NATURE & FAUNE Enhancing natural resources management for food security in Africa

Volume 32, Issue 1

Creating a forest landscape restoration movement in Africa: a call to heal planet earth

Editor: Ndiaga Gueye

Deputy Editor: Ada Ndeso-Atanga

FAO Regional Office for Africa

[email protected] http://www.fao.org/africa/resources/nature-faune/en/

Regional Office for Africa FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Accra, 2018 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.

The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of FAO.

ISSN: 2026-5611

ISBN: 978-92-5-130632-1

© FAO 2018

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iv NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Board of reviewers

Mafa Chipeta Food security adviser Limbe, Malawi

Michiel Christiaan Laker Emeritus-Professor of science Pretoria, South Africa

Kay Muir-Leresche Policy economist/specialist in agricultural and natural resource economics Rooiels Cape, South Africa

August Temu Agroforestry and forestry education expert Arusha, Tanzania

Magnus Grylle Natural resources specialist Accra, Ghana

Jeffrey Sayer Professor - Forest landscape conservation, University of British Columbia Vancouver British Columbia, Canada

Fred Kafeero Natural resources specialist Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

El Hadji M. Sène Forest resources management & dry zone forestry specialist Dakar, Senegal

Advisers: Atse Yapi, Christopher Nugent, Fernando Salinas, René Czudek

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 v Contents

MESSAGE TO READERS...... 01 Scaling up commercial as part of forest landscape restoration: Bukar Tijani some key factors to success...... 33 Christine Naaijen and Paul Hol EDITORIAL

Africa’s forest landscape restoration Community-Based Ecological Mangrove gathers momentum...... 03 Restoration (CBEMR): re-establishing a more biodiverse and resilient Festus K. Akinnifesi coastal ecosystem with community participation...... 39

SPECIAL FEATURE Alfredo Quarto and Ibrahima Thiam

Towards ‘private forests’ in Zambia: opportunities, possibilities and risks....11 Is developing rice farming compatible with preserving waterfowl in the Senegal Orleans Mfune Delta?...... 46 Patrick Triplet , Claire Pernollet , Ibrahima Regaining ecological functions and Gueye and Abdou Salam Kane enhancing livelihood through forest landscape restoration in West Africa: The West Africa and Climate Inappropriate village land use plans Change (WABiCC) approach...... 16 impede conservation efforts in Kilosa District, Tanzania...... 49 ‘Wale Adeleke Charles Joseph Kilawe , Hillary T. Mrosso, and Numan S. Amanzi OPINION PIECE

Africa’s ambitions in landscape Benthic macroinvertebrate assemblage restoration...... 23 as a tool for the detection of degraded landscapes: lesson from Malawi...... 54 Mafa E. Chipeta Elias R. Chirwa and Limbikani Chilima

ARTICLES Implications of conversion of From pledges to action: Africa’s 100 customary land tenure to leasehold million ha restoration goal comes into tenure on the management of focus...... 27 natural resources : a case study in Zambia...... 59 Tangu Tomeo , Salima Mahamoudou and Emily H. Averna Janet Nyanga

vi NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Arboriculture: a relevant option for FAO ACTIVITIES AND RESULTS developing sustainable agriculture in Algeria...... 62 Africa’s Great Green Wall: A transformative Bouchaib Faouzi and Chamisa Innocent model for rural communities’ sustainable development. Lessons learned from Action Against towards the Initiative to restore forest landscapes implementation of African Forest Landscape through household-managed fenced Restoration Initiative...... 90 plots in Burkina Faso...... 66 Michel Valette, Daouda Traoré, Franziska Moctar Sacande and Nora Berrahmouni Kaguembèga-Müller, Alain Touta Traoré and Barbara Vinceti LINKS ...... 100 Population pressure and wildlife conservation in Benin biosphere NEWS reserves...... 71 Séraphin Mouzoun, Toussaint O. Lougbégnon Scaling-up forest and landscape restoration and Jean T. Claude Codjia and sustainable land management in Niger and Burkina-Faso...... 103

Ensuring rural energy security: a path to Online community of practice: developing sustainable land restoration movement capacity for forest and landscape restoration in Africa...... 75 ...... 104 Dawit Gebregziabher, Arezoo Soltani , Ole Hofstad, and Ermias Aynekulu ANNOUNCEMENT

Rights to farmers and rural households to manage trees and forest resources: Access to Global Online Research in sharing recommendation of Mount Agriculture (AGORA) programme...... 108 Marsabit forest, Kenya...... 79

Diida Karayu Wario THEME AND DEADLINE FOR NEXT ISSUE ...... 110 COUNTRY FOCUS: REPUBLIC OF RWANDA GUIDELINES FOR AUTHORS, Youths in forest landscape restoration SUBSCRIPTION AND CORRESPONDENCE movement in Republic of Rwanda...... 84 ...... 111 Nicolas Ntare, Teopista Mutesi, and Alexis Nyandwi

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 vii Sustainable land management and restoration of degraded and drylands in Djibo, Burkina Faso ©FAO/Giulio Napolitano ©FAO/Giulio

viii NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Message to readers Bukar Tijani1

Every year in Africa, nearly 3 million hectares of forests are lost and sixty five percent (65%) of the land is affected by degradation. An estimated 3 percent of GDP is lost annually from soil and nutrient depletion on cropland. This places forest loss and land degradation among the key challenges facing Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA). Exacerbated by climate change and poor management of agricultural lands, threatens the water supplies and ecological functions vital to all SSA economies. Rural smallholder farmers and households suffer the most from degraded land as they cannot finance counter-measures if there is disruption or loss of stable weather patterns, healthy , tree cover and water.

At the side-lines of COP212 in Sustainable Development To realize the target of 100 Paris on the 6th of December Goals complement the African million hectares of restored 2015, the Global Landscapes Landscapes Action Plan (ALAP) land, African leaders see the Forum was held and, at it, and the broader Climate need for sustainable forestry African countries launched Change, Biodiversity and Land projects based on a long- the African Forest Landscape Degradation (LDBA) program term approach with multi- Restoration Initiative (AFR100)3 of the African Union. AFR100 stakeholder benefits and which is a country-led pan- contributes to the Africa intensified cooperation with African effort to restore 100 Resilient Landscapes Initiative the private sector to enhance million hectares of degraded (ARLI) and to the achievement resources, innovation and the and deforested landscapes of national restoration and ability to deliver. One such by 2030. AFR100 aims to sustainable development private sector collaborative accelerate restoration of commitments and targets, the initiative is the ‘Forests for degraded and deforested Bonn Challenge, and the New the Future – New Forests for landscapes to enhance food York Declaration on Forests, Africa’5 that is undertaking security, increase climate among many other targets. It large scale reforestation. change resilience and builds on the experience and mitigation, and combat rural progress achieved through This edition of Nature & Faune poverty4. the TerrAfrica Partnership, journal explores the science the Great Green Wall of the and innovations (technical, AFR100 contributes to the Sahara and the Sahel Initiative, social and policy) that can Africa Resilient Landscapes and other related landscape support the achievement Initiative (ARLI) which restoration efforts. of this African dream. will in the context of the Articles share experiences

