Regional Governance Architecture FES Briefing Paper February 2006 Page 1

New Powers For Global Change?

Egypt’s Foreign Policy in Global Change Role in Regional and International Politics

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Egypt’s Foreign Policy in Global Change FES Briefing Paper 11 | September 2006 Page 2

1 The Three Circles Vision countries. To avoid being involved in the East- West ideological confrontation of the , The existence of an independent government Nasser of Egypt, Tito of , Nehru of In- body that handles foreign affairs of Egypt in its dia, of , and Nkrumah of modern history started in 1826 in the age of declared in Bandung-Indonesia in 1955, Mohamed Ali, known as the founder of the the founding of the Non-Aligned Movement. modern state of Egypt. This body was first named aáï~å=çÑ=cçêÉáÖå=qê~ÇÉ=~åÇ=^ÑÑ~áêë, and The main focus of the Egyptian foreign policy in the age of Khedive Ismail, it was named the during the and 1960s was directed to táò~ê~= EãáåáëíêóF= çÑ= cçêÉáÖå= ^ÑÑ~áêë by the first ending of colonialism, help national liberation cabinet in Egypt formed in 1878. The mission of movements as well as working to initiate new this body until 1914, when Egypt was declared regional and sub-regional institutions. At that as British protectorate, was confined to dealing period of time, the Egyptian national security has with all what was ÑçêÉáÖå including commercial been traditionally defined in terms of the fear of interests and foreign treaties. With the signing western hegemony and domination expressed of the 1936 treaty with Britain, Egypt started to by different security schemes imposed on the exercise a relatively independent foreign policy Middle East like the and the Ei- devoted in its considerable part to fulfilment of senhower Doctrine. More over, the creation of complete national independence, settlement of the state of with the support of the West national problems with the outside world as well added an additional threat dimension. Another as sharing in a number of issues related to the important security dimension for Egypt has been establishment of the new world order in the the River Nile and its waters. This has been al- post-WWII era. In April 1945, Egypt participated ways expressed in terms of a firm Egyptian effectively and had distinguished contributions in stance not to allow hostile power to control the the San Francisco Conference which resulted in headwaters of the Nile or tamper with its flow the founding of the United Nations (UN) and the into Egypt. establishment of the rules of modern interna- The numerous changes in foreign policy during tional law. Without reservations, the Egyptian Anwar Al-’s era (1970-1981) go back parliament approved the UN Charter on October mostly to the consequences of his visit to Israel 11, 1948 with a majority of 94 votes against 2. and the Egyptian-Israeli peace process. Under On regional level, Egypt with other six Arab Mubarak’s rule, the Egyptian foreign policy in countries founded on March 22, 1945 the the 1990s had to handle the challenges and un- League of Arab States to serve Arab countries’ certainties of the new world order after the Cold interests and to coordinate between them in po- War. This has been manifested since the Gulf litical, social and cultural affairs. War 1991 in the rise of qÜÉ=jáÇÇäÉ=b~ëí concept The emergence of the contemporary foreign pol- as a principle domain of interaction and coop- icy of Egypt started with the July 1952 revolution eration. The importance of Egyptian-European by íÜÉ=cêÉÉ=lÑÑáÅÉêëÛ=jçîÉãÉåí under the lead- relations and their within the Euro- ership of Gamal Abdel-Nasser. Succeeded to Mediterranean Partnership (the Barcelona Proc- overthrow the monarchy in Egypt, Nasser had ess) has been recognized; and the Egyptian- laid out the parameters of new Egyptian foreign NATO relations as part of the NATO- policy in his book, qÜÉ=mÜáäçëçéÜó=çÑ=íÜÉ=oÉîçäìJ Mediterranean Dialogue. This was mirrored in íáçåI=based on the well-known qÜêÉÉ=`áêÅäÉë=mçäJ new organizational changes in the Egyptian for- áÅó=for Egypt’s outside action: the Arab circle, the eign policy apparatus and different approaches African circle and the Islamic circle. To face chal- towards issues such as environment, human lenges of the time especially from the West, it rights, civil society, scientific research, technol- was essential for Nasser to use the three circles ogy and international cooperation. The same policy for the creation of a broader strategic holds for the expansion of the Egyptian-Asian re- depth for Egypt. On the first circle, the Arab cir- lations on economic and political level. Finally, cle, Nasser advanced his project for Arab nation- the Egyptian foreign policy had to adapt once alism and unity driven by a deep conviction of more to the post 9/11 world through enhancing shared heritage and destiny. On the African cir- cooperation in terrorism issues, dialogue of cul- cle, Egypt backed African countries to achieve tures and civilization. their independence and contributed in the founding of the Organization for African Unity 2 The Middle East (OAU) in on May 25, 1963. Egypt The Egyptian foreign policy has always been sub- in addition prompted the Afro-Asian solidarity ject of strong conflicting trends. Those who ad- and enhanced its cultural relations with Islamic vocate the primacy of an African or Euro- Egypt’s Foreign Policy in Global Change FES Briefing Paper 11 | September 2006 Page 3

