Russian Federation Policy in the United Nations Security Council (Unsc): Solving Syrian Conflict (2015 – 2018)

RUSSIAN FEDERATION POLICY IN THE UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL (UNSC): SOLVING SYRIAN CONFLICT (2015 – 2018)

By SELLYANI RAHMAN 016201400157

A thesis presented to Faculty of Humanities President University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for Bachelor’s Degree in International Relations Major Concentration in Diplomacy Studies

May 2019

ABSTRACT

Sellyani Rahman, 016201400157, Russian Federation Efforts in The United Nations Security Council (UNSC): Ending Syria Conflict (2014-2018)

Adviser: Hendra Manurung, S.IP., M.A.

Russian Federation or known as Russia, is one of the super powers in the world so that its movement and foreign policy attracts the world’s attention. Russia is a country that has close relations with Syria. The relations between Russia and Syria has been lasting since 1905. Syria is a country located on the Continent of Asia, precisely in West Asia, which is usually called the Middle East region.

Formerly, Syria was a safe and secure country before the civil war conflict that occurred in Syria appeared in 2011. Russia, as one of the countries that has close relations with Syria obviously does not keep silence watching Syria conflict. Russia has made efforts to resolve the Syrian conflict. These efforts are made through the Russian Federation's policy in the United Nations Security Council's (UNSC) decision.

This thesis will discuss the Russian Federation's policy efforts in the United Nations Security Council decision (UNSC) in resolving the Syrian conflict (2015- 2018).

Keywords: Russian Federation, Super Power, Syria, Asia, Middle East, UNSC

ABSTRAK

Sellyani Rahman, 016201400157, Upaya Federasi Rusia Dalam Dewan Keamanan Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (PBB): Mengakhiri Konflik Suriah (2015-2018)

Dosen Pembimbing: Hendra Manurung, S.IP., M.A.

Federasi Rusia atau dikenal dengan sebutan Rusia, merupakan salah satu Negara super power di dunia sehingga pergerakan dan kebijakan politik luar negerinya menarik perhatian dunia. Rusia merupakan Negara yang memiliki kedekatan dengan Suriah. Kedekatan tersebut telah berlangsung sejak tahun 1905. Suriah merupakan Negara yang terletak di Benua Asia, tepatnya di Asia Barat yang biasanya disebut dengan kawasan Timur Tengah. Dahulu, Suriah merupakan Negara yang aman dan tenteram sebelum konflik perang saudara yang terjadi di Suriah muncul pada tahun 2011. Rusia, sebagai salah satu Negara yang memiliki kedekatan dengan Suriah, tentunya tidak berdiam diri menyaksikan konflik Suriah. Rusia telah melakukan upaya-upaya dalam menyelesaikan konflik Suriah. Upaya-upaya tersebut dilakukan melalui kebijakan Federasi Rusia dalam keputusan Dewan Keamanan Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (DK PBB). Thesis ini akan membahas upaya kebijakan Federasi Rusia dalam keputusan Dewan Keamanan Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (DK PBB) dalam menyelesaikan konflik Suriah (2015-2018).

Kata kunci: Federasi Rusia, Super Power, Suriah, Asia, Timur Tengah, DK PBB

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

My first gratitude goes to Allah SWT for giving me strength to finish this thesis. My deepest thanks goes to my beloved mother, thank you for taking care of me since I was only a small baby. It is sad that I cannot see you anymore. However, I do really hope that you are placed in the most beautiful place somewhere in heaven. This thesis is presented for you, Mom. I would also like to say thank you to my beloved father as he has been working every day to support my education. My fourth thanks goes to my little brother for always entertaining me through his jokes. A very special thank you goes to Mr. Hendra Manurung, thank you for being very patient in guiding me to finish my thesis. Thank you to all International Relations Lecturers of President University, without all of you, I will not be able to finish my thesis as you guys have given me a very precious knowledge. Another thank you goes to my university friends. Thank you Roro Ayu Junita Pradini, Steven Wijaya, Vanessa Azilina, and Rima Adisti Usman for always being by my side during my study in the past 4 years. Thank you Verdya Maria Josefine, Aristia Wulandari, Maria Kaemong, Dini Nur Aisyah, Nia Anggraeni and Anita Evianti for being amazing roommates, I will be missing the moments we spent together so much!! Thank you to Mr and Miss President University Foundation for being such a very meaningful organization and for giving me second home during my study. Thank you to Maria Angriani for being such a very fun college friend, thank you for always listening to my stories. I would also like to say thank you to my best friends since I was in Junior High School: Nurviana Devi Safitri, Nursyarifah Diah Wulandari, Aini Adzkanursyahra, Fadhliyah Tania, Prita Ciptaningtyas, Nadilah Kathania, Anjani Yuliandika, thank you for being my loyal friends. The one who is always very helpful in anything, Rifa Arifah! Rif, thank you very much, you are the best of the best! Kamelia Hasanah, Annisa Rahmawati and Vira Reviana, you guys are also the best and thank you for being such fun friends since we were in Senior High School. Thank you PT Plaza Indonesia Realty, Tbk

for giving me the opportunity to do internship as one of requirements to graduate from the university where I study. Thank you Mrs. Stella Kohdong, Mrs. Vera Basauli, Mrs. Dorin Lingga, Mrs. Karina Eva Poetry, Mrs. Wida Widiyanti, Mrs. Tiar Mitha, Mrs. Sisil Aditawan, Ms. Rieska Ritonga and Mr. Andi Syarifudin for the knowledge during my internship, thank you for always encouraging me to finish my thesis. Thank you Kristy, Lingga, Stephen, Arnold, Kezia, Linggar, Bella, Widia, Manda and Silvi for filling my internship months with jokes and laughters. It was very fun to have met you guys. Last but not least, thank you to Putra Riyadi for always being there for me during my ups and downs. Thank you for always being the one who is willing to accompany me everywhere including finding data for thesis. I do really appreciate it.

Cikarang, May 2019

Sellyani Rahman

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Table of Contents

THESIS ADVISER RECOMMENDATION LETTER ...... i

PANEL OF EXAMINER APPROVAL SHEET……………………………………... ii

DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY …………...... iii

ABSTRACT ...... iv

ABSTRAK ...... v

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ...... vi

TABLE OF CONTENT ...... viii

LIST OF TABLE………..………………………………………………………………… xi

LIST OF FIGURE ...... xii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... xiii

CHAPTER I…………………………………………………………………………………… 1

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

I.1. Background ...... 1

I.2. Problem of Statement ...... 5

I.3. Research Question ...... 7

I.4. Research Objective...... 7

I.5. Theoretical Framework ...... 8

I.5.1. Realism ...... 8 I.5.2. National Interest ...... 10 I.5.3. Regional Security ...... 12

I.6. Scope and Limitation ...... 14

I.7. Literature Review ...... 15

I.8. Research Methodology ...... 20

I.8.1. Research Method...... 20

I.8.2. Research Instrument ...... 21

I.9. Definition of Term ...... 21

I.10. Thesis Structure………………………………………………………………. 22

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CHAPTER II ...... 24

RUSSIAN FEDERATION INTERESTS IN THE UNITED NATIONS SECURITYCOUNCIL (UNSC) ...... 24

II.1. Russian Federation and The Creation of United Nations (UN) ...... 24

II.2. Russian Federation As a Permanent Member of United Nations Security Council (UNSC) ...... 28

II.3. Russian Federation Strategic Interests in The United Nations Security Council ...... 30

CHAPTER III ...... 34

RUSSIAN FEDERATION – SYRIA RELATIONS ...... 34

III.1. The Beginning of Russian Federation – Syria Bilateral Relations ... 34

III.2. Russian Federation – Syria Economic Relations ...... 38

III.3. Russian Federation – Syria Security Relations ...... 40

III.4. Russian Federation Interests Among Syria ...... 40

CHAPTER IV ...... 43

RUSSIAN FEDERATION EFFORTS IN THE UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL DECISION TO ENDING SYRIA CONFLICT ...... 43

IV.1. The Beginning of Syria Conflict ...... 43

IV.2. Actors Involved in Syria Conflict……………………………………… 54

IV.3 United Nations Security Council in Solving Syria Conflict……… 67

IV.4. Russian Federation Efforts in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC): Ending Syria Conflict (2015 – 2018)……...... 70

IV.4.1 Russian Federation and Its Veto Power on United Nations Security Council: Ending Syria Conflict(2015 – 2018) ...... 71

IV.5. Syria Conflict Progression ...... 80

CHAPTER V ...... 83

CONCLUSION ...... 83

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 86

APPENDIX…………………………………………………………………………………… 96

LIST OF TABLE

CHAPTER 4

Table 4.1 Vetoes used by Russian Federation to end Syria Conflict in 2016…….. 74

Table 4.2 Vetoes used by Russian Federation to end Syria Conflict in 2017…….. 75

Table 4.3 Vetoes used by Russian Federation to end Syria Conflict in 2018…...... 79

LIST OF FIGURE

CHAPTER I

Figure 1.1 Researcher theoretical framework………………………………………….. 8

CHAPTER II

Figure 2.1 August 1941 - The Atlantic Charter (UN Photo) ………………………...25

Figure 2.2 August 1944 – Dumbarton Oaks Conversations………………………….26

CHAPTER III

Figure 3.1 Figure 3.1 The 10 Largest Arms Exporters, 2012-2016...... 41

CHAPTER IV

Figure 4.1 Number of resolutions vetoed by each of the five permanent members

of the Security Council between 1946 and 2018…………………………. 73

Figure 4.2 Large Explosion of Missile Attack in Syria 30 April, 2018……………. 82

xii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CWC : Chemicals Weapons Convention

EU : European Union

FSA : Free Syrian Army

FSU : Former Soviet Union

ISIS : Islamic State of Iraq and Syria

ISSG : International Syria Support Group

NATO : North Atlantic Treaty Organization

OPCW : Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons

PRC : People’s Republic of China

RSCT : Regional Security Complex Theory

SCPR : Syrian Center for Policy Research

SIPRI : Stockholm International Peace Research Institute

SNC : Syrian National Council

SNCORF : Syrian National Council for Opposition and Revolutionary Forces

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SOHR : Syrian Observatory for Human Rights

UK : United Kingdom

UN : United

UNGA : United Nations General Assembly

UNHCR : United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

UNOCHA : United Nations Office for The Coordinators of Humanitarian Affair

UNSC : United Nations Security Council

UNSMIS : United Nations Supervision Mission in Syria

USSR : Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

I.1. Background

Russia (official name: Russian Federation) is the largest country in the world which extends over two continents, Europe and Asia.1 Russian Federation known for its close relations with Syria far before the conflict of Syria firstly happened.2 During the Cold War (1947–1991), Syria was an ally to the Soviet Union in opposition to the Western powers, and a stronger political bond grew.3 Throughout the history, Syria conflict has been lasted since Bashar al-Assad has ruled Syria in 2000, when his father passed away following 30 years in charge.4 An anti-regime uprising that started in March 2011 has spiraled into civil war.5 Russia is also a member of ISSG (International Syria Support Group).6 The International Syria Support Group (ISSG) is a working group formed to find a Diplomatic solution to the Syria crisis.7 The ISSG is co-chaired by the US and Russia, and was established during the 'Vienna Talks' in the fall of 2015.8 The 19 founding ISSG members were China, Egypt, EU, France, Germany, Iran, Iraq, Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, UAE, UK, UN and the US. Membership has since expanded to include the Arab League,

1 Ziegler, Charles E. The History of Russia, 1. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2009. 2 Scheller, Bente. The Wisdom of Syria's Waiting Game: Foreign Policy Under the Assads, 206. London: Hurst, 2014. 3 Trenin, Dmitri, “Russia's Line in the Sand on Syria: Why Moscow Wants To Halt the Arab Spring” Foreign Affairs.com. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/syria/2012-02-05/russias-line-sand-syria accessed on June 3 2018 4 Perthes, Volker. Syria Under Bashar Al-Asad: Modernization and the Limits of Change, 7. New York, NY: Routledge, 2006 5 Goldsmith, Leon T. Cycle of Fear: Syria's Alawites in War and Peace, 1. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015. 6 United Nations, “Note to Correspondents: Statement of the International Syria Support Group” https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2016-05-17/note-correspondents-statement- international-syria-support accessed on March 12, 2018 7 Ibid 8 Ibid

Australia, Canada, Japan, Netherlands, Organization of Islamic Cooperation, and Spain.9 The ISSG's initial efforts produced a set of common principles in line with the 2012 Geneva Communique.10 They also established a timeline beginning in January 2016 for diplomatic negotiations between the Syrian government and opposition, the start of a political transition within six months, and election within 18 months.11 The UN Security Council (UNSC) endorsed this strategy in December 2015 with the adoption of Resolution 2254: “Reiterating that the only sustainable solution to the current crisis in Syria is through an inclusive and Syrian-led political process that meets the legitimate aspirations of the Syrian people, with a view to full implementation of the Geneva Communique of 30 June 2012 as endorsed by resolution 2118 (2013), including through the establishment of an inclusive transitional governing body with full executive powers, which shall be formed on the basis of mutual consent while ensuring continuity of governmental institutions”.

It is also stated on the Resolution 2254: “urging all parties to the UN-facilitated political process to adhere to the principles identified by the ISSG, including commitments to Syria's unity, independence, territorial institutions, to protecting the rights of all Syrians, regardless of ethnicity or religious denomination, and to ensuring humanitarian access throughout the century”.12

After a rushed effort to get the parties to the negotiating table in Geneva quickly fell apart in January 2016, the ISSG reconvened in Munich to focus on improving the situation inside of Syria before trying again.13 On February 11, the ISSG announced that its members would exercise "their influence with all parties on the ground" to facilitate humanitarian access and to start a nationwide Cessation of Hostilities (CoH).14 By placing unprecedented pressure on both parties, the US and Russia managed to achieve limited progress on getting aid delivered to besieged areas and a marked

9 United Nations, “Note to Correspondents: Statement of the International Syria Support Group” https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2016-05-17/note-correspondents-statement- international-syria-support accessed on March 12, 2018 10 Ibid 11 Ibid 12 Security Council Report, “Resolution 2254 (2016)” https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3- CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/s_res_2254.pdf accessed on March 12 2018 13 United Nations, “Security Council Endorses Syria Cessation of Hostilities Accord, Unanimously Adopting Resolution 2268 (2016)” https://www.un.org/press/en/2016/sc12261.doc.htm accessed on March 12, 2018 14 Ibid

reduction of violence. The Syrian government and 97 armed Syrian opposition groups agreed to the CoH, which came into effect on February 27, 2016 at 00:00 Damascus time as stated on Resolution 2268 (2016):

“Endorses in full the Joint Statement of the United States and Russian Federation, as Co-Chairs of the ISSG, on Cessation of Hostilities in Syria of 22 February 2016 and the Terms for the Cessation of Hostilities in Syria (hereafter referred to as “the Annex”) attached to the Statement, and demands the cessation of hostilities to begin at 00:00 (Damascus time) on 27 February 2016”.15

Since the relations between Russian Federation and Syria has been lasted from the Cold War (1947 – 1991), it is very possible for Russia to help Syria in solving Syria conflict (2015 – 2018) through Russia’s policy in United Nations Security Council.

I.2. Statement of Problem

The close relations between Russian Federation and Syria cannot be separated from the policy used by Russian Federation in United Nations Security Council (UNSC). Russia Federation itself agreed to form a constitutional committee comprising the Government of the Syrian Arab Republic delegation along with wide-represented opposition delegation for drafting of a constitutional reform as a contribution to the political settlement under the UN auspices in accordance with Security Council Resolution 2254.16 To formulate policies overseas, Russia is concerned about the geographical position and the possible expansion of the United States and NATO perceived as a threat capable of changing the world order.17 Syria has a strategic geographic position for Russia. Its location in the Middle East and its political proximity to Russia are considered capable of stemming the United States power which assumed as a threat

15 United Nations Docs, “Resolution 2268 (2016)” https://undocs.org/pdf?symbol=en/S/RES/2268(2016) accessed on March 12, 2018 16The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russian Federation, “Final statement of the Congress of the Syrian national dialogue, Sochi, January 30, 2018” http://www.mid.ru/en/web/guest/foreign_policy/news/- /asset_publisher/cKNonkJE02Bw/content/id/3046246 accessed on March 12 2018 17 NATO, “NATO-Russia relations: the facts” https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_111767.htm accessed on March 12, 2018

and the arrival of the United States in Syria is something that Russia does not expect due to its possibility in shifting Russia's relations with Syria.18 Russia is also the largest exporter of military equipment to Syria from 2010 to 2013.19 In addition to Syria as a market for Russia in military arms affairs, Syria is also a Russian market in trade in other commodities such as gas and raw materials in the Middle East and North Africa region.20 On 15 September 2015, in Dushanbe at a meeting of the Russian-led Collective Security Treaty Organization, Putin called for a united, international effort together with Syria to fight the threat of ISIL but also said that Syrian President Assad "is ready to integrate the same [healthy] part of the opposition into the state's administration".21 On 27 September 2015, President Vladimir Putin stated, in an interview with CBS's '60 Minutes': "More than 2,000 terrorist-fighters from Russia and ex-Soviet republics are in the territory of Syria. There is a threat of their return to us. So, instead of waiting for their return, we are helping President al-Assad fight them".22 In the United Nations General Assembly, 28 September 2015, President Putin seemed to lay at least part of the responsibility for the Syrian Civil War with unnamed powers that had been "pushing" for "democratic revolution" in Syria: “Russia has always been firm and consistent in opposing terrorism in all its forms. Today, we provide military and technical assistance both to Iraq and Syria that are fighting terrorist groups. We think it is an enormous mistake to refuse to cooperate with the Syrian government and its Armed Forces ... We should finally acknowledge that no one but President Assad's Armed Forces and Kurd militia are truly fighting the Islamic State and other terrorist organizations in Syria”.23

18 George, Friedman – Geo Political Future, “Russia Strategy Built Illusion” https://geopoliticalfutures.com/russias-strategy-built-illusion/ accessed March 12 2018 19 Reuters, “Insight: Syria pays for Russian weapons to boost ties with Moscow” https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-russia-arms-insight/insight-syria-pays-for-russian-weapons-to- boost-ties-with-moscow-idUSBRE97S0WW20130829 accessed on March 12 2018 20 Anderson, Paul (2019): Beyond Syria’s war economy: Trade, migration and state formation across Eurasia: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1879366518814657 21 IBP, Inc. Russia Today. Atlas for Business and Political Decision Makers - Strategic Information and Developments, 118. Morrisville: Lulu.com, 2016. 22 Rose, Charlie. "All Eyes on Putin." Live, Breaking News Today: Latest National Headlines, World News and More from CBSNews.com and Watch the CBSN Live News Stream 24x7. Last modified September 27, 2015. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/vladimir-putin-russian-president-60-minutes-charlie-rose/. 23 General Assembly of the United Nations, "Russian Federation." https://gadebate.un.org/en/70/russian- federation . Accessed on June 13, 2019.

Putin again called for cooperation with the Syrian government in fighting terrorism: "we should acknowledge that no-one except for Assad and his militia are truly fighting Isis in Syria.24 On September 30, in response to the request of the Syrian leadership, President Putin asked for and obtained the consent of the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation to use the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation in Syria. It would consist exclusively in the operation of the Russian Air Force to strike at ISIS positions in Syria.25 Russia continues to assist Syrians in the restoration of a lasting peace and stability in Syria and to strengthen its sovereignty, unity and territorial integrity. The Syrian Army, fought with support from the Russian Air Force, had succeeded in defeating ISIS who attempted to turn the country into an international terrorism base area. The Astana format launched by Russia, Turkey and Iran has been created to maintain the ceasefire in Syria, to improve the humanitarian situation. Therefore, Russia needs to start restoring the ruined social and economic infrastructure and to build up trust among Syrians.26 These efforts towards Syria done by Russia cannot be separated with its foreign policy which approved by President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin on November 30, 2016. Article IV no.93 of its current foreign policy shows how Russian Federation stands for a political settlement in Syria: IV. Regional Foreign Policy Priorities of the Russian Federation 93. Russia stands for a political settlement in the Syrian Arab Republic and the possibility for the people of Syria to determine their future based on the Geneva communiqué of June 30, 2012, statements by the International Syria Support Group and relevant UN Security Council resolutions. Russia supports the unity, independence and territorial integrity of the Syrian Arab Republic as

24 General Assembly of the United Nations, "Russian Federation." https://gadebate.un.org/en/70/russian- federation . Accessed on June 13, 2019. 25 Ibid 26 The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russian Federation, “Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov’s opening remarks at a plenary meeting of the Syrian National Dialogue Congress, Sochi, January 30, 2018” http://www.mid.ru/en/diverse/-/asset_publisher/zwI2FuDbhJx9/content/vystuplenie-ministra-inostrannyh-del-s- v-lavrova-na-otkrytii-plenarnogo-zasedania-kongressa-sirijskogo-nacional-nogo-dialoga-soci-30-anvara-2018- goda?_101_INSTANCE_zwI2FuDbhJx9_redirect=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mid.ru%2Fen%2Fdiverse%3Fp_p_i d%3D101_INSTANCE_zwI2FuDbhJx9%26p_p_lifecycle%3D0%26p_p_state%3Dnormal%26p_p_mode%3D view%26p_p_col_id%3Dcolumn-1%26p_p_col_pos%3D2%26p_p_col_count%3D6 accessed on March 12 2018 Accessed on June 13, 2019

a secular, democratic and pluralistic State with all ethnic and religious groups living in peace and security and enjoying equal rights and opportunities.27 The above paragraphs help understand the perceived international context in which Russia’s foreign policy unfolds. This research intends to look Russian Federation policies that have been implemented by the Russian Federation on UNSC decision for solving Syria conflict (2015-2018) and come with a research question that should be elaborated:  What policies have been used by Russian Federation in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) in solving Syria conflict (2015-2018)?

