 133 The Influence of Spiritual/Religious Tradit ions on Spirit ual Development 135 The Importance of Friends in Spiritual Development 136
SPIRITUALITY – THE ESSENCE OF HUMAN EXISTENCE 139 Having Spirituality and Being a Spirit 139 Women, Men and Spirituality 142
CONCLUSION 146
CHAPTER SIX – THE INTERFACE OF SPIRITUALITY AND PRACTICE – PRACTICE METHODS AND RELATIONSHIPS 148
INTRODUCTION 148
THE INFLUENCES OF PERSONAL SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT, SOCIAL WORK CONTEXTS AND CLIENT POPULATIONS ON INCORPORATIONS OF SPIRITUALITY INTO PRACTICE 149 Personal Spiritual Processes 149 Social Work Contexts – Factors that Promote the Inclusion of Spirituality 151 Social Work Contexts – Factors that Impede the Inclusion of Spirituality 154
SPIRITUALLY INFLUENCED PRACTICES 157 Language and Spirituality 157 Language and Spirituality – Transparency of Practice 160 Making Meaning 162 Fostering Connections 165 The Social Worker – Client Relationship 167 Self-love and Wholeness 170
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Additional Spiritually Influenced Practices 172
CONCLUSION 175
CHAPTER SEVEN – THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRACTICE PRINCIPLES 178
INTRODUCTION 178
THE NEED FOR KNOWLEDGE DEVELOPMENT IN SPIRITUALITY AND SOCIAL WORK 179 The Need for Spiritual Knowledge 179 The Development of Feminist Social Work Knowledge 180
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRACTICE PRINCIPLES 181 Understandings of Spirituality, Basic Philosophy and Values 182 Spirituality and Religion 183 Convergences in Values 184 Marginalized Knowledge 185 The Process of Spirit ual Development and Beliefs about t he Spiritual Essence of Human Existence 187 The Process of Spiritual Development 187 Spirituality as the Essence of Human Life 188 Spiritually Influenced Practice Processes and Relationships 189 The Influence of Spiritual Development, Social Work Contexts And Client Populations on Spiritually Influenced Practices 190 Language and Spirituality 191 Making Meaning Processes 192 Fostering Connections 193 The Social Worker and Client Relationship 194 Fostering Experiences of Self-love and Wholeness 195
CONCLUSION 196
CHAPTER EIGHT – FOCUS GROUP ANALYSIS OF THE PRACTICE PRINCIPLES 198
INTRODUCTION 198
SHIFTING SPIRITUALITY OUT OF THE MARGINS 201 Issues Concerning the Marginalized Nature of Spirituality 202
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The Role of the Practice Principles in Legitimizing Spirituality 204 The Role of Research Processes in Shifting Marginalized Knowledge 206
CONTEXTUALIZING THE PRACTICE PRINCIPLES 209 The Feminist Nature of the Practice Principles 209 Recognizing the Feminist Nature of the Practice Principles 211 Valuing Diversity 213 The Shared Nature of Social Work Values, Knowledge and Practice 215 The Need for Ongoing Development of the Practice Principles 218
EMPHASIS ON SOCIAL JUSTICE AND STRUGGLE IN THE PRACTICE PRINCIPLES 221 Emphasis on Social Change 221 Processes of Struggle 223 Practice Principles for Spirituality and Social Work 225
CONCLUSION 227
CHAPTER NINE – CONCLUSION 229
INTRODUCTION 229
PERSONAL SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT, PRACTICE WISDOM, PRACTICE EFFECTIVENESS AND THE RELEVANCE OF THE PRACTICE PRINCIPLES 233 Personal Spiritual Development and Exploration 233 Practice Wisdom 236 The Effectiveness and Meaningfulness of Holistic Practices 238
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS 241 Practice Effectiveness 242 Facilit at ing t he Explorat ion of Spirit ualit y and Curriculum Development 243 The Scope of Spiritually Influenced Practices 244
BIBLIOGRAPHY 247
APPENDIX I – DOHERTY’S THREE DOMAINS OF LANGUAGE AND MEANING MODEL 264
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A PPENDIX II – INTERVIEW GUIDE AND QUESTIONS 265
A PPENDIX III – PARTICIPANT INFORMATION STATEMENT 268
A PPENDIX IV – TABLE 4.1 – RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS’ CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF SPIRITUALITY 270
APPENDIX V – TABLE 4.2 – RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS’ CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF FEMINIST SOCIAL WORK 271
APPENDIX VI – TABLE 6.1 – FACTORS THAT PROMOTE THE INCLUSION OF SPIRITUALITY IN PRACTICE 272
A PPENDIX VII – TABLE 6.2 – FACTORS THAT IMPEDE THE INCLUSION OF SPIRITUALITY IN PRACTICE 273
A PPENDIX VIII – TABLE 6.3 – SPIRITUALLY INFLUENCED PRACTICES 274
A PPENDIX IX – PRELIMINARY DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRACTICE PRINCIPLES 275
APPENDIX X – PRACTICE PRINCIPLES FOR SOCIAL WORK AND SPIRITUALITY – REVISED WITH WRITTEN FEEDBACK 276
APPENDIX XI – PRACTICE PRINCIPLES FOR SOCIAL WORK AND SPIRITUALITY – FINAL VERSION 277
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
4.1 Research Part icipant s’ Concept ualizations of Spirit ualit y 270
4.2 Research Part icipant s’ Concept ualizations of Feminist Social Work 271
6.1 Fact ors t hat Promot e the Inclusion of Spiritualit y in Pract ice 272
6.2 Factors that Impede the Inclusion of Spirituality in Practice 273
6.3 Spiritually Influenced Practices 274
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ABSTRACT
This research study investigates self-identified feminist social workers’ concept ualizat ions of spirit uality, how spiritualit y influences t heir pract ices, and their ideas about the effects of spiritually influenced practice. There is increasing int erest in exploring and considering spiritualit y across social work approaches, accompanied by a strong demand for empirical research and the development of knowledge in this area. The past few years in particular have witnessed an expanding social work literature that discusses the incorporat ion of spirit uality int o pract ice. In this t hesis spiritualit y refers to a complex construct that can be deeply personal and/or communal, and that can encompass a sense of connection with something bigger that transcends ordinary life experience. In order to examine spirituality in the context of feminist social work practice, the goals of this study needed to be exploratory and demanded the use of a qualitative methodology. In-depth individual interviews were conducted with twenty experienced direct practice social workers. Grounded theory analysis of the interview data uncovered surprising and significant convergences amongst research participants’ beliefs, values and practices. These unexpected commonalities invited a further analysis of the data that produced a set of practice principles. These practice principles reflected the participants’ understandings of spirit ualit y and basic values, t heir ideas about processes of spirit ual development and beliefs about t he spirit ual essence of human life, and t heir spiritually influenced practice methods and relationships. The process of developing practice principles included further data collection through the written feedback of participants and the use of three focus groups. This second round of data collection and analysis extended and refined the practice principles. The practice principles are particularly relevant for social work because they are based in the participants’ collective practice wisdom and represent an import ant st ep tow ards helping t o legitimize spirit ual xii
knowledge. The practice principles also have important implications for social work practice, education and research in that they can promote discussions about spirituality, guide practice, provide a base for the future development of spiritually influenced models and frameworks, and direct curriculum development. xiii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I moved from Canada to Australia in order to pursue my doctoral studies and many people have asked me why I chose to come to Australia. The short answer is that it felt like the right thing to do. It was not an easy decision to move but it was a necessary life and academic adventure – an experience that has been both challenging and enriching beyond words. My family and friends have assisted me in many ways with my travels back and forth across the Pacific Ocean, and have been crucial in helping me to stay connected to them over these past three years. I am indebted to many people in bot h Canada and Aust ralia for making t his experience a w onderful one. I am blessed in that not only do I have ext raordinary family and friends, but I have also worked with many dynamic and insightful colleagues, students and clients in both countries who helped to prepare me for, and sustained me, during this doctoral process. In particular, my experience at the University of New South Wales School of Social Work has been wonderful and many of t he st aff were especially support ive and helpful. W hile everyone deserves my t hanks, I w ould like t o specifically acknow ledge the follow ing people. First, the engaging and thoughtful research participants who gave so w illingly of t heir t ime and shared w it h me their highly personal and professional thoughts, experiences and values. My exceptional co- supervisors, Dr. Jan Breckenridge and Carmel Flaskas who provided me with excellent guidance and supervision throughout t his process, helped me to fully develop my abilit ies and support ed me in my somew hat unort hodox research topic. I thank them especially for working so tirelessly during the last few mont hs, t hereby helping me keep to my deadline for submission. My wonderful parents Bozica and Joe Coholic who always supported my decisions even if they didn’t agree with them, and never faltered in their beliefs in my abilit ies. My very generous sist er Dr. Andrea Coholic who xiv
financially supported me during this process and encouraged my decision to move. My good friend Robert Walker who helped me with mundane but very essential tasks such as printing, and who was especially important in making my life in Aust ralia enjoyable. And my remarkable and insight ful friends - Leigh MacEwan who provided me with constant praise and encouragement, and Judith Duncan whose wisdom and emotional support was always appreciated and helpful.
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If we believe in any religion, t hat ’s good. But even w it hout a religious belief, we can still manage. In some cases, we can manage even better. But that’s our own individual right; if we wish to believe, good! If not, it’s all right. But t hen t here’s anot her level of spirit ualit y. T hat is what I call basic spiritualit y – basic human qualities of goodness, kindness, compassion, caring. Whether w e are believers or non-believers, this kind of spirit ualit y is essent ial. I personally consider t his second level of spiritualit y to be more import ant t han the first, because no matter how wonderful a particular religion may be, it w ill st ill only be accept ed by a limited number of human beings, only a portion of humanity. But as long as we are human beings, as long as we are members of t he human family, all of us need t hese basic spirit ual values. Without these, human existence remains hard, very dry. As a result, none of us can be a happy person, our whole family will suffer, and then, eventually, society will be more troubled. So it becomes clear that cultivating these kinds of basic spirit ual values becomes crucial. His Holiness t he Dalai Lama xvi
INTRODUCTION
Some years ago I received a card from one of my clients with the follow ing inscription, “I t hank you for t he very professional guidance w hich has challenged me const ant ly. I can see a spirit ual fut ure w hich has been inspired by our sessions”. W e had t alked about her spiritual beliefs briefly in relation to her fear of death, but I was somewhat surprised by her words and I reflect ed on our w ork t oget her. I w ondered how this spirit ual inspirat ion had come about for her. I was not entirely sure I understood or could have art iculat ed how our sessions had inspired a vision of a spirit ual fut ure. I also wondered about possible reactions from my colleagues had I shown them the card. Admittedly, I was concerned about negative responses and I feared that they might consider me unprofessional, imposing my own agenda and interests onto clients. I felt isolated with my ideas and thoughts as I ident ified very few colleagues w it h whom I could have discussed t he spirit ual aspects of my feminist social work practice. However, at the same time and particularly in the past few years, I have increasingly w orked w ith client s w ho came t o sessions wit h spirit ual books, init iating discussions about spirit ualit y and grappling wit h issues that I w ould ident ify as spiritual such as the meaning of life, deat h, abuse and other forms of suffering. I wasn’t sure if this was a reflection of my own life experience in w hich I felt a st ronger need to explore spirit ualit y and spiritual influences in pract ice, or if it reflect ed a grow ing int erest in spiritualit y wit hin societ y in general. Perhaps it w as a combinat ion of t he t w o as t here did appear t o be a burgeoning market for spirit ually orient ed books such as The Tao of Pooh (Hoff, 1982) and The Celestine Prophecy (Redfield, 1994), to name just two examples. Equally, alternative and/or spiritually influenced healing techniques such as therapeutic touch, acupuncture and aromat herapy are increasingly evident in pract ice. xvii
The importance of spirituality has been noted throughout the 20th century by well-known humanistic psychologists Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers and by existential theorists Viktor Frankl and Erich Fromm. However, spiritualit y has been largely ignored by mainst ream social w ork.1 As social work developed into a recognized profession, it disassociated itself from its roots in religious charity w ork. In order t o claim professional st at us, value neutrality was advocated in practice and in research both within social work and in other helping professions. Thus, the association of spirituality with personal values and religious view point s impeded it s serious considerat ion and excluded it from social work practice and knowledge development. While many social workers now recognize that practice and research are not value- free, the notion that a professional practice should be separated from personal values st ill holds w eight and affect s t he marginalizat ion of cert ain know ledge such as spirit ualit y. How ever, feminist social w ork perspect ives have recognized the interplay between personal and professional values and practices, as have other anti-oppression approaches such as radical social work (Fook, 1993). Given t his grow ing int erest in spirit ualit y in my own life, in the lives of people I worked with and in broader society, I wondered if other feminist social w orkers were also int erest ed in spiritualit y and used it in their work. How and where (if anywhere) did they talk about a spiritually influenced pract ice? Did t hey identify spirit ualit y as part of t heir pract ice and if so, w hat were the effects of spiritually influenced work? It was these questions and experiences that provided the impetus for my doctoral study and led to the t hesis t opic, w hich explores self-ident ified feminist social w orkers’ concept ualizat ions of spirit uality and the influences (or not ) of these
1 In this thesis “social work” is based on a Western and more particularly, an English speak ing understanding of social work processes. xviii
understandings in their social work. Eventually the following exploratory research questions emerged from these preliminary questions and experiences. What are self-identified feminist social workers’ ideas about spiritualit y and what informs t heir personal underst andings of spirit uality? In w hat w ays (if any) does spirit ualit y influence their pract ices and do they identify methods or techniques that are spiritually influenced? What are their percept ions about t he effects and/or implicat ions of spirit ually influenced practices? These were the questions that guided this research inquiry in its aim to explore spirit ualit y in feminist social w ork pract ices. Accordingly, it w as import ant to concept ualize both spiritualit y and religion int o w orking definitions in order to clarify the interests of this study to potential research part icipant s. It is not necessarily an easy or straightforward process to encapsulate int o w ords t he meaning of concept s such as spirit ualit y. The language that is used t o discuss spirit ualit y and relat ed issues can be confusing. W ords like spiritualit y, spiritual dimension, spirit , soul, higher pow er, inner self, Universe, God and Goddesses can evoke a myriad of personal meanings. In other situations, language has difficulty expressing the intended meaning of the communication or is unable to fully encompass it. For example, how does one accurately describe in words the feelings of oneness or deep connections? These experiences are highly personal and they are often felt on an emot ional level rat her t han expressed in w ords. Additionally, the reality that most of us have been socialized and educated to depend on our rational minds and positivist scientific processes int erferes w it h our ability t o writ e and speak about t hese experiences. W e lack language to fully describe what these experiences feel like or perhaps words cannot entirely capture some experiences. Given these complexities in language it is import ant t o ident ify t he meaning of w ords that are used and t o recognize t hat spiritualit y addresses experient ial facet s of life and w ork xix
experience. Consequently, embracing and utilizing research methods that can facilit at e t he explorat ion of concept s t hat are based in lived experiences (phenomenological experiences) w ill fost er our underst anding and abilit y t o discuss these constructs. Spirit ualit y and religion are underst ood different ly in t his st udy although they certainly overlap and influence one other. Except in general terms I am not the one who should define spirituality. It is important that these conceptualizations emerge from participants’ experiences and ideas, as this is one of the research questions to be explored. However, it was also important to present working definitions to potential participants so decisions could be made about their part icipat ion in t his st udy. T hese preliminary definitions are derived from the literature. Edward Canda’s (1986) research in which he develops a concept ualizat ion of spirit ualit y for social work is particularly helpful and provides an excellent st art ing point . Derezotes (1995) and Canda (1986) contend that spirituality can be difficult to define because its meanings are individualistic and varied. By its very nat ure spiritualit y is eclect ic and alt hough spirit ualit y can be expressed in religion as w ell as in cult ure and philosophy, it transcends ideologies and instit ut ions. In t his t hesis, spiritualit y refers to a complex const ruct that can be deeply personal and communal, and that can encompass a sense of connection with something bigger that transcends ordinary life experience (somet hing bigger is necessarily self-defined). Also, spirit ual dimension and spiritualit y are used int erchangeably in order t o be inclusive of part icipant s’ beliefs, but it is recognized that for some people these terms may encompass different meanings. Religion on the other hand, can be described as a construction of instit ut ionalized worship t hat is dependent on a not ion of God and that is based on doctrine or a system of organized beliefs and behaviours, usually xx
shared by people.2 Religion can be a means of spiritual expression and experience and can act as a source of spirituality for some people (Bullis, 1996; Carroll, 1998). T he t heoret ical w ork that concept ualizes spirit ualit y and religion for social w ork is examined in Chapters One and Tw o. W hereas spirit ualit y remains marginalized w it hin social w ork, feminist social work perspectives are examples of marginalized knowledge and practice approaches that have gone on to become more fully incorporated within mainstream social work, particularly as values and practice approaches are shared across social work frameworks. In this thesis, feminist social work refers to the amalgam of feminist theory and values, and social work practices that began to appear in the social work literature during the 1980’s. While there is no unit ary approach t o the applicat ion of a feminist social work perspective, practice principles and assumptions are shared. These include an emphasis on diversity, the analysis of gender and maint aining egalitarian client relat ionships. Feminist social w orkers include their values in their practices and consciously use values to motivate and evaluate actions (as do other approaches such as structural and radical social work). The development of practice models and theory for a feminist social w ork approach helped t o shift t his know ledge into more mainst ream social w ork discourse by recognizing t his know ledge and present ing it in a writ t en form t hat could be ut ilized and considered. One of the first empirical studies to construct practice assumptions for feminist social work was conducted by Mary Bricker-Jenkins (1989) whose doctoral research developed a comprehensive feminist social work practice model in the form of ten propositions and assumptions. The development of models and theory for marginalized knowledge is significant in t hat t his process assist s ot her
2 The social work literature is biased towards the Western world’s monotheistic notions of God and does not often discuss or refer to poly theistic v iews of God(s) or Godheads. xxi
practitioners to reflect on their practice, validates and refines ideas and practices, and helps to shift attitudes. Some feminist social workers such as Van Den Bergh (1995) and Bricker-Jenkins (1989) also identify spirituality as an important emerging component in a feminist social work practice, although they are not the only social workers to do so. Indeed, spirit uality is increasingly being considered w it hin social w ork in general. The past few years in particular have witnessed an expanding social work literature that discusses spiritually influenced practices such as working with women and ritual (Bewley, 1995), and with specific cultural communities (Falicov, 1999). There are repeated calls for research that examines the efficacy of spiritually influenced pract ices and t hat begins to build knowledge in the area (Russel, 1998; Bullis, 1996). However, currently much of the literature is based on personal reflections and accounts, case studies and survey research and consequently, spirituality remains a marginalized knowledge w it hin social w ork that is not yet considered valid knowledge for practice. Given t he growing interest in spiritualit y and t he lack of empirical research in the area, there is strong demand for in-depth research that explores spirit uality in pract ice. T his is clearly evident in the lit erat ure and I have also personally experienced it at the presentations I have delivered on this topic. It appears that many social workers are searching for contexts and colleagues t hat w ill promot e discussions about spirit ualit y and pract ice. However, it is also difficult t o accurat ely gauge w hat proportion of social w orkers are int erest ed in exploring spirit ualit y and perhaps a significant number are even anti-spirituality. In fact, there is social work literature that could be characterized as anti-religion. For instance, arguments have been made against the inclusion of religion in social w ork and many social w orkers worry about inflexible doctrines, rigid ritualism and the damaging effects of religion. Social workers xxii
are concerned with the separation of Church and State, fear that one viewpoint w ill dominate all ot hers, and worry about the imposit ion of personal values. On the other hand, there does not appear to be a body of work that could be described as anti-spirituality in the terms described in this thesis.3 The body of social work literature that is reviewed in this study addresses spirit ualit y and spirit ual issues in social w ork. For the most part , t his lit erature dist inguishes bet w een religion and spiritualit y and uses a generic spiritual language to discuss practice issues such as the use of ritual, int uit ion, relat ionship and helping people t o make meaning of life experiences - aspects of practice that are akin to what is called the art of social work. Social work practice extends beyond direct work with individuals, couples and families int o macro levels of pract ice w it h groups and organizations such as cultural communities, oppressed populations, policy makers and government s. While t his st udy aims to examine spirit ualit y in social work practice more generally, it should be noted that the use of “social w ork” in this t hesis refers t o more micro levels of work wit h individuals, couples, families and smaller groups, and is based on a W est ernized understanding of social work processes. Although some of the research participants were engaged in community work and projects, and they all discussed a commitment to social change activities, on a day-to-day basis a majorit y of t he part icipant s engaged in micro levels of social work pract ice. As a result, discussions about social work are generally oriented towards micro level direct practice work. W hile t here is increasing int erest in spirit ualit y w it hin feminist /non- feminist social w ork approaches, spiritualit y remains marginalized knowledge and t here is a significant lack of empirical research in t he area. This research
3 It should be noted that the anti-religion literature is not particularly relevant for this study because this research study explores the use of spirituality in feminist social work practices. xxiii
study constitutes a timely project in an emerging field of study. Consequently, the research questions demand the choice of an exploratory qualit at ive grounded t heory research met hodology, w hich is also consist ent with my own epistemological perspectives. The work of this research study began w ith in-dept h int erview s w it h self-ident ified feminist social w orkers that uncovered unexpected convergences in values, beliefs and practices. These convergences, and also a closer consideration of the need for knowledge in this area, led to the exploration of the similarities and differences in responses regarding spirit uality, w hich raised furt her quest ions concerning the possibility of the emergence of practice ideas or principles. Further grounded theory analysis of the emergent data encouraged the development of a set of practice principles for spirituality and social work. These preliminary practice principles were then refined using participant feedback, first by way of written feedback and then through the use of focus groups. The following chapters tell the story of how these striking convergences in participants’ responses allowed the development of new knowledge for social work in the form of practice principles. The sequence of the chapters reflects the research process and the development of the practice principles. Chapters One and Two provide the theoretical context for the research exploration that follows. Chapter One begins t he st ory by providing an overview and analysis of spiritualit y wit hin social work. Various rationales for the inclusion of spirituality are examined and spirit ual influences in social w ork practice are identified. Chapt er T w o discusses feminist social work approaches as they provide a practice and theoretical context for this study. The shift of feminist social work perspectives from a marginalized knowledge and practice into more mainstream social work discourse is used as an example to illustrate how spirituality may also be moved from the margins. Chapter Three then discusses in detail the research design and process, and the selection of a qualitative grounded theory methodology. xxiv
What were the significant convergences that emerged through this research? Chapters Four, Five and Six present an analysis of the themes and categories from the data analysis. Chapter Four discusses categories that encompass the participants’ understandings of spirituality, basic philosophy and values. Their beliefs regarding the similarities between feminist, social w ork and spiritual values are also examined. Chapt er Five analyzes cat egories t hat address the part icipant s’ experiences of spirit ual development and their ideas about the spiritual essence of human existence. Chapter Six then discusses the participants’ views of how spirituality influences practice processes and relationships. T he effects of personal spirit ual growt h, social w ork context s and client charact eristics on spirit ual influences in pract ice are discussed, and spirit ual influences in the part icipants’ pract ices are ident ified. Further grounded theory analysis of the convergent categories presented in Chapters Four, Five and Six led to the development of practice principles. Chapter Seven reviews the need for the creation of models and t heory in spiritualit y and social work, and presents t he preliminary development work of the practice principles. Chapter Eight presents the final layer of analysis from three focus groups regarding the practice principles as a whole and the idea of practice principles in general, and presents the final version of the practice principles. Both the practice principles and making room for spirit ual discussion are ident ified as import ant in helping t o shift marginalized know ledge int o more mainst ream discourse. Finally, Chapt er Nine presents the implications for social work practice and education that arise as a result of t he development of new know ledge in the form of practice principles. This chapter also offers an overall analysis of the work of this thesis and makes recommendations for future research directions. W itkin (1999, p.7), in an edit orial ent it led Const ruct ing Our Fut ure, argues that social workers believe that it is important for those who are silenced (for w hat ever reason) t o have a voice and t hat marginalized people in society have a perspective that is valuable for the rest of us to hear. I xxv
w ould add t hat marginalized know ledges, voices and pract ices w it hin social work itself also deserve to be heard and considered. Thus begins the consideration and explorat ion of spiritualit y in social w ork pract ice. 1
CHAPTER ONE SPIRITUALITY AND SOCIAL WORK
Introduction Despit e t he increasing int erest in spirit ualit y described in the previous chapter, the literature at this point reflects a neoteric field of study and practice. There is a dearth of empirical research that investigates practice implicat ions, int ervent ion methods, techniques and guidelines. Current ly, much of the literature is based on personal stories, experiences and reflections, case studies, and research such as surveys that argue for the relevance and effectiveness of spirit ually influenced pract ice and t hat ident ify the need for further research and theory building. To acknowledge the newness and the limits of the current literature is not a crit icism of it , or of t he type of know ledge it represent s, part icularly as practice wisdom and personal knowledge are highly relevant in explorations of spirituality. In fact, this overview reflects the state of development in this area, illustrat es the nature of spirit ual knowledge, and set s t he cont ext for the discussion that follows. Three broad areas are examined in this chapter: concept ualizat ions of spirit ualit y and religion in social w ork and t he import ance of diversit y, rat ionales for t he inclusion of spirit ualit y in social work, and spiritually influenced practices and examples of practice models. These three areas provide a comprehensive overview of the social work and spirituality literature and reflect the themes most evident in the literature. This chapter’s analysis focuses squarely on the social work literature. Although this literature represents a new field of study, it represents both the context and base of a range of issues that are pertinent to this research st udy. W hile t he Int roduct ion provided definit ions of spirit ualit y and religion for use in this thesis, this chapter begins by mapping more fully how these concepts are discussed in the literature. 2
CONCEPTUA LIZA TIONS OF SPIRITUA LITY A ND RELIGION, ISSUES OF DIVERSITY AND THE SECULAR NATURE OF SOCIAL WORK
Concept ualizations of spiritualit y Several social work authors have attempted to conceptualize spirituality for social work. Canda (1988a) was one of the first to focus his at t ent ion on developing a definit ion of spiritualit y for social w ork. His doct oral research (Canda, 1986) was designed to converge insights from diverse perspectives on the connection between religion, spirituality and social work in order t o develop a comprehensive concept ualizat ion of spiritualit y that is relevant to the fundamental mission and performance of social work. He began by studying the key ideas of five different spiritual and religious perspectives identified in the literature.1 While he found a great diversity of beliefs w ithin t hese perspect ives, he also found similarities of fundamental values. For instance, each perspective upholds the inherent dignity of people and encourages loving and just relations between people, the non-human world and Ultimate Reality (however that is defined). Canda (1988a) believes that while the doctrinal distinctions between the perspectives deserve respect, there are common themes that underlie these distinctions and he bases his concept ualization of spirit ualit y on t hese common t hemes.
Similarly, Wolin (1999) emphasizes t he commonalit y of values found across different religious perspectives and also stresses the importance of these similarities. He describes a seminar that was focused on the subject of healing and resilience from t hree different religious perspect ives (Buddhism, Christianity and Judaism). He argues that despite being accustomed to t hinking of religion as divisive, points of commonalit y emerged during t he seminar that focused on insights about resilience. He was surprised that the three talks converged so powerfully on this point but at the same time that
1 See Canda (1988a, p.33) for a summary of the key ideas in each of the five perspectives that were identified; Zen Buddhism, Christianity, Existentialism, Judaism and Shamanism. 3
they were so sharply distinguished from one another. He concludes that the uniform respect for people’s resilience demonst rated across t hese religions is far more essential than their distinctions, and that the shared belief that there is a way through the traumas in people’s lives is a welcome contrast to the prevalent concern with people’s vulnerability and psychological damage. Canda’s (1988a, pp.42-43) conceptualization of spirituality is one of the most thorough and as such could be criticized for its complexity, for definitions that incorporate so many facets of spirituality that it could be alleged that they become almost meaningless. On the other hand, the definition’s all encompassing nature is inclusive of a variety of people’s experiences, embraces a diversity of beliefs and experiences, and reflects the complexit y of spirit ualit y. For inst ance, he argues t hat spirit ualit y refers t o the total process of human life and development encompassing biological, mental, spiritual and social aspects. His conceptualization also includes the follow ing point s summarized below. Spiritualit y as a universal aspect of human nature and experience is expressed through atheistic and theistic belief syst ems. The spirit ual aspect of t he tot al process of human life refers to the experience of the quality of sacredness and meaningfulness found in self, other people, the non-human world and Ultimate Reality.2 This quality of sacredness is associated for many with a dimension of reality that exceeds the ordinary limits of human understanding and description. Spirituality is a process that involves reflection and manifests in concrete ways for people and the central dynamic is the search for a sense of meaning and purpose that develops in the context of interdependent relationships. As this summary illust rates, Canda’s (1986) w ork encompasses many facet s of spirituality. As a result, most of the other research presented in the literature converges at some level with his description of spirituality, although some differences in emphasis and language exist. For example, Joseph (1988)
2 “Ultimate Reality” is akin to a sense of something bigger, which is necessarily self-defined. 4
emphasizes t hat spirit ualit y seeks t o t ranscend the self and relat e to t he Ultimate. Derezotes (1995) adds that spirituality is also a person’s ability to underst and, accept and ut ilize ot her’s religiosity, and t hat the spirit ual process involves the person moving towards higher states of connectiveness, well being, consciousness and/or meaning. Other interpretations of spirituality stress the interconnectedness of all things and emphasize social justice. For example, Perry and Rolland (1999) argue that social justice act ivism is an int egral and essent ial expression of spirit uality and that it should not be considered separate from spirituality. In their view, social justice act ivism is t he fruit ion of spirit ualit y. Similarly, Harries (1998) is particularly int erest ed in spirit ualit y as connect edness and a concern for 3 others and believes that we need to be socially responsible.
Summarizing t he literat ure, Carroll (1998) argues that concept ualizat ions of spirit uality fit into one of t w o cat egories, spirit ualit y-as- essence or spirituality-as-one-dimension. Spirituality-as-essence definitions describe a spirit ualit y that represent s fundamental human nat ure and an essence that motivates people towards self-development and self- t ransformat ion. Spirit ualit y-as-one-dimension st resses a relat ionship w ith the Transcendent and manifests in a commitment towards other people and a recognition of the interconnectedness of all things. However, Carroll (1998) further contends that these two categories are not meant to be dichotomous and most import ant ly, spirit ualit y is best underst ood as both essence and a key dimension of human nature. Doherty (1999) points out that consistently across the family therapy lit erat ure spirit ualit y is defined different ly from religion.4 Definitions of
3 These emphases on connection and social responsibility are particularly evident in feminist understandings of spirituality which are examined in the following chapter. 4 The family therapy literature has strong links with social work as many family therapists are educated as social workers and receive their training in schools of social work. I have included some material from this literature because it fits so closely with the social work literature under discussion. 5
religion are discussed next, along with examples of slippage in the literature between the two terms, spirituality and religion.
Concept ualizations of religion Religion is generally underst ood as a system of organized beliefs, rituals, behaviours and social functions, usually shared by people in an instit ut ionalized set t ing involving a denominat ional ident it y (Carroll, 1998; Foster-Massie, 1998; Bullis, 1996; Derezot es, 1995). Walker (1998) believes t hat formalized religion comes w it h it s own set of rules of pract ice that are not alw ays applied or used, whereas spirit ualit y is an int egrat ion of body and spirit, and connectedness to land, creatures and all the elements. Walsh (1999a) suggests that religions provide standards and prescriptions for individual virt ue and family life t hat are grounded in core beliefs. Part icular ideas and practices are often considered to be right or true and go unquest ioned, and congregat ional affiliation provides social and healt h benefit s as w ell as support in times of crisis. Many people think of spiritualit y as basically personal and religion as inherently social (Carroll, 1998), although others would not agree with this dichotomy as is evidenced by the earlier viewpoint s t hat link social justice and spiritualit y, which can result in spiritual expression t hat is communal and communit y orient ed. As the Introduction notes, although there appears to be general consensus in t he lit erat ure that spiritualit y and religion are underst ood different ly, t hey do overlap and influence each ot her. Consequent ly, religion can be a means of spiritual expression and experience for some people, and some authors do use the terms interchangeably. For example, Loewenberg (1988, p.ix) believes t hat “for many if not most Americans, t he spirit ual dimension means religion.” On the other hand, Elkins, Hedstrom, Hughes, Leaf & Saunders (1988) argue that although historically in the West religion and spirit ualit y have gone hand in hand, t his is changing as t radit ional religion fails t o meet t he spirit ual needs of many people. They believe there 6
are a growing number of people who are pursuing alternative spiritual paths in a quest for a life of depth and meaning. There are other examples in the social work literature (see Hickson & Phelps, 1998), where slippage occurs between the two terms which can create confusion. Derezotes (1995) sums up the situation by noting that the concept s of spiritualit y and religion are oft en poorly defined in the literat ure and are often used synonymously. However, distinguishing between concept ualizat ions of spirit ualit y and religion appears to be import ant in social work for three reasons: definitions of spirituality converge with social work values; secularization and professionalization processes shifted social w ork aw ay from it s religious root s; and ant i-religious sent iment is evident within social work. These issues are now examined.
Valuing diversity Descript ions of spirit uality in t he lit erat ure converge w it h social w ork values, part icularly in relat ion t o t he current emphasis on diversit y. Spirit ualit y is view ed as relevant for all people w hereas religion is not because spirituality is understood as encompassing highly personal relat ionships and is a universal aspect of human exist ence and experience. As Anderson (1999) st at es, because spirit ualit y is not linked t o dogma it can not be limit ed to a part icular religious t radit ion. Also, because it ’s about aut hent ic living as w ell as meaning making, it is a highly personal realit y. Canda (1998, p.105) points out that the question that needs asking is how can spirit ualit y be addressed, not only from part icular sectarian belief systems but also from a perspective that honours and embraces spiritual diversity. V aluing diversit y is current ly a focus not only in social work but in ot her helping professions as well. For inst ance, W alsh (1999b) w riting from a family t herapy perspective caut ions us t o not judge diverse fait h orientat ions as inferior when they differ from predominant Euro-Christian standards. She 7
argues that because society is becoming more diverse, therapists will have more contact with different faiths, so consequently, spiritual pluralism must be fostered. Particularly when practitioners represent the dominant cultural group they must be cautious and remain open to differences, and seek to underst and t he meaning and funct ion of different spirit ualit ies in client s’ lives (Walsh, 1999a). T his current emphasis on diversit y came about in part because people w ho w ere marginalized demanded a voice w it hin mainst ream social w ork discourse and practice. Perspectives such as feminist social work and other anti-oppression approaches demanded that social work be more inclusive and aware of diverse issues.5 Indeed, there are potential negative consequences when diversity is not recognized and valued. As Mangan Harding (1997) advocat es, it is in t he t ensions of diversit y t hat t he fullness of each being enriches the community. Social work’s commitment to social justice, it s belief in t he inherent dignit y of people, and it s client -cent ered focus fits with definitions of spirituality that are inclusive of the vastness of people’s life experiences. As Canda (1988a) notes, sectarian attempts to assert t he import ance of spirit ualit y hinge on part icular beliefs that are unacceptable to the profession as a whole. Thus, in general, discussions about spirit ualit y and the incorporat ion of spirit ualit y rat her than religion appear more suitable and palatable for social workers. Canda (1998) also suggests that one of the themes that needs to guide fut ure innovat ion in spirit ualit y and social work is human diversity. He argues t hat at a minimum social w orkers need t o be educat ed t o respect and increase their know ledge of spirit ual diversit y, and t hat this needs to go beyond a mere tolerance to an appreciation and proactive ecumenism, int erreligious dialogue and universal spirit ual aw areness. He believes that a t ranscult ural spiritualit y addresses our t rue nat ure w hich involves a common-
5 The issues of marginalized knowledge and an emphasis on diversity will be further analyzed in the following chapter. 8
heartedness with others and that diversity enhances the personal development of all involved, a viewpoint that reflect s Mangan Harding’s (1997) perspect ive ment ioned earlier. But , as Canda (1998) notes, t his is a sophist icated form of spirit ualit y. His suggest ion is t o ment or st udent s for spiritual discernment, deep personal introspection, and active dialogue and cooperat ion across spirit ual perspect ives. W hile his view point could be considered content ious and difficult t o implement , part icularly given t he current state of knowledge in the area and the marginalized nature of spiritualit y, t he emphasis on diversit y is import ant . T he second fact or that is involved in t he desire t o dist inguish bet w een religion and spirit ualit y concerns the secular nature of social work, which is more comprehensively covered in the ensuing discussion.
The secularization and professionalization of social work In order to explicate why the social work profession has largely ignored spirit uality and religion, many aut hors point to the secularizat ion and professionalization processes that social work underwent in its professional evolution. Russel (1998), Loewenberg (1988) and Marty (1980) note that the origins of most modern social services can be traced back to organized religion. Although the scope and extent of welfare services provided by religious organizations varied at different times and in different regions of the world, whatever services existed were until the early to mid-20th century under t he auspices of religious authorit ies. Kilpat rick and Holland (1990) agree and note that dealing with human need apart from religious motives is actually a recent historical development. T w o t hings should be not ed in relat ion t o social w ork’s religious root s. First, Ressler (1998) writ ing from an American cont ext , notes t hat t he religious communit y has maintained a consist ent involvement in the delivery of social services, even though in the past 60 years there has been a major shift to the public sector, and second, that the secularization and 9
professionalization of social work was resisted strongly by some. As Marty (1980) explains, some religious social services responded cooperat ively t o the challenge presented by the new profession of social work but more resistant religions engaged in an almost Darwinian struggle. He states that current ly secular and religious services t end t o work apart out of a lack of int erest or in some cases hostilit y. A number of historical developments led to the separation of social work and religious organizations. These include the emergence of a nation st ate, indust rializat ion, the Prot est ant Reformat ion, t he rise of scient ism and positivism, and the conviction that human need could be met in a rational fashion (Drover, 1998; Loewenberg, 1988). The early 20th century encouraged the development of a more systemic base of knowledge for practice (Kilpatrick & Holland, 1990). As Drover (1998) explains, in the 1920’s the founders of the profession believed that a new dawn of rational int ervent ion and scient ific discourse w ould right the wrongs of societ y. Similarly, Russel (1998) points out that social work went through secularization and professionalization because it emulated psychiatry and its medical model, and embraced a scientific worldview. In order to gain the recognition accorded to other professions, social work moved away from a primary ident ificat ion wit h any part icular religious t radition and embraced values of democrat ic pluralism emphasizing broad inclusion rat her than sectarian differences (Clark, 1994). Additionally, Holmes (1994) argues that spirituality and psychotherapy have been kept separate out of a sense of professionalism. He w onders if the belief in professionalism leads t o a reject ion of issues such as spiritualit y because of a fear of losing status as an objective, rational and scientific clinician. As Lloyd (1997) notes, spirit ual const ruct s defy scient ific definition and therefore are viewed as having no part to play in professionalism. Early (1998) believes t hat alt hough spirit ual and religious issues emerge in 10
practice, they are often avoided in an effort to maintain these “professional” boundaries. T he influences of professionalism on the marginalizat ion of spiritualit y are evident in Russel’s (1998) paper, which reviews graduate course offerings in spirit ualit y. He found t hat teaching st aff report ed t hat one of t he biggest challenges t hey faced in developing a spiritualit y course w as overcoming colleague’s resistance and skepticism. This resistance stemmed from fear that one viewpoint would be presented and that the material would be considered fuzzy, unprofessional and inappropriate for graduate education. Similarly, Dudley and Helfgott (1990) found that the greatest concern teaching staff had was about the separation of church and state, and that one view would dominate others. Walsh (1999a) adds that when she became int erest ed in editing a book on spiritualit y and family therapy, academic colleagues t old her it w as a good t hing she already had tenure, ot hers looked appalled, and st ill ot hers w orried t hat she might have gone “off the deep end” into some fringe group. Professionalization and secularization processes part icularly affect ed the role of values in social work. How ever, t he role of values and their strong connection to spirituality are also important.
Values and t he professionalizat ion of social work The positivist tradition that went hand in hand with the processes of professionalization and secularization encouraged the separation of values and knowledge development. Loewenberg (1988) points out that value neutrality has become a cardinal value of all occupational groups that claim professional status. As he explains, the professional expectation that personal values be separated from practice arose in reaction to paternalistic moralism which was charact erist ic of early charit y w orkers. Drover (1998) adds t hat in order to divorce itself from t his moralism, social w ork emphasized t he import ance of scientific diagnoses. 11
It is a widely accepted principle that a social worker must be value neutral (Loewenberg, 1988), but this principle refers to personal values, not professional values. As Hickson and Phelps (1998) note, it is generally still agreed that practitioners should not impose their value system on clients, and many social workers express concern about imposing personal values (Roberts, 1999; Cornett, 1992). At the same time, it is common within social work to stress the important position professional values hold (Loewenberg & Dolgoff, 1992), and it is widely accepted in social work that research and practice are not neutral or value-free. As Weick (1999) argues, what social w ork knows comes from a value perspect ive, in part icular, social w ork’s moral commit ment s and it s social perspective and t hat this in combinat ion with practice wisdom forms the unique character of social work. Wells Imre (1984) adds that social work can not separate knowledge and values. The focus on professional values has particular repercussions for spiritually influenced knowledge and practice, as spirituality is generally associated with personal values. This affiliat ion reinforces beliefs that spirit ualit y does not belong in a professional practice that is supposed to be devoid of the expression of personal values. T he exclusion of analysis regarding the impact personal values have on social work is demonstrated within many introductory social work texts. These texts generally stress the importance of professional values for practice. If personal values are discussed it is usually with regards to how well these personal values converge with social work’s professional values. For example, Compton and Galaway (1989) focus on what they identify as t he t w o essent ial value premises underlying social w ork pract ice; a belief in the uniqueness and the inherent dignity of people and a belief in client self- determination. Bloom (1990) stresses professional ethics and values only when presenting four ethical theories that can guide social workers in conflict resolution. Wirtz Macht and Quam (1986) do briefly examine the impact of personal values, but in relation to how these values converge with a social 12
work perspective. They state that an integral part of professional education is to socialize students into the values of the profession. However, professional values are not oft en ident ified as spirit ual or feminist , which reinforces the marginalizat ion of these know ledges. Although the separation between personal values and professional social work might have been necessary in the beginning of the profession’s development, increasingly social workers are recognizing that personal values impact on practice and research. Indeed, for some practitioners such as feminist social workers, an integration and expression of both professional and personal values is import ant . The third issue that addresses the need to distinguish between spiritualit y and religion concerns the connect ions betw een spirit ualit y and religion, and how spirit ualit y’s associat ion wit h religion cont ributes in part to t he cont roversy surrounding its inclusion into social w ork (Dudley & Helfgot t , 1990). The Introduction identified the existence of an anti-religion literature in social work. A brief overview of t his lit erat ure is offered here as a way of exploring its relationship t o t he marginalization of spirit ualit y.
Anti-religious sent iment in social work Loewenberg’s (1988) viewpoint is that there is a vast amount of misunderstanding and mistrust concerning religion and its place in professional practice. He states that social workers note the damaging effect s of religion and are part icularly worried about rigid rit ualism and inflexible doct rines t hat charact erize many fundamentalist groups, even though religion has positive aspects. Similarly, Amato-von Hemert (1994) explains that social workers who refuse to support rigid, undeveloped, self- righteous or self-destructive religiosity are correct but that denying all religious dimensions is unet hical and leads t o inadequat e service. Alternatively, Clark (1994) argues that religion should not be part of the social work curriculum. He states that social work should not join the 13
bit ter bat tles t hat America’s religious denominat ions conduct in church and t hen t ake int o the larger culture. He believes t hat since social w ork values self-determinat ion, it should not risk t he imposit ion of moral codes and gag rules t hat churches impose on t hemselves and ot hers, and t hat social w ork must resist contemporary reactionary efforts to recast complex social problems as t he result of moral and spirit ual failures of people. How ever, t his st ance is a monolit hic view of religion and fails t o account for tradit ions that do not fit int o t his descript ion, for example, liberat ion t heology. Krill (1990) found amongst his social w ork st udent s t hat many w ere outspoken about crit icisms and rejection of inst it utionalized religion, yet a vast majority of students affirmed a personal faith in spirituality that tended to be anti-institution, more grounded in Eastern and nature religions such as Buddhism, and talked about in Jungian and feminist terms. He adds that t ypical criticisms of religion include t hat people use it as a w ay to feel good and are preoccupied with heaven and their own salvation at the expense of a suffering world, that people are taken by their own righteousness and use this to judge others, and that it has been co-opted by political groups to support individualism and capit alism. However, some people’s spirit ual perspectives may lead to the same complaints. A dichotomy that poses religion as bad and spirit uality as good does not accurat ely reflect the complexit y or diversit y of people’s experiences. This discussion appears to indicate that social workers are primarily concerned about more fundamentalist attitudes and behaviours that leave little room for diversity in beliefs and experiences. As Reed (1998) indicates, t here is a level of injust ice present for adult s who have been raised in a fundament alist religion and w ho perceive t he w orld out side of t heir part icular religion as dangerous and to be viewed with mistrust. She adds that it is not necessarily the case that women share equal roles with men within fundament alist religions and t hat aut onomy, crit ical t hinking and independent 14
decision-making are not encouraged. These types of values certainly clash with social work emphases on equality and self-determination. Similarly, as Elkins et al (1988) contend, a humanistic approach to spiritualit y is not an ant i-religious st ance and is at variance only wit h a narrow religious view that would claim a monopoly on spirituality and that refuses to recognize its universal nature. They argue that in order to study spiritualit y as a valid enterprise, it must be removed from t he religious arena as a humanist ic understanding of spirit uality places it w it hin the borders of psychological science. However, as Canda (1988, p.30) points out, in order t o avo id t he p ro ble ms of se c t arian b ias it se ems t h at so c ial w o rk has “t hro w n out t he baby of spirit ualit y w ith t he bat h wat er of sect arianism.” This section of the chapter has discussed conceptualizations of spiritualit y and religion in t he social w ork lit erat ure. T here appears to be general consensus t hat spiritualit y and religion are defined different ly, although they are also connected. Overall, spirituality is understood as a universal aspect of human life that encompasses experiences that transcend the self and relate to something bigger (however that is defined). Spirituality also refers to experiences of making meaning, reflection, connectedness, social activism and an expansion of consciousness. Religion is defined as a system of organized beliefs, rituals and behaviours shared by people with a denominational identity. Three factors seem to be important regarding the need to distinguish betw een spirit ualit y and religion. T he domain of spirit uality appears broader and more in line with social work values, whereas religion is not viewed as relevant for all people. Also, t he secularizat ion and professionalizat ion of social work shifted social services to the public sector and led to a dependence on positivist science that encouraged the separation of values from research and practice. This separation influences the marginalization of spiritualit y, as spirit ualit y is st rongly linked w ith personal values. But increasingly, social workers recognize that research and practice are value- 15
laden and that personal values impact on social work processes. In particular, anti-oppression approaches such as feminist social work integrate both professional and personal values. Finally, the connection of spirituality w it h religion has also affect ed t he marginalizat ion of spiritual know ledge and practice. However, anti-religious sentiment appears to be expressed primarily t owards fundament alist beliefs. Social w orkers are concerned about inflexible and rigid belief systems, and that one viewpoint will dominate all others. While some social workers argue for the inclusion of non-fundamentalist religion in social work, there is a more substant ial literat ure t hat explores t he need t o incorporat e spirit ualit y in social w ork.
RA TIONALES FOR THE INCLUSION OF SPIRITUALITY IN SOCIAL WORK
Some social workers use the religious roots of the profession to justify a ret urn to religious and spirit ual influences in social work. For example, Kilpat rick and Holland (1990) believe that social w ork should build on its heritage by transforming its roots and traditions to give present spiritual meaning to values of love, justice and community. But as the previous discussion illustrates, it is unlikely that most social workers would support a return to religiously based and oriented practice due to secularization and professionalizat ion processes, current ideas and beliefs about spirit ualit y, and the emphasis of social work values such as diversity. Moreover, the literature suggest s ot her rat ionales for an inclusion of spirit uality int o social w ork, which are summarized in the following discussion. These include issues raised by client s and client s’ cult ures, coping resources, social work’s helping approach, the efficacy of spiritual interventions, and the need for knowledge building in the area. Much of this lit erat ure is based on pract ice w isdom and case examples. As w as not ed earlier, t his knowledge is valuable in t hat 16
practitioner beliefs and experiences are examined, but the literature’s current over-reliance on sole practitioner attitudes also points to the need for broader research that explores many perspectives of social workers and client s alike.
Issues in social work processes One line of argument in the literature suggests that the issues clients bring t o social workers are spirit ual in nat ure and t hat spirit ualit y underlies many of the problems that are confronted in practice. For example, conflicts in values, search for direct ion, meaning, int egrat ion and fait h are ident ified as spiritual matters (Roberts, 1999; Holland, 1990). Other authors note that client s express int erest in, and oft en ident ify, spirit ual problems or goals (Walsh, 1999b; Russel, 1998). Hickson and Phelps (1998) state that spiritualit y is a significant influence on human behaviour and Early (1998) believes it is unavoidable in pract ice. Pearlman and Saakvit ne (1995) note t hat t rauma w ork continuously calls int o quest ion issues of meaning, w hile Wright (1999) adds that the experience of suffering from illness often becomes transposed t o one of spiritualit y as t he family tries t o underst and their suffering and distress. Death and dying is often identified in the literature as an experience that is strongly linked with discussions about spirituality. Studies indicate that people who have a strong degree of overall spiritual awareness and a comforting personal perspective on death tend to experience less psychosocial distress (Smith, Stefanek, Joseph, Verdieck, Zabora & Fetting, 1993). Lloyd (1997) points out that death is an experience that raises questions of a broadly spiritual and existential nature for every person and that a secularized approach may miss the point for many people, and may be deeply offensive. Irizarry (1992) advocat es t hat every human being regardless of age encount ers t he limit ations of human explanat ions and understanding concerning the mystery of death. 17
T he cult ure of some client s is also recognized as connect ed t o spiritualit y. Spiritualit y is an int egral component of life and must be addressed when working with many cultures such as African Americans, immigrant families, Lat inos, Jew s and Indigenous peoples (Boyd-Franklin & Walker Lockwood, 1999; Tolliver, 1997; Kasee, 1995). For example, Jackson (1995) explains that spirituality is the cornerstone of Afrocentric activity and t hat spirit ualit y is part of everyt hing and can not be separat ed out . Bert hold (1989) caut ions us t hat w hat is normal in one cult ure may not be considered so in another, which emphasizes the importance of accepting and understanding clients’ diverse forms of spiritual expression.
Spirit uality and coping Sermabeikian (1994) ident ifies spirit ualit y as an import ant coping resource. Hagon (1998) similarly found that survivors of abuse named spiritualit y as helping t hem t hrough t he healing process and that spirit ual beliefs gave t hem a reason t o keep living. T angenberg (2000) notes that spiritualit y is a pow erful part of life for w omen w it h HIV and provides securit y and comfort in managing t heir illness. Furthermore, spirit ualit y alt ered t he way these women valued life and generated a desire to live with new values and behaviours. Other literature argues that spirituality provides hope and a capacity for faith, joy, love, wonder, acceptance, creativity and gratitude (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995; Kilpatrick & Holland, 1990). Additionally, a practitioner’s own spirituality is important to consider both as a coping resource and as an influence on practice. Pearlman and Saakvitne (1995) describe how trauma work can vicariously traumatize the therapist and create what they identify as spiritual damage. Thus, for t herapist s w orking w it h t rauma, spirit ualit y is oft en an int egral part of life and an important coping mechanism (Hagon, 1998). Canda (1988b) points out t hat a pract it ioner’s spirit ualit y influences their mot ivat ions, helping styles, techniques and selection of theory. Consequently, Canda (1988a) 18
believes t hat personal cult ivation of spirit ualit y is crucial preparat ion for t he applicat ion of know ledge and skills in pract ice.
