•,

Classics and National Cultures

Edited by

SUSAN A. STEPHENS AND PHIROZE VASUNIA

f atru OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Contents

Notes on Contributors ix List of Illustrations xiii

Introduction 1. 'out of eure sanscreed into oure eryan': Ireland, the Classics, and Independence 16 Nicholas Allen 2. Marooned Mandarins: Freud, Classical Education, and the Jews of Vienna 34 Richard H. Armstrong 3. Classical Culture for a Classical Country: Scholarship and the Past in Vincenzo Cuoco's in 59 Giovanna Ce serani 4. Classical Education and the Early American Democratic Style 78 Joy Connolly 5. Mimicry and Classical Allusion in V. S. Naipaul's The Mimic Men 100 Emily Greenwood 6. Editing the Nation: Classical Scholarship in , c.1930 121 Constanze Guthenke 7. Eastern European Nations, Western Culture, and the Classical Tr adition 141 Asen Kirin 8. The Cosmic Race and a Heap of Broken Images: Mexico's Classical Past and the Modern Creole Imagination 163 Andrew Laird 9. Unbuilding the Acropolis in Greek Literature 182 Vassilis Lambropoulos 10. ·How to Build a National Epic: Digenes Akrites and the Song of Roland 199 Fernanda Moore I I r t t iii Contents I 1. on the Highveld: The Universalism (Ancient and I Modern) of T. J. Haarhoff 217 � Grant Parker Notes on Contributors 235 ( 2. Auerbach, , and the Jews � James I. Porter t Nicholas Allen is Moore Institute Professor at National University of Ireland, 258 3. Contestatory Classics in 1920s China l Galway. He is author of Modernism, Ireland and Civil Wa r (2009) and George Haun Saussy Russell and the New Ireland (2003) and editor of That Island Never Found .4. The New Alexandrian Library 267 (2007), with Eve Patten; The Proper Wo rd: Collected Criticism-Ireland, Poetry, Susan A. Stephens Politics (2007); and The Cities of Belfast (2003), with Aaron Kelly. He is ls. Translatio and Difference: Western Classics in Modern Japan 285 I currently working on a book about the cultural histories of 1916. Yasunari Takada Richard H. Armstrong is Associate Professor of Classical Studies and a Fellow l6. Alexander Sikandar 302 in the Honors College at the University of Houston. His latest book is Phiroze Vasunia A Compulsion fo r Antiquity: Freud and the Ancient Wo rld (2005). He publishes I on the reception of ancient culture and translation studies, with a particular Bibliography 325 interest in the development of early psychoanalysis. His current book project Index 361 I is Theory and Theatricality: Classical Drama and the Early Psychoanalysis, I 1885-1914. Giovanna Ceserani is Assistant Professor of Classics at Stanford University. I Her interest is in the classical tradition with an emphasis on the intellectual history of classical scholarship, archaeology, and historiography. since i the eighteenth century. She is currently completing a book on the modern study of . Her recent publications include articles on the I his1tory of classical scholarship and the history of archaeology. She is the co­ l1 editor with A. Milanese of Antiquarianism, Museums and Cultural Heritage: � Collecting and its Contexts in Eighteenth-century , a special issue for the ' Journal of the History of Collections (2007). � t· f: Joy Connolly is Associate Professor of Classics at New York University. She is the author of The State of Speech: Rhetoric and Political Thought in Ancient � Rome (2007) and articles on ancient education, Latin poetry, Greek imperial � culture, and the early modern reception of classical texts. Her current and forthcoming work includes Talk About Virtue, a book about the relevance of Roman political thought for modernity, along with essays on the character I of Aeneas, Pliny's account of liberty under autocracy in his Panegyricus, and social justice in Sallust's Jugurtha.