I.3. Research Question

 What policies have been used by Russian Federation in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) in solving Syria conflict (2015-2018)?

I.4. Research Objective

The significance of the Study in the case of chosen topic is to understand the policy of Russian Federation in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) to solve Syria Conflict (2015-2018).

I.5. Theoretical Framework

As conflicts in the Middle East worsen and western states scramble to send both military and humanitarian aid, Russia sees an opportunity to gain back some international influence and power in the region.28 A long-time ally of Bashar al-Assad, the president of Syria, Vladimir Putin is urging the international community to support the Syrian government despite its ongoing violent civil war.29 Although Putin and Assad are allies, Putin’s efforts are not completely self-less. Putin should be seen as a realist leader, embodying many traits valued by realist international relations theorists. Russia’s actions in Syria, including supplying the government with arms and

27The Embassy of Russian Federation to United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Island, "THE FOREIGN POLICY CONCEPT OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION." https://www.rusemb.org.uk/rp_insight/. Accessed June 10, 2019. 28 Çakmak, Cenap, and Ali O. Özçelik. The World Community and the Arab Spring, 177. Basingstoke: Springer, 2018. 29 Ibid

deploying troops to the region, have alarmed many western nations, including the U.S.30

Neorealism

Figure 1.1 Researcher theoretical framework

I.5.1 Neorealism

Realism is an approach to international relations that has emerged gradually through the work of a series of analysts who have situated themselves within, and thus delimited a distinctive but still diverse style or tradition of analysis.31 Realism is the simplest, oldest, and most classical theory in international relations which sees issues from the side of war-peace, competition, and conflict.32 Realism is generally considered as the most influential theoretical tradition in international relations. In the last two decades after World War I, when there was a serious debate about the exact forms of international relations discipline, there was an increasing awareness that the aim of the study should be to develop a generation of behavior patterns in international relations. Former realists bring a variety of experiences and intellectual pioneers who play a role in the continuation of theoretical discourse into this new discipline.33

30 Çakmak, Cenap, and Ali O. Özçelik. The World Community and the Arab Spring, 177. Basingstoke: Springer, 2018. 31 Donnelly, Jack. Realism and International Relations, 6. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. 32 Ibid 33 Ibid

In the effort of supplying weapons to Syria, Russia illegally passed through NATO airspace, largely ignoring the international agreement and its protocols.34

According to Chaillot Paper No.,146 - July 2018, “if Syria falls, so too will Russian influence in the Middle East”. This article points out the fact that Russia’s interests in the Middle East begin with Syria.35 It argues that because Russia has both military and commercial interests in Syria, any regime change could put these interests at risk. These investments include a naval facility at Tartus and oil and gas infrastructure investments.36 Despite the plethora of sanctions imposed on Russia by the international community, Putin is doing everything in his power to bring Russia back into the game and prove its importance to the rest of the world.37 In this thesis, the author uses neorealism theory outlined by Kenneth Waltz. Neorealism is a theory of international relations that says power is the most important factor in international relations.38 Kenneth Waltz argues that the most capable states end up shaping the international realm.39 In terms of Russia, its presence in Syria seen as its attempt of being a world super power, which in realist terms would indeed make the world a more stable environment. Neo realists have argued that Russia's foreign policy development has been based on purely on fulfilling Russia's interests which are intended to be of favor with the initial cooperation with the West period progressed.40 This change in foreign policy objectives is argued, solely due to the changing distribution of power internationally and regionally.41 The major domestic assumptions are because Russia's foreign policy decision makers adopt a political paradigm to guide their decision- making, metronomically decision-makers make decisions based only on factors in the international system.42

34 Ross, Cameron. Perspectives on the Enlargement of the European Union, 145. Leiden: BRILL, 2002. 35 EUISS. EUISS Homepage | European Union Institute for Security Studies. Accessed June 10, 2019. https://www.iss.europa.eu/sites/default/files/EUISSFiles/CP_146.pdf. 36 Ibid 37 Johnston, Donald J. Missing the Tide: Global Governments in Retreat, 50. Montreal: McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP, 2017. 38 Waltz, Kenneth N. Theory of International Politics. Long Grove: Waveland Press, 2010. 39 Ikenberry, G. J. American Foreign Policy: Theoretical Essays, 3. Harlow: Longman Publishing Group, 2005. 40 ResearchGate, "The Realism of Russia's Foreign Policy | Request PDF." https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232990528_The_Realism_of_Russia's_Foreign_Policy. Accessed June 16, 2019. 41 Ibid 42 Ibid

The Implementation of Realism in United Nations Security Council United Nations Security Council consists of permanent and non-permanent members and headed by a president.43 The permanent members are the P5; China, France, Russia, United Kingdom, and United States, while other ten chosen members are chosen by the UNGA.44 During the six and a half decades of the United Nations all five Permanent Members of the UN Security Council have more or less actively used the right of veto, halting decisions or resolutions which, in their view, contradicted their interests or their understanding of international realities.45 The available statistics on the veto cover only open sessions of the Security Council, while additional – and relatively often – the exercise of the veto took place at closed sessions.46 In the case of the crisis in Syria, Russia pursued several interconnected paths: debates in the United Nations, bilateral negotiations with the Assad regime.47 Among other channels, the Russian Foreign Ministry activated an Agreement dating back to 2009 on establishing a mechanism known as “Dialogue Russia – League of Arab States” and coordinated its moves towards the League with China, as another important P5 member.48 Russia suggested organizing a monitoring mission to Syria that could represent either the UN or the League of Arab States or both and coordinated a five- point settlement plan on which the League and Russia agreed.49 There are number of resolutions vetoed by each of the five permanent members of the Security Council from 1946 until present.50 The current debate among governments about the right of veto resembles very much the debate. Many governments oppose the veto for its violation of the principle of sovereign equality among states.51 For instance, an outbreak of a chemical weapons attack carried out by the Syrian regime in 2013 and has heightened tensions internationally, but Russia and China who are the permanent members of UNSC do continue to support a regime.

43 United Nations, "Current Members." Accessed June 10, 2019. https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/current-members. 44 Ibid 45 Ibid 46 United Nations Research, “Vetoes” https://research.un.org/en/docs/sc/quick Accessed June 10, 2019 47 Nikitin, Alexander. Bibliothek Der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. Accessed June 10, 2019. https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/09461.pdf. 48 Nikitin, Alexander. Bibliothek Der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. Accessed June 10, 2019. https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/09461.pdf. 49 Ibid 50 United Nations Research, “Vetoes” https://research.un.org/en/docs/sc/quick Accessed June 10, 2019 51 Administrator. "Security Council Reform." What's New. Accessed June 10, 2019. https://www.globalpolicy.org/security-council/security-council-reform.html.

I.5.2 National Interest The national interest is best to be understood as a social construction. Process of interpretation presupposes language shared by at least those that determine state actions.52 In this case, national interest is relatively fixed and equal. National interest is identified with the "national goal".53 For instance, the interest of economic development, the interest of development and improvement of the quality of Human Resources (HR) or interest of foreign investment to accelerate the pace of industrialization. Hans J. Morgenthau stated that "The meaning of national interest is survival—the protection of physical, political and cultural identity against encroachments by other nation- states".54

Russian Federation has long backed the Assad regime. It has provided government troops with air support and weapons and given it diplomatic backing at the UN and in international peace talks.55 Russian Federation wants to keep Assad as its closest ally in the Middle East and secure its military influence in the region.56 It has an important military airbase in the western province of Latakia and a naval base in the Syrian port city of Tartus.57 Russian leaders support a peace deal with broad consensus among Syria's moderate factions that would allow Assad to remain in power. It has also hinted it may support limited autonomy for opposition forces in certain regions within Syria.58

Foreign Policy of Russian Federation in Syria The approach that Russian Federation uses in implementing its foreign policy for ending Syria Conflict (2015-2018) is a global political approach.59 The global political approach is an approach based on the action of a country's reaction or is not

52 Falkner, Gerda. EU Social Policy in the 1990s: Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, 211. London: Routledge, 2003. 53 Ibid 54 Your Article Library, “National Interest Meaning, Components and Methods” http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/international-politics/national-interest-meaning-components-and- methods/48487 accessed on march 12 2018 55 Black, J.L., and Michael Johns. Russia after 2012: From Putin to Medvedev to Putin – Continuity, Change, or Revolution?, 160. London: Routledge, 2013. 56 Trenin, Dmitri. What Is Russia Up To in the Middle East?, 57. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2017. 57 Gvosdev, Nikolas K., and Christopher Marsh. Russian Foreign Policy: Interests, Vectors, and Sectors, 315. Washington: CQ Press, 2013. 58 Ibid 59 Danks, Catherine. Politics Russia, 10. London: Routledge, 2014.

only influenced by the international phenomenon alone, but also the domestic (as a whole) and is linked to other issues.60 In addition to foreign policy. There are several foreign policy of Russian Federation related to Syria. Those polices are mentioned on Russian Federation’s current foreign policy: III. Priorities of the Russian Federation in Overcoming Global Challenges Shaping a Fair and Sustainable World Order 27. Russia consistently advocates strengthening international security and enhancing strategic and regional stability. To this end, the Russian Federation: supports the creation of zones free from nuclear weapons and other types of weapons of mass destruction, primarily in the Middle East.61

IV. Regional Foreign Policy Priorities of the Russian Federation: 92. Russia will continue making a meaningful contribution to stabilizing the situation in the Middle East and North Africa, supporting collective efforts aimed at neutralizing threats that emanate from international terrorist groups, consistently promotes political and diplomatic settlement of conflicts in regional States while respecting their sovereignty and territorial integrity and the right to self-determination without outside interference. As a permanent member of the UN Security Council and member of the Middle East Quartet of international mediators, Russia will further strive to achieve a comprehensive, fair and lasting resolution of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict in all its aspects consistent with international law.62 93. Russia stands for a political settlement in the Syrian Arab Republic and the possibility for the people of Syria to determine their future based on the Geneva communiqué of June 30, 2012, statements by the International Syria Support Group and relevant UN Security Council resolutions. Russia supports the unity, independence and territorial integrity of the Syrian Arab Republic as a secular, democratic and pluralistic State with all ethnic and religious groups living in peace and security and enjoying equal rights and opportunities.63 95. Russia intends to further expand bilateral relations with the States in the Middle East and North Africa, including by relying on the ministerial meeting of the Russian-Arab Cooperation Forum, and continuing strategic dialogue with the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf.64

Russian Federation Policy in UNSC As a great power (number one by territorial size and among the top ten global powers by size of economy and reserves/exports of key natural resources). Russia in

60 Danks, Catherine. Politics Russia, 10. London: Routledge, 2014. 61 "THE FOREIGN POLICY CONCEPT OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION." The Embassy of Russian Federation to United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Island. Accessed June 10, 2019. https://www.rusemb.org.uk/rp_insight/. 62 Ibid 63 Ibid 64 Ibid

the second decade of the twenty-first century perceives itself as a state with global responsibilities and has a record of global involvements.65 The UN Security Council is obviously considered by Moscow one of the leading mechanisms for collective global governance and coordination of interests between major powers.66 Russia’s official National Security Strategy until 2020 postulates that the United Nations and the Security Council are considered by Russia to be a central element of the stable system of international relations, based upon respect, equal rights and mutually beneficial cooperation between states, upon the foundations of civilized political instruments for resolving global and regional crises.67 The latest edition of the Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation, which is a major guiding document for implementing Moscow’s foreign policy, also stresses the central and coordinating role of the United Nations which is a major organization regulating international relations and possessing a unique legitimacy.68 Moscow played a direct role in the formation of the United Nations, its principles, Charter and Security Council. At the Moscow Conference of allied states on 30 October 1943 the declaration by the four states on the Issue of Comprehensive Security was adopted, in which the Soviet Union and the Western allies for the first time declared the possibility of collective regulation of peace and security in a future post-war world. Point 4 of that Declaration postulated the need to shape as soon as possible a comprehensive international organization aimed at maintaining international peace and security.69 The Declaration established such principles for the future organization as the sovereign equality of all peaceful states, large and small, the principle of the specific responsibility of great powers for the preservation and strengthening of peace, the need to coordinate their ac1. Decree 537 of the President of the Russian Federation, 12 May 2009, p. 5. 2. Preamble, Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation. Adopted by Presidential Decree on 15 July 2008.70 The formation of the Security Council of the future international organization was negotiated at Dumbarton-Oaks (USA) in August–

65 Lindley-French, Julian, and Yves Boyer. The Oxford Handbook of War, 75. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. 66 Ibid 67 Nikitin, Alexander, “Russia as a Permanent Member of UNSC” https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/09461.pdf. Accessed June 10, 2019. 68 The Embassy of Russian Federation to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern island, "The Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation." https://www.rusemb.org.uk/in1/. Accessed June 16, 2019. 69 Ibid 70 Ibid

November 1944.3 All the basic principles of the UN Security Council were formulated in those prolonged negotiations, and later developed at the Yalta conference (USSR, February 1945).71 It was at Yalta that most important issues – procedures for developing and adopting decisions of the Security Council (including consensus and veto principles) – were agreed between the leaders of the USSR, the USA and the UK. As Russian Federation is included as one of UNSC permanent members, Russia may at any time implementing its policy through its veto power in United Nations Security Council.72 There have been various conflicts ended by Russian Federation through veto power in United Nations Security Council counted since 1946.73

I.6 Scope and Limitation

This research will be much more focus on the implementation of Russian Federation policy on United Nations Security Council solution for solving Syria conflict (2015-2018). The status of Russian Federation as a permanent member of United Nations Security Councils makes Russian Federation is possible to use its policy to solve Syria conflict (2015-2018)74. This research limits to the implementation of Russian Federation policy in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) to solve Syria conflict (2015-2018). 2015 – 2018 chosen by the author to do the research because the civil war of Syria continuously happened in 2015 – 2018.75

I.7 Literature Review

This chapter provides the overview of academic library use problem that is related to this phenomenon. One of prominent aspects of this research is the use of literature as the basic of research. Through library research, by collecting books from library and using internet as media to get the sources, the literature from experts and researchers are collected.

71 Nikitin, Alexander, “Russia as a Permanent Member of UNSC” https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/09461.pdf. Accessed June 10, 2019. 72 Ibid 73 Ibid 74 Blakkisrud, Helge, and Elana W. Rowe. Russia's Turn to the East: Domestic Policymaking and Regional Cooperation, 85. Basingstoke: Springer, 2017. 75 Erlich, Reese. Inside Syria: The Backstory of Their Civil War and What the World Can Expect. Amherst: Prometheus Books, 2016.

This chapter will review on seven literatures from some books and journals in regard with the title and objectives of this research and will consist of: 1. Phillips, C. (2016). The Battle for Syria: International Rivalry in the New Middle East. Newhaven, United Kingdom: Yale University Press. 2. Erlich, R. W. (2016). Inside Syria: The back story of their civil war and what the world can expect. New York, NY: Prometheus Books. 3. Charap, S. (2013). Russia, Syria and the Doctrine of Intervention. Survival, 55(1), 35-41. doi:10.1080/00396338.2013.767403 4. AVERRE, D., & DAVIES, L. (2015). Russia, humanitarian intervention and the Responsibility to Protect: the case of Syria. International Affairs, 91(4), 813-834. doi:10.1111/1468-2346.12343 5. ALLISON, R. (2013). Russia and Syria: explaining alignment with a regime in crisis. International Affairs, 89(4), 795-823. doi:10.1111/1468-2346.12046

Phillips, C. (2016). The Battle for Syria: International Rivalry in the New Middle East. Newhaven, United Kingdom: Yale University Press.

“[Syria] is a mirror of rival interests on an international scale that she deserves special attention. Indeed, her internal affairs are almost meaningless unless related to the wider context, first of her Arab neighbor and then other interested powers. Patrick Seale, The Struggle for Syria, 1965”.76 The Syrian civil war is the greatest human fiasco of the twenty-first century. Since strife softened out up 2011, more than 470,000 have been estimated executed and 1.9 million injured. More than 4.8 million have fled the nation and 6.6 million more are inside uprooted, the greater part pre-war populace of 21 million. A United Nations report evaluated that before the finish of 2013 Syria had just relapsed 40 years in its human improvement. According to Christopher Phillips, most of the stories about Syria's brutal and long-lasting civil war focused on domestic contests that began in 2011 and only later attracted foreign countries into increased violence. The international dimension has never been secondary but that the Syrian war, from the very beginning, was heavily influenced by regional factors, especially the emptiness caused by the decline of US power in the Middle East. This sparked a new regional order in which six external

76 Merip, “The Struggle for Syria” http://www.merip.org/mero/mero050114 accessed March 14 2018

14 protagonists - the United States, Russia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Qatar - have competed vigorously for influence, with Syria as the main battleground. Interesting in a large number of original interviews, Phillips built a new narrative of the Syrian war. Without releasing the brutal Bashar al-Assad regime, the author outlines the main external factors that explain the acceleration and resilience of conflict, including the Western strategy against ISIS. He concluded with some insight into Syria and the region's future. Therefore, Russian Federation uses its policy through United Nations Security Council decision as an effort to intervene Syria conflict to compete with five external protagonists which are the United States, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Qatar.

Erlich, R. W. (2016). Inside Syria: The back story of their civil war and what the world can expect. New York, NY: Prometheus Books.

Based on firsthand reporting from Syria and throughout the Middle East, Inside Syria unravels the complex dynamics underlying the Syrian Civil War. Through vivid, on-the-ground accounts and interviews with rebel leaders, regime supporters, and Syrian president Bashar al-Assad himself, veteran journalist Reese Erlich gives the reader a better understanding of this momentous power struggle and why it matters. Through his many contacts inside Syria, the author reveals who is supporting Assad and why, describes the agendas of the rebel factions, and depicts in stark terms the dire plight of many ordinary Syrian people caught in the cross fire. Erlich explains how, after colonization by the British and the French and later becoming a focal point of political intrigue by numerous international powers, the region became increasingly volatile and dangerous. He also provides insights into both the past and the present roles of the Kurds, the continuing influence of Iran, and the policies of American administrations that seem interested only in protecting US regional interests, even at the expense of innocent Syrian civilians. Disturbing, compelling, and enlightening, this timely book--now with a new epilogue with the latest information-- shows not only what is happening inside Syria but why it is so important for the Middle East, the United States, and the world including the importance of Syria for Russian Federation as Russia is included as one of world strongest military, Russia has used Syria to showcase some of its advanced weapons through helping Syria on its conflict. The weapons policy that Russia has

15 used to solve Syria conflict then led the disagreement of other United Nations member. However, the policy keeps being implemented.

Charap, S. (2013). Russia, Syria and the Doctrine of Intervention. Survival, 55(1), 35-41. doi:10.1080/00396338.2013.767403

Since the beginning of the Syrian crisis, there have been intermittent hopes that Moscow might play a constructive diplomatic role in resolving it. But the focus on Russia has been deeply misleading. Russia, for reasons that have little to do with Syria itself, was never going to be part of the solution to the crisis – at least on terms that the West and the Syrian opposition could accept. Further, Russia’s centrality to international diplomacy on this issue and its seeming obstinacy expose deep flaws in post-Cold War Western doctrine on international intervention. Russia’s centrality when it comes to Syria is more a function of those flaws than anything else.

As the latest round of failed talks with the Russians – this time between UN/League of Arab States Envoy Lakhdar Brahimi and Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov in late December 2012 – conclusively demonstrate, Russia will not sign up for a diplomatic resolution to the crisis on Western or Arab terms. Senior Russian officials have made that clear for months, but some in the international community act as though they refuse to believe them.

This disbelief stems from a misunderstanding of the Russian position. The predominant focus has been on the ties that bind Russia to Assad’s Syria, including military, military-industrial and intelligence-sharing. Journalists diligently produce stories on Russian arms sales to Syria and its naval facility at Tartus. A less noted, but more significant factor has been Russian anxieties about the displacement by Sunni Islamist governments of secular autocrats in Syria and other Arab countries since the Arab Spring began.