A holist ic approach Carroll (1998) and Canda (1988a) emphasize the need to address spirituality because social work strives towards a holistic understanding of the person-in-environment. As Carroll (1998) explains, to address the spiritualit y of client s is not t o pract ice religion but to affirm the w holeness of t heir being, w hich reflect s an emphasis on an inclusive spirit ualit y. When spiritualit y is denied, t he fulfillment of people’s potent ial for w holeness, t heir right to fully express their experience and creative transformation are all restricted (Russel, 1998; Walker, 1998). Canda (1998) argues that most discussions regarding the person-in-environment concept ignore the spiritual and transpersonal realms, and that environment is usually conceived of in a narrow sense as social environment . Accordingly, he believes t hat social w ork needs to revise this concept in a dramatic way. In addition, Anderson (1999) and Kilpat rick and Holland (1990) believe t hat spiritualit y helps t o underst and behaviour in terms of the interconnectedness of life systems and that this understanding can help to form a commitment to social justice activities.
Effect iveness of spiritually influenced pract ice A grow ing lit erat ure discusses t he efficacy of spirit ually influenced interventions such as meditation, prayer and ritual (Russel, 1998; Bewley, 1995). Guthrie (1995) argues that approaches that empower women physically as w ell as ment ally and spirit ually, may be more effective in producing personal and social change than cognitive strategies alone. Powers (1995) found t hat exposure to feminist spirit ualit y lit erature and classroom experiences led to great changes in students’ lives. She explains that seldom does she see change happen so deeply and so quickly even with clients, and reports that changes in students’ self-esteem amaze her. However, it is 19
unclear how or why these dramatic changes materialize, or if they endure long after the classroom experience ends. Clearly there is a strong demand for empirical research that explores the effectiveness of spiritually influenced processes, which would expand and deepen our understanding of how and w hy and if t hese spirit ually influenced practices w ork.
The need for knowledge and research Russel (1998) points out that research in spirituality and social work practice is in its infancy and has primarily focused on attitudes and practices of social workers. Research is needed to examine the influence of spirituality in practice and on the efficacy of interventions as was mentioned above. Bullis (1996) adds that there is a strong need for language and practice methods designed t o incorporat e spirit ualit y into t heory. Amat o-von Hemert (1994) argues that it is not in the profession’s best interests for practitioners t o use t heir personal religious and spirit ual experiences as t he knowledge base and standard for making clinical judgments and policy decisions. This view reiterates the concerns social workers have regarding the imposition of personal values ont o client s, and indicates t he import ance of building professional knowledge, which can assist in guiding assessments, interventions and other social work processes, and encourages professional credibilit y and account abilit y. Others stress that social workers are ill prepared to attend to spiritualit y, w hich reflect s t he marginalized nat ure of spiritual know ledge and the newness of this area of study and practice. Ressler (1998) believes that social workers need to be taught how to include spirituality and religious issues in assessments and interventions, and that professional wisdom and guidelines need to be developed concerning topics such as when is it appropriate t o use religious language and t o raise spirit ualit y issues, and how t o avoid spirit ual abuse. However, it is yet t o be det ermined how t his facilitation of learning about spirituality can productively occur. Russel (1998) 20
and Derezotes (1995) suggest that social work education should include models of spirit ual development , how t o assess funct ional and dysfunct ional beliefs and experiences, exposure to diversity in beliefs and practices, the role of sectarian agencies, and assessment and intervention skills. This discussion has summarized the various rationales contained in t he lit erat ure concerning t he incorporat ion of spiritualit y int o pract ice. These rationales are varied and address practice, research, pedagogical, and epist emological fact ors such as t he issues clients’ bring t o pract ice, t he potent ial of spiritualit y as a coping resource and t he efficacy of spirit ually influenced practices. Also identified is the importance of research and know ledge building. W hile much of the research in t his area is at a beginning stage of development, at the same time promising results are presented about t he pot ential posit ive effect s t hat spirit ually influenced social w ork may hold for client s, st udent s and pract itioners. T he incorporat ion of spiritualit y may also encourage social work itself to broaden its perspective becoming more holistic in the process. Alt hough spirit ualit y is not yet a legitimized know ledge in social w ork and there is a great need for knowledge development in the area, as the above discussion illust rat es some social w orkers are already ut ilizing what t hey identify as spirit ually influenced pract ices and claiming effect ive result s. It appears that increasingly more social workers are attempting to incorporate spiritualit y in t heir practices. As Goldst ein and Noonan (1999) summarize in a review of the recent proliferation of social work practice models, an emerging framew ork for pract ice includes more spirit ually oriented approaches. Moreover, a review of the literature indicates that some pract ice applications and a small number of spirit ually influenced models have been developed. Two such models are Schwartz’s (1999) Internal Family Systems model, and Doherty’s (1999) Three Domains of Language and Meaning model. T he discussion of t hese t w o models which complements the analysis in this chapter occurs in the family therapy literature, but they 21
are included as examples in the ensuing discussion given the newness of this area. Given t he realit y that pract it ioners are already incorporat ing spiritualit y in pract ice and that discussions in the literat ure about spirit ually influenced practices constitute a substantial portion of the overall literature in this area, this chapter would not be complete without an examination of some of these examples of pract ices influenced by spirit ualit y.
SPIRITUALLY INFLUENCED PRA CTICES
Overall, t he lit erat ure discusses spirit ually influenced social w ork practices in a generic and inclusive manner, which reflects the secular nature and values of social w ork, and the concept ualizat ions of spirit ualit y described earlier such as diverse experiences of sacredness.6 For some practitioners, spirituality influences the helping process by altering the understanding of helping processes, w hile for ot hers spirit ualit y shapes ideas, beliefs and values about human nature and people. In addition, the literature also discusses more specific pract ices t hat are influenced by spirit ualit y. T hese practices such as prayer and meditation are not frameworks or practice models as such, as t hey do not necessarily guide ot her pract it ioners, although they do contribute to the preliminary development of practice know ledge by illust rat ing how cert ain spirit ually influenced processes can be helpful. In fact, the frameworks and practice models that have been developed in t his area are sparse. 7 T hus, it is relevant t o acknow ledge models that begin to develop theory in the area and that have been
6 See (C anda, 1988b) for a description of how different faith orientations influence helping processes. 7 It should be noted that Peck (1987) and Fowler (1981) hav e dev eloped stage models of spiritual/faith development. These stage models are not practice models but are potentially useful for assessment and intervention. Because these models were developed at a time when knowledge was especially sparse, they are often referred to in the literature. 22
identified as useful in the literature, particularly given the reality that social w orkers are already incorporating spirit ualit y int o pract ice.
Altered conceptualizations of helping processes and human nature For some pract it ioners a spirit ually influenced pract ice alt ers an understanding of the helping process so that this process is described as a spiritual one and beliefs about people also shift . For example, Walsh (1999a) points out that the very essence of the therapeutic relationship and meaningful change is ultimat ely spiritual in nat ure because it fosters personal transformation, wholeness and relational connection with others. Weingarten (1999, p.254) describes the elements of a spiritual practice as listening without your own agenda, opening the self to sorrow, finding connection in loss, attending to the present, resting within uncertainties, accepting fear, believing that there is always something that can be sustaining, and relating intimately and collaboratively. And as Hickson and Phelps (1998) summarize, a spirit ual orient at ion encourages beliefs t hat t here is a spirit ual realit y, t hat spiritual experiences make a difference in client s’ lives, and that therapists are open about values. Similarly, Barrett (1999) believes that healing from trauma is a quest for spirituality that reflects a deep need for meaning and value. Beliefs regarding human nature are also shift ed w hen spiritualit y influences pract ice. For example, Tolliver (1997) describes t he use of a psychospirit ual approach w it hin t he Black American communit y. His pract ice principles reflect a perception of human beings and values that are intertwined with spirituality. For example, people must be viewed as whole and complete, they must be treated with respect as they have an inherent dignity, there is more to a person than can be known psychologically, the therapist approaches the work knowing that both she and the client are constantly developing, and clients often come to the work not knowing about spirituality. Thus, one of the first tasks is to help a person find hope and the 23
shared Black American culture. Similarly, Canda (1998) believes that a spiritually sensit ive relat ionship recognizes t he inherent dignit y and w ort h of every client regardless of beliefs and behaviours, and t hat this kind of practice gives deepened meaning to empathy. W hile spiritualit y influences view s about pract ice and human nature, there are also more specific practices that have been identified as spiritually influenced. These include using social justice activities, prayer and meditation, making meaning processes, resources outside of the helping relat ionship, addict ion services, and int uit ion.
Social justice activities According t o Perry and Rolland (1999), spirit ual well being and social justice are inextricably t ied. These aut hors out line several therapeut ic benefits of social justice activism such as hope, empowerment and healing, and they recommend that therapists and clients participate in social justice activities both as an expression of spirituality and as an intervention that can be enhancing for healing in and amongst people and communities. For instance, liberation from oppressive social structures is just as critical as liberat ion from int rapsychic const raints, and t herapist s should fost er just ice- seeking connections and community for clients, between therapists and clients/community, and amongst professional colleagues. Similarly, Canda (1998) adds t hat a spirit ually sensit ive underst anding of human fulfillment links personal growth, social justice and ecojustice, and that theories and practice strategies need to go beyond a goal of egoistic self-actualization to a goal of mutual benefit for all.
Prayer and meditation Prayer is a technique that is used with or on the behalf of clients. Wright (1999) states that she has on occasion independently adopted the pract ice of praying for client s she w orks w it h. She believes that in praying for 24
her clients, she perhaps heightens connection with them and her investment in their recovery and well being. Prayer is generally associat ed w it h religion but the processes in prayer such as communicating with the Transcendent are similar to these that can occur in meditative processes. For instance, Carroll (1998) identifies meditation and guided imagery processes as useful and argues that these methods access realms beyond the personal, and facilitate healing of unresolved issues in some cases almost simultaneously. It would be int erest ing and useful to know more about how t his healing occurs “almost simult aneously” and if client charact erist ics cont ribut e to this change.
Making meaning The process of making meaning is described as a spiritual one (Sermabeikian, 1994). In fact, Hartman’s (1996, p.189) doctoral research posit s t he process of finding meaning in crisis as the link bet w een spiritualit y and social work pract ice. Similarly, Anderson (1999) st at es t hat spiritualit y is the experience of making meaning informed by a relationship with the T ranscendent in life. He believes that counselling goals include helping people t o know their st ory in order t o reframe it. Therapy from a spirit ual perspective aims to help people fashion narratives that weave together human and Divine realities, enabling people t o hear t heir ow n st ories ret old w it h clarit y and new possibilit y, t ransforming t heir lives in the process.
Addict ions and self-help groups Spirit ualit y influences addict ion t reat ment in t w elve-st ep approaches that use the symbol of a higher power to develop internal resources (Sermabeikian, 1994). Kasee (1995) describes Native spirituality as a self- esteem building tool for Indigenous women in recovery from substance use. She argues against the appropriation of Indigenous culture and points out 25
how the prevalent commercialization of Indian spirituality denigrates these recaptured sources of dignity and pride. Other self-help groups based on twelve-step models also discuss spiritualit y and are somet imes used in conjunct ion w it h social work services. Helping people connect w it h spirit ual and/or religious resources out side of a helping relat ionship is ident ified as useful. Apont e (1999) discusses a case example of a woman who because of her renewed church involvement, alt ered her self-percept ion. He believes t hat therapy had a crit ical place in change but that the impetus for the depth of change came from life outside t herapy. In ot her w ords, t herapy in addit ion t o spirit ual/religious involvement contributed to change that might not have been as dramatic with therapy alone.
Intuit ion Int uit ion is ident ified as part of a spirit ual pract ice. Oaks (1998) believes that we need to listen to ourselves and drop all efforts at problem solving in order to t horoughly join wit h t he client , t rusting t hat w hat ever emerges will be helpful. He adds that w e oft en know far more t han w e t hink w e do and can tune int o t his knowledge. Canda (1998) also w rit es about int uit ion and believes that a spirit ually sensit ive relat ionship encourages an intuitive connection with another that leads to sensing the person’s inner feelings and gaining insight into the right response at a particular moment. He stresses that social work education needs to pay more attention to helping social workers enhance their capacity for empathy and intuition. Luoma (1998) concurs t hat int uit ion can become a crit ical tool in the process of accessing more of the self, in order to provide a more comprehensive helping approach. T he pract ices described above illust rat e how spiritualit y can influence both personal processes and communal act ivit ies. A spirit ually influenced practice can encourage social change and work for the common good, and 26
can shape personal processes such as making sense of life experiences. Spirit ualit y can also influence a pract itioner to become more at tuned to t heir inner sense of trust and knowledge (intuition), and can broaden practice by fostering connections to community resources. Schwartz’s (1999) model focuses on accessing an int ernal realm t o facilit at e healing and is akin to the use of meditation and guided imagery discussed above. This model along with Doherty’s (1999) model will now be discussed in great er det ail.
Two examples of practice model development Schwartz (1999) developed the Internal Family Systems model from his own practice wisdom and experiences. In this model people are helped to separate from parts of themselves that are experiencing intense feelings so that they can be viewed by “the Self”, which is an observing place of compassion and understanding (Holmes, 1994), and the inner state of a person analogous to and conceptualized as the soul (Schwartz, 1999, p.230). Schwartz (1999) argues that as his clients connect to their Selves they have experiences that could only be classed as spiritual, for example, they are able to let go of pain, feel warm energy flow through their bodies, experience feelings of bliss and rapture, sense that their lives have meaning, and sometimes receive messages about what they are here to do. He believes that to produce lasting harmony, traumatized parts of the person must be helped to unload the feelings and beliefs (burdens) they accumulated from past events. In order for these parts to unburden and transform, the person’s Self must fully witness the story of how a part received its burden. In applying this model, Holmes (1994) admits that he does not fully know how to understand the experiences clients have either but that clients seem to connect to a place in themselves where they can retell the story of life’s traumas in a manner that allows them to heal. Somehow they are able to locate an image in themselves that activates a 27
deep and compassionate state from which they are able to find both guidance and wisdom. T he use of t his model rest s on beliefs that people have wit hin t hemselves w isdom and abilit ies t o heal, which in it self is a posit ive view of human pot ent ial. Some of the ideas encompassed in t his model also converge with viewpoints presented in other helping approaches. For example, the belief t hat people can heal t hemselves fit s wit h a feminist social work perspective that clients are the experts of their own experiences. It is also int erest ing to not e t hat t he Self in Schwart z’s model is similar t o t he role of an inner self helper or inner spiritual helper found in many people w it h dissociat ive identit y disorder, in w hich helpful parts of a person are used t o assist in healing the entire personality system (Hagon, 1998). The descriptions of the processes in Schwartz’s model appear promising in terms of reported effectiveness and potential to empower clients. However, further invest igat ion is required t o facilit at e an underst anding of how these processes work, what clients they are effective with, and if the effects are last ing. Anot her model that may be helpful is Dohert y’s Three Domains of Language and Meaning model, w hich focuses on t he use of clinical, moral and spirit ual language.
Doherty (1999) presents a model for utilizing clinical, moral and spirit ual language in an integrat ed w ay in t herapy. He describes how the t hree domains of language and meaning in therapy can overlap but how t hey should also remain separate because the clinical world of mental health, the moral realm of obligat ions, and t he spiritual realm of transcendent meaning have different modes of language and knowledge generation, epistemologies and t raditions. The t hree domains are illust rat ed in Appendix I (Dohert y, 1999, p.185). As Doherty (1999) notes, without knowledge of a client’s spiritual beliefs and preferred language, a therapist should avoid introducing t erms in the spirit ual-only domain and should be w ary about exposing their ow n spirit ual beliefs w ithout est ablishing t hat t he client shares them in some 28
way or wishes to hear about them. He contends that to tell a depressed person t hat you know God loves her is more t han a st at ement of fait h in t hat it asks for agreement and appropriation by the client and could be a misuse of power. Social workers are concerned with issues of oppression and Doherty’s viewpoint relates to the earlier discussion about divorcing personal values from professional practice. However, there is a difference between imposing values ont o client s and recognizing how personal values influence practices. Alternatively as Doherty (1999, p.187) argues, if a therapist does not know a client ’s spiritual beliefs, spirit ual issues can be broached through the language of overlap areas. For example, using terms like suffering instead of pain resonat e across clinical and spirit ual domains in an appropriate way that can enrich the therapeutic conversation. Given t he difficult ies surrounding spirit ual language that were ment ioned in t he Int roduct ion, t his model is useful in t hat it helps t o clarify t he delineat ions bet ween spirit ual, clinical and moral language, and provides a guide for using language t hat is appropriat e for a client’s perspect ive. This model may also be helpful in underst anding spiritually influenced pract ices. For example, suffering and connectedness can be related to the spiritually influenced helping processes of making meaning and social change activities. According t o Dohert y’s model, t hese t erms belong in t he overlap area of t he clinical/spirit ual domain, w hich converges wit h their descript ion as helping processes shaped by spirituality. Models such as Doherty’s that begin to organize spiritual language are particularly useful given the current stage of development in this area. T his final sect ion of t he chapt er has discussed spirit ually influenced practices. While spirituality can shape understandings of the helping process and human nature, more specific practices were also identified as being influenced by spirit ualit y. T he descript ions of spiritually influenced processes address a variety of issues on both personal and broader levels of change. However, it should be noted that all of these practices and processes can be 29
underst ood w it hout spirit uality. For example, social just ice and making meaning do not have to be influenced by spirituality to be effective. The influence of spiritualit y appears t o shift t he w ays in w hich these processes are defined, explained and understood. So, while meditation can be described as a process of deep relaxation, spirituality alters this explanation so that it becomes a process to access Transcendent realms, which also affect s pract ice goals. For example, in spirit ually influenced meditat ion Transcendent realms are accessed in order to facilitate healing. Also, descript ions of t hese processes as spirit ually influenced are associat ed wit h increased practice effectiveness and meaningfulness. While these accounts are promising for both clients and practitioners, research is required to explore these claims of efficacy and to enrich our understanding of how these processes actually work.
Conclusion
This chapter has provided an overview and analysis of the discussions of spirit ualit y w it hin social w ork. W it hin t he literat ure, spirit ualit y is generally presented as a personal and communal universal aspect of human experience that can be expressed through atheistic and theistic belief systems, and which refers to experiences of sacredness, reflection and making meaning. These understandings reflect social work values such as a commit ment t o social just ice, self-determination, and an inclusive approach t o t he diversity of people’s experiences. In general, spirit ualit y is different iat ed from religion and t hree fact ors w ere discussed t hat elucidat e t he need for t his dist inct ion w it hin social w ork, alt hough spirit uality and religion can be connected. Spirit ualit y is a broader concept t hat bet t er reflect s social w ork values, as spirit ualit y is deemed applicable t o all people. Also, t he secularizat ion and professionalization of social work led to a separation from religious perspectives and personal values. Thus, the association of spirituality with 30
personal values and religion has hampered its accept ance w it hin social work. However, increasingly more social workers are expressing interests in exploring the role of personal values and spirit uality in pract ice. T his grow ing int erest in spirit ualit y is reflected in the literat ure, which present s various rat ionales for t he inclusion of spirit ualit y. Spirit ualit y is identified as an important coping resource, as a crucial factor that requires exploration within some client populations, and as a factor that strengthens the efficacy of some helping approaches. Some practitioners have also begun t o ident ify specific spiritually influenced pract ices such as making meaning, prayer and meditation, and intuition. The descriptions of spiritually influenced processes are promising but further research is needed to explore these practices and to enrich our understanding of how they work. Given the relative infancy of this field of study and the reality that practitioners are already incorporating spirituality into practice, there is a st rong need for research t hat explores t he inclusion of spirit ualit y in social work practice. Much of the literature that is discussed in this chapter is gleaned from survey research, case studies, and personal reflections on practice, which are useful, valuable and contribute to the growing knowledge in this area, but even more empirical research is required that explores in- dept h t he influence of spirit ualit y in pract ice beyond the perspect ive of sole practitioners. Investigating a group of practitioners’ views concerning spiritual influences in t heir pract ices has t he pot ent ial t o enrich and expand our underst anding of spirit ual influences in pract ice by considering, comparing and contrasting various beliefs and practices. Feminist social work perspectives are one social work approach that has ident ified spirit ualit y as an import ant emerging component. A feminist social work perspective provides a practice and theoretical context for this study and this approach is analyzed in the following chapter that also explores feminist spiritualit ies and t he current cont ext of social w ork knowledge. Thus, the next chapter completes the exploration of one 31
theoretical and practice context for this study, and sets the stage for the research quest ions and inquiry t hat follow . 32
CHAPTER TWO FEMINIST SOCIAL WORK APPROACHES AND FEMINIST SPIRITUALITIES
Introduction The previous chapter contextualized and described the discussions about spirit ualit y w it hin general social w ork practice, research and t heory. T his chapter provides an analysis of feminist spiritualit ies and feminist social work approaches, and the commonalities between them. There are many similarities of values and practices between feminist social work approaches and feminist spiritualities. In fact, some feminist social workers encourage an explorat ion of spirit ualit y as an important emerging component of a feminist social work approach. Consequently, both feminist social work perspectives and feminist spiritualit ies are presented in this chapt er that has as it s focus feminist values and practices. This chapter progresses from the specific exploration of feminist social work approaches to a broader examination of the nature of current social work knowledge. The chapter begins with an overview of feminist social work approaches and describes their development and philosophies, values and practices, as feminist social work perspectives provide a practice and theoretical context for this research study. Descriptions of feminist spiritualit ies and feminist spiritual pract ices as described in t he lit erat ure are also examined, noting the overlap between feminist and non-feminist spiritually influenced pract ices. A brief analysis of social w ork know ledge is then presented given that both feminist social work and spirituality may be ident ified as marginalized know ledges w ithin social w ork. This analysis is warranted in order to locate feminist and spirituality knowledges and practices within the broader social work context. 33
FEMINIST SOCIAL WORK THEORY AND PRACTICES
Background and Overview Particularly during the 1980’s, feminist social work theoretical and practice approaches began to appear in the social work literature with feminist social workers writing about the benefits, and necessity, of combining feminist theory and social work practice. It is important to note that there is no unitary approach to the application of a feminist social work perspective, although there are practice principles and assumptions that are shared by feminist social workers. Feminist social work approaches evolved from efforts to integrate feminist theories and values with conventional approaches to social work practice (Bricker-Jenkins, 1991). The theoretical base of feminist social work has been identified by various authors from North America, the United Kingdom and Australia (see for example Bricker- Jenkins, 1989; Dominelli & McLeod, 1989; Hanmer & Statham 1988; Marchant & Wearing, 1986; Valentich, 1986). The women’s movement emerged differently in each of these countries in response to specific circumstances and accordingly feminist social work practice is context dependent. However, there is consistent and similar discussion amongst feminist social workers across these contexts concerning core issues, values and pract ice principles, w hich is evident in the lit erat ure. Feminism is complex and discussions about feminism and the women’s movement(s) can be enigmatic due to a lack of clarity concerning the meaning of these terms (Rowbotham, 1992). Smith (1986) notes that it is impossible t o concept ualize feminism in a monolithic way. Indeed, feminists can be categorized according to different ideological positions such as Liberal, Marxist , Radical, Socialist and Post st ruct ural feminism, however, within a modernist or emancipation framework all feminists share a desire to end the oppression of women (Sands & Nuccio, 1992; Nes & Iadicola, 1989; Marchant & Wearing, 1986). Wearing (1986, p.33) argues that “each 34
perspective has a contribution to make but none has all the answers.” The meaning of feminism in t his thesis is based on the collective analysis by these perspectives of the subordination of women in contemporary Western industrial capitalist societies, which arose from the second wave of feminism in the 1960’s. Importantly, feminism is understood within the contexts and expressions of feminist social work.8 Lundy (1993) notes that feminist social work consists of the complementary elements of feminist theory and therapy, and social work values and principles, w hich w hen combined produce an explicit clinical framework for practice. Bricker-Jenkins (1991) argues that a feminist social work approach goes beyond a non-sexist or women’s issues approach to practice, because it links the personal and political dimensions of human experience and is root ed in liberat ion movement s. It is an evolving and collective endeavor by people who share a worldview, just like the women’s movement itself. Mary Bricker-Jenkins’ doctoral research (1989) was one of the first comprehensive empirical st udies t o examine t he core charact erist ics and dimensions of an emerging feminist social work practice. She based her research on a pilot study that found certain identifiable emphases marked a common bond amongst feminist social workers. Her work developed a practice model in the form of ten propositions and assumptions, and this model emerged by questioning the core characteristics and dimensions of a feminist social work practice. The ten propositions and assumptions had the capacity to inform the work of practitioners and constituted a foundation of an emergent practice system.9 The propositions and assumptions include among others, the assumptions that all feminist practice is explicitly political
8 The reader is referred to Breck enridge (1996) for an in-depth analy sis and rev iew of women’s mov ement(s) and to A damson, Briskin and McPhail (1988) for specific discussion about the Canadian women’s movement(s). 9 A complete list of the propositions and assumptions can be located in Bricker-Jenkins (1994, p.20). 35
in int ent and is pro-w oman, t hat diversit y is a source of st rengt h and healt h, and t hat realit y is a multidimensional process. In the case of Bricker-Jenkins’ research, the literature confirmed her perception that an identifiable, practitioner-developed model of practice was emerging and that it was applied in conventional and alternative settings w it h a variet y of client populations. By recognizing and building on emerging feminist social work know ledge found in t he lit erat ure, as well as practitioners’ personal knowledges and practice wisdoms, she formulated and presented a model of practice that up until that time had primarily constituted marginalized knowledge and practice. Her research is prominent in t his t hesis as it ident ifies spirit ualit y as an important emerging component of holistic social work feminist practices, and there are many similarities between feminist and spiritual knowledge and practices that are discussed later in this chapter. Karen Sandell’s (1993) doctoral research explored the meaning of feminist social work to those who practiced it. At that time, Sandell stated that the knowledge of what feminist social workers do in practice was limited, although feminist social work was gaining a set of characteristics and developing a body of literature that discussed practice principles and techniques. She concurs that there is no one way to practice feminist social work, but that feminist social workers have more similarities than differences. Sandell (1993) reports that while there are definite differences amongst feminist social workers, these differences in practice approaches are influenced more by personal values t han by t heoret ical orient at ion. T he principles and assumptions shared by feminist social workers are examined next.
Principles and assumpt ions informing feminist social work Dominelli and McLeod (1989) not e t hat one of t he most basic principles informing feminist social work is the belief that we are all equal 36
irrespective of our gender. Other shared assumptions are that feminist social w ork involves w orking collaborat ively w it h clients, examining gender socializat ion and gender st ereot ypes, and maint aining egalitarian client relationships (Lundy, 1993). These assumptions may be shared by other social work approaches such as radical casework (Fook, 1993). Dominelli (1998, p.920) describes t he general principles t hat inform feminist social work practice as the integration of theory and practice, list ening to w omen’s voices and valuing t heir skills/knowledges, examining the connections between women’s private lives and the public sphere, considering the interdependence between people and providing for the welfare of all people, responding to women’s needs in the context of their roles as nurturers, and seeking to end inequality. But as she points out, the guiding principles of feminist social work should be made cont ext -specific in order t o be inclusive of diversity in experiences and viewpoint s. This point is further analyzed in t he follow ing sections. Similarly, Bricker-Jenkins (1991) discusses assumptions about human beings and their environments that are most significant in shaping feminist practice. I have summarized her discussion into the following points. The inherent purpose of life is self-act ualizat ion, w hich is a collect ive endeavor. People should be allow ed t o develop to t heir fullest pot ent ial but society fails to meet everyone’s needs. Thus, conditions need to be created that will facilit at e this process for people. Societ y has inst it ut ionalized syst ems of oppression t hat have result ed in specific injuries to w omen, but concern is held about all ideologies of dominat ion. People are inherent ly healt hy and do w hat t hey need to do to survive. Finally, a different w orldview is held from t hat in ascendancy t hat includes believing in t he connect edness of all things, and t hat realit y is an unfolding and mult idimensional process, diversit y should be valued, pain has a polit ical dimension, and women have unique histories that need to be discovered. 37
Clearly, feminist social work approaches are informed by shared principles and values, as are other social work perspectives. The previous chapter discussed how secularization led to a separation of personal values from social work practice and research. It was also mentioned that feminist social workers consciously use both personal and professional values in their work. The importance of values for feminist social work approaches is discussed next.
Values in feminist social work approaches T he init ial calls for bringing t oget her social work and feminism were supported in part by the commonalities between social work and feminist values and philosophies. Collins (1986) argues t hat in many w ays social w ork values are feminist in nature. For example, the social work perspective of person in environment mirrors a feminist philosophy that the personal is political. Collins (1986) also believes t hat social w ork must make its feminist nature visible and valued if it aims to achieve goals such as social justice. Sandell’s (1993) position is that feminism encompasses values that are sympat hetic, if not ident ical, to social w ork. Her view point illust rat es t hat for some feminist social workers there is strong accord between feminist and social work values. Van Den Bergh and Cooper (1986) contend that social work is supposed to share many of the fundamental concerns of feminism, such as an interest in human dignity and the right to self-determination, and that both are theoret ically commit t ed to improving the qualit y of life for all people. Bricker-Jenkins (1994) point s out t hat feminist social w orkers use methods from the vast repertoire of social work modalities that converge with a feminist social work theoretical perspective. She adds that feminist social workers do work in mainstream settings with the same client needs and issues as conventional practitioners, but that feminist social workers 38
bring a set of assumptions and analyses that result in a politicized agenda (Bricker-Jenkins, 1991). Smith’s (1986) argument for the inclusion of women’s studies courses in social work education demonstrates that feminists incorporate their values into practice and pedagogy. Similarly, Bricker-Jenkins and Hooyman (1986) explain that although all social work practice embodies values, few practitioners make their values explicit and consciously examine their practice against their values. However, feminists use values consciously to motivate and evaluate actions. This is not unlike some other social work approaches, such as structural and radical social work that also integrate values with practice. More recent discussion within the feminist social work lit erat ure st resses t he import ance of values like diversit y and inclusivit y, w hich mirrors t he emphasis on diversit y in social work in general.
Diversit y and inclusivit y It should be noted that especially in the 1970’s and early 1980’s, feminism in general w as crit icized for espousing a most ly whit e, middle-class, and homogeneous point of view. Women of colour, poor women, lesbians and others pointed out how feminist theories did not include their experiences of oppression that differed from the mainstream (Agnew , 1993). As Ochshorn and Cole (1995) note, the 1980’s saw a move towards an emphasis on differences as w ell as commonalt ies. The need to make feminist social work practice assumptions and values context specific, and the importance of being open to diversity of viewpoint s and experiences is w ell illust rat ed by Baines (1997). She explains how some feminist social work practice principles were not helpful in the context of her work, in an under-funded, inner-city public hospital, in an impoverished and culturally diverse community. She notes that clients informed her that the process focus she was using seemed to fulfill her needs rather than the clients’ needs for actual resources. Clients who gained 39
access to a social worker demanded that the social worker use her expertise, resources, cultural capital and connections (power) to obtain services that are denied them (poor women of colour). She also found that these clients, especially those who lived on the streets, had no difficulty expressing their anger and were not passive or submissive as their anger kept them and their children safe. T his differs from a previous common assumpt ion in feminist therapies that women need to get in touch with their anger and learn to express it outwards, not turn it inwards. The positive consequence of the criticisms against feminism was that it was forced to examine itself and to become more self-conscious and self- critical (Hirschmann, 1997). As a result, current feminist social work practice and theory emphasizes issues of classism, racism, heterosexism, and attempts to include an analysis of all the “isms”, not just sexism. Dominelli (1998) adds that women have become a more differentiated category with t he valuing of diversit y occupying cent er st age. Dominelli and McLeod (1989) provide an analysis of this process in t heir book Feminist Social Work. They conclude that while women share a commonality in being oppressed as a gender, their experiences of it are very different. The need to continue to emphasize the relevance of diversity and marginalized knowledges is illustrat ed by Ballou (1995) w ho calls for t he disempow erment of a politics of exclusion in feminists’ focus, content and knowing structures, in order to enable t he consideration of spirit ual know ledge and pract ice. Anot her example of how t he literat ure reflect s issues of diversity and inclusivit y is found in debates regarding whether men can be feminists, which is now examined more fully.
Men and feminism Bricker-Jenkins and Hooyman (1986, p.106) explain that some feminists contend that men can be feminists but that they can not be nonsexist because they participate in the structures of patriarchy. Other 40
feminists argue that men can learn to be nonsexist but can not be feminists because feminism is rooted in women’s experience as women. These authors do not take a position in this debate but rather encourage people to define themselves in their own terms. Bricker-Jenkins (1989, p.126) included men in her doctoral research sample, stating that she included men who identified themselves as feminist or pro-feminist practitioners. She reported that for one of her male research participants the terms pro-feminist and nonsexist did not accurately reflect his feminist values and perspective. On the other hand, Tolman, Mowry, Jones and Brekke (1986) believe that men in social w ork should be proact ive in an effort t o eliminat e sexism in t he profession and society, but use the term pro-feminist to connote that their perspective is inspired by the vision of women and derived from the experiences of men. They offer principles for a pro-feminist commitment, some of which converge with feminist social work practice principles such as attending to process and product, and redefining masculinity. Although the issue of whether men can be feminists is a complex one that encompasses various perspectives, increasingly there are calls for a feminist approach t hat is based on inclusivit y. For example, Gross (1998a) advocates that the preferred strategy of change for feminists can not cont inue to be looked at as separat e and t hat feminist social w orkers need to be inclusive. Davison Hunter and Howland Sargeant (1993) similarly argue t hat t he conflict over women’s issues is t rivialized if it is port rayed as men against women. As they point out, men and women can be found on each side of many disputes. Indeed, some women are sexist and anti-feminist. Currently the literature reflects some discussion about the future direction of feminist social work approaches as is evidenced by Gross’s (1998a) view above. Gross (1998b) also speculates about the future need for feminist social work, pointing out that social workers are skeptical about the continued relevance of feminism for practice. Dominelli (1998) adds that the relevance of feminist approaches continues to be challenged across the 41
world. However, despite these challenges to feminism, feminist approaches have encouraged social workers to become responsive to the situation of women in society, and to the problems that both women and men face because of sexism (Nes & Iadicola, 1989). Due in part to the development of feminist social work knowledge, there has been progress in incorporating feminist perspectives into mainstream social work theories, models and practices (Payne, 1997). Also, some schools of social work now offer feminist courses and field placements, and feminist influenced research has helped to modify t radit ional met hods. 10 However, w omen as a group st ill have far less pow er t han men, w hich is evidenced in women’s greater responsibility for domestic w ork w hether or not they are employed outside the home (Brayfield, 1992), and the reality that a majority of women can’t escape the danger of poverty (Hanmer & Statham, 1988). Dominelli (1996) argues t hat w omen in Brit ain are more likely to become social work managers in reaction to a number of factors, such as a lowering in the status of social work, fewer men seeking social work careers, dwindling resources and expenditure cuts, frozen salaries, and t he impact of equal opport unity policies. She st resses t hat gender equality in all its manifestations remains a long way off (Dominelli, 1998). As Kenyon (1997) report s, there is st ill a significant gender earnings gap bet w een male and female social workers. Thus, amongst other issues, it appears that future discussion and debat e w ill likely include t he import ance (or not) of feminist social work approaches and the relevance (or not) of carving out a clear identity for feminist social work perspectives. This section of the chapter has summarized feminist social work approaches. Bricker-Jenkins’ (1989) research was particularly significant for this overview as her work comprehensively examined the core characteristics
10 For example, the School of Social Work at the University of New South Wales (Sydney, Australia) offers feminist placement experiences, as does the Faculty of Social Work at the University of Toronto (Toronto, Canada).
42
of feminist social work perspectives and developed a practice model.11 Although there is no unitary approach to feminist social work practice, feminist social workers share practice principles and assumptions. Diversity is a value t hat is current ly emphasized w it hin feminist social w ork approaches, as well as within social work in general. Feminist social work approaches have had some impact on social work, and feminist values and practices have been incorporat ed int o mainst ream social w ork due in part to t he development of a practice model and frameworks for feminist social work perspectives. However, many of the goals of feminist approaches such as achieving gender equality remain a long w ay off, especially for women w ho suffer multiple layers of oppression. While t here has been some discussion in the literature concerning the future of feminist social work approaches, this discourse w ill cont inue and may in the fut ure include discussions about spirituality as some feminist social workers have identified spirituality as an emerging component t o consider. T he increasing int erest in spiritualit y wit hin social w ork is mirrored wit hin feminist perspect ives as w ell, and is discussed in the follow ing sect ion t hat also explores feminist spirit ualities and t he similarities between feminist social work approaches and feminist spiritualit ies.
SPIRITUALITY AND FEMINIST SOCIAL WORK - FEMINIST SPIRITUALITIES
Feminism and spirit ualit y A few feminist social workers discuss spirituality as an important part of practice. Bricker-Jenkins (1989, pp.221-223) identifies spirituality as a highly significant emerging t heme in pract ice, despit e t he lack of discussion
11 The development of practice models and theory is particularly significant for marginalized knowledge and practices, and I will return to this analysis later in the chapter. 43
regarding spirit ualit y in the feminist social work literat ure. Her w ork found that feminist practitioners tend to explore and encourage spirituality in people’s lives, and that many incorporate methods into their practice aimed at legit imat ing, validating and st rengt hening t he spiritual domain, even t hough spirit uality is not generally considered an appropriat e dimension of practice and is a relatively undocumented aspect of feminist practice. She identifies feminist social work approaches that incorporate spirituality as holist ic perspect ives t hat value and build alliances w it h people’s ow n healing powers. Van Den Bergh (1995) notes that priorities are shifting as they continue to evolve and that the new priorities include spirituality. She points out that during the 1980’s and early 1990’s, feminist social work approaches w ere concerned w it h eliminating false dichot omies, valuing process as w ell as product, renaming one’s personal reality, reconceptualizing power, and integrating the personal and political. She maintains that these priorities are shifting in the lat e 1990’s and current ly int erest s are wit h t he process of knowing (how people know through narratives and deconstruction), with connect ion (focusing on holist ic and spirit ual pract ices, and t he interdependence of people), with caring (emphasizing morality and responsibility), and with diversity (exploring pluralism). In their identification of feminist ideological themes, Bricker-Jenkins and Hooyman (1986) list validat ion of t he non-rat ional as import ant . This t heme includes healing, spiritualit y, and nonlinear and mult idimensional t hinking. They also not e that t he int egrat ion of mind, body and spirit are enduring themes in t he w omen’s movement. Similarly, Ballou (1995) ident ifies spirit ualit y as bot h a process and content central to the continuing development of feminist psychological perspectives. In general, feminists are demonstrating a burgeoning interest in issues pert aining t o spirit uality and religion. For example, t he Canadian Journal of Women’s Studies (1997, 17.1) recently devoted an entire issue to 44
t he explorat ion of w omen’s spirit ualit ies, as did the journal W omen and Therapy (1995, 16.2/3). Although focused more on issues related to religion, the journal Australian Feminist Studies (1999, 14.30) also devoted an entire volume t o t he t heme of feminisms, religions, cult ures and ident ities, and half of another volume to the theme of women, religion and citizenship (1998, 13.28). Similarly, t he journal Hypat ia produced a special issue exploring feminist philosophies of religion (1994, 9.4). In the epilogue, Thie (1994) states that there is something nicely outrageous about a special issue in a field t hat does not exist yet , that is, a feminist philosophy of religion. T he lit erature in these journals has informed t his research but w as not specifically helpful w it h regards t o social w ork pract ice (part icularly the journals examining issues related t o feminism and religions). The art icles in the Canadian Journal of Women’s Studies and Women and Therapy were more relevant for social work practice, although many articles were personal reflections and narratives, which reflects the nature of spiritual knowledge and the state of development in this area. However, it is important to note again t he w ider at t ent ion given t o spirit uality and religion. It is this increased interest within feminism for discussions about spirituality and religion, which demands a comprehensive exploration and consideration of the spirit ual dimension in feminist social work practices and theory. This demand is st rengt hened by t he grow ing int erest in feminist spiritualit ies, w hich the following discussion explores.
Feminist spirit ualit ies Powers (1995) notes that for the past twenty-five years, an area of st udy variously called feminist spiritualit y, feminist t heology or w omen’s spirituality has been flourishing. She contends that this growth began as women started to enter seminaries in greater numbers in the 1960’s and 1970’s, which was concurrent with the growth of feminism in general and the development of women’s studies programs. Powers (1995) adds that as 45
women critiqued theology that reflected men’s experiences, they rediscovered goddesses, pagan religions and cultures that were goddess worshipping. Ochshorn and Cole (1995) note that feminist spirituality is often identified as a challenge to accepted ways of being and knowing. They describe feminist spirituality as the assertion of women’s entitlement to identify, name, explore and assess their own spiritual experiences. King (1989) believes that feminist spirit ualit y is socially responsible, life affirming and action oriented, not something added onto life or apart from it. According t o her, a feminist spiritualit y permeat es all act ivit y, being a dynamic part of development. The fundamental challenge of a feminism that is spirit ual as w ell as polit ical is about a radically changed perspect ive, w hich calls int o quest ion our social, cult ural, polit ical and religious t raditions. Ballou (1995) point s out t hat feminist spirit uality is unmist akably grounded in community, connection and relationship, and she concurs that it represent s a challenge t o est ablished spirit ual traditions and religions regarding accepted ways of knowing and being. This is congruent with feminism in general and t he challenges it has mount ed against pat riarchy. Hunt (1995) adds that the women’s spirituality movement is a concrete manifest ation of feminist awakening in our cult ure; new religious and spiritual forms have been created, ancient practices have been revitalized and reclaimed, and some are simply claiming for themselves a spiritual dimension to t heir lives w it hout regard for a specific religious or spirit ual t radit ion. Bernice Marie-Daly (1993) researched the re-emergence of what she identifies as the Divine. She concludes that eco-feminism reflects this re- emergence of the Divine in people’s lives, as this feminist perspective emphasizes the connectedness between people and the earth. Similarly, Gatens-Robinson (1994) states that eco-feminists have recognized the cent ralit y of spiritual experience t o the development of ecological w isdom, 46
and t hat feminist spirit ualit y in it s various forms can serve as an import ant resource for understanding ecological responsibilities. She points out that some feminists, such as Carol Christ and Starhawk, are helping to restore feminine symbols of spirit ual pow er by celebrat ing eart h religions and nat ural cycles. Finally, as Neu (1995) points out, although feminists have diverse ideas about feminist spirit uality, various perspect ives share themes that include a reverence for the earth and all creation, valuing women’s bodies, seeking connect ions w ith all life, and placing emphasis on rit ual. Important ly, a feminist spirit ualit y is root ed in w omen’s experiences. The descriptions provided above demonstrate that feminist spiritualit ies value and are concerned w ith social just ice issues, pow er dynamics and analysis, the importance of women’s stories and experiences, interrelatedness with others and the earth, and process. These values are shared by feminist social work approaches as was delineated earlier in the chapter. The following discussion particularly demonstrates how these values influence feminist spiritual practices and processes.
Spirit ual influences in feminist pract ices Spirit ualit y influences feminist pract ice in various w ays affect ing t he helping process by emphasizing women’s wisdom and experiences, connections, diversity, the use of ritual and energetic healing. For example, Berliner (1992) identifies her approach as feminist-spiritual and explains that as she teaches clients to trust the helping process, she must also trust the process and let go of answers so that she has room to listen to the questions. She listens to her own inner wisdom and acknowledges that she too is on a journey and needs to learn from her clients. She also discusses a commit ment t o build working relat ionships based on equalit y, respect and trust, stating that what she does in her work is simple: bringing people together; creating a safe context; affirming the wisdom of their lives; 47
providing techniques that heighten a body-mind-spirit connection; and offering support. W hile t his w ay of w orking is not necessarily simple or straightforward, it may feel effortless for someone like Berliner who is an experienced practitioner and has developed practice wisdom. Also, these processes reflect feminist spiritual values part icularly t he concern w it h pow er dynamics and the importance of women’s stories. Kimmel and Kazanis (1995) focus on how women’s consciousness raising groups and counselling groups can provide meet ing places where significant connections can occur and feelings of connected purpose can evolve, w hich t hey define as a spirit ual process. T he spirit ual w ork that goes on in w omen’s groups is ident ified as t he use of int uit ion, imaginat ion, memory, foresight and vision. According to these authors, women’s groups t hrough collaborat ive story t elling help w omen claim t heir birt hright and t o trust their instincts, body, authentic expression and power. They also point out t hat this spirit ual process can occur in more informal meet ings w it h women, such as over a “deep lunch” that denotes an intimate and significant connection with another. Experiences such as these are experiential, abstract and hard to quantify, yet Kimmel and Kazanis (1995, p.216) stress that these experiences and connections strengthen and provide sustenance to one’s spirit. Other authors have explored the use of rituals in work with women and stress the importance of ritual for women in order to heal and develop spirituality (Johnson, 1997; Bewley, 1995). Enguidanos and Law (1995) argue that rituals help to create a closer contact with the true essence of who we are, what we believe in, and how we are feeling. They contend that by feeling pain and ut ilizing t he st rengt h t hat spiritualit y provides, client s are encouraged to accept the past and begin to shift pain. Neu (1995) examines t he funct ion of rit ual in feminist spirit ual support groups. She believes that feminist rituals can enhance women’s mental health by increasing their 48
balance, strength, energy and comfort, empowering women and offering collect ive spirit ual support t o mark life t ransit ions and changes. T he value of recognizing diversit y and pluralism is illust rated in Mangan Harding’s (1997) article, which describes through a case example of a midw ifery t ask force, how a shared sense of spirit ualit y can guide different people and groups who have their own vested interests into a plan for the future. She makes the important point that when diversity is not intentionally preserved, the most powerful tend to replicate themselves by imposing their views onto others. Her case example relates to earlier discussion about core values that are shared across the major religious/spiritual perspectives. When people meet at a level of shared values and spirituality they can t ranscend differences w hich can enable collaborat ive w ork. Finally, Maass and Cohen (1986) describe energistic healing as part of their search for a holist ic pract ice that aims t o balance all parts of a person (body, mind, spirit and emotions). They believe that when all these parts of a person are balanced, then the person experiences what they identify as full health. However, it is not ent irely clear what full healt h means nor how t his balancing process occurs. There is obviously some overlap between spiritually influenced feminist practices and the spiritually influenced social work practices presented in the previous chapter. For example, making meaning, helping people to connect with others and to trust themselves, the use of group processes, and intuition were also previously discussed as spiritually influenced non-feminist practices. These convergences between feminist and non-feminist spiritually influenced practices and values are not surprising. As t his chapter previously pointed out, t here are many shared values and practices between social work and feminist perspectives, culminating for some practitioners in a merging of the two into a feminist social work approach. In addition, both the feminist social work and wider social work lit erat ures have ident ified spiritualit y as an emerging component in the 49
development of practices, research and knowledge. These similarities in values and practices also reflect current influences on social work practice and knowledge development that are discussed in the following section. This section has described how some feminist social workers identify spirituality as an important emerging component in practice, as do some social workers in general. Overall, feminists have demonstrated increased int erest in considering issues of spiritualit y and/or religion, alt hough many of these discussions about spirituality such as the broader discussions of spirituality and social work, take the form of personal narratives. As the previous chapter pointed out, this reflects the nature of spiritual knowledge and the early development of this area. However, the increasing interest in discussing spirit ualit y coupled w it h considerat ions regarding t he fut ure of feminist social work approaches gives the momentum for this research study and establishes its timeliness. Feminist spirit ualities w ere present ed briefly as challenges to accept ed ways of being and knowing, grounded in community and women’s experiences. Just as there is no unitary way to practice feminist social work, different ideas are held about feminist spirit ualities although various perspectives share themes, which influence feminist practices in several w ays. Spirit ually influenced feminist processes are akin t o some of t he spiritually influenced practices identified in the previous chapter. Indeed, there are many commonalities between feminist and non-feminist spiritually influenced practices, and these similarities are to be expected given the overlap of values between feminist, social work and spiritual perspectives, and the increasingly shared nature of social work values, knowledges and practices across perspectives. In fact, the current context of social work knowledge and practice is examined next as it bears implicat ions for spirit ually influenced know ledges and practices, and a brief discussion of this context is particularly warranted as both feminist and non-feminist social workers have expressed interests in 50
exploring spirit ualit y. 12 Being relegated to the margins as a knowledge and practice is an experience shared by feminist approaches, even though the development of feminist social work practice models and frameworks helped t o validat e t hese perspect ives. T he brief analysis t hat follow s w ill also help t o cont ext ualize bot h feminist and spirit ually influenced pract ices and knowledges within the broader frame of social work knowledge.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL WORK KNOWLEDGE – CURRENT INFLUENCES
T his sect ion provides a brief overview of the development of social w ork knowledge and point s out t he import ance of st rong integrat ive links between research and practice. Current influences on building knowledge are discussed, and feminist and spiritual knowledges and practices are contextualized throughout the discussion.
Brief overview of the development of knowledge Drury Hudson (1997, p.36) explains that throughout social work’s history there have existed broad trends that at different times emphasized distinct models and knowledge bases for practice. For instance, psychoanalytic and psychosocial theories were popular during the 1920’s to the 1950’s, behavioral approaches gained prominence during the 1960’s and 1970’s, and during the late 1970’s and 1980’s systems and ecological models were put forth as unifying theories for social work. More recently perspectives such as feminism and social constructionism have influenced
12 It is beyond the scope and purpose of this discussion to provide a detailed analysis of social work knowledge development and for such an analysis the reader is referred to Richard Roberts (1990) for further discussion. A lso, Bob Pease & Jan Fook ’s (1999) book Transforming Social Work Practice offers postmodern critical perspectives for consideration regarding social work knowledge and practice. 51
social work to redefine itself by stressing the social construction of reality and meaning, and by emphasizing a stronger connection between practice and research. As Fischer (1993) notes, a great epistemological debate took place in the 1980’s within social work that focused around two main issues - logical positivism versus other philosophies of knowledge development, and quant it at ive (“scient ific”) versus qualit ative (“soft ”) research met hods. As a result of t his debat e, calls w ere increasingly made for an expanded epistemology and increased integration of social work practice and research. For example, Wells Imre (1984, 1985) argues that the restriction of knowledge to that which can be known through empirical science constructs a dichotomy between empirical knowledge and practice wisdom, which makes communication between social workers and researchers difficult. She states that social work requires a philosophy of knowing capable of encompassing all that is human, as we are intrinsically concerned with humanity. Similarly, Berger (1986) also points out that social work theory and practice should be highly connected but that often they are not. He argues that social work models in general have almost all been developed by academics and demonstrate a myriad of problems, one of which is a lack of connection between theory and practice. Thus, a practice-based profession such as social work requires research activities and the development of know ledge, w hich emerge from or are significantly connect ed t o t he real world of practice. In fact, since the 1970’s there has been a proliferation of practice models addressing various client populations and problems (Goldstein & Noonan, 1999), which are generally based on practice experiences and practice wisdom, case examples, existing theory and the research literature (see for example Hickson & Phelps, 1998; Pollio, McDonald, & North, 1996; Klein & Cnaan, 1995; Vosler, 1994; Behroozi, 1992; Chau, 1990; Roberts- DeGennaro, 1987). To construct knowledge based on practice wisdom and 52
experience, existing theory and the research literature reflects the similar development of a feminist social work practice model. This process of building knowledge from practice experiences addresses the need for a strong connection between practice and research, and produces models that are particularly relevant for practitioners as knowledge is grounded in both empirical research and the real world of practice. Although there is a greater acceptance for a variety of methods to create knowledge, which include methods based in practice wisdom, it should be noted that some researchers continue to emphasize the need for “scientifically” based practice. Recently, attempts have been made to develop clinical pract ice guidelines as a w ay of increasing empirically based pract ice and improving client outcomes (Howard & Jenson, 1999). Howard and Jenson (1999) state that the efforts to promote greater research activity and to strengthen social work’s scientific foundations have met with little success, and they believe that social work research continues to be of poor quality and that few practice decisions are empirically based. The chasm between practitioners and researchers has never been wider according to them. As Kirk (1999) points out, clinical practice guidelines are the latest attempt to bring science to bear on social work practice. Other attempts include evidence-based practice that makes a distinction between claims that rely on authority or consensus and those that have survived tests of their accuracy (Gambrill, 1999). However, the literature that advocates for an emphasis on practice wisdom is prominent and recognizes that practice wisdom can be part of empirically based practice and knowledge. Practice wisdom is a part of the “art” of social work practice that is examined in greater detail in the following discussion.