Mediterranean orientation have continuously clear disarmament and calling the international competed with proponents of the traditional community to draw up similar treaties for other Arab-Islamic orientation. Over the 1990s, a new continents. Egypt in addition participated in June Middle Eastern trend has received greater impe- 1998 with six other countries in issuing the min- tus based on regional security and cooperation isterial declaration on forming a new plan for framework consisting of the countries of the nuclear disarmament known as íÜÉ=kÉï=^ÖÉåÇ~= League of Arab States in addition to Israel, Tur- ^ääá~åÅÉ. key and Iran. The Egyptian experience has Some experts see that the war on in 2003 proved that giving priority to Africa and the has caused a geopolitical revolution in the Mid- Euro-Mediterranean options alone will not sat- dle East that is likely to be featured in three as- isfy Egypt’s desire for an effective external role. pects: regional power structure, the future of Considering stability in the Middle East, Egypt regional institutions and nation-building projects worked to stabilize relations not only within by external powers. For the time being, the Arab context but also within the framework of has become the strongest military non-Arab neighboring countries. Egypt, for ex- power in the Middle East, not only over the hori- ample, had a role in containing the Turkish- zon, but also on the ground. This will make tra- Syrian dispute in 1998 by making it subject of ditional power calculations and military balances dialogue and negotiations. Over the 1990s, between regional actors in the Middle East Egypt realized the importance of having stronger largely less important than before. Political acts relations with regional non-Arab countries, such by regional powers and their capacity to launch as Turkey and Iran with which Egypt has strong initiatives will prove much more important than historic and cultural ties. As far as Israel is con- their command of certain weapons systems. The cerned, promoting normalization and reconcilia- new geopolitical situation in the Middle East tion represented the focus of the Egyptian-Israeli could also suggest the reorientation of existing relations. Unfortunately, there has been always a regional and sub-regional organizations or to es- setback on this road as a result of Israeli policies tablish new ones defined by shared interests. against the and the peace process. This tendency may explain the fact that Iraq’s The assertion of Sadat that the October 1973 åÉáÖÜÄçêáåÖ= ëí~íÉë= éäìë= bÖóéí have been meet- war is the last war, still serves as a framework ing regularly since the start of the Iraqi crisis. for future relations between the two countries. Such a vision was practically materialized by The relations between Egypt and Israel have sur- Egypt’s sponsoring of the fê~è= `çåÑÉêÉåÅÉ held vived several crises and never escalated to the th in Egypt on the 25 of November 2004 with the point of complete breakdown. Egypt maintains participation of foreign ministers from Iraq, its special relations with a number of key Arab neighbors, the Group of Eight Industrialized Na- states like , and . The tions (G8) and representatives from the League roles and visions of these states are essential for of Arab States and Organization of the Islamic the peace process. Moreover, Egypt coordinates Conference. In a similar fashion, President Hosni on periodic basis with Gulf countries, , Mubarak attended in Tripoli in October 2004 the , , and . five-nation African Summit on means of resolv- A Middle East free from weapons of mass de- ing the crisis of Darfur alongside with the leaders struction has been always one of the important of Libya, Sudan, Chad, and . Egypt is also foreign policy initiatives of Egypt. This initiative a member in íÜÉ=cçêìã=Ñçê=íÜÉ=cìíìêÉ=fåáíá~íáîÉ gained success when adopted by the 35th ses- that held two summits one in Morocco, Decem- sion of the UN General Assembly with a consen- ber 2004; and the second in Bahrain in Novem- sus (1980). Meanwhile, President Mubarak pre- ber 2005. The 36-nation Forum for the Future sented in April 1990 his initiative aiming at clear- aims at promoting political, economic and social ing the Middle East from all weapons of mass reforms in the Middle East region. destruction. Since the 52nd session of the Gen- On regional level, Egypt also has a good record eral Assembly, Egypt proposed regularly a draft in disaster relief and humanitarian response mis- under the title “Transparency in Armament” sions. The ’ medical and aiming at extending the level of transparency to engineering teams stayed in Turkey several all weapons of mass destruction especially nu- months after the Earthquake that struck Turkey clear ones. Egypt also hosted in April 1996 the in 1999. Egyptian Corps of Engineers contrib- signing ceremonies of the treaty of clearing Af- uted in demining operations in Kuwait after the rica from nuclear weapons asserting through the of 1991. A similar Egyptian effort has Declaration the principles of regional nu- been provided to after the war be- Egypt’s Foreign Policy in Global Change FES Briefing Paper 11 | September 2006 Page 4