1 Bukar Tijani. Assistant Director-General/Regional Representative for Africa, Regional Office for Africa, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, P. O. Box GP 1628 Accra. Ghana. Tel.: (233) 302 675000 ext. 2101/ (233) 302 610 930; Fax: 233 302 668 427 Email: [email protected]

2 COP21 stands for the 21st Conference of the Parties, in this case of the countries that have signed up to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The Global Landscape Forum (GLF) was a side event to the COP. The inaugural GLF event took place in Warsaw, Poland alongside COP 19 in 2013. It heralded the merger of Forest Day and Agriculture and Rural Development Day, reflecting a scientific climate that sought an integrated landscape approach by breaking down research silos. The first four major GLF events were held annually on the side-lines of the United Nations Climate Change Conference.

3 African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative web site: www.afr100.org

4 NEPAD. 2017. African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative, Overview by New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) 16 April 2017. (Overview prepared by the World Resources Institute, NEPAD, and German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development and the World Bank. http://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/AFR100_Overview_ English_No_Annexes-Sept_29.pdf

5 ‘Forests for the Future – New Forests for Africa’ is an initiative established with the aim to stimulate and drive large scale reforestation in Africa. Website http://newforestsforafrica.org/

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 01 on challenges, opportunities of challenges or issues that will partnership with Global and successful restoration, need to be resolved in order Partnership on Forest and including farmer managed for private forests to play the Landscape Restoration. It natural regeneration, improved role they are required to in the hosted its inaugural online management of smallholder country. Among these include (a) knowledge-sharing forum: woodlots, reforestation, how to guard against land grabs “Innovative Approaches evergreen agriculture with driven by the quest for private for Monitoring Forest and intercropped trees, and forests or (b) how Landscape Restoration” with associated sustainable land to address tensions between a webinar and a facilitated management practices such local resource use rights and email-based discussion in as water harvesting and private control;(c) how to November–December 2017. control. Africa’s Great address agriculture-forestry land Two important aspects that Green Wall is presented in this use competition and (d) how were elaborated on are: the edition as a transformative to incentivize land owners to need for coordination among model for rural communities’ venture into forestry. groups that are involved; sustainable development. In and the need for effective particular the lessons learned The many articles highlight the monitoring. from the “Action Against realities - the spirit and the letter Desertification” programme - of restoring deforested and · The Access to Global Online funded by the European Union degraded landscapes in Africa. Research in Agriculture and implemented by FAO The contributions in this edition (AGORA) programme, with partner countries and are from a wide field of expertise through which the Food and organizations, are discussed, and they share findings of Agriculture Organization paving a way towards the programs and projects, success of the United Nations has implementation of African Forest stories, and announcements since 2003 coordinated Landscape Restoration Initiative. on forest landscape restoration and provided free or low- Initiatives to address land related matters. The coverage cost access to books and degradation and desertification reflects a diversity of situations: major scientific journals on trends in Africa, promote and degradation restoration of degraded sustainable land management, do not occur only on drylands landscapes alongside and restoration of degraded of Africa; the wetlands have broader agriculture, forests and landscapes include a plethora of issues in the forestry, fisheries, climate, Africa’s Great Green Wall deterioration of the environment food security and related initiative, and 2016’s African through depletion of resources biological and environmental Forest Landscape Restoration such as soil; , disruption sciences to public institutions Initiative – AFR100. Most of the of their hydrological systems targets low and middle- articles dwelt on how efforts to and the destruction of habitats. income countries. African this end are being pursued. A community-based ecological institutions are welcome to mangrove restoration initiative is benefit from AGORA (details Preceding the detailed articles presented in this issue, exploring in the announcements is the editorial, which sets the realities of re-establishing section). the scene on the momentum a more biodiverse and resilient being gained by Africa’s forest coastal ecosystem with Manifold opportunities abound landscape restoration efforts. community participation. in our different and varied This is followed by the opinion ecological niches in our region piece from Mafa Chipeta which Attention is drawn to two to put into practice the concepts queries Africa’s ambitions specific knowledge-sharing and experiences shared in in landscape restoration, initiatives which readers and this edition. The bugle call flagging obstacles that need their institutions may wish to announcing the creation of a to be surmounted to attain the take advantage of: forest landscape restoration goal. Orleans Mfune, under movement in Africa has been the heading Special Feature · The newly established online sounded. It is a call to heal analyzes the pathway towards Community of Practice planet Earth beginning from our ‘Private Forests’ in Zambia and for Forest and Landscape own locality! its opportunities, possibilities Restoration organized by the and risks. He states that while FAO Forest and Landscape acknowledging the opportunities Restoration Mechanism and possibilities that arise with (FLRM) under the umbrella of the introduction of private the Collaborative Roadmap forests, there are also a number for Monitoring FLR in

02 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 EDITORIAL

Africa’s forest landscape restoration gathers momentum Festus K. Akinnifesi1

Summary

Africa is one of the most vulnerable continents in the world. It has over 700 million ha of its land already degraded, and degradation still occurs at an alarming rate of 3% annually. This offers tremendous opportunity for restoration. African leaders responded to the urgent global wakeup call at COP21, with a collective pledge to restore 100 million ha of degraded land by 2030. This article examines past and current efforts in restoring Africa’s degraded forests and landscapes and the prospect of bringing restoration to massive scale. Historical evidence showed that landscape and forest restoration is not new in Africa. Millions of spontaneous community-led restoration efforts undertaken in the last 2-3 decades, such as in Ethiopia, Niger, Senegal, Rwanda, Tanzania, etc., can provide sufficient runways to get AFR100 off the ground. Limited available data suggests that many African countries have moved beyond pledges and are already investing in advocacy, coordination, assessing restoration opportunities, capacity development, mobilising resources and establishing the monitoring framework. There is need to accelerate the pace and scale of field implementation. Options for addressing key challenges in restoration are highlighted. Knowledge and experience sharing and scaling up of what has worked well, strengthened by good practices and technologies, appropriate investment, policies and governance are needed.