Russia’s immediate neighborhood in the South Caucasus and Central Asia features a number of countries where such a scenario cannot be excluded, and there are over 20 million Russian Muslims, the majority of whom are Sunni and live in the North Caucasus, where Russia has fought two civil wars and continues to battle what is now called the Caucasus Emirate. Decision-makers in Moscow are quick to point

16 out that the emirate and its predecessors were directly supported by entities in some of the Arab countries now leading the call for Assad’s departure.

According to Samuel Charap, these factors certainly play some role in Moscow’s approach to Syria. But they do not explain Russian policy on international action on the crisis. Indeed, the Kremlin has issued three UN Security Council vetoes, bent over backwards to water down the Geneva Communiqué calling for a peaceful transition of authority, and fastidiously avoided joining the call for ‘Assad to go’ not because of its interests in Syria, its fear of extremist spillover, or because it ‘backs Assad’. That allegation, frequently leveled in recent months, flies in the face of the persistent Russian signaling that Moscow couldn’t care less about Assad’s fate. As early as summer 2011, then-President Dmitri Medvedev warned that barring immediate reforms, ‘a sad fate awaits him’.

AVERRE, D., & DAVIES, L. (2015). Russia, Humanitarian Intervention and the Responsibility to Protect: the Case of Syria. International Affairs, 91(4), 813-834. doi:10.1111/1468-2346.12343

Western analysis perceives Russian approaches to issues of humanitarian intervention and the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) as running counter to western- inspired international norms. This debate has surfaced with some figures over Russia's policy in the Syria conflict where, in order to protect its strategic interests in Syria, an obstructionist Moscow has been accused of ignoring humanitarian considerations and allowing time for the Assad regime to crush the opposition by vetoing a resolution threatening to impose sanctions. While Russian approaches are undoubtedly explained by a desire to maximize its growing political influence and trade advantages to serve its legitimate foreign policy interests, and while Moscow's attitudes to intervention and R2P exhibit important differences from those of the major western liberal democracies, its arguments are in fact framed within a largely rational argument rooted in ‘traditional’ state-centred international law. Derek Averre and Lance Davies highlight key arguments in the scholarly literature on intervention and R2P before going on to examine the evolution of Russian views on these issues. The analysis then focuses on the extent to which Moscow's arguments impact on international legal debates on the Libya and Syria conflicts. Therefore, Russian Federation approaches to intervention/R2P reflect fundamental

17 trends in its foreign policy thinking and its quest for legitimacy in a negotiated international order. Finally, it attempts to raise some important questions regarding Russia's role in the future direction of the intervention/R2P debates.

ALLISON, R. (2013). Russia and Syria: Explaining Alignment with a Regime in Crisis. International Affairs, 89(4), 795-823. doi:10.1111/1468-2346.12046

According to Roy Allison, Russia has provided a diplomatic shield for Damascus in the UN Security Council and has continued to supply it with modern arms. Putin's resistance to any scenario of western-led intervention in Syria, on the model of the Libya campaign, in itself does not explain Russian policy. For this we need to analyze underlying Russian motives. The article argues that identity or solidarity between the Soviet Union/Russia and Syria has exerted little real influence, besides leaving some strategic nostalgia among Russian security policy-makers. Russian material interests in Syria are also overstated, although Russia still hopes to entrench itself in the regional politics of the Middle East.

Of more significance is the potential impact of the Syria crisis on the domestic political order of the Russian state. First, the nexus between regional spillover from Syria, Islamist networks and insurgency in the North Caucasus is a cause of concern— although the risk of 'blowback' to Russia is exaggerated. Second, Moscow rejects calls for the departure of Assad as another case of the western community imposing standards of political legitimacy on a 'sovereign state' to enforce regime change, with future implications for Russia or other authoritarian members of the Commonwealth of Independent States.

Russia may try to enshrine its influence in the Middle East through a peace process for Syria, but if Syria descends further into chaos western states may be able to achieve no more in practice than emergency coordination with Russia.

I.8 Research Methodology

I.8.1 Research Method

Basically, human is always curious. This encourages human to ask questions and also seek answers to these questions. One of them is by doing a research. The other way is by asking someone or through a reading book. However, this seems not effective realizing it is not always able to get answers or sometimes answers that we get is not convincing. Therefore, research becomes very important nowadays. To answer the research question that has been constructed, the writer uses the descriptive and analytical method for this research. The purpose of a descriptive method is to provide information as this research will describe the historical background of the case, the conflict resolution mechanism in the case, and the implementation of Russian Federation policy on United Nations Security Council solution for ending Syria conflict (2015-2018).

To describe and analyze the case, this research uses qualitative method of research, which emphasizes on the collection and analysis of primarily non-numerical activities that included in the case study. According to John W Cresswell: “A qualitative study is defined as an inquiry process of understanding a social or human problem, based on building a complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed views of informants, and conducted in a natural setting”.77

I.8.2 Research Instrument

This research collects and analyzes data that draws the condition based on the real situation, which supported by the theories and concepts to make a clear research. This research has more analysis of descriptions, reports, and explanations rather than analyzing numbers, in which suitable with the qualitative approach. Even so, it is possible to use figures from report to be put in this qualitative research as supportive data. The primary and secondary data are combined to support the analysis of the research.

77 Merriam, Sharan B., and Robin S. Grenier. Qualitative Research in Practice: Examples for Discussion and Analysis. New York: Jossey-Bass, 2019.

Since this research is focusing on the implementation of Russian Federation policy on United Nations Security Council solution for ending Syria conflict (2015- 2018), information and data from the United Nations Security Council official website is collected. The process of collecting data is done through collecting the official data from United Nations Security Council official website and by coming directly to United Nations Jakarta office to ask one of the staffs to make sure if the data provided on the United Nations Security Council website is official.

I.9 Definition of Terms

Neorealism Neorealism is a theory of international relations that says power is the most important factor in international relations.78

Veto Power The power or right vested in one branch of a government to cancel or postpone the decisions, enactments, etc., of another branch, especially the right of a president, governor, or other chief executive to reject bills passed by the legislature.79 National Interest National Interest is the interest of a nation as a whole held to be an independent entity separate from the interests of subordinate areas or groups and also of other nations or supranational groups.80

Foreign Policy Foreign Policy is General objectives that guide the activities and relationships of one state in its interactions with other states.81

78 Waltz, Kenneth N. Theory of International Politics. Long Grove: Waveland Press, 2010. 79 "The Veto : UN Security Council Working Methods : Security Council Report." June 2019 Monthly Forecast : Security Council Report. Last modified March 8, 2019. https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/un-security- council-working-methods/the-veto.php. 80 Falkner, Gerda. EU Social Policy in the 1990s: Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, 211. London: Routledge, 2003. 81 Britannica, “Foreign Policy” https://www.britannica.com/topic/foreign-policy accessed on March 14, 2018.

1.10 Thesis Structure

Chapter I - Introduction This chapter introduces the principal aspects of the thesis, which includes the information of the case, understanding of the research problem, and the purpose of the research. As the overview of the whole thesis, this chapter is structured into several parts: background of the study, problem of statement, research question, research objective, literature review, theoretical framework, research methodology, and thesis outline.

Chapter II – Russian Federation Interests in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) This chapter describes the historical background of Russian Federation in UNSC and also how Russian Federation implements its policy in UNSC. This chapter provides chronologically details of information regarding to the activity of Russian Federation in UNSC, from the beginning until now.

Chapter III – Russian Federation – Syria Relations As two close related countries, Russian Federation and Syria surely have their bilateral relations in many aspects such economic relations, political relations, cultural relations and security relations. These relations between both Russian Federation and Syria will be clearly explained in this chapter.

Chapter IV – Russian Federation Policy in the United Nations of Security Council (UNSC) To Solve Syrian Conflict (2015 – 2018) This chapter connects chapter I and chapter II deeper. This chapter is the main core of the thesis, and the question stated in the chapter 1 will be answered in this chapter.

Chapter V – Conclusion This chapter will be the last chapter of thesis. Conclusion based on facts elaborated by the writer will be written in this chapter.

CHAPTER II

RUSSIAN FEDERATION INTERESTS IN THE UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL (UNSC)

Russian Federation is one of United Nations Security Council (UNSC) members. As Russian Federation is included as a member of United Nations Security Council (UNSC), Russian Federation may at any time use its policy in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) to defend a country over their conflicts. By this, some assume that the presence of Russian Federation has its national interests in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC). This chapter discusses the interests of Russian Federation in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) further. This chapter is important and can be used as a base to examine further about Russian Federations efforts in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) decision to end Syria conflict from 2015-2018.

II.1. Russian Federation and The Creation of United Nations (UN)

The United Nations is an international organization founded in 1945.82 It currently has 193 Member States.83 The mission and work of the United Nations are guided by the purposes and principles contained in its founding Charter.84 According to historical records, the United Nations (UN) was established on October 24, 1945, pioneered by five countries: the United States, Britain, France, Russia and the People's Republic of China.85 The establishment of the United Nations was motivated by an idea to create peace among countries in the world after having experienced two major

82 United Nations, “United Nations History” http://www.un.org/en/sections/history/history-united-nations/ accessed on March 14, 2018 83 United Nations, “United Nations Member States” http://www.un.org/en/sections/member-states/index.html accessed on March 14, 2018 84 United Nations, “About United Nations” http://www.un.org/en/about-un/ accessed on March 14 2018 85 United Nations Foundation, ‘What we do – United Nations” Retrieved from United Nations Foundation: http://www.unfoundation.org/what-we-do/issues/united-nations/the-un-security-council.html accessed on March 14, 2018

wars. World War I that lasted between 1914-1918, and World War II that occurred between the years 1939-1945. On August 14, 1941, the United States former President, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, met British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill.86 The meeting that took place on board the Augusta ship that sailed in the Atlantic Ocean is about world peace and plans to avoid more victims due to war. In this meeting was born an agreement called the Atlantic Charter.

Figure 2.1 August 1941- The Atlantic Charter (UN Photo) source: United Nations Official Website

Contents of The Atlantic Charter: 1. Every nation is not justified for expansion of territory. 2. Every nation has the right to determine its own destiny. 3. Every nation shall have the right to participate in international trade. 4. Creating world peace so that every nation can live free from fear and poverty.87

The contents of the Atlantic Charter directly get a positive response from several countries in the world. This was marked by a conference in Washington, USA on January 1, 1942 attended by 26 countries that approved the contents of the Atlantic Charter.88 Establishing an international organization was additionally created amid the

86 History, “World War II – Atlantic Charter”: https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/atlantic-charter accessed on March 14, 2018 87 Ibid 88 United Nations, “United Nations Atlantic Charter” http://www.un.org/en/sections/history-united-nations- charter/1941-atlantic-charter/index.html accessed on March 14, 2018

Tehran meeting between the Soviet, US and UK pioneers in the fall of 1943.89 In the course of the gathering, the three forces built up a typical vision on the best way to guarantee universal security and enduring peace after the finish of the war. That gathering from numerous points of view decided the eventual fate of the United Nations (UN). In early August 1944, another conference was held in a building called Dumbarton Oaks in Washington, USA.90 The conference was attended by representatives from the United States, Soviet Union, Great Britain, and the People's Republic of China.91

Figure 2.2 August 1944 – Dumbarton Oaks Conversations Source: United Nations Official Website

Josef Stalin is the representative of Russia (formerly: Soviet Union) who attended the conference held in early August 1944.92 Stalin was then the leader of the Soviet Union known as the "Man of Steel". Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union who, during his presidency, did not hesitate to slaughter the party officials and army officers and began to impose a highly repressive communist regime on Soviet territory. The first concrete step toward the creation of a general international organization was

89 CVCE, “The final communique of the Teheran Conference (1 December 1943)” https://www.cvce.eu/en/collections/unit-content/-/unit/02bb76df-d066-4c08-a58a-d4686a3e68ff/ef30a4fa-5d3d- 450c-9f78-f6a06dd3e739/Resources#1b6f76f5-3e12-4d73-a205-f4df048fd50a_en&overlay accessed on March 14. 2018 90 DOAKS, “Dumbarton Oaks Conversation” https://www.doaks.org/research/library-archives/dumbarton-oaks- archives/historical-records/75th-anniversary/blog/the-dumbarton-oaks-conversations-1944 accessed on March 14 2018 91 United Nations, “Dumbarton Oaks and Yalta” http://www.un.org/en/sections/history-united-nations- charter/1944-1945-dumbarton-oaks-and-yalta/index.html accessed on March 14, 2018 92Ibid

taken in the late summer of 1944, when the Dumbarton Oaks Conversations took place. The first phase of the conversations was between the representatives of the U.S.S.R., the United Kingdom and the United States from August 21 to September 28,93 and the second phase between the representatives of China, the United Kingdom and the United States from September 29 to October 7.94 The meeting at Dumbarton Oaks discussed the plan to establish a global organization called the United Nations Organization (UNO) or the UN. As a continuation of the meeting at Dumbarton Oaks, on October 24, 1945 the San Francisco Conference was held.95 At the San Francisco Conference the UN Organization was officially established, which was marked by the signing of the United Nations charter by representatives from 50 countries. Before the San Francisco Conference October 24, 1945 was held, Vyacheslav Molotov, head of the Soviet Foreign Service spoke at the first plenary meeting on April 26, 1945, announced that “our government sincerely and firmly supported the creation of a strong international security organization and would fully cooperate in fulfilling this great task with every government that was truly committed to this noble cause”. The Soviet delegation took on active and constructive part in the following discussions.96

Thus, the amendments and proposals put forward by the Soviet delegation in the discussion of Chapter 1 "Objectives and Principles of the Charter" serves as a basis for including in the Chapter the important new provisions; that the peaceful settlement of international disputes must be carried out in accordance with the principles of justice and international law; that friendly relations between nations must be developed on the basis of respect for the principle of equality and people's self-determination; that international cooperation must be achieved in resolving international economic, social, cultural and humanitarian issues and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all people without differences in race, sex,

93 Bernhardt, R. (1992). Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Vol. 1: Aalands Islands to Dumbarton Oaks Conference (1944). Amsterdam: North-Holland. p. 10. 94 Maas, H. H., Brinkhorst, L. J., & Panhuys Vann, H. F. (1968). International orgnisation and integration. A collection of the texts of documents relating to the United Nations, its related agencies and regional international organisations. Leiden, NLD: A.W Sijthoff. P.24. 95 United Nations, “San Francisco Conference” http://www.un.org/en/sections/history-united-nations- charter/1945-san-francisco-conference/index.html accessed on March 14, 2018 96 France Diplomatie, “Russia and creations of United Nations” https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/ONU_alexander_churilin.pdf accessed on March 14, 2018

languages or religion.97 These things show how Russian Federation (formerly: Soviet Union) played important roles at the creation of United Nations (UN).

II.2. Russian Federation as a Permanent Member of United Nations Security Council (UNSC)

United Nations is separated into several main organs which are the General Assembly, the Security Council, the International Court of Justice and the UN Secretariat.98 The General Assembly is the primary deliberative, policymaking and delegate organ of the UN.99 Each of the 193 Member States of the UN are spoken to in the General Assembly, making it the main UN body with general portrayal. Every year, in September, the full UN enrollment meets in the General Assembly Hall in New York for the yearly General Assembly session, and general verbal confrontation, which numerous heads of state go to and address. Choices on vital inquiries, for example, those on peace and security, confirmation of new individuals and budgetary issues, require a 66% dominant part of the General Assembly. Choices on different inquiries are by basic dominant part. The General Assembly, every year, chooses a General Assembly President to serve a one-year term of office.100 The Security Council has essential obligation, under the UN Charter, for the upkeep of universal peace and security. It has 15 Members (5 lasting and 10 non- perpetual individuals).101 Every Member has one vote. Under the Charter, all Member States are committed to consent to Council choices. The Security Council leads the pack in deciding the presence of a risk to the peace or demonstration of animosity. It calls upon the gatherings to a debate to settle it by quiet means and prescribes strategies for change or terms of settlement. At times, the Security Council can turn to forcing sanctions or even approve the utilization of power to keep up or reestablish universal peace and security. The Security Council has a Presidency, which turns, and changes, each month.

97 France Diplomatie, “Russia and creation of United Nations” https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/ONU_alexander_churilin.pdf accessed on March 14, 2018 98 United Nations, “United Nations Main Organ” http://www.un.org/en/sections/about-un/main-organs/ accessed on March 14, 2018 99 Ibid 100Ibid 101 UNSC, “UNSC Members” http://www.un.org/en/sc/members/ accessed on March 14, 2018

The Economic and Social Council is the foremost body for coordination, strategy survey, approach exchange and suggestions on financial, social and ecological issues, and also usage of universally concurred advancement objectives. It fills in as the focal component for exercises of the UN framework and its particular organizations in the monetary, social and natural fields, administering backup and master bodies. It has 54 Members, chose by the General Assembly for covering three-year terms. It is the United Nations' focal stage for reflection, face off regarding, and creative reasoning on maintainable advancement.102 The Trusteeship Council was built up in 1945 by the UN Charter, under Chapter XIII, to give universal supervision to 11 Trust Territories that had been put under the organization of seven Member States103 and guarantee that sufficient advances were taken to set up the Territories for self-government and autonomy. By 1994, all Trust Territories had achieved self-government or autonomy. By a determination received on 25 May 1994, the Council changed its principles of strategy to drop the commitment to meet yearly and consented to meet as event required - by its choice or the choice of its President, or at the demand of a larger part of its individuals or the General Assembly or the Security Council.104 The International Court of Justice is the chief legal organ of the United Nations. Its seat is at the Peace Palace in the Hague (Netherlands). It is the just a single of the six important organs of the UN not situated in New York (United States of America). The Court's part is to settle, as per universal law, legitimate debate submitted to it by States and to give warning sentiments on lawful inquiries alluded to it by approved United Nations organs and particular offices. The Secretariat includes the Secretary-General and a huge number of universal United Nations staff individuals who do the everyday work of the United Nations as ordered by the General Assembly and the Organization's other main organs. The Secretary-General is boss regulatory officer of the Organization, delegated by the General Assembly on the suggestion of the Security Council for a five-year, inexhaustible term.

102 United Nations, ‘United Nations Main Organs” http://www.un.org/en/sections/about-un/main-organs/ accessed on March 14, 2018 103 Ibid 104 United Nations, ‘United Nations Trusteeship Council” http://www.un.org/en/sections/about-un/trusteeship- council/ http://www.un.org/en/sections/about-un/trusteeship-council/ accessed on March 14, 2018

UN staff individuals are selected globally and locally, and work in obligation stations and on peacekeeping missions all around the globe however serving the reason for peace in a fierce world is an unsafe occupation. Since the establishing of the UN, several overcome men and ladies have given their lives in its administration. As mentioned on the previous page, each of five permanent members of United Nations Security Council (UNSC) given right to veto, as Russian Federation is included as one of United Nations Security Council (UNSC) member, Russia has been using its veto for many times. The first veto used by Russian Federation in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) was on February 16, 1946 upon “Letter from the Heads of the Lebanese and Syrian delegations to the Secretary-General dated 4 February 1946.105 The letter was in regard to the withdrawal of French and British troops from their territories”.106 At that time, Russian Federation’s name was Soviet Union. Since then, Russian Federations keeps using its veto right in the United Nations Security Council until now. The latest veto used by Russian Federation in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) was on April 10, 2018 upon Syria conflict: The Situation in the Middle East (Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian Civil War.107

II.3. Russian Federation Interests in The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) Russia is country that prioritizes respect for the principle of sovereignty in international affairs, maintaining a geostrategic balance and international security, cultivating a favorable international image and status as a responsible member of the international community, and promoting its economic and political interests. It prioritizes dialogue over force to solve international conflicts. Russia's specific connection to its membership in the UNSC originates from the direction of progress in Russia's place in the world, which has been unique in relation to that of China in the course of the most recent two decades. Where China is a step by step rising force, Russia acquired its P5 situate from the Former Soviet Union (FSU), when it was acquainted with be dealt with as the superpower restricting

105 CQPress, “Russia and United Nations” http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre1961032900 accessed on March 14, 2018 106 United Nations General Assembly, “United Nations General Assembly” //www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/PV.23. accessed on March 14, 2018 107 United Nations Security Council, “UNSC Meeting Records 2018” http://www.un.org/en/sc/meetings/records/2018.shtml accessed on March 14, 2018

the US. Despite the fact that President Yel'tsin and other Russian leaders expected that this unmistakable quality would proceed with, they were frustrated by the decrease in Russia's status in the world, despite the fact that this was additionally incompletely caused by the crumple of the Russian economy. Russia turned into a disregarded power. One of the prime concerns of President Putin has been to restore Russia’s prestige and clout. Being a Permanent Member of the UNSC is a key element in that self-image. According to Orlov: ‘For Russia today no world order is acceptable unless it can influence the taking of strategic decisions or be a member of the board of management (direktorskii sovet).108 Despite the fact that Russia's ability to impact the entire scope of worldwide issues is currently decreased by correlation with the Soviet time, Russian monetary resurgence does in any event furnish them with more prominent ability to have any kind of effect in chosen parts of the world. What's more, the present need is to thicken Russia's relations with Asian states, particularly China. Thus, cooperation with China in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) contributes both to the image and the substance of Russia as a global power. Another factor in the motivation behind Russian foreign policy today speaks to a change contrasted and the before Putin administration. At that point the worry was to show that Russia had beaten the injuries and shortcomings of the 1990s, i.e. that Russia was back. In particular it demonstrated that Russia was back responsible for its own advancement, the ace in its own home. For Putin’s Russia, ‘real sovereignty’ and ‘sovereign democracy’, with the emphasis upon the ‘sovereign’, became defining objectives of foreign policy. In foreign policy terms this has led to a tendency to confront the US, although relations with Europe have been more cooperative. It implied that Russia took a lead in restricting the US and UK intrusion of Iraq. This confrontational tendency towards the West moved toward becoming more articulated after the episode of the just 'shading' insurgencies in Ukraine, Georgia and Central Asia, where Putin trusted that Western conspiracy added up to an inversion of past ascension by the US to participate with Russia.