tween Israel and Hezboallah in August 2006. however, decisions to sending troops abroad did Moreover, Peacekeeping operations are likely to not arouse much controversy inside Egypt due to be a major area for mutual cooperation and con- their geographical remoteness as well as their fidence building in the Middle East. low intensity level of conflict. Such Egyptian presence in these areas opened a window of Finally, Egypt is pioneering in thinking regional opportunity for Egypt to make political, eco- infrastructure necessary to connect countries of nomic, and strategic gains. However the closest the Middle East. Building of roads and railways, perspective to the Egyptian mindset is that Egypt energy and information networks on the re- should have a role however big or small in re- gional level are vital for security and the promo- engineering its region and the world in times of tion of a regional spirit. In this regard, Egypt transition. works on networking electricity and natural gas with its neighbors. The Nile waters are now It was during that period of the nineties charac- flowing through four tunnels under the terized by active Egyptian presence outside its Canal and two new bridges were constructed borders - jointly with the US and other western over the Canal for Cars and railway transporta- and Arab allies in the Gulf, with the NATO in tion. The new railroad line represents the start- Bosnia, and under the UN flag in - that ing point for re-operating the famous=lêáÉåí=bñJ many Egyptian figures reached very prominent éêÉëë train from Cairo to Istanbul and from there posts as heads of international political and eco- to Europe and Asia. Orascom, an Egyptian giant nomic organizations; in addition to that, a large telecom group, has built mobile phone networks amount of Egypt’s debts were cancelled and in Egypt, Algeria, , Iraq, and as Egypt became a center of attention when it well as in other African countries. comes to international rewards, funding, and political support. It was also during this period 3 Sending Troops outside Egypt that Egypt partnered with other global and re- gional powers in the founding of many impor- Egypt has sent troops abroad on different occa- tant regional initiatives and multilateral agree- sions where either vital Egyptian interests were ments in the Mediterranean and in the Middle at stake, or a window of opportunity for devel- East. This period of the nineties also saw a quali- opment and growth of these interests opened, tative shift in the Egyptian armed forces reaching or sometimes for both motives combined. How- advanced levels of command, control, and ever, the decision to send Egyptian troops out- communication, in addition to establishing mili- side the country has never been an easy one tary institutions for training in the fields of since such decisions were subject to public de- peacekeeping, learning foreign languages, and bate that always led to a mix of support and re- information technology. jection. Although neither Yemen nor Kuwait have common borders with Egypt, Egyptian 4 The African Circle troops were sent to Yemen in 1962 and to Iraq during Desert Storm in 1991. The decision in The African circle has been always of importance both cases was based on the conclusion that the to Egyptian foreign policy despite its traditional size of the threat posed to Egyptian national se- inclination towards Europe and the . curity and the opportunities available to be Since July 1952 revolution, Egypt supported Af- seized require such a decision and justify it. The rican countries in their struggle to gain inde- Egyptian public in both cases of intervention was pendence from foreign occupation. Egypt also divided into two trends of thought: one sup- had a prominent role in the efforts made to es- ported sending of troops outside to protect tablish the Organization for African Unity (re- Egyptian national security at the very end of the placed by the on July 9, 2002). Red Sea and beyond in the Gulf; and the second This role was crowned by Egypt's hosting the viewed the intervention in Yemen as a harmful first African Summit Conference in Cairo on July venture that stretched the Egyptian armed forces 17-21, 1964. As a result of an Egyptian proposal, thin paving the road for the defeat of Egypt by the establishment of íÜÉ=jÉÅÜ~åáëã=Ñçê=`çåÑäáÅí= Israel in 1967; and the Egyptian participation in mêÉîÉåíáçåI= j~å~ÖÉãÉåí= ~åÇ= oÉëçäìíáçå was the Desert Storm as submission to American he- announced in the 29th African Summit held in gemony igniting Arab-Arab conflicts from which Cairo in June 1993. The Cairo Center for Train- only the United States and Israel benefited. ing on Conflict Resolution and Peacekeeping in Africa was then established in 1995. The Egyp- In the nineties, Egypt also sent troops to several tian Ministry of Foreign Affairs jointly with the hot spots around the world namely to Bosnia in Europe, and to Somalia in Africa. In such cases Egypt’s Foreign Policy in Global Change FES Briefing Paper 11 | September 2006 Page 5