Emily Greenwood is Associate Professor of Classics at Yale University. She is the author of two books, and the Shaping of History (2006) and Afro-Greeks: Dialogues between Anglophone Caribbean Literature and Classics Unbuilding the Acropolis 183

exhibit a corresponding enthusiasm but instead something entirely different. 9 The reason is that the 'technology' of travel writing on Greece has disciplined · them into oblivion. Artemis Leontishas discussed fieldslike archaeology, aesthetics, and history in Unbuilding the Acropolis in Greek Literature terms of Foucauldian disciplinary technologies: 'Early in the nineteenth century, Europeans began to deploy in Hellas the narratives, methods, rules of conduct, modes of expression, and institutions of the discourse of Hellenism .... On the Vassilis Lambropoulos site of ruins, the disciplinary technologies of Hellenism applied their force on individual bodies by controlling access to the site and separating "safe" autho­ rities from "dangerous" (i.e., heterogeneous to all other) populations' (Leontis 1995: 56). Since at least that time, travel writing has also functioned as such . Whatever the Acropolis may be, a technology, disciplining Greeks into inferiority or irrelevance. In nearly all It doesn't exist without us travel literature, Greeks do not speak about the hill, usually because they are not Montis 1978: 22 foundthere.

Do Greeks care about the Acropolis? If we look at their literature, we hesitate Orte example of the limiting, or perhaps blinding, effects of disciplinary technologies to answer. In both poetry and prose, the 'sacred hilr appears very rarely, and is that they prohibited recognition of the presence upon and around the Acropolis of a when it does, it is usually an object of attack rather than admiration. Greek local population. People had continued to use the Acropolis as a very effective kastro writers of the last two centuries seem profoundly uninterested in visiting or or frurio'fortress' well into the nineteenth century.... Both Greek-speaking rebels and discussing the famous site. Given the importance of antiquity for modern Ottoman authorities recognized that to hold the Acropolis was fo win , a Greek culture, as well as the centrality of the Acropolis in the literature of strategic site in the battle to control the Attic peninsula and to create an independent travels to Greece, the literary stance is puzzling. This chapter will offer an Hellas. While this was happening, Europeans continued to discuss ways of protecting answer to the puzzle. the supreme vall,les of Hellenism, which the Acropolis represented for them from 'vandalism' by the very groups who were seeking the physical protection of the The Acropolis is one of the best-known and most-visited places in the Acropolis as a -fortress. (Leontis 1995: 58) world, a place that people recognize and admire even without ever visiting it. In addition to its ancient glory, it has acquired the aura of a modern topos Hence the dramatic difference between the Hellenes of eternity and the Greeks that has been discursively and institutionally constituted. The Acropolis is a of history. countersite in that it exists both in an archaeological location arid in the To find a Greek on the citadel we have to go to Greek literature. We can collective imaginings of Western tradition_.:.both in and outside history. The begin with the first scene of the novel The Broken Hands of the Aphrodite oj Acropolis evokes not only the classical Athenians who built it, but also Melos (2002), a postmodern exploration of modem Greek hybridity by writer modern creators like Melville, Thackeray, Flaubert, Freud, Hofmannsthal, Nanos Valaoritis (b. 1921). It is spring 1820, just a year before the launch of Woolf, Durrell, Malraux, Heidegger, Golding, Walcott, and Derrida who the War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire. The book opens with recorded their visits in literature, theory, and reflection. In marked contrast, a descent fromthe Acropolis. Sebastian Moronis, the narrator, has just spent a it does not evoke contemporary Greeks. In turn, we find that Greeks do not . horrible night at the Frankish Tower in the Propylaia,' where the Turkish authorities imprisoned him the previous day. From his dirty cell at the top floor of the Tower he could see 'the but he had no mind for In addition to the two editors of this volume, I am grateful to Stathis Gourgouris, Gregory admiration. The nearly two hundred· shacks that occupied the hill, built for Jusdanis, Ilia Lakidou, Neni Panourgia, Apostolis Papageorgiou, Efthymia Rentzou, Manolis the Turkish garrison and their families, reminded him of all the torture Savidis, Sakis Serefas, Takis Theodoropoulos, and Augustine Zenakos for providing me with methods his captors might use on him. He is accused of stealing antiquities interesting ideas, important references, and rare documents. I appreciate their interest in this project. Parts of the chapter have been presented at the conference 'From to Us' at La but the truth is that it was the very Turkish Albanian from whom he had Trobe University and the Gennadeios Library of the American School of Classical Studies in bought a pouch of ancient coins who turned around and accused him of Athens. I thank Peter Murphy and Maria Georgopoulou for these generous invitations. 184 Vassilis Lambropoulos Unbuilding the Acropolis 185