108 Orlov, D.(2006) Politicheskaia doktrina suverennoi demokratii’, in Suverennaia demokratiia: ot idei k doktrine, Evropa, Moscow. p.6.

However, Russian Federation is not the only one who has interests in United Nations Security Council (UNSC). Together with China, Russian Federation has two commons interests in United Nations Security Council (UNSC). Both between China and Russia wish to avoid being isolated at the United Nations (UN). They have a characteristic motivating force to endeavor to organize their situations at any rate since it gives them consolation and likely help. It likewise implies that they are hesitant to force vetoes individually. This applies particularly with regard to issues concerning the Middle East. When Russia voted for sanctions against Iran, China did the same. When Russia abstained in Libya, China did the same. When Russia was opposing on Syria, China did the same.’52 Chinese diplomats claimed that they were pressured by Russia into going along with a veto on Syria.109 China has much greater commercial interests in Iran than does Russia – China is the largest buyer of Iranian crude oil whilst Iran is China’s third- largest supplier of oil, China is Iran’s second largest supplier of military equipment including missile technology, China is also involved in infrastructure projects in Iran, so that overall in 2011 trade with Iran was just under one tenth of its trade with the US.54 Yet China up to now has deferred to Russian diplomatic leadership. The same was true of Libya, though not in Syria, where Russia has more significant military ties.110 If this continues, then Russia is likely to take the lead in further diplomatic maneuverings over Iran. The second concern that both Russia and China share in the UNSC is to avoid being taken for granted by the other Permanent Members.111

Russian foreign policy-makers in the early 1990s felt very keenly the diminished regard that other states, and allegedly especially the US, paid them as compared with the time when they were the world’s second superpower and the Chinese leadership’s self-imposed low profile after the Tiananmen Square massacres encouraged Western leaders to snub them. Gradually, as both governments have recovered self-confidence, they wish to make sure that that does not happen again.

109 European Parliament, “The position of Russia and China in UNSC” Retrieved from European Parliament: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/note/join/2013/433800/EXPO- SEDE_NT%282013%29433800_EN.pdf. Accessed on March 14, 2018 110 Ibid 111 Ibid

Occasional brandishing of the veto, especially jointly, ensures that they are not taken for granted.112

112 European Parliament, “The position of Russia and China in UNSC” Retrieved from European Parliament: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/note/join/2013/433800/EXPO- SEDE_NT%282013%29433800_EN.pdf. Accessed on March 14, 2018

CHAPTER III

RUSSIAN FEDERATION – SYRIA RELATIONS

This chapter discusses about relations between Russian Federation and Syria which have been lasted since a long time ago including economic, politic and security relations. However, relations built between Russian Federation and Syria will not be separated with Russian Federation national interests towards Syria and this chapter provides all those information.

III.1. The Beginning of Russian Federation – Syria Bilateral Relations Russian Federation – Syria long established relations have actually been established since Russia was still in the form of Soviet Union and Syria had not yet become a State recognized by the UN. Russia laid the Byzantyne Army in Syria in the 10th and 11th centuries, and after the agreement of Carlovitz with the Ottoman Empire in 1699 more Russian merchants visited Syria on the way to Palestine including the Orthodox Christian community.113 This made the Orthodox empire expand its influence and built a consular post in Aleppo, Latkia, Beirut and Saida in 1893.114 Its influence continued to extend to Syria and the Orthodox empire also built about 70 school buildings to advance education in Syria in 1905.115 This is the beginning of inter-Russian relations with Syria. After the Second World War the Soviet Union broke apart and Russia began to fix the conditions that exist in the country in order to compete in the international world again. Russia then reformulated all of its foreign policy to regain its former glory before the breakup of the Soviet Union. This can be seen from the security documents seen from the policies of President Vladimir Putin who said that he wanted to restore Russian influence by issuing the National Security Concept in 2000.116 The contents of the document

113 Kreutz, A. (2007). Russia in the Middle East: Friend or foe? London: Praeger. p. 12. 114 Ibid 115 The Atlantic, “Understanding Syria From Pre Civil War to Post Assad” https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/12/understanding-syria-from-pre-civil-war-to-post- assad/281989/ accessed on March 16, 2018 116 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of The Russian Federation The Russian Federation, “National Security Concept of The Russian Federation” http://www.mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/official_documents/- /asset_publisher/CptICkB6BZ29/content/id/589768 accessed on March 16, 2018

explained that Russia has returned to the international political arena and seeks to restore the past it has. The Middle East is a country with a very strategic geopolitics. The widespread conflicts in the Middle East today, has become an attraction for the West and other foreign countries and a goal to seize its national interests in the Middle East. Conflict in the Middle East is the most prevalent conflict in recent decades. One of the conflicts in the Middle East is Arab Spring which also occurs in several countries in the Middle East starting from Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Yemen and the last of Syria. Conflict in these countries is a rebellion which is due to dissatisfaction with local government that is considered to be a ditto, an absolute monarchy, and a violation of human rights to its own people. With the conflict in the Middle East is to attract intervention from many countries including the West, led by the United States, Russia and China. Under its foreign policy, the United States wants Syria to overthrow Bashar Al-Assad. In addition, there is another case with Russia and China that support the Assad regime. The Russian presence has actually existed in Syria even before World War II. According to Arab sources and journals in the Middle Ages, Russia laid "ByzantyneArmy" in Syria in the 10th and 11th centuries, and after the agreement of Carlovitz with the Ottoman Empire in 1699 more and more Russian migrants visited Syria on their way to Palestine with various aims there, including within the Orthodox Christian community.117 This made the Orthodox Empire expand its influence to create a consular post operating in Aleppo, Latkia, Beirut, and Saida in 1893.118 Its influence continued to extend to Syria, where they also built seventy- four schools to advance education in Syria in 1905.119 This became a curtain that opened the closeness between Russia and Syria which would eventually become closer. The fall of the Soviet regime in 1991 became a great momentum for countries in the world, especially the United States to expand to the countries of the former Soviet Union alliance. The rivalry between Warsaw Pact and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) finally ended after the Warsaw Pact was dissolved. It is the use of NATO to give its influence to the

117 Kreutz, A. (2007). Russia in the Middle East: Friend or foe? London: Praeger. p. 12. 118 Ibid 119 The Atlantic, accessed on March 16, 2018 https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/12/understanding-syria-from-pre-civil-war-to-post- assad/281989/ accessed on March 16, 2018

closest countries of the Soviet Union in Eastern Europe and including the Soviet Union's partners in the Middle East.120 The breakup of the Soviet Union made many parts of the territory form small new states, but generally still had the dominant region of Russia. Russia started to fix the conditions that exist in the country to be active and dominate again in international politics. Based on the fallout experienced by the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia re-enacted all forms of foreign policy.121 Russia's desire to return to the glory of its past and it was stipulated in several documents security. This is reflected in the policy issued by President Vladimir Putin who wants to restore Russian influence by issuing the National Security Concept in 2000.122 The document explains that Russia has returned to the international political arena and is seeking to restore its past celebrations.123 Russia views the Middle East as a crucial area for it to achieve national interest.124 This prompted Russia to re-reflect on its relation which had been interrupted during the previous administration. In the region, Russia can restart its ambition to become an influential country considering the Middle East region is a Shatterbelt area. Shatterbelt refers to a geographical region with two conditions, in which there is local conflict with or between countries of the region, and there is the involvement of several major power actors from outside the region.125 The Middle East is also a very valuable area for influential countries such as the United States and Russia.126 This is exacerbated with the occurrence of the Arab Spring phenomenon which became one of the issues of interest in the international world.127 Arab Spring is a term often used to describe forms of rebellion that occur in Arab countries in the Middle East such as demonstrations, protests, and armed conflicts.128 The rebellion was due to dissatisfaction with the

120 Krieger, Joel, and Margaret E. Crahan. The Oxford Companion to Politics of the World, 23. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. 121 Foreign Policy, “Everything you know about the collapse of the soviet union is wrong” http://foreignpolicy.com/2011/06/20/everything-you-think-you-know-about-the-collapse-of-the-soviet-union-is- wrong/ accessed on March 16 2018 122 Legvold, Robert. Russian Foreign Policy in the Twenty-first Century and the Shadow of the Past, 310. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007. 123 Ibid 124 Ibid 125 International Encyclopedia of Human Geography: A 12-Volume Set, 227. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2009. 126 Nizameddin, Talal. Russia and the Middle East: Towards a New Foreign Policy, 24. C. HURST & CO. PUBLISHERS, 1999. 127 Ibid 128 Manhire, Toby. The Arab Spring: Rebellion, Revolution, and a New World Order. Guardian Books, 2012.

local government that was considered dictatorial, monarchy-absolute, and committed human rights violations to its own people. On the other hand, Syria is currently experiencing a crisis led by the opposition movement against the government which is considered as a modern aristocracy where people are no longer fulfilled aspirations.129 The Syrian government is seen as part of a dictatorial regime that oppresses the people and instead makes its people suffer. Thus, this has led to protests to bring down government in the form of street demonstrations, media limitations, and military means, followed by opposition to achieve their desires. The process of declining the regime of Bashar Al-Assad which has been started since the early 2000s was judged by the Syrian people to have sacrificed hundreds of lives both from civilians and from the government itself.130 Moreover, the emergence of a new issue that claims the use of harmful chemical weapons used by the Syrian government to fight the opposition that resulted in innocent civilian casualties and the victims of many people. The internal conflict has provoked intervention from many parties including the West and also its opposition.131 The Western side, led by the United States, based on its history and foreign policy on the Arabian Peninsula wants a democratic Syria by overthrowing Assad's regime.132 However, with opposition parties Russia and China are also playing politics in accordance with their interests where if the Assad regime can survive, then it will be a loss for the West.133 With so much interference going on, the complexity of the current crisis in Syria is the result of the conversion of many interests. Russia emerged and actually offered assistance to face international pressure and interference in the settlement of the domestic crisis in Syria. Thus, Russia firmly rejects any form of sanctions that could incriminate Syria in this regard, including economic and political sanctions.134 The UN Security Council

129 Hetou, Ghaidaa. The Syrian Conflict: The Role of Russia, Iran and the US in a Global Crisis. Oxfordshire: Taylor & Francis, 2018. 130 Ibid

agreed to apply Chapter 7 Article 41 of UN Charter, then the path of military intervention would be open to Syria.135 However, along with Russia, China also agreed to free Syria from the path of the Security Council military intervention.136 Thus, three times the veto was dropped for Syria. With the rejection of UN Security Council Resolution for the Syrian Crisis, then it means the United States cannot take military action and must change its strategy by non-military means in Syria.137 Thus, the United States began to provide financial aid to the opposition as a form of support to bring down the Assad regime.138 Russia sees its involvement in Syria as an attempt to protect its investments, as the economic and military ties between Russia and Syria have been going on since the Cold War to this day. Each of all relations between Russian Federation and Syria will be discussed on the next sub-chapters.

III.2. Russian Federation – Syria Economic Relations Economy is a national interest used to improve the economy of a State.139 Economic interests are the interests of a State to improve the economy of the country by fostering realization or cooperation with other countries.140 The way in which a State is used to improve its economy with national interest is by importing and obtaining natural resources from other countries, usually the natural wealth they take is food, oil, and natural gas.141 In World War I oil was a very important need for war and other industrial activities so that countries with abundant oil became ruling at the time.142 To Russia, Syria has a strategic value both militarily and politically as well as economically.143 Syria is Russia's largest arms market in the Middle East.144 Almost all Syrian military equipment is made in Russia. The Soviet Union (before disbanding to

135Nation “UN Chapter 7 allows ‘use of force” https://nation.com.pk/07-Jun-2012/un-chapter-7-allows-use-of- force accessed on march 16 2018

Russia) was the first country to recognize Syria's independence in 1946.145 The Syrian-Russia relations grew stronger after President Hafez Assad, the father of the current President of Syria, held power in Damascus in 1970.146 After Soviet military advisors were expelled from Egypt in 1972, the Soviet Union increasingly relied on Syria ruled by the socialist Baath party to strengthen its influence in the Middle East.147 Soviet-style military equipment flowed more and more into Syria at that time. The Soviet Union is also a guarantee for Syrian political support on the international stage. The Russian-Syrian strategic relationship is illustrated when Russia in 2005 abolished 75 percent of Syrian debt to Russia.148 The vast majority of Syrian debt to Russia comes from the purchase of Russian-made weapons by Syria. Syrian debt to Russia at that time reached 13 billion US dollars. Although Russia was forced to wipe out most of Syria's debt to Moscow, the export of Russian military equipment to Syria actually rose between 7 and 10 percent since then.149 In the midst of incessant anti-regime demonstrations of President Assad in various cities in Syria, in 2012, Russia sent 60 tons of weapons, complete with spare parts.150 In the same year, Russia and Syria last month reached an agreement to supply Syria with 130 Yak-130 fighter jets with a contract value of 550 million US dollars and other military equipment business contracts worth 700 million US dollars so that the current Russian-Syria trade balance it can reach a value of nearly two billion US dollars.151

145 The Hindu, “International Syria Timeline” http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/syria-timeline- 19201960-from-french-mandate-to-merger-with-egypt/article3609575.ece accessed on March 16, 2018 146 Huffington Post, Moscow’s Historical Relationship with Damascus: Why it Matters Now” https://www.huffingtonpost.com/carlo-caro/moscows-historical-relati_b_9065430.html accessed on march 16, 2018 147 New York Times, “Sadat's Ouster of Russians Called Cool and Deliberate” https://www.nytimes.com/1972/07/22/archives/sadats-ouster-of-russians-called-cool-and-deliberate-sadats- move.html accessed on March 16, 2018 148 New York Times, “Russia and Syria bonds are old and deep” https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/19/world/middleeast/for-russia-and-syria-bonds-are-old-and-deep.html accessed on March 16, 2018 149 Huffington Post, Moscow’s Historical Relationship with Damascus: Why it Matters Now” https://www.huffingtonpost.com/carlo-caro/moscows-historical-relati_b_9065430.html accessed on march 16, 2018 150 Business Insider, “A Russian Ship Just Delivered 35 Tons Of Arms To Syria” http://www.businessinsider.com/russia-syria-arms-2012-1/?IR=T accessed on March 16 2018 151 Reuters, “Russia in deal to deliver Syria fighter jets: report” https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-russia- jets-idUSTRE80M1AP20120123 accessed on march 16, 2018

Economic cooperation between Russia and Syria is not only in the field of weapons trading. Russia and Syria also cooperate in the fields of oil, gas and mineral resources. This is proved by the meeting between representatives of Syria and Russia has been held in Moscow on Monday, February 5, 2018.152 The meeting was held to discuss cooperation between the two countries in the field of Oil, Gas, and mineral resources. Syria's Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Resources Ali Ghanem stated that previous cooperation between Damascus and Moscow governments in the same field has been fruitful.153 He stressed the importance of a sustained meeting between the two sides so that an agreed agreement could be immediately undertaken. Meanwhile, the Russian company's envoy stressed the need to continue cooperation with the Syrian government in the energy sector, including geology, exploration, rehabilitation and development of oil, gas, and phosphate mining. III.3. Russian Federation – Syria Security Corporations The strength or weakness of a State in view of the security and defense of the State itself, therefore a State shall make every effort to defend the sovereignty of its State, its territorial integrity, and the salvation of the whole nation from threats and disturbances to the unity of the nation and the State. Then the national interest other than the economy that is often sought by the States is security and defense. These security and defense can be achieved by increasing military bases, technology and quality of the armed forces. If the security and defense of the State can be achieved then the State can create a Balance of Power. Since Soviet times, Russia has a port of military bases in the region Tartus, at the base of the military, is a Russian aircraft carrier used for military training and military defense of Russia in the Middle East. The port is also used by Russia to supply arms to Syria and to military training for the Syrian army.154 Russia also already has a permanent air capture in Syria, precisely at Hmeymin, Latakia Province. By this far, the air base is used to launch an offensive against Syrian anti-government rebel forces. Russia seems to want to inherit Soviet-style facilities in the Mediterranean.155

152 SANA, “Syrian-Russian talks on cooperation in fields of oil, gas, and mineral resources” https://sana.sy/en/?p=126408 accessed on march 16 2018 153 Syrian Arab News Agency, "Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Resources Ali Ghanem." https://sana.sy/en/?tag=minister-of-petroleum-and-mineral-resources-ali-ghanem. Accessed June 16, 2019. 154Rubin, Barry. The Truth about Syria, 55. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2007. 155 Ibid

Syria security does really matter to Russia. Russian Leaders see Syria security is important because if Syria is controlled by rebels who are opponents of the government of Bashar al-Assad and are troops backed by coalition forces led by United States, then everything that is in Russia will be abolished because the coalition forces led by the United States is true. If Syria falls in the hands of rebels or terrorists, then oil exploration agreement and also military procurement in Tartus which is the only Russian military base in the Middle East region will be abolished and destroyed by rebel forces, so it can weaken strength and also Russia. Therefore, Russia has been trying to protect the security of Syria very well.

III.4. Russian Federation Interests in Syria We all know that Russia is included as one of super power countries in the world. Its military strength makes Russia itself is able to be one of super power countries. As a super power country, Russia is quite confident to defend and protect Syria. Despite of having bilateral relations with Syria in economic & politics fields, there are several national interests of Russia which can be achieved by having close relations with Syria. As explained above, Russia and Syria have very strong economic relations which place Russia as the largest weapons exporter of Syria. This can be said as one of Russian Federation interests among Syria. Based on SIPRI, Russian arms exports grew during the past five-year period.156

Figure 3.1 The 10 Largest Arms Exporters, 2012-2016. Source: SIPRI

156 SIPRI, “State major arms transfer graphics” https://www.sipri.org/commentary/blog/2017/state-major-arms- transfers-8-graphics accessed on March 16 2018

Figure above shows the top 10 largest arms exporters from 2012-2016 which there is Russia as one of the arms exporters.157 This obviously will improve the income of Russia, therefore it can be seen as one of Russian Federation interests among Syria. Another interest of Russia towards Syria is the protection towards a port of military bases in the Tartus region. In this study, it is seen that there are only two elements of national interest maintained and abandoned by Russia from Syria. These national interests include economic interests and military interests. Based on the above explanations, it can be seen if the spread of influence of power is a step that can be used by a State to achieve its national interests. With Russia's arms supply agreement to Syria, it will benefit Russia in terms of the economy, with Russia supporting Iraq and Iran's Syrian allies to channel the Syrian (Mediterranean) gas pipeline, and maintaining links with Syrian allies is an attempt by Russia to keeping its influence in the Syrian region so that its national interest can be achieved.