Ministry of Defense prepares the training courses In 1992, Egypt joined the African Economic of the Cairo Center. Group and was chosen in May 1993 for a per- manent seat in the African Import/Export Bank. Egypt has conducted a large number of peace- Egypt has contributed to most of the African ini- keeping operations in Africa including in Congo tiatives for development, notably NEPAD. As a (-1964); Somalia (April 1992-March co-founder of NEPAD, Egypt assumes the re- 1995); Mozambique (December 1992 – Decem- sponsibility for the agricultural file where Egypt ber 1994); Rwanda (October 1993 – March exerts intensive efforts to provide the African 1996); Angola (February 1995 – 30 June 1997); products access to the global markets. During Liberia (September 1993 – September 1997) and the Algerian summit meeting of NEPAD, held in West Sahara (April 1991 to present). In Darfur, November 2004, Egypt pledged $1 million, as a since August 2004 Egypt has sent 34 military contribution to NEPAD. In addition to those ef- observers, a humanitarian airlift, a military field forts, Egypt is doing its best to activate its trade hospital and a medical convoy that has extended with African countries through 39 bilateral medical assistance to more than 500 people per agreements and also through regional African day. Egypt expressed its readiness to send a me- gatherings in which Egypt participates, such as chanical infantry division as part of the African the Indigo gathering of the Nile Basin countries; Union forces in Darfur. the institution of TecnoNile concerned with joint Stability of Sudan, Ethiopia, and other upriver cooperation between Nile countries for the best countries are central to Egyptian security policy. investment of the river's water. In 1998, Egypt played an active role in getting In 1981, Egypt established the Egyptian Fund for the ministers of water resources in the Nile Basin Technical Cooperation with Africa. This fund of- Countries to approve a new initiative for coop- fers experts and consultants of different speciali- eration among riparian states. As far as Egyp- zations to the African countries, contributes in tian-Sudanese relations are concerned, the two the rehabilitation and training of cadres working countries have formed the Higher Egyptian- in development issues particularly in sectors of Sudanese Joint Committee which approves plans special importance, such as agriculture, mining, of action for cooperation and Integration be- health, medicine, education, infrastructure etc. tween the two countries. Egypt believes that the Moreover, in the last two decades Egypt has of- post peace era in Sudan will be crucial in deter- fered support to African countries in the eco- mining its future. The Egyptian authorities have nomic, social, legal and administrative fields re- prepared studies on development projects to be lated to the process of economic reform and implemented in the South during the transitional conversion to free market economy. period in different sectors such as: electricity grids, agriculture, health, irrigation and educa- In the field of culture, President Mubarak tion. Egypt has already decided to open a branch opened in 1990 the Senghor University in Alex- of the University in Juba. Addressing andria to serve all the peoples of Africa. Further, the last Sudan Donors Conference in Oslo, Egypt it was decided that the African pledged $10 million as a grant for Sudan recon- University was to be established in Ismailia in- struction. cluding 34 colleges and institutes. Every year the Egyptian universities as well as Al-Azhar offer In the economic sphere, Egypt has a leading role scholarships and grants to hundreds of African in African developmental and economic integra- students and researchers. Egypt also offered ex- tion. In 1998, Egypt joined the Common Market pertise to African countries in the area of Radio for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), and and Television and journalism through training in 2001 it joined the Sahel and Sahara Union. sponsored by the Egyptian Ministry of Informa- Egypt has a crucial role in demanding a fair ap- tion. An estimated 30,000 to 40,000 African proach to African debts through numerous pro- students are in Egypt on scholarships in different posals forwarded in African conferences and in fields of knowledge. different world organizations. In April 2000, Egypt hosted the first African-European Summit Indeed, Egypt has been keen recently to refute where the African debts to European countries accusations that it has lost its influence in Africa came on top of the conference agenda. The and that it perceives Africa as a fourth priority German Chancellor Gerhard Schroeder an- after the Middle East, the United States, and nounced the cancellation of all German com- Europe. Cementing ties with Africa on all fronts mercial debts, while the French President Chirac has been an Egyptian foreign policy priority in declared a 90 per cent cancellation. the last couples of years. Egypt is working on developing economic and technical ties with Af- Egypt’s Foreign Policy in Global Change FES Briefing Paper 11 | September 2006 Page 6