stealing it. On this morning the Tu rkish soldiers are taking him from the the self-sufficiency of the monument is not evident to them, even though they have gone up 'to see the Acropolis and its antiquities' (2002: 14). However, as Acropolis to the Tower of the Winds for trial. He fears that they will interro­ ' gate, sentence, and promptly execute him. The official representatives of the the attention of the strolling politicians is drawn to different things, there is Western powers, who are accompanying the soldiers, will silently consent to work going on around them that will focusthe attention of futurevisitors in a such an outcome since it would help them retain total control over the illicit deliberate and sharp way. The hero of The Tumblers (2004), the second novel trade of antiquities so that only the French and the English can compete over by actor and writer Yiorgos Kotanidis, is a diaspora Greek who comes to the treasures that keep appearing on the market. Athens that same year to establish the first theatre in the free nation. On his Moronis, the prisoner who is taken down from the Propylaia by this second day in his new country, as he is given a tour of the Acropolis by a strange group of occupiers and diplomats, is a Greek of Italian descent living French duchess, he sees workers ar,e_ tearing down a Venetian rampart and in colonial as a British subject. Eventually the Turkish judge spares his some Turkish houses and restoring the first monument, the temple of life, acknowledging his odyssean non-identity: 'You are "nobody" like all the Nike, all under the supervision of Greek and Bavarian archaeologists and Rum, Greek. You have neither trust nor ethnicity' (Valaoritis 2002: 16). architects. Two years earlier, Bavarian architect Leo von Klenze launched the He offers him as a servant for life to his adopted son, the Janissar Selim, first modern Acropolis restoration project, starting with the. very first modern e but the new master turns out to be a lost cousin from Egypt who was sold as a restoration of a classical monument, the Te mple of Nik ( 1835-6). In a few slave and brought up as a Muslim. Sebastian and Selim share as an ancestor decades, all medieval and Ottoman buildings will be torn down. Nothing but the great Alexandrian poet Aristomenis Moronis who left Egypt in 1801. That ancient ruins will be visible on the site, The Acropolis as we know it toqay was life in cosmopolitan Athens (23) right before the Revolution, where one will be created. With a mere four, and insignificant, exceptions, nineteenth­ could find dipl�mats, artists, emissaries, nobles, adventurers, and in general century Greek poetry will ignore it. Interest will not grow much in the twentieth people in pursuit of art, love, and profit, often in intriguing combinations. century but it will adopt a radical disposition: it will turn destructive; The town provides a fitting setting for the opening pages of a sprawling work Contrary to what students of modern Hellenism may expect, the Acropolis that traces the broken arms (one holding the apple of discord, the other the does not have a prominent place in Greek literature of the last two centuries. end of her dress) of the Aphrodite statue as they travel for two centuries In fact, it makes only a rare appearance. For example, during the eighty years between 1858 and 1938, research has identified just ten writers who composed through famous capitals, households, and periods, as well as literary genres . and styles. poems on the Parthenon, and not a single one between 1938 and 2002 Once the Acropolis was liberated, Greeks had their first opportunity in (Giannakopoulou 2002). In the twentieth century, even when the Acropolis almost four centuries to take a leisurely walk on the imposing hill that had makes an appearance, instead of generating ideas of greatness and glory, it been an inaccessible fortress under the Ottomans since 1456; This does hot findsitself under attack frominternal or external forces. As we shall see, Greek mean that they all admired the accomplishments of their ancestors. After all, literature consistently unbuilds the Western heterotopia. the aesthetically pure approach is as recent as the invention of modern This 'destructive' (in Heidegger's sense) tradition was inaugurated by the aesthetics. Visitors spent their time on the Acropolis in quite different ways. avant-garde and Trotskyite writer Nicholas Calas (1907-89) with a piece Distinguished scholar and writer Georgios Tertsetis (1800-74) describes his which appeared in his first collection, Poems (dated 1933 but released in visit with four eminent Greek politicians in 1836, just two years after Athens October 1932 under the pseudonym Nikitas Rantos). The poem, 'Acropolis', became the of the newly independent state. It is interesting to see their draws on the infamous bombardment of 1687 that irreparably damaged the different attitudes once they passed through the Propylaia. One of them asks Parthenon during the siege of the Ottomans on the Acropolis by Venetian somebody to show him where a hero of the War of Independence was killed. artillery under Captain Francesco Morosini. A powerful imagery creates the Another meets somebody who criticizes the late President of Greece. The impression that today the site is undergoing another bombardment as the third goes to the highest point and takes in the open sea. Only the fourth poem is littered with several cylinder forms-cylinders of cannons, Kodak walks up to the Parthenon and contemplates it in silence and absorption, films, coins, finger rings, floodlights, lenses, tubes of six-o-six, even words. which is particularly interesting if we recall that a Turkish mosque has been standing within it since the early eighteenth century. These individuals are not average Greeks: they represent the political leadership of the nation. And yet 186 Vassilis Lambropoulos Unbuilding the Acropolis 187