157 SIPRI, “State major arms transfer graphics” https://www.sipri.org/commentary/blog/2017/state-major-arms- transfers-8-graphics accessed on March 16 2018

CHAPTER IV

RUSSIAN FEDERATION POLICY IN THE UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL (UNSC): SOLVING SYRIA CONFLICT (2015-2018)

IV.1. The Beginning of Syria Conflict

The conflict in Syria originated from a protest against the arrest of several students in the small town of Daraa. In March 2011, 15 students aged between 9 and 15 wrote anti-government slogans on the city walls saying “The people want the regime down".158 These children may be inspired by the turbulence in Tunisia that led to President Zainal Abidin bin Ali descended on January 14, 2011, and the Egyptian upheaval that resulted in the fall of President Hosni Mubarak on February 1, 2011.159 Seeing the action of 15 students, Syrian police led by Gen. Atef Najib, President Bashir al Assad's cousin arrested and exposed his children, this child. As a result, there was a wave of protests demanding the release of these children. The army's reaction to the protests was excessive, they tackled the protesters and left four dead. The reaction did not alleviate the protests, in contrast, widespread protests from Deraa to the outskirts of Latakia and Banyas on the Mediterranean Coast or the Mediterranean Sea, Homs, Ar Rasta and Hama in Western Syria, and Deir es Zor in East Syria. These protests and demonstrations later developed into a devastating civil war. This war not only uses conventional weapons as they are used in war, but also uses chemical weapons. There is a view that the current war of Syria is a war between the Shi'i schools represented by Bashar al-Assad and his Sunni-inspired opponents. This view is built on the facts that occurred in Syria: there are two major forces that are fighting, namely Saudi Arabia that follows Sunni and Iran follows Shi'a. Another fact is that the Assad government is supported by Iran and the Hizbullah movement, Iran is a Shia state and the Hizbollah is a Shiite movement based

158 Dailymail, “The boy anti Assad graffiti changed world” http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article- 4312502/The-boy-anti-Assad-graffiti-changed-world.html accessed on March 16 2018 159 The Guardian, “Tunisian President flees country protests” https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jan/14/tunisian-president-flees-country-protests

in Lebanon. Instead the opponents of Assad get support from countries with Sunni schools such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Afghanistan. Referring to the map of the conflict in Syria, the interesting question that needs to be asked is whether the conflict in Syria can then be regarded as a conflict based on theological differences. A conflict occurs not caused by a single cause. Conflict is always born by complex causes and overwhelmed by many factors and interests. The issue of religion is usually one of the trigger factors among the factors that were born as the cause of the conflict. On the basis of this view, it can be understood later, if the Syrian conflict analysts claim that the conflict is not a conflict of theological differences, between Sunni versus Shiite. In an interview with the US network Fox News on Wednesday, September 18, 2013, Bashar al-Assad even called the conflict in Syria not a "civil war" but has been attacked by tens of thousands of foreign jihad fighters allied to al- Qaeda.160 If it is not a religious conflict and neither is your conflict, then what causes the birth of the conflict in Syria, who are the parties involved and plays a key role in the conflict and what impact it will have upon the people of Syria and the international world. Therefore, to find out the source of the Syrian conflict, chronology of the conflict needs to be known, because in the conflict it is true that the knowledge stored is what caused the birth of the conflict in Syria. The Syrian conflict can be traced to protests by a group of students as they write anti-government slogans on the city walls. The slogans read, "The people want the regime down." Syrian government police arrested the students and then imprisoned them for a month.161 During the period of detention, the students were subjected to torture, known after the students were released. Knowing the torture perpetrated by the police, on March 11, 2011, the community then conducted a demonstration held in West-Daraa City protesting the torture committed by the police.162 Security forces attempted to break up the demonstrations, but the demonstrators did not budge until security forces opened fire on the demonstrators.

160 FoxNews, “Assad says one year to destroy chemical arms” FoxNews:http://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/09/19/assad-says-one-year-1-bn-to-destroy-chemical-arms.html 161 The Guardian, “Daraa Protests Syria” https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/mar/23/daraa- protests-syria accessed on March 16 2018 162 Ibid

On March 23, 2011, demonstrations again struck Daraa town, security forces again opened fire to disperse the demonstrators, in this case 20 demonstrators reportedly killed.163 Following the incident, President Bashar al-Assad announced that the government is considering implementing political reforms, including removing restrictions on political parties and abolishing the Syrian emergency law that has been imposed for 48 years.164 But the announcement was ignored by Syrian opposition figures. On March 25, 2011, after Friday prayers, the protests again surfaced in cities all over the country.165 Security forces again attempted to disperse the rallies, but the protests continued to run even intensively. Protests and demonstrations carried out by the Syrian opposition gained resistance from pro-government Syrian people, the resistance was demonstrated by a massive demonstration in Damascus City. On 29 March 2011 the Syrian government announced the resignation of the cabinet, this was done to meet the demands of reforms echoed by the demonstrators.166 One day after, the announcement, President Assad appeared for the first time in public since the riots hit Syria, and delivered a speech before the legislature to quell protests of protesters and claim that the protests were due to foreign conspiracies. But He also admitted that some of the demonstrators' concerns are noteworthy. Assad rejected the opposition's call for an accelerated reform and said the government would continue its plan to introduce reforms gradually. After the speech, Syrian government media announced that Assad had set up a commission to study the possibility of revocation of emergency law. Demonstrations have occurred sporadically across the country, the Syrian government continues to link unrest to foreign conspiracies and sectarian tensions. The government made several concessions aimed at conservative Syrian Muslims and Kurdish minorities. On April 6, 2011, the Syrian government attempted to answer the conservative Muslim unrest by shutting down the only Syrian casino and canceling the 2010 law banning female teachers wearing a niqab, a face-covering

163 Vosizneias, “Daara Syria update 15 dead in new clashes in Southern Syria” https://www.vosizneias.com/79371/2011/03/23/daraa-syria-update-15-dead-in-new-clashes-in-southern-syria- city/ accessed on March 16 2018 164 Ibid 165 The Guardian, “Syria protest spreads troops” https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/25/syria-protest- spreads-troops accessed on March 16 2018 166Aljazeera, “Syrian cabinet resigns amid unrest” https://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/201132975114399138.html accessed on March 16 2018

veil.167 The government also announced that Noruz, a New Year festival Celebrated by the Kurds as a national holiday. However, protests continued, spreading to other cities, resulting in increased use of force by Syrian security forces. On April 8, 2011, security forces opened fire on demonstrators in several Syrian cities, killing at least 35 people.168 Following a report that the death toll has reached more than 200 people. There was international condemnation of the Syrian government. A number of human rights organizations and heads of state called for a halt to violence. Security forces continued to use violence against protesters across the country, Assad appointed a new cabinet and pledged to institutionalize political reforms and repeal Syrian emergency law. On 19 April 2011, the cabinet lifted the emergency law and dissolved the Syria State Security Supreme Court.169 Special courts are used to prosecute anti-government parties. But the Syrian government is also taking steps to defend its power by trying to quell protests. The Syrian government passed a law requiring people to get permission from the government before a demonstration. Syria's newly appointed interior minister urged the Syrian people not to demonstrate by stating that the government will continue to regard demonstration as a national threat. Immediately after the emergency law, the Syrian government increased the use of violence against demonstrators. On April 22, 2011, security forces opened fire on demonstrators gathered after Friday prayers, killing about 75 people, amid international criticism triggered by murder, the Syrian government launched a new strategy to silence public protests by deploying large numbers of troops equipped with tanks and armored vehicles to the cities of Daraa, Baniyas, Homs, and three locations that serve as the center of anti-government.170 In some areas of the country, the government imposed blackouts on access to communications, shutting down

167Reuters, “UK – Syria Assad Niqab” https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-assad-niqab/syria-lifts-niqab-ban- shuts-casino-in-nod-to-sunnis-idUKTRE7353SH20110406 accessed on March 16 2018 168 HRW, “Syria security forces barring protesters medical care” https://www.hrw.org/news/2011/04/12/syria- security-forces-barring-protesters-medical-care accessed on March 16 2018 169 Global Security, “Syria War 2011” https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/syria-2011.htm accessed on March 16 2018 170Washington Post, “Syria protests: 75 protesters reported dead” https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/syria-good-friday-protests-begin-expected-to-be-largest- protests-yet/2011/04/22/AFfJBQOE_blog.html?utm_term=.718af273b194 accessed on march 16 2018

telephone and internet services. In Daraa, security forces cut off supplies of water and electricity. Along with the continuing demonstrations in Syria, the government stepped up resistance against the protesters with military force. In early May 2014, anti- government protests have reached Damascus.171 The protests that took place in the center of Damascus were dealt with by the violence of Syrian government forces also setting up security barricades in some Damascus suburbs attempts to limit the movement of protesters. Following the incident. The European Union (EU) imposed sanctions in the form of travel bans and asset freezes to senior Syrian officials deemed responsible for handling demonstrations. In addition, the EU is also imposing an arms embargo for Syria. Along with the ongoing violence. Syria is also increasingly isolated from its regional allies. In May 2011, Recep Tayyip Edogan, the Turkish Prime Minister, condemned the use of violence against civilians.172 A few weeks later, Turkey gave support to the demonstrators by holding a conference for Syrian opposition members. On June 6 2011, Syrian news agencies reported carrying 120 Syrian troops ambushed and killed by a group of armed men in the northern city of Jisr al-Shugur.173 Local people doubted the truth of the news by stating that Syrian troops were killed by government forces for refusing to fire on demonstrators. Responding to the incident the Syrian military launched a severe attack causing thousands of people to flee and cross the Turkish border.174 Assad's regime continued to use violence against protesters in July and August, as well as launching military strikes against a number of Cities including Hammah and Latakia. The bloodshed continues to reap international condemnation calling on Assad to resign from his post as President. In early November 2011, Syrian officials approved an Arab League initiative calling on the Syrian government to stop violence against

171 Telegraph, “Hundreds across Syria protest against Assad for the first time in years” https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/12183779/Hundreds-across-Syria-protest- against-Assad-for-the-first-time-in-years.html accessed on march 16 2018 172 Republic of Turkey Ministry Foreign Affairs, Press Statement by H.E. Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, The Prime Minister of the Republic of Turkey on Libya, 3 May 2011 http://www.mfa.gov.tr/press-statement-by-h_e_- recep-tayyip-erdogan_-the-prime-minister-of-the-republic-of-turkey-on-libya_-3-may-2011.en.mfa accessed on march 16 2018 173 Washington Post, “Syria says protesters killed 120 soldiers” https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/syria- claims-security-forces-killed-by-protesters/2011/06/06/AGJuYNKH_story.html?noredirect=on accessed on march 16 2018 174

demonstrators withdraw tanks and armored vehicles from the cities, and release political prisoners.175 Some see the approval of the Syrian government as a tactic to gain time. One day later, violence resumed in the city of Homs. Under international pressure, the Syrian government in December allowed the visit of the Arab League delegation to monitor the implementation process of the strategy. Despite the ongoing violence, the assessment provided by the monitoring team tended to be positive, drawing criticism from human rights groups and the Syrian opposition. In mid-January 2012, the credibility of delegates who have resigned claimed that Syrian government forces had provided false reports of video footage being engineered.176 After some Arab countries withdraw their team members from positions as Arab League observers officially suspended the continuity of the monitoring mission on January 28 on grounds of violence. After the failure of the monitoring mission of the Arab League violence continues to increase. In early February 2012, Syrian troops launched a Homs attack by bombarding opposition-held territory for several weeks.177 That same month, the Arab League and the UN jointly appointed Kofi Annan, the former Secretary General of the United Nations, as a peace envoy to Syria. Annan's efforts to stop violence as faced by the Arab League in 2011 were thwarted by the reluctance of the Syrian regime to comply with the agreed agreements. The ceasefire voiced by the UN has reduced the number of violence in mid-April. But the ceasefire lasted only a few days before a conflict between government troops and the opposition recurred. The United Nations suspended its monitoring operation in June for security reasons. Due to the increasing number of violence that occurred during the summer of 2012, Annan resigned in August and was replaced by Algerian diplomat, Lakhdar Brahimi.178

175BBC, “Syria 'to accept' Arab League monitoring mission” http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east- 15791532 accessed on march 16 2018 176The Guardian, “Syrians support Assad western propaganda” https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/jan/17/syrians-support-assad-western-propaganda accessed on March 16 2018 177BBC, “Homs: Syrian revolution's fallen 'capital'” Retrieved from BBC: http://www.bbc.com/news/world- middle-east-15625642 accessed on march 16 2018 178 Al Jazzera, “Algerian diplomat tipped as UN envoy to Syria” https://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/08/20128107480677998.html accessed on march 16 2018

In early 2012, international observers and members of the opposition assumed that the Syrian National Council based in Istanbul was still too weak to be able to represent the Syrian opposition group. In November 2012, the Syrian opposition leader announced the formation of a new coalition called the National Coalition for the Syrian Revolution and the Military Power of the Syrian National Coalition Opposition. Within a month the coalition received recognition from various countries as the legitimate representative of the people of Syria. In the next month, some countries recognize the Syrian National Coalition as a party that can effectively represent opposition groups. By the end of 2012, the military situation seems to be approaching a dead end. The rebel fighters control the northern region of Syria but face difficulties in providing equipment, weapons, and organizational aspects. Meanwhile, government troops are also getting weaker due to a number of apparatuses who turned to the opposition. Fighting continues every day in the contested areas, leading to a growing civilian victimization. With the lack of development going on in Syria, allied countries with Syrian and rebel sides alike have stepped up their support which has led to an increased chance of a civil war. Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Qatar's efforts to fund and arm the rebels are increasingly seen at the end 2012 and early 2013, while the Syrian government continues to receive weapons from Iran and the Lebanese militant group Hezbollah. Late in 2012, Hezbollah also began sending its own fighters into Syrian territory to fight the rebels.179 A new round that allows the use of international military action in the Syrian region is strengthening after alleged use of chemical weapons in the suburbs of Damascus by the Assad regime that killed hundreds of people on August 21, 2013. Syrian opposition groups claimed that pro Assad forces had carried out the attack. Syrian officials denied the use of chemical weapons and insisted that if chemical weapons were used in the offensive the blame was on the rebel army. The UN envoy found evidence of chemical weapons at several locations in Syria. The United States, Britain and France condemned the use of chemical weapons by the Assad regime and planned to take military action. Assad also declared against what he called Western aggression.

179 VOX, “Syrian Refugees War – Iran Hezbollah” https://www.vox.com/cards/syrian-refugees-war-assad/iran- hezbollah accessed on March 16 2018

The likelihood of a military intervention in Syria begins to fade at the end of August. Most Americans and Britons oppose military action plans. British efforts to carry out a Syrian military offensive were thwarted by the parliament on 29 August. Voting held at the American Congress was also postponed, on 10 September. Meanwhile, the diplomatic path was intensified by various parties that resulted in an agreement between Russia, Syria and the United States on September 14 to place all chemical weapons owned by Syria under international control. There are diverse perspectives on issues that are the main source of the Syrian conflict. First, the social, economic and political problems in the country faced by Syria. These problems include high unemployment, high inflation, limited opportunities for social mobility, restrictions on political freedom, and repressive security forces and Second, the demands of some Syrians to reform and regenerate the regime of Bashar al-Assad. Since 1963, the Syrian government was dominated by the Baath Party, then the family of al-Assad, Hafidz al-Assad who ruled from 1970 until his death in 2000, and was succeeded by his son, Bashar al-Assad and ruled from 2000 to now.180 For forty years under the rule of the Assad clan (Hafez al-Assad and his son Bashar al-Assad) Syria's economic and social development is far from satisfactory. Syria belongs to a middle-income developing country. The economy has been sustained mainly by oil and agriculture, since 2004 Syria has been subjected to economic sanctions by the United States that prohibits or restricts import-export to Syria.181 The Assad clan has been in power for too long so there is reasonable political saturation. In March 2011, along with a wave of uprisings in Arab countries, such as Egypt and Tunisia, demo action took place in Syria. The protesters demanded reform, the withdrawal of President Bashar al-Assad, the opening of freedom of political parties, freedom of speech, and economic improvement. Demonstration was responded by the government of Syria has given some concepts and meet the demands of the people. As already mentioned, on April 21, the government has formally announced the lifting of an emergency law that has been in place since 1963 on the

180 Biography, “Bashar Al Assad biography” https://www.biography.com/dictator/bashar-al-assad accessed on march 16 2018 181 U.S Department of State, “Syria Sanctions” https://www.state.gov/e/eb/tfs/spi/syria/ accessed on march 16 2018

grounds that the country is in a state of emergency as it is faced with threats from Israel and militant groups. The emergency law is considered a violation of human rights because it gives the Government the flexibility to ban political meetings and arrest people suspected of endangering the country's stability. But all the negotiating efforts by Assad were ignored by the opposition because their main demands were Assad's resignation, as happened in Egypt, Tunisia and Libya. Yet the view that the factors causing the Syrian conflict are the demands for the replacement of the Bashar al-Asaad regime as a result of the Arab spring rejected by humanitarian activist MER-C Joserizal Journalist. According to him, if demands for regime change are a contributing factor to the conflict and war in Syria why the same is not the case in Qatar and Saudi Arabia, the two countries are no more democratic than Syria but why the Arab Spring demands democratization actually happened in Syria after previously occurred in Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya. In Joserizal's view, democratic demands in Syria are the triggers of conflict and warfare, not the main factor causing conflict and war. Jose's view is true, especially when it is associated with actors involved in the conflict. Initially, the face-to-face conflict in Syria was between Bashar al Asaad's regime and the opposition, but in its development the conflict widened its escalation due to the inclusion of jihad fighters such as al-Qaeda to Syria. In Jose's view there are two factors to the cause of the war in Syria unfinished until now. These two factors are first, Syria is a militarily powerful state and intelligence. Both Syria always show resistance to Israel. Such Syrian conditions make countries like Israel, the United States, NATO, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Turkey lend their support to the struggling opposition of Assad. Conflicts and wars in Syria are thus more attributed to the interests of the countries surrounding Syria, namely Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and Israel. Third, another factor that is often referred to as the cause of the conflict in Syria is the dominance of the Shi'a Alawiyah minority over Syrian politics.182 The dominance, in addition to giving birth to discrimination against Sunni schools and restrictions on the movement of the Ikhawanul Muslimin group, also gave birth to the elite Shiites of Alawiyah over the various sectors of the economy in Syria.

182 Kerr, Michael, and Craig Larkin. The Alawis of Syria: War, Faith and Politics in the Levant, 215. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015.

This factor is also often referred to as conflicts and wars in Syria as conflicts and religious interfaith warfare in Islam. Syria is led by Bashar al-Asaad who bernizhab Shi'ah Alawiyah, while Asaad's opposition comes from Sunni Islam school. Assad's regime is underpinned by Iran and Hezbollah with Shi'a schools, while Asaad's opponents are backed by Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, al-Qaeda, Jabhat al- Nusro in the Sunni sect. The difference of religious schools as the cause of the Syrian conflict is also rejected by Dina Y Sulaeman, according to the madhhab factor in the Syrian conflict is the trigger of the conflict is not the main cause. The reason is because the conflict in Syria involves many actors, not just opposition to Sunni Assad opposition, but also involving leaders of countries such as America, France and Britain. The involvement of the various parties in the conflict in Syria made the conflict that occurred since March 11, 2011 was never seen to subside. Victims recorded since the conflict until April 2013 has reached 92,900-100,000 people.183 Quoting Hinnebusch, Dina Y. Sulaeman also stated that Assad's regime is not a regime built on the religious ideology and teachings of Shi'i Alawy as its base.184 Assad's regime is a "populist authoritarian regime". Assad's government faces external threats (Israeli) and internal instability so choose to be authoritarian for the sake of state stability. But at the same time, Assad seeks to build the country by seeking the support of middle and lower class society. Assad is very concerned with the importance of support arising from the hearts of the people, not the compliance that arises from fear of the regime. His government policy is very populist by providing free health care and free schools to university. Assad's regime not only contained Alawy's people, even Assad actually refused to become Alawy's leader by raising people outside Alawy into prominent figures in government and military. Figures outside Alawy are seen in the composition of the military leadership such as 43% Sunni and 37% Alawy, while the composition of ministers 58% Sunni and 20% Alawy, his side filled by Druze, Ismaili, and Christian.185

183 The Guardian, “2013 death toll of Syrian conflict” https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/13/death- toll-syrian-conflict-93000 accessed on March 16 2018 184 The Global Review, “Syria and the future of the world” http://theglobal- review.com/lama/content_detail.php?lang=en&id=12407&type=4#.WvM51dR94rg accessed on mach 16 2018 185Research Gate, “Radikalisme dan idelogisasi pada tajuk berita syiah bukan islam dan syiah alirans esat pada situs Arrahmah.com

The source of the problem of the Syrian conflict is very complex, there are domestic problems such as social, economic, and political, there are business interests of other countries' gas in Syria, and there is also the problem of sectarian sectarian anthropology. All these problems are intertwined and complicated to decipher which of these problems are dominant as the main cause of the prolonged conflict. If simplified the source of the Syrian conflict can be divided into two, first, come from within the country, namely social, economic and political problems in the form of high unemployment, high inflation, limited social mobility, rampant corruption, lack of political freedom, repressive security forces. Second, comes from abroad, in the form of political and economic interests. Turkey for example ambitious to become a major player in the Middle East therefore the country is interfering in the Syrian conflict. Qatar and Saudi Arabia fear Iran is helping Syria, Israel is also concerned about the fall of Assad's government because Syria has allied itself with Iran, Hamas and Hezbollah in opposing Israel. Syria is even a very hard country against Israel. While the Western countries have an interest in natural gas in Syria. The Syrian conflict can be said to be a long-lasted conflict as it continues to this day.