The art of social work practice A useful categorization of the professional knowledge of social work is presented by Drury Hudson (1997, p.38). She argues that professional 53
knowledge can be categorized into five main knowledge forms - theoretical, empirical, procedural, practice wisdom and personal knowledge. As she notes, each of these categories overlaps to create professional knowledge, which is the cumulated understanding derived from theory, research, practice, and experiences that contribute to the profession’s understanding of its work. Professional knowledge serves as a guide for social work practice. It is useful to consider each area of knowledge separately as social w orkers t end t o rely more on some t ypes of know ledge compared t o ot hers. For instance as Drury Hudson (1997) points out, social workers are inclined to rely largely on practice wisdom, organizational policy and procedures, legislation, and social work values as the main basis for practice. She identifies practice wisdom as the knowledge gained from the conduct of social work practice, and personal knowledge as an inherent or spontaneous process where the worker commits herself to action outside of immediate consciousness or based on a personalized notion of common sense. Similarly, Klein and Bloom (1995) define practice wisdom as a personal and value-driven system of knowledge that emerges out of the transaction between the phenomenological experience of the client situation and t he use of scientific informat ion. T hey st at e t hat pract ice wisdom incorporates values into a syst em of know ledge and t hat it serves to translate empirical and theoretical knowledge, and previous practice experience into professional action. T he underst anding of social w ork as “art ” is prominent in the lit erat ure along with the acknowledgment of practice wisdom. The art of social work encompasses personal knowledge and practice wisdom, and includes concepts such as intuition, empathy, communication, relationship and the use of self (Robbins, Chatterjee & Canda, 1999; Drury Hudson, 1997; Dean, 1989). Goldstein (1999) believes that artistry and theory should not be considered polarities because social work is concerned with personal 54
meanings, et hical dilemmas and all t hat it means t o be human. Cert ainly, perspectives such as feminist social work and other anti-oppression approaches have encouraged a focus on personal knowledge and practice wisdom, as well as a move away from grand all-encompassing theories. Understanding social work as art is in harmony with Pease and Fook’s (1999, pp. 11-13) postmodern critical social work approach, which they argue values diversity and uncertainty, challenges professional knowledge, and acknow ledges mult iple realit ies and the value-laden nat ure of social work. Additionally, personal knowledge and practice wisdom are developed by way of practice experience, and are similar to what some social workers have identified as tacit knowledge. Tacit knowledge refers to intellectual, emot ional, conscious and unconscious resources that a social worker utilizes in thinking about and doing practice (Wells Imre, 1985). Wells Imre (1985) argues that much of the work of experienced social workers involves tacit resources such as intuition, and that these resources are both a part of how they practice and a part of who they are. This description of tacit resources support s the earlier discussion in t his chapt er regarding t he significance of values. For instance, feminist social work values are both personal and professional, and are a part of both who a person is and how they practice. Also, Wells Imre’s (1985) contention that tacit knowledge is a complex product of a social worker’s prior experiences and that it should be studied, not denigrated, is in harmony with this research study that explores spiritualit y. Along t he same lines, Weick (1999) ident ifies w hat she calls “guilty knowledge”. Guilty knowledge refers to the knowledge and experience of marginalized groups like social w ork t hat do not have great st at us in t he knowledge hierarchy, and whose knowledge is often dismissed as “soft” or lacking subst ance. As Hart man (1992) point s out, privileging t he methods of science has led to t he subjugat ion of ot her know ledges locat ed at t he margins of society. Int erest ingly, t his marginalizat ion of know ledge can occur 55
in mult iple layers so t hat w it hin social w ork (it self considered a marginalized knowledge), exist other knowledges that are even further marginalized, such as feminist perspect ives and spirit uality. As well as emphasizing the art of social work practice, current influences also include a shift away from grand theories and a concurrent move towards sharing values and practices across social work modalities. These issues are now examined.
Shared social work practices, values and knowledge Brown and Brodsky (1992) argue that in order to survive the 21st century, most approaches will follow a consumer-oriented model such as a feminist one. In fact, feminist viewpoints, values and practices are increasingly shared with other social work perspectives. For example, Michael White’s (1997) narrative therapy approach shares viewpoints and values with feminist social work approaches, even though the two models do not represent the same theoretical approach. White identifies Foucault’s post st ructuralist w rit ings as having t he great est influence on t he development of his ideas. How ever, his model encourages examining t he impact of all t he “ism’s” on people’s lives and acknow ledging the effect of practice on therapists’ lives, suggestions which resonate strongly with feminist social work approaches. Anot her example may be found in t he most recent edit ion of t he Life Model of Social Work Practice (Germain & Gitterman, 1996). Germain and Gitterman (1996) point out the similarities in feminist and ecological thinking, such as a commitment to social just ice and helping people t o empow erment . They note that concepts from feminism have been entering the practice of many, if not most, social workers over the past two decades, and conclude that life-modeled practice augmented by feminist and social constructionist t hought is w ell suit ed to t he social condit ions of today’s w orld. 56
Although social work has long been concerned with developing a distinct unifying theory and knowledge base that could encompass all of social work practice (Roberts, 1990), as De Hoyos (1989) argues, it has failed to do so and most social workers use an eclectic approach. However, as the development of a life model of practice by Germain and Gitterman (1996) demonstrates, the search for all-encompassing theories and models has not completely disappeared. It could be argued that the amalgamation of feminism and social constructionism into their life model may diminish the diversity and complexity of these perspectives. Similarly, Lynn (1999) contends that the adoption of the systems approach as social work educat ion’s t heoret ical base in t he 1970’s neut ralized t he reforming t hrust of radical social work. The outcome was that the latter became regulated to just another subject taught on social work theory modules. Indeed, all- encompassing theoretical perspectives and models can oversimplify or even eclipse and marginalize ot her import ant t heory, pract ice and know ledge. Coates (1991) also argues that all-encompassing models imply that their particular perspective reflects the view of the profession as a whole, and that this is the one and only understanding of practice. He favours generalist practice, which he describes as supporting the trend towards social workers becoming comfortable with multi-methods, multi-theory and multi- technique practice. Others like Goldstein and Noonan (1999) agree and state that exclusive reliance on any one model is too restrictive and not appropriate for addressing the complex and varying needs of clients, nor the complexity of social work practice. The move away from grand narratives and theories to a more context dependent practice approach is better able to recognize t hat t he development of effect ive practice models is an unending process (Lynn, 1999). Thus, it could be argued that generalist practice combined with a more context dependent approach may also be better able t o recognize marginalized knowledges, part icularly know ledges and pract ices 57
that are based in practice wisdom and personal knowledge such as spiritualit y and feminist perspect ives. As the above discussion demonstrates, there is strong impetus within social work to acknowledge various ways of knowing and building knowledge t hereby legit imizing marginalized know ledges and expanding knowledge bases. T here are also calls to acknow ledge spirit ualit y in the fut ure development of social work modalities, and this chapter concludes with a summary of these viewpoints.
Future directions Witkin (1999) believes that the defining feature of the postmodern era has been the challenging of assumptions about the nature of truth and reality. He argues that postmodernism’s influence on social work can be seen through new perspectives on social work knowledge and practice, critiques of t he privileged stat us of empirical know ing and proposals for alt ernat ive inquiry approaches. Accordingly, he also links social const ruct ionism’s critique, which focuses on the mechanisms through which knowledge is controlled by and serves dominant interests in society, with critical theory and feminist philosophy. Thus, it can be argued that approaches such as feminist social work have also influenced social work in these directions, w hich illustrat es how marginalized know ledges can exert influence w hen they are shifted into more mainstream discourse and practice. This chapter’s discussion demonst rat es how considerat ions about spirit ualit y are beginning to influence social work in general. Moreover, several authors discuss the need t o specifically acknow ledge spirit ualit y in fut ure social w ork knowledge development. For example, Robins, Chatterjee and Canda (1999) note that if practice is to adequately reflect social work’s mission for social justice and a holistic concern for person and environment, knowledge must be expanded t o include a broad mult idisciplinary theory base that will provide a more 58
comprehensive view of the human condition. They advocate that social w orkers must become bet t er educat ed about spirit ualit y. Goldst ein and Noonan (1999) point out that emerging frameworks for practice include incorporations of more spirit ually orient ed approaches. Goldst ein (1999) encourages social workers to break out of the walls of conventional thinking, noting that social work is concerned with all that it means to be human. Similarly, Krill (1990) believes the most successful, spont aneous and dynamic form of helping depends on the integration of theory, religion/philosophy and subjective experience. Finally, Caspi (1992) argues that social work must include more relative, ethical and intuitive knowledges. Witkin (1999) who has published amply regarding social work knowledge and research, contends that social work is better prepared than other helping professions to legitimate subjugated knowledge and to expose knowledge-power connect ions, as social w orkers believe t hat it ’s import ant for marginalized people to have a voice and that these perspectives are valuable to hear. Thus, his viewpoint along with the other perspectives presented above help t o creat e a cont ext w ithin w hich future considerat ions of spiritualit y can be encouraged. This final section of the chapter has provided an overview of the development of social work know ledge, t hereby cont ext ualizing feminist and spiritual know ledges and pract ices wit hin the larger frame of social w ork knowledge. Although social work has been concerned with developing a unifying theory, increasingly there are moves away from all-encompassing theories and models to more emphasis on the art of practice and contextually based processes. These current influences are shaping social work in a number of ways. There appears to be a greater recognition of practice wisdom and personal knowledge, and many recently developed practice models are based on these knowledges, which makes them relevant for practitioners and addresses the need for strong integrative links between research and practice. Emphases on practice wisdom and personal 59
knowledge are highly significant for feminist and spiritual approaches. This significance is evidenced in the current lit erat ure t hat relies heavily on discussions about practice experiences, case studies and personal narratives. Also, the development of feminist social work approaches and spiritually influenced practices have emerged from practitioners’ wisdom and personal knowledge. Additionally, social work values and practices are increasingly shared across approaches. The sharing of feminist values and practices demonstrates the influence that marginalized knowledges can exert when they are developed into frameworks that can be considered and worked with. The move away from all-encompassing frameworks to more contextually based generalist practice can also more effectively recognize practice wisdom and personal know ledge, w hich in turn aids in recognizing marginalized knowledges and practices. These current trends, coupled with calls to include considerations of spiritualit y in fut ure t heory and model development , indicat e t hat spirit ual know ledge is now far more likely to be recognized and developed, which strengthens and reiterates the timeliness of this research study.
Conclusion This chapter has described feminist social work approaches and feminist spirit ualities. T here is no unitary w ay to pract ice feminist social w ork but there are principles that are shared by feminist social workers. These shared assumptions include an emphasis on process, working collaboratively w it h clients in relat ionships based on equality, analyzing gender, and valuing women’s experiences and diversity. Feminist social workers consciously use their professional and personal values to motivate and evaluate their actions. The development of a feminist social work practice model influenced social workers’ viewpoints, values and practices by shifting feminist values and perspectives into more mainstream discourses. 60
The future development and relevance of a feminist perspective is beginning to be discussed in the literature as feminist approaches continue to be challenged. Given that some feminist social workers have identified spirituality as an important emerging component of practice and that priorit ies are shift ing t o a focus on holist ic pract ices, it appears likely that discussions about spiritualit y w ill become part of t his discussion. Indeed, feminist s in general have demonstrat ed a grow ing int erest in spirit ual matters as is evidenced in the literature and this provides another layer of support for the relevance of this research study. Feminist spirit ualities were described as diverse but sharing t hemes such as valuing women’s bodies, experiences and stories, emphasizing ritual, process and social justice, and seeking connections with all life. These values and spirit ually influenced practices are in harmony w it h feminist social w ork approaches. Also, there are similarities between both spiritually influenced feminist and non-feminist practices. Moreover, increasingly values and practices are shared across various social work modalities. The current context of social work knowledge and practice encourages t he recognit ion of marginalized knowledges, t he acknow ledgement of many ways of knowing and developing knowledge, the embracing of practice wisdom and personal knowledge, and a move away from all-encompassing theories to a more generalist and context dependent practice. These influences are highly relevant for spirit ual and feminist knowledges and practices, in that these perspectives emerge from personal experiences, values and viewpoints. V arious social work approaches have ident ified spiritualit y as an important factor to consider in the future development of knowledge. However, this research study situates its exploration of spirituality specifically in feminist social work contexts, and is aligned with the interest in the future evolution of feminist social work approaches. Feminist social work values, processes and analyses are w ell suit ed t o consider marginalized knowledges 61
as they make room for the “other”, value experiences and connections, aim to ground knowledge in practice, and emphasize diversity. These are all additional contextual factors of this study. Thus, feminist social work approaches offer an appropriate context and a worthy starting point for the explorat ion of spirit ualit y. As Chapters One and Two have demonstrated, there are few cohesive framew orks for spirit ual pract ice to build upon. T he present at ions of spiritualit y in t he literat ure are not necessarily coherent or clear about w hat spirituality and related concepts mean to social workers, and there is a demand for empirical research examining spirit ualit y. At t he same time, many feminist and non-feminist social workers are being influenced by spiritualit y in t heir practices, and claiming an efficacy of spirit ually influenced processes. Thus, this research study is carefully shaped by the current contexts of social work practice. The following chapter describes the methods chosen to implement an exploratory research process in this emerging field of study. 62
CHAPTER THREE THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Introduction T he previous t wo chapt ers illust rate t hat bot h feminist and non- feminist social workers are increasingly demonstrating an interest in discussions about spirit uality. Indeed, the lit erat ure in t his area cont ains various rat ionales for the inclusion of spirit uality and some preliminary know ledge development is evident in t he form of spirit ually influenced practices. Additionally, current influences on the development of social work know ledge are conducive to recognizing marginalized know ledge and practice such as the focus of this research. Although both feminist and non- feminist social workers have identified spirituality as an important emerging component in pract ice, t his t hesis explores spirit ualit y specifically w it hin t he context of feminist social work practices. An exploratory research approach is necessary given the lack of empirical research in this area. This research study is qualitative and guided by feminist research principles. Data was collected via semi-structured interviews and focus groups, and analyzed using a grounded theory methodological approach. This chapter provides an analysis of the qualitative and feminist epistemology of the research study, and explains the rationale for the choice of a grounded theory methodological approach. The research design and the interview questions are described and the implementation of the research design is outlined. Also, the chapter provides an analysis of researcher bias and presents the methodology of grounded theory analysis of the data. The analysis of the research data led to an unexpected uncovering of significant convergences amongst t he research part icipant s’ beliefs, values and practices. This unanticipated finding added a second layer of data 63
collect ion and analysis, which is described in t he last section of this chapt er. To begin, the epistemology of the research study will be presented.
EPISTEMOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH STUDY
T he research epistemology of this t hesis reflect s qualit at ive, feminist and grounded theory methods and principles. These three perspectives and methods are in strong harmony, sharing the recognition of the importance of practice experiences and practitioner wisdom. Each of these perspectives is now discussed in turn.
Qualit at ive methods Qualitative methods are inductive approaches that aim to construct theory, while quantitative methods are deductive approaches that test t heory. While qualit at ive met hods are usually associated w ith nat uralism and the social sciences, quantitative methods generally reflect positivist science. Historically, researchers have subordinated the discovery of theory and qualitative methods to quantitative methods such as hypothesis testing. Gilgun (1992) points out that the testing of hypotheses has been considered a more sophisticated form of research within the positivist-oriented social sciences. While proponents of quantitative research imply that their methods are more scient ific and therefore a more valid met hod of know ledge creat ion, qualitative researchers emphasize that positivist methods have less relevance for social work practice (Witkin, 1995). For example, Gilgun (1992) argues that social work needs discovery-oriented research in order to develop new knowledge, which is a perspective that supports and fits with this thesis. Along these lines, Witkin (1995) contends that social work must honour its unique commitment to a contextual understanding of people, its explicit value base that emphasizes human right s and dignity, its 64
commitment to serving oppressed and marginalized people, and its mission to foster a more just society despite the reality that not all research methods and questions are equally valued. The value driven nature of social work and its concern with creating change influence research questions that should determine met hods of inquiry. For example, t his st udy explores marginalized spiritual know ledge and pract ice from the perspect ives of feminist pract it ioners. T hus, qualit at ive methods are bet t er suit ed for in-dept h exploration of practitioners’ viewpoints, values and practices, and the relationships between beliefs and behaviours. Increasingly t here are more calls for an eliminat ion of dichot omous t hinking and recognit ion of t he ut ility of bot h quant it ative and qualitat ive approaches (see for example Mason, 1997; Allen-Meares, 1995; Gambrill, 1994). These calls reflect previous discussion that pointed out a shift away from positivist science to a greater acceptance of alternative methods. As such, Maguire (1987) contends that we have passed the point where feminist influenced research methods need to be defended or rationalized. The epist emology of this research st udy must also reflect the principles inherent in feminist research given the focus of the study on feminist social work practices. Feminist research principles and methods that often utilize qualit at ive methods are briefly examined next .
Feminist methods and principles Mason (1997) argues that with the women’s movement of the 1960’s and 1970’s came scepticism about traditional research and its treatment of women, and feminist research developed out of this scepticism. McCarl Neilson (1990) believes that feminist methods are part of a larger intellectual movement that represent a fundamental shift away from traditional social science methods towards a recognition that there are many ways to build knowledge. As some researchers stress, feminist research methods offer alternatives to methods that are judged to be inappropriate and inadequate 65
as these methods are sexist in design and use findings from all-male samples to describe women, or emphasize value-free science (Westkott, 1990). According to Cook and Fonow (1990), the notion of feminist methods includes t wo dimensions - t he epist emological ideas of feminist met hods, and methodological practices. Just as there is no one way to practice feminist social work, there is no one way to conduct feminist research (Reinharz, 1992). However, Mason (1997) notes that feminist research principles guide research processes, even though researchers disagree on their application. She identifies these shared principles as using women’s experiences as a resource for research, improving women’s lives through research and reconceptualizing power so that researcher and participant are more equal. Similarly, Cook and Fonow (1990) discuss five basic epistemological principles that are also shared by other anti-oppression methods. These include at tending t o t he significance of gender, using consciousness raising as a method, challenging the idea of separation between the subject and object of research and the notion that grounded experiences are unscientific, recognizing et hical implicat ions, and empow ering w omen through t he research process. Davis (1986) stresses connectio n between researcher and participant, and Van Den Bergh (1995) emphasizes part nerships and building on dialogue. In describing her study, Sparr (1998) notes that feminist analysis shaped the research goals, the process and content of trainings to be held with participants, the research questions and techniques that were used, and influenced how participants were invited into the process and the st yle in w hich groups worked. Thus, researchers who are guided by feminist principles are concerned with the overall process of the research, the creation of egalitarian relat ionships, and w ith w orking collaborat ively and meaningfully wit h participants. Feminist principles have influenced this study’s design and implementation by basing the inquiry in the participants’ beliefs and experiences, and by using semi-st ruct ured individual interviews and focus 66
groups in order to foster a collaborative and meaningful research process. T he part icipant s’ experiences and part icipation in this st udy w ere honoured in several ways. They received transcripts of their interviews, were informed through written communication about the developments and progress of this thesis, and were invited to provide feedback on the research results. A choice was also made to use a grounded theory methodological approach that is a qualitat ive discovery-orient ed met hod, w hich shares some feminist research principles. Further rationale for this choice is now presented.
Grounded theory methods Although Glaser and Strauss (1967) originally developed grounded theory as a method of analysis in sociology, it has become a highly successful research process utilized by many ot her fields. In fact , grounded theory methods have evolved since the approach was first published and now there is no one correct way to conduct grounded theory research (Dey, 1999). In general, grounded theory methods are inductive approaches that involve a continuous process of defining and redefining concepts, and relationships between concepts (Gilgun, 1994). This process is termed “constant comparison” by Glaser and Strauss (1967). Gilgun (1994) explains that the process of grounded theory should be used when the research purpose is discovery and the development of concept definitions and relationships. The purpose of a grounded theory approach is to generate rather than test theory (Corbin, 1986). It is a transcending way to view data which guides future research and raises thought about the data to a higher level (Glaser, 1978). The goals of this research study are necessarily exploratory given the lack of prior knowledge development in spirit ualit y and social w ork, and t hey fall squarely wit hin these purposes of grounded theory methods. 67
Practice professions such as nursing and social work have made considerable use of grounded theory methods in their quest to conduct research that is relevant for practice. Within social work there are regular calls for research that is practice-oriented and reflects social work values (Swigonski, 1994). Grounded theory is particularly suitable for social work research as not only do the findings of the research fit the realities of practice, but also the similarities between practice and grounded theory methods are significant. These include a focus on the participant’s/client’s perspect ive and dat a collect ion met hods such as int erviewing (Gilgun, 1994). Addit ionally, Siporin (1985) argues t hat research findings, like theories, need to be made relevant for practice by being identified and translated into knowledge and criteria for use. Grounded theory methods can establish this knowledge from actual practice experiences that make the results highly relevant for practitioners. Thus, a grounded theory method is particularly suit able for this research st udy as it produces result s that emerge from practice experiences and makes its greatest contribution in areas in which little research has been done (Chenitz & Swanson, 1986; Glaser, 1978). Finally, grounded theory methods share feminist research principles such as honouring the importance of practice experiences. The end result of a grounded theory method and analysis produces theory that organizes and describes relevant knowledge, and guides further action and research (Chenitz & Swanson, 1986). The theory is understandable, fits with experience in t he area, is flexible and general enough t o be applicable to diverse situations, and provides practitioners with a base upon which to explain and plan interventions (Corbin, 1986). This section has discussed the research epistemology which is based in qualit ative and feminist perspect ives and met hods. Over t he past t wo decades many social workers have moved beyond debating the merits of quantitative versus qualitative methods to an acceptance that both are 68
relevant depending on the research questions. Qualitative methods are better suited for the in-depth exploration of social workers’ values, practices and beliefs about spiritualit y. Also, principles inherent in feminist research methods are reflected in this study’s design and implementation. Both qualitat ive and feminist met hods complement inductive grounded theory approaches, which aim to discover theory and value the importance of practice experiences. Grounded theory methods are particularly suitable for t his t hesis as t here is a lack of prior know ledge development in spirit ualit y and social work, and because both grounded theory and social work methods focus on part icipant s’/client s’ perspect ives and use dat a collection met hods such as interviewing. Grounded theory methodology fits with practice contexts and findings may be highly significant for practitioners as they emerge from the real world of practice. Whether or not the findings of this st udy are relevant for practit ioners w ill be discussed in t he follow ing chapters. However, basing this research inquiry in practitioners’ experiences and fostering a meaningful and collaborative research process reflects feminist, qualitative and grounded theory methods and principles. How the research epistemology influenced the research design is further discussed in the following section which describes the research questions, the use of semi-structured interviews and the research sample.
THE RESEARCH DESIGN
Research questions T he development of the core research quest ions of this inquiry is shaped primarily by the exploratory goals of the research, the literature in the field, and my own conceptual framework. In general, the research aims t o explore w het her self-ident ified feminist social w orkers ident ify t he use of 69
spiritual influences in their pract ice. T his t hesis topic is explored by addressing the following research questions: 1. What are self-identified feminist social workers’ ideas about a spiritual dimension or spirit uality, and feminist social w ork? 2. What are the underlying perspectives that inform their personal concept ualizat ions about spiritualit y and/or a spiritual dimension? 3. In what ways, if any, does a spirit ual dimension and/or spirit ualit y influence their practices? 4. Do self-ident ified feminist social workers identify spirit ually influenced practice methods or processes? 5. What are their perceptions about the effects and implications of a spiritually influenced social w ork practice? 6. What are their thoughts about incorporating spirituality into social work education and training? All of the interview questions reflect the above research questions.13 T he int erview quest ions are grouped int o the follow ing five areas: 1. Feminist social work and spirituality (How would you describe feminist social work practice?), 2. Underst andings about spiritualit y (W hat are your t houghts concerning the connections or lack thereof between feminism and spiritualit y and/or a spiritual dimension?), 3. Expressions of spirituality in practice (If your feminist social work pract ice reflect s a spirit ual dimension and/or spirit ualit y, how would you describe this?), 4. Implicat ions of expressing spiritualit y, or not, in pract ice (Are t here some types of feminist social work practice that are more conducive t o incorporat ing a spirit ual dimension and/or spirit ualit y than others? Why and why not?),
13 The interview guide and questions can be found in Appendix II. 70
5. Future directions (Should social work schools offer some type of exposure to spirituality? Why and why not? What are your concerns and/or hopes about this possibility?). It is import ant to not e t hat prior t o part icipat ing in t his st udy, t he participants w ere informed by way of a participant informat ion st at ement t hat t he researcher concept ualized spiritualit y and religion different ly. 14 Religion was defined as const ruct ions of instit ut ionalized worship dependent on dogma and a notion of God. Spirituality was defined as representing a personal philosophy, referring to beliefs in somet hing “bigger” (what ever that something might be), feelings of connectedness and community, and/or a desire t o live life meaningfully. Because t his st udy was int erest ed in exploring spiritualit y, pot ent ial research part icipant s were informed about this interest . Addit ionally, bot h of t he t erms spirit ualit y and spirit ual dimension w ere used in the research and interview questions in order to be inclusive of participants’ diverse spirit ual beliefs. Participants w ere informed that these t erms could imply similar meanings or not , once again acknowledging t he rights of the individual to self-define the meaning of such terms. In order to explore the research questions that were noted previously, a decision w as made to int erview part icipant s individually using a semi- structured format. The rationale for this choice is now examined.
The use of semi-structured interviews The choice of semi-structured interviews over unstructured or structured interviews or another research method was influenced primarily by the nature of spirituality and the exploratory goals of this study. For example, discussions about spirit uality can be complex, abst ract and highly personal. It can be a struggle to find words to describe beliefs and experiences, and given the marginalized nature of spirituality I suspected
14 Please see Appendix III for the participant information statement. 71
that few participants would have had previous experience of talking to someone about their spirituality and feminist social work practice. Thus, the recruitment of participants could be a problem in willingness to undertake a written questionnaire for example. Moreover, I believed it was important for semi-structured questions to guide the interview process and stimulate thinking about the topic areas, but the semi-structured format allowed room for spontaneous questions, dialogue and exploration. As Davis (1986) points out, too often researchers make the critical error of believing that people have ready-made answers to their questions. She contends that answers are often in the process of formation and the interview process can help to access these budding thoughts. Also, grounded theory approaches are inext ricably alt hough not exclusively linked w it h int erview met hodology. Reinharz (1992) notes t hat int erview studies frequent ly rely on a grounded theory method of data analysis. Interview research explores participants’ notions of reality and promotes the generation of theory. Overall, interviews offer participants the opportunity to share their subjective experiences and they are flexible, provide a good response rate, allow for the use of spontaneous and complex questions, and for clarification and discussion (Reinharz, 1992; Bailey, 1987; Maguire, 1987). Additionally, t he use of int erview s ut ilizes basic social w ork pract ice skills such as int erview ing, w hich is well suited t o qualit ative met hods of research. And as Reinharz (1992) notes, the predominant manner by which feminist researchers have sought to involve their research respondents in a meaningful way has been through the use of interviews. Accordingly, this st udy involves the part icipant s in a meaningful w ay by grounding t he research inquiry in their practice experiences. The following discussion describes how and where the participants were located.
72
Sampling met hod and sample size The sampling method began with a purposive sampling technique and as the research progressed, the sampling became more discriminate. A participant informat ion st at ement was used t o help recruit part icipant s – twenty in total, which was a large enough sample to generate rich data but small enough to enable thorough analysis of the data. The choice of the sampling method was influenced by several factors including the exploratory goals of the research, the relative lack of research in the area, a grounded theory methodological approach, the interview methodology and the underlying epistemology of the research. For example, when using grounded theory methods the sampling procedures are linked to the type of coding process that is being used to make sense of the data. Typically, the research process begins with a purposive, open sampling method and as the research inquiry progresses and the coding becomes more refined and abstract, the sampling becomes discriminate (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). In discriminate sampling the researcher becomes deliberate about who to sample in order to obtain needed data and to verify the theory, which has emerged from the data. Sandelowski (1995) argues that the determination of an adequate sample size in qualit ative research depends ultimat ely on a mat ter of judgement in evaluating the quality of the data collected against the uses to w hich it will be put , t he research met hod, t he sampling st rat egy and the intended research product. Accordingly, researchers using grounding theory methods advocate for theoretical sampling or theoretical saturation as a way of determining sample size (Gilgun, 1992), which fits with Sandelowski’s (1995) view that a good principle to follow is that an adequate sample size permits the deep, case-oriented analysis that is a hallmark of qualitative inquiry and t hat result s in a richly text ured underst anding of experience. Generally in a grounded t heory explorat ion it is suggested t o include participants unt il no new or relevant data seems t o emerge, category 73
development is dense and relationships between categories are well established and validated (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). In reality, absolute theoretical saturation may never be achieved but it is possible to reach a point w here a reasonable level of confidence can be felt about the select ion of new types of cases. However, due to the nature of this sampling t echnique, it is difficult t o determine t he exact size of the sample required prior to beginning the research process. Theoretical saturation began to be evident at about the fourteenth interview. New data had not emerged, the main categories produced little or no new information and relationships bet w een t he cat egories were well developed. Therefore, after the completion of the fifteenth interview participants with specific characteristics such as gender, cultural background, social w ork experience and spirit ual perspect ive were purposively sought in order to create as diverse a sample as possible, and to verify the “story line” or “core category” that had emerged. Strauss and Corbin (1990) refer to the st ory line as t he core cat egory, w hich emerges from final int egrat ion of the data. As Sandelowski (1995) points out, when qualitative researchers decide t o seek out people because of particular characterist ics, it is because t hey are considered good sources of information that will advance the study towards an analytic goal. Thus, given the guidelines concerning exploratory research, the exploratory goals of this study, the desire for a diverse sample and the use of a grounded theory method, twenty semi-structured, individual interviews were completed. Indeed, the sample of twenty participants was large enough to generate complex data that displayed diversity in experiences, yet was small enough t o allow for t horough analysis t o begin to make sense of participants’ underst andings of spirit ualit y and t he influence of spirit ualit y in their practices. A snowball technique, a type of purposive sampling, was used to init ially ident ify part icipant s. A purposive, open sampling met hod w as 74
necessary, in part because t here is no overt label such as “feminist -spiritual social worker” that could have been used to identify participants. Purposive sampling makes it impossible t o generalize the research findings beyond the ident ified sample w hich is generally small. How ever, in a grounded theory approach the goal is to explore the phenomena in question, not to achieve generalizable result s. Generally, in qualit at ive research the deep underst anding generated by informat ion-rich cases is valued, while in quant it at ive research it is the generalizat ions of t he results t o larger populat ions w hich is import ant (Sandelowski, 1995). Potent ial research part icipant s w ere invit ed to consider part icipat ing in this study through a participant information statement that was distributed in a number of ways. The statement was mailed to all the organizations in the greater metropolitan Sydney area that supervised social work field students for the University of New South Wales (UNSW) School of Social Work. The statement was also distributed in undergraduate and postgraduate classes at the UNSW and within a social work department in a major teaching hospital in the northern Sydney area. Additionally, it was sent to the School of Social W ork at The Flinders University of Sout h Aust ralia and to contact s I had in Brisbane in Queensland. I also personally contacted people who were ident ified as pot ent ial part icipant s by colleagues and social w orkers w ho had heard about this study, and by participants already committed to the research. T he crit eria for part icipat ion are list ed in t he participant informat ion statement, that is, either self-identification as a feminist social worker or as working from a feminist perspective. The only definition of feminist social work that was offered to potential participants stated that although feminist social work shares practice principles and assumptions there is no unitary approach to its application, and that feminist social work combines feminist theory and social work practice principles. This definition of feminist social work was used in order to be inclusive of many different viewpoints and to 75
reflect the reality that there is no one way to practice feminist social work. A decision was also made to include men in the sample as I encouraged people to self-identify according to their own terms, a viewpoint that is advocated by Bricker-Jenkins and Hooyman (1986, p.106). As Chapter Two pointed out, the debate about whether or not men can be feminists is a complex one. However, encouraging people t o self-ident ify as feminist s reflect s t he current emphasis in feminist approaches on diversit y and inclusivit y. Once t he part icipant information st at ement w as dist ribut ed, people w ho may not have been int erest ed in part icipat ing t hemselves nevert heless passed the statement on to social work colleagues and friends. One of the drawbacks of this snowball technique is that people will identify others who are similar to them. However in this research study, only one participant was enlist ed t hrough t his sampling t echnique. In fact , part icipant s w ere quickly identified as information about the study was disseminated. This was most evident in Adelaide, the Capital City of the State of South Australia. Once the social work community in Adelaide became informed about the study, my contact at The Flinders University of South Australia was inundated with offers t o part icipat e. T his overw helming response result ed in seven of t he twenty participants comprising residents of Adelaide and the surrounding area.
Sample descript ion Overall, the participants represent an experienced group of social workers with diverse direct practice experiences. The sample comprises three men and seventeen women. Ages of the participants range from twenty- three to fifty-one, and seventeen of the participants are thirty-three years of age and older. One part icipant ident ified as Aboriginal and six part icipant s identified being from non-English speaking backgrounds. Eighteen participants have a Bachelor of Social Work degree, two of whom have an 76
additional Master of Social Work degree, and two were in the process of completing their Bachelor of Social Work degrees. The participants work in various settings such as hospitals, non- government organizations, community health centers, child protection agencies and children’s services, private practices, local government services, hospices, in disability services and at a universit y. One part icipant w as not engaged in paid social work practice but identified being involved with various community development projects and committees. Two other participants were engaged in social work placements in legal-research services and community health. The majority of participants are engaged in direct practice, which means the results are best contemplated in relation to w ork w it h individuals, couples, families and small groups. Although four participants had less than two years of social work experience, the other participants’ social work experience ranged from six to twenty-five, with twelve participants indicating that they had ten or more years of social work experience. Of the four participants who had less than two years of experience, one had social work placement experience only. However, the other three participants had all come to study social work later in their careers and although they had not previously held jobs as social workers, they had each accumulated over ten years of practice experience in healt h and w elfare, disabilit ies and yout h, and social just ice work. Tw elve participants are employed on a full-time basis and five participants indicated they worked part-time, hours per week ranging from twenty to twenty-eight. Finally, it is relevant t o not e the part icipant s’ diverse religious and spiritual backgrounds because t his st udy explores spiritualit y. As children, eight participants w ere not raised in any part icular spirit ual or religious t radit ion while eight w ere raised as Cat holics, t w o w ere raised in the Unit ed and Anglican t radit ions, and tw o were raised in w hat t hey ident ified as fundamentalist and orthodox traditions. Of those twelve participants who w ere raised by their families in a specific religious tradit ion, four had left 77
those traditions. As adults, five participants who were raised with no religious or spirit ual tradit ion are pract icing a spirit ual or religious perspect ive, which include Christianity, Yoga, metaphysics and another new age perspective influenced by East ern philosophies. This section of the chapter described the research design and discussed the research questions, the use of semi-structured interviews, the sampling method, and sample size and description. Self-identified feminist social workers and practitioners working from feminist perspectives were asked about their understandings of spirituality and feminist social work, if spiritualit y influenced their pract ices and their ideas regarding spirit ually influenced pract ice. T went y part icipant s w ere individually int erview ed using a semi-structured format. Interview methodology fits with grounded theory approaches and involves t he part icipant s in a meaningful w ay by grounding t he research inquiry in t heir experiences, beliefs and values. Thus, it is a research process t hat is w ell suit ed to explorat ions of spirit uality as spirit ual discourse can be complex, abstract and highly personal. The semi-structured questions guided the dialogue but allowed for spontaneous questions, explorat ion and development of responses. In grounded theory approaches, sampling procedures are linked to coding processes that are being used to analyze incoming data. A snowball t echnique w as ut ilized at t he beginning of t his research process and as theoretical saturation became evident, five participants were recruited based on characteristics such as work experience. Although the results of this study can not be generalized beyond the study sample, the diverse sample generat ed informat ion rich cases t hat helped t o explore spirit uality in feminist practices. Interestingly, locating a diverse and experienced sample for this study proved unproblematic and in fact, many more people than could be interviewed expressed interest in becoming participants. This reflects the overall growing interest in discussing spirituality across social work approaches, and the scarcity of contexts for these discussions. The 78
implementation of the research design is discussed next, which includes an analysis of researcher bias.
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE RESEARCH
The int erview process Once the interview guide was developed, a pilot or pre-test phase was conducted to assess the overall effectiveness of the questions and any potent ial problems. T his pilot phase w as based on three interviews that produced comprehensive data which addressed the exploratory research questions. Thus, it was determined that except for two repetitive questions that were subsequently deleted from the interview guide, the rest of the int erview s w ould proceed using t he same quest ions and int erview guide. All of the individual interviews were tape-recorded and transcribed for the purpose of a grounded theory analysis. Each participant received a copy of their transcribed interview with a request to review their transcript for accuracy and to record on the transcript where they thought the transcription was inaccurate. They were also given an opportunity to add further written comments and any significant information that they thought w as missing from t he original int erview , which added to t he rigor of t he research process. Interview questions were sent to the participants prior to the scheduled interviews. This choice was made on the basis that responses would be more comprehensive and clear if participants had time to contemplate the questions, especially since the nature of the subject matter is complex and there is a lack of know ledge in t his area. T he desire for rich and substantial data outweighed the possibility that the participants would be influenced by the questions prior to the interview. In fact, most of the participants agreed and explained that they appreciated receiving the 79
questions beforehand because they had not been asked questions like this before. As one participant explained, the questions were helpful in thinking and preparing…I know absolutely that the day you spoke to me on the phone…if we had met the next day or if I hadn’t had the chance to think about the questions, then the interview would have been over in three minutes I can guarantee. 15 Any research process, including the implementation described above, is influenced by personal biases. As the previous chapter pointed out, feminist research principles emphasize that research is not unbiased or value-free. Being clear about our potential biases highlights the importance of the research process and acknowledges these limitations. Personal biases that are declared can also be used by the reader to further evaluate the researcher’s work (Mason, 1997). As Hartman (1994) contends, ontological, epist emological and value assumpt ions must be made explicit for knowledge can be understood and evaluated only in the context of the framing assumptions. Personal biases can be lessened in a grounded theory approach. Keeping int erviews as open as possible may encourage many themes to emerge and may lessen the chances of imposing a personal conceptual framework on participants (Gilgun, 1992). However, although interviews should be approached with an open mind as Dey (1999, p.251) argues, there is a difference between an open mind and an empty head. Consequently, a brief analysis of my biases is warranted although I have attempted to keep interviews as open as possible by using semi-structured questions and framing the research process as exploratory. This is part of the process of positioning myself in relation to this study.
15 Italics are used in this thesis for the participants’ words. The separation of words by three periods indicates words or phrases that are omitted because they are repetitive or unnecessary, for example, um or ah. 80
Researcher Bias I agree wit h t he previously discussed ideas t hat spirit uality is a sense of something bigger than the self and that a connection with this something bigger can make life experience feel more meaningful. There is value in Ballou’s (1995) viewpoint that spirituality exists within our ordinary life experiences, states of consciousness and relationships. Similarly, there is merit in the assert ion t hat spirit ualit y can be a coping resource (Sermabeikian, 1994) and a positive force in the healing process. For me, spiritualit y t ranscends religion. Dudley and Helfgot t (1990) found t hat for most social workers their greatest concern was for the separation of Church and State and the fear that one viewpoint would dominate all others. I share these concerns and place value on diversity of viewpoints and beliefs, and on t olerance and compassion. While my personal perspective converges with conceptualizations of spiritualit y in t he lit erature and t he emphasis on diversity, it has also clearly affect ed the const ruction of this st udy, part icularly t he focus on spiritualit y rather than religion. I do not have theological training or knowledge as do some researchers in the area, for example, Hartman (1996) and Bullis (1993). T hus, my int erest s are in an overarching spirit ualit y that transcends sectarian perspect ives. Addit ionally, my beliefs t hat spirit ualit y can be a part of helping processes and my experiences as a social worker have encouraged t he development of research quest ions aimed at exploring spirit ual influences in practice. With regards to the interview process, I attempted to remain conscious about my own lack of affiliat ion wit h religion and t he influence t his might have w it h part icipant s who are affiliated w ith religion by, for example, not engaging in religious discourse. However, my interests in diverse spiritualit ies and my upbringing in a liberal Christ ian t radition assist ed me in understanding the different perspectives articulated by the participants. Most of the world’s religions share at their core similar humanistic values and philosophies (Huxley, 1945). I believe that these values can 81
promote unity and tolerance, and explain in part some of the research results t hat w ill be discussed in t he following chapt ers. For t he purposes of t he present discussion, I will not e t hat my belief in the significance of these underlying shared values and my analyt ical abilit y t o locat e shared values, beliefs and practices across perspectives influenced the grounded theory analysis by cont ribut ing t o t he recognit ion of significant convergences in t he data. In a grounded theory approach theory emerges from the data but researcher biases and analyt ical skills obviously affect t he analysis by influencing w hat are recognized as significant relat ionships bet w een and amongst the data. The following section discusses the analysis of the research data. This section has described the implementation of the research process and the effects of researcher bias. Individual interviews were tape recorded and transcribed for grounded theory analysis. The participants were offered the opportunity to verify and add to the transcription of their interview, which increased the rigor of the research and enhanced the meaningfulness of the research process. Also, since research is not value-free it is important to position myself in relation to this study so that the overall research process can be further evaluated. My interests in spirituality and experiences as a practitioner affected the construction of the research questions, while my feminist perspective shaped the research epistemology and processes. Additionally, my belief in t he import ance of shared values across religious/spirit ual perspect ives, and my analyt ical abilit ies t o locat e t hese shared values shaped the grounded theory analysis by uncovering convergences amongst participants’ beliefs, values and practices. The next and final section of this chapter describes this process of grounded theory analysis.
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THE RESEARCH ANALYSIS
The analysis of research data began with a grounded theory analysis of the interview data, which uncovered surprising convergences amongst the participants’ beliefs, values and practices. These convergences led to further research questions and analysis, followed by another layer of data collection and grounded theory analysis by way of focus groups.
A grounded theory analysis Mizrahi and Abramson (1994) explain that the first step in data analysis is to devise a strategy to convert the mass of data into systematic schema for examining its meaning, discovering themes and patterns, and making connections among concepts. In grounded theory methods, coding represents the operations by which data are broken down, conceptualized and reconstructed in new ways. It is the central process by which theories are built from data (Strauss & Corbin, 1990, p.57). Glaser and Strauss (1967) first developed the constant comparative method of coding data. This method is an overlapping process that involves the simultaneous coding and analysis of data. The coded data are clustered into related categories that are then compared with one another and with new emerging data in order to discover links between the categories. Making links between the categories is a means of putting conceptual order on the mass of data. Strauss and Corbin (1990) describe open, axial and selective coding as three major types of coding, although they also note that these processes overlap. During open coding similar events are labelled and grouped to form categories. Data are compared for similarities and differences, and questions are asked about the phenomena. In axial coding the data are put back together in new ways by making connections between categories and in select ive coding the core cat egory is selected and syst emat ically related t o 83
the other categories. Final integration of the data is not much different from axial coding but it is done at a higher, more abstract analytical level. I began using open coding after the third interview was transcribed. Participants’ responses w ere colour coded (each part icipant w as given a unique colour), responses were cut out of the transcript and grouped into relevant categories. As new data emerged, it was either clustered into already existing categories saturating those categories or, particularly in the preliminary stages of analysis, it was grouped into a new category. Although Turner (1981) and Glaser and Strauss (1967) suggest using a card system to help organize and code responses, given the amount of data the interviews produced the colour coding system also generated an effective way of organizing and making sense of the data. This manual way of coding encouraged a st rong familiarit y w it h the data. As the analysis cont inued, t he categories were continuously compared with one another and with new emerging data in order to discover links between the categories (axial coding). A notebook was also used throughout the analysis to record any discrepancies or convergences between participant responses and questions and observations that arose from the analysis. Any categories that were related were combined and once again compared to incoming data to assess their relationships to hypotheses that were emerging from the comparisons between categories. For example, a category that emerged early in the data analysis was that spirituality helped participants t o make meaning or sense of life event s. This cat egory w as eventually combined with the categories of having a sense of trust that t hings w ill w ork out , finding meaning in social work, and believing that spiritualit y fost ers living a good life. This cat egory of making meaning or sense of experiences was also related to categories regarding spiritually influenced pract ices. For example, how part icipant s underst ood spiritualit y affected what they identified as spiritually influenced practices. Therefore, 84
many participants ident ified that helping client s to make meaning of life event s w as a spirit ually influenced process in practice. As links between the categories are built the theory begins to emerge around core categories (selective coding). As the data analysis continued, I was struck by significant emerging convergences amongst the participants’ responses. On one hand, perhaps these convergences should have been anticipated due to the shared nature of values across major religious and spiritual perspectives that were discussed in Chapter One. On the other hand, the extent of the convergences was surprising given the diversity of the participants’ backgrounds and experiences. Refinement of the theory comes from the continued connection and reduction of concepts that leads to increased abstraction (Corbin, 1986; Stern, 1986; Glaser, 1978). Determining t he st ory line (the main or core cat egory) is necessary t o achieve final integration of the data. Groupings were searched for according to gender, sexualit y, age, experience and spiritual/religious beliefs but remarkably, no significant differences were found. Perhaps when further research and discourse is developed, the sufficiently articulated common ground may then allow differences to emerge.16 Clearly the emergence of convergences in values, beliefs and practices in t his study led t o addit ional research quest ions and analysis, and this is described next.
The development and organization of practice principles The uncovering of major convergences regarding discussions of spiritualit y and spirit ually influenced pract ices led to a conscious decision t o pursue anot her level of dat a analysis, and lat er dat a collect ion. Given t hese convergences new research questions emerged. For instance, I wondered if t here w as anyt hing t hat dist inguished a “feminist -spiritual” approach t o social work practice and if it was possible to distinguish this emerging “feminist-
16 This is not to say that there were no differences amongst participants’ beliefs, values and practices, and the following chapters discuss these wherever possible. 85
spiritual” approach to social work practice from other conventional models. Keeping these questions in mind, I returned to the data analysis. Categories were again reduced and connected (selective coding), and the main themes that emerged were developed and written into a set of practice principles. This second layer became possible as the research unfolded, and was not part of the original research plan. Once the practice principles were written it became evident that they could be organized into three broad groupings that address different aspects of the part icipant s’ spirit ual beliefs and social w ork pract ices. For example, the first grouping – understandings of spirituality, basic philosophy and values, encompasses three practice principles that reflect the participants’ underst andings of spiritualit y and religion, t he need for research in t his area and the effects of the marginalized nature of spirituality on practice, and the similarities between feminist, social work and spiritual values. The second grouping – processes of spiritual development and beliefs about t he spirit ual essence of human existence, encompasses two practice principles that address t he part icipant s’ ideas about spirit ual development and t heir beliefs about t he spirit ual essence of human life. W hile t his grouping overlaps wit h the first grouping of categories, its focus is on the participants’ personal processes and experiences. The third grouping – spiritually influenced practice processes and relationships, encompasses six practice principles that include the participants’ ideas about the goals of practice and examples of spiritually influenced practices. Clearly, there is some overlap between the three groupings. Importantly, the practice principles make sense as a whole although each practice principle could also stand alone for consideration. A decision was made to send a copy of the practice principles to all of t he part icipant s in order t o seek w rit ten feedback. Part icipant s were also sent a letter outlining the research process to date, which asked for their comment s on t his preliminary w ork. Specifically, t hey w ere asked if t he practice principles represented their views regarding spiritually influenced 86
practices and in what ways did the practice principles represent and did not represent their beliefs, values and practices. Ten of the participants sent back written responses that were used to rewrite some of the practice principles. Some practice practices were agreed upon by all of the participants who sent back feedback, while changes were indicated for others.17 When a decision was made to seek feedback from the participants, a decision w as also made t o invit e t hem t o take part in focus groups in order to discuss the practice principles and related issues. This process was developed and followed in order to check how accurately the practice principles reflected the participants’ viewpoints, values and practices. Its other aim was to further refine the practice principles, to maintain adherence to the epistemology of the research process, and last to increase the rigor of the research process by adding another layer of data collection and analysis. The use of focus groups is discussed next.
Focus groups Focus groups are often a part of research processes that reflect and share feminist epistemologies. This study demonstrates feminist research principles through the processes of seeking out participant feedback and incorporating this feedback into the development of the practice principles, informing the participants about the research process and progress, adding anot her layer of dat a collect ion and analysis t o increase the research rigor, and developing knowledge that may prove helpful for opening up discussion and considerat ion about spirit ualit y and social w ork. As W ilkinson (1999) point s out , focus groups have much to offer feminist researchers including a method that is contextual, as focus groups avoid the assumptions of the individual devoid of social context. They also provide an int eract ive social cont ext w it hin which part icipant s can construct
17 Chapter Seven describes this development of the practice principles in detail and provides examples of the written feedback and how it was used to refine the practice principles. 87
meaning toget her, and t hey provide a relatively non-hierarchical met hod as the balance of power is shifted away from the researcher to the participants. As she explains, it is much harder to impose your own agenda in a group context because the group generally develops themes that are most important to them. Finally, different responses may be generated by group discussion compared t o individual int erview s (Kitzinger & Barbour, 1999). On the other hand, it may be difficult for some participants to engage in group processes if they feel intimidated by other members or they may not divulge information in the group context. However, the use of both individual interviews and focus groups in this study compensates for these potential disadvantages.
Implementation of the focus groups Fourteen of the twenty research participants (two men and twelve women) took part in three focus groups, which were held over a six week period after written feedback was received from participants. Two groups each had four participants and one group had six participants. Two groups w ere held in Sydney and one w as held in Adelaide, w hich accommodat ed all of the participants except for one who lived in Brisbane. Based on the written feedback and further consideration of the convergences that had emerged, the participants were presented in the focus groups with three broad topics for discussion. They were asked to consider the following: 1. Feminism and spirit uality (w hat makes the pract ice principles feminist. Alternatively, can they exist outside of a feminist context?), 2. Private and subjugated knowledge (what prevented them from sharing this aspect of their work. Might the principles help discuss their practice and encourage a more accountable/transparent practice?), 88
3. Congruencies versus differences (how important is it to name the differences bet ween part icipant s as w ell as the congruencies? Should w e assume t hat t he principles w ould be applied uniquely or not?). They were also asked to comment on the revised practice principles. As with the individual interviews, the focus group meetings were tape- recorded and transcribed, and copies of the transcripts were sent to the participants to check the accuracy of the transcription and to offer the opportunity for feedback.