These have replaced marble slabs, creating a monument to modern technol­ the Athens Charter forthe Restoration of Historic Monuments, the first of its ogy and exploitation: kind, which was adopted by the League the followingyear. Thus the discursive . restoration of the monument to a purer form during that period was a Nothing but cylinders to be seen round here complex imaginary project, both physical and cultural, to which many straight fallen columns of marble or others sciences and all the arts contributed with enthusiasm. of roll-film, Agfa, Kodak In contrast, Calas does not refer to an earlier, greater, era. His exclusive of coins-change focus is on the present, the era of the aesthetic and commercial proliferation . from negotiated dollar and sterling of acropolises. He is reacting not only tb commercialism but to idealism as cylindrical too these very words well; he ridicules the photographic reproduction both by tourists and by fall juicily artists, foreigners and Greeks. He has in mind images included in cheap words inspired guidebooks and limited-edition art books, empty talk as well as elevated by the horror we fe el discourse about heritage, the 'rhythm of an Adler machine', and the speed at Morosini's cannon-fire- of cars like the Delage Grand-Sport (1921) to which Le Cor.busier compared the cannons too cylindrical the Parthenon in his 'Architecture, Pure Creation of the Spirit', a 1922 piece each day razing the acropolises (later included in the 1923 essay collection Towards a NewArchitecture) on the restored by others in their negatives. lessons of the Acropolis for modern architecture. Yet, as an avant-garde poet (trans. by David Ricks, quoted in and critic, Calas also findsin Morosini's destruction a certain grandeur. In the Giannakopoulou 2002: 260) text 'Promyth', published in 1936, he claims that 'art is a gun powder keg, and The poem includes a long list of attackers worthy of Morosini-Ernest Renan the proof is the Parthenon' (Calas 1977: 73). The unpublished poem 'Black with his 'Prayer on the Acropolis' (1865), Fred Boissonnas with his albums of Flames', written in 1935-6, elaborates: pictures, Nelly's with her naked female dancers, Karl Baedeker with his guide­ The dream requires work. Make the most personal one if you want your life to become books, Yiannis Psycharis with his version of Greek demoticism, agents with yours. their advertising images, tourists with their snapshots, designers with their [ ... ] fashion shows. Ironkally, this time the monument is being destroyed not by Let's take dreams from where they exist. Morosini chose the Acropolis. If Morosini being reduced to pieces but by being photographically restored. As the most did not exist we would not know what a ruin is and we would confuse it with memory. legendary ruin is reconstructed daily by all the means of mechanical repro­ Do you prefer Pheidias or Morosini? The car or the accident? duction, it turns into a popular modern commodity; it becomes a slogan, a It is not easy to answer: Why do you dream that you are falling if you do not desire it? sign, a spectacle. In fact, by the time he visited the Acropolis, Jacques Derrida Without dreams you will never become I/EGO. (Calas 2001: 22) could not find anything else to talk about except a nameless, faceless slumber-: No work better represents the idealism ridiculed by Calas than the work of the ing photographer (Derrida 1996). Swiss photographer Francois-Frederic (Fred) Boissonnas (1858-1946) who, In addition to its photographic reconstruction, in the years 1922-33 the from 1903, made numerous trips to Greece during the next twenty-five years Parthenon underwent its second modern restoration, following the first one and produced thirteen albums based on them, defining the photographic in 1898-1902. The project inspired the famous French historian Andre image of the country in the firsthalf of the twentieth century and beyond. His Charbonnier to propose the revival of the Panathenean Festival following extensive work commences right afterthe Acropolis conservations of 1885-90 on the model of the successful revival of the Delphic Festivals in 1927 and reached down to the natural rock, removing from it the last post-classical 1930. The results of the project were presented in 1931 to the First Interna­ ruins, and (in albums like Le Parthenon of 1910-12) it memorializes the place tional Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments, a as it has never looked since its days of ancient glory. His approach, which gathering of over one hundred specialists from some twenty counties that transformed professional photography into high art, was further justified was convened by the Office of Museums of the International Institute of when the Acropolis was turned into a stage by other photographers who Intellectual Collaboration of the League of Nations. The Congress produced introduced theatrical elements, such as dancers Isadora Duncan (1920), 188 Vassilis Lambropoulos Unbuilding the Acropolis 189