rica and recently hosted a number of seminars the before and during the war with on trade to encourage Egyptian private sector to all associated security and logistical arrange- invest in Africa. On the political level, Egypt has ments. actively participated in dealing with the Darfur The US-Egyptian military and political coopera- crisis and in ending the Great Lakes conflicts. Al- tion is facing a vision and credibility gap and though there are other countries like South Af- much of mixing and confusion of concepts. De- rica and Nigeria that are competing with Egypt spite the mutual dependence inherent in the US- to gain an influential role in Africa, Egypt seems Egyptian relationship, the relation is not without determined to strongly come back to the African friction and strains caused by the growing dif- scene through cultivating strong ties with its ferences between Washington and Cairo on a countries in areas of civil society, education, me- range of regional and international foreign pol- dia, industry and culture. icy issues like those related to the peace process, Iraq, Sudan, WMD and ballistic missiles prolifera- 5 Relations with the US tion as well as the American political and military Egypt was described during the Clinton Admini- support to Israel. The Egyptian style in charting stration as “the most prominent player in the for itself a somewhat more independent line was Arab world and a key US ally in the Middle East”. described by some American analysts as `~áêçÛë= Egypt and the US have a convergence of inter- d~ìäáëí= ÑçêÉáÖå= éçäáÅó analogous to Paris line in ests in many areas such as maintaining regional pursuing a foreign policy independent of the US. stability, stemming radicalization and terrorism, It was clear in the last strategic dialogue held in and furthering the peace process in the Middle Washington between the two countries on Au- East. US military assistance to Egypt is consid- gust 2006, that political reform in Egypt was the ered part of the administration’s strategy of most sensitive issue on the dialogue agenda. maintaining continued availability of There is a feeling in Washington that Egypt is energy resources and providing security to the not moving fast enough towards democratiza- Suez Canal which serves both as an important tion and this creates a bad image for Egypt in international oil route and as critical route for US Washington and the West. warships transiting to the Gulf and Asia. Military cooperation, commercial and trade ties, and 6 The Euro-Mediterranean Dimension close diplomatic coordination on regional issues, Egypt as a founding member of the Euro- remained cornerstones of the bilateral relations Mediterranean Partnership (EMP) since 1995 is a between the US and Egypt. The United States major beneficiary of the EU financial and techni- and Egypt conducted the first “Bright Star” joint cal cooperation. The portfolio of the on-going military exercise in August 1983 and continued projects covers a wide range of sectors, includ- ever since to hold it periodically for infantry, air- ing private sector, social and economic devel- borne troops, artillery, and armored forces. The opment, environment, agriculture and local de- Bright Star includes beside Egypt and US military velopment. The main priorities of EU coopera- contingents from Jordan, the Gulf countries and tion with Egypt, as set out in the Country Strat- Europe. egy Paper 2002-2006 adopted by the Commis- More than $50 billion in US aid has flown into sion in December 2001, include the implementa- Egypt since 1978, contributing to a thorough tion of the EU-Egypt Association Agreement modernization of the Egyptian armed forces, as signed in 2001 to support the process of eco- well as supporting a vast array of programs nomic transition, assist regional stability and ranging from agricultural improvements to in- sustain socio-economic development. In January dustrialization and infrastructure construction. In 1st 2004, the Association Agreement between return, the US armed forces depend on Egypt for the European Union and Egypt entered into access to the Middle East and wide-range sup- force. The Agreement foresees possible joint ac- port in projecting American power into the re- tion in nearly every field of political and eco- gion and beyond in Africa and Asia. During the nomic life which is of interest to both sides such Gulf war 1991, Egypt was the second largest as: peace and , energy and trans- military contingent to the defense of the Gulf port, migration and social matters, investment countries (30,000 troops). Despite the formal and research, education and environment. opposition of Egypt to the US-led military inter- th The10 anniversary of the Euro-Mediterranean vention of March 2003 in Iraq, Egypt offered Partnership Summit held in Barcelona on 27-28 important logistical assistance to the Americans November 2005 reflected major disagreements navy most importantly the short notice transit in between Arab countries and their European Egypt’s Foreign Policy in Global Change FES Briefing Paper 11 | September 2006 Page 7

partners on the definition of terrorism and the Israel, , Morocco and Tunisia to par- persistence Arab demands for acknowledging ticipate in the initial round of the NATO- the Palestinians legitimate right to resist Israeli Mediterranean Dialogue. In November 1995, occupation. Except for and Turkey, Jordan was invited to join the Dialogue, and on none of the southern partners sent heads of 8 March 2000 Algeria accepted the Council's in- states to the summit. The speech delivered on vitation to become the 7th Dialogue country. behalf of President by the Egyp- Compared to other security cooperation initia- tian Prime Minister emphasized the tives with the US and some European countries, importance of intensifying the Euro- Egypt kept its participation in the NATO Mediter- Mediterranean partnership based on co- ranean Dialogue at low profile. ownership, mutual interests, and respect for Early perceptions in Egypt regarding relations each partner’s differences. Throughout the with NATO implied a mix of criticism and accep- meeting, Europe appeared to be seeking to tance since content and final goals of this initia- make aid to its partners conditional on domestic tive were unclear for most observers. There were reform, a position that angered many Arab also some early reactions by a conservative countries. group of analysts that see NATO as a tool for Following the summit, Ambassador Gamal Bay- potential western intervention. Others criticized oumi, one of the architects of the Egyptian role the initiative for the lack of a clear concept for in the Barcelona process, summarized the Egyp- Mediterranean security; for being selective by in- tian assessment of the Euro-Mediterranean cluding only "pro-West" countries and ignoring process 10 years after its inception by arguing others, and for its focus on soft security issues that the partnership has made progress towards that are viewed by some as instruments for intel- many of its original goals, particularly those in- ligence operations to monitor the capabilities of cluded in the financial and economic chapter. It the southern countries. Most of these percep- has provided economic support to Egypt across a tions were shaped by events related to the Mid- wide range of areas including education, health dle East peace process and flourish in time of cri- and water sanitation. Bayoumi added that the sis with Israel. The concepts of dialogue and goal of establishing a Euro-Mediterranean Free confidence building are seen by those conserva- Trade Area (EUFTA) by 2010 will benefit both tive groups as very idealistic, soft and illusive and partners. He also stressed on the importance of lead to no where. the provisions included in the cultural and social Relations between NATO and Egypt have shown chapter of the process. a great deal of progress over the year 2005. In There was no wide public debate in Egypt about October 2005, Foreign Minister Ahmed Abul- the European defense policy, yet the subject has Gheit met in Cairo with NATO deputy secretary- been raised in some workshops and seminars general Ambassador Alessandro Minuto Rizzo. among other occasions. The issue of credibility According to Abul Gheit, any progress in Egypt’s of the European defense policy is questionable relationship with NATO is conditional on the particularly in the Egyptian military circles and positive impact such progress might have on is- academics. On the public level, those who are sues vital to the Arab world, especially the Arab- traditionally anti-American welcome these de- Israeli conflict, the efforts exerted to establish an velopments and put hopes that it will be soon independent Palestine State, and Egypt’s keen- credible to counter the American unilateralism in ness to have the Middle East a nuclear free zone. international affairs, and those who are “anti- During his first visit to Egypt, October 2005, the west” see these developments as threat to Arabs NATO Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer and Moslems. In general terms, it is believed in said that NATO can cooperate with Egypt in ar- Egypt that the European Defense Policy will give eas of fighting terrorism and proliferation of the EU a more effective international role. weapons of mass destruction. The NATO Coop- eration Initiative with the Gulf countries has 7 Relations with NATO been perceived in some circles in Egypt as NATO tending to divide the Arab world into Arab Gulf At Brussels Summit in January 1994, the NATO countries and Mediterranean Arab states. Com- Heads of State and Government called for con- pared to some other Dialogue countries such as sidering measures to promote dialogue, under- Israel, Morocco, and Algeria that participated re- standing, and confidence-building between the cently with NATO in joint training, Egypt is still Alliance and the countries of southern and east- cautious and hesitant in enhancing its relations ern Mediterranean. As a result, on 8 February with NATO. 1995, the North Atlantic Council invited Egypt, Egypt’s Foreign Policy in Global Change FES Briefing Paper 11 | September 2006 Page 8