Introduction

Nearly half of the world’s original percent of Africa is already recovery potential of the forest forests have been fragmented, desert, including the Sahara, and agricultural landscapes—i.e. deforested, and converted or Kalahari and the Namib deserts. the agility of the ecosystems to degraded. Deforestation and Increasingly, desertification is respond to shocks and natural land degradation has cost the threatening dry lands more than disasters. With the challenge of world over USD 6.3 trillion due ever. However, nothing goes climate change, Africa is one of to impaired ecosystem services without a cost. This massive the most vulnerable continents! value—equivalent to 8.3 percent land degradation on nearly all of global GDP in 2016 (Sutton types of landscapes, contribute Globally, there are about 2 et al, 2016). In particular, Africa to increasing environmental billion ha of land available for is severely impacted by land footprints and disequilibrium, restoration, and 50 percent of degradation, with 65 percent and characterised by Green these are croplands and settled of arable land, 30 percent of House Gas (GHG) emissions, areas. With over 700 million grazing land and 20 percent rising temperatures, stressing of ha of degraded land, and an of forests already lost. This crops and animals, increasing additional 3 million ha added to translates to 3 percent annual climatic unpredictability, this number each year, Africa loss in GDP, and 2.8 million ha biodiversity loss, erosion and has the largest opportunity for of forest loss annually (Zingore flooding. All these weaken the massive forest and landscape et al, 2015). More than 25 “sustainagility”, resilience and restoration than any other

1 Festus K. Akinnifesi, PhD Deputy Strategic Programme Leader, Sustainable Agriculture Programme Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, ITALY Tel: +39 06 570 54950 Email: [email protected]; Skype: festus.akinnifesi2

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 03 continent in the world— stands at 75-86 million ha drawn tremendous and over a third of global land in 2017 (www.afr100.org; dynamic political support, available for restoration. Diana Mawoko, NEPAD, suggesting that Africa’s At least 10 million ha must pers. comm., February, leaders are taking bold be restored each year 2018). At the same time, the actions to address forest and to halt and reverse land AFR100 will address hunger landscape degradation. degradation in the Sahel and nutrition, resilience and the Horn of Africa and adaptation to climate Africa has a long (FAO, 2016 a). This article change, poverty reduction runway on landscape examines past and current and biodiversity restoration. efforts in restoring Africa’s Implementing this broad restoration degraded forests and and ambitious policy move, Decades of several landscapes and the prospect will contribute to the Bonn restoration initiatives in of bringing restoration to Challenge, and the New York Africa suggest that the massive scale. Declaration.1 continent has a long runway to advance the AFR100 The AFR100 is being Bold efforts to ambition. In concrete terms, complemented by other restore Africa’s integrating perennials Africa-led initiatives, such with food crops—a form landscapes as the African Landscapes of agroforestry practice Action Plan (ALAP), Africa Restoring the productivity of known as the “Evergreen Resilient Landscapes the world’s degraded land Agriculture” has been Initiative (ARLI), and the has now become a global practised by smallholder Great Green Wall (GGW) priority. Much of Africa’s farmers in sub-Saharan initiative in the Sahara and forests have been severely Africa (Garrity et al, 2010). Sahel. With over USD 4 decimated, bulldozed, For instance, in , billion pledged, the GGW Tanzania fragmented and converted there was only about initiative is strongly backed to farmlands, commercial 600 ha of ‘ngitili’ (i.e. a with USD 1 billion by the croplands, roads, power community managed natural World Bank. For instance, lines and residential areas. regeneration of shrubs with more than 20 countries As Africa’s policy makers and trees) in 1986, but by participating, the GGW and the global development 2001, estimated 472 000 ha initiative seeks to restore community firmly focus their of ‘Ngitili’ had been restored 50 million ha, provide food efforts on how to address in the Shinyanga region in security for 20 million the gloomy decades ahead, 833 villages (Barrow et al, people, create 350 000 jobs, attention is being turned 2001), and exceeding and sequester 250 million to innovative pathways of 500 000 ha by 2005. It has tons of carbon (http:// restoring the forests and been benefitting 2.8 million www2.unccd.int/actions/ landscapes. In this regard, people in over 800 villages great-green-wall-initiative). it is noteworthy that several since the 1980’s. According to UNCCD, the African countries have GGW initiative, building on committed to restoration some of the early restoration at the launching of the successes highlighted in the African Forest Landscape below has since its launch Restoration (AFR100), at the in 2007 continued to make Global Landscapes Forum at considerable progress COP21 in Paris, in 2015. This in restoring the Sahara- country-led initiative aims at Sahel landscapes (http:// restoring 100 million ha of www.fao.org/3/a-i6476e. degraded and deforested pdf). Put together, these landscapes by 2030, even ambitious efforts have though actual commitment

1 The Bonn Challenge refers to a global commitment to restore 150 million hectares of land by 2020; and the New York Declaration on Forests—a plan to initiate restoration on 350 million ha by 2030.

04 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Niger is being seen as a Ethiopia is noteworthy. Several Similar efforts were documented shining example of success accounts have put restoration for Nigeria and Senegal at stories regarding country-led work in Ethiopia at 15 million ha 5 million ha and 4 million ha restoration at massive scale. (Table 1). In particular, Tigray respectively. Landscape and Over five million ha of land has region in northern Ethiopia, forest restoration is about been restored and around 200 between 224 000 ha to 1 300 000 ha for Burkina Faso, million trees planted through million ha have been restored over 250 000 ha for Uganda, large-scale effort in southern by planting trees, restricting and 485 000 ha for Mali. Niger—a farmer-managed grazing, and building terraces However, in general, it suffice process of natural regeneration, and, stone bunds among other to mention that available data which has increased annual land conservation measures. on restoration work in Africa is agricultural production by scanty and largely anecdotal. about 500 000 tons of cereal Following its 2 million ha The information presented in per year, enough to feed 2.5 Bonn Challenge commitment, Table 1 represents indicative million people (Reij et al, 2009). Rwanda was among the extent of landscape and forest This large-scale effort reduced first to jumpstart the land restoration activities, and should wind erosion and water erosion restoration implementation. therefore be interpreted with and increased the production According to a recent IUCN caution. and marketing of crops, fodder, report (2017), Rwanda assessed firewood, fruit, and other that 1.53 million ha present There is good news: FAO products. In these examples, opportunities for restoration, and WRI, using a new photo- the income opportunities with agroforestry offering the interpretation approach have created may potentially reduce greatest opportunity. Recent worked with local experts to the incentives for migration. It analysis by MINILAF (Ministry examine large databases of seems that farmers have now of Land and Forestry) showed satellite imagery at high spatial discovered a cheap, effective that nearly of 900 000 ha of and temporal resolutions, on way to regreen the Sahel. land has been restored since Google Earth (see Bastin et According to Reij et al (2009), 2011, representing about 45 al, 2017). This has permitted the investment amounted to percent of the total commitment a more precise estimation less than $20 per ha. Generally, by Rwanda; 860 000 ha are of forest biomes, capable of the cost would be much higher under agroforestry; 1400 ha counting individual trees and under conventional forest are plantations; and 37 600 ha shrubs. This includes drylands establishment and as protective forests including forests scattered trees, shrubs in countries where labor is bamboo and other species. and bush that had never been expensive. About 186 000 green jobs were captured, especially in the areas created between 2014 and designated as Great Green Over the last 20 years, the 2017, with women participating Wall. Applying such technique scale of restoration of degraded in more than 60 percent of can help gauge the progress of land through soil and land these jobs (Table 1). AFR100 in the near future. conservation and in

A forest tree nursery at Chess Research Forest Station in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. © FAO/Zinyange Auntony

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 05 Table 1. Indicative area of Africa’s landscape restored (mostly pre-AFR100 initiatives).