Mona Paiva (1927), and Nikolska (1929). Recent volumes that must have had when asks him about modern Greek achievements, and an impact on Calas included Albert Thibaudet's L'Acropole (1929) with Psycharis is embarrassed to admit that they are non-existent. �he co�edian copious Boissonnas illustrations, and the photographer's Le tourisme en consoles him that these things take time but adds another consideration: Grece (1930) with his own text and pictures. The former made a passionate Then again it may be our fault that nothing has happened until now. Do you know case for the harmony between nature and architecture by emphasizing the what it means for a people to have us as ancestors? Do you know what kind of burden qualities of sunlight on the rock, while the latter promoted modern Greece as we are? Take a good look at the Acropolis. It looms over Athens as if it is about to fa ll a place with tremendous tourist magic. on it and crush it. Our [modern] eople here have the same fate: ancient glory js . . ,R Two famousvisitors who arrived in Athens just months after thepublication always about to crush them. Our poor children. You fe el· sorry for them and love of Calas's poem can be taken as emblematic of opposite approaches to the them:. They are doing their best. (Psycharis 1971: 167) . Acropolis. When Filippo Tommaso Marinetti travelled to Athens in February This is remarkable, especially comiilgfrom the son-in-law of the author of the 1933, the Athenian daily Elefthero Vima asked him to write a manifesto for the 'Prayer on the Acropolis'. Even a nineteenth-century. Greek expressing tre­ occasion, which it published under the title 'Raise your Flag: Manifesto to the mendous admiration for antiquity can depict the Acropolis as a threat to Youth of Greece'. The Italian Futurists had been the firstto ask for the systematic modern life. destruction of antiquities. In the famous 'Futurist Manifesto' of 1909, after Calas's contemporary and Nobel laureate, George Seferis (1910-71), repre­ calling for the demolition of museums and libraries, Marinetti had declared: 'It . sents another example of deep ambivalence. While sometimes he admires the is from Italy that we launch through the world this violently upsetting, incen­ monuments and feels he can relate to them, at other times he feels that they diary manifesto of ours. With it, today, we establish Futurism because we want are doomed. Typical of the latter attitude are two responses from the opposite to free this land from its smelly gangrene of professors, archaeologists, ciceroni ends of his creative life. In 1926-8, before publishing his first collection in and antiquarians' (Marinetti 1972: 42)'. This time, though, Marinetti did not ask 1931, Seferis worked on Six Nights on the Acropolis, a novel whose central idea for the destruction of the monuments, but he had the Parthenon shout to Greek is, in the author's owri words, 'the sickness of Athens, the sickness from students during a stormy night: 'Leave through my columns quickly because I Athens' (Seferis 1974: 284-5). The work was revised in 1954, and published am the prison of futilewisdom.' His advice to them was to turn their back to the posthumously in 197 4. At the end of the third section, the protagonist Stratis, Acropolis and kill their melancholy and nostalgia with original discoveries a writer, and his intellectual friends, have spent another night with a full (Toumikiotis 1994: 245). A few months later, in July 1933, Le Corbusier, moon on the Acropolis. Here is his parting thought before their descent: 'He another influential writer of manifestos who had first visited Greece in 1911, had the impression that the Acropolis was new until that night and that two returned foran international architecture conference. By polemically juxtapos­ thousand years of compacted time had suddenly exploded and had turned it ing in his manifestos cars and grain elevators with ancient monuments, he had to rubble' (136). This sense of destruction and new beginning is confirmed identified classicism as inherently modern and hoped that design would learn later, at the beginning of the fifth section, when Stratis concludes that they from classical scale and simplicity. His renewed call for a modern classicism was find themselves in the first day of creation: 'The Acropolis is finished.' A friend eagerly adopted by the Athenian press, but not by writers. consoles him: 'It was time we stopped acting like limpets on these stones. We Greek authors who did not take as radical a stance as Calas's nevertheless had reached a dead end' ( 172). remained sceptical throughout their lives. The Sorbonne professor and mili­ More than forty years later, in 1970, in one of his last essays, Seferis tant demoticist Jean (Yiannis) Psycharis (1854-1929) is an early example. In discusses the interpretation of dreams and pays homage to Freud, citing his his poem, Calas mocks him for demoticizing the word Parthenon into disturbance of memory on the Acropolis in 1904 .(as recorded in 1936), by 'Parthenos' (Psycharis 1971: 159). Apparently he has in mind the chapter ; narrating a dream of his own. In it, he returns to Greece after a long absence 'The Ancients in Psycharis's controversial travelogue My Journey (1888) to find the country highly modernized. When he climbs the Acropolis, he where the scholar narrates his first ever trip to Greece in 1886. In it, the witnesses the auctioning of the Parthenon: to increase its revenue, the state is Odessa-born Psycharis (who married the daughter of Ernest Renan) climbs selling its monuments. To the general enthusiasm, today the highest bidder is the Acropolis at noon and encounters all the famous ancient Greeks from the an American toothpaste company. When everybody leaves, Seferis is left archaic to the Hellenistic era, working and conversing. Predictably, the dias­ gazing at a frightfully bare Parthenon whose columns have been buffed into pora scholar glorifies his ancestors, yet his visit ends on a very different note 190 Vassilis Lambropoulos Unbuilding the Acropolis 191 huge toothpaste tubes (Seferis 1981: 327). In the case of both the early novel weight' (Jusdanis 2004: 43-4). The three major modernists, Nicholas Calas, and the late essay, the grandeur of the rock is exhausted and the site is barren. George Seferis, and George Theotokas, present the Acropolis as a site that falls . We find comparable views, also separated by decades, in the novels of prey to commercial, technological, and natural forces. Instead of praising its George Theotokas ( 1905-66), a third eminent member of the famous literary transcendent qualities, as did nearly all the contemporary foreign travellers, generation of the 1930s, and a good friend of Calas and Seferis. His first novel, they see it as vulnerable and defenceless. They find that great art and classical Argo (1933-6), deals with the governing bourgeois elite of the interwar values cannot protect themselves from appropriation and manipulation, let generation. NikiforosNotaras, a young student from a family with Byzantine alone the passing of time. It is n