IV.2. Actors Involved in Syria Conflict

There are many actors who play important roles in the Syrian conflict in three groups; first, President Bashar al-Assad and his supporters; second, the Syrian opposition, and third, the Jihadist group. Saudi Arabia, Iran, Turkey, the United States and Russia also play important roles in the Syrian conflict. Each of them has different goals. President Assad seeks to defend his state and government, while the opposition seeks to seize Assad's power, while the jihadists, seeks to seize power and the state of Syria by declaring the Caliphate, the Islamic State of Iraq and Sham (ISIS), while the other countries mention also have different visions.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320008946_Radikalisme_dan_Ideologisasi_pada_Tajuk_Berita_Syiah _Bukan_Islam_dan_Syiah_Aliran_Sesat_pada_Situs_Arrahmahcom accessed on March 16, 2018

1. President Bashar al-Assad and his Supporters

President Bashar al-Assad began to assume the post of Syrian President in 2000, replacing his father.186 At the beginning of his reign, he positioned himself as a reformer but sharp criticism slid when people did not feel any significant change. Strong protests against the Assad regime emerged in March 2011 that led to civil war to date.187 The Assad regime is supported by the Alawi, Druze and Ismaili minorities, many Christians support Assad because of his secular policy. Iran, Russia and China are the countries that support Assad's regime, in addition to being supported by the country; Assad's regime also gained support from Lebanon's Hizbullah group. The Lebanese Hezbollah leader declared that his Shi'ite militant group would not remain silent when his alliance groups in Damascus were attacked. Shaykh Hassan Nasrallah even claimed that Hezbollah members were fighting in Syria against extremist Islamic groups endangering Lebanon, and vowed that his group would not allow Syrian militants to take over territories bordering Lebanon. Syria along with Iran, has been a key supporter of Hezbollah. It is believed that thousands of rockets belonging to the group are from Syria.

2. Syrian opposition

There are two opposition groups opposing and rebelling the Assad regime: First, Syrian rebel groups include Free Syrian Army (FSA), Syrian National Council (SNC) and Syrian National Council for Opposition and Revolutionary Forces (SNCORF) the American initiative in Doha, Qatar The coalition consists of 60 members from 22 former SNC members, representatives from each of Syria's major cities, and a number of Syrian rebel leaders residing abroad. The United States and a number of other countries have recognized the coalition as a representative of the Syrian community. (Canada has not yet decided). The elected President of SNCORF is Moaz alKhatib of the Muslim Brotherhood, while Prime Minister Ghassan Hitto, a Syrian businessman of Kurdish descent, has for the past 30 years been the US. However SNCORF then broke and al-

186 New York Times, “Transition in Syria Leader” https://www.nytimes.com/2000/06/11/world/transition-in- syria-syria-s-leader-assad-dies-clouding-mideast-prospects.html accessed on March 16, 2018 187BBC, “Syria conflict: from peaceful protest to civil war” http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east- 21797661 accessed on march 16, 2018

Khatib and some members of SNCORF resigned. In July 2013, veteran rebel Ahmad Jarba was named Coalition president in July 2013.188 Jarba is a majority ethnic member from Eastern Syria. Jarba is believed to have close ties with Saudi Arabia. Second, the Opposition Group of nonviolence, anti-sectarianism, and foreign anti-intervention; they are members of a coalition called National Coordination Body for Democratic Change. 3. Jihadists & ISIS Groups The jihadist group is a group affiliated with al-Qaeda. At first this group helped the Syrian opposition in the rebellion against the Assad regime, but in its development they no longer assisted the opposition but had its own agenda to form the caliphate. Among these jihadist groups are Jabha al-Nusrah, Ahrar al-Sham kataeb, Liwa 'al- Tauhid, Ahrar Souria, Halab alShahba, al-Harakah al-Fajr al-Islamiyah, Dar al- Ummah, Liwa Jaish Muhammad, Liwa' alNasr, Liwa 'Dar al-Islam and others; The Jihadist group claimed responsibility in a number of suicide bombings targeted against the Syrian government during the civil war in the country.189

In December 2012, the United States declared jihadist group Jabhat alNusra a terrorist group.190 It is intended to prevent the involvement of extremists in the Syrian opposition group. The leader of Al-Nusra expressed his allegiance to the Al-Qaeda group in the spring of 2013.191 But the group has refused to join other Al-Qaeda groups, the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS), which has expanded its operations into Syria. (Al-Qaeda halts its relationship with ISIS in February 2014) The groups have engaged in warfare between each other, including the FSA, which indicates a split in the opposition movement. It is estimated to reach 4.1 million people. According to UNOCHA (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs), it adds to the burden of international aid organizations who must spend 12.9 billion USD to help 52 million people vulnerable to conflict in 17 crisis sites around the world. Almost half of the grants are needed to address the impact of the Syrian conflict. In November 2013, the

188 Carneige, “Ahmad al-Jarba” http://carnegie-mec.org/diwan/53176?lang=en accessed on march 16 2018 189 American Foreign Policy Council. The World Almanac of Islamism 2017, 237. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2017. 190 Economist, “Syria's jihadists” https://www.economist.com/blogs/pomegranate/2012/12/jabhat-al-nusra accessed on march 16 2018 191 BBC, “Syria crisis: Al-Nusra pledges allegiance to al-Qaeda” http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east- 22095099 accessed on march 16 2018

Oxford Research Group reported that at least 11,000 Syrian children have been killed by the conflict.192 The information was obtained through UN data and four groups of human rights defenders in Syria. Another source said the number of casualties had touched 100,000. Since September 2013, UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees) has set at least 2 million Syrians as refugees in four of its neighbors Jordan, Iraq, Lebanon and Turkey.193 Hundreds of thousands of others live outside the region without access to international aid. The impact of the Syrian conflict has reached an alarming stage, not only for Syrian residents who have been forced to flee, but has also raised its own problems in neighboring countries. A total of 21 refugee camps have been established in the Turkish region under the authority of Prime Ministry Disaster & Emergency Management Presidency. In early 2014, ISIS began to emerge.194 ISIS is the most powerful and feared armed group. The Sunni group is backed by former military expert Saddam Hussein's elite troops from Iraq. Its members come from various European countries. Most young people, militant, radical, and have expertise in the field of military and information technology. ISIS now controls large areas in Syria and Iraq.

4. Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is a supporter of the Sunni insurgent group in Syria. Saudi Arabia is keen to overthrow the Assad regime and dampen its hegemony of support, namely Iran. They also fight against IS so as not to get stronger. Riyadh has an interest so that Syria does not collapse, which will drag Lebanon and Iraq and the whole region to a chaotic situation. Saudi Arabia is also a part of ISSG (International Syria Support Group).195 In September 2013, Saudi Arabia together with Australia, Canada, France, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the

192 Fox News “11000 children killed in Syrian war” http://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/11/25/report-claims- 11000-children-killed-in-syrian-war.html accessed on March 16 2018 193 UNHCR, “Million Syrians Refugees” http://www.unhcr.org/news/press/2013/9/522484fc9/unhcr-million- syrians-refugees.html accessed on March 16 2018 194 PBS, “The secret history of ISIS” https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/film/the-secret-history-of- isis/transcript/ accessed on March 16, 2018 195 United Nations, “United Nations correspondents statement – International Syria support” https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2016-05-17/note-correspondents-statement- international-syria-support accessed on March 16, 2018

United States of America made the following statement on the margins of the Group of 20 Nations Leader’s Meeting in Saint Petersburg, Russia: “We commit to supporting longer term international efforts, including through the United Nations, to address the enduring security challenge posed by Syria’s chemical weapons stockpiles. Signatories have also called for the UN fact finding mission to present its results as soon as possible, and for the Security Council to act accordingly”.196

On November 14 2015, Saudi Arabia together with other members of ISSG held a meeting in Vienna concerning the agreement to support and work to implement a nationwide ceasefire in Syria to come into effect as soon as the representatives of the Syrian government and the opposition have begun initial steps towards the transition under UN auspices on the basis of the Geneva Communique.197 The five Permanent Members of the UN Security Council pledged to support a UNSC resolution to empower a UN-endorsed ceasefire monitoring mission in those parts of the country where monitors would not come under threat of attacks from terrorists, and to support a political transition process in accordance with the Geneva Communique.

5. Iran

As a protective nation of Shiites, Iran supports Hezbollah militia in Lebanon fighting to defend Al Assad's regime. Iran also sent troops and advisors to Damascus. At first the presence of Iran was not considered. But the development of the situation led to other big players now beginning to embrace the government in Tehran for the Syrian crisis solution. Iran joined the Geneva peace talks in November 2015 after the US dropped its longstanding opposition to Iranian involvement. Iran is also a member of ISSG (International Syria Support Group).198 In January 23-24 2017, Iran together with

196 Saudi Embassy, “Joint Statement Syria 2013” https://www.saudiembassy.net/press-release/joint-statement- syria accessed on March 16, 2018 197United Nations, “ISSG Statement” https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2015-11- 14/note-correspondents-statement-international-syria-support accessed on March 12, 2018 198 United Nations, “United Nations correspondents statement – International Syria support” https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2016-05-17/note-correspondents-statement- international-syria-support accessed on March 16 2018

Russia and Turkey held a Syria Talks in Astana, Kazakhstan.199 The talks is summarized in their joint statement: “The delegations of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Russian Federation and the Republic of Turkey, in line with the Joint Statement of their Foreign Ministers made in Moscow, on December 20, 2016 and the UN Security Council resolution 2336; Support launching the talks between the Government of the Syrian Arab Republic and the armed opposition groups in Astana on January 23-24, 2017; Appreciate the participation in and facilitation of the above-mentioned talks by the UN Secretary-General Special Envoy on Syria; Reaffirm their commitment to the sovereignty, independence, unity and territorial integrity of the Syrian Arab Republic as a multi-ethnic, multi-religious, non-sectarian and democratic State, as confirmed by the UN Security Council”.200

6. Turkey

From the start of the Syrian war, Turkey has been one of the main backers of the Syrian opposition. Turkey has fought alongside non-Kurdish factions in the Syrian opposition, including the Free Syrian Army (FSA).201 Ankara is afraid of the creation of a Kurdistan state in Syria. Therefore by all means this will be prevented. Turkey also "trains" Syrian rebels with US assistance. President Recep Tayyip Erdogan was also at odds with Assad. In addition the Kurds in Iraq are also getting stronger because of Iranian support. This is what makes Turkey mobilize its military to the border or through it. Turkey has been heavily involved in the Geneva talks and has co- sponsored the Astana negotiations. It has staunchly opposed Kurdish factions attending peace talks. The same as Saudi Arabia and Iran, Turkey is also a member of ISSG (International Syria Support Group).202

199 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of The Russian Federation.(n.d.). Retrieved from Ministry of Foreign Affairs of The Russian Federation, “JOINT STATEMENT BY IRAN, RUSSIA, TURKEY ON THE INTERNATIONAL MEETING ON SYRIA IN ASTANA, JANUARY 23-24th, 2017” http://www.mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/news/- /asset_publisher/cKNonkJE02Bw/content/id/2610777 accessed on march 16 2018 200 Ibid 201 Ahval News, “Turkish backed fsa declares start operation against Kurdish” https://ahvalnews.com/fsa/turkish-backed-fsa-declares-start-operation-against-kurdish-ypg-syria accessed on March 16 2018 202 United Nations, “United Nations correspondents statement – International Syria support” https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2016-05-17/note-correspondents-statement- international-syria-support accessed on March 16 2018

Relations between Russia and Turkey were shattered in November 2015 when a Turkish F-16 fighter shot down a Russian SU-24 bomber carrying out missions over Syria, leading to the deaths of two Russian servicemen. This condition however triggered their joint plans toward Syria as in 2016, Turkey together with the Russian Federation Turkey and Russia agreed on a proposal for a general ceasefire in Syria.203 In 2017, Turkey together with Iran and Russia held a Syria Talks in Astana, Kazakhstan resulting joint statement: “The delegations of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Russian Federation and the Republic of Turkey, in line with the Joint Statement of their Foreign Ministers made in Moscow, on December 20, 2016 and the UN Security Council resolution 2336; Support launching the talks between the Government of the Syrian Arab Republic and the armed opposition groups in Astana on January 23-24, 2017; Appreciate the participation in and facilitation of the above-mentioned talks by the UN Secretary-General Special Envoy on Syria; Reaffirm their commitment to the sovereignty, independence, unity and territorial integrity of the Syrian Arab Republic as a multi-ethnic, multi- religious, non-sectarian and democratic State, as confirmed by the UN Security Council”.204

In 2018, another International Syria meeting held in Astana Kazakhstan participated by Turkey, Iran and Russian Federation.205 The meeting resulting joint statement as follows: The Islamic Republic of Iran, the Russian Federation and the Republic of Turkey as guarantors of the Astana format: 1. Reaffirmed their strong commitment to the sovereignty, independence, unity and territorial integrity of the Syrian Arab Republic and to the purposes and principles of the UN Charter. 2. Highlighted that these principles should be universally respected and that any action that might violate them and undermine achievements of the Astana format should be avoided. 3. Rejected all attempts to create new realities on the ground under the pretext of combating terrorism and expressed their determination to stand against separatist agendas aimed at undermining the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Syria as well as the national security of neighboring countries. 4. Discussed the current situation on the ground in Syria, took stock of the recent developments following their last meeting in Sochi on 30-31 July 2018

203 The Guardian “Turkey and Syria agree terms – Syria casefire” https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/28/turkey-russia-agree-terms-syria-ceasefire accessed on March 16 2018 204 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of The Russian Federation.(n.d.). Retrieved from Ministry of Foreign Affairs of The Russian Federation, “JOINT STATEMENT BY IRAN, RUSSIA, TURKEY ON THE INTERNATIONAL MEETING ON SYRIA IN ASTANA, JANUARY 23-24th, 2017” http://www.mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/news/- /asset_publisher/cKNonkJE02Bw/content/id/2610777 accessed on march 16 2018 205 Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Kazakhstan, “Joint statement by Iran Russia and Turkey on International Meeting on Syria in Astana 2018” Republic of Kazakhstan: http://mfa.gov.kz/en/content- view/joint-statement-by-iran-russia-and-turkey-on-the-international-meeting-on-syria-in-astana-28-29- november-2018 accessed on March 16 2018

and underscored their determination to strengthen their trilateral coordination in light of their agreements 5. Examined in details the situation in the Idlib de-escalation area and reaffirmed their determination to fully implement the Memorandum on Stabilization of the Situation in the Idlib De-escalation Area of 17 September 2018. In this regard they expressed their concern with the ongoing violations of the ceasefire regime, and declared that, as guarantors of the ceasefire regime, they would step up their efforts to ensure observance with it, including by enhancing work of the Joint Iranian- Russian-Turkish Coordination Center. They stressed the importance of a lasting ceasefire while underlining the necessity to continue effective fight against terrorism. They also emphasized that under no circumstances the creation of the above-mentioned de-escalation area should undermine the sovereignty, independence, unity and territorial integrity of the Syrian Arab Republic. 6. Reaffirmed their determination to continue cooperation in order to ultimately eliminate DAESH/ISIL, Nusra Front and all other individuals, groups, undertakings and entities associated with Al-Qaeda or DAESH/ISIL as designated by the UN Security Council. They called upon all armed opposition groups in Syria to completely and immediately dissociate from the above- mentioned terrorist groups.206 7. Strongly condemned any use of chemical weapons in Syria and demanded that any reports in this regard should be investigated promptly and professionally in full compliance with the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction and by the OPCW as the main international competent authority to establish use of chemical weapons. 8. Underlined their firm conviction that there could be no military solution to the Syrian conflict and that the conflict could be resolved only through the Syrian-led and Syrian-owned, UN-facilitated political process in line with the UN Security Council resolution 2254. 9. Reaffirmed their determination to step up joint efforts to launch the Constitutional Committee in Geneva, that would enjoy support of the Syrian parties, in accordance with the decisions of the Syrian National Dialogue Congress in Sochi and decided to intensify their consultations on all the levels to finalize its establishment at the soonest possible time. 10. Welcomed the successful development of the "pilot project" within the framework of the Working Group on the release of detainees/abductees and handover of the bodies as well as the identification of missing persons. The release of the detainees on 24 November 2018 constituted a step forward in implementing confidence-building measures between Syrian parties to contribute to the viability of the political process and normalization of the situation on the ground. In this regard they reiterated their commitment to further advance the efforts of the Working group. 11. Emphasized the need to continue all efforts to help all Syrians restore normal and peaceful life as well as alleviate their sufferings. In this regard, they called upon the international community, particularly the United Nations and

206 Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Kazakhstan, “Joint statement by Iran Russia and Turkey on International Meeting on Syria in Astana 2018” Republic of Kazakhstan: http://mfa.gov.kz/en/content- view/joint-statement-by-iran-russia-and-turkey-on-the-international-meeting-on-syria-in-astana-28-29- november-2018 accessed on March 16 2018

its humanitarian agencies, to increase their assistance to Syria by providing additional humanitarian aid, restoring humanitarian infrastructure assets, including water and power supply facilities, schools and hospitals. 12. Highlighted the need to create conditions for the safe and voluntary return of refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) to their original places of residence in Syria. They reaffirmed their readiness to continue interaction with all relevant parties, including the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other specialized international agencies, in particular in the context of rendering assistance to preparing and convening the International conference on Syrian refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs). 13. Expressed their appreciation to Mr.Staffan de Mistura, the UN Secretary- General Special Envoy on Syria, for his efforts to seek peaceful solution for the Syrian crisis and for his constructive interaction and cooperation with the Astana format during his mission. 14. Expressed their sincere gratitude to the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, His Excellency Nursultan Nazarbayev and the Kazakh authorities for hosting in Astana the 11th International Meeting on Syria. 15. Decided to hold the next International Meeting on Syria in Astana in early February 2019.

7. United States

Washington's involvement in the region began in 2003 with the overthrow of Iraqi ruler Saddam Hussein.207 The power vacuum triggered the collapse of Iraq and the destabilization of security down to Syria. This condition also creates an Islamic State (IS) capable of controlling large areas in Iraq and Syria. The US also financed "moderate" rebel training with $ 500 million, partly crossed into Al-Qaeda.208 The involvement began further and stronger in 2015 as United States started to be a member of ISSG (International Syria Support Group).209 In 2015, United States a agreed to Russian Federation on rules on Syrian sky.210 Washington had given weapons and military training to moderate rebel factions fighting against government forces loyal to President Bashar Assad, but the US ended

207 The Guardian “Syria could be next, warns Washington” https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/apr/13/syria.iraq1 accessed on march 16 2018 208 The Guardian, “Obama seeking $500 million training moderate Syrian rebels” https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/26/obama-seeking-500m-training-moderate-syrian-rebels accessed on March 16 2018 209 United Nations, “Correspondents Statement – International Syria support” https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2016-05-17/note-correspondents-statement- international-syria-support accessed on March 16 2018 210 NY Times, “US and Russia agree to regulate all flights over Syria” https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/21/world/middleeast/us-and-russia-agree-to-regulate-all-flights-over- syria.html on March 16 2018

military aid in 2017 and later cut some $230 million (€198 million) in reconstruction aid.211 The US has provided air support and weapons to the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), an alliance of Kurdish and Arab forces fighting against "Islamic State" (IS) militants in northern Syria. Several hundred US special forces were deployed alongside the SDF.212 The US also has been leading an international coalition of nearly 60 countries, including Germany, targeting IS and other extremist groups with airstrikes since late 2014.213.His own advisers later walked back that statement leaving US allies unclear what the country's exact policy would be. The US had remained steadfast in a commitment to trying to destroy IS in Syria and Iraq. However, its intentions on other issues have become unclear.214 In 2017, Trump told reporters that the US has "very little to do with Syria other than killing IS".215 But up to that point it had been deeply involved in brokering a ceasefire between government and opposition forces. The Trump administration has also given conflicting signals as to whether the US would oppose a peace deal keeping Assad in power. The US also seeks to block Iran and the Lebanese Shiite militia Hezbollah from establishing a permanent presence in Syria that could threaten Israel. Washington has supported UN peace talks held in Geneva since 2012 between representatives from the Assad government and the Syrian opposition. But those talks have so far failed to reach a breakthrough. Both sides have disagreed about whether Assad's departure should be a precondition for any final settlement.216 In 2017, President Trump and President Putin met at the APEC conference in Da Nang, Vietnam, confirmed their determination to defeat ISIS in Syria.217 They expressed their satisfaction with successful U.S.-Russia enhanced de-confliction efforts between U.S. and Russian military professionals that have dramatically accelerated ISIS’s losses on the battlefield in recent months. The Presidents agreed to maintain open