Country Restored Additional notes Source area

(million ha) Ethiopia 15 000 000 15 million ha of degraded land restored nationally, including a,b (a), 1 million ha including 224 000 ha to 1 million ha replanted in Tigray region (b); 960 000 ha under land and soil conservation; 1.2 million ha under ‘exclosures’ (assisted natural regeneration). Land tenure security improved.

Nigeria 5 000 000 5 million ha of degraded land restored by smallholder farmers b,c,d on their lands and 20 000 jobs created. Niger 5 000 000 5 million ha degraded land restored by famer-led initiatives— b,e,f over 19 000 miles with more than 200 million new trees. Senegal 4 000 000 4 million ha of degraded land restored, including more than a,c 27 000 ha of indigenous trees. About 11.4 million trees c,e planted. Sudan 2 000 Land restored a Burkina Faso 300 000 200-300 000 ha of degraded land restored/regreened e Mali 485 623 Land restored h Tanzania 500 000 472-500 000 ha of degraded land restored under the i,j traditional ngitili system in Shinyanga, benefitting 2.8 million people in over 800 villages since the 1980’s.

Uganda 250 000 225 000 ha of degraded land restored through REDD+ k carbon offset pilot projects in Mt. Elgon ecosystem; 25 000 ha supported over the last 10 years by GoU.

Rwanda 900 000 900 000 ha of degraded land restored between 2011-2017, l representing 45 percent progress towards 2 million ha Bonn Challenge commitment; 860 000 ha are under agroforestry; 1400 ha are plantations; and 37 600 ha as protected forests including bamboo and other species; 186 000 green jobs were created.

a) http://www2.unccd.int/ d) http://newsroom.unfccc.int/ f) Reij et al (2009); see actions/great-green-wall- lpaa/resilience/great-green- also [http://www.wri. initiative; wall-growing-a-world-wonder- org/blog/2017/05/we- restoring-the-productivity- discovered-18-million- b) http://www.wri.org/ and-vitality-of-the-sahel- square-miles-forest-desert] blog/2016/11/african- region/; nations-poised-rapidly- g) https://www.theguardian.com/ accelerate-landscape- e) https://edition.cnn. environment/2014/oct/30/ restoration; com/2016/09/22/africa/ regreening-program-to- great-green-wall-sahara/ restore-land...; c) FAO (2016 b); index.html; h) https://www.smithsonianmag. com/science-nature/

06 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 great-green-wall-stop- food, etc. The Government attention has been focused on desertification-not-so- of Zambia, with support from mapping and assessing their much-180960171/; the World Bank, embarked potential restoration areas using on a USD 33 million forest the Restoration Opportunities i) http://foreststreesagroforestry. landscape program to improve Assessment Methodology org/the-shinyanga- sustainable land management, (ROAM) (see IUCN and WRI, revolution-tanzanian-success- diversify forest-based livelihoods 2014). This involves three story..; and reduce deforestation phases: (i) assessing the national (Braimoh, 2018a). Under the restoration opportunity and j. http://www.afr100.org/ program, Zambian farmers validating area commitment, content/tanzania; and communities recently (ii) developing a large-scale received over USD 800 000 in restoration strategy, and (iii) k) Kasungu B. (2016); carbon payments for reducing implementation on the ground. forest loss and degradation Usually, ROAM guides steps l) Dave et al (2017). and promoting the adoption (i) and (ii), and a number of of land restoration practices countries have already jump- Integrating trees in the using climate smart agriculture started steps (i) and (ii), while landscapes should be a approach (Braimoh, 2018b). some have even moved to step holistic investment to explore (iii). Table 2 shows indicative multifunctional attributes of Turning commitments progress for selected countries. forested ecosystems, and to country-level Of these, Rwanda, Ethiopia, addressing the multiple Kenya, Malawi, DRC Congo and needs of the country, the implementations Madagascar are most advanced, affected region and individual and assessment is underway It is probably too early to communities. Landscape in Cote D’Ivoire. Several other realistically answer the restoration involves sustainably countries are assessing their question of what proportion improving the productivity, restoration opportunities, of the restoration pledges has resilience and ecosystems developing monitoring tools and been achieved so far through services of forests, agricultural, building network of stakeholders. mountains, deserts, wastelands AFR100. In general, as the and other landscapes that have countries seek to move from been deforested, degraded, pledges to implementation, and or underutilized. This can help reduce pressures on the remaining forests while also providing several multiple benefits, e.g. improved soil fertility, food security, , watershed restoration, fuelwood, reduced erosion, carbon sequestration and increased biodiversity, including pollinators, honey production, etc.

Research has indicated that every US dollar invested in restoring degraded land generates an estimated USD 7-30 in economic benefits, Country-level implementations at including improved Saloum Delta, Senegal food production, carbon sequestration, and water quality (Ding et al, 2017), let alone other

benefits from timber, fuelwood, © Dominic Wodehouse/Mangrove Action Project

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 07 Table 2. Progress of some countries in implementing AFR100 commitment.

Country Documented progress Ethiopia Targets 15 million ha; building on 20 years of massive restoration work in northern Ethiopia (see Table 1); hosted regional restoration meetings and Round Table with investors; produced restoration opportunity maps (ROM); identified priority landscapes for implementation.

Uganda Targets 2.5 million ha; building on 10 years restoration initiatives; several partners are implementing restoration initiatives, farmer-managed restoration civil society organizations, (CSOs, e.g. World Vision); Community tree planting programme (GoU-led); Greening Uganda economy with massive tree planting launched in 2015; rehabilitation in northern Uganda.

Kenya Targets 5.1 million ha; builds on long record of CSO-led restoration movement; formed cross-sector restoration task force; produced national restoration opportunity map (ROM); applied restoration diagnostic at national level.

Niger Targets 3.2 million ha; builds on over a decade of community-led restoration; stock- taking underway on extent of community-assisted natural regeneration; analysis of forest policies, laws and regulations Malawi Targets 4.5 million ha; completed restoration opportunity assessment, including ROM; stock-taking of existing restoration projects and practices; economic and financial analysis; analysis of policy and institutional enabling environment for FLR, and strategic pathways for scaling up; preparing a national restoration strategy.