Analysis of the focus group processes The transcripts of the focus group meetings were analyzed in the same manner as the individual interviews using a grounded theory methodological approach. This analysis generated many of the same categories as the interview analysis, which lends weight to theoretical saturation having occurred. New categories that emerged were in reference to the questions regarding the feminist nature of the practice principles. For example, one of the themes that emerged addresses the difficulties of holding the practice principles exclusively in a feminist framework when the definit ion of feminism itself is not clear, and w hen feminist values are shared with other perspectives. Chapter Eight discusses this focus group analysis. The participants also expressed general comments about the practice principles. For example, some of the participants pointed out that overall the practice principles did not reflect enough of a focus on social justice and community/group emphases. This feedback was used to further refine the practice principles and this process and analysis of this feedback is discussed in Chapt er Seven. What difference did the focus groups make? The focus groups certainly provided the participants with an opportunity to meet other social workers who were also interested in spirituality and feminist social work 89
pract ices, w hich was import ant given t he isolat ion many part icipant s felt w it h their viewpoints. The focus group discussions also contributed to a more meaningful research process by encouraging the participants to help refine the practice principles, and allowed the checking out of such striking convergences. Importantly, given the marginalized nature of spirituality in social work, it was relevant to begin the process of publicly discussing spiritually influenced feminist social work practices and processes. This last section of the chapter described the research analysis that uses a grounded theory methodological approach. Participant responses were colour coded and grouped into categories, which were continuously compared with one another and with emerging data in order to discover links between them. Related categories were combined and compared again to incoming data while hypotheses that were emerging from the comparisons were assessed. As the links between the categories were formed and the main category was uncovered, I was surprised to find that major convergences had emerged as the main category or story line. These convergences led to another layer of data analysis that explored whether anything distinguished a “feminist-spiritual” approach to pract ice and if it w as possible t o dist inguish this approach from ot her perspectives. A decision was made to write the main categories that emerged from this layer of analysis into a set of practice principles. The participants received a preliminary draft of t he pract ice principles and t en participants sent back written feedback that was used to rewrite the practice principles. These revised practice principles were then discussed in focus groups, which allowed the convergences to be checked and assessed how well the practice principles encompassed the participants’ beliefs, values and practices. The use of focus groups increases the rigor of the research and also reflect s t he research epist emology by involving the part icipant s in refining the practice principles. Importantly, the focus groups also offered an opport unity for dialogue about spiritualit y. All of the part icipant s’ feedback 90
regarding t he practice principles w as considered in rew rit ing t hem int o a final version that is presented in Chapter Eight.
Conclusion Reflect ing qualit at ive and feminist epist emology, and ut ilizing semi- structured interviews and a grounded theory methodology and analysis, this research study explored self-identified feminist social workers’ concept ualizat ions of spirit uality and spirit ually influenced pract ices, and t he implicat ions of spirit ually influenced pract ices. It was necessary to begin this research study at an exploratory level of investigation due to the dearth of research in spirit ualit y and feminist /non-feminist social w ork, and t he lack of any cohesive pract ice guidelines or “spirit ual-social w ork” framew orks emerging in the literature. The grounded theory analysis unexpectedly uncovered striking convergences amongst the participants’ beliefs, values and practices regarding spirituality and feminist social work practices and life experiences. These convergences were further considered and analyzed, which led to the development of practice principles. The collection of more data and another layer of analysis took place by way of focus groups, which allowed the convergences to be checked, further refined the practice principles, involved t he part icipant s meaningfully in this research, and furt hered the analysis of the practice principles. The following five chapters provide an analysis of the convergences and the focus group processes, and describe the development of the practice principles. These discussions are structured according to the organization and development of the practice principles. Thus, the following chapter examines the convergent categories in the first grouping which encompass t he part icipant s’ values, concept s of spirit ualit y, and their ideas about spiritualit y in social w ork. Chapt er Five analyzes t he convergent cat egories in t he second grouping which address t he part icipant s’ ideas about spirit ual 91
development and t he spirit ual essence of human life, and Chapt er Six discusses the convergent categories organized in the third grouping which include t he participants’ ideas about spirit ually influenced pract ices and relationships. Chapter Seven presents the development of the practice principles, and Chapter Eight describes the focus group analysis of the practice principles and discusses the idea of practice principles in general. To begin this process of examining the important convergences, the follow ing chapt er w ill analyze t he cat egories in t he first grouping t hat address some of the participants’ basic values and perspectives regarding spiritualit y and social w ork. T hese cat egories include ideas about spiritualit y and religion, how social w ork, spirit ual and feminist values converge, and t he effects of the secular nature of social work on the participants’ practices. 92
CHAPTER FOUR SPIRITUALITY AND FEMINIST SOCIAL WORK APPROACHES
Introduction The research process that was discussed in the previous chapter, described how the initial grounded theory analysis uncovered strong convergences amongst the participants’ viewpoints, values and practices regarding spirit ualit y and feminist /non-feminist social w ork. Furt her analysis of these convergences encouraged a decision to develop them into practice principles, which were then further developed and refined through a process of seeking feedback from t he participants bot h individually and in focus groups. The practice principles can be organized into three broad groupings t hat address some of t he part icipant s’ ideas and values concerning spiritualit y and its incorporat ion int o social work (underst andings of spiritualit y, religion and feminist social w ork, and t he similarit ies betw een t hem), beliefs about t he spiritual essence of human exist ence and spirit ual development (everyone has a spirit/spirit ualit y, and spirit ual development is a life-long process), and spirit ually influenced pract ice processes (some cont ext s are more suited for the incorporat ion of spirit ualit y, and spirit ually influenced practices include the use of generic spiritual language and processes such as making meaning). This data satisfactorily addresses the research questions. For instance, the first grouping of convergent categories makes clear the participants’ ideas about spirit ualit y and feminist social w ork, and the underlying perspect ives t hat inform t heir underst andings about spiritualit y. T he second grouping of categories overlaps with the first grouping in that it also reflects participants’ ideas about spirit ualit y and spirit ual development , but this grouping explicat es the part icipant s’ personal processes of spirit ual development and how spirit ualit y shapes t heir life and w ork experiences. The 93
third grouping of categories explains how spirituality influences the participants’ pract ices, identifies spirit ually influenced processes, and encompasses t heir percept ions regarding t he implicat ions of spirit ually influenced practice. Only one research question - What are their thoughts about incorporating spirit ualit y int o social work educat ion and t raining?, is not explicitly addressed in the category groupings, although the participants’ desire for t he incorporat ion of spiritualit y int o social work is clear. W hile some participants discussed their preliminary ideas about t he inclusion of spiritualit y int o social work educat ion, t hese conversat ions t ended t o be brief and not as well developed as other topics of discussion, which again reflects the early state of development in this area and in the participants’ spiritually influenced practices. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss and analyze the convergent categories that describe and encompass the participants’ shared values, beliefs and goals. This chapter focuses on the participants’ conceptualizations of spirit ualit y and religion, t he differences and similarities bet w een them, understandings of feminist social work, and the commonalities between feminist social w ork approaches and spirit ualit ies. Chapt er Five examines the categories that address the participants’ ideas about human experience and spiritual development, while Chapter Six explores the categories that describe spirit ually influenced pract ice processes. Addit ionally, consequences of the secularization and professionalization of social work are discussed in this chapter, as these themes presented themselves in the data. It is important to note that the convergent categories discussed in this chapter and the following two chapters reflect agreement amongst the majority of the participants. However, where it exists, the diversity in perspectives and pract ices will also be considered.
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SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION
Consist ent w it h the social w ork lit erat ure review ed in t his t hesis, all of t he part icipant s defined spirit ualit y and religion different ly. In addit ion, almost all of t he part icipant s discussed Christian religious tradit ions and their sense of affiliat ion or separat ion wit h t hese perspectives. Some of the participants also described anti-fundamentalist viewpoints and values. These issues are examined in the follow ing sect ion.
Concept ualizations of spiritualit y and religion W hile t he part icipant s underst and spirit uality and religion different ly, most also acknowledge t hat spirit ualit y and religion oft en int ersect forming complex relat ionships. Alt hough one part icipant expressed her desire for a stronger connection between spirituality and religion, most others stressed the importance of differentiating between the two. As one participant explains, By separating the two it would then create the opportunity to discuss spirit ualit y issues. Because it’s less threatening and…I think it’s more consistent with social work values than this idea of religion. This viewpoint reflects the earlier discussion in Chapter One that described the convergences between social work and spiritual values, and the need to adopt diverse understandings of spirituality within social work (Canda, 1998). All of t he part icipant s’ concept ualizations of spirit ualit y are summarized in table 4.1 locat ed in Appendix IV.18 Across the research sample, t he definit ions of spirit ualit y w ere surprisingly similar given t he participants’ diverse spirit ual and religious backgrounds. However, these similarit ies may be explained by t he earlier discussion in Chapt er One, w hich noted t hat t he major religious and spirit ual t radit ions share core values. Indeed, Canda (1988) based his conceptualization of spirituality for social
18 It should be noted that the tables referred to in this thesis are descriptiv e. Their purpose is to explicate the story of the research. 95
work on these common themes and values. Overall, the participants understand spirituality as an experiential process that can be highly personal, a resource, a process which involves making meaning, living a good life, social analysis, connection, love, finding balance and a sense of otherness. These perceptions are in harmony with the previous discussions of spiritualit y, w here spirit ualit y was defined as a resource, as an import ant part of making meaning and as a sense of something bigger that transcends ordinary life experiences. One can note here the strong resonance between participant understandings and the literature. Percept ions of spirit ualit y such as int uit ion and reincarnat ion are shared primarily amongst t he participant s w ho identify int erest s in an eclect ic, new -age or alt ernat ive spirit ualit y and w ho are interest ed in East ern philosophies and Indigenous tradit ions. One part icipant w ho follows an Orthodox religious tradition mentioned powerlessness. For her admitting her powerlessness means trusting God and recognizing one’s limitations, and does not imply an abdication of personal power. Most of t he part icipant s ident ify religion as an organizat ional st ruct ure t hat can provide rules, doct rine, t radit ions and hist ory, and in some cases a source for spirit ualit y. Tw o of the part icipant s w ho w ere very involved w it h t heir respect ive Churches w orking and living w it hin religious communit ies, made a point of describing themselves as non-religious and not caught up in the structure of religion. Their viewpoints support the need within social work t o dist inguish bet w een religion and spiritualit y. Also, several part icipant s describe spirituality as transcending religion, which is defined as a person or man-made inst itut ion. Most part icipant s acknow ledge t hat w hile some people can locat e spirit ualit y wit hin religion, ot hers can not . T hey recognize t hat religion is one way t o become spiritual, but by no means the only way. Additionally, there were a few participants who pointed out that while spiritualit y is alw ays shifting and evolving, religion can become stat ic. On the ot her hand, one part icipant who lives w it hin an Orthodox t radit ion cont ends 96
that the body of law that prescribes the rules to be followed is also supposed to change with the times, and that there are rules about how it should change. Eighteen of the twenty participants discussed Christian religious t radit ions and t heir affiliat ion or non-affiliat ion w it h t hese perspect ives, as Christianity is the dominant religious perspective in the Western world and all of the participants had some form of contact with these traditions. These discussions were framed in the contexts of personal and professional values and are examined next. It should be noted that the Indigenous participant does not fit neat ly into t he follow ing discussion as she is neither act ively involved with nor experiences a need to separate from the Christian tradition she was raised in. The Jewish participant also did not discuss Christianity in any depth, although she does share some of the following viewpoints with regards t o her religious tradit ion.
Personal and professional values - affiliat ions with religion All seven of t he part icipant s w ho w ere act ively involved wit h Christ ian religious t radit ions described differences of opinion t hey held wit h some of their tradition’s values and practices, noting in particular the clash between feminist values and philosophies and patriarchal perspectives. However, these participants remain committed to these traditions for various reasons and developed mechanisms for coping with and challenging patriarchal viewpoints and values. For example, as one participant describes about her experiences in Church, Not all worship is by definition a positive experience…I accept that that’s the way it is…that there would be worship experiences, especially worship experiences led by men wit h part icularly masculine point s of view . And music t hat may or may not suit my spirit uality…so that from week to week there are no guarantees about that. That’s 97
okay. That’s part of…the price you pay for corporate spirituality. And I w ould find individual spirit ualit y really unsat isfying. Another participant explains that he takes those aspects of organized religion t hat he finds helpful and throws away what he doesn’t find useful. He is able to focus on the posit ive values advocated by his tradit ion while at the same time acknowledges his disagreement with some Church perspectives, as he understands the Church as comprised of people who make mistakes. One participant describes the dilemmas she has with the patriarchal nature of both Catholicism and Judaism but points out that she likes the struggle and the arguing and feels comfortable with it. Another participant consciously acts to affect change within her tradition, explaining that she can do this more effectively as a member of the religious tradition. For her, institutionalized practices and rituals are not a burden but a source of spirit ualit y. For some participants the benefits of organized religion clearly outweigh the dissonance they feel between their personal and professional values and Church perspectives. For most of these participants, religious involvement carried over from childhood and familial experiences and provided comfort and a sense of connectedness to family and culture. One participant not es t hat the Catholic Church provided a bed, food and a roof over my head…in a way that I didn’t see anybody else stepping forward, because as a child she was sent to an orphanage. Although she spoke at length about the struggle between her feminist values and Catholicism’s viewpoint s, int erest ingly t his tradit ion also provided experiences of liberat ion for her, which she attributes to her working-class background. She describes, My first consciousness raising group was actually a student group…I got to see about the reality of my life as a student…reflect on the…Christian gospel values that were presented and see how the difference was between my reality and…those values. And take some action to build a bridge between that contradiction…I came out with a 98
language and an analysis of the world that…I got from collective worship…from being in a youth group that was down and out in a working class area of town. Similarly, anot her part icipant not es how she left a shelt ered family life in which she w as very immature, very unworldly, and entered a Catholic religious community that encouraged her to mature and to develop an analysis of the world. Descriptions of patriarchal Christian traditions as liberating for feminists are uncommon within the literature. The experiences present ed here clearly illust rat e t hat an individual’s engagement w it h religion can be complex. While there are some patriarchal religious values and practices that did not appeal to these participants, other values and practices did find a place within their perspectives. I will note here that the three participants involved wit h East ern spirit ual and religious t radit ions did not identify discrepancies between their personal and professional values and these traditions as they were described as non-patriarchal.
Personal and professional values – non-affiliations with religion Contrary to the decisions made by the participants above, eleven participants discussed how discrepancies between some Christian religious values and philosophies and their personal and professional values, led to a withdrawal from these traditions or a decision not to become involved with t hem. One of t hese part icipants is affiliat ed wit h a Buddhist t radition, t wo are engaged with a Yoga tradition based in Eastern philosophies and belief systems, seven describe their spirituality as influenced by Eastern philosophies and one discusses how his spirituality reflects humanitarian and social work values. It is not surprising that many of the participants express dismay at how some pat riarchal religious inst it utions disempow er people (particularly women), as feminist analysis focuses attention on power dynamics within all societal systems. Issues that were raised by the participants include anger at how pat riarchal religions cont ribut e to the 99
shame women feel about their bodies and fertility, the presence of abuse in some religious schools and inst it ut ions, and the armed conflict religion contributes to in many parts of the world. For t hree part icipant s w ho left Christ ian tradit ions t he process of leaving was difficult but in the end they felt they could no longer reconcile t heir spiritual, personal and professional values w it h Church practices and values. As one part icipant st at es, I just simply stopped going. Because…I can’t live with the hypocrisy…I’m angry with…the fact that the Church is full of people that go there and sit and pray and then call me a demon or tell me I’m going t o hell. Alt hough choosing t o leave a religious t radit ion is not alw ays a difficult process, for this part icipant it w as painful. As he not es, he can’t ignore what he doesn’t like and continue to attend Church because he has suffered personal attacks based on his homosexuality, although he does miss the community, the rituals and the sense of belonging that were so much a part of his life. Another participant discusses how she could not reconcile the pat riarchal st ance of her t radit ion w it h her personal and professional values, for example, I couldn’t reconcile both the content and…the way that things are done with my feminism and with my spirituality either. Additionally, one participant explains t hat she could not cont inue to live w ith t he inconsist encies she w itnessed in Church bet w een discourse and pract ice, noting that the Church preached love and acceptance but did not accept gays and lesbians or women leaders. Thus, it proved difficult for some participants to remain within these traditions when they became the objects of attack or witnessed discrimination. Finally, w hile most of the part icipant s express concerns about the potent ial for religious t radit ions t o be oppressive, tw o part icipant s also argue t hat spirit uality is pot ent ially no less corrupt t han religion. As one part icipant contends, I think there’s a tendency…to sort of see spirituality as this really privileged nice t erm t hat connot at es [sic] all t he good that ’s out side t he 100
power dynamics of this terrible world where we create man-made religions…and I don’t see t hat as a possibility. This viewpoint demonstrates t he importance of not dichotomizing spirit ualit y and religion as “good” and “bad”, and recognizing for example that spirituality can also be used to oppress people and cause harm. One belief system and perspective that was ident ified by several part icipant s as clashing w ith t heir professional and personal values and possibly causing harm was fundamentalism. These viewpoints are considered in the following discussion.
Anti-fundament alist values A third of the participants clearly expressed attitudes that could be characterized as anti-fundamentalist. Fundamentalism refers here to values that advocate one right way of being and believing that excludes other points of view and experiences. Their concerns are not surprising as Loewenberg (1988) suggests that social workers are concerned with rigid ritualism and inflexible doct rines t hat charact erize many fundament alist groups. One participant expresses concern about fundamentalists in social work courses. Her view point is that if spirit ualit y courses/subjects w ere offered, t his could harden their positions and then they’ll quote that as being justified by social work ethics…I think that would be very disastrous. Another participant who w as previously involved in a fundament alist Christian t radit ion and lat er in a left w ing Marxist group not es that they seem to embody very similar dangers and oppressions…in the desire to control people and tell people what was right and wrong and if they were doing wrong, they were basically condemned either to false consciousness or to hell. Paradoxically, this participant also attributes his strong positive sense of self to the fundament alist t radit ion he w as educat ed in point ing out that the Baptists for all their failings and all of t heir guilt t ripping had t his real doct rine about God’s grace. 101
Two participants who identified as Christians, expressed concerns about openly discussing their beliefs because they didn’t want to be viewed as Evangelical, bible-bashing Christians. A couple of part icipant s also ment ioned t hat the language used by Christian fundament alist s is oppressive and t hat it induces st rong negat ive feelings. T his emphasis on language certainly converges with a feminist analysis that can address how language is used to exclude and oppress people.19 These expressions of anti-Christian fundamentalist sentiment are likely to be connected to a number of factors such as the dominance of Christianity in the Western world and personal experiences w it h Christian t radit ions. Overall, t he part icipant s’ values and beliefs fit closely with the social work literature presented in Chapter One, and t he t hemes that spirit ual and religious diversit y must be fost ered and that perspectives perceived as oppressive and limiting such as fundament alism conflict w it h social work values. It is important to note that although anti-fundamentalist viewpoints were often focused on Christian traditions, they were not restricted to Christianity. As one participant argues, any framework can become restrictive. She contends that feminist framew orks can really limit people. Can really box people int o a very limit ed framework that I think is very unhelpful…So any kind of fundamentalism I find rather abhorrent. Finally, one part icipant compares t he spirit ualit y t hat is grow ing in the West to fundamentalism that reflects the worst of Christianity. In his opinion this post -secular spirit ualit y is focused on individual profit , w elfare and healt h and is presented as something that can be manipulated for individual benefit. He not es that if people are not successful for example, or if they become ill they are blamed and excluded again for being different and not following
19 C hristian theologians lik e Matthew Fox (1996) argue that fundamentalists hav e appropriated Christian language for their own agenda and that it needs to be reclaimed. However, the possibility of reclaiming language that has been used to exclude and marginalize people is yet to be determined.
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through with the right way of thinking or the right way of being, which repeats what I saw happen to people in the fundamentalist movement. This comment illust rates t he dangers in promoting one right w ay of t hinking or being and the need for inclusivity and acceptance of diversity. If people are marginalized or oppressed their opportunities for self-actualization may be diminished. Thus, social work values such as the right for self-determination and self-actualization clash with fundamentalist beliefs and values that are perceived to restrict freedom of choice and experience, and are viewed as exclusionary. This section of the chapter has discussed how the participants’ understandings of spirituality and religion converge with the social work literature, and how the distinctions between spirituality and religion are important even to those participants who are actively involved with religious t radit ions. Spirit ualit y was underst ood similarly by the part icipant s and w as also perceived as more convergent with social work values. Both the lit erat ure and t he part icipant s cont end t hat concept ualizat ions of spiritualit y are more acceptable for social work than religious concepts are. Participants’ affiliat ions and non-affiliat ions w it h pat riarchal Christ ian religious tradit ions are complex. Alt hough some part icipant s experienced dissonance between their personal and professional values and their tradition’s values, they remained affiliated. These participants accepted the struggle between their personal and religious perspectives and experienced that the benefits of affiliation outweighed the challenges. For many of these participants belonging to a religious tradit ion w as connect ed w ith family and culture and was a part of their identity. These benefits even included experiences of liberation. Thus, assumptions of values and viewpoints should not be made based on a person’s affiliation with patriarchal religious traditions, as participants who were engaged with religion struggled with values and practices and often attempted to affect change within the 103
t radit ion. Ot her part icipant s chose t o w it hdraw from religion, w hich w as sometimes a painful process of loss. Several participants expressed anti-fundamentalist values that are reflected in the literature. All fundamentalist frameworks that are perceived as exclusionary and limiting were deemed unacceptable. These anti- fundament alist values bear implicat ions for social w orkers wit h fundamentalist beliefs, as they may experience more struggle between their personal and professional values, and may need more assistance during this process as the dissonance they experience may be greater, and they may experience marginalization based on a general lack of accept ance for their beliefs. This section of the chapter has presented an analysis of the participants’ concept s of spirit ualit y and religion. T he following sect ion presents their ideas about feminist social work and examines the similarities between feminist social work approaches and spiritualities.
FEMINIST SOCIAL WORK PERSPECTIVES AND SPIRITUALITY
Conceptualizations of feminist social work approaches Overall, both the literature and the participants similarly understand feminist social work perspectives. Also, the participants describe feminism as complex with a feminist awareness or perspective developing early in life for some and in adulthood for others. While there appears to be no differences across gender regarding the above understandings, all three male participants identified as gay, which influenced t heir feminist perspect ives. Consistently across the research sample the participants’ feminist perspectives are so interwoven with their social work approach that they have become synonymous. As one participant argues, I think of course I’m a 104
feminist. I don’t think you can practice social work unless you are.20 The participants’ viewpoint s reflect t he previous discussion in Chapt er T w o, w hich examined the commonalities between feminist and social work values and philosophies, and how these similarit ies w ere used to advocat e for a merging of feminist perspectives and social work (Sandell, 1993; Collins, 1986). The participants’ understand feminist social work as both a personal and collective process that focuses on analyzing power, using language that fits for clients, reclaiming practices, supporting and empowering people, and that values action, change, diversity and inclusion. These ideas are summarized in T able 4.2 locat ed in Appendix V , and are quit e consist ent w ith the literature already reviewed in this thesis. For example, both the participants and t he literat ure point out t hat feminist social work is concerned w it h values of diversit y and inclusiveness, process, social change and action, analysis of power and oppressions, and represents a personal and collective endeavor. In addition, most participants describe feminism as a complex construct that changes over time and identify their feminist perspect ive as eclect ic, draw ing on various feminist ideologies such as Liberal and Marxist feminism. Some of the participants also discussed the origins of their feminist perspective, describing an awareness of inequality and oppression that began t o emerge in childhood. One part icipant explains t hat grow ing up w ith two brothers, she witnessed the inhibitions that were placed on girls. She remembers wanting to be a boy and puberty being a constricting time of shrinking possibilities. Two of the male participants described how they exhibited feelings about injustice from an early age. One of these participants remembers at the age of eight, asking his mother to purchase for him Helen Reddy’s record “I Am Woman” (a song about women’s liberat ion).
20 It should be noted that participants’ discussions and references to “social work” in this thesis are inclusive of their feminist perspectives. 105
Ot her part icipant s ident ified lat er life experiences and challenges as important in the formation of their feminist values. As one participant describes, My perspective has changed through my experiences…the experience of being a mother, of being a woman at home with…a baby and learning what t hat ’s like. These experiences and shifts in feminist awareness could also influence practice, for example, by developing an understanding of a client’s oppression on a more personal level. Thus, while some participants developed a feminist perspective as adults, others felt an affinity for anti- oppression values early in life, which in these cases was a process supported by parents and other family members. All three men in the research sample identified as gay and discussed how their experiences as gay men aided in the formation of a feminist consciousness and analysis. For instance, all three attribute their own personal experiences of being marginalized w it hin a het erosexual societ y t o the connection and empathy they feel for women’s experiences of oppression. However, being gay and/or experiencing forms of marginalizat ion and discrimination will not necessarily lead t o an affiliation with feminism and other anti-oppression perspectives. The reality that these three participants chose social work as a career indicates that other factors are implicat ed in t he development of t heir feminist values, such as a desire to help people and address injustice. As was discussed in Chapter Two, the debate about whether or not men can be feminists is a complex one. Indeed, two of the male participants are wary about claiming to be feminists but did identify with a feminist approach and used feminism in their work. One female participant notes that she would like to reflect more on the issue of whether men could be feminists but feels that the more feminists the better, and many of the participants are supportive of a more inclusive approach to feminism. When Tables 4.1 and 4.2 in Appendices IV and V are compared, it becomes evident that there are similarities between the participants’ 106
interpretations of feminist social work and spirituality. These commonalities are explored in the following discussion.
Convergences between feminist social work and spirituality According to the participants both feminist social work perspectives and spirit ualit ies are concerned wit h process, values of diversit y and inclusivity, action and change, and are collective and personal constructs. These shared values also shaped some participants’ choice of a career in social w ork. One part icipant not es t hat spirit ualit y is a lens just like feminism is a lens, which she uses to analyze and experience the world. Another participant believes t hat spiritual and feminist social work values emerge from the same family of values. For example, two of the participants identify these shared values as the promotion of positive change and growth, assist ing people t o reach their pot ent ial and to discover their true worth. Several other participants expressed that some core social work values are spiritual values as w ell – t hey name beginning w here t he client is, demonstrating respect for people and honoring that people do what they need to do, and that they are really important people, believing in the inherent right of self-determination and that clients are the expert of their own experience, and demonstrating a non-judgmental attitude. Also, one participant ident ifies that spiritualit y is an all inclusiveness…inclusiveness of everyone…that’s feminism too. Most of the participants stress how both their feminist social work and spirit ual values emphasize t he import ance of social act ion and just ice. For example, one participant contends that feminist social workers should be helping people t o develop a spiritualit y t hat is liberat ive, cognizant of oppression and that acknowledges the equality of all people. Another participant discusses her belief that it would be possible to present spiritualit y w it hin a social w ork program because spirituality is not separate from polit ics. One participant argues that she can’t see how people can be 107
Christian and say that they’re not feminist, which illustrates the connections betw een her religious, spirit ual and feminist social w ork values. Similarly, a participant w ho is affiliated w ith a Buddhist tradit ion explains t hat Buddhism has an analysis of power too, like feminist social work. Another area of convergence is evident in the participants’ discussions of how their choice of a social work career was shaped by their spiritual and/or religious values and beliefs. As one part icipant illustrat es, Because the w hole t hing of improving t he w orld, of helping people comes int o it . It ’s probably a lot of what motivated me to do social work…I was always sort of seen as a person who’s going to go and change the world, fix it up. Another participant acknow ledges, W hat brought me t o w ant t o be a social w orker…I recognize that t hose had t o do w ith some spiritual ideals. One participant was not sure how many of her social work peers would attribute value to spiritualit y but believes that social w ork at t ract s people who see a need for righting the wrongs of society, which can be values based in spirit ualit y or not. In fact , consist ently across t he research sample social w ork is described as more than a job. Social work values converge with the participants’ spiritual values and beliefs, and social w ork provides a w ork context in which these values can have influence. For example, one participant frames the social work he does as an act of spiritualit y, explaining that this social work cont ext allow s me t o be w ho I am. And allows me to…be more generous and thoughtful. Finally, one part icipant w ho had at t ended t raining in a spirit ual healing and counselling course that included t echniques like colour healing, w orking with chakras and deep meditation, describes how the course could fit very well within a social work framework. However, she consciously works at separating this training from her social work approach in order to enhance her experiences and beliefs in t he spirit ual component s of helping. She believes that while there are connections between a social work perspective and t he spirit ualit y course, the spirit ual experiences transcend the physical 108
w orld in which social work is locat ed. Also, her opport unit ies to use these practices are very limited despite the similarities in values. The effects of social w ork context s on spirit ual influences in pract ice are discussed in Chapter Six. As w ell as ident ifying various convergences bet ween feminist social w ork and spirit ual values, most of t he participants also discussed how the incorporation of spirit ualit y int o feminist social w ork approaches can lead to a more holistic practice approach.
A holistic practice approach In general, holistic practice refers to meaningful helping approaches that attend to body, mind, emotions and spirit. Social work is identified as well suited to take up holistic practice approaches, although its knowledge bases generally ignore considerat ions of spirit ualit y. A majorit y of part icipant s emphasize t hat social work needs t o be more holist ic in it s underst anding and assessment of people. The participants stress that if social work negates spiritualit y, it is not capable of w orking in a holist ic manner. For example, as one part icipant not es, So to separate a spiritual dynamic or a spiritual experience or spirit ual ways of knowing life that people have, if w e’re going to say…no we don’t deal with that, then we can’t really do therapy in a very holistic setting at all. A holistic practice approach is described as incorporating spirit ualit y but not emphasizing it over other resources and aspect s of a person’s life. Spirit uality is not identified as more important but rather as a part of the other work. As one part icipant advocat es, Give it as much meaning as any other part of our work but no more than. Many of t he participants discussed the mult i-levels of disadvant age that social work clients face. Thus, basic needs such as housing, money and food often need to be prioritized. One participant points out that because of the nature of social work, practitioners should be able to move fluidly between practical concerns and ot her issues such as spirit uality. Also, one part icipant argues 109
t hat holistic pract ice is different t han eclect icism because holist ic pract ice includes mind, body and soul, and eclectic practice may not recognize spiritualit y. A third of t he part icipant s ident ify social work as the helping profession t hat has t he pot ent ial and ability t o assume a multifacet ed role and holist ic practice approach, w hich is consist ent w it h t he literat ure and reflects Canda’s (1998) and Carroll’s (1998) views that social work should strive for a holistic understanding of the person-in-environment. Bricker- Jenkins (1989, p.221) identified a feminist social work perspective that includes spirit uality as a holist ic approach and notes that these approaches engage physical and spiritual dimensions as well as intellectual, social and emot ional aspects of life. One part icipant not es t hat social w orkers can t alk to people on a lot of different levels and that there are few helping professionals left who can assume this type of role due to increasing specializat ion. Indeed, social workers continue to assume roles such as case management that encourage the development of knowledge across various fields. Several part icipant s also believe t hat a spirit ually influenced pract ice can lead to more meaningful and effective processes. For example, - In someway that social work is both conceived in the theory and sometimes the way it’s practiced does see that there’s a line. And I t hink t hat t hat’s really patronizing…and t hat ’s part of this professionalism too…and I think it’s not as simple as that. And it’s not honest…it’s a more difficult way of practicing I suspect. Because it means bringing in more of ourselves t o t he work t hat we do. And being perhaps…more open and being more authentic. But I think it means being a better worker. - I mean the progress people make when they work at this level [a spiritual level] is just unbelievable. It ’s so fast . 110
These viewpoints are in agreement with discussion reflected in the lit erat ure and in the earlier examinat ion in Chapter One of t he rat ionales for the inclusion of spirituality into social work (Russel, 1998; Bewley, 1995; Guthrie, 1995; Powers, 1995). The first comment above also points to the import ance of t he worker’s personal spirit ual development and self- aw areness. Being aut hent ic w it h client s requires insight and knowledge about what aspects of the self are brought to practice, and this matter of personal spirit ual development is examined more fully in the follow ing chapter. W hile social w ork is ident ified as a profession that can incorporat e spiritualit y int o its knowledge and pract ice bases, several part icipant s not e t hat social w ork theory and models are not generally holist ic and usually dismiss discussions about spirituality. For example, one participant describes developmental and change theories as located too much at a…cognitive cerebral level and that social work needs to ponder What is that experience of what really happens with the relationship that makes the difference? I t hink somew here in t here, spiritualit y fit s. Two participants express their irrit at ion wit h a problem solving model, brief therapy and cognit ive behavioral approaches even though they occasionally use these models, describing them as narrow and incredibly const rict ing, confining of t he human spirit. One participant believes the systems approach negates a focus on individual dynamics and people’s own resources that could include spirituality. And an Indigenous participant explains that a social worker relying on mainst ream models and approaches w ouldn’t have a hope of surviving working with Indigenous communities. These comments are not surprising given the current thin state of knowledge and the lack of empirical study and model development in this area. Most of the participants also discussed the need for the analysis of spiritualit y given t heir desire for more holist ic approaches. One part icipant believes t hat Lots of people are doing it [working w it h spirit uality], t hey just 111
haven’t named it...there isn’t a framework that people feel...they can use. Ot her participants identify t he need for more clarity regarding spirit uality and deem it import ant t o explore how spirit uality is bot h helpful and not helpful for client s. One part icipant advocat es t hat including spiritualit y in social w ork w ill eventually help social workers t o become more object ive about spiritualit y, helping t o ensure that personal perspect ives are not imposed on clients. The needs identified here reflect the demands within social work for research on t he efficacy of spirit ual int ervent ions (Russel, 1998), and t he need for language, practice methods and models designed to integrate spiritualit y and social w ork t heory (Bullis, 1996), once again point ing to t he relevance and t imeliness of t his st udy. On the other hand, two participants wonder if an incorporation of spirituality into social work might further marginalize an already marginalized profession. One of these participants felt that social workers are not always viewed as credible and that social work was already sufficiently abstract without introducing spirituality into the equation. Indeed, the need for professional credibilit y has been a concern for social w ork since its incept ion as a profession and led t o t he marginalizat ion of cert ain knowledges and practices, as was previously discussed in Chapter One. Perhaps current emphasis on the art of practice indicates a greater acceptance of the nature of social work as opposed to emphasizing positivist science that doesn’t always fit with social work methods or perspectives. In fact, despite their concerns, both of these participants also describe aspects of their practice as spiritual and desire a holist ic approach inclusive of spirit uality. Thus, it appears t hat concerns about marginalizat ion w ill not prevent t he cont inued considerations of spiritualit y as know ledge for pract ice, especially w hen spiritually influenced practices are identified as effective and meaningful. While most of the participants agreed that a more holistic practice approach needs to be fostered, many also discussed the future of feminist approaches, 112
which are now briefly examined. Marginalization as a process is discussed more fully in t he follow ing sect ion of t his chapt er.
The future of feminist social work perspectives Many of the participants discussed the future of feminist social work approaches and indicate a continued need for feminist analysis. Several issues are identified that are linked with this need such as the continued exist ence of inequalit ies amongst people and men and w omen, t he lack of identification with feminist perspectives amongst many social workers, and the lack of explicit feminist discourse in social work. One participant connects the absence of explicit feminist dialogue in social work with the characteristics of social work students. In her opinion, students increasingly reflect a middle-class privileged background, which results in less experience of, and empathy for, issues such as poverty and oppression. If this is the case for some students, it reiterates the importance of personal experiences and the effects of these experiences on understanding clients’ struggles. Another participant attributes the disappearance of overt feminist discourse in social work to a stagnation in feminist theory. Two participants argue that t he incorporat ion of spirit uality int o feminist social w ork approaches could inject new life and direction into feminist social work practices and theory, which reiterates the desire for more holistic practices and theories. At the same time, many of the participants also identify a seemingly contradictory desire to move beyond frameworks, which include feminist models. While they indicate that feminist approaches and analyses are import ant , t hey do not w ant to be rest rict ed by t his or any other framew ork. A couple of participants discuss postmodernist and constructionist approaches as future trends in social work practice but overall, the participants ident ify mult i-layered analysis and t ranscending framew orks as positive and useful. These viewpoints reflect the current nature of shared social work knowledge and practice that was described in Chapter Two. 113
Current emphases w ithin social w ork st ress a mult i-modeled and mult i- theoretical approach that could also account for the less explicit nature of feminist discourse. Perhaps one of the dilemmas that will need to be grappled wit h is how to maint ain t he import ance of feminist analysis w hile knowledge, practice and values become increasingly shared across modalit ies. Chapter Eight ret urns t o t his analysis in great er dept h. T his section of t he chapter discussed how the part icipant s’ understandings of feminist social work fit with the literature. Feminism was also described as complex, eclectic, inclusive and developing over time and w it h experience, and cont inual shift s in feminist aw areness influence practice. Participants identified a continued need for feminist social work practices and analyses but observed that feminist discourse has become less explicit in social w ork. Some part icipant s argued t hat feminist theory is st agnant and ident ified t he incorporat ion of spirit ualit y as a fact or t hat could inject new life into feminist social w ork t heory and pract ices. Interest ingly, it appears that the participants are reiterating and emphasizing the importance of Bricker-Jenkins’ (1989) earlier findings that identified a spiritually influenced feminist social w ork pract ice as holist ic. In fact , part icipant s ident ified several commonalities bet w een t heir feminist social work approaches and spiritual values. Social work was more than a job for the participants in t his st udy, offering a professional cont ext w here they could express their feminist and spirit ual values. T hus, spirit uality demands discussion w it hin social w ork because at t he very least spiritual values and beliefs guide some practitioners in their practices and account for the choice of a social work career. A holistic social work approach was also connected with more effective and meaningful practices. While claims of efficacy need to be explored further, reports of the effectiveness of spiritually influenced processes are promising. How ever, spirit ualit y cont inues t o be largely ignored in the development of social work knowledge. The need for knowledge building and 114
t he analysis of spirit ualit y’s applicability and efficacy w as st ressed by bot h t he part icipant s and in the lit erat ure. The absence of spiritualit y in knowledge development is furt her addressed in the follow ing sect ion t hat examines t he marginalized nature of spiritual knowledge and practice.
S P IR ITUA L ITY - A MA R GINA L IZED KNO WL ED GE
Chapter One discussed how the secularization and professionalization of social work impacted on the type of knowledge that was deemed acceptable for the profession and served to divorce values from research and practice. Both these issues, the privileging of the methods of science and the separation of values from research and practice, are reflected in the follow ing cat egories t hat address t he marginalization of spirit ualit y and the effect s of t his marginalizat ion on t he part icipant s’ experiences and pract ices.
The secular nat ure of social work and the marginalizat ion of spirit uality A majority of the participants pointed out that they fear being marginalized, ostracized, judged and/or ridiculed by other social workers if t hey incorporat e and express spirit ualit y in social work cont ext s. T hese fears coupled wit h a lack of spirit ual discourse in social w ork leads to a sense of isolat ion and need for collegial support . Overall, t he part icipant s’ believe that social workers are unsupportive of, or not interested in, exploring spiritually influenced practices. For example, some of the adjectives used to describe how t hey believe spiritualit y is perceived are hippie, namby-pamby, looney tunes and wanky. One participant’s experiences have been that, T here’s open host ilit y...it’s done in jokes, in occasional direct comments. I think often trying to separate spirituality and religion are difficult. I have trouble with it...in the work place...I hear comments 115
which make it obvious that it’s not okay...usually it’s because...spirit ualit y and religion are then eventually connected to some form of either fundamentalism or oppressive discourse. All of w hich is valid comment s on one level you know . But then it ’s cut off t here. And I don’t t hink spiritualit y is ever ident ified as a t ool to find other ways of helping ourselves or our clients know their lives or know their experience or to understand their oppression...that’s not validat ed at all. This example reiterates previous discussion in this thesis that pointed out t he need t o different iat e bet w een spirit ualit y and religion in social w ork as concept ualizat ions of spirit ualit y are deemed more accept able and convergent with social work values, such as the emphasis on diversity. Also, connect ions bet ween religion, spirit ualit y and fundament alism impedes the serious considerat ion of spirit ualit y as discussed earlier in this chapt er. The marginalization experienced by the participants and/or the fear of being marginalized led to a sense of isolat ion and desire for collegial support from like-minded people. As one part icipant describes, she is alw ays on the lookout for conversations about spirituality. An example of the need for support is demonstrated by a group of participants and other social workers who formed a spirituality and social work support group, which arose from a public lecture I delivered discussing this research. The part icipant s’ need for support can be further understood when the extent of the marginalization of spiritual knowledge is considered. For example, social work knowledge exists at the margins of society (Hartman, 1992) and represents a knowledge that is dismissed as soft , fanciful and lacking subst ance (W eick, 1999). Spirit ual know ledge is further marginalized w ithin t his already marginalized knowledge and practice base. The analysis above relates to the earlier concerns expressed by two participants t hat t he incorporat ion of spiritualit y would furt her marginalize social work. However, social work is not the only helping profession that is 116
increasingly considering spirit ualit y in practice alt hough concerns of losing professional status may be greater for social workers. For example, Van Raalte (2001, p.16) contends that the field of psychiatry is beginning to recognize t he import ance of spirit ual “w ellness”. While t he marginalization of professional knowledges is complex, it appears from the literature that some social workers are ultimately concerned with delivering the most effective and relevant practice they can, and these goals encourage the calls to include spirit uality. However, at t he same t ime many participants also express a personal need t o address spirit ualit y in social work. For instance, all of the participants agree that there is a dearth of spiritual content within social work and many discussed their own education st ressing the invisibilit y of spiritualit y. As one part icipant explains, I have had this issue very explicitly ever since my social work training. Because I had an ext raordinary spirit ual aw akening during the process of my social w ork degree. And I was…in very serious conflict between the…secular and spiritual frameworks. This participant also argues that an entire dimension of life was not accounted for and there was no language to discuss it. Another participant also had a difficult time during her social work education indicat ing t hat spirit uality w as not reflect ed in t he relat ionships or t eaching styles, and that she would have had difficulty convincing her teachers and fellow st udent s that inquiries about spirit ualit y were valid quest ions in the first place. However, two participants who were recently engaged in social work study focused their undergraduate and graduate theses on spirituality topics, which provided them with an opportunity to address issues that could not be dealt with in a classroom situation because t hey w ere polit ically incorrect or there wouldn’t be any understanding of them. As one of these participants notes, the thesis process provided an opportunity to have spirituality recognized as legitimate thought. Thus, some attitudes have shifted as some university programs now allow for the academic exploration of spirituality. 117
T hese pract ices help t o legit imize spirit ualit y as knowledge for pract ice and research, and perhaps reflect increasing interests in spirituality and a greater acceptance of the art of practice. Secularization and professionalization processes have not only privileged posit ivist science and marginalized cert ain knowledges, but have also separated values from practice and research.
Personal values and practice experience The connection between personal values and spirituality and the notion t hat personal values have no ut ilit y in a professional practice affect many of the participants despite their work experience. However, inexperienced social workers hold the strongest views regarding the separation of values and practice. As previous theoretical discussion pointed out, it is a common theme within social work to stress the important position professional (but not personal) values hold (Loewenberg & Dolgoff, 1992). One part icipant describes feeling like she is in big t rouble when she engages in discussions about spirit uality w ith client s. Other participants connect similar feelings to values reminiscent of their earlier social work education. As one part icipant not es, It’s funny the whole professionalism issue...it’s like touching a client...talking about spirituality or...doing something that might be seen as being spiritual...it’s not okay. You need permission to do that. It’s not legitimized. Another participant questions teaching social work students to be value-free when in fact practitioners are value-laden. She believes that it is an ongoing struggle to discover how one’s beliefs and values affect practice. Similarly, anot her part icipant argues t hat being unaw are of personal values and beliefs can actually impact more on practice and can lead to the imposition of personal attitudes onto clients. These comments point to the import ance of cont inual development of self-aw areness and insight about what professional and personal values guide practice. 118
The participants that held the strongest views regarding the separation of personal values from practice had the least amount of social work practice experience. As one participant who was a fourth year social work student states, I definitely separate social work from my religion or from my spirituality...I make a separation because of being trained not to bring in my personal values...you got to be aware of your values...you’re supposed to separate yourself in a sense as a professional. You’re supposed to have a level of detachment. Her comments reflect the earlier discussion in Chapter One regarding the importance of value neutrality for occupational groups that claim professional status (Loewenberg, 1988), and illustrates that this viewpoint continues to shape beliefs and practices. Perhaps the above viewpoint is strongest amongst new social work graduates and inexperienced practitioners because they depend on the literature and their recent studies for practice guidance, relying more on theoretical, empirical and procedural knowledge whereas experienced practitioners use practice wisdom and personal knowledge [using Drury Hudson’s (1997) categorizations]. New graduates simply have not had the time to develop practice wisdom and personal knowledge. As Dean (1989) points out, personal knowledge changes the understanding of the use of t heories and leads t o a relat ivist ic view of know ledge. T he lack of discussion and recognit ion of personal values in pract ice has implicat ions for know ledge such as spirit uality and feminism, w hich is affiliated with personal values and beliefs. For example, inexperienced workers may struggle more with concepts such as spirituality, as this know ledge is not evident in t heoret ical, empirical or procedural know ledges t hat t hey most ut ilize. T hus, t he cont inued absence of spirit ualit y from t heoret ical models and empirical research perpet uat es it s marginalizat ion. The issue of separating personal values from practice can also be related to t he lack of t heory and model development in spiritualit y and social w ork, and 119
a comparison with feminist social work practices will elucidate this matter further.
Personal values and the lack of spirit ual knowledge T he research part icipant s did not ident ify difficult ies wit h applying feminist social work values in practice, which encompass both professional and personal values. As one participant notes, feminism is not identified exclusively as a personal value or belief structure. Thus, it may be that when a social worker’s personal values converge with professional values and accepted social work models and theories (as in feminist social work), it becomes permissible to engage in discussion with clients from these perspectives. In these instances, the social worker is not only expressing her/his personal values and beliefs but also a legitimized professional know ledge and pract ice. As an earlier comment illust rat ed, doing somet hing t hat is spirit ual is not legit imized. Similarly, one part icipant point s out t hat discussion about polit ics is considered valid discourse. He feels far less ambiguous about his feminist position but feels wary about spirituality because he has doubts about how to define it, talk about it, and has no legitimized language to discuss it. Another participant explains, I’m just very concerned about imposing my beliefs about spiritualit y on others. Much more than I am about…my feminist ideology…I mean feminism is w ell developed and more formalized if you like…it ’s more okay to say you’re a feminist…than to identify as a spiritualist or to ident ify as a person who t hinks spirit uality is import ant …Feminist t heory, I mean is t here a spirit ual theory? It appears t hat if spirit ualit y framew orks, models and/or t heories w ere developed t hen pract itioners might feel more just ified in ut ilizing spiritualit y knowledge in practice, which indicates the significance of the development of pract ice principles in this st udy. Spirit uality has yet t o be recognized as 120
relevant know ledge for practice and t his leaves many part icipant s feeling caut ious about incorporat ing spirit uality int o their pract ices. For example, one participant allow ed herself t o be led into spiritual discussions by client s rat her t han init iating t hem. How ever, she acknowledges t hat t his is not alw ays t he most helpful response and described a client who became upset because she had not shared her religious beliefs that were similar t o t he client ’s beliefs, particularly as t he t herapeut ic issues w ere tied to religious values. Perhaps the practice principles may assist some practitioners to feel more professionally compet ent in their use of spirit ually influence pract ices or spiritual discourse w it h client s. T his final sect ion of the chapt er illust rat ed how most of the participants are concerned wit h being marginalized by colleagues if t hey incorporate and express spirit ualit y in w ork cont ext s. In part icular, t he connect ion bet ween spirit uality and personal values affect s its accept abilit y, as do links bet w een spiritualit y, religion and fundamentalist values. Connect ing spiritualit y w it h personal values appears t o part icularly affect inexperienced social workers because they are taught to divorce personal values from professional practice, and depend more on empirical, theoretical and procedural knowledges. Consequently, inexperienced workers may struggle more with understanding and acknowledging how their personal values, w hich include spirit uality, influence t heir pract ice. The introduction of discussions about spiritualit y int o social work educat ion could assist in exploring how personal values affect social work thereby assisting to validate spirituality as knowledge for social work. In fact, many participants identified the need for theory building and empirical research in spirituality and social w ork. T he invisibilit y of spirit uality in social work in general, leaves participants feeling caut ious about incorporating spirit ualit y int o their work. However, the experiences of two participants who conducted thesis projects on spirituality topics indicate that attitudes are shifting. In particular, the development of practice principles may prove important in helping to shift 121
spiritualit y out of t he margins into more mainst ream discourses and practices.