211 CBC, “Syria aid US Cuts” https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/syria-aid-us-cuts-1.4789383 accessed on March 16, 2018 212 DW, “What do the US Russia Turkey and Iran want” https://www.dw.com/en/syria-conflict-what-do-the-us- russia-turkey-and-iran-want/a-41211604 accessed on March 16, 2018 213 Ibid 214 Mattair, Thomas R. Global Security Watch--Iran: A Reference Handbook, 144. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2008. 215 Ibid 216 DW, “What do the US Russia Turkey and Iran want” https://www.dw.com/en/syria-conflict-what-do-the-us- russia-turkey-and-iran-want/a-41211604 accessed on March 16, 2018 217 U.S Department of State, “APEC Conference – Trump and Putin meeting” https://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2017/11/275459.htm accessed on march 16, 2018

military channels of communication between military professionals to help ensure the safety of both U.S. and Russian forces and de-confliction of partnered forces engaged in the fight against ISIS. They confirmed these efforts will be continued until the final defeat of ISIS is achieved.218 The US has largely avoided direct conflict with pro- regime forces, but in 2017 US President Donald Trump ordered airstrikes on a Syrian airbase in response to a government chemical weapons attack against civilians. However, Trumped surprised allies in December 2018 when He announced the unilateral withdrawal of US troops in Syria, saying: "We have defeated ISIS in Syria".219 Despite many countries opposed Trump’s policy to withdraw U.S forces from Syria. The policy went anyway. On December 7, 2018, the Turkish-U.S. High-Level Working Group on Syria met for the third time, in Ankara.220 This meeting resulting their joint statement: “Both sides reaffirmed their resolve to fight terrorism in all its forms and manifestations originating from within Syria and beyond. They committed to accelerated and concrete progress on the Manbij Roadmap by the end of the year. They agreed to continue to work on joint planning with regard to other areas as mentioned in the Manbij Roadmap. Turkey and the United States share a commitment to address effectively the security concerns of both countries consistent with their obligations to one another as Allies, and look forward to continued progress on issues of mutual interest regarding the ongoing crisis in Syria. For this purpose, both sides agreed to increase the frequency of Working Group meetings on Syria. They decided to convene the next High-Level Working Group on Syria meeting in Washington, D.C. no later than February 2019”.221

8. Russian Federation

Moscow has long backed the Assad regime. It has provided government troops with air support and weapons and given it diplomatic backing at the UN and in international peace talks.222 Russia also has troops on the ground. Moscow is known as a regime supporter in Damascus. In the late 2015, Russia decided to launch an air raid

218 U.S Department of State, “APEC Conference – Trump and Putin meeting” https://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2017/11/275459.htm accessed on march 16, 2018 219 Ibid 220 Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Turkey, “No: 330, 7 December 2018, Turkey-U.S. Joint Statement on Syria” http://www.mfa.gov.tr/no_-330_-turkiye-ve-abd-tarafindan-yapilan-suriye-konulu-ortak- aciklama_en.en.mfa on march 16, 2018 221 Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Turkey, “No: 330, 7 December 2018, Turkey-U.S. Joint Statement on Syria” http://www.mfa.gov.tr/no_-330_-turkiye-ve-abd-tarafindan-yapilan-suriye-konulu-ortak- aciklama_en.en.mfa on march 16, 2018 222 Erlich, Reese. Inside Syria: The Backstory of Their Civil War and What the World Can Expect. Amherst: Prometheus Books, 2016.

on IS.223 This military operation sparked criticism among NATO. The US and Turkey claim Russian air strikes aimed at anti-Assad rebel groups. The incident of shooting Russian jets by the Turkish military has warmed the situation. The statement showing Syria as Russian Federation priority can be seen on Russian Federation policy – article IV No.93: IV. Regional Foreign Policy Priorities of the Russian Federation 93. Russia stands for a political settlement in the Syrian Arab Republic and the possibility for the people of Syria to determine their future based on the Geneva communiqué of June 30, 2012, statements by the International Syria Support Group and relevant UN Security Council resolutions. Russia supports the unity, independence and territorial integrity of the Syrian Arab Republic as a secular, democratic and pluralistic State with all ethnic and religious groups living in peace and security and enjoying equal rights and opportunities. Moscow wants to keep Assad — its closest ally in the Middle East — in power and secure its military influence in the region.224 It has an important military airbase in the western province of Latakia and a naval base in the Syrian port city of Tartus. Russian leaders support a peace deal with broad consensus among Syria's moderate factions that would allow Assad to remain in power. It has also hinted it may support limited autonomy for opposition forces in certain regions within Syria. While supporting the Geneva negotiations, Moscow has also sponsored talks between the Syrian government and the opposition in Astana, Kazakhstan that began in January 2017. Iran and Turkey are also parties to the talks came up with their joint statement: “The delegations of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Russian Federation and the Republic of Turkey, in line with the Joint Statement of their Foreign Ministers made in Moscow, on December 20, 2016 and the UN Security Council resolution 2336; Support launching the talks between the Government of the Syrian Arab Republic and the armed opposition groups in Astana on January 23-24, 2017; Appreciate the participation in and facilitation of the above-mentioned talks by the UN Secretary-General Special Envoy on Syria; Reaffirm their commitment to the sovereignty, independence, unity and territorial integrity of the Syrian Arab Republic

223Telegraph, “Russia launches airstrikes in Syria” https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/11903681/Russia-launches-airstrikes-in-Syria-as-it- happened-on-Wednesday-30-September.html accessed on March 16, 2018 224 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of The Russian Federation, “JOINT STATEMENT BY IRAN, RUSSIA, TURKEY ON THE INTERNATIONAL MEETING ON SYRIA IN ASTANA, JANUARY 23-24th, 2017” http://www.mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/news/-/asset_publisher/cKNonkJE02Bw/content/id/2610777 on march 16 2018

as a multi-ethnic, multi-religious, non-sectarian and democratic State, as confirmed by the UN Security Council”.225 The Astana process strives to create "de-confliction zones" that can reduce violence and pave the way for political talks. At the same year, together with United States declared their joint statement to fight against ISIS.226 In 2018, the Congress of the Syrian national dialogue held in Sochi, January 30, 2018.227 The congress resulting principles which one of is “respect of and full commitment to the sovereignty, independence, territorial integrity and unity of the [Syrian Arab Republic/ state of Syria] as a land and a people”.228

IV.3. United Nations Security Council in Solving Syria Conflict

The authority of the Security Council in achieving its primary objectives, particularly in the maintenance of international peace and security, is conducted in two ways: peaceful dispute resolution (Chapter VI of the Charter) and the settlement of disputes in the form of acts against the threat of peace, peace breaches and aggression (Chapter VII Charter).229 In essence, the Security Council's authority is a logical consequence of the Security Council's primary responsibility. Chapter VI The charter governing the settlement of disputes peacefully, authorizes the Security Council to make recommendations for dispute resolution procedures and conditions.230 The task of the Security Council in the United Nations is classified as an executive task, but the task is mainly limited to the areas of peace, security and weapons management. In dealing with inter-state disputes, the Security Council should seek peaceful settlement. In the event that the business is unsuccessful and arises threats and

225 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of The Russian Federation, “JOINT STATEMENT BY IRAN, RUSSIA, TURKEY ON THE INTERNATIONAL MEETING ON SYRIA IN ASTANA, JANUARY 23-24th, 2017” http://www.mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/news/-/asset_publisher/cKNonkJE02Bw/content/id/2610777 on march 16 2018 226 U.S Department of State “Joint Statement by the President of the United States and the President of the Russian Federation”https://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2017/11/275459.htm on march 16 2018 227 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of The Russian Federation, “Final statement of the Congress of the Syrian national dialogue, Sochi, January 30, 2018” http://www.mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/news/- /asset_publisher/cKNonkJE02Bw/content/id/3046246 on march 16 2018 228 Ibid 229 United Nations, "Pacific Settlement of Disputes (Chapter VI of UN Charter)." https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/pacific-settlement-disputes-chapter-vi-un-charter. Accessed June 16, 2019. 230 Ibid

violations for peace and aggression, the Security Council is authorized to make recommendations and to establish the necessary actions. Under the Charter of the United Nations, the functions and authorities of the Security Council are as follows: 1. To maintain international peace and security in accordance with the principles of the purposes of the United Nations. 2. To investigate any dispute or situation that may cause international conflict. 3. To recommend the method of resolving the conflict or its terms of settlement. 4. To formulate a plan for the establishment of a system in arranging arms. 5. To determine whether there is a threat to peace or an act of aggression and to recommend what action to take. 6. To call members to impose economic sanctions or other measures that do not involve the use of force to prevent or stop aggression. 7. To take military action against the aggressor. 8. To recommend acceptance of new members. 9. To carry out the UN trust function in the "strategic area". 10. To recommend to the General Assembly regarding the appointment of the Secretary-General and together with the Assembly, to elect an International Court of Justice.231

As explained before, the Syrian uprising began with a public demonstration on 26 January 2011, a demonstration of which was grounded by the frustration of the Syrian people against the authoritarian and arbitrary regime of Bashar al-Assad against his subjects.232 The protesters demanded the resignation of President Bashar al-Assad, the overthrow of his government and the end of almost five decades of the reign of the Ba Party "and replacing the Islamic system which is in the shade of the Khilafah. Baath Party itself is a party that carries the ideology Baath "isme, which containing Arab Nationalism and Socialism values, or can be said also the ideology of" typical "Arab socialism.233

231 United Nations, “United Nations Security Council Functions and Powers” https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/functions-and-powers accessed on March 20 2018 232 BBC, “Syria conflict: from peaceful protest to civil war” https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east- 21797661 on march 20 2018 233 Bidwell. Dictionary Of Modern Arab History, 327. London: Routledge, 2012.

This ideology was introduced by a Christian Syrian intellectual, Michel Aflaq, at a time when European colonialism still grabbed the Middle East after the decline of the Ottoman Ottoman state in 1924.234 The Syrian government deployed Syrian troops to quell the uprising, and some besieged towns. A chemical weapons watchdog group (OPCW) reported Wednesday, September 10, 2014 that Syrian troops had systematically and resolved to use chlorine as a weapon in the ongoing civil war in the country.235 The Hague Chemical Banning Organization says its team found evidence on the ground that soldiers are using toxic gas in villages in northern Syria. A full review by the Associated Press found 13 people killed in the attack and dozens more injured. Chlorine is not on the list of chemicals that Syria must disclose as part of a chemical disarmament deal in 2013.236 The chemical weapons watchdog organization based its report on testimony from victims, doctors, first aid workers and witnesses, and health documents. In accordance with the provisions on the prohibition of the use of chemical weapons, the Security Council held an attempt to ban the use of chemical weapons agreed by the world. Based on the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) which was the incarnation of the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva on 3 September 1992, The CWC has the task of verifying strict member states' compliance with the use of chemical weapons.237 The CWC was held in Paris on 13 January 1993 and the treaty entered into force on 29 April 1997.238 The CWC was the result of the first disarmament treaty authorized for the elimination of all categories of weapons of mass destruction under international control. In order to smooth and campaign the CWC to all countries in the world, especially conflict-prone countries, the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) is established, with the responsibility to prepare the CWC procedures to run well and should. The 189-member organization representing about

234 Prio, “Nationalism Under Pressure: Islamic State, Iraq and Kurdistan” https://www.prio.org/Publications/Publication/?x=7566 accessed on march 20 2018 235 BBC, “Syria crisis: Chlorine gas used in attacks, says OPCW” http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29146039 accessed on march 20 2018 236 Reuters, “Syria chemical weapons wild card – chlorine gas” https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis- chlorine/syrias-chemical-weapons-wild-card-chlorine-gas-idUSBREA3L11I20140422 accessed on March 20 2018 237 United Nations, “United Nations disarmament chemical” https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/chemical/ accessed on March 20 2018 238 OPCW, “Chemical weapons convention – genesis and historical development” https://www.opcw.org/chemical-weapons-convention/genesis-and-historical-development/ accessed on March 20 2018

98% of the world's population is based in The Hague-Netherlands.239 The mission of OPCW is to implement the provisions of the CWC in order to destroy chemical weapons and protect member states from possible attacks on the use of chemical weapons. The OPCW team began doing work after a breakthrough resolution from the UN Security Council in September requested that Syria's chemical weapons inventory be destroyed. The resolution came after a chemical attack on the outskirts of the capital Damascus on 21 August 2013 that killed hundreds of people, and followed the threat of attacks from the United States against the regime of Bashar al-Assad.240 The resolution passed by the UNSC has two demands. First, Syria must surrender all chemical weapons reserves. Second, international chemical weapons experts are given free access to make sure it is done. The deadline for chemical weapons surrender is mid-2014.241 The UN Security Council also formed a group called United Nations Supervision Mission in Syria (UNSMIS). The mission was established in 2012 as a result of Security Council Resolutions in response to the conflict taking place in Syria.242 The mission was led by Maj. Gen. Robert Mood of Norway until July 20, 2012 followed by Lt. Gen. Babacar Gaye of Senegal.243 The mission consists of 300 unarmed military monitors and 100 civilian staff.244 The mission was to monitor the implementation of the ceasefire in April 2012.245 The operation was postponed on June 16, 2012 on the grounds of increased violence. On July 20, 2012, the Security Council extended this mission with a final 30 day period.246 According to United Nations Security Council Resolution No.2059, the Council shall only consider the extension of time in accordance with the report of the Secretary-General and the Council confirming the cessation of heavy weapon use

239 United Nations, “United Nations disarmament – chemical” https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/chemical/ accessed on March 20, 2018 240 United Nations.(n.d). Retrieved from United Nations: https://www.un.org/press/en/2013/sc11135.doc.htm 241 The Guardian, “Syria misses chemical weapons deadline” https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/05/syria-misses-chemical-weapons-deadline accessed on March 20, 2018 242 United Nations Peacekeeping “UNSMIS background” https://peacekeeping.un.org/mission/past/unsmis/background.shtml accessed on March 20, 2018 243 Ibid 244 Ibid 245 Ibid 246 United Nations Peacekeeping, “UNSMIS mandate” https://peacekeeping.un.org/mission/past/unsmis/mandate.shtml accessed on March 20, 2018

and the decline of sufficient levels of violence by all parties to enable UNSMIS to exercise its mandate.247 Those are not the only things done by United Nations Security Council (UNSC) in solving Syria conflict. The other way done by United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is by creating draft resolutions related to Syria conflict.

IV.4. Russian Federation Policy in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC): Solving Syria Conflict (2015 -2018)

Efforts done by United Nations Security Council cannot be separated with each member state. As we all know, Russian Federation is included as one of United Nations Security Council permanent member states. Russia has been using its efforts to solve Syria conflict. Through this chapter, efforts done by Russian Federation in the United Nations Security Council Decision to solve Syria Conflict (2015-2018) will be explained.

IV.4.1 Russian Federation and Its Veto Power on United Nations Security Council (UNSC): SolvingSyria Conflict (2015 – 2018)

The veto is a privilege owned by the 5 largest permanent members of the UN Security Council, commonly called "the big five". The five countries are the US, Britain, France, China and Russia (in lieu of the Soviet Union). The privilege is the right to refuse or cancel a UN Security Council decision. Although the term veto itself is not contained in the UN Charter, the five permanent members of the UN Security Council have what is called a "veto". Thus, if one of the permanent members of the UN Security Council uses its veto to reject a decision that other members have agreed upon, then the decision cannot be implemented. The existence of this veto is very closely related to the position and authority of the UN Security Council. These functions and powers include: a) Authority to elect the Chair of the General Assembly in which the General Assembly has a very important meaning in the survival of the United Nations;

247 United Nations Peacekeeping, “UNSMIS mandate” https://peacekeeping.un.org/mission/past/unsmis/mandate.shtml accessed on March 20, 2018

b) The authority to recommend a state to enter as a new member of the United Nations; c) Authority to recommend a country to withdraw from UN membership; d) Authority to amend the UN Charter; e) Authority to elect judges to be sitting in the International Court of Justice.248

The veto possessed by the major powers was initially discussed regularly when formulating the UN Charter, both at Dumbarton Oaks and at Yalta, and in San Francisco.249 That to the five countries deemed to be very responsible for the settlement of World War II would be a permanent member of the UNSC and to be granted a veto, it is a reward of their responsibility for international peace and security (primary responsibilities). By law the power possessed by the permanent members of the UNSC is a privilege given to them. But legally they have no obligations or responsibilities that are different from other UN member states.250 The Charter only determines that the primary responsibilities for international peace and security are with the UNSC and not the permanent members of the Security Council. At the discussion at Dumbarton Oaks, there was a difference in the formulation of the article on the veto. The US wants to have rules that limit the use of veto, for example in the matter of order. Likewise, the voice of the country which is the party to the dispute discussed in the Security Council shall have no voting rights, also for the permanent members of the UN Security Council, the country cannot exercise its veto rights. The Soviet Union rejected US opinion and wanted a full veto without restrictions. In Yalta, the talk of the veto continued, the discussion focused on the permanent members of UNSC. The permanent members of UNSC who have veto rights are required to abstain from voting taken for dispute settlement in which they are the parties to the dispute. The Soviet Union was fervently struggling to exercise its veto rights in all cases without regard to the ideal concept in law that no one can

248 United Nations, “United Nations Functions and Powers” https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/functions-and-powers accessed on March 20, 2018 249 Ibid 250 United Nations, United Nations Charter” http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/un-charter-full-text/ accessed on March 20, 2018

be a judge in his own case. Finally the USSR accepted US suggestions that permanent members of UNSC should abstain if there is a vote to be taken about a dispute in which they are a party to a dispute. In Article 27 paragraph 1 of the Charter of the United Nations, it is said that each member of UNSC has one vote.251 If the provisions of Article 27 paragraph 1 are related to Article 27, paragraph 3, then there will be a distinction between the permanent members of UNSC and UNSC unqualified members.252 This difference lies in non-procedural and procedural issues. In a non-procedural matter it was determined that the decision should be decided by at least 9 votes, including the unanimous vote of the five permanent members of UNSC.253 As for the procedural problem it is determined that the decision will be taken at least 9 votes of UNSC members (not necessarily by unanimous permanent members of UNSC).254 This provision shows how much the role and influence of permanent members of UNSC in the decision-making process, because for important issues concerning international peace and security (non-procedural) there should be their unanimous approval (without veto). The power of veto which was originally intended as a tool for UNSC to have sufficient strength, in practice has deviated from the original intention. It turned out that the use of veto by the five permanent members of UNSC, especially the US has been used with no limit. Thus, it further emphasizes that the conception of veto puts the five member states of UNSC have a higher position and / or sovereignty than other UN member states. But precisely the concept is contrary to the principle of the sovereign equality.

251 United Nations, United Nations Charter” http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/un-charter-full-text/ accessed on March 20, 2018 252 United Nations Legal.(n.d). Retrieved from United Nations Legal: http://legal.un.org/repertory/art27.shtml 253 United Nations Security Council, “UNSC meetings-votings” nhttp://www.un.org/en/sc/meetings/voting.shtml accessed on March 20, 2018 254 Ibid

Figure 4.1 Number of resolutions vetoed by each of the five permanent members of the Security Council between 1946 and 2018 Source: Wikipedia

Figure 4.1 shows how Russian Federation has been using its veto right often compared to the other members. According to United Nations Security Council, in 2015, there was no veto used by Russian Federation to end Syria Conflict. However, in 2015, Russia began building a military air base in Khmeimim, Latakia in August 2015 as an effort to end Syria conflict.255 Combat operations began on September 30, 2015, and the presence of Russia guaranteed Assad's victory.256 Different with 2015, there have been 9 vetoes used by Russian Federation from 2016-2018 to end Syria war.

Meetings conducted by the Security Council in 2016 (in reverse chronological order)

Meeting Date Press Topic Security Council Record Release Outcome / Vote

S/PV.7785 8 October SC/12545 The Draft situation in resolutionS/2016/846 vetoed by the Middle Russian Federation East 11-2-2 Draft resolutionS/2016/847 not adopted 4-9-2

S/PV.7825 5 SC/12609 The Draft December situation in resolutionS/2016/1026 vetoed by the Middle China and Russian Federation East 11-3-1

Table 4.1 Vetoes used by Russian Federation to end Syria Conflict in 2016 (Source: UNSC)

255 RT, “Russian airbase in Syria: RT checks out everyday life at Latakia airfield” https://www.rt.com/news/317528-latakia-russian-khmeimim-airbase/ accessed on march 20 2018 256 Reuters, “Russia begins Syria air strikes in its biggest Mideast intervention in decades” https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-russia/russia-begins-syria-air-strikes-in-its-biggest-mideast- intervention-in-decades-idUSKCN0RU0MG20150930 accessed on march 20 2018

1. 8 October 2016, 2.30 P.M at UNSC 7785th Meeting, New York Russia vetoed a UN resolution aimed at stopping the bombing of Aleppo on Saturday, prolonging the division and paralysis of the Security Council in the face of the Syria’s humanitarian disaster.257 The Russian ambassador to the UN, Vitaly Churkin, was presiding over the UN Security Council, cast the veto against a Franco-Spanish resolution that had demanded an end to all aerial bombardment and over flights of Aleppo by Russian and Syrian regime aircraft. The resolution also called for a resumed ceasefire and the delivery of humanitarian supplies to besieged population.258 China abstained, further isolating Russia on the issue, along with Angola. Venezuela was the only other country to vote with Russia against the resolution. A Russian counter-resolution, which omitted mention of aerial bombardment, was voted down with nine votes against and four in favor.259 “Instead of investing energy in peace and diplomacy, Russia has supported, facilitated and cooperated with the Syrian regime in order to retake and destroy areas standing against Al-Assad, literally killing off those who want a moderate, peaceful and pluralistic future, free from both the barbarism of Al-Assad and the horrors inflicted by Da’esh and other terrorists in Syria. And it is Syrian civilians who continue to bear the brunt of that cruelty and Russia’s complicity”.260 Said Vitaly Churkin during the meeting.