DR Congo Targets 8 million ha; stocktaking of restoration projects and practices underway; analysis of the policy and institutional enabling environment for large-scale restoration; cross- sector restoration task force established; GIS analysis of restoration opportunities funded.

Rwanda Target 2 million ha, of which 45% under restoration between 2014-2017 (Dave et al, 2017); built active national sector partnership for Forest and Landscape Restoration (FLR); identified priority landscape for restoration, including two national parks; improved seed quality and quantity in Tree Seed Center; cutting edge monitoring technology in two districts, to be scaled up nationally.

Source: Adapted from Diana Mawoko, NEPAD (pers. comm., February 2018)

Options for landscape common Vision on Sustainable create synergies. The ecological, restoration with Food and Agriculture (SFA) social, and economic benefits has developed five elements of forests and trees within in integrating trees that can be applied, including: the landscape is an important efficient resource use, natural consideration. Trees can be Landscape and forest resources management, integrated to landscapes in restoration should be seen social equity and livelihoods, several forms, e.g. agroforestry, with a broader lens than resilience to climate change and evergreen agriculture, fertilizer just a tree planting exercise. governance (http://www.fao. tree systems, silvopasture, wind When integrating trees to the org/3/a-i3940e.pdf). Addressing breaks, mountain and hill forests, landscape, regardless of the ‘sustainability’ at scale is a big natural regeneration, plantation, approach used, it is important challenge that is not amenable etc. There is also prospect for to apply holistic and integrated to single-sector solutions. integrating urban forestry and landscape approaches to ensure This calls for cross-sectoral parks. that sustainability principles are integration, multi-stakeholder adhered to and multiple benefits dialogues and approaches that of land users addressed. FAO’s

08 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Addressing the plant and manage them. It vi) Integrated and cross- challenges to forest and requires knowledge and sectoral planning and policies evidence based decisions and governance. Most African landscape restoration in on the appropriate tree countries are organized Africa species to grow, seed along sectoral lines making sources and propagation the planning, polices and As the AFR100 gathers methods—to produce governance of integrated momentum and transition from seedlings and or vegetative land use management a bold political commitments to propagules, and nursery challenge. By its nature forest implementation on the ground, operations. It also requires and landscape restoration there is need to address some considerations of the user’s affect multiple sectors, e.g. critical bottlenecks that may species preference, market agriculture, forestry, wildlife, encumber efforts to reaching opportunities and other natural resources, livestock, the target by 2030. benefits. fisheries, land, water, land etc., therefore in order to i) Forest restoration is costly. iv) Motivation for forest and address this challenge a Forest restoration is landscape restoration. Rather cross-sectoral integration expensive. Restoration than massive industrial approach is crucial. is cheaper with farmer- scale plantation efforts, assisted natural regeneration smallholder and communal than conventional forest Conclusion and restoration efforts have recommendations restoration through active proven to be more effective tree plantations. AFR100 and cheaper. However, Landscape and forest countries should take buy-in and ownership of advantage of both farmer- restoration—centered on the local community is massive tree and shrub planting assisted natural regeneration critical to success. Multiple and integrating trees in the programmes has the potential benefits that forest and to transform livelihoods and agricultural landscapes and landscape restoration offers production systems. reclaim degraded land across will increase opportunity Africa. Africa has a long record for scaling up its adoption ii) Financing forest restoration of accomplishment in forest by producers, small holder is a risky business. This and landscape community-led farmers and communities. has limited private sector large-scale initiatives that the Efforts that address the involvement. Although the AFR100 can build upon. The immediate needs, such as World Bank had earmarked AFR100 is in its third year, soil fertility, erosion control, more than USD 1 billion in therefore, assessing progress , food and development finance and is rather too early. Nonetheless, nutrition security, fodder, USD 540 million in private considerable efforts are being fuelwood, etc., are important sector impact investment to invested in advocacy and entry points. support these restoration creating awareness, building initiatives, investment from political and stakeholder v) Knowledge intensive and networks, coordination, resource countries own resources and long-term nature of forest other stakeholders would be mobilization and capacity and landscape restoration. development, assessment of critical to success of these Integrating trees in initiatives. restoration opportunities and landscapes is a knowledge establishing the monitoring intensive and long-term iii) The choice of appropriate framework. The success of these effort, requiring investment species. Forest and land integrated landscape restoration in capacity building, training restoration is not just initiatives depends on and lessons-learning. In about planting trees to knowledge intensive supports, the face of climate change, fill the space. Many tree capacity development, training investment in water for tree restoration initiatives have and quality tree seed supply management on diverse failed in the past due to lack system for smallholder farmers, landscapes, especially in the of knowledge on how to and the enabling environment, drier regions and seasons, is select the right species, including governance and key to success.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 09 policies. Such efforts will also References Green Wall. [http://www.fao.org/ help to integrate and manage news/story/it/item/452701/ trees on Africa’s agricultural Barrow E., Kaale B. and Mlenge icode/] landscapes to address hunger, W. (2001). Forest Landscape climate change and reverse restoration in Shinyanga, FAO (2016 b). African countries environmental degradation Republic of Tanzania. [http:// to accelerate progress on Great www.fao.org/docrep/ARTICLE/ Green Wall. [http://www.fao. Beyond political commitment, WFC/XII/0164-B3.HTM]. org/africa/news/detail-news/ coordinated efforts, policies en/c/413153/] and investments are needed Bastin et al (2017).The extent to achieve the target. There of forest in dryland biomes. Garrity D.P., Akinnifesi F.K., et al is need to invest in result Science 356 (6388): 635-638. (2010). Evergreen Agriculture: a monitoring on all relevant robust approach to sustainable land restoration programmes Braimoh A. (2018a). Zambia food security in Africa. Food in Africa, and to differentiate Takes Keys Away from ‘Drivers’ Security 2:197–214. past achievements from new of Deforestation. http://www. progress, so as to avoid double worldbank.org/en/news/ IUCN, WRI (2014) A guide to counting. In particular, the new feature/2018/03/02/zambia- the restoration opportunities photointerpretation approach takes-the-keys-away-from- assessment methodology with high resolution imageries drivers-of-deforestation). (ROAM): assessing forest can go a long way in generating landscape restoration more precise estimates of Braimoh A. (2018b). Climate opportunities at the national restoration progress. As the smart agriculture: lessons from or sub-national level. Working AFR100 advance to reach a Africa, for the World. [http:// paper (road-test edition), IUCN, “tipping point,” there is need for blogs.worldbank.org/nasikiliza/ Gland, Switzerland. stocktaking of lessons learned climate-smart-agriculture- and a massive scaling up of lessons-from-africa-for-the- Sutton P.C., Anderson S.J., what has worked well, which world]. Costanza R., Kubiszewski should be supported by good I. (2016). The ecological practices and technologies, Dave, R., Saint-Laurent, C., economics of land degradation: appropriate investment, policies Moraes, M., Simonit, S., Raes, Impacts on ecosystem service and governance mechanisms. L., Karangwa, C. (2017). values. Ecological Economics This needs to happen at Bonn Challenge Barometer 129:182–192 an accelerated speed and of Progress: Spotlight Report massive scale. The AFR100 2017. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, Kazungu B. (2016). Sharing initiative could take advantage 36pp [https://www.iucn.org/es/ experiences and Key findings of triangular and south-south node/29554] of the Forest Landscape cooperation, especially intra- Restoration Assessment using Africa countries to exchange DeWitt S., Weber S. and Diakhite the ROAM in Uganda. FLR Int. capacity, knowledge and M. (2015). http://www.wri.org/ Knowledge Sharing Workshop, resources. blog/2015/12/african-countries- Kigali, Rwanda, July 2016 aim-restore-100-million- Acknowledgements hectares-degraded-land. Reij C., Tappan G. and Smale M. (2009). Agroenvironmental The author wishes to thank Ms Ding H., Faruqi S., Gagné C. and Transformation in the Sahel. Diana Mawoko of NEPAD, and Ortega A.A. (2017). Restoration: Another kind of “Green Ms Ornanong D. Maneerattana One of the Most Overlooked Revolution”. IFPRI Discussion of the World Resources Institute Opportunities for Economic paper 00914. (WRI), for kindly sharing relevant Growth.[http://www.wri.org/ Zingore S., Mutegi J., Agesa B., information on AFR100. blog/2017/12/restoration-one- most-overlooked…] Tamene L., and Kihara J. (2015). Soil Degradation in sub-Saharan FAO (2016 a). 10 million Africa and Crop Production hectares a year in need of Options for Soil Rehabilitation. restoration along the Great Better Crops 99:24-26.