Conclusion This chapter has presented for consideration categories that encompass t he part icipant s’ concept ualizat ions of spirit ualit y and religion, t he convergences between their feminist social work approaches and spiritual values, and their ideas about the consequences of the secularization and professionalizat ion of social w ork for spirit ual knowledge and pract ice. The participants different iate bet ween definit ions of spirit ualit y and religion but also recognize that they influence each other. Their understandings of spiritualit y are st rikingly similar to t hose offered in the lit erat ure, as are their anti-fundamentalist viewpoints. For most of the participants, their feminist social w ork and spirit ualit y values converge on many layers and toget her characterize a practice that is respectful, compassionate and focused on empowerment. The participants’ feminist and spiritual perspectives are both described as complex, eclectic and continually evolving through life experiences. While many participants experienced dissonance between some professional and personal values and patriarchal religious perspectives, several part icipant s w ere engaged w it h these tradit ions accepting the st ruggles and challenging pat riarchal viewpoint s from w it hin. For these participants, their professional, personal and spiritual values still converged, but social workers espousing fundamentalist beliefs may experience a strong clash between professional and personal values and beliefs, and may require support in this struggle. Spirituality and feminism are continually evolving, which emphasizes the importance of engaging in a continual process of developing self-aw areness regarding t he influence of values and beliefs on practices. 122
Finally, both the participants and the literature emphasize the need for know ledge development in spirit uality and social work, and a majorit y of the participants assert that social work should address spirituality so that a more holistic, effective and meaningful practice approach can be developed. The accept ance of spirit ual know ledge may lead t o increased considerat ions and incorporations of it , which could assist in t he process of exploring how personal values affect practices. Thus, the development of practice principles could prove significant in helping to recognize t he validit y of spirit ual knowledge and practices. The following chapter examines categories that describe the participants’ personal processes of spirit ual development and their ideas about t he spirit ual essence of human exist ence and life. Spirit ualit y can be a highly intimate and personal construct that can evoke profound questions about life and t he meaning of experiences. This research st udy in its explorat ion of spirit ualit y encount ered t his layer of more privat e and personal discourse that is not usually presented within the professional literature. However, this data is a strength of this thesis and the following chapter focuses attention on some of these more intimate descriptions of the participants’ spiritualit y and spirit ual processes, as they are import ant to the overall underst anding of t he part icipant s’ concept ualizat ions of spiritualit y and how these understandings influence their practices. 123
CHAPTER FIVE THE PROCESSES OF SPIRITUAL EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Introduction The previous chapter discussed categories that represent the participants’ values and ideas about spiritualit y in social w ork and t heir concept s of spiritualit y and religion. T his chapter present s for considerat ion categories in the second grouping that encompass the participants’ personal and more private processes and beliefs regarding the existence, exploration and development of spirituality. These important categories as expressed by t he part icipant s illust rate personal experiences of spirit ual growt h and t heir ideas regarding the spiritual essence of human existence. The chapter begins by focusing on some of the participants’ personal stories of spiritual awakening and development and the impact of these processes on their lives, and then examines the participants’ beliefs about the essence of human life. This data analysis chapter is different in substance from the other chapters in that personal accounts of development and struggle are discussed. While personal stories are not generally presented within academic discourse, visibly presenting the participants’ subjective experiences converges w it h feminist t radit ions of list ening and telling people’s st ories, part icularly w omen’s stories and t hose of marginalized and oppressed people. Rubin and Rubin (1995, pp.99-100 & 261) discuss ethical and pragmatic reasons for presenting interviewees’ narratives, for example, including the idea t hat st ories should be present ed accurat ely and honest ly in a way that maximizes interest in the research undertaken. Additionally, allowing the participants’ stories to sometimes stand alone without connections to literature and analysis reflects feminist values that respect the process of listening to personal accounts (Laidlaw & Malmo, 1990). 124
These subjective experiences also reflect the personal nature of spiritual know ledge. As previous discussion of the literat ure noted, a significant number of art icles regarding spirit ualit y and social w ork focus on personal reflections concerning the efficacy and relevance of spiritually influenced practice, and personal narratives describing spiritual awareness and its affects on practice. A recent example of the exploration of narrative is evident in t he book Spirit ualit y in Social Work Pract ice, Narrat ives for Professional Helping (Abels, 2000), which presents social workers’ personal stories about practice experiences and the meaning they gained from these experiences (see for other examples Krill, 1995; Nakashima, 1995). Spiritual discussions often encompass a personal layer of narrative because spirituality can represent a highly personal and individualized concept of existence. T he substance of t his chapt er also differs in it s int egrat ion of t hemes, categories and literature. While the categories presented in this chapter are reflective of some of the literature and theory which has already been presented, the exploration is different because of the personal nature of the knowledge that is discussed. Thus, this chapter represents the deep interface of spirituality with professional practice and feminist social work philosophy and values. Since spirit ualit y can be a personal and int imat e const ruct and is a crucial component of t he part icipant s’ lives, this chapt er provides an important foundation from which to understand how the participants make sense of spirit uality and w hy spirit uality influences their social w ork pract ices.
SPIRITUALITY AS A DEVELOPING PROCESS
Overall, t he participants describe t heir spirit ual development as an ongoing, continual and sometimes difficult process. Many participants discussed a transformative life event that profoundly influenced their spiritual 125
growth, while others described the ongoing influences of family, culture, spiritual/religious tradit ions and friends on t heir spirit ual aw areness.
The process of the development of spirituality All of t he part icipant s describe spirit ual development and grow t h as a never-ending and continual process, and exhibit a commitment to this process although they describe it in various ways focusing on different aspects. For example, one participant describes spirituality as encompassing self-growth, The drive to be knowing and to know yourself…not just something, it’s a process that grows. Another participant points out that growth and healing never end that Life is a journey…I don’t think we’re ever fully healed of anything. One part icipant compares her spiritual grow t h and process to the development of her feminist awareness stating, In much the same w ay my spirit ualit y is about my development , I t hink my kind of feminism is as well. I don’t remember waking up at the age of 20 and t hinking…I should be a feminist . Similarly, ot her part icipant s point out how their spirit ualit y and their spiritual awareness and growt h is cont inually evolving. For inst ance, one participant describes being required to compose a personal framework statement at the beginning of his social work education outlining his reasons for the choice of social work. He recalls, I remember w riting t his big spiel about God, love and…it w as quit e…a religious document …at lot s of levels. Upon the completion of his social work education he again had to produce a similar document. His final statement was Lots of stuff about people’s rights and…social justice framework and discrimination…And it really shifted and moved. And I thought at the time that they were incredibly different documents. But I actually think now t hey’re probably similar document s at some level. And very different at ot her levels. T his part icipant ’s spirit ual and religious cont ext and analysis shift ed because he wit hdrew from t he religious 126
t radit ion he w as act ively involved wit h during his social w ork educat ion, which accounts in part for the change in his focus and analysis. Other participants discussed how they are confident that their spiritual aw areness and development w ill cont inue t o shift , ebbing and flowing in accordance w it h life’s challenges. As tw o part icipant s point out, - It ’d be great t o do a longit udinal study on t his. But in 10 years time…how people think about spirituality. I mean I know that I’m going t o be complet ely different . - I t hink t hat sense of w holeness is for all of us somet hing t hat w e can have for a moment and then something else will rise. And then we need to go through that. So I don’t think it’s a sense of w holeness t hat we have all of t he time. I t hink it’s a process of that. That there are seasons in people’s lives where they will feel oh yes, I’m whole and I’m at peace and I’m feeling at one with the things around me. And that there are times when they just feel bloody awful and that they just don’t…feel connected to anything…And I think that’s life. The comments presented above imply that there is relevance in continuing to research spirituality and social work as conceptualizations of spiritualit y shift over t ime and w it h experience, which affect s social w ork processes. As the previous chapter discussed, life experiences that affect spirituality shape practice, for example, by helping practitioners to better empathize with clients’ oppressions and struggles. Thus, an ongoing striving for greater awareness and understanding appears to be important in research, practice and self-exploration processes. The need for social workers to demonstrate self-awareness is well documented within the social work literature (Hancock, 1997). Somew hat different ly, one part icipant believes t hat t he spirit ual realm is also evolving and changing. She states, The thing about the future is that it’s not necessarily written down in law. Because everybody has this concept 127
that heaven is evolved, heaven’s got the answers. And heaven’s an evolving place, just like the earth is an evolving place. And we’re changing, we’re doing, we’re learning, so is Upstairs changing and doing and learning. As well as believing in t he cont inual process of spirit ual development, t he participants all held in common an att it ude t owards life and w ork that could be characterized as reflective and questioning.
A reflective and questioning perspective The participants’ reflective and questioning stance is demonstrated by t he following part icipant w ho points out , It ’s really, really fascinating t o me…the struggles are always there. One participant expressed her surprise that Everyone doesn’t want to know about spirituality...they don’t want to explore the answers or the options. S h e e xp lain s t h at I had so many questions…it surprises me when people don’t explore them. Other participants describe their reflective approaches and how these perspectives affect life decisions, patterns and experiences. For example, - My spirit ualit y is an arguing one and a curious one and a w ant ing to discuss…as much as if I say my spirituality is part of who I am, it ’s not a complacent t hing. - I crave time to myself and I mean I love being connected with others but…I spend a lot of time thinking…and reflecting and listening to music and reading. Because otherwise it’s easy…to disintegrate or to loose it a bit and it’s one of the reasons I work part-time. - I got into writing poetry. My own poetry in a big way. And I think that was all about a process of being reflective. Who I was and some of my own journeys in life. I went into therapy about that time. Additionally, one participant describes her process of acknowledging that she held certain values and attitudes that needed to be challenged and 128
therefore engaged herself in situations that would challenge her to grow and shift her viewpoint, such as volunteering to work in a kitchen with homeless men. She was moved by the experience and states, They were very protective…And I thought, for someone who’s been through so much in their life t o st ill care…and t hey w ere all like that . And I was just so t ouched you know. She sums up her philosophy as, There’s certain areas of prejudice that you hold in yourself you know. And you don’t have to attend to all of them. Attend to one or two and know how to do it so that you can recognize it. The participants’ dedication and commitment to the process of cont inual spirit ual grow th and self-development is demonst rat ed in t he above comment s, pointing t o the relevance of t his commit ment and t he helpfulness of engaging in spirit ual explorat ion. T his kind of explorat ion has implicat ions for social workers w ho are interest ed in incorporat ing spirit uality int o social work, as the need to engage in personal spiritual discovery appears important. In fact, the literature reflects these viewpoints. As previous discussion of t he t heoret ical literat ure illust rat ed, Canda (1998) argues that social work education needs to pay more attention to assisting students to enhance their capacity for empathy and intuition (which he connects with spirituality), and Russel (1998) stresses that social workers need to understand and explore their own spirituality in order to effectively help client s. How ever, w hile t he helpfulness of engaging in personal spirit ual development can be explored and noted, the importance of respecting people’s interests or disinterests in spirituality can also be noted. The participants’ commit ment t o the process of spirit ual development is st rong despite the reality that this process was often difficult. Some of these struggles are now discussed.
The st ruggle of spiritual development Understanding spiritual development and growth in terms of struggle was a common theme shared by most of the participants although these 129
struggles were conceptualized in various ways. For example, one participant argues t hat spiritualit y is somehow born out of a struggle [a struggle for happiness] and having difficult things to deal with. For another participant her struggle centers on her spirituality and her desire for Absolut e fait h and trust that there is something else out there and wanting to have that absolut e fait h, versus her skepticism about spirituality. As she explains, Because I’m always on the lookout for more worldly explanations for why things happen. And then I think well as I do that, then I’m discounting the ot her st uff…so it ’s a const ant t urmoil really…I consider myself a person t rying t o be spirit ual. The following comment reiterates the commitment made by the part icipant s t o the life-long process of spirit ual growt h. T his participant accepts struggle and views life’s challenges as, Part of an evolutionary process in t erms of the spirit ual journey…if I manage to deal with that in a much more enlightened way…then hopefully I w ill move furt her along t he spiritual path…t hese t hings are present ed…t his is part of my spirit ual pat h…t o deal w it h w hat ever is presented to me. And it might be that I need to confront issues around my own ego, around pride, around humility. Additionally, one participant discusses how struggling with spirituality sometimes leads to what she identifies as spiritual suffering. She points out, One of the things that’s resulted for me around an experience of spirituality is when you have an inner life or a spirit life that’s connected to your daily life, you sometimes suffer spiritually…So I think if anything…my spiritual journey has been hard on myself really…I’ve ended up at times completely unemployable because I’ve struggled through…what I would describe as faith questions or spiritual questions that have left me absolutely and utterly exhausted. These comments presented above demonstrate the acknowledgement and acceptance that spiritual development and growth can be a necessary but difficult struggle, which was a recurrent theme 130
consistently across the research sample. In fact, sometimes it was the experience of trauma or great difficulty and challenge that acted to bring about spiritual discovery and exploration for some of t he part icipant s. On t he other hand, positive events were also catalysts in the transformation of participants’ spiritual lives. Some of these transformat ive experiences and t heir influence on spirit ual aw areness are discussed next .
Transformat ive experiences and spirit ualit y More than half of the research participants discussed some sort of traumatic, painful or positive transformative life event that had a profound effect on their ideas about spirit ualit y and spirit ual development . Overall, these events focus on experiences of coping with death and illness, relat ionship breakdow n and experiencing a spirit ual and/or religious awakening. For example, spirit ualit y helped some part icipant s to make meaning of the death of people whom they loved. One participant, in dealing with the death of her son, turned to spirituality for some sort of understanding and meaning. She describes, So up until I w as just over 40, I left that stuff alone [spirit ualit y]. So for 20 years I thought I don’t want to know about any of that sort of stuff and shut it all. And would have said that I was an extremely unspiritual sort of person. It wasn’t an element of my life that was important. But three years ago our son died and for me that was a major t urning point in t erms of spirit ual st uff…and at t hat t ime I guess there was a need for me to make some sense out of what had happened. Another participant makes clear how dealing with the death of her brother brought her to a closer examinat ion of spiritualit y. She not es, through the loss of my brother…Because he died as a very young person. He was 26. Trying to make sense of death and dying…that made me look more 131
closely at spirit ualit y. And in another example, a participant describes how t he shocking deat h of a client led her int o an examinat ion of spirit ual issues. She explains, Around the same time I had a patient who killed himself, committed suicide…he blew his brains out. And I found him and it was such a shocking experience…I had to take time off work and I did this incredible soul searching kind of t hing…so w hat is t he larger meaning of life all about ? Additionally, one participant who at one point in her life was dying described an out of body experience in which she was given a choice to live or die. She obviously decided to live and as a result of this event she contends that My understanding of other dimensions has been expanded and is grow ing over the years as a result of my experience. Issues like deat h and dying have been ident ified in the literat ure as topics that are strongly connected with spirituality because death raises questions about life and meaning (Lloyd, 1997; Smith et al, 1993).21 In the search for meaning in death and dying, these participants mentioned above t urned t o spirit ualit y and spiritual reflect ion t o help t hem underst and and make sense of the painful event s. Also, a prior affiliat ion w it h a spirit ual and/or religious tradition does not appear to be implicated in looking to spiritualit y for assist ance in making meaning, as tw o of t hese part icipant s had no affiliat ions w it h any spirit ual/religious t radit ion before the occurrence of these events. The breakdown of relationships was also cited by two participants as life events that moved them towards spirituality. As one participant notes, What I’m doing now for me is that I’ve been on a huge learning curve around spirituality…and that’s been because I had a big relationship breakdown about 18 months ago. Anot her part icipant at t ribut es spirit uality to saving her from a possible suicide aft er a series of challenges and failed relationships. She describes a fairly miserable childhood and t hen in my 20’s
21 This was discussed in Chapter One regarding the rationales for incorporating spirituality into social work (p. 16). 132
having…when I say tragic I’m exaggerating, but unhappy relationships that left me feeling very, very depressed, quite desperate, quite suicidal and I kind of fell int o spirit ualit y at a point w hen I was suicidal. So it sort of rescued me. T he loss of relationship is anot her example of an experience that often encourages people to make meaning and sense of their life experiences. In Chapter One making meaning was identified as a process t hat is influenced by spirit ualit y and this w ill be examined in great er dept h in Chapt er Six, w hich explores spirit ually influenced pract ices. Transformative experiences are not always created out of a sense of trauma or pain. Two research participants discussed spiritual and/or religious awakenings that profoundly impacted their lives and that were described as encompassing overwhelming joy, love and devotion. One participant describes meeting Swami Muktananda twenty years ago. As she explains he is an enlightened being…He blew my socks off…I received what we call Shakt ipat T radit ion, w hich is the aw akening of t he Kundalini energy. I didn’t know what that was. I had no idea about what that meant. And six months later when I walked into the first meditation center…I just had an experience that totally turned my life around. She describes these events as a kind of extraordinary spiritual awakening and my whole life did a 180-degree turn…and I started meditating and…my whole life just changed dramatically within a six month period. Anot her part icipant w ho lives in religious communit y describes her entrance into this community as a process…It’s like for me at the age of 23…I’d never been so deeply in love with anything or anyone, feel like I’d give up my whole life for. But at the age of 23, that’s what I experienced. For this part icipant , her ent ry int o religious communit y began a process of deep spiritual growth and exploration. Her process of making a decision to enter religious life w as also influenced by her family, cult ure and friends. Almost half of the research participants made no mention of one t ransformat ive experience great ly influencing t heir spirit ual development . 133
Conversely, the steady and ongoing influences of family, culture, friends and religious/spirit ual tradit ions shaped t he unfolding of t heir spirit uality.
The influence of family and cult ure on spirit ual development Several participants discussed both positive and negative familial influences and the influence of cult ure on t heir spirit ual int erests and development . Alt hough familial influence w as st rong, as adult s some participants shifted spirit ual beliefs and values based on t heir own life experiences. A few participants spoke about how positive values demonst rat ed wit hin their families influenced t heir ideas about spiritualit y and assisted in forming a personal sense of ethics and values. As one participant illust rat es, There are so many different influences…certainly my family upbringing, w hich w as t his really middle-class, very liberal, very tolerant, very nice upbringing. I mean there are some really good values there that my parents had…a certain kindness that I think I learned t here…I think especially from my mot her. Kindness w as really import ant . Similarly, anot her part icipant not es, The things that have always influenced me like my family, like my grandparent s, like my belief and my love for my family. T hose t hings have alw ays influenced who I am. And w hat I am. Also, the positive influence of family members does not necessarily cease when these people die. For example, one participant discussed her belief t hat her grandmot her (who died years ago) is st ill a positive influence in her spiritual journey and guides her. She believes that she’s there with me you know. In that [spiritual] search…and she’s always with me you know. Alt hough t he influence of family on an individual’s values and beliefs is st rong, several part icipant s expressed holding very different spirit ual values and beliefs t o their families of origin. As w as summarized in t he sample description, although twelve participants were raised in some sort of 134
religious/spirit ual t radit ion, four had left t hose t radit ions and five part icipant s w ho w ere raised w it h no religious/spiritual inst ruct ion had chosen an affiliat ion as adults. For example, t he part icipant who was described earlier as having met Swami Muktananda and experiencing a spiritual awakening described her parents and grandparents as atheists, noting that this was Quite unusual…there weren’t many of us. And I was kind of proud of it. Because of course I was raised t o think that people leaned on God or concepts of God were for the weak. T hus, w hile familial values and beliefs appeared to be strong influences on the participants as children, in adulthood many of the participants shifted their beliefs based on their own life experiences. For instance, also described earlier was a participant who began to consider spirituality after the death of her son. She describes her upbringing as follow s. I grew up in a family w here t here w as no religious inst ruct ion and in fact my parent s w ere probably quit e host ile around religion…I adopted t hat at t it ude as w ell. Like religion is a load of bullshit and felt really angry about religion. But I had no idea why. I just took on my parent’s views about that. Similarly, one participant discusses how she has opened up t o her spiritualit y after years of not wanting to have anything to do with it. She attributes this earlier reluctance to her father’s practice of holding seances. She states, One of the reasons that I didn’t want to have anything to do with it for a w hile…and I w as really quit e disdainful of t hat …but it was my fat her and he used t o hold seances. And he did t hat w hen I w as quit e young…but also as a teenager…and it became a really very frightening thing for me. And I became very fearful and I didn’t like being in the house by myself and so on…And I identified spirituality with that…it’s like as an adult I actually had to separate that all out. And find my ow n spirit ualit y t hat w as separat e from my fat her. 135
A couple of t he participants also ident ified cult ure, w hich is connect ed t o family as an import ant fact or in influencing spiritualit y. One part icipant felt that her European heritage was a more spiritual influence than her Australian culture. She argues that My cultural background has been important as w ell…t here’s just a specialness. I got lot s of st ories…fables, anecdot al things…you know a Europeaness…they seem to be a more spiritual culture t han Aust ralia. Another participant recalls her first childhood memory was of my grandmother praying. I must have been about two. It was at night and she had a huge picture of Our Lady of Sorrows over her bed. She was an Irish woman. And I remember the light was on…it was night and she was praying. As these comments above demonstrate, some cultures are strongly connect ed t o spirit ual and/or religious influences. Chapt er One discussed t he st rong influence of spiritualit y and religion in some cult ures and the need for social workers to be able to work effectively with clients of differing cultural heritage. The recognition of cultural diversity was identified as one of the rat ionales for incorporat ing spirit uality int o social work theory and pract ice (Falicov, 1999; Jackson, 1995; Berthold, 1989).
The influence of spirit ual/religious t radit ions on spirit ual development Given that twelve of the participants were raised in some sort of religious and/or spirit ual t radit ion and five participants had adopted a tradition as adults, several mentioned both the strong influence of people affiliat ed w it h religious and/or spirit ual traditions and t he t radit ions t hemselves, in their lives and on their spirit ual grow th. One part icipant indicated that she choose to become a Catholic due to the strong influence of a Dutch priest who when I was about 12…I spent two years with a most remarkable priest …he developed my moral values…he w ould get me t o debate the matter. Like he would say to me, “When is it not a sin to be 136
adulterous?” Similarly, t he participant ment ioned earlier w ho lives in religious community notes, I had these friends who were Franciscans. I suppose I got to know them…they lived not very far from where we lived. So from the time I was 12, I had their influence sort of around me. One participant developed a strong interest in Buddhism in her adulthood. She argues that the Buddhist influence has made her Aware of the contribution that I make to the difficulties of my life and how I can change myself I suppose and t ake responsibilit y for my ow n behaviour. So that’s been really important. Anot her part icipant in describing his adult experience with Christianity, points out that the st rong idealist ic values [of the left wing of the Christian Church] sort of Christ ian Socialism…t he w hole peace movement…had a very profound effect on him. Thus, it appears that t he values of part icular t raditions and t he people associat ed w it h these t radit ions w ere part icularly influent ial for some of t he part icipant s in t heir ow n spirit ual growt h and self-development . T he influence and import ance of friends and like-minded people was also raised by several part icipant s as significant for t heir spiritual explorat ion and grow t h.
The import ance of friends in spirit ual development One participant points out how her friendships have encouraged her to continue with her spiritual process. She explains, The people that I’ve met through the journey, the path that I’ve been on have been bloody fantastic and that’s been part of what’s kept me there…I’ve got two close friends…we are equally quest ioning and reflective on our lives. Another participant describes the inspiration she feels from her friendships. As she states, As much as the experience of seeing friends kind of go on and change, it’s quite inspiring…I’ve got a friend now who’s done a lot of medit at ion and I find him very inspiring just because of his integrit y and the…sense of peace that I feel, that people feel around him. Another participant w ho left her spirit ual t radit ion keeps in t ouch w it h one person 137
w ho w as in t he same spirit ual group as me and int ellect ually w e have very similar sorts of beliefs and interests, so we occasionally feed each other books and have long talks. This provides her with an opportunity to focus on spiritual topics and aids in sustaining and furthering her spiritual growth. As was mentioned in the previous chapter, due to the isolation and lack of accept ance most of t he part icipant s feel regarding explorat ions of spiritualit y in social work, it is import ant t o develop cont act s w ith people w ho can nurture and support reflections on spirituality and practice. However, the influence of friends is not always positive and for one participant developing spirit ually result ed in t he loss of some friends w ho were not supportive of this process for her. As she describes, It has meant t hat I’ve become really select ive act ually in my friends and w ho I choose to spend time with…And its meant that I’ve lost some friends…Like I needed to protect myself…I suppose honour…the tender parts of me because I think it’s not alw ays…well received. Her experiences reiterate the importance of support from like-minded colleagues and friends. This section of the chapter discussed how the participants identified spiritual development as a life-long process, reflect ing in t heir ow n lives a commitment to this process that was demonstrated in various ways. The ongoing and cont inual process of spirit ual development and self-growt h points to the importance of striving for greater self-understanding and awareness that in turn appears to influence helping processes. Also, within t he social w ork lit erat ure spirit ual exploration is ident ified as crucial for all pract it ioners but part icularly for social w orkers int erested in incorporat ing spiritualit y. T his emphasis on the import ance of spirit ual explorat ion appears t o indicat e t hat t his process is relevant . W hile spirit ual explorat ion may impact on the effect iveness and meaningfulness of t he helping int eract ion, t his discussion will be t aken up again in t he following chapt er that explores in-depth categories that address practice methods and relationships. 138
However, the present discussion points to the importance of supporting pract it ioners in t heir explorat ions of spirit ualit y. The participants also recognized and accepted that the processes of spiritual development are often difficult. The process of making meaning of these transformative experiences and various other life situations was particularly ident ified as influenced by spiritualit y by t he part icipant s and in the literature. The reality that social work clients engage in processes of making meaning, points t o t he import ance of considering spirit ualit y as a possible fact or in t his process and in social w ork pract ice. Addit ionally, the participants’ processes of spiritual explorat ion w ere also influenced by family, culture, friends and religious/spirit ual t raditions. T he part icipant s’ experiences as adults challenged them to develop their own values and beliefs about spirit uality, w hich reflect s t he cont inual learning process in spiritual explorat ion. T he link bet ween cult ure and spirit ualit y in some families emphasizes t he significance of recognizing client s’ cult ures as potent ially connect ed to spiritualit y and t he possible need t o address t his aspect of their life experience. Also, the significance of friends and support of like-minded people reiterates the need for support that was identified amongst the participants and discussed in the previous chapter. Perhaps if spiritualit y w as accept ed as valid know ledge in social work, this need for support would diminish as fears of marginalization would lessen. T his t hesis earlier discussed the part icipant s’ concept ualizat ions of spiritualit y (w hat spirit ualit y is), w hile this chapt er described t he development of spirit ualit y (how it comes t o be recognized by part icipants). T he following discussion examines the participants’ viewpoints regarding the spiritual essence of human life and exist ence (w hy spirit ualit y is import ant ).
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SPIRITUALITY - THE ESSENCE OF HUMAN EXISTENCE
Having spiritualit y and being a spirit Consistently across the research sample, the participants discussed t heir beliefs t hat all people have a spirit and spirit uality, even if it is not recognized or acknowledged. The participants described their spirits/spiritualities as the true essence of who they are and discussed how these beliefs influence their life experiences. Spirit is used interchangeably by many of the participants with the terms soul, higher-self and inner-self. Although these terms can imply different constructs, spirit is used here as a broad term encompassing these other concepts. The following comments demonstrate viewpoints that the human essence is spiritual in nature. - I t hink w e all have it but w e don’t necessarily all recognize it . It ’s what makes you, you in a way. - I cert ainly think that w e’re all spirit . That if you acknow ledge it or not, you have a spirit…and if you acknowledge it or not there is a God who created this place and each of us. So that’s what I believe. - And whether some people may decide to live wholly…in the everyday world…now that doesn’t mean…that their spirit is not there. But it may not be expressed, not consciously anyway. Perhaps it can st ill come out in t heir dreams and even in illness and symptoms and so forth. But it’s definitely still there. I think we all have a spirit . - I don’t t hink you’re kind of spirit ual one minut e and not spirit ual the next…I suppose I think there’s a spiritual dimension to human existence and we all have it whether we’re aware of it or not. - It ’s almost like I t hink w e all have a spirit uality w het her or not we’re conscious of it or claim it. 140
T he part icipant s described t heir ow n spirit ualit y and spirit as t he true essence of who they are. As one participant explains, I guess for me spiritualit y is about w hat is t he essence of t he individual living w it hin t his community?…Working in a hospice you see what happens to people when all the things that we put around ourselves to define us…are taken away from people bit by bit…and yet there is an essence of who that person is. Other participants note, - My sense of spiritualit y is my sense of me…So it ’s not so much t hat it’s something I grab and take, it’s who I am. - Like it ’s about my core, my essence, w ho I am, how I live my life. - But who you are when you’re out of body is who you are…like your body dies and you are who you are. And that’s what they deem the higher-self or the soul. - Life just would be very nihilistic without it. I can’t see being happy, I can’t see being me you know, without it. These beliefs presented above that one’s spirit/spirituality is a sense of something bigger and transcendent that helps to foster feelings of meaningfulness and happiness are consistent with the participants’ understandings of spirituality. As well, these viewpoints are reflected in the social w ork lit erat ure as previous theoret ical discussion illust rat ed. For example, T olliver (1997) argues that spirituality is integral to the human being. Canda’s (1986) conceptualization of spirituality describes spirituality as a universal aspect of human nature and experience, and Derezotes (1995) defines spirit uality as a complex, int rapsychic dimension of human development.22 T hese beliefs t hat everyone has a spirit /spirit uality and that
22 Some would argue that the viewpoints presented here are essentialist in nature. The debate surrounding essentialism continues particularly amongst feminist authors. Different perspectiv es in this debate can be located in Fuss (1989), Spelman (1988), Ghoray shi (1996) and Witt (1989). Howev er, an exploration of these perspectives is bey ond the purpose and scope of this chapter. 141
our spirit is the essence of who we are also affects how the participants experience their lives and practice social work. For example, several part icipant s described how believing in a spirit ual essence affects their relations with the world, as would other over-arching beliefs and values. One part icipant point s out t hat spirit ualit y is just there and part of us but it’s also…something about how you relate. It affects how you relate to the world, how you see the world. These perspectives are discussed in Zukav’s (1989) book The Seat of the Soul, which discusses in depth how people who are consciously aware of their spiritual essence live life differently compared to people who are not consciously aware of, or connected to their spirit/spirituality. With reference to social work practice, another participant notes that she considers everything she does as spiritual including, Everything I do from the way I greet the client and sit them down and talk to them…trying to look at how the service can be made more accessible…looking at what ’s going on at the clinic and the relat ionships between the staff. T his influence of spiritualit y in social w ork pract ice requires further examination and the exploration of the interface between spiritualit y and pract ice is addressed in-dept h in the follow ing chapt er. There is a difference between holding and sharing these viewpoints presented above and imposing these beliefs onto others. As the previous chapter discussed, the participants in this study are concerned with issues of oppression and pow er and are caut ious in how spirit ualit y is expressed w ith clients. It is important for social workers to explore how personal and professional values affect practice. The following comment demonstrates an acknowledgement of the belief that while everyone may have a spirit/spiritualit y, different people w ill be more or less int erest ed in spiritualit y, w hich should be respect ed. T he part icipant quest ions w hy some people appear to be more spirit ual or more int erest ed in it compared t o others. She believes that everybody has a soul. Just like everybody has a body…and within each soul there may be more or less of a propensity to 142
spirituality or to physicality or whatever. And that’s perhaps a continuum within each soul. Whether they’re more earth bound or spirit bound. Finally, a couple of participants had experiences and thoughts regarding t he nat ure of t his spirit ual essence. One part icipant described experiences w it hin a Y oga t radit ion in w hich she believes she encount ered her inner self or spiritual essence. She describes this encounter as an experience of Divine love or inner bliss and that’s our true nature. That’s the true nature of the human being. She adds that this experience totally t ransforms your whole experience of w hat we t hink w e are as human beings. So that at the core we are love. At the core we are this state of expanded consciousness, of oneness with all things. T his is anot her example from the participant w ho w as described earlier in t his chapt er as having had a t ransformat ive spirit ual experience aft er meet ing Sw ami Mukt ananda. T hese types of transformative experiences can have profound and far-reaching effects on the meanings that are attributed to life events. For example, believing that our t rue nat ure is Divine love t hat is connect ed wit h all things could affect the meaning assigned to experiences such as death and loss. As one participant contends, people do not die they reconnect with the Divine in a sense, which may be a comforting belief in a time of death. The final discussion in this section of the chapter addresses beliefs that while all human beings have spirituality, women may be more strongly connected to spiritualit y than men are.
Women, men and spirituality Four of the participants discussed beliefs that women may be more connected to spirituality than men are and one participant conjectured that at the very least , w omen’s spirit ualit y may be different from men’s spiritualit y and t he spirit uality of children. These perspect ives appear t o be connected to culture and t o definit ions of spirit ualit y. One part icipant positively reframes 143
the exclusion of women from various rituals within Judaism by pointing out women's stronger connection to spirituality. She argues that women are, More in t une and more spirit ual. More in touch wit h God than men are. And that’s why men need the physical rituals. There are a lot of physical rituals that men go through that women don’t necessarily have…I don’t feel I need all the trappings that men do…but for me there’s an awareness of God there all the time. And there is a sense in Judaism that women have this awareness. That women have this connection. Another participant links women’s socialization as carers and nurturers to a stronger connection to spirituality. As she describes, Well I think there’s a common ground for women there…you think about women’s conditioning around nurturing and caring and I do think women are the experts on being able to share that knowledge, that subjective knowledge of what it’s like to be a woman…I believe t hat w e walk around feeling very different ly to men…w het her it’s conditioning or I don’t know…but the thing is about the…ability to care and nurt ure. And I t hink that ’s spirit ualit y. A third part icipant discusses w omen’s intuit ion and links t his t o a stronger connection with spirituality. She notes, It’s intertwined with spiritualit y…t hat gut feeling, t hat int uit ion but t hen t hat could be female too. Y ou know, females have a great intuit ion about things…Maybe it’s all part and parcel of being a female. These last two comments particularly demonstrate how the understanding of spirituality, in this case as caring, nurturing and connection to intuition (characteristics associated with women in the Western world), influence perceptions about spiritual connectedness and development . If spirit ualit y is defined and underst ood as encompassing charact erist ics generally associat ed wit h w omen, w omen w ill be viewed as more connect ed t o spirit ualit y t han men. 144
Many women do indicate a desire to discuss spirituality and to incorporate spiritualit y int o practice, as Chapt er T wo discussed. Bricker- Jenkins and Hooyman (1986) argue that the integration of mind, body and spirit is an enduring theme in the women’s movement. The burgeoning lit erat ure pert aining t o feminist spiritualit y and feminist spirit ual movement s also reflects this desire for the consideration of spiritual issues. Also, within t he feminist spirit ualit y lit erature some support can be found for these research participants’ perspectives. For example, King (1989) argues that women have a greater capacity for spirituality. On the other hand, authors like Gross (1998a) note t hat claims for w omen’s spirit ual, development al and moral difference are not grounded in research and that feminism’s preferred strategy of change can not continue to be based on separateness but needs t o be more inclusive. Perhaps Gross’s perspect ive is more consist ent w it h, and reflective of, social work literature as many men are actually engaged in discourse and practice regarding spirituality. Additionally, a fourth participant considered the possibility that w omen’s spirit ualit y is different from men’s spirit uality w hich are bot h different from children’s spirit ualit y. She draw s on Aust ralian Aboriginal beliefs t o illust rate her view point st at ing, If you look at Aboriginal tribes they w ould t ell you t hat w omen’s spirit ualit y is different than men’s spirituality…the practices for women would be different than the practices for men. This perspective is different from the previous three presented above, as it addresses difference rather than a comparison of the strength of spiritual connection. W het her or not w omen’s spiritualit y is different from men’s spiritualit y and children’s spirit ualit y is a complex and cont entious issue, as is t he belief t hat w omen are more strongly connect ed t o spirit ualit y t han men are. These beliefs appear to be connected to culture and based on the accompanying concept s of spiritualit y. Some cult ures and spirit ual/religious t radit ions may indeed hold t hese viewpoints. T hus, it is import ant t o not e t he relevance of 145
understanding diverse cultural definitions of spirituality and how cultural beliefs may affect life experiences and t he meaning at t ribut ed t o these event s. Being sensit ive t o and developing understanding of cultural differences w as ident ified as import ant previously in t his chapt er. This section of the chapter discussed the participants’ beliefs that the essence of a person is t heir spirit and spirit ualit y w het her this spirit ual essence is acknowledged or not, and these viewpoints are also reflected in the social work literature. Since all people will not necessarily recognize or deem import ant t heir connection w ith spiritualit y and/or t heir spirit , respect should be demonst rat ed for people’s viewpoint s and t heir level of spirit ual aw areness or development . T his conviction t hat spirit ualit y is our t rue essence st rongly shapes how t he part icipant s live t heir lives, that is, how they relate to people, make sense of their life experiences and practice social work. This points to the importance of examining personal and professional beliefs and values, and how these affect social work practices. Three participants also discussed beliefs that women’s connections to spirituality are stronger than men’s connections, while another participant expressed her belief t hat w omen’s spirit ualit y may be different from men’s and children’s spirit ualit y. These view point s appear to be based on underst andings of spiritualit y and connect ed t o cult ure. Cert ainly w it hin the social work literature, many men write about the need to consider spirituality. Generalizations about men’s and women’s spiritual connections may not reflect t he complexity inherent in people’s lives. For example, t he men in t his research sample are more int erest ed in spirit ualit y and in fostering their spirit ual development t han some women are, just as t hey are more strongly committed to feminist perspectives. However, this discussion does st ress t he import ance of developing cultural sensit ivity regarding diverse definitions of spirituality and how these understandings influence experiences and the meaning attributed to life events.
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Conclusion Spirit ualit y is import ant in t he research part icipant s’ lives and this chapter has examined and presented some of their personal stories and beliefs regarding the process of spirit ual development and t he essence of human existence. The exploration of personal narrative is important because the stories reflect the personal nature of spiritual knowledge and help to furt her illust rat e t he part icipant s' concept ualizat ions of spirit ualit y and the influence of spiritualit y on t heir experiences. The participants discussed the continual and life-long process of spiritual development and demonstrated a commitment to this ongoing process. For instance, some participants placed themselves in situations which they knew would challenge their beliefs while others engaged in counselling and ut ilized experient ial techniques t o help t hem reflect on t heir spiritual processes. T he import ance of engaging in spirit ual development was also identified in the social work literature. All of these viewpoints point to t he importance of engaging in spirit ual explorat ion. There was also an acceptance amongst the participants that the process of spiritual development is often a struggle. For some participants this struggle involved transformative experiences that acted as catalysts in t heir discovery and grow t h of spirit ualit y. Spiritualit y helped part icipant s make meaning of these events and struggles. Considering making meaning as a process t hat is influenced by spirit uality is part icularly crucial for social work because many social work clients engage in helping processes in order t o make meaning or sense of life event s. Other part icipant s’ spirit ual growt h processes were affected by the steady influences of family, culture, friends and spirit ual/religious t radit ions. Finally, t his chapt er discussed part icipant s’ beliefs t hat spirit ualit y is the essence of human existence, whether it is recognized or not. These viewpoint s significant ly shape how t he participants live their lives and make sense of life experiences. T hus, it is import ant for social w orkers to develop 147
an appreciation of cultural diversity and to understand how concept ualizat ions of spirit ualit y affect people’s lives and the meaning they attribute to experiences. Beliefs that spirituality is the essence of human existence not only affected the participants’ experiences but would presumably also influence their social work practices. The purpose of the following chapter is to explore in depth how the participants’ understandings and beliefs about spirit uality affect t heir social w ork pract ices. The participants discuss how t heir concept ualizat ions of spiritualit y influence t he w ays in w hich t hey reflect spirit ualit y in t heir pract ices, and how spiritual development, social work contexts and client populations also affect their social work. 148
CHAPTER SIX THE INTERFA CE OF SPIRITUALITY AND PRA CTICE – PRACTICE METHODS AND RELATIONSHIPS
Introduction The previous two chapters discussed the participants’ desire for spiritual discourse in social w ork, t heir viewpoint s that the incorporation of spiritualit y int o pract ice leads t o a more meaningful, effect ive and holist ic practice, their understandings of spirituality and personal narratives regarding spirit ual growt h, and t heir beliefs about t he spirit ual essence of human life. This chapter addresses if and in what ways these shared beliefs and experiences affect practice processes. T his chapt er first examines how personal spiritual development , social w ork context s and client populat ions influence t he incorporat ion of spirit uality into practice. Second, the chapter presents further analysis of categories that emerged from the participants’ discussions of practice methods and relat ionships. Specifically, t hese cat egories describe incorporat ions of spiritualit y through shifting language and forming relat ionships wit h client s, and spirit ually influenced pract ice processes such as making meaning and fostering connections and experiences of self-love. Although these categories reflect consensus amongst the majority of the participants, the chapter concludes w it h a summary of all of t he spirit ually influenced pract ices identified by the participants, thereby making visible the extent of diversity in spiritually influenced pract ices that emerged in t his st udy. Discussion in the previous chapter identified the importance of the participants’ commit ment t o the ongoing process of spirit ual development and raised the idea that these processes may have implications for pract it ioners int erest ed in including spirit ualit y in their work. For instance, personal spirit ual explorat ion is linked w it h t he abilit y t o effectively address spiritualit y in pract ice. T his chapter begins wit h a furt her analysis of how 149
personal spirit ual development affect s t he incorporat ion of spirit uality and examines how social work contexts and client populations also significantly shape spiritually influenced practices.
THE INFLUENCES OF PERSONAL SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT, SOCIAL WORK CONTEXTS AND CLIENT POPULATIONS ON INCORPORA TIONS OF SPIRITUA LITY INTO PRA CTICE
Personal spirit ual processes Most of the participants discussed how life and work experiences affect ed their abilit y t o incorporat e spirit ualit y int o t heir pract ices. Several participants also linked personal spirit ual development w it h bot h overall pract ice effect iveness and pract ice effectiveness in assist ing client s w it h issues identified as spiritual. For many of the participants, work experience and personal spirit ual grow t h toget her increased the confidence they felt in including spirit ualit y in pract ice. For inst ance, one part icipant believes t hat t he more in t ouch a person is with themselves (identifying that as spirituality), the more useful that person will be to others. She asserts that if you’re not a peace with yourself at that level, t hen t hat ’s going t o block your abilit y to w ork. Another participant agrees t hat w hat people can be helped w it h is incredibly influenced by your own life experience, and where you’ve been and how much you’re achieved yourself and where you’ve moved on. She believes that you can’t really get your clients to progress further than you. Similarly, one part icipant at t ributes her spirit ual grow th over t he past few years as having made a difference to the work that I do, while another participant describes her increased feelings of comfort in leading client s int o spirit ual discussions as a gradual evolution that also had to do with becoming attuned 150
t o the diversit y of people’s religions and people’s spiritualit y and people’s choice to either take it or leave it. Most of the participants discussed how both work and life experience and spirit ual development affect t heir w illingness and abilit y to acknow ledge t hat spirit ualit y is included in their pract ices, in part because a majority are experienced pract it ioners w ho are interest ed in personal spirit ual explorat ion. Thus, most of the participants have had time to develop practice wisdom, which encompasses these experiences and the awareness that comes from engaging in a cont inual process of self-discovery. As one part icipant describes, there is no more conflict for her between spirituality and social work. She points out that There’s been a coming together, a crystallizing of a path or a way of working that can embrace all different kinds of ways of approaching things, but also recognizes where my skill is…now I kind of see that there are different frameworks that are suitable to different people at different levels of t heir spirit ual evolution. Her comment illustrates how years of practice experience, personal spiritual growth and practice wisdom influences the incorporat ion of spirit ualit y. The need to engage in personal spiritual exploration is not only supported by experienced participants but also by the following participant w ho feels inexperienced. T his part icipant who w as just completing her social w ork educat ion, believes t hat her lack of pract ice w isdom affect s her abilit y t o include spirit ualit y in her pract ice. For example, I don’t have any personal experience or personal wisdom to draw upon this work, so I can do this. So I’m going very much according to the book at this stage because I have less experience. For her, going by the book results in a practice that is separated from spirit ualit y, which relat es to previous discussion regarding inexperienced workers and their dependence on theoretical, empirical and procedural knowledge, as opposed to practice wisdom and personal knowledge. T he import ance of spirit ual explorat ion and t he influence of t his process on practice is also discussed in the literature. The previous overview 151
of the lit erat ure suggest ed that t he personal cult ivat ion of spirit ualit y is crucial preparat ion for the applicat ion of know ledge and skills in pract ice, and that social workers need to grapple with their own spiritual issues in order to effectively help clients on a spiritual level (Russel, 1998; Canda, 1988). Finally, w ork experience not only influences t he incorporat ion of spiritualit y but can also affect religious pract ices and spirit ual development . One participant discussed how her social work experiences influence the development of her religious life and spirit uality (having defined these different ly). Being involved in Church life and teaching she point s out that The pastoral care work that I do and the teaching that I do in pastoral care is all grounded in my experience in palliat ive care. Not t he ot her w ay around…My w ork influences my religious life [and spirit ualit y]. She attributes t his dynamic t o working w it h dying people, w hich she believes encourages a reflective process regarding her personal, professional and spiritual/religious development . T his participant’s w ork cont ext in palliat ive care is a significant factor t hat is connect ed t o her spirit ual and religious life and w ork. The influence of social w ork cont ext s is examined next.
Social work contexts – factors that promote the inclusion of spirit uality All of the participants identified various factors connected to social w ork context and client populat ions t hat influenced the incorporation of spiritualit y int o pract ice. Social w ork cont exts and client populat ions t hat both promot e and impede the incorporat ion of spiritualit y are summarized in Tables 6.1 and 6.2, located in Appendices VI and VII. Factors that promote t he inclusion of spirit ualit y include the age of client s, issues of death and loss, work with women, individuals and marginalized populations, private practice, trauma work and culture. Almost all of these factors may encourage the establishment of longer-term, significant relationships with clients due to the nature of the social work process. For example, helping someone deal 152
with death can be an intimate process, which may in turn promote the inclusion of spiritualit y. The worker/client relat ionship is discussed lat er in this chapter. Additionally, issues of power appear to be connected to several factors. For example, working privately with clients can encourage an increased sense of personal power and autonomy in practice style and choice of models, techniques and theories. Social workers in this context may feel more freedom to w ork w it h spirit ualit y as is evidenced by an example in Table 6.1, in which the private practice context enabled the participant to explicit ly const ruct a spirit ually influenced pract ice approach. T here is generally a good fit between the clients that choose to access her service and the service she provides. The clients in this case also have more power as they make a choice to access and pay for her services, even though power imbalances inevitably remain bet w een w orker and client. Working with marginalized populations also addresses issues of power. Ironically, exist ing in the margins of society or in a group perceived as alternative and less powerful may lead to an increased sense of freedom t o consider alt ernat ive viewpoint s such as spirit ualit y. In the example provided in Table 6.1, the participant experienced that the marginalized client group was open to discussing spirituality, which converged with her own perspectives and styles of practice and encouraged her to incorporate spiritualit y. Similarly, social w ork knowledge it self is ident ified as marginalized. Perhaps it is in part this marginalizat ion t hat provides room w it hin social w ork t o consider even more marginalized know ledges. Social workers are considered by some as better prepared than other helping professions to legitimate subjugated knowledges, as social work emphasizes values of social just ice and self-act ualizat ion, and w orks w it h oppressed and marginalized populat ions (W it kin, 1999). Several factors in Table 6.1 are also discussed in the literature. For example, in Chapter One spirituality was identified as an important coping 153
and healing resource in t he area of t rauma for both client s and social workers (Hagon, 1998). Other authors stressed that spirituality can provide comfort in managing illness (T angenberg, 2000). Work in the areas of deat h, dying, grief and loss were also identified as having st rong links to spirit ualit y (Lloyd, 1997; Smith et al, 1993), as was the cultural diversity of clients (Boyd-Franklin & Walker Lockwood, 1999; Falicov, 1999; Tolliver, 1997). Also, in Chapter Two various authors raised the links between working with women and spirituality (Johnson, 1997; Bewley, 1995). Religion is not ident ified specifically as a fact or that promot es t he inclusion of spiritualit y and t here may be a few issues t hat account for t his finding. Act ually, religion can be included in t he fact or of cult ure. Almost a t hird of t he part icipant s ident ified t he cult ure of client s or mult icult uralism as topics that are connected to religion and spirituality. One participant notes t hat recognit ion of t he diversit y of clients’ cult ures has enabled discussions about spirit ualit y and religion at his work place. He points out that initiat ing discussion about cult ure is more acceptable than religious or spirit ual discourse, which could account for the absence of the explicit identification of religion here. Also, t he focus of t his st udy on spirit ualit y and t he part icipant s’ different iat ion bet w een spirit ualit y and religion w as likely t o have influenced responses. Finally, one part icipant w ho w as an experienced pract it ioner in counselling abused w omen, but w ho w as engaged in social w ork educat ion emphasizes the powerlessness of social work students in some contexts. She feels that her lesser status as an unpaid practicum student affects her confidence in incorporating spirit ualit y. T he pow er and stat us accorded to social workers and perceived personal power certainly differs according to work contexts and positions, and affects in various ways the incorporation of spiritualit y. Issues of pow er are furt her analyzed in t he follow ing sect ion.
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Social work contexts – factors that impede the inclusion of spirit uality The factors identified by the participants as impeding the incorporation of spirit ualit y into pract ice are list ed in T able 6.2 in Appendix VII. They include dealing with basic needs, child protection and administrative work versus therapeutic work, voluntary versus involuntary client s, firm delineat ion of t he social work role, client s paying for services in a non-private practice context, and crisis work. Some of these factors such as dealing w ith basic needs, firm delineat ion of t he social work role, crisis w ork and administ rat ive dut ies illust rat e t hat not having enough t ime to form close relat ionships w it h client s and t he lack of freedom of choice in pract ice models and goals impedes t he inclusion of spiritualit y. Overall, t he part icipant s believe t hat having t ime t o build relat ionships is import ant in spirit ually influenced practice, as is the freedom to work according to practice wisdom and personal knowledge. Some of these fact ors also illust rat e how issues of pow er affect t he incorporation of spirit ualit y. For example, one participant raised t he issue of fee for service. She experiences less freedom to include spirituality in her w ork w hen client s pay for services in a non-privat e pract ice cont ext. Paying for services in her example shift s pow er t o t he client that often result s in client demands for particular outcomes, which she feels restricts her practice approach. This part icipant w orks in w hat she ident ifies as a const raining context with conservative clients and she is encouraged to utilize certain models and techniques. This example differs from the earlier one of private practice because clients are paying and choosing a particular service not a specific practitioner, which pressures the worker to deliver this service. Client s have t he right t o demand specific services from organizat ions. Thus, the onus is on practitioners to consider whether work contexts and client populat ions w ill promot e or impede pract ice that incorporat es their philosophy and values. 155
A few participants also stressed that voluntary clients have more power because they choose to access services while involuntary clients are forced t o at t end. Being aw are of t hese power different ials led t o part icipants feeling w ary about incorporat ing spirit ualit y into w ork w it h involunt ary client s. As w as discussed earlier in Chapt er Four, t he participants are concerned w it h being oppressive, w hich leads to a caut ious approach regarding spirit ually influenced pract ices. One part icipant ident ifies t hat as a child protection worker she feels very restricted in her practice with regards t o spirit ualit y. Not only does she have more pow er t han her involunt ary clients but often has to exert power over clients. Consequently, she seldom has the opportunity to form trusting, longer-term relationships with clients that are based on equality and that appear to aid in the incorporation of spiritualit y. How ever, not all involunt ary client s are pow erless. Anot her participant w ho works wit h an involunt ary teenage client group found t hat spiritually influenced pract ices w ere included in some of her w ork, for example through the use of meditation exercises. Despite their involuntary st atus some of these clients do engage w illingly in t he social w ork process, w hich allows t he use of t hese spirit ually influenced processes. Overall, spirit uality is not complet ely absent from pract ice processes even in situations where participants feel very restricted in their practices. For inst ance, connect ing w it h client s on a higher level of consciousness is an example of a spiritually influenced process that was discussed by a participant who feels extremely restricted in her role as a child protection worker. The following section of the chapter further discusses this example and ot her spirit ually influenced pract ices. This section of the chapter has discussed how the participants connect their life and work experiences and their commitment to spiritual exploration, t o t heir ability and willingness t o incorporat e spirit uality int o pract ice. Most of the participants are experienced practitioners who have had time to develop a practice wisdom, which enables these links to be made. Practice wisdom is 156
an important layer of professional knowledge that deserves exploration and attention, particularly since it appears to be connected to the inclusion of spirituality in practice. Inexperienced workers may struggle more with spirituality because they lack practice wisdom and experience. However, w het her pract ice w isdom is necessary for the incorporat ion of spirit ualit y is yet to be determined and raises issues for further study that are discussed in the final chapter. Similarly, the participants also indicated that a social w orker’s personal spirit ual explorat ion and development positively affect s practice effectiveness and the meaningfulness of practice. These are not surprising findings given most of the participants’ work/life experiences, ages and int erest s in spirit ual explorat ion. However, the realit y t hat both the lit erat ure and t he participants st ress t he importance of personal spirit ual development indicat es its relevance in spiritually influenced pract ice. W hile most of t he participants experienced some rest rict ion in their w ork regarding the inclusion of spirit ualit y, t he most rest rict ion w as expressed by the participants working with clients who were involuntary, dealing with survival needs and who demanded certain services, particularly in contexts that restricted choice of practice models and promoted short- term client contact. In these situations, often the worker has power over clients, which coupled with non-therapeutic work does not promote the inclusion of spiritualit y. On t he ot her hand, t he least rest rict ed part icipant s work in contexts such as private practice and palliative care that provide freedom to develop spiritually influenced practice approaches, or with clients such as marginalized groups that encourage spirit uality discourse. Thus, although issues of power are complex it appears that contexts and client populations in which both the worker and the client are empowered and sharing power are the most conducive to promoting the incorporation of spiritualit y. T hese context s and client populat ions also oft en enable t he development of w orker/client relat ionships t hat could be charact erized as egalitarian, meaningful, trusting and longer-term, which appears relevant for 157
t he inclusion of spirit ualit y. In fact , most of t he part icipant s engaged in practice that facilitated these types of relationships, which could account in part for t heir ident ificat ion of spirit ually influenced pract ices in this st udy. Pract it ioners w ho are int erest ed in spirit uality could use this dat a t o consider issues of power and how a particular context will promote or impede their pract ice st yle, values and the inclusion of spirit uality. T he follow ing discussion builds on the analysis started here and furthers discussion regarding issues of power, relationship and social work context.