8 East of the Arab world pervise the truce ordered by the Security Council at the end of the first Arab-Israeli war in which Only late in the 1980’s, the Asian continent Egypt had participated. The term mÉ~ÅÉâÉÉéáåÖT started to gain prominence in Egyptian foreign did not enter popular use until 1956 when the policy. Before that, Asia as a continent was not erupted between Egypt on one side central to the 1952 regime, although Egypt had and Israel, France and Great Britain on the other strong relations with individual nations, such as side. The crisis prompted Lester B. Pearson, then Nehru’s or Sukarno’s Indonesia within the Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs framework of the Non-Aligned Movement. Over and later Prime Minister of Canada, to propose the past 15 years, a growing interest in Egyp- the deployment of an international peace force tian-Asian relations became apparent. Political under the UN flag (the first United Nations motives for this interest have varied, but eco- Emergency Force – UNEF 1, 1956). Since that nomic considerations have remained a constant time the UN peacekeeping operations have factor. Reasons of Egypt’s recent interest in Asia evolved worldwide, where Egypt participated in are: the possibility of emulating the Asian eco- a number of UN contingences in different places nomic tigers experience including successes and of Africa and outside. setbacks; the presence of an economic super- power like Japan in the region; enhancing trade Egypt, like most developing countries, is a be- and investment ties with new partners; and fi- liever in the UN and its important role in promot- nally to adapt to changes on international arena ing justice, security and development in the in order to balance politically Egypt’s relations world. Egypt signed the statute of International with the United States and Europe. Court of Justice on the 18th of July 1957, the In- ternational Agreement for Eliminating all Forms There are many indications that several major of Racial Discrimination in 1967, and endorsed Asian powers like , Japan and India will the agreement of Eliminating all Forms of Dis- soon occupy a pivotal place in world economy crimination against Women in September 1981. and politics, a reality currently in the making that st Egypt hosted the International Conference on will develop during the 21 century. This factor Population and Development (ICPD) in Septem- prompted many political analysts to describe the st ber 1994 and the International Conference on 21 century as the Asian or Pacific century. Natu- the Prevention of Crime and Treatment of Of- rally, Egypt must take such important changes fenders (ICPCTO) in May 1995. A constructive into account in formulating its future strategy role had been played by Egypt in drawing up the for growth and peace. India and China will be- legal system of the international maritime law come increasingly important sources for interna- which defines the authorities of coastal countries tional tourism in the next 20 years. It is esti- in relation to nearby sea areas, and also took mated that by 2020, 150 million Chinese tourists part in the proceedings of the Committee of the will travel overseas annually, while India will be Peaceful Exploitation of the Sea-bed. This long sending 100 million travelers. Egypt is thinking list of achievements will not be complete with- how to attract a good sum of this amount of out mentioning Mr. Botrous Botrous- Ghali, the tourists given the fact that Egypt has excellent former UN Secretary General and former Egyp- relations with the two countries. tian Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, and his leadership of the UN organization from 1992- 9 Egypt and the United Nations 1996; and the awarding of the IAEA and Dr. When the United Nations was established in Mohamed El-Baradei – a former Egyptian diplo- 1945, only four independent= African countries mat- the Nobel Peace Prize in 2005. were among the founding members during the People tend to speak more about UN peace San Francisco conference: Egypt, Ethiopia, Libe- work than about its development work. This im- ria and South Africa. However, the winds of balance does not do justice to the many UN change blew across the continent and the colo- agencies that spend significant sums of money, nial powers had not been able to continue for- time and energy each year in pursuit of coun- ever dominating other nations, especially after tries' progress. Concern for this was a major im- the adoption of the Universal Declaration of petus for the UN reform process initiated in the Human Rights by the United Nations in 1948. 1990s. A central tool of that reform has been The Egyptian political legacy with the UN after rd the creation of the common country UN plan, the 23 of July 1952 revolution started with the known as íÜÉ= råáíÉÇ= k~íáçåë= aÉîÉäçéãÉåí= ^ëJ first UN peacekeeping operation, namely the ëáëí~åÅÉ= cê~ãÉïçêâ= çê= rka^c, whose basic United Nations Truce Supervision Organization premise is to combine strengths of UN agencies (UNTSO) created in Palestine in May 1948 to su- Egypt’s Foreign Policy in Global Change FES Briefing Paper 11 | September 2006 Page 9