Athens as a site-to-visit is advertised through positive stereotyping (e.g., the- anti­ quities, the Olympic Games, or even Greek hospitality) by the Greek nationalistic construct in absolute accord with the worldwide cultural and tourist industries. Athens as an emblem of western certainty is conscripted, again through positive stereotyping (e.g., the birthplace of democracy), to alleviate the guilt of a hegemonic civilization. Unsurprisingly, every aforementioned layer is usually expressed through an aes­ thetic codification, be it the supposed 'real' Athens with its desiccated urban city­ scapes, or the tourist Athens with its Acropolis, or the universal, timeless Athens-that imaginary, ahistorical place, where justice and democracy always rule and inspire us.

In exhibits and other events, participants attacked both negatiye and positive stereotypes of Athens, questioning dominant notions of place, past, and identity. We can find an alternative Athenian view of the Acropolis in the chapter 'New World in the Old Place: The New Panathenaea' of the futuristic young adult novel From the Departing Wo rld to the Coming Wo rld (1935) by writer Petros Pikros (1900-56). Two young people, a Greek boy and a black girl, travel the globe in a utopian futurewhere socialism has prevailed in the world. As their flyingmachine circles the Acropolis, they find that the Parthenon has been fully repaired. After centuries of damage inflicted by Byzantines, Vene­ tians, Ottomans, English, and certain Greeks, the temple has been restored to its original form by the ruling 'universal civilization» the global regime of brotherhood. Now it occupies an eminent position in world culture but it is no longer considered the perfection or completion of anything. It is just a great page in the story of humanity. Obviously Pikros's novel belongs to science fiction. But it is remarkable that its Greek vision restores the Acropolis by the whole world for the whole world.

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