SPIRITUALLY INFLUENCED PRA CTICES
The following section presents an overview and analysis of the final layer of categories that arose from the participants’ discussions of practice methods and relationships, which encompass spiritually influenced practice processes. These include incorporations of spirituality through language and relat ionship, and spirit ually influenced processes such as making meaning and fost ering client s’ connect ions and experiences of self-love. T o reit erat e, these categories represent the convergent viewpoints of a majority of the participants. However, the chapter concludes with a brief summary of all the spiritually influenced pract ices that were ident ified by t he part icipant s.
Language and spirit ualit y Consistently across the research sample, the participants stress that t hey accommodat e a client ’s spirit ual perspect ive by shift ing t heir language to converge with the client’s discourse. Various rationales are provided for shifting language that include respect, the promotion of deeper connections, to transcend differences and to achieve practice goals. Also, explicit religious and spiritual discourse is not often engaged in. In general, the participants 158
emphasize t he import ance of using w hat speaks t o people and working with a language t hat people relat e to. Several participants identified that they shifted their language out of respect for the client. As one participant notes, If you want to deliver a spiritual language, you use something they understand. You start from where they are. You don’t expect them to move to your position. Other participants identified t hat a deeper connect ion wit h client s can occur w hen language is shifted. For instance, Social workers have a language…doctors have a language and Christians have a language, and so I would speak in that language to them. There would be a deeper connection. This comment illustrat es that when religious beliefs are shared bet w een client and worker, the use of religious language can promote a closer, more meaningful or effective connection. On the other hand, one participant explains that if client s use religious language exclusively she w ill work wit h t hem t o build a more generic language, so if their religious perspect ive is threat ened they w ill st ill have a means of discussing spirit ualit y. T hese t w o examples can be related to Doherty’s (1999) Three Domains of Language and Meaning model that was discussed in Chapter One. For instance, the model supports the pract ice of int roducing spirit ual issues t hrough t he language of overlap areas and using spirit ual/religious t erms if t he client ’s beliefs are known. Participants also shift ed t heir language in order to communicat e more effectively, to achieve practice aims and goals, and to transcend differences. As one participant explains, I’m not going to impose anything on them…so if t hey have Christ ian beliefs then I w ill use t heir Christ ian beliefs…and incorporate some of the energy and experience I’ve got into that to help them recover. Overall, language is chosen because of it s perceived helpfulness t o t he social w ork process. T his is demonst rat ed in the follow ing comment by a part icipant w ho chose t o omit t he use of the w ord spiritualit y to enable more effective communication and to transcend differences regarding definit ions of spirit ualit y. For example, If I say spiritual, it’s got to 159
come from t he Bible and t hat…religious philosophy. T hat ’s her concept of spiritual. Whereas if I talk energy she goes, “Oh yeah, that’s good. Oh yeah, I can feel that…that’s right, okay.” There was also wide recognition that religious language has oppressed some people, due in part to the participants’ feminist social work perspectives. As one participant discussed, even though she has liberat ive w ays of t alking about God, she realizes t hat for many women language is oppressive. She shifts her language because As a woman who comes from a Judeo-Christ ian background, I w ould w ant to I guess be in some sense of solidarity with my sisters who didn’t experience Christianity as much else other than oppressive. Several other part icipant s point out that religious language produces tremendous barriers. T hus, religious language is generally avoided except in cases where the client introduces this language into the process and/or it is deemed useful to the helping process, as in the example provided above that discusses using religious language t o enable connect ions w it h clients. Engaging in explicit discussions about spiritualit y is not the norm for t he part icipant s except in sit uat ions w here w orker and client share spirit ual perspect ives, t he client int roduces spirit ualit y and/or the topics under consideration facilit at e these discussions. Relat ing back t o the previous discussion regarding social work contexts, the participants who regularly engage explicit ly in spiritual discussions w ork in cont ext s and wit h client populat ions t hat most oft en meet these condit ions, such as palliat ive care and private practice. Various explanations are provided for avoiding explicit discussion about spirit ualit y many of w hich w ere previously discussed in Chapter Four, for example, fears of marginalization and lack of acceptance by the client, the secular nature of social work, acknowledging the capability t o act oppressively and lacking a spirit ual language. T w o part icipant s reflect ing on t heir ow n counselling experiences explained t hat bot h t hey and their counsellors avoided using the word spirituality although the participants 160
identify the issues that were addressed as spiritual ones. One of these participants described her counsellor as too traditional t o explicitly discuss spiritualit y, w hich reflect s t he need t o divorce spiritual discourse from professional pract ice. The lack of explicit spirit ual discourse raises issues concerning the transparency of practice.
Language and spirit ualit y – t ransparency of pract ice T he following comment illust rat es t hat t here are also instances when t he part icipant s are influenced and guided by personal ideas about or understandings of spirituality and times when helping processes are underst ood as spirit ual w it hout ident ifying this t o client s. For example, I might have said, we’ll do a bit of relaxation, a bit of meditation and that’s all I’d say. But the commentary might be similar to a spiritual comment ary w it hout me calling it t hat . And so I’d get them to focus on the soul, focus on the third eye, without using that word…my role as a social w orker is not spiritual t eaching as such, my role is t o help them recover. This example and others like it raise questions about the transparency of pract ice and t he absence of explicit spirit ual discourse. Many of the participants acknowledge that they are not transparent in their practices with client s regarding spirit ualit y and several part icipant s question t his, w ondering if t hey should be more explicit . It could be argued t hat this non -t ransparency is contrary to feminist social work practices and values that aim to equalize power imbalances bet ween w orker and client by ident ifying counselling approaches and perspectives. However, only a couple of participants identify t his issue as an et hical one and none of t he part icipant s link it wit h feminist values. In fact, one participant points out that if she talks directly with her client s about how she uses spirit uality, t he client s w ouldn’t underst and or it w ould challenge or fright en t hem leading t o an ineffect ive process. Her viewpoint is not meant to be patronizing, but reflects her experience as a 161
practitioner and her concern with helping clients to achieve their goals. Another participant did not want clients to have preconceived ideas about her or the work that could be engaged in. Actually, based on expressed concerns of acting oppressively with clients and the rationales for not discussing spirituality, most participants w ould likely ident ify t he explicit discussion of personal view point s regarding spirituality as unethical, and an inappropriate use of their power and influence as a professional. Because spirituality has not yet been accepted as legitimate knowledge for social work, its association with personal perspectives and values leaves the participants feeling wary about explicitly engaging in these discussions with clients. Additionally, the idea was raised earlier in Chapter Four that the development of spirit ual models and language as legit imat e methods and processes may lead t o t he increased use of spiritually influenced pract ices. However, legit imizing spirit ualit y w ill not necessarily lead t o more explicit discussions or transparent practices. For example, both the use of language t hat fit s for client s and t he avoidance of it in some sit uat ions are mirrored in most of the participants’ feminist practices. Many of the participants explained that they might not explicitly use feminist language with clients either because it may be confusing, misleading and at odds with the goals of t he helping process. While t his may not be convergent wit h feminist values as mentioned above, perhaps the non-explicit use of feminist language is a reflection of the participants’ practice experience. As practice wisdom and personal know ledge is developed t here may be less reliance on t ext book theory and practice, as a personal practice approach incorporates these frameworks and values. Above all else, the primary emphasis in both the participants’ feminist and spirit ually influenced pract ices appears t o be to ut ilize language that is deemed most appropriat e, helpful and effect ive for clients’ processes. 162
W hile t he part icipant s agreed that it may not be appropriat e t o discuss personal spirit ual beliefs w it h client s, most acknowledged t hat t hese personal beliefs influence and guide practice. Indeed, social workers are guided by a myriad of personal perspectives that are not always identified to clients, just as every therapeutic modality and technique is not generally explained. This analysis reit erat es t he importance of developing self-aw areness regarding personal and professional perspectives and values. Social workers bring who they are and what they believe to every social work encounter and this bears analysis that can aid in efforts to not impose personal perspectives onto clients. While more inexperienced practitioners may attempt to separate their personal perspectives from their practice, experienced practitioners realize that these biases shape practice and require attention. Consequently, most of the part icipants emphasize the import ance of developing insight and self- aw areness t hat includes spirit ual explorat ion. T he following cat egories demonst rat e more specifically how the participants’ concept s of spirit ualit y influence t heir social w ork pract ices. Making meaning processes are discussed first, which Hartman (1996, pp.3, 6) describes as one aspect of human existence and the sense of purpose or meaning in everyday life that makes life livable. Alt ernat ively, meaninglessness conjures up feelings of hopelessness, isolation and in extreme cases, suicidal thoughts.
Making meaning The practice of helping clients to make meaning is described as a spiritual one by many part icipant s because spirit ualit y itself is concept ualized as a process of making meaning. Hartman (1996, p.3) agrees that finding meaning in crisis and making meaning in life is an act of spiritualit y and a spiritual t ask. Indeed, t he previous chapt er illust rated how spiritualit y helped many of the participants to make sense or meaning of experiences. In response to a query regarding the rationale for identifying making meaning 163
as a spirit ually influenced pract ice, one participant explains, Because I think spiritualit y is about meaning…I let people explore what ever t hat st uff is. And it ’s all about meaning. Another participant in a description of her work points out that often when you work in therapy with someone, initially you deal with the concrete matters…and then you move along that continuum of therapy into an area where they’re trying to make sense of their whole life…and that’s where I tend to go…if that lead is there…I do call it a spiritual dimension. Four participants specifically discussed helping people deal with death and dying as a spiritual making meaning process. One participant argues that helping people to face and make sense of deeply personal, intimate issues relat ed t o dying involves spiritualit y. She stat es, Because I think in a sense it ’s all about spiritualit y. About human beings in crisis and w hat resources do w e have an d w h at d o e s it me an t o …su ffe r. Another participant believes that it is important to help people explore whatever they want around their spiritualit y and deat h in w hat ever form fit s for t hem, including const ruct ions of where they’re going, what they think is going to happen to them…it’s their private stuff. That’s their way of making sense of their world. It’s not mine. T his part icipant emphasizes t he import ance of coming to terms w it h dying and that the process has to be resolved by the client without him imposing his beliefs about deat h and spirit ualit y. T he issues client s bring t o t he helping process certainly influence the need (or not) to engage in making meaning, and death is certainly an experience that encourages making meaning processes. One participant also argues that the assumption should not be made t hat t here is alw ays meaning in suffering. She makes t he dist inction betw een making meaning and finding meaning, st ressing t hat somet imes t here is no meaning to be found in suffering but that it has to be constructed. As she describes, some clients take a long time to make meaning, some have already resolved what the meaning of their suffering is, others are ready and 164
w illing t o engage in t he making meaning process and still ot hers might never make meaning of their situation.23 In other words, pain and suffering often seem unfair but despit e t he unfairness of life’s challenges, people can make sense of these situations that helps to deal with these struggles. With regards to other areas of practice, one participant identified ut ilizing client ’s dreams as a way of helping them to make meaning. She names the use of dreams as an important strategy…because I think that the brain produces images that are essentially about the psychosocialspiritual reality of people. So t hat ’s spirit ual…and so I really encourage people to talk to me about their dreams. Also, t he use of spirit ualit y and religion t o help make sense of paranormal experiences was identified by one participant. For example, in working with a client who thought she had seen a ghost, the participant t alked about it in…spiritual t erms and identified this social work process as spirit ual direct ion because ideas of God w ere raised. She adds that in the work she does this type of process doesn’t happen often. It’s not an everyday thing. In this example, both the participant and client shared religious beliefs that provided them w it h a language and a cont ext wit hin which they could interpret the experience both religiously and spiritually. Also, the client began discussing the situation in religious terms, which encouraged t he part icipant t o ut ilize t heir shared perspect ives. Finally, t he participants’ ideas of making meaning as a spirit ual process is reflected in the lit erat ure, as previous theoret ical discussion has illustrat ed. For example, Anderson (1999) argues that the aim in counselling is to help people know their story in order to reframe it, and Barrett (1999) describes healing from trauma as a quest for spirituality that reflects a deep need for meaning. Ot her concept ualizat ions of spirit uality also affect w hat pract ices are ident ified as spiritually influenced. For inst ance, t he part icipant s
23 Hartman (1996, p.129) also contends that finding and making meaning are not identical in their meaning although they are used interchangeably in the literature. He states that finding meaning implies the discovery of something that already exists, while making meaning implies the creation of something from a set of raw materials. 165
defined spirituality as connection, that is, connection to something “bigger”, community, one’s self, environment, culture, nature and other people. Thus, assist ing client s to fost er connect ions on a myriad of levels w as ident ified as spiritually influenced pract ice and is discussed next .
Fostering connections Most of the participants discussed how helping clients foster connections with community, in groups and with their feelings are spiritually influenced pract ice. As the follow ing comment illust rat es, helping clients build community is a spiritual process that aids in promoting a positive sense of self. For example, Because I define spirit ualit y as a lot around my values around community, and also a lot around my values of people being empowered to find their own goals and communities to find their own goals. That influences my work profoundly…helping people build their community…I see that’s where our sense of self and our sense of valuing ourselves comes from, is having a good experience of communit y and int erpersonal relationships. Another participant describes how a group of women whom she had facilitated writing workshops for, had decided to continue their meetings when the workshops ended. She attributes this desire for the ongoing group connect ion t o spirit uality and cont ends t hat There’s something deeper than just that they’re a group of women who meet for writing that keeps them there, and that sort of sharing in their lives and the connecting at that level…I don’t t hink it ’s just in therapy groups…t he process of what happens in groups and support that people can get…I think that there’s a spiritual dimension to that. Spiritual connections that are sometimes formed amongst people in groups can be supportive and even life enhancing or changing. Some feminist literature reflects these viewpoints and also discusses how group connection can encompass spirituality. For instance, Ballou (1995) 166
argues t hat feminist spirit uality is grounded in community, connect ion and relationship, and Kimmel and Kazanis (1995) describe the deep spiritual connections that can occur in consciousness raising and counselling groups. W hile t he examples above have focused on more communal spirit ual connections, assisting clients to connect with their feelings was also ident ified as an incorporat ion of spirit uality and w as associat ed w it h helping people t o connect w it h t heir spirit ualit y. All of t he part icipant s ident ify t he connect ion of feelings wit h spirit uality, for example, People who shut down their emotions find dealing with spirituality very difficult...the emotional life is very close t o spirit ualit y. Another participant explains that she focuses on how clients are feeling and how they manage emotions because this constitutes working with the soul stuff. Similarly, one part icipant frames a disconnection from feelings as an int imacy issue st at ing, I find that people who have difficulties with becoming intimate have a sense of disconnectedness within themselves…It’s around trust and it’s around acceptance. Thus, it is perceived that a consequence of being disconnected from feelings is a hampered abilit y to be int imat e w it h ot hers and to form connect ions w it h one’s spirit ualit y. Overall, t he participants identified disconnect ion from bot h feelings and spirit ualit y as impeding the development of self-aw areness, spiritual growt h and relat ionships. As one part icipant notes, People live t heir lives very, very quickly and have lost that kind of…in touchness if you like. In touch with themselves and in touch…with others and the planet. As a result, some part icipant s liken t he social w ork process t o a facilit at ion of connectedness, which demonstrates the importance placed on connections. It is important to note however, that most of the participants also agree that being able to disconnect from unhealthy people and influences is equally important, and in the process of disconnecting from these negative influences sometimes more positive and healthy connections occur. As one 167
participant emphasizes, it is not always a healthy thing to be connected with ot hers despit e societ y’s emphasis on relat ionships. Finally, one participant illust rat es how fostering a connect ion w it h w hat she calls her heart center promotes a more effective practice for her and her clients. She describes, When I’m sitting with clients, I’ll sit with my mantra. I’ll sit and repeat my mantra…it’s very centering for me…as a therapist. And I can kind of drop int o a very st ill, calm place. And from t hat place I w ork w it h people and my mind is clearer, I’m centered, I’m open, I’m not judging…they get the benefit of the fact that I am calm, centered, clear-headed, connected to my heart center. This example lends support to earlier discussions that identified the import ance of a social w orker’s personal spirit ual development for the effect ive facilitat ion of social w ork processes. T he connect ion t hat can occur between social worker and client is analyzed next as it was specifically ident ified as an incorporat ion of spiritualit y by most of t he part icipant s.
The social worker-client relat ionship Overall, t he participants described their relat ionships w ith client s as spiritual w hen t hey w ere w holly present w ith client s, sharing client ’s st ories and when a deep connection had occurred between them. The importance of acknowledging these client connections because of potential effects on w orkers is also ident ified, as is t he relevance of relat ionship in affect ing change. One part icipant believes t hat spirit ualit y is present w hen he is wholly attending to someone. For example, For me it’s about sitting with someone’s pain. Someone’s you know, grief. Allowing yourself to be there. That’s spiritual. Because it demands so much of you. Other participants indicated t hat a connect ion is spirit ual when it feels like it exist s on a spiritual level or a higher level of consciousness or awareness, which are viewpoints reflected in 168
the literature. Indeed, for some social workers the very essence of the t herapeutic relat ionship is spiritual because it fost ers personal transformation, wholeness, intimate relationships and involves opening the self to sorrow and connection (Walsh, 1999a; Weingarten, 1999). One participant discusses the importance of understanding these deep spiritual connections as part of our professional role. She believes that We really connect wit h some of our client s at quite a deep level. And to understand that as part of the professional role that we have. Not something outside of it because as soon as we say that it’s outside of it, it can throw us. Her comment emphasizes the importance of understanding how practitioners can be affect ed by t he relat ionships they form w it h clients. Recognizing how we are connected with and affected by clients also reflects feminist social work values. For example, several participants point out how through personal life experiences and growth, they now feel less of a separation and more of a connect ion wit h client s. As one part icipant not es, That’s part of me seeing that I’m connected to everyone…I don’t see that there’s a line between myself and my clients. Because I’ve been a client too. Another participant at t ribut es feeling less of a separat eness from client s to her spiritual growth. She points out that consequently her work has taken on more of a spirit ual dimension…t here is more of a sense of being connect ed and that my human experience is really just the same as theirs. These examples also illust rat e how t he development of practice w isdom that is influenced by life experiences and spirit ual development can encourage a more egalit arian helping philosophy focused on relationship. Along t hese lines, one part icipant believes that for t he most part it is her relationship with clients that affects change, not what she is doing in terms of therapeutic techniques. It is her process of being with that person that influences the client to shift. The significance of the worker-client relat ionship is w idely support ed in t he helping lit erat ure. Carl Rogers (1961) is well know n for his emphasis on t he importance of a genuine and aut hent ic 169
relationship with clients. Within the social work literature, Klein and Cnaan (1995) discuss a practice model that emphasizes the building of relat ionships. In their opinion, the import ance of relat ionship is subst ant iat ed in the social w ork research lit erat ure. For t he participants in t his st udy, t he ability and w illingness t o form spirit ual connect ions w it h client s appears t o be influenced by spirit ual development and self-aw areness. T he part icipant s were for the most part engaged in and committed to a continual process of self-development and spiritual explorat ion, w hich enables them to form spiritual connections with clients. However, it should be noted that although relationships form the basis of direct practice work, not every effective relationship needs to encompass a spiritual connect ion. Client s may not be willing t o engage w it h us on that level and likewise, we may not deem it appropriate to do so with them. Also, social work contexts and client populations affect helping processes and incorporations of spirit ualit y. Some cont exts and client populations such as involunt ary client s, may not encourage t he format ion of spirit ual relationships. Interestingly however, a spiritual connection with an involunt ary or host ile client may be possible. For example, one part icipant describes how she sometimes attempts to connect and form a relationship with a client’s higher consciousness, especially clients who are difficult to engage, for the purposes of achieving a positive outcome. She notes, There are t imes t hat I’ve been aware of being in an int erview w it h people and…some other connection has occurred…I will consciously use that if I think it’s a situation that is going to be really hard going. In this example the participant underst ands spiritualit y as including a higher consciousness. Thus, connecting with a person’s higher consciousness is spiritual for her. The final category that emerged in discussions about practice methods and relationships concerns experiencing self-love and a sense of wholeness. Spirit ualit y is defined by many part icipant s as an experience of love. 170
Consequent ly, helping client s to feel self-love and wholeness is also ident ified as spirit ually influenced pract ice.
Self-love and wholeness For many participants, a connection to spirituality converges with experiencing a positive sense of self. As one participant notes, Spirit ualit y is about a good sense of self. And…having good spirit uality, having a fulfilled soul is being in touch and in tune with the Self. And I think the more detached you are, t he less spirit ual you feel. Similarly, another participant explains that her present belief about spirit ualism and myself is somet hing about a belief in yourself…a belief t hat you can rely on yourself, that you are a good person, a kind person and a healt hy person. These viewpoints influence practices in various ways. For instance, some participants emphasize the need for people to love themselves while others stress fostering feelings of wholeness, and both of these experiences are linked with more meaningful and effective practice processes. T he bot t om line for some part icipant s is t o assist people t o develop their self-acceptance and self-love and to learn to nurture themselves because Unless people like themselves…not hing comes, not hing else. Y ou really have got no where to go if you don’t love yourself. Another participant explains that she talks to people about Wholeness and oneness and what it means to feel content with themselves as people, to feel good about themselves, proud of their choices, to believe in the positive aspects of themselves, to believe in their own good…That they are good enough. One participant emphasizes that what is important is the experience of feeling self-love. In he r opinion, this feeling has t o be an energet ic, physical and emot ional experience. All of t hese perspect ives reflect beliefs t hat because spirit ualit y is concept ualized as love, assist ing people t o connect w it h their spirit uality can promote feelings of self-love and, vice versa, that feeling self-love can 171
promot e the development of spirit ualit y. It should be not ed that while a positive sense of self can augment the processes of self-growth and reflect ion, w hich can include spirit ualit y, cert ainly people w ho do not feel good about themselves can also turn to spirituality for assistance. As previous discussions in t his t hesis have noted, spirit ualit y can be a fact or in coping with and making sense of challenges and struggles by all people. Assisting clients to develop a sense of wholeness, which is related to feelings of self-love was identified as essential by three participants. One participant point s out that a spirit ual process for many client s is t he search for something t hat will make t hem feel w hole. Anot her part icipant emphasizes recognizing the wholeness of people’s experiences and believes that People are more than people with HIV. People are more than women…for me, it’s about saying…people are more than having an illness. T hey’re also sexual people, t hey’re also spirit ual people…So I t hink it ’s about putting those other aspects of people’s lives in the open and supporting and nurturing every aspect of people’s lives. Another participant believes that when people sense a feeling of wholeness then h e alin g and t h e rap y is an easier road. Once you have experienced it then you know what…your goals are. As t his last comment indicat es, helping people feel and experience self-love and wholeness is connected to a more effective and meaningful practice experience. For example, one participant describes the process of helping people to experience a valuing of t hemselves as rewarding. She describes, Finding significance, t he significance of t hem…and the significance of their relationships and the significance of their relationship with God is just…awesome. It’s just amazing. Another participant points out that her experience of spirit uality has been that it has the potential to heal very deeply. And offer a lot of joy. She wonders if she sees that and others see that, then I suppose to not offer that would in a sense perhaps be an obligat ion of t he dut y of care. Throughout this thesis both the participants 172
and t he lit erat ure have linked spiritually influenced pract ices w it h more effective and meaningful processes. It appears that at the very least social w ork should at t end t o spirit ualit y and consider its applicat ions in pract ice. Better still would be to study the effectiveness (or not) of spiritually influenced practices. Otherwise, our understanding about a potentially significant part of life experience and helping processes w ill cont inue to be hampered and ignored or marginalized. Finally, one participant discussed her thoughts about how these feelings of wholeness and self-love are created. She believes that there is no formula t hat can be relied on that will inform us about when this is going to occur for people, and she understands healing and a sense of wholeness as a spiritual gift . For inst ance, There’s something about the receptiveness of…the human spirit. W hen it ’s done enough work t o accept a gift of some kind. This example demonstrates that dynamics occur within practice that may be difficult to articulate and grasp, and practice often includes these more abstract const ruct s as w ell as helping processes t hat have been more thoroughly studied and developed such as empathy. As Chapter Two pointed out, if a diversity of knowledges and research models are embraced, these abstract processes can be studied, discussed and developed into knowledge. The categories presented thus far are based on consensus amongst the majority of the participants. While most participants discussed the importance of the relationship between practitioner and client, and the ut ilizat ion of client -cent ered language, t hey also identified other spirit ually influenced practices that are not necessarily shared widely across the research sample but t hat illust rat e diversit y in beliefs and pract ices. These practices are now briefly examined.
Addit ional spiritually influenced pract ices Table 6.3 in Appendix VIII summarizes all of the additional spiritually influenced practices that were identified by the participants. These are 173
organized into four groups for the purposes of clarity. Religious expressions in pract ice include prayer and referral t o religious organizat ions. Social w ork processes that are influenced by spirituality include assessment and social action, and values such as respect and believing in people’s inherent worth. Spirit ual tools and t echniques include w orking w it h spirit ual guides, astrological concepts and flower essences, while experiential techniques include working with energy, ritual and meditation. Some preliminary analysis can be offered here but, given the exploratory nature of this research, an in-depth analysis of these practices is beyond the scope of this study. In fact, this analysis was not part of the research but instead it has tentatively emerged. However, the diversity of these practices holds numerous possibilit ies for fut ure invest igat ions. It w as not ed earlier in t his chapt er t hat beliefs about spirit ualit y affect how spirit ualit y is included in pract ice. T his dynamic appears t o hold true for these additional practices listed in Table 6.3. For example, the participants w ho had present and past affiliat ions w it h religious t radit ions ident ify religiously influenced pract ices. Similarly, t he part icipant s w ho st ressed t hat spiritualit y w as experient ial (about a third of t he sample) ut ilize techniques in t heir social w ork t hat aim t o help people experience spiritualit y, for example, medit at ion. Spiritual t echniques such as flower essences and spirit guides are ment ioned by five part icipant s. T hese part icipant s share int erest s in w orking with energy and connecting with people on a higher level of consciousness, and with Eastern philosophies and traditions. All but one work in private practice contexts and they are amongst the most experienced practitioners in this sample, which would provide them with freedom and confidence to use these techniques. Finally, various social work processes are identified as spiritually influenced pract ices, which is not surprising given t he convergences identified earlier in Chapter Four between feminist social work values and spirituality, such as an emphasis on social change and diversity. 174
Some of the practices summarized in Table 6.3 have also been identified in the literature discussed earlier in this thesis. For example, Perry and Rolland (1999) advocat e linking spirit ual w ell being and just ice. Wright (1999) mentions prayer as a spiritual technique, Aponte (1999) stresses the usefulness of connecting people with spiritual/religious resources, Oaks (1998) encourages tuning into intuition as practice know ledge, Carroll (1998) presents meditation and guided imagery as useful, and Schwartz’s (1999) Int ernal Family Syst ems model is akin t o working w it h spirit guides or t he Higher-Self. Therefore, the participants have identified spiritually influenced practices that both converge with the literature and identify new directions for exploration. T his section of t he chapter has explored how spirit ualit y is incorporated into the participants’ practices. Overall, the participants shift t heir language or avoid explicit spiritual discourse in order to achieve the most helpful process for clients. T here are likely some cont ext s w here pract ice is more transparent because spiritual discourse is encouraged or expect ed by client s and a spirit ual language is being developed in these areas. Ot her cont ext s discourage t he inclusion of spirit ualit y and t his coupled with the secular nature of social work, the association of spirituality with personal values, and the marginalizat ion of spirit ualit y creates w ariness about explicit ly discussing spiritualit y wit h client s. In fact , these fact ors shape percept ions of explicit spirit ual discourse as potent ially unethical and an abuse of pow er by imposing personal values onto client s. Also, w hile t he legitimizat ion of spirit ual knowledge may help pract it ioners to feel more justified in using t his know ledge, explicit spirit ual discourse w ill likely st ill depend on perceptions regarding the helpfulness of this discourse. Whether spiritualit y should be more explicit ly named is yet to be det ermined. Concept ualizat ions of spirit ualit y influence how spirit ualit y is incorporated into social work. Certainly, some social work contexts and client populat ions encourage spirit ually influenced practice more t han ot hers do. 175
For example, not having the time to form relationships with clients will certainly affect the abilit y to engage in making meaning processes. T he processes of fostering connections and experiences of self-love, forming spiritual relat ionships w ith client s and shift ing language were all connect ed with experiencing a more meaningful and effective practice. These viewpoints reiterate the need to consider spirituality in practice because of potent ial posit ive effects. Pract ice wisdom and personal spirit ual explorat ion are implicated in t he abilit y t o form relat ionships w it h client s as life and w ork experiences can shape our understanding of clients’ experiences, and our willingness to connect with them. Thus, the close and/or spiritual relationships that can sometimes form with clients are particularly important for inexperienced social workers to consider as they lack practice wisdom and these relat ionships may raise quest ions about professionalism, boundaries, values and feelings. Overall, a great er understanding of spirit ually influenced concept s such as self-love, relat ionship and connection is required because these experiences appear to encourage effective processes for clients but our knowledge about them is limited.
Conclusion This chapter has presented for consideration the third grouping of categories that address the incorporations of spirituality into social work, which emerged from discussions of practice methods and relationships. Spirit ualit y w as incorporat ed int o pract ice t hrough t he processes of shift ing language, making meaning, fost ering connect ions, forming spirit ual relationships with clients, promoting experiences of self-love, and through various other processes and techniques identified by the participants. Also, the participants described social work contexts and client populations that both promoted and impeded the inclusion of spirituality into practice. Percept ions of pow er had in some cases an influence on whet her spiritualit y 176
was included in practice, and it appears that the most conducive situation for t he incorporat ion of spirit uality exist s w hen pow er is more evenly balanced and shared between practitioners and clients. Social work contexts and client populat ions bear significant influence on t he inclusion of spirit ualit y and can shape what practices are possible and the transparencies of practice with regards t o spiritualit y. T he import ance of fost ering personal self-aw areness and spirit ual development was identified throughout the chapter. A worker’s spiritual growt h is perceived t o affect the overall meaningfulness of pract ice as w ell as its effectiveness. Practitioners who are engaged in processes of continual self-development are perceived as being able to engage with clients on deeper levels of connect ion and t o assist clients in making meaning and building connections. The development of practice wisdom is also associated with spiritually influenced practice. Although it is not surprising that more experienced workers are deemed more effective and more willing to consider spirituality in practice, a greater understanding of the connections between pract ice wisdom, spirit ual development and spirit ually influenced pract ice is required. Thus concludes the discussion of the major convergent themes and categories that arose from the analysis of interview data. Three groupings of categories were identified that discussed the participants’ ideas about spiritualit y and t heir values and goals of pract ice (Chapt er Four), spirit ual processes and the essence of human life (Chapter Five), and practice methods and relationships (Chapter Six). A point that has been raised throughout these three chapters is that spiritual knowledge needs to be uncovered and articulated in order to help facilitate discourse and considerations about practice. In fact, while this study did not set out to produce spiritual knowledge or practice principles, the emergence of convergent themes and categories prompted further questions and the accompanying analysis of new data that did result in the development of a 177
set of practice principles. The following chapter examines this decision and the ensuing process of development of the practice principles. 178
CHAPTER SEVEN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRACTICE PRINCIPLES
Introduction The previous three chapters presented for consideration the major themes and categories that arose from the analysis of data collected from participant int erview s. Remarkably they represent major convergences amongst the participants’ beliefs, values and practices. This research study asked preliminary questions which satisfactorily addressed the research questions, and did not expect to develop knowledge for practice in the form of pract ice principles, given the preliminary nat ure of previous knowledge development and empirical research in spiritualit y and social w ork. However, in keeping with a grounded theory methodology, the unexpected emergence of these convergent categories prompted a re-examination of the literature to assess the existence of convergences documented elsewhere and/or the prior development of models, frameworks and practice principles. The lack of development of any coherent and empirically based models, practice principles or frameworks for a “spiritual-social work” practice necessitated a return to the research method. It was through further research inquiry and data analysis of the convergent categories that the potential of developing a more formal knowledge in the area became evident. The possibility of articulating practice principles developed with the analysis of the convergent categories. This chapter examines the interview data further and re-organizes the informat ion t o develop a coherent if preliminary set of pract ice principles. The categories that were discussed in the previous three chapters are briefly summarized in order t o illust rat e how t he first development of the pract ice principles attempted to incorporate these viewpoints. It should be noted that t he pract ice principles present ed for considerat ion here in this chapter are not in t heir final version. T he part icipant s reviewed t he pract ice principles 179
again during the focus groups, and as a result, changes were made based on participant feedback and analysis of the focus group meetings. The final version of t he pract ice principles w ill be present ed in t he following chapt er that discusses the focus group analysis. This chapter’s relevance is in its sole focus on the development of the practice principles and in its re-examination of previously discussed ideas, thereby linking the development of the practice principles with previous discussion of the literature and data analysis in a close and cohesive manner. The chapter begins by summarizing discussion regarding the need for the development of theory, models, framew orks and language in spirit uality and social work.
THE NEED FOR KNOWLEDGE DEVELOPMENT IN SPIRITUALITY AND SOCIAL WORK
The need for spirit ual knowledge Both the participants and the literature contend that the incorporation of spirit ualit y can contribut e to more effect ive and meaningful pract ice processes. However, these viewpoints are generally based on personal practice experiences and though this is an important form of knowledge, empirical research is needed t o develop, broaden and st rengt hen our understanding of how spirituality shapes practice experiences beyond the experience of sole practitioners. Even Schwartz’s (1999) Internal Family Systems model and Doherty’s (1999) Three Domains of Language and Meaning model, which are well developed and useful schemas, are based on the respective author’s practice experiences. Indeed, in Schwartz’s model, there is a lack of clarity and some uncertainty with regards to understanding and articulating how the processes described in the model actually work. As Amato-von Hemert (1994) argues, it is not in social work’s best interest for practitioners to solely use their personal experiences as the knowledge base 180
for their practice and the standard for decision making in this area. Consequent ly, know ledge is required in t he form of framew orks, models, practice principles and preliminary theory that would encourage reflection on how spiritualit y shapes pract ice. Additionally, models, language, theory and frameworks that emerge from practitioners’ experiences are particularly relevant for a practice-based profession such as social work. As was argued in Chapter Two, there has been, and continues to be, a need within social work for the development of strong integrative links between practice and research (Berger, 1986; Wells Imre, 1985). In fact, Siporin (1985) contends that research findings need to be made relevant for practice by being identified and translated into criteria for use, which includes the development of practice principles. Therefore, the practice principles developed in this study could be highly relevant as they emerged from the empirical study of a group of self-identified feminist social workers’ experiences, beliefs and values. The importance of the development of practice principles can be further delineated by examining the development of knowledge for a feminist social work approach.
The development of feminist social work knowledge Since Bricker-Jenkins’ (1989) work was one of the first empirical research studies to examine the core characteristics of an emerging feminist social work practice, it was important in that it legitimized a model of practice that was marginalized. It is important to develop practice models, framew orks and preliminary theory for marginalized know ledge so that it may be legitimized, explored, researched, developed and applied in practice. Similarly, spirituality constitutes a non-legitimate and marginalized practice and knowledge. Thus, the development of practice principles is a potentially import ant process t hat could promot e t he considerat ion of spirit ualit y in social work and could be used as a base for the future development of practice models, techniques and theory. 181
Addit ionally, feminist social workers have recognized spirit ualit y as important (Van Den Bergh, 1995; Bricker-Jenkins & Hooyman, 1986). Bricker-Jenkins (1989) found in her research that spirituality was a significant theme in a feminist social work practice and that feminist social workers tended to explore and encourage spirituality in clients’ experiences and lives. However, she also noted that spirituality was not generally reflected in the feminist social work literature at that time. Thus, the practice principles that have been developed in t his st udy furt her this ident ification and explorat ion of spirit ual influences in feminist pract ices not ed by t hese researchers. This section of the chapter has discussed the lack of “spiritual-social work” models and frameworks that could guide practitioners in their practice. The development of knowledge for practice is important because it can assist practitioners to assess and explain their practices, to provide some rat ionalization for values and act ions t aken wit h client s, and can help predict and plan interventions. In addition, having access to models, theory, frameworks and practice principles can help practitioners feel more comfortable and professionally competent in using marginalized knowledges. T here cont inues to be calls in social work for st rong int egrat ive links betw een practice and research so that practitioners can utilize research results. The unant icipat ed findings in t his research st udy allow ed t he development of pract ice principles t hat can be ut ilized t o further promot e the explorat ion and development of spirit ualit y in social w ork. T he following sect ion of the chapter presents the development of the eleven practice principles.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRACTICE PRINCIPLES
The discussion of the practice principles follows their organization into three broad groupings – understandings of spirituality, basic philosophy and values; t he process of spirit ual development and beliefs about the spirit ual 182
essence of human existence; and spiritually influenced practice processes and relat ionships. T he preliminary development of each pract ice principle is presented first followed by the revised practice principle, which incorporates w rit t en feedback received from ten part icipants. As previous met hodological discussion noted, once the practice principles were written in draft form they were sent to all of the participants for written feedback. Based on this feedback some of the practice principles were edited while others were not as they were agreed upon by all ten of the participants. It should be noted that two of the participants expressed that overall the practice principles generally fit for me, and all of the principles are congruent with my practice and values. T he ot her eight part icipant s made more specific comment s about various practice principles and examples are provided in the following discussions. While the practice principles share a base of convergent feminist social w ork and spirit ual values and make sense as a w hole, each practice principle could stand alone for consideration, that is, no one practice principle is a pre-requisite for another practice principle. However, the practice principles are related to one another as the categories overlap. Also, it is not necessary for the pract ice principles t o build on each ot her. Thus, they are presented in no particular order, although they do progress from the participants’ more general discussion of their beliefs and values to more specific identification of what they do in practice. The ensuing discussions are based on the analysis that is presented in Chapters Four, Five and Six.
Underst andings of spirit ualit y, basic philosophy and values The first grouping of categories encompasses the participants’ underst andings about spirit uality and religion, t heir ideas about the effect s of t he secular nat ure of social w ork on spirit ually influenced discourse, and t heir beliefs about t he convergence of feminist , social w ork and spirit ual values. Three practice principles are organized in this first grouping. 183
Spirit uality and religion One of the categories discussed in Chapter Four illustrates that the participants underst and spiritualit y and religion different ly but t hey also acknow ledge t hat spiritualit y and religion form complex relat ionships and can influence one ot her. Also, the part icipant s’ definit ions of spirit uality are surprisingly similar given t heir diverse spiritual and religious backgrounds, but these understandings do converge with conceptualizations of spirituality in the literature and with the beginning definitions provided in the Introduction. In general, t he part icipant s and t he lit erature define spirit uality as a resource, an important part of making meaning, and as a sense of something “bigger” that is transcendent. Religion on the other hand is defined as an organizational structure that can provide rules, traditions and doctrine and t hat can serve as a source for spirit ualit y. Overall, t he part icipant s’ viewpoints are in harmony with the literature that discusses the need to distinguish bet ween religion and spirit ualit y. As one part icipant not es, spiritualit y is viewed as less t hreat ening and more consist ent w ith social w ork values such as fostering and embracing diversity. These viewpoints were w ritt en into t he follow ing pract ice principle: Spirit ualit y and religion are distinct concept s. W hile spirit ualit y and religion influence each ot her and are implicat ed in one another, ultimately they are different things. While some participants agreed with this statement, two of the participants wrote comments that were used to edit the practice principle. For example, while one participant explains that and on reflection I would have to say that they are very different, another participant argues that To define these concepts as distinct I would first have to have a set meaning for both where neither were part of the other. Based on these and other comments the practice principle was rewritten into the following: 1. Spirit ualit y and religion are different . At t he same time, they 184
overlap, influence each ot her and are implicat ed in one anot her.
Convergences in values Another category that is discussed in Chapter Four focuses on the commonalities of values and practices between feminist, social work and spiritual perspect ives. For t he participants in this st udy, t heir feminist perspectives are so interwoven with their social work approaches that they are experienced as synonymous. The participants’ understandings of feminist social work are convergent with the literature. For example, both the participants and the literature theorize feminist social work as valuing diversity, process, analysis of power and social change. T he part icipant s also ident ify similarities betw een t heir feminist social work values and approaches and spirituality, noting that both are concerned with process, values of diversity and inclusivity and social action, and that they are collective and personal constructs. Several participants argue that core social work values such as demonstrating respect for people and fostering the right of self-determination are spiritual values as well, while most of t he participants st ress how feminist social w ork and spirit ual values emphasize social action and justice. Another area of convergence is demonstrated in discussions of career choice. The participants’ choice of social work as a profession was often influenced by their spiritual and/or religious values. Additionally, the participants indicate a need for a more holistic social w ork approach that is inclusive of spirit uality. Based on its values and roles, social w ork is deemed well suited for the incorporat ion of spirit ualit y, which is also reflected in the social work literature. A holistic approach that includes spiritualit y is ident ified as promot ing a more effect ive and meaningful practice experience by both the participants and the literature, and is described as including spirituality but not emphasizing it over other resources 185
and aspects of people’s lives. The categories summarized above were written int o t he follow ing practice principle: 2. Social w ork, spiritual and feminist values and philosophies converge on a myriad of levels. T he int egrat ion of spirit ualit y into feminist social work practice contributes to a holistic practice approach. T his pract ice principle was agreed upon by all of the participants w ho responded to the request for written feedback. For example, one participant writes, Yes again. For me they converge in the area we call community, risk taking, solidarity and resistance. Given the participants’ feedback, this practice principle was not changed prior to the focus group meetings.
Marginalized knowledge The final categories in the first grouping address the marginalization of spirit ual know ledge, the associat ion bet ween spirit ualit y and personal values and the repercussions of this for practice, and the need for knowledge development in spirit ualit y and social w ork. For example, a majorit y of the participants discuss fears of being marginalized, judged and/or ridiculed by ot her pract it ioners if t hey openly engage in discussions about spirit ualit y or conduct spirit ually influenced practices in social w ork cont ext s. These concerns of marginalizat ion are linked w it h a need for support from like- minded colleagues and friends, and wit h t he absence of spirit ual content in social work. The connection that is sometimes made between spirituality and personal values and the viewpoint that personal values have no place in professional practice also affects the participants’ practices, particularly the participants who have the least amount of work experience. More experienced participants st ress how pract ice is not value-free and point out the importance of exploring how personal values influence practices. The lack of know ledge development in spiritualit y and social work is also 186
connected to this issue of personal values. For example, when personal values converge with professional values and legitimized knowledge, it becomes more permissible t o ut ilize t hese perspect ives w it h clients (as in feminist social w ork approaches). T hus, because spiritualit y lacks legitimization, a cautious approach concerning the use of spirituality in practice is identified by the participants. The categories summarized above w ere w rit ten int o t he follow ing pract ice principle: The reality that social work is a secular profession coupled with the lack of theoretical structure for a feminist-spiritual practice creates tensions in practice. This tension promotes a cautious and respectful attitude in applying spirituality in practice. There is a desire and need to discuss spirituality in social work practice. A greater awareness and acceptance of this dimension in social w ork is called for. All of t he part icipant s generally agreed w it h this pract ice principle. One part icipant wrot e Yes, yes yes! Two other participants did not have specific changes to note but point out how the origins of the social work profession were not secular, although social work like other helping professions is now secularized. One participant stresses that despite this secular nature, Some people are looking for some spirit ual support w hen t hey go for counselling. Based on the written feedback received only the first sentence of this practice principle was edited to the following: 3. The present reality that social work is a secular profession coupled with the lack of theoretical structure for a feminist-spiritual practice creates tensions in practice. This tension promotes a caut ious and respect ful at t it ude in applying spirit uality in practice. There is a desire and need to discuss spirituality in social work practice. A greater awareness and acceptance of this dimension in social w ork is called for.
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The process of spirit ual development and beliefs about the spirit ual essence of human existence The second grouping of categories which are discussed in Chapter Five encompass the participants’ personal stories regarding the process of spiritual development and grow t h, and their beliefs about the spiritual essence of human existence and life. Two practice principles are organized in this grouping.
The process of spirit ual development The participants describe spiritual growth and development as a life- long and continual process. Also, the participants are committed to this continual process and demonstrate a reflective and questioning attitude towards life. For example, some participants encouraged themselves to shift attitudes and values by engaging with situations and client populations that t hey knew w ould challenge them, w hile ot her part icipant s engaged in reflective and experiential processes such as writing poetry and attending counselling. For many of t he part icipant s, t he process of spirit ual development encompasses struggle. Both positive and painful transformative experiences are sometimes part of this process and struggle. For example, some participants identified having to make meaning of the deat h of loved ones or the loss of relationships as a profound experience that encouraged them to explore spirit uality. A couple of t he part icipant s discuss more posit ive t ransformat ive experiences involving spirit ual and/or religious involvement , while others describe the steady influences of family, culture, friends and spiritual/religious tradit ions on their spirit ual development. T hese cat egories w ere w rit ten int o t he follow ing pract ice principle: T he development of spirit uality is above all a process t hat is complex and never-ending. This process is often influenced by other people and life-events. A commitment is demonstrated 188
to this evolving process which reflects the importance placed on self-growth and self-analysis. While one participant stated that she agrees with this statement, three other participants indicated changes. One participant points out difficulties with the terms self-growth and self-analysis. He states, I’m not sure I understand the last sentence…self-growth and self-analysis seem very loaded with the philosophies of Western humanism…I’m not sure self-growth or self-analysis can act helpfully as universal normative criteria. Similarly, another participant notes that she would prefer to use the term self- awareness rather than self-analysis, which I think of as too intellectual and bound by the rational mind. A third part icipant believes t hat the development of spirit ualit y is influenced by people, life event s and God and ot her spirit ual powers. I think it’s remiss t o omit God in spirit ual development . Based on t his feedback t he following changes w ere made: 4. T he development of spirit ualit y is above all a process t hat is complex and never-ending. T his process is oft en influenced by other people and life-events that can act as catalysts in t he explorat ion of somet hing “bigger” (what ever t hat something “bigger” may be). Feminist-spiritual social workers committed to this evolving process, place importance on their own continued development and growth.
Spirit uality as the essence of human life The other categories discussed in Chapter Five encompass the participants’ beliefs about the essence of human existence and life experience. Consistently across the research sample, the participants discussed their beliefs that all people have a spirit/spiritualit y whet her it is acknowledged or not, and that the human essence is spiritual in nature. They also describe t heir spirits/spiritualit ies as t he t rue essence of who t hey are. 189
These viewpoints that everyone has a spirit/spirituality also affects how the participants live their lives and pract ice social w ork. W hile t he part icipant s share beliefs in people’s spirit ual essence, they are concerned w it h imposing t his belief ont o client s and ident ify t he importance of exploring the influence of personal and professional values on practice. A few of the participants also discuss their beliefs that women are more connected to spirituality than men are, and that women’s, men’s and children’s spirit ualit y may differ. How ever, since only four part icipant s identified these viewpoints they are not included in the following practice principle: Every human being has a spirit or a soul and thus spirituality. A person’s spirit or soul is t he essence of t hat person and is t he core of t he self. People are at different levels of spirit ual development and evolution. One participant points out that To judge people as being at different levels of spirit ual development and evolution, we need some normat ive crit eria. Another participant writes that she agrees with this practice principle but that she would add, Some people would choose not to acknowledge this sense of spirit uality w it hin t hemselves. A third participant notes that I don’t subscribe much to levels. It ’s t oo hierarchical. Based on t he part icipant s’ feedback the practice principle was changed to the following: 5. A person has a spirit, soul and/or spirituality. Respect and understanding is demonstrated for a person’s desire or lack thereof, to acknowledge and work with this aspect of their life.
Spirit ually influenced practice processes and relat ionships The third grouping of categories which are discussed in Chapter Six include t he participants’ viewpoint s regarding t he influences of personal spiritual development, social work contexts and client populations on the incorporation of spirit ualit y in pract ice, how the relat ionship bet ween worker 190
and client can be spiritual, the use of generic spiritual language with clients, and how making meaning, fostering connection and self-love can represent spiritually influenced helping processes. Six practice principles are organized in this grouping.
The influence of spirit ual development , social work cont ext s and client populat ions on spiritually influenced pract ices Most of the participants discussed how life and work experience influence t heir abilit y t o consider spiritualit y in pract ice and several participants connect t heir personal spirit ual explorat ion wit h overall pract ice effectiveness and the increased meaningfulness of practice. It appears that practice experience, personal spiritual growth and the development of practice wisdom all promote the inclusion of spirituality in practice. Also, some social work contexts and client populations are more conducive to including spirit ualit y. For example, it appears t hat t he cont exts and client populations in which both the worker and the client are empowered and sharing power are those which better promote the inclusion of spirituality. Examples of these types of contexts and client groups include private pract ice, palliat ive care and marginalized populat ions. T he cat egories summarized above w ere w rit t en int o t he following pract ice principle: The social work context and personal development impact on t he applicat ion of spirit ualit y in pract ice. Cert ain social w ork contexts are more conducive than others. Additionally, a commitment to personal growth and understanding and work experience promot e t his applicat ion and inclusion. All of the participants agreed with this practice principle. As one participant w rit es, Yes, very true. We are all bound by our life and work contexts. Another participant points out that personal growth and development need to include joining a union, finding secure housing, surviving unemployment and underemployment…we grow or can grow from 191
any situation. As a result of t his feedback, only a few w ords w ere edit ed prior to the focus group discussions, which resulted in the following practice principle: 6. The social work context and personal development influence the applicat ion of spirit uality in pract ice. Cert ain social work contexts are more conducive than others. A commit ment t o personal development and work experience promot e this applicat ion and inclusion.
Language and spirit ualit y Most of the participants describe shifting their language and using a generic spirit ual language w ith client s t o accommodat e a client ’s spirit ual perspective, using what is comfortable and what works. Various rationales are offered for using generic language that include having respect for clients, enabling a deeper connection with clients, communicating more effectively, transcending differences and achieving practice goals. Transparency of practice issues are also discussed as many participants do not engage in explicit spirit ual discourse wit h client s. However, based on their concerns about oppression and the rationales for not explicit ly discussing spirit ualit y, most part icipant s w ould be likely t o ident ify overt discussion of personal spiritual view point s as an abuse of power and/or unethical. In general, the language that is chosen is perceived to be the most appropriate and helpful to the social work process. These categories are reflected in the following practice principle: 7. Generic or common language is used when discussing spiritualit y. Conscious shift s in language occur in order t o converge with clients’ language. This practice principle was also agreed upon by all of the participants who provided feedback. Some examples of this feedback are, Yes, I do this in my practice, and V ery good point . An import ant principle for all social w ork 192
practice. Consequently, this practice principle was not changed prior to the focus group discussions.