10 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 SPECIAL FEATURE

Towards ‘private forests’ in Zambia: opportunities, possibilities and risks. Orleans Mfune1

This paper is intended to be an early cautionary comment on Zambia’s recent forestry reforms that have led to the adoption of ‘private forests’ as a new institutional form for allowing private sector participation in the forestry sector. While this marks an important departure from previous forest management systems that excluded private actors’ participation in the sector and is in tandem with the country’s market oriented macro-economic policies, in practice, the notion of private forests remains untested. In this regard, the paper examines the opportunities and risks that emerge with a private sector centered approach to forest management. It offers a useful guide to policy implementers on some issues that may require attention if ‘private forests’ are to play an important role in restoring the country’s forest conservation fortunes.

While forests cover 65.4% questions that should concept of private forests as of Zambia’s land surface, concern both forestry conceptualized in Zambia’s the country’s rates of practitioners and scholars. Forestry Act. In the last deforestation at between Among them, whether or part, the paper discusses 250 000 and 300 000 not it could be the game the opportunities and risks hectares per year (FAO, changer in Zambia’s quest associated with private 2015) remain among to halt the rapid rate of forests before ending with the highest in Africa. A deforestation and restore the conclusion. particularly challenging the country’s forest undertaking for the country conservation fortunes. Forest conservation in has been finding the most Zambia has an eighty-year suitable institutional form This paper, in this regard, history, starting with the to effectively manage examines the notion pre-independence period. this vast forest estate and of ‘private forests’ in Three main ages can be stem deforestation. Over the context of both discerned since the advent the decades, Zambia has opportunities and potential of ‘formal’ forestry. These utilised both state and risks that may emerge in stages correspond to community centered the implementation of this shifts in forestry policy and approaches without lasting approach. By considering practice in the country over success. Consequently, these issues, the paper is these eight decades. These more recently, in 2015, intended to be an early are (a) the age of exclusive forestry legal reforms cautionary comment on state management; (b) the saw the introduction Zambia’s new forestry policy age of state-community of ’private forests’ as an and thus seeks to offer collaboration and; (c) the alternative private sector useful guidance to actors age of private forests. centred approach to involved in implementation forest management in the of such policies in Zambia. country. Being new, this The paper is structured approach remains untested in three parts. First, it in the country and is yet to provides a brief history of generate scholarly attention. formal forestry in Zambia. However, its introduction This is then followed by raises numerous important an examination of the

1 Orleans Mfune, Senior Lecturer, University of Zambia, School of Natural Sciences, Department of Geography & Environmental Studies, P. O Box 32379, Lusaka, Zambia. Email: [email protected]/[email protected]

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 11 The age of exclusive 2015; Umar and Vedeld, 2013; forestland outside state or state management (from Aongola, 2009). Many factors public ownership is categorized the 1940 - 1998) such as failure to develop as ‘private forests’. However, benefit sharing mechanisms, while this definition may hold The age of exclusive state forest poor funding to the Forestry in western countries where management has its roots in the Department, lack of technical statutory tenure is the dominant colonial era when lands were capacity within the forestry land tenure system, it is clearly appropriated by the colonial bureaucracy and other socio- insufficient for countries with a government for conservation. political factors conspired dual tenure system (i.e. where The state, in this age, assumed against the approach. leasehold/freehold exists side the role of sole proprietor, by side with communal or regulator and manager of the The age of ‘private customary tenure systems). In country’s forest estate. This forests’ (2015 – to date) such countries, lands ‘owned’ by system remained in place tribes are largely held by custom even after three decades of The enactment of the 2015 and tradition, and is hardly independence. While in the short Forestry Act represents the considered as ‘private’. Thus, run, especially between the third age of Zambia’s forestry for the purposes of this paper, 1960s and 1980s, this system system. Although the 2015 the concept of private forests was instrumental in bringing vast Forestry Act retains community refers to privately owned lands swaths of forests under formal centered approaches (JFM that have been dedicated to protection, local realities in and community forestry), it forestry and excludes forested forest sites and various political also introduces a new actor lands considered common-pool and economic structural forces in forest management – the resources. simply brought it into moribund private sector. The introduction by the early 1990s. The collapse of ‘private forests’ heralds a new In the Zambian context, private of this era ushered in a new age era in the forest sector that is forests are defined by the of state-community partnership. consistent with government’s Forests Act of 2015 as any macro-economic policy of land or plantation registered The age of state- encouraging private sector as a private forest. In order for community collaboration investment in the natural such lands to qualify as private resources sector. forests, the ‘lessee(s)’ must apply (1999 - 2014) to the Director of Forestry to Given the failures of the The notion of ‘private forests’ have their lands considered for bureaucratic system, in has long been dominant in registration as private forests 1999, policy reforms saw most western countries where (GRZ, 2015). There are two the introduction of Joint private land ownership is most important things to note about Forest Management (JFM) dominant. In Scotland, for the notion of ‘private forests’ as conceived as collaborative example, private landowners conceptualized in the Forestry forest management between own most of rural Scotland Act. First, is the fact that private the state and forest-dependent (Ramsey, 1993). In Finland, forests can only be established communities (ZFD, 2005). This just like in the United State of on land held under leasehold era not only saw the inclusion America, approximately 60 tenure. This definition, in this of the ‘community’ and their percent of total forest areas regard, precludes land held local governments as important are privately owned (Rautiainen under customary tenure. Thus actors in forest management, et al, 2017; Stein, 2005). for customary lands to be but also a broadening in forest The introduction of ‘private considered as private forests, objectives to include local forests’ brings to the fore the landholders must first apply to livelihood objectives. However, conceptual question of what convert their land to leasehold over a decade has passed since exactly constitutes a ‘private tenure (as provided in the Lands the introduction of JFM and it forest’. Stein et al (2005:5) Act, 1995) before applying is clear this has not produced define private forests as ‘forest to the Director of Forests for the desired effects as many land owned by individuals, registration as private forest. JFM initiatives lined up across families, corporations, tribes, the country barely passed the organizations, or the forest Second, the land in question teething stage (Bixler et al, industry’. In this definition, any does not necessarily need