2. 5 December 2016, 2.25 P.M at UNSC 7825th Meeting, New York On 5 December 2016, Russian Federation together with China vetoed UN Security Council resolution draft calling for a seven-day shutdown in the Syrian city of Aleppo.261 Russia assumed that a ceasefire would only create a group of terrorists to re-group. Therefore Russia vetoed the draft resolution proposed by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC).

257 The Guardian, “Russia vetoes UN Resolution – Syria – bombing Aleppo” https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/oct/08/russia-vetoes-un-resolution-syria-bombing-aleppo accessed on March 20 2018 258 Ibid 259 Ibid 260 Independent, British Diplomat speech on United Nations condemning Russia support Syria civil war” https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/british-diplomat-speech-united-nations-condemning- russia-support-syria-civil-war-a7353671.html accessed on March 20 2018 261 United Nations, “UN Press” https://www.un.org/press/en/2016/sc12609.doc.htm accessed on march 20 2018

Meetings conducted by the Security Council in 2017 (in reverse chronological order)

Meeting Date Press Topic Security Council Record Release Outcome / Vote

S/PV.7893 28 SC/12737 The Draft February situation resolutionS/2017/172 vetoed by in the China and Russian Federation Middle 9-3-3 East

S/PV.7922 12 April SC/12791 The Draft situation resolutionS/2017/315 vetoed by in the Russian Federation Middle 10-2-3 East

S/PV.8073 24 October SC/13040 The Draft situation resolutionS/2017/884 vetoed by in the Russian Federation Middle 11-2-2 East

S/PV.8105 16 SC/13072 The Draft November situation resolutionS/2017/962 vetoed by in the Russian Federation Middle 11-2-2 East Draft resolutionS/2017/968 not adopted 4-7-4

S/PV.8107 17 SC/13076 The Draft November situation resolutionS/2017/970 vetoed by in the Russian Federation Middle 12-2-1 East

Table 4.2 Vetoes used by Russian Federation to end Syria Conflict in 2017 Source: United Nations Official Website

1. 28 February 2017, 11.30 A.M at UNSC 7893rd Meeting, New York The United Nations accused Syrian President Bashar al-Assad of using chemical weapons in a civil war that has been in place since 2011. The draft resolution prepared by Britain, France and the United States was brought to trial on Tuesday, February 28, 2017, gaining support from nine countries.

While Russia, China and Bolivia refused. The other three members of the Security Council, Kazahkstan, Ethiopia and Egypt abstain.262 Syria survived the UN Security Council sanctions after the decision of the world institution backed by Western powers was vetoed by Russia and China. Russian President, Vladimir Putin warned that the imposition of sanctions on Syria during the peace talks in Geneva took place was inappropriate and would undermine efforts to end a six-year war.263 Therefore, a veto was used again by Russian Federation in order to end Syria conflict

2. 12 April 2017, 3 P.M at UNSC 7922nd Meeting, New York On 12 April 2017, Russia vetoed the UN Security Council resolution on the establishment of an investigation into the use of chemical weapons in Syria.264 The veto has thwarted the adoption of a UN Security Council resolution to investigate the use of chemical weapons in the Douma district of Syria to identify the perpetrators. Russia's deputy ambassador to the UN Vladimir Safronkov, said one of the reasons his side vetoed the resolution was that the resolution had blamed one side, in this case the Syrian government, even before the investigation began. He added, “accepting this resolution is tantamount to justifying US air strikes against the Shayrat air base in northern Syria.”265 Where, Washington claims the base is where aircraft carrying chemical weapons to attack Idlib take off.

3. 4 October 2017, 10 A.M at UNSC 8073rd Meeting, New York Russia vetoed a UN Security Council effort to renew its mandate to continue an investigation into who was responsible for the use of chemical weapons during the Syrian civil war. China voted abstained in voting on

262 United Nations, “Security Council Fails to Adopt Resolution Condemning Chemical Weapons Use in Syria, Following Veto by Russian Federation” 263 Ibid 264 Ibid https://www.un.org/press/en/2017/sc12791.doc.htm accessed on march 20, 2018 265 United Nations, “United Nations Press 2017” https://www.un.org/press/en/2017/sc12791.doc.htm Accessed on March 20, 2018

Tuesday, while Bolivia joined Russia in a vote by not voting. Eleven countries voted in favor of the proposal. Russia complained that the resolution presented to the UN Security Council to extend the OPCW’s mandate had been brought forward in haste before its report had been provided to the UN Security Council.266 Russia pointed out that this was obviously inappropriate and appeared intended to led authority to the report before it was published.267 Russia assumed that there was actually no need to bring forward a resolution to extend the OPCW’s mandate in that way, and that the more correct time to bring such a resolution forward was after the report had been submitted to the UN Security Council for its consideration.268

4. 16 November 2017, 3 P.M at UNSC 8105th Meeting, New York Russia again vetoed UN Security Council resolutions seeking a fresh investigation into the use of chemical weapons in Syria.269 The decision made Russia and the United States fight each other argument whereas hours later White House Spokesman Sarah Sanders said President Donald Trump believed he could work with President Vladimir Putin on the issue of Syria. Russia's UN ambassador, Vassily Nebenzia said the US-made draft resolution was unbalanced, thus, Russian Federation rejected the draft resolution through its veto right.

5. 17 November 2017, 6.15 P.M at UNSC 8107th Meeting, New York As the previous day Russian Federation vetoed UN draft resolution concerning investigation into the use of chemical weapons in Syria, on 17 November 2017, Russian Federation used its veto right again to reject UN Security Council draft proposed by the United States to extend the mandate of inquiry into the use of chemical weapons in the war in Syria.270 As reported by

266 The Duran, “Russian outmarts Nikki Haley in UNSC Debate” http://theduran.com/russia-nebenzia-outmanoeuvres-nikki-haley-un-security-council-khan-sheikhoun/ accessed on march 20 2018 267 Ibid 268 Ibid 269 UNSC Research, "Security Council - Quick Links."Last modified June 1158. https://research.un.org/en/docs/sc/quick. 270 United Nations, “Security Council Fails for Fourth Time to Renew Mandate of Joint Mechanism Investigating Chemical Weapons Attacks in Syria”

Reuters, with this veto, Russia again thwarted UN efforts to extend the mission work that has revealed the use of Sarin gas by the Syrian military. Russia itself has filed a counter-resolution, but countered the board for not getting support. Nebenzia said that he was very disappointed and those who voted against the Russian design. The Russians said that the panel’s investigation was “nonsense,” and that renewal of its mandate would require improved methods of establishing culpability for chemical weapons attacks.271

Meetings conducted by the Security Council in 2018 (in reverse chronological order)

Meeting Date Press Topic Security Council Record Release Outcome / Vote

S/PV.8190 26 SC/13225 The Draft resolutionS/2018/156 vetoed February situation by Russian Federation in the 11-2-2 Middle S/RES/2402 (2018) East 15-0-0

S/PV.8228 10 April SC/13288 The Draft resolutionS/2018/321 vetoed situation by Russian Federation in the 12-2-1 Middle S/2018/175 not adopted East 7-6-2

Table 4.3 Vetoes used by Russian Federation to end Syria Conflict in 2018 Source: United Nations Official Website

1. 26 February 2018, 3 P.M at UNSC 8190th Meeting, New York

In 2017, Russia used its veto power to thwart the draft UN Security Council resolution, which would pressure Iran for failing to prevent its

https://www.un.org/press/en/2017/sc13076.doc.htm accessed on march 20 2018 271 New York Times, “Syria chemical weapons – United Nations” https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/17/world/middleeast/syria-chemical-weapons-united-nations-jim.html accessed on March 20 2018

weapons from falling into the hands of Houthi rebels in Yemen.272 The resolution was submitted by the British and strongly supported by the United States. In a UNSC ballot session held on Monday, February 26, 2018, the draft resolution was approved by 11 countries from 15 UNSC member states, but was thwarted by Russia exercising its veto rights.273 As for China and Kazakhstan chose abstain and Bolivia refused. Nebenzia also warned that targeting Iran could lead to dangerous destabilization consequences in the Middle East, with rising tensions between Shiites and Sunnis. Russia has long maintained a very good relationship with Iran. Russia and Iran also provide military support for the regime of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad in the fight against the rebels in Syria.274

2. 10 April 2018, 3 P.M at UNSC 8228th Meeting, New York

On 10 April, 2018, Russia used its veto on the United States' proposed resolution framework in the United Nations Security Council, which contained calls for an investigation into alleged use of chemical weapons in Douma, Syria.275 Twelve of the 15 members of the UNSC support the resolution framework, including France, Britain, African countries, Kazakhstan and Kuwait. Bolivia opposes the resolution framework, while China abstains.276 The US battle with Russia at the United Nations comes amid threats of Western military action in Syria. This is related to US President Donald Trump who claims to consider military action in Syria. US Ambassador to the United Nations Nikki Haley also called for similar things, and insist his country will act with or without UNSC support. The resolution frame requires nine UNSC support members and without veto from five permanent members - Britain,

272 UNSC Research, "Security Council - Quick Links."Last modified June 1158. https://research.un.org/en/docs/sc/quick. 273 New York Times, “Iran – Yemen security council” https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/26/world/middleeast/iran-yemen-security-council.html accessed on March 20 2018 274 King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies. Tenuous Allies: Iran and Russia’s Brittle Syrian Collaboration, 9. King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies (KFCRIS), 2016. 275Reuters, “Russia vetoes US bid to form new Syria chemical weapons” https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-un-vote/russia-vetoes-u-s-bid-to-form-new-syria- chemical-weapons-inquiry-idUSKBN1HH37O accessed on March 20 2018 276 Ibid

China, France, Russia and the United States. Russian Ambassador to the UN, Vassily Nebenzia assumed that the United States deliberately designed this resolution as an excuse to launch military action in Syria. Thus, Russian Federation vetoed the resolution framework proposed by the United States. Those are vetoes used by Russian Federation in order to end Syria conflict from 2015 until 2018. This shows how Russian Federation has been doing many efforts through its policy in the United Nations Security Council to end Syria conflict (2015-2018).

IV.5. Syria Conflict Progression

The conflict of Syria is still happening as in recent times, news of Syria and the atrocities of the war that he experienced re-emerged.277 Such headlines seem to oscillate from periodic absence and existence, inserting tragedies among other not-so-distant narratives. However, for those within the frame of events, our action is only a responsive action that does not root out the problem from its roots - the human ego that is sealed within the artificial boundaries of the state, power, and ideology. The authority of the Security Council in achieving its primary objectives, particularly in the maintenance of international peace and security, is conducted in two ways: peaceful dispute resolution (Chapter VI of the Charter) and the settlement of disputes in the form of acts against the threat of peace, peace breaches and aggression (Chapter VII Charter). In essence, the Security Council's authority is a logical consequence of the Security Council's primary responsibility.278 Chapter VI The charter governing the settlement of disputes peacefully, authorizes the Security Council to make recommendations for dispute resolution

procedures and conditions.279 State media said, dozens of unidentified casualties. The Syrian military said facilities in the province of Hama and Aleppo were attacked, without mentioning any casualties. However, a UK-based monitoring group said 26 pro-government fighters were killed, most of them Iranians on Monday, April 30, 2018.280

277 Human Rights Watch, "World Report 2019: Rights Trends in Syria." Last modified January 23, 2019. https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2019/country-chapters/syria. 278 United Nations, "Chapter VI." https://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/chapter-vi/index.html. Accessed March 12, 2018 279 Ibid 280 New York Times, “Strikes – Syrian Iran Israel”

The person behind the attack is still unknown. The West and Israel have previously bombed the sites in Syria. Earlier this month, the United States, Britain and France bombed three facilities they said were linked to the Syrian government's chemical weapons program.281 Meanwhile, Israel is suspected of having attacked an air base in Homs province reportedly serving as Iran's unmanned drone command center and containing Iran's advanced air defense system. Seven Iranian soldiers were among the 14 military personnel killed in the attack.282 Israel has repeatedly pledged to stop its arch-rival Iran from strengthening its military presence in Syria, Iran's closest ally. Syrian military sources quoted by the official Sana news agency said that the locations targeted on Sunday night were hit with new aggression. The source added that the strike came after the terrorist organization suffered a defeat in the capital's rural Damascus, a clear reference to retake the recent Eastern Ghouta region of the rebel group. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR), a UK-based monitoring group, said the attack appears to have targeted weapons depots for surface-to-surface missiles at the 47th Brigade military base near the town of Salhab, in western Hama province.283

Figure 4.2 Large Explosion of Missile Attack in Syria 30 April, 2018 Source: New York Times https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/30/world/middleeast/strikes-syria-iran-israel.html accessed on March 20 2018 281 The Guardian, “US UK and France launch attack on Assad regime” https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/14/syria-air-strikes-us-uk-and-france-launch-attack-on-assad- regime accessed on March 20 2018 282 Times of Israel, “Syria blames Israel for missle attack” https://www.timesofisrael.com/syria-blames-israel- for-missile-attack-idf-wont-comment/ accessed on March 20 2018 283 Haaretz, “Explosions reported in Assad army base, North of Homs – Syria” https://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/syria/explosions-reported-in-assad-army-base-north-of-homs-syria- 1.6035801 accessed on March 20 2018

Figure 4.2 shows the missile attack in Syria on 30 April, 2018. This thing shows how Syria conflict is a never ending conflict because although it has been lasted since 2011, the conflict is still happening. Around 20,000 people were killed in Syria in 2018, the eighth year of its ongoing civil war between the government of President Bashar Assad and rebel and jihadi fighters, the Syrian Observatory on Human Rights reported on Monday. Some 6,500 civilians were among the total killed, the group added.284

284 Haaretz, “Explosions reported in Assad army base, North of Homs – Syria” https://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/syria/explosions-reported-in-assad-army-base-north-of-homs-syria- 1.6035801 accessed on March 20 2018

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Based on the research done by the researcher, Russian Federation has been using nine vetoes in United Nations Security Council (UNSC) decisions to end Syria conflict. Nine vetoes used by Russian Federation in United Nations Security Council (UNSC) decision lasted from 2015 to 2018.285 Those nine vetoes cannot be separated from pros and contras. Some agree to what Russia has done, and some do not. The pro ones agree that through its vetoes, Russian Federation has been helping Syria to protect its defense. On the opposite side, some assume that what Russian Federation has done will only make the situation in Syria worse as the Syrian war itself has killed at least 340.000 people since it firstly happened in 2011.286 That number includes 100,000 more civilians. The total number of deaths continues to rise, while the diplomatic keys of international force holders are continuing to stop the brutal conflict Meanwhile, more than 119,000 pro-government forces have been killed, including 62,000 Syrian troops, tens of thousands of loyalist militia members, and 1,556 fighters from the Lebanese Hizbullah movement.287 Another 59,000 fighters came from rebel groups, and US-backed Syrian Democratic forces were also killed. The jihad group also suffered the biggest blow, with more than 62,200 people dead, or an increase of 4,000 since the last data in July 2017. The war in Syria has also destroyed most of the country's infrastructure and caused millions of people to flee.288 It resulted 3 (three) major crisis in Syria and to all citizens. These have certainly caused the impacts of civil society: First, security crisis where security is a situation where there is no threat to burden or affect the life of people in a region. Security is one of the main factors of a person living or living in an area. The Syrian conflict that continues to this day has caused a

285 United Nations Security Council, "Security Council - Quick Links." https://research.un.org/en/docs/sc/quick. Accessed March 12, 2018 286 Arab News, "Syria War Has Killed More Than 340,000." Last modified November 27, 2017. http://www.arabnews.com/node/1199981/middle-east. 287 Ibid 288 Ibid

threat to public security. These violent conflicts have produced millions of lives. Many civil society homes have been victimized by the heavy weapons used by both the opposition and the government, with the intention of seizing and controlling the territory in Syria. Moreover, every day is not certain when and where bomb attacks or sudden shots are always waged. This is certainly a concern for civil society because at any time they can be victims of the armed conflict. In addition, this conflict became increasingly out of control and increasingly violent when in 2013 chemical weapons attacks were used in March and August in one of the areas in Aleppo and Damascus. This event has resulted in many deaths and paintings, mostly children. The bravery of the use of chemical weapons shows that all means will be taken and used by the party to be able to control the territory, although it has been banned by the international world. Thus, it has threatened the security of Syrian civilian life. Second, the economic crisis, beginning the longstanding Syrian conflict from 2011 to the present, has continued to escalate from year to year. The subsequent impact of the long-standing conflict on civil society is the economic impact, which is the most important aspect of living the daily life. The conflict has used a variety of heavy weapons that add to the destruction of Syria itself which will hamper the daily activities of civil society. The heavy weapons usage through air strikes to the use of chemical weapons has adorned the conflict in this country of thousands of Damascus. Attacks that use these weapons have significantly destroyed various public infrastructures of state and private assets including health, education, energy, water, agriculture, transportation, homes and various other infrastructures. Reports from the World Bank's Needs and Damage Assistance Agency state that the damage was created in six provincial capitals in Syria, namely Alepo, Dera, Hama, Homs, Idlib and Latakia where the total damage to the six capitals was estimated at $ 3.7 to 4 , 5 billion in December 2014. GDP is estimated to have contracted per year by about 19% by 2015.289 Public finance has deteriorated since the onset of the conflict. The fiscal deficit increased sharply by an average of 12% of GDP over the period 2011 to 2014. Total income fell to below 7% of GDP during 2014 to 2015 due to robust oil revenues and tax revenues.290 Especially since the beginning of the conflict until year after year,

289 The World Bank, “Documents & Reports - All Documents” http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/530541512657033401/pdf/121943-WP-P161647-PUBLIC-Syria- Damage-Assessment.pdf. Accessed June 16, 2019. 290 Ibid

various parts of Syria are controlled by various parties involved, namely government, government opposition, and ISIS. Much of the territory controlled by these various parties is a region rich in petroleum and other industrial sectors, including the six provincial capitals. The consequences of the conflict also hinder and block production and distribution channels of aid, water, gas and electricity supply cuts. This causes civilians cannot perform their daily activities. By the end of 2014, according to SCPR (Syrian Center for Policy Research) about 82% of Syrians are in poverty, while 2.96 million people have lost their jobs because of the prolonged conflict and unemployment has reached 58%.291 Third, the humanitarian crisis from 2011 to the present has created a humanitarian crisis. This was originally demonstrated by the statements of seven humanitarian organizations on January 22, 2014, Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch and Oxfam, that the crisis in Syria is the greatest humanitarian crisis of the present that cannot be described in a world of beads. The statement was presented at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, to coincide with the Syrian peace conference in Montreux, another city in Syria. During the course of the conflict there have been many civilian victims, both dead, wounded and displaced. In addition, these large-scale conflicts have led to the largest wave of refugees after World War II. From the explanation in chapter III, it can be seen how Russia Federation has been maintaining its good relations with Syria because of several national interests of Russian Federation itself. It can be seen that efforts of Russian Federation policy in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) decision have been done in order to protect its national interests. As in 2018, the conflict of Syria is getting worse, it can be concluded that efforts of Russian Federation policy in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) (2015-2108) are not enough to solve Syria conflict. Russian Federation may have been succeed in protecting its national interests toward Syria. However, as the conflict is getting worse by year, it can be assumed that draft resolutions vetoed by Russian Federation in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) decisions did not 100% solve the conflict since the conflict is still happening. It also has been analyzed in chapter 4 that Iran, Turkey, United States and Saudi Arabia are also involved in ending Syria conflict. Despite of United States inconsistency explained in chapter 4, together with Iran, Turkey, Saudi Arabia and other ISSG

291 Syrian Center for Policy Research (SCPR). https://www.scpr-syria.org/. Accessed June 16, 2019.

82 members, Russia implemented its policy in United Nations Security Council (UNSC) to end Syria conflict (2015 – 2018).

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APPENDIX

2016 draft resolutions vetoed by Russian Federation concerning Syria conflict in UNSC:

2017 draft resolutions vetoed by Russian Federation concerning Syria conflict in UNSC:

2018 draft resolutions vetoed by Russian Federation concerning Syria conflict in UNSC:

UN Resolutions 2236 (2016):

UN Resolutions 2254 (2015):

UN Resolutions 2268 (2016):

100

Joint Statement by Iran, Russia and Turkey on the International Meeting on Syria in Astana 28-29 November 2018:

101

Joint Statement by Iran, Russia, Turkey on The International Meeting on Syria in Astana, January 23-24th 2017:

102

Joint Statement by United States and Russian Federation in 2017:

Final Statement of the Congress of the Syrian national dialogue, Sochi, January 30, 2018:

103

Final Statement of the Congress of the Syrian national dialogue, Sochi, January 30, 2018

104

Joint Statement of Saudi Arabia on Syria in 2013:

105

Joint Statement on Syria – 7 December 2018

106

Russia Foreign Policy related to Syria:

107