Making meaning processes Another category organized in the third grouping of categories encompasses making meaning processes. Making meaning is described by many of the part icipants as a spirit ually influenced social w ork process. For example, part icipant s discuss helping client s make meaning of life experiences such as death, dying and suffering as processes that encompass spiritualit y. Deat h and dying in part icular are ident ified as experiences that encourage making meaning processes. These categories were developed into t he following pract ice principle: Spirit ualit y is used t o make sense of life and w ork experiences. T he process of making meaning is spirit ual as it is an intimate, personal process that explores values and beliefs. W hile t he part icipant s generally agreed wit h t his practice principle, four participants suggested changes. One participant comments that Spirit ualit y may be a part of t hat [making meaning] but meaning making is a basic human phenomena. Two participants point out that they agree with this practice principle but argue that making meaning is also a communal experience. One participant also notes that while she agrees with the practice principle, Not all people want to do this and therefore, this must be respected. Based on this feedback, the practice principle was changed to the follow ing: 8. Spirituality can be used to help make sense of life and work experiences. The process of making meaning can be described as spiritual because it is an intimate, personal and/or communal process that explores values and beliefs.
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Fostering connections Assist ing client s t o fost er connect ions on a myriad of levels is ident ified by t he part icipant s as a spirit ually influenced helping process. For example, assisting clients to build and connect with community can be a spiritual process because spirit uality is underst ood as connect ion, and positive community connections can help promote a good sense of self. The participants also link a connect ion w it h emot ions t o spirit ualit y. As one participant contends, emot ions are very close t o spirit uality. T hus, a disconnection from feelings is ident ified as hampering an abilit y to be intimate with others and to form connections with one’s spirituality. A disconnect ion from bot h feelings and spirit ualit y is viewed as impeding the development of self-aw areness, spiritual grow t h and relat ionships. As a result , some part icipant s liken t he social work process to a facilit ation of connectedness. In addition, one participant noted in her interview that fostering a connection with her heart center promotes a more effective practice for her and her clients, which reiterates the importance of the social worker’s spiritual development. These categories summarized above were w ritt en into t he follow ing pract ice principle: 9. Connect ion in all its forms is valued and deemed essent ial. Nurturing a strong and steady connection with one’s inner-self positively affects the quality and effectiveness of the social work encounter. Overall, t he part icipant s agreed w it h this pract ice principle. One participant points out that the converse is true for her as well. She writes, I shudder at [the] experiences of my clients when I went through depressed and out of touch times. Similarly, another participant notes that If one is off- balance wit hin themselves t han t his is surely to affect t he quality and effectiveness of their practice. As a result of this feedback, this practice principle was unchanged.
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The social worker and client relationship Most of the participants agree that the relationship formed between w orker and client can encompass or reflect spirit ualit y. In general, these relat ionships are described as spirit ual w hen part icipant s feel that they are w holly present w it h client s, sharing client ’s st ories and w hen a deep connection has occurred between them; deep connection signifying spiritualit y because t he relat ionship exist s on a spirit ual level or higher level of consciousness or awareness. One participant also stresses that these spiritual connections that can occur with clients should be understood and analyzed as part of our professional role. Other participants discuss how personal life experiences influence t heir abilit y to form closer connect ions w it h client s, w hile one participant explains that she believes it is t he relat ionship she forms w ith clients that affects change, not what she is doing in terms of therapeutic techniques. The following practice principle encompasses these categories: T he relat ionship bet w een social w orker and client is vit al and is at the heart of a meaningful and effective practice. This relat ionship is spirit ual in t hat it necessit at es sharing of life stories, involves connection and is based on compassion and caring. In general, the participants also agreed with this practice principle but three participants point out that worker/client relationships are not necessarily spirit ual. As one part icipant writ es, It may be respectful and compassionate on my part but not necessarily spiritual…Some clients are so concret e or mat erially focused t he spirit ual dimension w ould not arise. Another client states that It depends on the context of the therapeutic pract ice. If a client comes in want ing some specific out come or support on a pract ical level, t hey may not w ant to engage in a close connect ion. Taking this feedback into consideration, the practice principle was edited to state t hat t he relat ionship can be spirit ual, as opposed to st at ing t hat it is spirit ual.
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10. The relat ionship bet w een social w orker and client is vit al and is at the heart of a meaningful and effective practice. T his relat ionship can be spirit ual in t hat it necessitat es sharing of life st ories, involves connect ion and is based on compassion and caring.
Fostering experiences of self-love and wholeness The final category that was identified by the participants in their discussions about practice methods and relationships, describes how fostering experiences of self-love and wholeness in clients is also a spiritually influenced pract ice. Many part icipant s expressed the view point that spirit ual development and a connect ion t o spirit ualit y can be linked w it h experiencing a posit ive sense of self. Since spirit ualit y is concept ualized as love, assist ing people t o connect w it h t heir spirit uality can promot e feelings of self-love and worth, and experiencing self-love can promote the development of spiritualit y. T hus, for some of t he part icipant s one of t he basic goals in social w ork is t o assist people to develop t heir self-accept ance and self-love and t o learn t o nurt ure t hemselves. T he part icipant s also discussed beliefs t hat helping clients feel self-love and wholeness leads to more effective and meaningful practice experiences. These categories were written into the follow ing pract ice principle: Spirit ualit y is based on feelings and experience of self-respect , self-love and trust in self. Spirit ual beliefs affect how people come to understand themselves as worthy human beings. Many of t he participants comment ed on t his practice principle, which is likely t o reflect the complexity and ambiguit y of terms such as self-respect , self-love and wholeness. For example, one participant wonders about the inner-focus of the practice principle on the individual and emphasizes the importance of a broader communal and social justice focus. Another participant explains t hat spirit uality is based on the spirits of other 196
individuals…of God and other spiritual beings, so that the practice principle is incomplet e if it fails t o acknowledge these spirit s. One part icipant also point s out that If we say spirit ualit y is based on our self-respect , we are saying to a w oman, “No self-respect , you don’t have spiritualit y”. Based on this and other feedback the practice principle was changed to the following: 11. It is important to fost er a person’s ability t o feel and experience trust in self and others, and love and respect for self and others because these experiences can be linked to spiritual development . A person’s spirit ual beliefs can affect and influence their self-perceptions and their interactions with others.
Conclusion This chapter discussed how and why the convergent categories that were analyzed in Chapters Four, Five and Six were developed into practice principles. Although the original goals of this research study were exploratory and did not aim to produce practice principles, the strength of the convergent themes, a re-examination of the literature and further data analysis of the part icipant int erview s st rongly encouraged t he development of practice principles. This development is important and relevant as both the participants and the social work literature point out the lack of research and know ledge in spirit ualit y and social work, and express a need for discourse, language, research, models and theory that could assist in broadening our understanding about spiritual influences in practice. It is important for social work to develop theory, models, practice principles and/or frameworks for practice. These frameworks help to guide practice in terms of assessment, the planning of interventions, and the expression of values. Since some practitioners are influenced by spirituality and incorporate it into their practices, the development of knowledge in this area is part icularly import ant given the current lack of guiding framew orks and t he marginalized nat ure of spirit ualit y. Pot ent ially, access t o t heory, 197
practice models and practice principles can not only help practitioners to feel legitimized and competent in their use of spirituality but could also promote t he considerat ion of spirit uality across social w ork. The pract ice principles produced in t his st udy may be part icularly significant for pract itioners because they are based on and have emerged from practice experiences, and represent a strong integrative link between research and practice. I attempted to involve the participants in this study in a meaningful way in the refinement of the practice principles first through using their w ritt en feedback t o edit preliminary w ork, and then by inviting them to participate in focus groups in order to discuss the revised practice principles. A focus group process would also allow for checking the accuracy of the revisions that were made, would assist in further developing the practice principles and would allow any additional categories to emerge, thereby enriching the analysis of the data and the research findings, and adding to the rigor of the research. The following chapter discusses the focus group process, the analysis of the categories that arose from the focus groups, and presents the final version of the practice principles. 198
CHAPTER EIGHT FOCUS GROUP ANALYSIS OF THE PRACTICE PRINCIPLES
Introduction The previous chapter presented the preliminary work of the practice principles, which was refined using written feedback from ten participants. T his chapter examines t he final layer of analysis t hat discusses the pract ice principles and the idea of practice principles in general. As described, all of the participants who were interviewed were invited to attend focus groups in order to discuss the revised practice principles thereby checking the accuracy of the revisions, further refining the practice principles and involving the participants in a meaningful w ay. As w ell as reflect ing on the pract ice principles as a whole, the focus groups were asked to consider the marginalized and feminist nature of the practice principles and the importance (or not) of diversity in application of the practice principles. These discussion topics emerged from the data analysis. For example, the fear of being marginalized and t he marginalizat ion of spiritualit y w ere significant themes and I wondered about the participant’s viewpoints regarding the practice principles’ influence in promoting discussion about spirituality, and possibly encouraging a more accountable practice. Similarly, given the participants’ feminist perspectives, what were their viewpoints regarding the feminist nature (or not) of the practice principles? Fourt een part icipant s in t ot al part icipat ed in t hree focus groups (t w o focus groups each had four participants and one focus group had six participants). No one group was significantly different from the others. Each group was comprised of participants who reflected the overall diversity of the original research sample. Looking for similarit ies and differences wit hin and between the groups produced no notable factors. For example, no one group identified themes that were not consistent with the other two groups’ perspectives. The homogeneity amongst the group discussions can be 199
attributed to the similarities in participants’ values, beliefs and practices, the consistencies and balance of the group compositions, and the fact that the groups were provided with discussion topics. However, it should be noted that the group process in the largest focus group was particularly st imulat ing, w hich is perhaps a result of the addit ion of t w o people t hat enriched the diversity of viewpoints to consider. The focus group analysis produced similar themes and categories to the interview analysis, which lends weight to the assessment that theoretical saturation had been reached. However, additional categories emerged from discussions regarding the feminist nature (or not) of the practice principles. The categories that emerged from the focus group analysis are examined in this chapter. The chapter discusses the potential influence of the practice principles in shifting spirit ualit y int o more mainst ream social w ork discussion and practice, and the effects of the research process on shaping the participants’ ideas and practices. The chapter also examines the feminist nature of the practice principles, the importance of recognizing this, the contribution of feminist analysis, and how the increasingly shared nature of social work knowledge reflects the participants’ beliefs that the practice principles can exist within various frameworks. It is also important to assume diversit y in applicat ion of t he pract ice principles. Finally, the chapt er describes how participants’ concerns with social change and struggle influenced the final revisions of the practice principles. First however, the practice principles that were described in the previous chapter are presented in order to contextualize the following discussion and analysis, and to better illust rate t he changes t hat w ere made to t hese practice principles based on t he focus group analysis. T he final version of the pract ice principles is presented at the end of this chapter.24 The practice principles that were revised with written feedback are as follows:
24 For the purposes of clarity, the practice principles in their three stages of development are located in Appendices IX, X and XI. 200
1. Spirit ualit y and religion are different . At t he same time, they overlap, influence each other and are implicated in one another. 2. Social work, spiritual and feminist values and philosophies converge on a myriad of levels. The int egrat ion of spirit ualit y int o feminist social work practice contributes to a holistic practice approach. 3. T he present realit y t hat social w ork is a secular profession coupled with the lack of theoretical structure for a feminist-spiritual practice creates tensions in practice. This tension promotes a cautious a respect ful at t it ude in applying spirit ualit y in pract ice. T here is a desire and need t o discuss spirit ualit y in social work pract ice. A great er awareness and acceptance of this dimension in social work is called for. 4. T he development of spirit ualit y is above all a process that is complex and never-ending. This process is often influenced by other people and life-events that can act as catalysts in the exploration of something bigger (whatever that something bigger may be). Feminist- spiritual social workers committed to this evolving process, place importance on their own continued development and growth. 5. A person has a spirit, soul and/or spirituality. Respect and understanding is demonstrated for a person’s desire or lack thereof, to acknowledge and work with this aspect of their life. 6. The social work context and personal development influence the applicat ion of spirit ualit y in pract ice. Cert ain social w ork cont ext s are more conducive than others are. A commitment to personal development and work experience promote this application and inclusion. 7. Generic or common language is used when discussing spirituality. Conscious shift s in language occur in order t o converge w it h client s’ language. 201
8. Spirit ualit y can be used t o help make sense of life and work experiences. The process of meaning making can be described as spiritual because it is an int imat e, personal and/or communal process that explores values and beliefs. 9. Connect ion in all it s forms is valued and deemed essent ial. Nurt uring a strong and steady connection with one’s inner-self positively affects the quality and effectiveness of the social work encounter. 10. The relat ionship bet w een social w orker and client is vit al and is at t he heart of a meaningful and effect ive pract ice. T his relat ionship can be spiritual in t hat it necessit at es sharing of life st ories, involves connection and is based on compassion and caring. 11. It is important t o fost er a person’s abilit y to feel and experience trust in self and others, and love and respect for self and others because these experiences can be linked to spiritual development. A person’s spiritual beliefs can affect and influence their self-percept ions and their interactions with others.
SHIFTING SPIRITUALITY OUT OF THE MARGINS
Chapt er One discussed t he marginalized nat ure of spiritual know ledge and described how t his marginalizat ion is connect ed in part t o t he processes of secularizat ion and professionalizat ion in social w ork. Similarly, Chapt er Four discussed the participants’ fear of being judged, their feelings of isolat ion and concern about imposing personal values onto client s, and their need t o acknowledge spirit ualit y in social work. While t he following sect ion reit erat es some of t hese issues it also illust rat es how t he practice principles 202
can assist in helping t o shift spirit ual knowledge and pract ice out of the margins.25
Issues concerning t he marginalized nature of spiritualit y Several issues regarding t he marginalized nat ure of spiritualit y arose in the focus group discussions in part because the participants were asked to consider t he marginalized nat ure of spirit ualit y, but also because for most of t he part icipant s this w as t he first opport unit y t hey had to discuss spiritualit y with other social workers. Some participants discussed their need for collegial support while others raised concerns of marginalization that were related to social work contexts and roles. The need for collegial support was once again expressed in all three focus groups, which points to the importance of locating people who are like- minded and int erest ed in spirit ual dialogue and exploration w ho can assist the development of personal reflections on spirituality. The following discussion illust rat es the import ance of finding collegial support and importantly also demonstrates how marginalized knowledge often gets expressed in t he margins and not in mainst ream social work meet ings and discourses. Participant 1. I know from my experience there are some people who would be kindred spirits. But it’s like, how do you find the kindred spirits. And then what do you do with it? Participant 2. How do you get to know about those kindred spirits…given that…this becomes private and subjugated…[we] had meetings here, you know after Diana came last year, and that was a strong theme in the meetings…about how often things get edited. And censored. You know, we do that to ourselves for very sound reasons.
25 Most of the categories discussed in this section were also identified by the participants in the individual interviews and were discussed in Chapter Four. There is agreement across the three focus groups with the categories discussed here. 203
How does that then affect those connections though…finding community and peer support? Participant 1. I think somet imes it is non-verbal st uff…I don’t smoke but I’m a passive smoker and it’s like often when people go out…w hether it ’s in t raining or w hat ever it is and you t alk…somet imes that’s where you get the real conversation. Participant 3. Y es, it ’s in t hose spaces isn’t it ? W het her it’s around t he coffee or again the smoking or I found it too in the toilets…It’s somewhere that’s not in the middle of the meeting where I still think it happens. I st ill t hink people look at each other sidew ays or go, ah. All focus groups also discussed their beliefs that within social work spiritualit y is not recognized by many as a legit imate knowledge for pract ice. One focus group agrees that These are the principles that one could practice with [but that] there would be a percentage of the social work population who would go, “What a load of bull”. In another focus group, a participant realized and acknowledged during the group discussion that she hid her graduate thesis topic from people out of concern that her spiritually oriented research topic would be viewed with skepticism or a lack of acceptance. The following discussion demonstrates this process and illustrates how the opportunity to engage with like-minded others encouraged her insight. She is Participant 1. Participant 1. It ’s almost like having closet spirit ualist s isn’t it?…People…had asked me what…the topic of my research has been and it’s almost like…I hid it. I sort of said, “Oh I’m doing something about people living together”. Because I thought that was easier to say. But once I actually started to say, “It’s about religious communit ies”, w ell I t hink people became quit e interest ed. And t hen I could openly talk about it. Yeah, its been good. I hadn’t even thought about it until tonight. I did find it a hard thing. 204
Participant 2. There’s always a risk I guess. It sounds like your risks sort of have paid off. Like you’ve had good…feedback. I don’t know that it’s always the case for everyone. Participant 1. No, probably not . In addition, all of the focus groups discussed again the idea that some social work contexts and client groups better promote the incorporation of spiritualit y int o pract ice. For inst ance, one part icipant point s out that There are sectors of the population also that you couldn’t apply these principles to, to some degree…I guess that there are large numbers of people (and I’m making an assumption here), that would not see the relevance to spirituality or to a spiritual sense of self. Similarly, anot her part icipant in t he same group wonders if the crisis work she engages in is all that conducive to the incorporation of spirit ualit y. The follow ing comment illust rates how her participat ion in a focus group encouraged her t o reflect on t his viewpoint , comparing spirit ualit y t o w orking from a feminist perspect ive. This reflect ive process also demonstrates the significance of having access to people who can engage in conversations about spirituality and how these discussions can help in shift ing and refining beliefs. She notes, But you wouldn’t necessarily be thinking in t erms of spirit ualit y you know . At t hree o’clock in the morning working in sexual assault. It’s…often not the best time…you’re dealing with t he practicalit ies of t he moment …but you’re st ill w orking in a feminist framework, so I guess you can unhook the two.
The role of t he practice principles in legit imizing spirit ualit y The last comment presented above emphasizes the significance that discussions about spirituality can have. Importantly, the three focus groups identify how the practice principles could be utilized to promote spiritual discourse in social w ork, t hereby helping to legitimize spirit ual knowledge and even encouraging a more accountable practice. Examples of comments and discussion from each of the three focus groups illustrate these 205
viewpoints and stress the relevance of the practice principles. For example, one participant argues that the set of practice principles opens…up a whole area for discussion, which for a long time you didn’t talk about…or you still don’t t alk about …in a work cont ext . Unless you work in a part icularly special place. Similarly, another focus group discussion stresses the importance of developing and recording knowledge in a form that can be utilized. For instance, Participant 1. And I think even to have stuff written down, you can then respond to it and be conscious of what you’re doing with it. If stuff doesn’t get written down then you…can’t make sense…As I said, my reactions are I want to add to this but…if this wasn’t written down, I can’t do that. Participant 2. T hat ’s right . Participant 1. And it ’s part of breaking the isolat ion…by having st uff written down and it can be something to aspire to and…to challenge. Anot her part icipant in a t hird group not es that It’s important to develop practice principles and to bring them out into the open because…when they’re more overt…it kind of legitimizes discussion and reflection…So I think it’s important that we talk about them. I think we become more accountable as well, in terms of our work. Two of the focus groups discussed this issue of accountable practice. Some participants note that the practice principles could be used as a tool or a framework to enable spiritual discussion with clients, while others point out that the practice principles could be used to help stimulate thinking amongst practitioners about their work. One participant explains that the practice principles could assist pract it ioners t o ident ify how spirit uality influences their pract ices. She states, Because I think…some people [social w orkers] might do t hat [use spirituality] and not know it…or feel ashamed or embarrassed about it. Part of t he process of shift ing marginalized know ledge int o more mainst ream social w ork discourses, involves the ident ification of t he 206
know ledge and t he st ruct uring of it int o some kind of framew ork for discussion and continued development. This process was discussed previously with regards to Bricker-Jenkins’ (1989) work in developing a feminist social work practice model. The development and discussion of the practice principles represents a step in the direction of legitimizing and at least making visible, a marginalized and largely invisible knowledge. This was a step identified as important by the focus group participants. Along the same lines, many of the focus group participants point out how engaging in both the individual research interviews and the focus group int eract ion helped t hem t o feel more comfort able wit h spirit uality in pract ice, and provided an opportunity to formulate and refine ideas. Their feedback emphasizes the significance and meaningfulness of the research methods chosen in this study and is discussed next.
The role of research processes in shift ing marginalized knowledge Focus group participants in all three of the groups discussed how the process of being interviewed helped them to reflect on and develop their practices, further refined their ideas about spirituality, validated their knowledge and practices, and strengthened the influence spirituality has in t heir w ork; all aspect s of shifting marginalized know ledge. Import ant ly, t he focus groups offered an opportunity for the participants to provide this feedback and a chance for me to hear it. Participating in a focus group provided further support and opportunity to formulate ideas regarding spiritualit y and pract ice. Words used by the participants to describe the process of being individually int erview ed are int erest ing, profound, useful, challenging and st imulat ing. One participant explains that she used to feel as though I lived two very different spheres of existence. I don’t feel that anymore having done this project [her postgraduate research study]…and I think having had the interview there’s been a shift in that. Because I do feel more comfortable 207
about being who I am. For t his part icipant , a combinat ion of conduct ing post graduat e research in spiritualit y and part icipating in this st udy helped to strengthen the connection between her practice and spirituality, and made her feel more legit imized in her spirit ually influenced pract ice approach. Another participant in another focus group describes the process of being individually interviewed as quite powerful [and] really useful…Certainly the process of working out what I believed in and trying to communicate that to someone else was very useful. For t his part icipant , t he individual int erview process had an impact on her practice whereas she was not sure reading the practice principles in the focus group would. However she adds that The more these conversations are had and the more time is created to have t hem, t he more…w e’ll all advance in our w ork and personally as w ell…T o sit around and talk theory again and talk about our values and beliefs…talk about the practice that we’ve done as opposed to the practice that we might do…it’s a great opportunity. The comments above demonstrate the influence that creating spaces for discussion can have on both the development of knowledge and practice, and on the process of making marginalized knowledge visible and more acceptable. There was something exciting for some of the participants about having their beliefs, values and practices recorded on paper and shared with others. The process validated to some extent their practice knowledge, values and ideas, and in some cases led t o a greater influence of spirit ualit y in their practices. As one participant notes, I’ve reflected and discussed…with a few ot her counsellors…different aspect s of spirit ualit y and pract ice. Not like at great length, but it’s just coming into conversation a bit more. Thus, both the research interview and focus group processes helped some of the participants to evolve their ideas and practices about spirituality and to feel validat ed in doing t his. Clearly t he process of opening a space and inviting people to talk about what they believe…and what’s important to them…is 208
very, very profound, and plays an important part in recognizing and legitimizing marginalized knowledge. This section of the chapter re-examined some categories that were previously discussed in t his t hesis regarding the marginalizat ion of spiritualit y. T he import ance of spirit ual discussions and t he influence of t his dialogue on t he shift ing of view points w ere also raised, which point s to the import ance of int roducing spirit ualit y int o social w ork discourses. All participants agreed that the practice principles could be used to promote discussion about spirit ualit y, thereby helping t o legit imize t his know ledge. They also identified that developing the practice principles and writing them down allows the practice principles to be challenged and worked with, which in turn could help make practice more accountable by stimulating reflection and guiding practices. Thus, the practice principles represent a step towards making spirit ual know ledge in social work visible and more accept able. T he part icipant s also discussed how participat ing in the research interviews and the focus groups helped them to reflect on their practices, further developed and validated their ideas, and strengthened the influence of spirituality in their work. These discussions re-emphasize the importance of making room for the discussion of marginalized knowledges. This process of recognizing marginalized knowledges can be described as a feminist one, w hich is relevant t o t his st udy. T he part icipant s w ere asked to consider the feminist nature (or not) of the practice principles and these discussions encouraged the emergence of new categories that are examined in the follow ing sect ion.
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CONTEXTUALIZING THE PRACTICE PRINCIPLES
The feminist nature of the practice principles Overall, the focus groups describe the practice principles as feminist because of the process that was followed in the development of the practice principles and the shared values that they reflect. For instance, one focus group agrees that the practice principles are feminist because they were developed using a feminist process and with self-identified feminist social workers. As one participant notes, I guess one of the aspects of feminism has been a recognition of what hasn’t been said or t he ot her…And t his whole issue of spirit ualit y in social w ork is really a recognit ion of somet hing t hat ’s not really been talked about, in the same way that feminism brings up issues that aren’t really talked about and that are covered over…here you’re identifying experiences that are other…In that way, it sort of does reflect feminism. All of the focus groups discussed values and agree that the practice principles reflect convergent feminist, spiritual and social work values. These convergent values were previously described in Chapter Four, and were identified as promoting equality, process, diversity, and social justice and change. The focus group discussions about values enrich this previous analysis. For example, one focus group discussed how both feminism and spiritualit y help people to t ranscend oppressive ideas about who we should be and how w e should live, and that both also help to address issues of oppression. As one part icipant w onders, Are we through our practice actually trying to keep people oppressed within the oppressive masculine dominated systems or are we trying to free up the individual whoever that might be, to follow whatever is their best path. And not allow that oppression to happen? 210
Another focus group discussed the emergence of the practice principles from a shared feminist , spirit ual and social w ork value base. This is illustrat ed in t he follow ing dialogue. Participant 1. I think framew orks or…principles of pract ice…are only ways that assist us to do what we actually want to do anyway. Participant 2. Or they’re composed out of what we’re doing. Participant 1. Y eah. Participant 2. They come afterwards. Participant 1. Y eah. Participant 3. But it ’s values first and framew ork lat er in a sense isn’t it ? So it ’s like w e develop our…t heoret ical framew ork based upon what w e feel and believe at a more fundament al level. Participant 2. And that frameworks evolve and change over time as thinking changes and experience and growth and all of that takes place. T his discussion illustrat es the strong connect ion in social w ork between values, knowledge and practice that was previously discussed in Chapter One, and points to the significance of the practice principles because they emerge from and encompass the participants’ values, beliefs and practices. Knowledge that emerges from practice experiences appears particularly relevant for social workers because it reflects the real world of practice and may be highly applicable to practice situations. In addition, this dialogue reiterates the importance of personal exploration and how this process influences practice and practice frameworks. W hile feminist , social work and spirit ual values are similar for the participants in this study and are reflected in the practice principles, it is not the case that feminist social work and spirituality have to be connected. For example, one of the participants notes his concern that People who are committed to feminism who may not understand that as spiritual could…feel invalidated when we begin to define them as the same thing. I also think it 211
can affect how we start defining each one. And as another participant points out, Some people might also feel that they were feminists and not believe in any of this. However, the importance of acknowledging the feminist nature of the practice principles was discussed by the focus groups.
Recognizing the feminist nature of the practice principles While all of the focus groups concur that the practice principles can exist w it hin mult iple feminist and non-feminist framew orks, they also identified that the feminist nature of the practice principles should be acknowledged, as sometimes feminist values are co-opted and the particular benefits of feminist analysis are not recognized.26 One focus group points out t hat t here is no difficult y in holding t he pract ice principles w it hin various contexts, as long as frameworks or approaches share feminist values. As one participant contends, So I think that I could live quite comfortably with taking it out of the realm of saying it’s feminist, as long as we were using…equity and fairness. Equity and fairness could be identified as both feminist and more general social work values given the increasingly shared nature of values across social work perspectives, hence, the practice principles fit into feminist and non-feminist frameworks. The participants would likely agree that more of a problem is posed if the practice principles are held within an ant i-feminist or ant i-social w ork values model or framew ork. In this case, the practice principles would not reflect the values upon which they are based. Another focus group discussed the importance of recognizing and naming feminism and feminist values. As the following comment illustrates, the increasingly shared nature of social work knowledge, practice and values can lead t o w hat t his part icipant ident ified as a co-optat ion of feminist values and practices. For example,
26 Feminism has also borrowed ideas from other perspectiv es. As Breckenridge (1996, p.114) points out, the women’s mov ement adopted the slogan “the personal is political” from the “new left”, along with the idea that individual oppression is situated in relations within society . 212
I think that feminism has had enormous impact…I see young women now doing things that 25 years ago would not have been possible. And I think it’s important that we’re able to name that as feminism…the impact that it has. And I don’t like that sometimes…feminism gets co-opted…not only the ideas but the practices…what I was saying before…the emphasis on the importance of process as well as content. Sometimes it has…been used but it hasn’t been named. Similarly, one part icipant in anot her focus group wonders about not encouraging what we’re calling feminism to become so generic that…our values can be called by any name…I wonder there, where the recognition of gender differences and gender experiences and the experiences of always being positioned in gender go? As this comment points out, the continued relevance of feminism is the focus on gender. Certainly other participants agree with the continued need for feminist analysis as was discussed earlier in Chapt er T w o. T hus, despite t he inevit abilit y t hat the practice principles may be moved int o different cont ext s, it is import ant t o recognize t he feminist nature of the practice principles and the significance of feminist social work perspectives and analyses. Diversit y is a current emphasis w it hin bot h feminist and non-feminist social work approaches. Previous theoretical discussion illustrated the import ance of embracing diverse concept ualizat ions of spirit ualit y and ident ified diversity and inclusivit y as significant values and pract ices in feminist social work perspectives. Diversity is also one of the shared convergent values discussed previously in t his section and w as identified by each of the focus groups, in part because they were asked to consider issues of diversity and similarity regarding the use of the practice principles. These issues are discussed next.
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Valuing diversity All of the focus groups stress that diversity should be assumed regarding application of the practice principles and their own practices. One of the groups identified how making diverse points of view visible not only reflects feminist process but also helps to shift difference out of the margins by encouraging people to consider alternative viewpoints. At the very least, recognizing differences provides support and a voice for people who may be marginalized. T hese issues are illust rat ed in the follow ing dialogue. Participant 1. I love…what I call people seeing themselves on the page…if you see your experience written down…this isn’t just me who t hinks like t his. So I t hink if we only do t he convergences, t hen you lose a lot of the stuff…If you’re outside the mainstream…you’re not going to see yourself on the page. Participant 2. T hat ’s right …I think this w ouldn’t fit w ith a feminist perspect ive, if you look at keeping those people w ho have slight ly different views out of it…They’re being isolated…marginalized…I would have thought that if we’re very much about…social work and feminism and all t hose t hings, t hen it’s about bringing people in and being inclusive. Participant 3. I would be in agreement with that too. Participant 4. And I t hink it pushes the boundaries a bit as w ell if you incorporat e difference. So it might help ext end t hings over time…forcing people to maybe move out of the comfort zone or to reconsider some things they…hadn’t considered…Push the limits. One part icipant in anot her focus group point s out how individual practice changes over time and depends on context so that diversity in one’s personal practice approach should be assumed as well. The rest of the focus group part icipant s agree w ith his idea, which reit erates t he import ance placed on continual self-development and growth. His viewpoint also re- emphasizes the influence of social work contexts and client populations in 214
either promoting or impeding the use of spirituality. He states the practice principles are, Ideas for us to think about in our practice, so that when we went to the local context of our practice they could be informative…But then they would always be different depending on who we were at that time…and who our clients were…the different contexts of life…we are alw ays bringing things to every cont ext including w hat w e feel about our polit ical commit ment s, our spirit ual commit ment s. Additionally, there was no difficulty expressed in any of the focus groups regarding the coexistence of the shared convergent value base of the practice principles, and this emphasis on valuing diversity in beliefs and pract ice expressions. The int erplay bet ween valuing commonalit ies and differences is well expressed by the following participant. She points out that she is not a poststructural girl although there’s bits of poststructuralism I love and adds, I do believe t hat t here are universals. I do believe in absolut es…t hat ’s why I think there has to be something that we all believe in. And yet, how we express it. I mean I believe in not having…totalizing stuff. You know, we make everything the same. I mean I don’t believe in t hat…but there st ill has t o be something which is a common cord. The common cord here is the shared base of convergent values that the practice principles reflect, but the expression of the practice principles must be considered diverse not just across participants but also within one’s own practice. This need to recognize both similarities and differences is supported in the feminist literature (see Fawcett, 1998; Hirschmann, 1997; Dominelli, 1996; Brodribb, 1992 for examples). Finally, one participant describes a w ork experience in w hich the organization espoused an emphasis on diversity but in practice diversity was not encouraged. She explains that the language used within the agency had a sameness to it and she felt that there was…the dominant story and then 215
there was the alternative story…you could have these big thought balloons as to what people are actually really thinking…as opposed to what was being said. She cautions that We need to be careful to say that we respect differences but [then go on to] actually respect differences in practice. Her comment emphasizes the importance of maintaining congruency between values and practice and thus, the relevance of the practice principles. For instance, legitimizing spiritual knowledge could lead to a stronger connection and congruency between spiritual values and practice. As was discussed earlier in this chapt er, some pract it ioners may not recognize how spiritual values shape t heir practices because t his know ledge is marginalized. T he increasingly shared nat ure of social w ork values and knowledge such as an emphasis on diversit y, was also reflect ed in t he part icipant s’ viewpoints that the practice principles do not have to exist within an exclusive feminist framework. These ideas are now considered.
The shared nature o f so cial wo rk values, knowled ge and p ractice Although all three focus groups believe that the practice principles encompass feminist values, they also contend that the practice principles can go beyond a feminist context because the practice principles reflect values shared across social work perspectives. As one participant argues, the practice principles could also reflect personal growth frameworks. Any psychotherapeutic frameworks which work with respect of other as a basic premise. Anot her part icipant in t he same focus group concurs and point s out that I use very much a strengths perspective or a more narrative perspective in my work and most of these [practice principles] would fit that too…as they would a feminist perspective. As these comments above illustrate, the participants use various perspectives in their social work that all share values. Since the practice principles encompass these shared values, they can be applicable within various frameworks and do not have to be held within an exclusive feminist 216
context. Thus, the practice principles may be useful for both feminist and non-feminist social workers across a wide variety of social work approaches. The participants’ practices reflect the trend within social work of a move towards a more generalist practice, described in Chapter Two as a multi-methods, mult i-t heory and mult i-t echnique social w ork pract ice (Coates, 1991). This move towards generalist practice and the concurrent move away from grand unifying theories and frameworks is demonstrated in the following focus group dialogue, which also reiterates anti-fundamentalist values discussed earlier in t his t hesis. For inst ance, Participant 1. I actually think we are moving away from what I would consider to be these grand theories…any type of sort of ism’s into…what I would consider a much more constructive way of looking at people’s lives and seeing t heir lives as being an individual experience. And working with people from a much more individual framew ork in a way…and pulling down t hings as we need t hem…It ’s not cut and dry…but it doesn’t make your practice not feminist. It doesn’t make your practice not spiritual. Participant 2. I’ve been w orking…most recent ly w here a…man is being abused by his female part ner emot ionally. Participant 3. I’ve got one of those today, yes. Participant 2. But in some w ays…I t hink if I’d been prescribing to the kind of feminism that…I used to subscribe to, I don’t know if I would have even allow ed t hat t o be a possibilit y in my work. Participant 3. But you see, then you start talking about fundamentalist feminism. You take any kind of framework or dogma and you can create a fundamentalism around it. This focus group discussion also demonstrates the perspective that working from a shared theory and value base encourages a more relevant and perhaps effective practice, which is supported in the social work literature. As was identified in Chapter Two, exclusive reliance on any one 217
model is too restrictive for addressing the complex needs of clients and the complexity of social work practice (Goldstein & Noonan, 1999). Finally, as shared values and practices become internalized and part of a social worker’s practice wisdom and personal knowledge, it can become difficult to disentangle approaches and values from each other. The following dialogue from another focus group demonstrates this process and reiterates the idea mentioned earlier that since the practice principles reflect shared values and approaches, they are applicable within feminist and non-feminist frameworks. For example, Participant 1. T hey’re kind of general social w ork pract ice principles I think…which is fine because they can be feminist practice principles as well as generic social work practice principles…When you…see yourself as feminist and you do what you do…to try to disentangle what it actually means, as you were saying, what is that you actually do? Participant 2. I t hink part of t hat is also that it becomes part of you. And it ’s only w hen you hear somebody w ho’s anti-feminism that you act ually realize that …your pract ice is feminist pract ice…if I was t o picture what feminism was for me, it was sort of a sense of being nurturing and being able to be a caring person. But in a lot of ways my spirit ualit y is t hat as w ell…I know t hat in t he int erview t hat I did with Diana, it was very difficult for me to kind of separate all that because it’s all part of me, and it’s part of who I am…it’s very hard to sort of try and get some clear sense of what the difference is. Participant 1. T o compart ment alize t he spiritual part from t he feminist part. Participant 2. And even the social work part now. Because it’s so ingrained t o me as w ell. It cert ainly is. 218
Participant 3. I like w hat you said, t hat it ’s…so part of you that you’d only notice it when it was anti…I’d agree with most of these things. I call myself a feminist so…it [pract ice principles] must fit int o t hat . The final category that emerged from the focus group discussions that is relat ed to cont ext ualizing the pract ice principles concerns the need for ongoing development and this is the next category to be examined.
The need for ongoing development of the practice principles The three focus groups all expressed concern that the practice principles remain open to change and further development. As one participant summarizes, In the end I think…w hat I hear w e’re saying is that we don’t…want it to be so hammered down that it becomes kind of a set t hing. T hat it [pract ice principles] somehow needs t o remain fluid. Similarly, one participant in another focus group points out that one of the potential negative consequences of naming practice principles is that they will become set in concret e or…powerful in it self…and it can become sort of the right way to be. Or you feel you’re not quite good enough spiritually if you don’t follow certain principles. That’s the only negative consequence I can see. Not particularly to these but to any setting down of principles. T his part icipant also expressed frustration at the adoption of one particular practice model within social work as the way to go, stating that she had been through so many of them. Her comments reflect earlier discussion in this chapter and previous theoretical discussion regarding a move towards generalist or eclectic social work practice and away from grand theories and practice models. In addition, concerns that the practice principles remain open to change reflect previous discussions regarding the ongoing process of personal spiritual development and how this process can influence practice. Similarly, one of the focus groups also expressed concern that if these practice principles were viewed as a model that they would become exclusive and hampered in t heir abilit y t o shift . One part icipant suggests t hinking of 219
them as guiding principles, not principles of practice [because] principles of practice reads like a Pincus and Minahan…sort of social work text-book from the ‘70s, which…puts me into a bit of a panic because I think, do I know them? This comment raises several issues. If the intent of the practice principles is t o st imulate t hought about spirit uality in social w ork, it is not clear whether the meaning of guiding principles for practice and practice principles differs significantly. However, the concern expressed here regarding models is valid and perhaps illustrat es past pract ice w it hin social work that presented models and theories as all encompassing and the way to go, to restate an earlier comment. The current emphasis within social work appears t o recognize t hat t he development of effect ive pract ice models is an unending process. As Chapter Two points out, the move away from grand theories to a more generalist approach is better able to recognize this continual process (Lynn, 1999). In any case, the practice principles do not represent a model but constitute knowledge that can be used to foster discussion and reflection on practice. As one participant notes, the practice principles are useful but not the whole story. This section of the chapter discussed the feminist nature of the practice principles. For instance, while one focus group points out the feminist process that was followed in the development of the practice principles, all of the focus groups agree that the practice principles reflect shared feminist , spirit ual and social work values. The feminist nat ure of t he pract ice principles should be acknow ledged because feminist analysis continues to be relevant, particularly the analysis of gender. The importance of congruency between values and practices was also identified. The practice principles may assist in contributing to a more integrated practice by helping pract it ioners t o recognize marginalized spirit ual values t hat can shape practice. There was also consensus amongst the focus groups that diversity in application of the practice principles should be assumed across different 220
practitioners’ work and within one’s own practice as well. Making diversity visible not only reflects a feminist process by providing support and a voice t o marginalized people/know ledge, but also helps t o shift difference out of t he margins by encouraging t he considerat ion of these alt ernat ive viewpoints. The practice principles can be used to help shift spirituality out of the margins by encouraging discussion about these alternative viewpoints and practices. The focus groups also agreed that the practice principles can exist outside an exclusive feminist context because they reflect values shared across various social work frameworks. Thus, the practice principles can be used within various social work perspectives and for both feminist and non- feminist social workers, which strengthens their relevance for social work in general. The emphasis on a more generalist practice also fits with the expressed need for the practice principles to remain open to change. The pract ice principles could fost er discussion and consideration of spirit ualit y in social work and provide a base for future exploration in the area. These possibilit ies come t ogether wit h current trends in social w ork aw ay from grand theories and models, and emphasize an ongoing process of development. The focus groups were also asked to provide feedback about the revised practice principles that were presented in the introduction to this chapt er. Group discussion ident ified tw o issues t hat w ere incorporat ed int o t he final edit ing of t he pract ice principles - an emphasis on social just ice and change, and a focus on st ruggle in spirit ual development . T he follow ing section discusses this feedback and presents the final version of the practice principles.
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EMPHASIS ON SOCIAL JUSTICE AND STRUGGLE IN THE PRACTICE PRINCIPLES
Overall, the three focus groups agreed with the revised practice principles and indicated no changes except for a stronger emphasis on social change and just ice, and st ruggle in spirit ual process, w hich w as discussed in two of the focus groups. The participants who raised these issues identified in the individual int erview s a st rong connection bet w een spiritualit y, community, social change and politics, and also discussed personal struggles as part of t heir spirit ual development . It should be not ed that as one participant explains, this feedback is more about adding emphasis rather than changing a lot of t his…because I t hink t his is great .
Emphasis on social change Concern was expressed by five participants (three from one focus group and two from another focus group), that their beliefs in social change and justice and community work were not apparent enough in the practice principles. These participants stressed that their feminist social work and spiritual values and practices share a commitment to social change activities, w hich w as described in Chapt er Four as an obligation t o do somet hing w it h one’s spiritualit y and to act for t he common good. As one part icipant contends, I act ually t hink t hat spirit ualit y can deeply challenge t hat…individualism…If it is t ruly about connect ions betw een people and about relationships, then it does matter what happens on the other side of the world. It does matter deeply. This comment points again to the importance placed by many of the participants on connection both as a concept ualizat ion of spirit ualit y and as a spirit ually influenced pract ice. Another participant notes that as he read the practice principles that were sent to him prior to the focus groups, he was overwhelmed with the focus on the sort of Western humanist individual again. And I found that 222
very, very troubling. Because a lot of people’s experience of spirituality are not based on the self. He offers the following explanation for the stronger emphasis on individual process compared to the recognition of community. I think the reason for this was the way we began to define feminism and spirit ualit y wit h each ot her in the conversat ions. W e’re so inw ard focused. So that our feminism became inward focused, our spirituality became inward focused, we focused on the heart of the matter, on t he t rue self, on t he inner-self…Bot h feminism and spirit ualit y are also about the struggles. Whether those struggles are political or personal or exist ential. As t his comment indicat es, the part icipant s all discussed t heir ow n personal spiritual processes and beliefs, which may have shifted emphasis onto more of an individual focus even though for several participants the connect ion bet ween communit y, spirit uality and feminism is strong. W hile spiritual experiences can certainly be communal and community oriented, they are at the same time deeply personal experiences. Indeed, spirituality was defined in Chapter One as a highly personal construct. Additionally, perhaps the participants’ work experiences affected these discussions. Alt hough all of t he part icipant s work w ith client s from a syst emic perspective that encompasses feminist analysis and social action, for most participants their day to day work involves direct practice with individuals, couples and families, and not communit ies. In addition, the following focus group discussion illustrates how for some participant s t he emphasis on social change and act ivit y is implied in t he practice principles. The need to explicitly identify values and practices diminishes or becomes implicit in t heir w ork as these values and pract ices are incorporated into practice wisdom and personal knowledge. However, for ot her participant s it is import ant t o explicit ly st at e these values. For example, Participant 1. I suppose I t hink t hat…int rinsic in just the social work stuff is things around social justice, political awareness and activity. So 223
for me, it’s implied if we’re talking about this st uff in a social w ork context. Participant 2. Y eah, but then so is t he import ance of relat ionship…T hat ’s been w rit ten about at lengt h…All good social work pract ice…is about making t hings explicit . Participant 3. I think it’s import ant that it’s named…It ’s good that t here is a st rong emphasis here on our relat ionship w it h self and w it h each other. But I don’t think it ends there.
Processes of struggle The two focus groups mentioned above also discussed struggle and ident ified it as a feminist social w ork and spirit ual value, t o be embraced bot h in personal development and in practice processes. They believed that the practice principles did not emphasize this aspect of spirituality and feminism enough and that struggle was important to stress. The following focus group dialogue demonstrates that struggle is valued both as a personal and professional process and can be a valid goal in itself. For inst ance, Participant 1. Looking in t he shadow side of t he self and the negat ive and trying to integrate that and make that whole as part of spiritual life, spirit ual development . And…part of feminism is also looking at…the shadow side of society, is to oppress women and minority groups and not acknowledge that…I don’t think that’s alluded to in the principles…they’re all very positive and nice. Whereas feminism is often not very nice…it’s often bloody depressing and there’s a lot of anger and related feelings about the sort of stuff that happens around the world. Participant 2. …that spirituality, that feminism, that our commitments to something beyond what we experience now as our lived experience has to embrace struggle and not knowing and uncertainty and discomfort as values…Sometimes the affirmation has to be around the 224
spiritual value of struggle and of anger…and that’s just as valid an end goal for our practice…as inner peace. Participant 3. …I mean spirit ualit y does involve struggle…in pract ice you’re dealing wit h people w ho are st ruggling on some level. I really ident ify w ith t hat…idea of spirit ualit y and struggle. The significance of struggle was previously discussed in Chapter Five, which described how challenges and profound life events influenced the participants’ personal spirit ual development. For example, making sense of death and dying, suffering through and ending negative relationships, and disconnecting from unsupportive friends and family w ere all ident ified by t he participants as challenges that fostered their discovery and development of spiritualit y. As the follow ing comment illustrat es, tw o focus group part icipant s also identified and discussed the process of disconnection as a particular struggle they had engaged in, and express the viewpoint that disconnection must be recognized as just as valid a process as connect ion. Disconnect ion w as discussed earlier in Chapter Six as an important process and sometimes disconnecting from negative or unhealthy influences leads to more positive and healthy connections. For many of the participants in this study, both connect ion and disconnect ion are significant spirit ual and feminist social w ork processes. For example, Participant 1. For me one of the best things I did…was to actually move away from the spiritual group that I poured huge amounts of energy, money…to then leave it, was sort of horrific but also incredibly freeing and a very, very difficult t hing t o do…But t he breaking of t he connect ions st ill led to connect ion w ith my inner-self, what I needed to do I guess…So I guess that would be one of my concerns. That if you’re writing connection, are you not also looking at separation and individuation and those sorts of things. 225
Participant 2. I mean I think there’s some people t hat I just choose not t o be connect ed w ith…And so it ’s import ant for me to have t o find a way to affirm that disconnection. And sometimes they’re not easy disconnections. Taking into account the discussion above regarding the need for a stronger emphasis on social action and change, community and struggle, the practice principles were revised again. This process of revision and the final version of the practice principles is presented next.
Pract ice principles for spiritualit y and social work Where it was possible, the emphasis on community and social change and the significance of struggle were taken into account in a final re-writing of the practice principles. About half of the practice principles (most in the category of practice methods and relationships) seemed able to incorporate these emphases. It was not possible to bring together the emphases indicated above with all of the practice principles, as some of the categories reflected in the practice principles address different areas and issues such as the essence of human existence. The final version of the practice principles is as follow s: 1. Spirit ualit y and religion are concept ualized different ly, but t hey also overlap and influence each other. 2. T he present realit y t hat social w ork is a secular profession coupled with the lack of theoretical development in spirituality creates tensions in practice. This tension leads to a cautious attitude regarding the incorporation of spirit ualit y in pract ice. T here is a st rong need for research and t he development of framew orks that explore spiritualit y in social work. Overall, a greater aw areness of spirit ualit y is called for. 3. Social work, spiritual and feminist values and practices converge on a myriad of levels such as in a commit ment t o social change. T he 226
incorporation of spirit ualit y int o social w ork approaches cont ribut es to more holistic practice perspectives. 4. A person’s spirit and/or spiritualit y is the essence of their human existence and life experience. Respect and understanding is demonstrated for a person’s desire or lack thereof to recognize this spiritual essence. 5. T he development of spirit ualit y is above all a complex and life-long process, which sometimes encompasses struggle. The process of spiritual development can be influenced by family, friends, cult ure, religious/spirit ual tradit ions, and t ransformative life events, w hich can act as cat alyst s for spiritual discovery and exploration. A commitment t o the ongoing process of spirit ual development is import ant . 6. Generic language is often used with clients in discussions about spiritualit y and spirit ual issues. Language is shift ed in order to accommodate clients’ perspectives, to foster connections, and import ant ly, t o facilit at e effective and helpful social w ork processes. 7. Social work contexts, client populations and personal spiritual development influence t he incorporat ion of spirit ualit y in pract ice. Some contexts and client populations better promote the inclusion of spiritualit y, especially t hose t hat fost er a more equal dist ribution of power between worker and client. A commitment to personal spiritual development and work experience also encourage the incorporation of spiritualit y int o pract ice. 8. Spirit ualit y is often a part of making meaning of life and work experiences. The social work process of making meaning can be a spiritual one because it is an int imat e, personal and/or communal process that helps clients explore values and beliefs. 9. Connection in many forms such as with oneself, community, nature and the Universe/God is valued and deemed important for the development of self-awareness and relationships with others. Also, 227
fostering a connection with one’s spirit or spirituality can positively influence the quality and effectiveness of social work processes. Disconnection is also important and is sometimes a necessary process. 10. The relationship between social worker and client(s) is important and can affect the meaningfulness and effectiveness of social work processes. T his relat ionship can be spirit ual in t hat it may involve t he sharing of life st ories, deep connect ion, and feelings of compassion and caring. 11. It is important t o fost er a client ’s ability t o feel and experience trust , love and respect for self and others, as these experiences can be linked w ith spiritual development . A client’s spirit ual beliefs may influence their self-percept ions and int eract ions wit h others.
Conclusion Three focus groups discussed the practice principles and the idea of pract ice principles in general. T he level of homogeneity across the focus group discussions is consistent with the convergences that emerged from the init ial int erview analysis and t he w rit t en feedback received from t en participants. As a result , t his final layer of analysis re-examined some categories that were discussed earlier in this thesis, further refining the previous analysis. The practice principles were identified as having the potential to promote discussion, guide practice and encourage a more accountable practice by helping practitioners to reflect on their values and practices. The development of the practice principles encourages marginalized knowledge to be worked with and challenged. New categories also emerged in relation to discussions regarding the feminist nature of the practice principles. The practice principles were identified as feminist in nature because they reflect feminist values and were developed following a feminist process. This feminist nature should be recognized as feminist analysis continues to be relevant. However, given the 228
nature of shared values and practices across social work approaches, the practice principles can exist in feminist and non-feminist frameworks, which act ually point s t o t he relevance of the pract ice principles for social work in general. Also, the practice principles could assist in promoting congruency betw een values and pract ices by helping pract it ioners t o recognize spirit ual values t hat can shape pract ices. The pract ice principles make spiritualit y visible, which not only reflects feminist process but also helps to shift spirit ualit y out of t he margins by encouraging the considerat ion of these values and practices. This is not the end of the story but the beginning. As the focus groups emphasized, it is inevit able and positive t hat t he pract ice principles w ill shift as they are taken up into practice and discussion, and as practice and personal contexts change. The following chapter examines the relevance of the practice principles and the implications that the practice principles have for social work practice, research and education. Recommendations for future study are also suggested for this emerging area of spirituality and social work.