12 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 to have standing forests or a foundation for timber and forest forestry, private forests also plantation to be considered for products businesses. opens up possibilities for the registration. Instead, it is the Forestry Department to engage intended use that is considered Learning from literature, it can strategic corporate actors in the registration process. be argued that ‘private forestry’ that may not be interested in This, in this paper’s view, is an provides an opportunity for commercial forestry, but have important departure from the increasing forest stock on businesses that depend on last two ages where land was private lands, which could services offered by forests. designated as a forest reserve otherwise have been liquidated For example, water and or JFM area on the basis of the through other land uses. hydro-energy companies quality of its standing forest. In other words, it provides may be willing to invest in In this new era, private lands, an opportunity for private the protection of catchment including bare lands, may be actors to participate in nature forests. Similarly, tour operators registered as private forests as conservation, an activity that may be interested in forests of long as the intention is forestry. has traditionally been viewed recreational value. With this new as state responsibility in the policy, such corporate actors Opportunities and country. In this paper’s view, could manage such forests in possibilities associated looking at Zambia’s forestry their own right (as forestland landscape, the notion of ‘private owners) or partner with the with private forests forests’ offers great possibilities Forestry Department (FD) in As the concept of ‘private of engaging two types of actors the form of public –private forests’ is quite new, having –the corporate sector and small- partnerships. emerged only in the past two holder farmers. years, we are yet to learn Engaging smallholder of its real dividends to the Engaging corporate farmers country’s conservation efforts actors or revenue base. However, in Besides engaging the corporate literature, some proponents of The notion of private forestry world, there is also an private forests note numerous offers opportunity for engaging opportunity for the FD to use environmental and economic two types of corporate actors. the notion of ‘private forests’ benefits of private forests in First are corporate actors who as an opportunity to engage countries with this category of may be interested in investing smallholder farmers across forests. Stein et al (2005) for in commercial forestry or the country in establishment example, note that in the U. S, plantations. Given the right of forest plantations as home where private forests comprise incentives, these actors may or farm plantations both for 60% of America’s forests land, be instrumental in attracting domestic and commercial such forests provided nearly 60 investments into a sector that purposes (depending on the % of all water-flow originating has for the past two decades context and interests of private from U. S forests on a typical been starved of financial land owners). The FD should not year. Similarly, Sweden’s high and technical resources for only target well forested lands level of forest protection owes managing the country’s forest owned by smallholder farmers, much to the role of private estate. The crucial role of the but also marginal or degraded actors who manage almost all corporate sector in this regard is lands where smallholders can productive forests. Annually and well noted in Evans(2009) were be involved in forestry projects. sustainably, 90 cubic meters of it is argued that the corporate This has potential not only to wood are cut against an annual private sector tends to employ kick-start the rehabilitation growth of 120 million cubic forestry professionals who of degraded lands, but also meters (Royal Swedish Academy often deploy improved genetic provides an opportunity for of Agriculture and Forestry, stock and nursery practices, local actors to complement 2015; Swedish Forestry Agency, apply intensive silvicultural their agriculture income through 2018). Besides environmental management and invest in fire forest-based enterprises. In protection, it can be argued and forest health protection. suggesting the idea of targeting that in these countries, private smallholders, this paper is aware forestry also provides the Besides corporate actors that of the potential challenges may be interested in commercial that emerge in trying to do so.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 13 Among these is the question of leasehold can register for right to fetch firewood, water or whether smallholders may have private forests. It is important to indeed to graze their livestock the right skills and sufficient note here that the majority of as long as the land in question financial capital to engage in the rural population in Zambia is not being used for agriculture such ventures. There are also subsists on customary land. or other productive land uses. questions surrounding the Over the last decade and half, There will be need, in this extent to which smallholders this customary land has been a regard, to develop mechanisms may engage in commercial major target of private investors for addressing tensions between forestry at individual level given seeking land for agriculture, local usage and private control. their land sizes (i.e. to meet the game ranching, real-estate and demand of high volume buyers) other projects. As such several Forestry-agriculture and capacity to negotiate incidents where large swaths land use competition their interests. In going round of customary land have been these problems, one possible converted to leasehold for such Besides the question of local solution is for the FD to facilitate projects have been reported use rights, another potential the formation of forestry across the country. The result risk that may emerge with cooperatives or other forms of some of these conversions the establishment of private of organizations to represent has been the displacement of forests is increased land use their collective interests. Such local people and disruption of competition between forestry structures would allow farmers local livelihoods. Without proper and agriculture with potential to collectively supply products mechanisms for safeguarding implications on food security and negotiate their interests. In against such challenges, it in rural areas. In the past, such addition, through cooperatives, is possible that the notion of concerns have been voiced out it is easier for the Forestry ‘private forests’ may provide in the context of production for Department to establish skills further impetus for conversion of biofuels competing for arable development programmes (i. e. customary land to leasehold as land with agriculture. As already for development of silvicultural, private actors seek land for land noted, the definition of private financial and negotiation skills for plantations, REDD+ and other forests does not preclude etc.). private forestry interests. This agricultural lands. As such even has potential to lead to a spike in lands already under agriculture While acknowledging the land grabs. or indeed with agricultural opportunities and possibilities potential can be converted to that arise with the introduction Tensions between local forestry use. of private forests, there are also usage and private a number of challenges or issues Incentivising private that will need to be resolved control forests in order for private forests to Furthermore, even in cases play the role they are required where establishment of private to in the country. Among these While the notion of private forests may not raise the issue forestry provides an opportunity include (a) how to guard against of land grabs, there is also the land grabs driven by the quest for private sector participation in question of how to protect local a sector traditionally dominated for private forests or plantations customary resource rights in (b) how to address tensions by the state, it is critical for the areas where private forests are country’s Forestry Department between local resource use established. The concern here rights and private control;(c) not to assume that private is that once land is designated actors will automatically take how to address agriculture- as ‘private forests’ landowners forestry land use competition up this space. As research may act to fence their land elsewhere has shown, most and (d) how to incentivize land and exclude other actors from owners to venture into forestry. private interests in land use exercising local use rights as tend to be highly guided by part of conservation measures. Possibilities of land mostly utilitarian values. This For example, in many parts of is essentially because private grabs the country, even where land is landowners want to use held by individuals customary their land for what provides As already noted, only private norms still gives local actors the them the most value. It is actors holding land under