in serving its projects in a specific country. On 28 western countries to use the report as a basis for March 2006, the second UNDAF in Egypt was demanding Arab countries to start reforming signed marking the beginning of a new period their political and economic systems. The report of collaboration between the UN and Egypt that generated a wide debate in the Arab world by will begin in January 2007 and extend to 2011. its supporters and its opponents. The supporters The plan identifies the country's main develop- thought that the report explicitly expresses the ment challenges and sets time-bound goals to reality of the Arab world and the need for re- address them. The UNDAF's main role is to help form, while the opponents perceived the report improve their lives in line with their as pretext for justifying intervention in the Arab own self-identified needs and goals. Broadly affairs. The first Arab Human Development Re- speaking, it is based on the principles laid out in port concentrated on three crucial areas that the United Nations Charter and subsequent in- would need to be reformed if the Arab countries ternationally recognized development targets, really care about progress. These areas are politi- such as the Millennium Development Goals, to cal freedom, the educational system, and the which Egypt is a signatory. The UNDAF is distinct status of women. The third UN Arab Human De- in that it is home grown. It reflects the national velopment Report was released in April 2005 priorities of the country and is developed in close under the title: qÜÉ=qáãÉ=Ü~ë=`çãÉW=^=`~ää=Ñçê= consultation with a wide range of Egyptian part- cêÉÉÇçã= ~åÇ= dççÇ= dçîÉêå~åÅÉ= áå= íÜÉ= ^ê~Ä= ners in government, civil society, business, aca- tçêäÇ. The report’s assessment of freedom and demia and the media. governance in Arab societies practically mirrors some of the discussions and debates currently The United Nations Development Program taking place in the region. The report also ar- (UNDP) that the UN has undertaken since the gues that despite claims of promoting democ- early 1990s comes on the top of the list of UN racy in the region, the US has also hampered contributions to assist development in Egypt. democratic progress via its bias towards Israel, its The central instrument in this endeavor was the war on Iraq, and a long array of security meas- series of Üìã~å= ÇÉîÉäçéãÉåí= êÉéçêíë= EeaoF, ures that primarily affect Arabs. which were first published in 1994 nationally and in 2003 at the sub-national level. The main Egypt follows closely the current debate at the goal of these reports was putting people back at United Nations over enlarging the Security the centre of the development process; and cre- Council. Egypt's stand in this respect is governed ating an environment to enlarge people's by the Declaration by the African Summit in Ha- choices. Fundamental to enlarging these choices rari 1997, requesting two permanent seats and is building human capabilities. This was strong five non-permanent seats for Africa. In this re- reason for the UNDP Egypt to form a think tank spect, at the 2000 and 2004 inaugural sessions group to examine ways to conceptualize a peo- of the United Nations General Assembly, Egypt ple-centered approach to development that declared herself qualified to shoulder the re- should be environmentally, socially and finan- sponsibility of her permanent membership in the cially sustainable. Formed in 1991, the think Council. The Egyptian move draws on Egypt's tank brought together an eminent group of regional role, her contribution to the United Na- Egyptian intellectuals of diverse ideological and tions' budget and the peace-keeping operations spiritual backgrounds. The group concluded that of the organization as well as her role in the Af- conditions in Egypt provided enough reason to rican, Arab and Islamic frameworks. This renders justify a new paradigm: íÜÉ=Üìã~å=ÇÉîÉäçéãÉåí= Egypt's accession to the permanent membership ~ééêç~ÅÜ. Since the first report in 1994, eight of the Council a guarantee of the representation other National HDRs have been published, bring- of all these cultures and civilizations in the ing different development topics in Egypt to the enlarged council. forefront of policy debates.