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CHAPTER NINE CONCLUSION
Introduction The work of this research study necessarily began on an exploratory basis given the relative lack of prior knowledge and empirical research in social w ork regarding spirit ualit y and spirit ually influenced pract ice. T he original research questions aimed to explore the following: 1. What are self-identified feminist social workers’ ideas about a spiritual dimension and/or spirit ualit y, and feminist social w ork? 2. What are the underlying perspectives that inform their personal concept ualizat ions about spiritualit y and/or a spiritual dimension? 3. In what ways, if any, does a spiritual dimension and/or spiritualit y influence their practices? 4. Do they ident ify spirit ually influenced pract ice methods or processes? 5. What are their perceptions about the effects and implications of a spiritually influenced social w ork practice? 6. What are their thoughts about incorporating spirituality into social work education and training? Except for the last inquiry, these research questions have been addressed by this study, but unexpectedly this study has gone beyond the exploration of spirituality in feminist practices by developing a set of practice principles that constitutes a guiding framework for social workers interested in incorporating spirit ualit y int o t heir w ork. As this thesis has discussed, the convergent data showed that the participants’ concept s of spiritualit y fit closely w it h definit ions offered in the literature, and that there is broad agreement both in the literature and amongst the participants that these conceptualizations of spirituality reflect social work values. Moreover, perceptions about spirituality shape practices in various ways from altering perceptions of the helping process itself to 230
influencing the choice of practice models and approaches to shaping specific practices such as the use of generic spiritual language. Holistic practices influenced by spirituality are perceived as more effective and meaningful than non-holistic approaches by both the participants and in the literature. The marked extent of the convergences amongst participants’ viewpoints, values and practices that emerged from the data analysis was not anticipated. The scope of congruent thoughts and beliefs between participants is part icularly surprising given the lack of previous st udy in the area, the absence of any coherent “spiritual-social work” frameworks in the lit erat ure, and t he part icipant s’ diverse spiritual/religious backgrounds. However, the commonalities amongst the participants’ feminist social work perspectives, the extent of their direct practice experiences, and their int erest s in spirit ualit y would have all cont ributed t o the format ion of t hese convergences. When considering the data it became apparent that it would be an import ant st ep to develop t hese key similarit ies int o a framew ork for practice. This framework addresses the absence of previous knowledge development , the marginalizat ion of spiritual know ledge and the need for language, frameworks and models. Overall, the research data resonate with my own experiences and work. This encourages me to wonder about the client who thanked me for helping t o inspire a spirit ual fut ure, w ho I ment ioned at t he very beginning of this thesis. If I had access to the practice principles when I worked with this client, how would my practice and reflection on the work been influenced? The significance of the practice principles in helping to promote feelings of professional competence and a more transparent practice is demonstrated by reflecting on this question. Moreover, my uncertainty about incorporating spiritualit y int o pract ice, my concerns about being marginalized by colleagues, and my feelings of isolat ion are all reflect ed in the view points and sit uat ions ident ified by t he part icipant s in this st udy. Generally, in both t he participants’ pract ices and my ow n work, incorporat ions of spirit ualit y have 231
heretofore occurred without discussion and feedback with colleagues, w it hout guiding framew orks and w it h feelings of caut ion and even apprehension. W hile t he marginalization of spiritualit y in social w ork impedes discussions about it, the importance of making room for spiritual discussion can not be over-emphasized. Most of the participants stress how taking part in this research process helped them to articulate, understand and advance t heir t hinking about spirit ualit y in social w ork. Cert ainly the discussions t hat took place as a result of this research study have helped make both the participants and myself feel a great er sense of permission about including spirituality in our practices. However, while these discussions have begun already t he process of shift ing spirit ual know ledge and pract ice out of the margins (albeit on a small scale), the development of the practice principles could significantly further this process by extending this opportunity to other pract it ioners. In fact , if spiritual know ledge is to be shift ed out of the margins, t hen discussions about spiritualit y will have t o cont inue and spread across social work models and approaches. Importantly, the practice principles can offer a framework for these discussions and considerations about spiritualit y. Addit ionally, if I had access t o a guiding framew ork such as the practice principles when I worked with the client mentioned above, my underst anding of and abilit y t o art iculat e our w ork toget her could have been more developed and useful. The practice principles may have helped me to feel more professionally confident in discussing spirit ual issues wit h client s by support ing my int erest s in personal spirit ual development and the relevance of these processes for practice, and by reflecting some of my own practices such as the use of generic spirit ual language. In addit ion, the pract ice principles could have helped me to consider how personal spiritual development and spiritualit y can shape pract ices. Perhaps feeling more secure would have in turn encouraged discussions with colleagues thereby 232
decreasing my sense of isolat ion and, important ly, providing a space in w hich thoughts and practices can be refined and further developed. Explicitly discussing spirit ually influenced pract ices could also lead to a more transparent and accountable practice in that colleagues can question and help develop practices. It is in these ways that the development of practice principles can be especially crucial for marginalized knowledge and practice. Thus, the practice principles can help to promote feelings of legitimacy with regards t o including spirit ualit y in pract ice, and can also provide guidelines or limits of what is an appropriat e professional use of spirit ualit y in pract ice. The unease and uncertainty that is associated with the use of spirituality is most likely to affect practitioners by hampering their abilities to extend their practice and develop the richness of suitable spiritual practice. This chapter expands this more personal discussion to a broader analysis of the participants’ practices and the significance of the practice principles. This discussion occurs according to three themes – the importance of engaging in personal spiritual development; the relevance and significance of practice wisdom; and the effectiveness and meaningfulness of spiritually influenced holistic practices. These themes in particular warrant further analysis because they are raised at various points throughout this thesis, both in the analysis of the data and in the theoretical discussion of the literature. The practice principles can help to expound upon these three related themes, and the implications that the practice principles hold for social work practice, education and research are discussed. In the course of t his discussion, possibilit ies for research become apparent and the chapt er concludes with an examination of possible future research directions.
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PERSONAL SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT, PRACTICE WISDOM, PRACTICE EFFECTIVENESS AND THE RELEVANCE OF THE PRACTICE PRINCIPLES
Personal spirit ual development and explorat ion The importance of personal spiritual development and exploration is discussed both in the literature and by the participants, which indicates its significance in relat ion to spiritualit y and social w ork pract ice. T he lit erat ure links personal spirit ual development wit h helping pract it ioners to cope w it h their work (Hagon, 1998), with the choice of helping styles, models and theories (Canda, 1988), and with the ability to assist clients in addressing matters identified as spiritual (Russel, 1998), which are issues reflected in the participants’ viewpoints. For example, t he part icipant s ident ify how t heir spirit ual beliefs and values underpin their choice of a social work career that can enable the expression of spiritual values in a work context. They also describe how personal spirit ual perspect ives guide t heir pract ices and life experiences. In some cases personal spiritual development assists participants to feel more connected to clients, which is perceived to contribute to effective and meaningful practice. Certainly relationship is believed to be an important part of helping processes and personal spiritual awareness assists some participants t o form deep spiritual connect ions w ith client s. In addit ion, t he part icipant s st ress the import ance of achieving a level of self-aw areness t hat can promot e and enable effect ive w ork w it h client s. Being blocked or not aware of personal values and beliefs is linked with ineffective practice processes. In particular, the participants connect their self-aw areness w it h tw o helping processes and skills, t hat is, forming spiritual or close relat ionships w it h clients and demonst rat ing empat hic understanding of clients’ experiences. Both of these practice processes are deemed to contribute to more effective and meaningful practices, as 234
relat ionship building and empat hy are essent ial in helping many client s change and develop. The findings summarized above are consistent with common social work knowledge and practice. The need for practitioners to demonstrate self- awareness and the importance of empathy are well recognized within social w ork and ot her allied helping professions. In fact, bot h t he exploration of personal values and t he development of empat hic skills are usually taught as basic helping skills w hich are integral to effect ive pract ice (Corey, 1996). The practice principles reflect this emphasis on personal development but augment this process by focusing at t ent ion on life-long spirit ual development and a spirit ual dimension in personal and professional experiences. The significance of the pract ice principles is in t heir promot ion of t he links between personal spiritual development and practice effectiveness and meaningfulness, thereby addressing an area of life and work experience that has previously been ignored. W hile most of t he participants describe how t heir personal spirit ual development helps t hem t o consider and incorporat e spirit ualit y int o their practices, they also point out that practice experience and practice wisdom in addit ion to personal spirit ual explorat ion promot es spirit ually influenced practice. Even the inexperienced participant who was completing undergraduate social work studies notes how her lack of a practice wisdom and experience hampers t he incorporat ion of spirit ualit y int o her w ork, despit e her w ell-developed spirit ual life. Y et in spit e of these beliefs and experiences it is debat able if pract ice w isdom is essent ial for the inclusion of spiritualit y, especially if personal spirit ual development is also st rong. Perhaps the circumstances that the inexperienced participant is situated in are due to several other factors which can be addressed by utilizing the practice principles. For instance, there are other factors that discourage both experienced and inexperienced w orkers from incorporating spirit ualit y int o pract ice. T he 235
marginalized nat ure of spirit ual know ledge, the secular nat ure of social w ork, the absence of spiritual discourse in social work education and practice, the separation between personal values and professional practices, and the lack of any cohesive “spiritual-social work” frameworks or models to guide the incorporation and considerat ion of spirit uality all cont ribute t o t he continued marginalizat ion and absence of spiritual discourse. These fact ors that w ere all discussed in t his t hesis, coupled wit h a lack of experience and reliance on t ext-book t heory and models, w ould cert ainly reinforce ideas that spirit ual know ledge is not accept able. However, the practice principles could assist inexperienced practitioners who have engaged in spiritual exploration (such as the participant mentioned above) by providing a framew ork t hat confirms the import ance of personal spirit ual development and that focuses at t ent ion on how spirit ualit y can shape and enrich professional pract ice. Thus, w hile the practice principles constitute knowledge that can help practitioners in general feel more professionally compet ent in incorporat ing spirit ual knowledge, t hey may be especially useful for practitioners who lack practice wisdom but have engaged in spirit ual explorat ion. As many of t he part icipant s point out , w ork and life experiences help them to feel more comfortable about including spiritualit y in t he absence of spirit ual framew orks or pract ice models. Using the practice principles, social workers can consider how spirituality can influence social work processes, which clearly has implications for both practice and education in that students could be encouraged to consider spiritualit y on personal and professional levels. But what of inexperienced workers/students who also have not seriously considered t heir ow n spirit ual viewpoints or values? The pract ice principles could be used to encourage social work students to consider how t heir spiritual perspect ives or lack t hereof may influence their approach to problem solving, assessment and choice of interventions by serving as a base from which to engage in these discussions. Having a framework to help 236
guide discussion may be especially significant in t his area as educat ors may be wary or unsure about how to facilitate these discussions. In particular, the practice principles could be used to guide preliminary discussion regarding understandings of spirituality, the effects of the secular nature of social work on spirit ual knowledge, t he spirit ual essence of life, and t he congruencies amongst spiritual and feminist social work values and practices. Also, many students come to social work with spiritual and/or religious beliefs and values, and spirit ualit y could be included in the ongoing process of encouraging students to consider how their backgrounds, beliefs and values will affect practice interventions. Beginning social workers are expected to demonstrate skills such as empathy at least at a basic level of competence. Likewise, they could be encouraged to engage in personal spiritual explorat ion and considerat ion about different spirit ual perspect ives, and how these beliefs and values can shape practices. Exposing students to discussions about spirituality may prove t o be an import ant part of t he overall process of legit imizing spirit ual knowledge and pract ice wit hin social work. T herefore, w hile bot h personal spirit ual development and pract ice w isdom/experience affect s the part icipant s’ abilit ies and w illingness to incorporate spiritualit y int o t heir w ork, t he int roduct ion of practice principles may influence t his relationship in t hat bot h inexperienced and experienced pract it ioners can learn and be encouraged t o address spirit ualit y in t heir practices. However, the importance of practice wisdom should not be diminished and bears further analysis.
Practice wisdom Almost all of the research participants identified practice wisdom as a significant layer of know ledge and experience that helped them include spiritualit y in pract ice. This incorporation is evident t hrough t he formation of close and/or spirit ual relat ionships wit h client s, the abilit y t o accurat ely 237
empat hize w it h client s’ sit uat ions, and t he facilitat ion of ot her spirit ually influenced pract ices such as helping client s to make meaning and t o form connections with community. Practitioners who have developed practice w isdom may be bet t er able and more w illing t o address spirit ualit y in their work for various reasons that arise from the process of gaining experience. For example, practice wisdom and experience can promote confidence and belief in one’s skills, the abilit y t o link theory and pract ice, and t he compet ence t o ut ilize and apply more complex and abst ract concept s in practice. Also, experienced practitioners have had time to be affected by clients and to analyze the nature of the profession and the work that they do within the real world of practice. They have moved beyond a reliance on theoretical, empirical and procedural knowledges (Drury Hudson, 1997). T hus, t he advanced skills and know ledge evidenced by experienced practitioners likely results in more competent and effective social work by practitioners who are better able and more prepared to address complexity in t heir w ork, w hich has implicat ions for t he inclusion of spirit ualit y. Discussions about spiritualit y and spirit ually influenced pract ices can be complex and abstract, that is, these concepts and practices are often difficult to encapsulate in words and our current understanding about them is limited due in part to their experiential nature. Similarly, other more complex practice processes such as intuition, empathy, the use of self and relationship, which constitute the art of social work practice, are also sometimes difficult to conceptualize both theoretically and in practice. Experienced pract it ioners may ut ilize and att end to t he art of pract ice more than inexperienced workers as the former have mastered basic helping skills, and may feel more confident in pushing the limits of what is considered acceptable knowledge and practice for social work. Yet as was mentioned earlier, this is not to say that inexperienced social workers should not be encouraged t o consider marginalized and complex know ledge in their practices, although the incorporation of these knowledges might be different. 238
However, even w it h pract ice w isdom most of the part icipant s st ill expressed concerns about being ost racized regarding t heir spirit ual viewpoints and practices. The development of frameworks that are based in pract ice wisdom is necessary t o legit imate marginalized know ledge and practice, which may be a part of this layer of knowledge. As the participants’ concerns of marginalization (and my ow n) clearly illust rat e, t he development of practice wisdom alone is not necessarily sufficient to engender feelings of legitimacy when marginalized knowledge is a part of practice and practice knowledge. Thus, the practice principles are highly relevant as they emerged from the collective practice wisdom of a group of experienced practitioners (for the most part), and constitute a framework for practice that can further t he process of shift ing spirit ual knowledge int o more mainst ream social w ork discourses. Moreover, guiding frameworks for practice can also influence other social work approaches, which is a process evidenced in the effects feminist social work practice models had/have on social work perspectives in general. T he development of pract ice w isdom and t he gaining of w ork/life experience promote more effective and meaningful practice. In fact, many social work practice models are based in practice wisdom just as the practice principles are. Cert ainly t he part icipant s in t his st udy link t heir personal spiritual growth and practice wisdom with increased practice effectiveness. Similarly, holist ic pract ice is ident ified as more relevant and effect ive t han non-holistic approaches. The participants’ viewpoints regarding practice effectiveness are important to consider given their experiences and practice w isdom, and t he following sect ion examines t his mat t er furt her.
The effectiveness and meaningfulness of holistic practices While it is beyond the scope and capacity of this study to assess the effect iveness of spiritually influenced holist ic practices, participants’ viewpoints regarding practice efficacy can be examined and deserve some 239
exploration as these are promising and form the impetus for incorporating spiritualit y int o their work. The social w ork lit erat ure also cont ends t hat spiritually influenced practices are more effective and practice efficacy is one factor t hat underlies t he calls for t he inclusion of spirit ualit y int o social w ork (Bewley, 1995; Guthrie, 1995; Powers, 1995). Overall, the participants connect increased practice effectiveness and meaningfulness with their own personal spiritual development and work experience, and describe how spiritually influenced pract ices affect client change more effect ively t han non- holist ic approaches. In general, effect iveness signifies t he skills required to assist clients to achieve goals that could include healing, developing insight or altering self-perceptions and attitudes to name a few examples. Some part icipants assert t hat t he incorporat ion of spirit ualit y int o practice by way of a connection to one’s own spirituality leads to a more aut hent ic and holist ic use of the self, w hich is associat ed w it h being a more effective practitioner. Other participants acknowledge that a practitioner should have t he abilit y to demonst rat e insight and t hat spirit ual grow th is a part of t his self-discovery process. In fact , one part icipant in part icular emphasizes how a connect ion w it h her spirit ualit y promot es feelings of calmness, openness and clear-headedness that enable an effective use of skills in order t o facilitat e client s’ processes. Addit ionally, a connection w ith one’s spiritualit y encourages the format ion of meaningful relat ionships w it h client s t hat are also linked w it h facilitat ing change. Several participants describe the more rapid progress that clients make when they are encouraged to address issues on a spiritual level. Other participants incorporat e spirit ualit y in order t o facilit at e experiences of self- love and a sense of wholeness, which are feelings associated with forming positive relationships with others and with setting goals. Overall, practices t hat include spiritualit y are considered t o have t he pot ent ial t o heal deeply. Also, most of the participants describe theory and frameworks that ignore spirituality as narrow, constricting, not cognizant of important factors in 240
people’s lives, and inappropriat e for some clients and cult ures, and t hus ineffect ive. T he part icipant s agree t hat being an effect ive pract itioner includes t he recognit ion and appreciat ion of client s’ spirit ual and religious diversit y, and t he ut ilizat ion of pract ice approaches t hat are appropriat e for client s’ unique situat ions. Clearly, percept ions t hat holist ic spirit ually influenced pract ices are more relevant and effect ual for some client s encourages the incorporation of spiritualit y int o social work. W het her t he pract ice principles can aid in producing effective practice is yet to be determined and depends to some extent on how effectiveness is defined. For example, if practitioner and/or pract ice effect iveness signifies account abilit y and consist ency t hen t he pract ice principles can encourage this t ype of spirit ual practice. As w as discussed earlier with regards to the case anecdote, the practice principles can promote a more transparent and accountable practice by legitimizing spiritual know ledge, by assist ing t o art iculate spiritually influenced w ork w it h clients, by promoting consistency between personal values and professional practice, and by suggesting limits for the professional use of spirituality in practice. However, the practice principles are not a practice model and consequently do not tell practitioners what they need to do to practice competent spiritually influenced social work. While the practice principles can be used as a base for the future development of practice models, whether or not a practice model can or should even be developed is debatable. On one hand, as indicat ed by t he numerous spirit ually influenced pract ices ident ified by the participants, there are many ways to practice spiritually influenced social work just as there is no one way to practice feminist social work. And practicing from a multi-modeled constructivist perspective converges with current emphases in social work and the move away from all-encompassing theories and frameworks. 241
On the other hand, the many ways of practicing feminist social work has been a crit icism, part icularly in t he early st ages of model development . Complaints were/are leveled against feminist social work approaches that these perspectives and models are fuzzy regarding what feminist social workers actually do. However, with the continued development of feminist social work models, practice techniques and processes are delineated and continue to be developed. Certainly, the practice principles can be used as a base for the future development of knowledge that will also advance our understanding of the use of spirituality in social work. As this discussion illustrat es, pract ice efficacy deserves furt her st udy. T his chapt er concludes with discussion that suggests future research directions, which include the exploration of practice effectiveness.
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
This study has enriched and expanded social work knowledge regarding concept s of spirit ualit y and how spiritualit y influences feminist social work practices, and it has developed practice principles that constitute an important guiding framework for social work. However, much still remains to explore and discover in this emerging field of study. Indeed, the possibilit ies for cont inued research are extensive. T his chapt er’s discussion raises several possible direct ions and t he specific findings of this research study can serve as a base for these explorations. Further study regarding practice effectiveness is one area that deserves recognition. Two additional possibilit ies are also discussed in t he follow ing sect ion that address the facilit at ion of learning in spiritualit y and social work, and t he nat ure and scope of practices influenced by spirituality.
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Practice effectiveness T his chapt er has out lined how bot h the part icipant s in this st udy and t he lit erature perceive that incorporat ing spirit ualit y into social w ork and w orking holist ically improves pract ice effectiveness and the meaningfulness of the practice experience. However, the ability to articulate our present understanding of how these practices work and how/why they are effective requires attention. For example, this is clearly evidenced in previous theoretical discussion of Schwartz’s Internal Family System’s model (1999). As Holmes (1994) admits, he does not fully understand the experiences client s have according to t his model but believes that it promot es effect ive practice. It would be interesting to assess clients’ and practitioners’ perspect ives regarding spirit ually influenced experiences and how their ideas of what transpires in practice compare and contrast. This type of inquiry would expand our understanding of these processes beyond sole practitioner viewpoint s. W e also know lit t le about w hy spirit ually influenced pract ices are perceived to be more effective than non-holistic approaches. Indeed, there is virt ually no empirically based comparison in the lit erat ure bet w een pract ices t hat incorporat e spirit ualit y and ot her approaches. Alt hough t his reflect s t he current state of knowledge in this area, with the current development of that knowledge it becomes more possible (and more pressing) to address this issue. Additionally, although reports concerning practice effectiveness are promising, what practitioners say they do does not always correspond with w hat act ually occurs in pract ice. Nat uralist ic inquiry could be used as a research method to further explore both how spirituality influences practice and how spirit ually influenced practices w ork and are effect ive. Based on some of the participants’ perceptions regarding practice effectiveness, possible topics for further exploration could include what working on a spiritual level actually means, how and w hy and if client s progress more rapidly when spirituality is addressed, how holistic practice differs from and is 243
more effective than other practice approaches, and what is meant by “deep healing” and how does spirit ualit y shape t his t ype of change? The participants connect practice effectiveness with practice wisdom and personal spirit ual development. How ever as t his chapt er point s out , t he pract ice principles can be used t o facilit at e learning and explorat ion about spiritualit y, and t his facilit at ion is discussed next .
Facilit at ing t he exploration of spirit ualit y and curriculum development Consistent with the lack of empirically based knowledge regarding ot her aspect s of spirit ually influenced pract ice, w e know litt le about t he best w ays t o help st udent s learn about spirit ualit y and social w ork, how t hey could be encouraged to consider their own and other’s spirituality, what material and experiences should be promoted, and how knowledge about spiritually influenced practices can best be facilitated and conveyed. While some literature emphasizes that students should be taught about models of spiritual development (Derezotes, 1995), others suggest that guidelines and professional wisdom need to be developed concerning topics such as how to raise spiritualit y w it h client s and t he appropriat e use of religious/spirit ual language (Ressler, 1998). While the participants certainly stress the relevance of t heir ow n spiritual development and t he effect s of these processes on their practices, the research data does not specifically encompass t heir ideas about helping st udent s t o explore personal spirit ual values and beliefs. Consequent ly, t he need t o facilitat e explorat ion of personal spirit ual perspect ives in social w ork courses arises more from t he discussions in the literature. However, the development of curriculum in the area is a strong need especially since some educat ors already include spirit ualit y in their course offerings, ot hers are interest ed in doing so, and there is increasing demand for t he acknowledgement of spiritualit y w it hin social w ork educat ion. 244
Addit ionally, this study has demonst rat ed how significant and profound discussions about spiritualit y can be. Opening up classrooms t o spirit ual discourse could have major implicat ions for t he overall legitimizat ion of spiritually influenced knowledge and practice, and the practice principles can certainly be applied in these contexts to begin dialogue. While it may be difficult to influence some long-standing attitudes, students may be more open t o considering spirit ualit y as legit imat e know ledge. On t he ot her hand, because spirituality can be a highly personal and experiential construct we must explore and consider how t o facilit ate t eaching about spirit uality in a manner that reflects inherent social work values such as respect, equality, inclusivit y, diversity and self-determinat ion. Future research could be undertaken with students themselves in order to assess their attitudes, desires and needs regarding the incorporation of spirit ualit y int o social w ork education. T hese findings could be compared and contrasted with educators’ experiences and viewpoints about including spirituality in social work courses, and how this might (or does) already occur. By studying and observing both students’ and educators’ perspectives, our understanding regarding classroom experiences can be enriched and expanded upon. There is certainly a need to go beyond survey research and sole practitioner reports in order to deepen and develop our knowledge regarding the facilit at ion of spirit ual discourse.
The scope of spirit ually influenced pract ices The findings of this study suggest that participants believe that there are many w ays for spirit ualit y t o affect pract ices from the way in which helping processes are underst ood t o the incorporat ion of specific t echniques and practice processes. In fact, table 6.3 in Appendix VIII lists tw enty-tw o practices that are shaped by spirituality in addition to those reflected in the practice principles which are shared amongst the participants. However, little is know n about these spirit ually influenced pract ices as an ident ificat ion and 245
analysis of the variety of practices affected by spirituality is beyond the goals of this exploration. In fact, the number of spiritually influenced practices described by the participants was unexpected. However, based on the findings of this research study several questions suggest themselves - When is it useful to raise discussion about spiritualit y w it h client s? W hich practices are used most frequent ly by social workers and are there any patterns between a practitioner’s characteristics and t he ut ilizat ion of specific pract ices? How and w hy is meditat ion that is spiritually influenced perceived t o be effective? How is working w it h energy understood to incorporate spirituality and how/why does it work? These are simply some examples of questions which arise from considering the tapestry of practices that were identified by the participants in this study. Import antly, t aking t he explorat ion of t he incorporat ion of spiritualit y into social work out of the context of feminist social work practice approaches may w ell expand t he diversit y of spiritually influenced pract ices that could be identified. Also, it would be interesting to compare and contrast feminist social workers’ conceptualizations of spiritually influenced practices with non-feminist social workers’ perspectives, particularly given the current context of social work that observes the increasingly shared nature of values and practices across approaches. The participants’ beliefs that the practice principles can be moved around different perspectives and utilized by many social work approaches certainly supports the need to take this research into other social work contexts. Of course, the work of this thesis will increase in relevance and significance w hen it is t aken up by ot her researchers and practitioners and considered within their own contexts. Additionally, comparisons and contrasts could be investigated between feminist social workers who incorporate spirituality into their practice and those who do not. While the research participants in this study identified many commonalities between their feminist social work and spiritual values, beliefs and practices, whether other feminist social workers would make 246
these connections is yet to be determined. Further it may be important to consider and discuss the implications of linking feminist social work perspect ives w it h t he explorat ion and incorporat ion of spirit ually influenced practices. For instance, although feminist social work has certainly had major influence on social work perspectives, values and practices identified as feminist continue to be marginalized in some contexts. Perhaps a connection betw een spirit ualit y and feminist social work perspectives may serve to marginalize both of these approaches even further. Similarly, the capacity of the work of this thesis to influence social workers across various perspectives may be limited in that some practitioners may believe that the results are restricted to those working from feminist approaches. Particularly since the early 1990’s, strong interest has been demonstrated in exploring and discussing spirituality and holistic practice across social work perspectives, with a corresponding expansion of literature that addresses various issues and that calls for the further advancement of knowledge in this area. This research study has developed knowledge for social work in the form of practice principles that can further research and t he development of spirit ually influenced pract ices, and that can help to legitimize spiritual knowledge and practices. Although the discussion above provides import ant direct ions for future research agendas, overall it should be kept in mind that, as an area of study and practice, spirituality is yet to be accepted and is just beginning to emerge from the margins of social work. As Bricker-Jenkins (1989, p.260) so aptly points out, “If in the rapture of having our concerns finally legitimated, we abandon rigor and incorporate uncritically the “new knowledge” into our practice, we will have abandoned our process principles as well.” Clearly, then, we need to progress with rigorous research agendas that continue to examine critically the practices t hat incorporat e spirit ualit y and t hat build our know ledge in this emerging field of study.
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A PPENDIX I DOHERTY’S THREE DOMAINS OF LANGUAGE AND MEANING MODEL
SPIRITUAL ONLY God's W ill Reborn Calling Sacred Grace Faith CLINICAL-SPIRITUAL Sacred T exts Prayer ALL THREE Serenity Miracle Healing Centeredness Values Love Growth/Development W holeness Guilt Forgiveness Hope SPIRITUAL Trust Meaning Suffering Community Connectedness MORAL ONLY Right & W rong CLINICAL ONLY CLINICAL Should Personality MORAL Owe Mental Illness Ought Family Dysfunction Obligation Communication Fairness Self-esteem Justice Self-differentiation Boundaries CLINICAL-MORAL SPIRITUAL-MORAL Commitment Commandments Responsibility Golden Rule Harmful Behavior Evil Manipulation Sin Honesty Violence Deception 265
A PPENDIX II INTERVIEW GUIDE A ND QUESTIONS
An Explorat ion of t he Spirit ual Dimension of Social W ork In the Practice of Social Workers who Self-Identify As Working from a Feminist Perspective
Introduction
You are being sent these questions because you have agreed to participate in this doctoral research study, and you have expressed an int erest in speaking w ith me about issues relat ed to spiritualit y and your feminist social w ork pract ice. This st udy is int erested in exploring self- ident ified feminist social w orker’s ideas and percept ions about spirit uality and/or a spirit ual dimension, and how, if at all, t hese personal understandings are incorporated into feminist social work practice. In this st udy, spirit ualit y and/or a spirit ual dimension are conceptualized as separat e concepts, although for you they may be connected. Since this research project is situated within the context of feminist social work theory and practice, I am also interested in exploring the convergences and differences betw een feminist social w ork and spirit ualit y and/or a spirit ual dimension.
Interview Questions
1. Feminist social work and a spirit ual dimension
1. What does being a feminist mean to you? In your opinion what is feminism? 2. How would you describe feminist social work practice? 3. Is there a need for feminist social work? Why and why not? 4. What are your thoughts about the future of feminism within social work? 266
5. Did you have some kind of exposure in your social work education to the t opics of spirit ualit y and/or a spirit ual dimension? Would you have appreciated this, or did you appreciate this exposure?
2. Underst andings of spirit ualit y and/or a spiritual dimension.
1. As we discuss t he not ions of spirit ualit y and a spiritual dimension, and its presence or absence in feminist social work and your life experience, is there language that we should avoid, or that you would prefer we did not use? Do you have any thoughts in general about language and its relat ionship t o t opics of spirit ualit y and/or a spirit ual dimension? 2. W hat do the t erms spirit ualit y and spirit ual dimension mean to you, if anything? 3. In your understanding, are spirituality and/or a spiritual dimension different from religion? 4. Do spirit ualit y and/or a spirit ual dimension influence t he way you live your life? If so, how would you describe these influences? If not, what other influences impact on your life? 5. W ould you describe yourself as a spirit ual person? 6. Have you noticed an increased attention to matters concerning spirituality and/or a spirit ual dimension in feminist social w ork pract ice, in social work practice and in society in general? What are your thoughts about this? 7. What are your thoughts concerning the connections or lack thereof betw een feminism and spirit ualit y and/or a spirit ual dimension? 8. W hat influences the meanings you give t o spirit ualit y and/or a spirit ual dimension? For example, are there philosophies, cult ural tradit ions, religious influences, life experiences or ot her perspect ives t hat led you to this meaning? 9. Has anything ever happened to you in your life that caused you to become more aware, or alternatively less in touch with, a spiritual dimension and/or spirit ualit y, or even t o alt er your percept ion of t hese concepts? 10. Are there common themes or similarities among the perspectives, philosophies, and influences t hat inform your ow n personal meaning of spiritualit y and/or a spiritual dimension? 11. In your opinion, what makes spirit ualit y and/or a spirit ual dimension more important to some people than others?
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3. Expressions of spirit ualit y and/or a spirit ual dimension in feminist social work practice.
1. Some social w orkers (Bullis, 1996) stat e t hat for aut hentic healing and therapy to take place, the client must have a sense of wholeness and the sacred in their life. What are your thoughts about this? 2. What are your thoughts about how your understanding about spirituality and/or a spiritual dimension, influences or does not influence your feminist social work practice? 3. If your feminist social work practice reflects a spiritual dimension and/or spirituality, how would you describe this? 4. Are you able t o describe specific t echniques or pract ices in your feminist social work practice that you would identify as spiritual and/or using a spiritual dimension? 5. Do you t hink t hat t he int egration of a spiritual dimension and/or spirituality is important in the continued evolution of feminist social work practice?
4. Implicat ions of expressing or not expressing spiritualit y and/or a spirit ual dimension in social work pract ice.
1. In your opinion, how is it t hat some people come t o draw on a spiritual dimension and/or spirit ualit y as a resource in life? Can and should feminist social workers assist in developing this process? 2. What are your reflections on the positive and negative impacts spirituality and/or a spirit ual dimension has on people? 3. Can you t hink of a t ime w hen your spirit ualit y or spirit ual beliefs and values, or lack thereof, were expressed in, or influenced your feminist social work practice? Was this a positive and/or a negative experience? Can you discuss this example? 4. Are there some types of feminist social work practice that are more conducive t o incorporating a spirit ual dimension and/or spirit uality t han others? Why and why not?
5. Future Directions
1. Have you ever attended any professional training, workshops, or seminars relat ed t o t he topics of spirit ualit y and/or a spirit ual dimension? What are your reflections on these experiences? 2. Should social work schools offer some type of exposure to spirituality? Why and why not? What are your concerns and/or hopes about this possibility? If a decision were made to offer such exposure, what should this look like, for example, elective courses, required course content, seminars, workshops, or other alternatives? 268
A PPENDIX III PA RTICIPA NT INFORMA TION STATEMENT
Universit y of New Sout h W ales Ph.D. Candidat e – Diana Coholic Telephone: 02-9664-5785 Email: [email protected]
Participant Information Statement
Project : An Explorat ion of t he Spirit ual Dimension of Social W ork In the Practice of Social Workers who Self-Identify as Working from a Feminist Perspective
You are invited to participate in a doctoral research study exploring self- identified feminist social worker’s perceptions about a spiritual dimension in feminist social work practice. I am interested in speaking with you about how feminist social w orkers understand spirit uality and/or a spirit ual dimension, and how, if at all, these meanings are expressed in feminist social work practice.
In this st udy, spirit ualit y and religion are concept ualized as separat e concept s. Religion refers t o t he construct ions of inst it ut ionalized w orship that are dependent on dogma and a notion of God. Spirituality on the other hand is much more difficult to define, as it represents a personal philosophy. It can refer to beliefs in something “bigger” (whatever that something might be) t hat guides life processes, it can refer t o feelings of connect edness and communit y, or it can refer t o a desire t o live life wit h meaning. I use the t erms spirit ualit y and spirit ual dimension int erchangeably because t o me t hey have similar meanings. However, to others these terms may invoke very different perceptions.
The research study is situated within the context of feminist social work theory and practice. I am interested in learning what feminism means to social workers who self-identify as working from a feminist perspective. My understanding of feminist social work is that practice principles and assumptions are shared, but there is no unitary approach to its application. Feminist social work combines feminist theory and social work practice principles.
269
Y our part icipat ion in t his research st udy w ill include complet ion of a demographic informat ion form, and part icipat ing in an in-dept h research int erview t hat w ill last approximat ely up t o t wo hours. A t ranscript of t he int erview will be sent t o you so t hat you can check it s accuracy.
Any informat ion that is obt ained in connection w ith t his st udy and that can be ident ified w it h you will remain confidential and w ill be disclosed only w it h your permission. If you give me your permission by signing a consent form, I plan t o publish t he result s in academic journals and books. In any publicat ion, informat ion w ill be present ed in such a w ay that you can not be identified.
Data from the study will be stored in files, on floppy disks, and on audiotapes according to t he Nat ional Healt h and Medical Research guidelines. T his requires research information to be kept under lock and key in a secure locat ion for five years. I w ill keep t he dat a from t his research in a locked filing cabinet , and only I w ill have access t o t he dat a.
I can not guarantee or promise that you personally will receive any benefits from this study. However, I hope that the study will further develop our understanding of the possible expression of spirituality and/or a spiritual dimension in feminist social work theory and practice.
If you decide to participate, you are free to withdraw your consent and to discont inue part icipat ion at any t ime.
I t hank you for considering part icipating in this research st udy. If you have any questions at any time either before or after the research interview, I can be contacted by telephone (02-9664-5785) or by email ([email protected]). I would be happy to answer any questions or concerns you might have. My supervisors at the School of Social Work, University of New South Wales are Jan Breckenridge and Carmel Flaskas. They can be reached at (02-9385-1864). Should you have any problems or queries about t he w ay in w hich t he st udy was conduct ed, and you do not feel comfortable contacting me, you may contact them at the School of Social Work.
Y ou w ill be given a copy of t his form t o keep. 270
A PPENDIX IV TABLE 4.1 – RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS’ CONCEPTUA LIZA TIONS OF SPIRITUA LITY
Participants’ Concepts of Spirituality Examples Intuition Having a gut feeling, knowing what needs to be done in a given situation. Making meaning & trust Trusting that things happen for a reason & making sense of and understanding those reasons; trust in God, something “bigger”. Values & living a “good” life Important to live ethical life and to have relationships based on positive values like love. Trying to be the best you can be. Part of daily life & living Being present in the moment & open to life experiences. Social analysis & justice An obligation to do something with your spirituality and to act for common good. C onnection C onnection to something “bigger”, community, one’s self, culture, one’s environment, nature, other people. Resource A positive coping resource, source of strength and potential. Personal & Private One’s personal and private relationship with the something “bigger”. Means many different things to different people. Love, grace & hope Embodies and represents love, generosity, tolerance, a belief in grace & mystery, and provides a source of hopefulness. Reincarnation Notions of past-lives, finding meaning in present life based on patterns of many existences. Finding balance About nurturing yourself & having fun. Otherness A higher or bigger thing, a specialness, feeling a presence of this otherness. Process Often developed via profound experiences with people, family, religion, culture, clients, trauma & struggle. A personal and reflectiv e process that nev er ends. Experience It is experiential and expressed through ritual, emotions, poetry, meditation, Yoga, relaxation, work ing with energy , music. Powerlessness Recognition that God is in control; akin to trusting that there is a bigger plan for your life.
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APPENDIX V TA BLE 4.2 – RESEA RCH PARTICIPA NTS’ CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF FEMINIST SOCIAL WORK
Participants’ Concepts of Feminist Social Work Examples Analysis of power and oppression Challenging patriarchy, violence, sources of power in communities, the role of gender and male/female relations, power imbalances and structural inequalities in societal, legal, political, welfare, and economic systems; making the personal political. Locating a feminist language that converges Might not use overt feminist language because with a client’s life situation could lead to misunderstandings/confusion about what feminism is (women’s stuff, separatism, man-hating) and fear of losing clients; feminism is more about the way in which the work is done (practice wisdom). Reclaiming Reclaiming voice, female qualities, femaleness, what it means to be a woman (honouring what is different and special), spiritual and religious rituals, practices and language (like hag and witch); rediscovering the power of the feminine. Action and change Both in practice and in personal life experiences; affecting change for yourself and for others. For example, challenging people to shift their attitudes regarding church policy and practice, and language that is used. Process (both for self and in the ways things are Feminism shifts and changes ov er time and done) through life experiences. A ffects processes of social work. Use of self is important. Support for women and empowerment for all About the possibilities of what can be done; people reframing negative beliefs into positive ones. Inv olv es commitment to women, v iewing women as experts on their own lives, importance of listening to women’s stories. Analysis Provides lens with which to analyze world. Recognition of your oppressions and your privileges. Interest in all the “ism’s” (sexism, racism, heterosexism, classism, etc). Reject a practice that doesn’t address power dynamics. Div ersity and inclusion Recognition of div ersity within groups of women; differences in life’s privileges and oppressions. Equality for women has shifted into a desire for equality of all people, including men. Both collective and personal About making connections with like-minded people; could be part of a series of social movements; consciousness raising groups. 272
APPENDIX VI TABLE 6.1 – FACTORS THAT PROMOTE THE INCLUSION OF S P IR ITUA L ITY IN P R A C TIC E
Factors that promote the inclusion of spirituality Examples Age of clients Younger people…have to be a bit further along the way before they can talk about spiritual things. Whereas older people, the process of aging has in itself produced either an urgency, or the need to reflect on your life has been around longer…there’s an intensity and…a reluctance to do the work with younger people, and it tak es a lot more trust…and we don’t always hav e the time…it’s easier…with people to be a bit more objective about their own life, than young people in the middle of it all, with so much left to do. Death and dying; Issues of grief and loss; I think palliative care workers in particular are palliativ e care; work with HIV populations; really open to this stuff because the clients abortion issues challenge it…You can’t work in palliative care without looking at your own mortality. Working with women I’m passionate about it, and I love it and…it’s just great. Working with a group of women…who go leaps and bounds with stuff, that can really relate to that kind of stuff. Individual practice I find the spirituality stuff for me works best on a one-to-one level. Private practice I never felt I could work the way I wanted to work, in the public system…and I’d known this for years, that I had to somehow find a way to work the way I wanted to work, and that was setting up an env ironment…most of the people now who seem to come, are ready to do this. It’s not appropriate for everyone. Trauma work Sexual assault is such an interesting area to work in…they’ve got major, major trauma you k n o w, an d maj o r , maj o r tr auma g ets y o u thinking about things. Culture You couldn’t possible work in Australia with Aboriginal people and say, but I’m not going to discuss spiritual issues. As if spirituality was separate from culture and the economics, and the history, and every other experience of language and meaning. Working with alternative, fringe, marginalized They’re not constrained by institutions or populations organizations…and so to get their own spirituality they’ve had to do it internally…and not looked at it externally, like going to Church.
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APPENDIX VII TABLE 6.2 – FACTORS THAT IMPEDE THE INCLUSION OF SPIRITUA LITY IN PRA CTICE
Factors that impede the inclusion of spirituality Examples Dealing with basic and survival needs The people that I’m working with have got…multiple disadvantage…some of it is really survival…and on a day to day level. So I’m not sure how appropriate it is at this point to bring in spirituality. C hild protection work ; administrativ e duties I have to be very mindful of…documented versus therapeutic work requirements that the organization expects me to complete…To do that requires me not to hav e this other perspective…because the nature of the organization is we are case managers, so we don’t do therapeutic work with people. W e are investigators…it’s our job to determine whether a child has been abused or not. Voluntary versus involuntary client population I guess I’m a little bit more inclined to be less constrained with a population who’s there voluntarily. Firm delineation of the social work role I found that there were impediments being a social worker. Because you are categorized…I’m talk ing about the hospital sy stem…the person would be wanting to talk about spiritual, non- social work matters, and this belongs to the chaplain’s area…I struggled with that initially, because you know, protocol says that you need to stay in your own area. Clients paying for services versus funded Some of them are paying 130 dollars for that services, in a non-private practice context hour to come…and I said to them…let’s just do this family genogram. Well at that point the father said, what the hell has this got to do with my son’s drug use?…I’m paying you and wasting my time…and that was a classic example I think of how people are there to get something. They want it then and there, they want it pretty damn quick. C risis work ; short-term client contact; need time People are quite traumatized that I work with. to develop a relationship before spirituality is Often the contact is fly by night, and not in the discussed context of a counselling relationship or a therapy relationship. Like it can be more difficult to raise those things with somebody you don’t know very well.
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A PPENDIX VIII TABLE 6.3 – SPIRITUALLY INFLUENCED PRACTICES
Spiritually Influenced Practices Examples Religion: Helping people w ho hav e been adv ersely affected by dogma, oppression, or 1. A ddressing negativ e effects abused in religious context. of religion 2. Referral to religious When indicated, referral to C hurch community or religious practitioners. organizations 3. Prayer When appropriate pray with a client. 4. Issues of forgiv eness A kin to issues of acceptance and letting go of grief. C omes up in work with people w ho are religious – is it an important part of healing? Social Work Processes: Helping people take responsibility for the atmosphere around them and 1. Responsibility their actions. 2. In the interpretation and Examining the effect of experiences on a spiritual lev el. Identify ing issues assessment of a situation like violence and housing as spiritual issues (abuse of a person’s spirit). Part of the assessment process; ask about spirituality , prov ide chance for people to discuss it. Ask questions in a general, open manner. 3. Self-actualization Helping people to self-actualize sometimes through a spiritual dimension. 4. Social action, change, Incorporating this dimension into w ork with people; spirituality is not politics, analysis remov ed from political action. 5. Personal analy sis Helping people dev elop a personal understanding and analy sis on spiritual lev el. 6. A ffirming and v alidating a Respecting people’s beliefs. A cknow ledging w here they are in their process. person’s beliefs Working w ith beliefs that are different to y our own. 7. Emotional containment C reating a safe place; empathy , willingness to feel other’s pain and suffering. S upport for a person and their goals. 8. Intuition Using intuition and knowing in helping process. Helping clients connect with their intuition or gut instincts. 9. V alues and ethics V alues like respect, beginning where the client is, recognition of personal v alues, belief in people’s inherent goodness and worth, equality , non- judgmental, justice, and compassion. 10. Guide A cting as guide, resource, catalyst in people’s change processes. If client identifies spirituality , then okay to help them along; if they lead the w ay . Spiritual T ools & Recognition that people hav e spirit guides w hich can assist them in their Techniques: work. Higher-Self similar to concept of soul and/or spirit. 1. Working with Higher-Self and spirit guides 2. A strology C onnecting with people’s star signs. Using aspects of their sign to assist them in their understanding of self. 3. Flower essences Essences of Australian bush flowers that work on energetic, spiritual level to aid in healing. 4. Books and literature Refer people to spiritually oriented literature. Experiential Techniques: Encouraging and helping people to engage in and construct rituals to help 1. Ritual w ith healing process. Sometimes connected to culture. 2. Energy Working w ith people’s energy and chakras. C hanneling positiv e energy . Teaching people to be consciously aware of their own energy . Protecting y ourself on energetic lev el. Healing v ia energetic lev el. 3. Experience Spirituality has to be experienced. Help people go bey ond or transcend the rational, cognitiv e mind. Use expressiv e arts techniques & journalling, for example. 4. Meditation and relaxation Helping and teaching clients to meditate or learn relaxation techniques. Use of guided imagery .
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A PPENDIX IX
PRELIMINARY DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRACTICE PRINCIPLES
1. Spirituality and religion are distinct concepts. While spirituality and religion influence each other and are implicated in one another, ultimately they are different things. 2. Social work, spiritual and feminist values and philosophies converge on a myriad of levels. The integration of spirituality into feminist social work practice contributes to a holistic practice approach. 3. The reality that social work is a secular profession coupled with the lack of theoretical structure for a feminist-spiritual practice creates tensions in practice. This tension promotes a cautious and respectful attitude in applying spirituality in practice. There is a desire and need to discuss spirituality in social work practice. A greater awareness and acceptance of this dimension in social work is called for. 4. The development of spirituality is above all a process that is complex and never- ending. This process is often influenced by other people and life-events. A commitment is demonstrated to this evolving process which reflects the importance placed on self-growth and self-analysis. 5. Every human being has a spirit or a soul and thus spirituality. A person’s spirit or soul is the essence of that person and is the core of the self. People are at different levels of spiritual development and evolution. 6. The social work context and personal development impact on the application of spirituality in practice. Certain social work contexts are more conducive than others. Additionally, a commitment to personal growth and understanding and work experience promote this application and inclusion. 7. Generic or common language is used when discussing spirituality. Conscious shifts in language occur in order to converge with clients’ language. 8. Spirituality is used to make sense of life and work experiences. The process of meaning making is spiritual as it is an intimate, personal process that explores values and beliefs. 9. Connection in all its forms is valued and deemed essential. Nurturing a strong and steady connection with one’s inner-self positively affects the quality and effectiveness of the social work encounter. 10. The relationship between social worker and client is vital and is at the heart of a meaningful and effective practice. This relationship is spiritual in that it necessitates sharing of life stories, involves connection and is based on compassion and caring. 11. Spirituality is based on feelings and experience of self-respect, self-love and trust in self. Spiritual beliefs affect how people come to understand themselves as worthy human beings.
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APPENDIX X PRACTICE PRINCIPLES FOR SOCIAL WORK AND SPIRITUALITY – REVISED WITH WRITTEN FEEDBACK
1. Spirituality and religion are different. At the same time, they overlap, influence each other and are implicated in one another. 2. Social work, spiritual and feminist values and philosophies converge on a myriad of levels. The integration of spirituality into feminist social work practice contributes to a holistic practice approach. 3. The present reality that social work is a secular profession coupled with the lack of theoretical structure for a feminist-spiritual practice creates tensions in practice. This tension promotes a cautious a respectful attitude in applying spirituality in practice. There is a desire and need to discuss spirituality in social work practice. A greater awareness and acceptance of this dimension in social work is called for. 4. The development of spirituality is above all a process that is complex and never- ending. This process is often influenced by other people and life-events that can act as catalysts in the exploration of something bigger (whatever that something bigger may be). Feminist-spiritual social workers committed to this evolving process, place importance on their own continued development and growth. 5. A person has a spirit, soul and/or spirituality. Respect and understanding is demonstrated for a person’s desire or lack thereof, to acknowledge and work with this aspect of their life. 6. The social work context and personal development influence the application of spirituality in practice. Certain social work contexts are more conducive than others are. A commitment to personal development and work experience promote this application and inclusion. 7. Generic or common language is used when discussing spirituality. Conscious shifts in language occur in order to converge with clients’ language. 8. Spirituality can be used to help make sense of life and work experiences. The process of meaning making can be described as spiritual because it is an intimate, personal and/or communal process that explores values and beliefs. 9. Connection in all its forms is valued and deemed essential. Nurturing a strong and steady connection with one’s inner-self positively affects the quality and effectiveness of the social work encounter. 10. The relationship between social worker and client is vital and is at the heart of a meaningful and effective practice. This relationship can be spiritual in that it necessitates sharing of life stories, involves connection and is based on compassion and caring. 11. It is important to foster a person’s ability to feel and experience trust in self and others, and love and respect for self and others because these experiences can be linked to spiritual development. A person’s spiritual beliefs can affect and influence their self-perceptions and their interactions with others. 277
APPENDIX XI PRACTICE PRINCIPLES FOR SOCIAL WORK AND SPIRITUALITY – FINA L V E RS IO N
1. Spirituality and religion are conceptualized differently, but they also overlap and influence each other. 2. The present reality that social work is a secular profession coupled with the lack of theoretical development in spirituality creates tensions in practice. This tension leads to a cautious attitude regarding the incorporation of spirituality in practice. There is a strong need for research and the development of frameworks that explore spirituality in social work. Overall, a greater awareness of spirituality is called for. 3. Social work, spiritual and feminist values and practices converge on a myriad of levels such as in a commitment to social change. The incorporation of spirituality into social work approaches contributes to more holistic practice perspectives. 4. A person’s spirit and/or spirituality is the essence of their human existence and life experience. Respect and understanding is demonstrated for a person’s desire or lack thereof to recognize this spiritual essence. 5. The development of spirituality is above all a complex and life-long process which sometimes encompasses struggle. The process of spiritual development can be influenced by family, friends, culture, religious/spiritual traditions, and transformative life events, which can act as catalysts for spiritual discovery and exploration. A commitment to the ongoing process of spiritual development is important. 6. Generic language is often used with clients in discussions about spirituality and spiritual issues. Language is shifted in order to accommodate clients’ perspectives, to foster connections, and importantly, to facilitate effective and helpful social work processes. 7. Social work contexts, client populations and personal spiritual development influence the incorporation of spirituality in practice. Some contexts and client populations better promote the inclusion of spirituality, especially those that foster a more equal distribution of power between worker and client. A commitment to personal spiritual development and work experience also encourage the incorporation of spirituality into practice. 8. Spirituality is often a part of making meaning of life and work experiences. The social work process of making meaning can be a spiritual one because it is an intimate, personal and/or communal process that helps clients explore values and beliefs. 9. C onnection in many forms such as with oneself, community, nature and the Universe/God is valued and deemed important for the development of self-awareness and relationships with others. Also, fostering a connection with one’s spirit or spirituality can positively influence the quality and effectiveness of social work processes. Disconnection is also important and is sometimes a necessary process. 10. The relationship between social worker and client(s) is important and can affect the meaningfulness and effectiv eness of social work processes. This relationship can be spiritual in that it may involve the sharing of life stories, deep connection, and feelings of compassion and caring. 11. It is important to foster a client’s ability to feel and experience trust, love and respect for self and others, as these experiences can be linked with spiritual development. A client’s spiritual beliefs may influence their self-perceptions and interactions with others.