th 10 Is Egypt still a Leading Regional Following the events of September 11 and the Power? subsequent linking of the terrorist attack with Arabs and Moslems, many demands came up In an interview with Amr Moussa in October calling for reforming the Arab and Islamic worlds. 1998, then Egypt’s Minister of Foreign Affairs, A joint report of the United Nations and the he was asked whether Egypt is capable of re- Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development gaining the position it held in the 1960s as the on ^ê~Ä= eìã~å= aÉîÉäçéãÉåí first appeared in uncontested leading regional power. His answer 2002 clearly highlighting this link and created was that Egypt’s regional role in the 1990s can the opportunity for the United States and the not be assessed by the criteria of the 1960s, Egypt’s Foreign Policy in Global Change FES Briefing Paper 11 | September 2006 Page 10

since the facts and the challenges are different. Economically, Egypt is striving to raise its com- He then stressed that Egypt’s regional role petitiveness. The Egyptian Competitiveness Re- should drive from interaction, partnership and port (ECR) published recently by the Egyptian the establishment of common interests with National Competitiveness Council in 2006 shows other countries not by the imposition of will. notable improvements in Egypt’s competitive- This new criteria for judging the success or fail- ness rankings reflecting the impact of significant ure of the Egyptian foreign policy during the economic reforms taking place in Egypt. It 1990s and beyond has been founded on its real- jumped from 81st to 50th place in the Global istic vision for the region and the world at large Competitiveness Index. Indeed, a new environ- and its ability to seize opportunities and address ment has been created to encourage domestic challenges. Some analysts believe that radicalism and foreign investment based on reforms made which characterized Egypt’s foreign policy in the through reducing inflation, freeing the exchange fifties and sixties was a product of ideologies rate, lowering taxations and tariffs, simplifying that possessed a distorted vision of the world business start-up procedures and registering and influenced by both an ultra-nationalist trend property, financial access, developing the stock and an authoritarian leadership seeking to wield market and reducing the paperwork related to power domestically and on the Arab world. export and imports. Over the last decade, Egypt has succeeded in Globally, Egypt, with its geographic location in formulating a foreign policy attuned to its per- the center of the Arab and Islamic world, its ception of reality on the grounds that its na- heritage in founding the international system, its tional interests are best served by integration size of population, and its peaceful international into the world order, rather than by isolation or relations based on mutual respect between the pursuit of conflict. Egypt is one of only a few countries and cultures, is destined to play a cen- African countries to have representation in the tral role between the Islamic world and the West World Trade Organization (WTO) and hence ne- in order to diffuse the current polarization and gotiating ability to stand against protectionist misperception shaping the global scene. policies. It is with this conviction that Egypt is ^Äçìí=íÜÉ=~ìíÜçêW= steering its foreign policy in order to play a posi- tive role on the regional and global level. j~àK=dÉåK=EêÉíKF=aêK=jçÜ~ãÉÇ=h~Çêó=p~áÇI=jáäáJ í~êó=^ÇîáëçêI=^äJ^Üê~ã=`ÉåíÉê=Ñçê=mçäáíáÅ~ä=~åÇ=

píê~íÉÖáÅ=píìÇáÉëI=`~áêçI=bÖóéíK= ãâ~Çêó]~Üê~ãKçêÖKÉÖ=ö= ïïïK~Üê~ãKçêÖKÉÖL~Åéëë = = qÜÉ=cbp=ÜçäÇë=~=ëÉêáÉë=çÑ=êÉÖáçå~ä=Çá~äçÖìÉë=ÇÉJ îçíÉÇ=íç=íÜÉ=åÉï=ÑçêÉáÖå=éçäáÅó=êçäÉ=éä~óÉÇ=Äó=~= åìãÄÉê= çÑ= âÉó= ÅçìåíêáÉë= áå= ^ëá~I= i~íáå= ^ãÉêáÅ~= ~åÇ=^ÑêáÅ~=E?kÉï=mçïÉêë=cçê=däçÄ~ä=`Ü~åÖÉ\F?I= íÜÉáê=ëíê~íÉÖáÉë=Ñçê=íÜÉ=êÉÖáçå~ä=~åÇ=ÖäçÄ~ä=çêÇÉê= ~åÇ=éÉêÅÉéíáçåë=çÑ=ÖÉçéçäáíáÅ~ä=ÅÜ~åÖÉ=áå=íÜÉëÉ= ÅçìåíêáÉëI==áå=dÉêã~åó=~åÇ=íÜÉ=bìêçéÉ~å=råáçåK= qÜáë=é~éÉê=áë=íÜÉ=ëÉÅçåÇ=áå=~=ëÉêáÉë=çÑ=_êáÉÑáåÖ= m~éÉêëI=ÅçåíêáÄìíáåÖ=áåëáÖÜíë=Ñêçã=É~ÅÜ=çÑ=íÜÉ== “kÉï=mçïÉêëÒK= Egypt’s Foreign Policy in Global Change FES Briefing Paper 11 | September 2006 Page 11

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