14 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 crucial in this regard, that in action. These include the threats GRZ (1995) Zambia Lands Act. implementing this approach, of land grabs, possibilities of GRZ, Lusaka the country must develop interdiction of local resource incentives and strategies that user rights such grazing rights, Evans J (eds) (2009) will make ‘private forests’ right to river frontage and many Planted Forests: Uses, attractive. In other countries other rights enjoyed by rural Impacts and Sustainability. such as Turkey, private sector actors in the countryside. In CABI International & FAO. participation in plantations has this paper’s view, the extent Oxfordishire/Rome. been encouraged through low to which ‘private forests’ may interest rate loans and low land emerge a game changer will Ramsay P (1993) Land prices (FAO, 2008). Second, it largely be conditioned by how Owners and Conservation. In has also been observed that well these issues are addressed Goldsmith F. B and Warren A. where private actors have been by the Forestry Department Conservation in Progress. involved in private forestry, and other actors involved in John Wiley and Sons. Chichester. interest in high value timber its implementation. It is thus production tends to override vital that attention is paid to Rautiainen M, Miettinen J, other conservation objectives these factors in the design of Putaala A, Rantala M, Alhainen such as ecosystem services regulations and initiatives aimed M ( 2017) Grouse-Friendly protection. It is thus critical at promoting ‘private forests’. Forest Management in that in developing the right Finland. Unasylva 249, Vol. 68 incentives, attention must not References p71 -77. only focus on how to attract private sector participation Aongola A , Imasiku L, Royal Swedish Academy of in the sector, but also how to Ndopu D, Bass S, Makumba Agriculture and Forestry (KSLA) ensure that once private actors J, Chileshe J, Maimbolwa M, (2015) Forests and Forestry are involved, other conservation Pope A, Daka J, Dalal-Clayton in Sweden.KSLA, Stockholm. objectives other than utilitarian B, Munyinda K, Sichilongo ones are given space in private M, Munyinda N: Creating Stein S. M, McRoberts R. E, Alig forestry. Further, it is important and Protecting Zambia’s R. J, Nelson M. D, Theobald D. that such incentives not only Wealth: Experience and M, Eley M, Dechter M, Carr, M target corporate actors but also Next Step in Environmental (2005) Forests on the Edge: smallholder farmers and other Mainstreaming. International Housing Developments on local level actors interested in Institute for Environment and America’s Private Forests. venturing into private forestry. Development, London (2009). General Technical Report. PNW- GTR-636. This paper is written as a Bixler P, Angelo J, MfuneO. commentary on Zambia’s new and Hassan R (2015) The Swedish Forestry Agency (2018) forest policy that allows private political ecology of participatory Gross Fellings. https://www. sector participation in forestry. conservation: institutions and skogsstyrelsen.se/en/statistics/ It notes that this represents a discourse. Journal of Political subject-areas/grossfellings/. th marked departure from previous Ecology 22, p 164-182 Retrieved on 9 April, 2018. forest policies that saw forestry as mainly a centralized matter FAO (2008) People, Forests Umar B. B and Vedeld P (2013) that required the attention and Trees in West and Joint Forest Management in of the forestry bureaucracy. Central Asia. FAO, ROME. Katanino, Zambia: Inappropriate However, while the new policy Property Regime Change. The represents an important FAO (2015) Global Forest Open Science Forest Journal, opportunity with the potential Resources Assessment (FRA): 5, p 42-52. of revolutionizing the forestry Desk Reference. www.fao. sector by attracting private org/3/a-i4808e.pdf. Retrieved Zambia Forest Department sector investments (finances and on 9th April, 2018. (ZFD) (2005): Joint Forestry technical skills), there are also Management Guidelines. GRZ, a number of issues that policy GRZ (2015) Zambia Forests Lusaka. implementers need to consider Act. GRZ, Lusaka before translating the policy into

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 15 Regaining ecological functions and enhancing livelihood through forest landscape restoration in West Africa: West Africa Biodiversity and Climate Change (WA BiCC) approach

Wale Adeleke1

Summary

The realisation that the world’s forests are being lost and degraded at an alarming rate has led to the development of various international, regional, and national initiatives and approaches – one of such approaches is the introduction of the Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR). FLR is a process that aims to regain ecological integrity and enhance human well-being in deforested or degraded forest landscapes. This paper briefly examines the introduction of FLR in West Africa, especially considers the use of the Restoration Opportunity Assessment Methodology (ROAM) developed by IUCN and the World Resources Institute (WRI) in mapping restoration opportunities at the national and sub-national levels in the sub-region. The main aim of the paper is to raise the awareness about ROAM as a tool for National Governments to meet their commitments to the Bonn Challenge2 and the African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative (AFR100)3. The paper also highlights the role that the USAID supported West Africa Biodiversity and Climate Change (WA BiCC) is playing in rolling out a regional ROAM for climate change mitigation and reducing biodiversity loss. WA BiCC is currently employing ROAM in Ghana, following up on an earlier work done by IUCN in Cote d’Ivoire.

It is envisaged that the WA BiCC activities will lead to a better understanding of perspective buy-in to the concept of FLR and support will be offered to further piloting ROAM in targeted learning landscapes in West Africa so as to generate lessons on how FLR can be adapted to varying ecological and socio-political contexts in transboundary landscapes.

1 ‘Wale Adeleke PhD., Policy and Sustainable Development Specialist, West Africa Biodiversity and Climate Change (WA BiCC) PMB CT 58, Cantonments, Accra. Ghana Email: [email protected] / yaadeleke53@yahoo. co.uk

Telephone: +233 24 224 9678

2 The Bonn Challenge is a global aspiration to restore 150 million hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded lands by 2020. It was launched at a ministerial roundtable in Bonn, Germany, in September 2011, by a bold group of world leaders.

3 AFR100 (the African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative) is a country-led effort to bring 100 million hectares of deforested and degraded landscapes across Africa into restoration by 2030.

16 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Introduction

West Africa’s forests have been international agreements development goals can be subjected to profound changes, and goals. These include the addressed. particularly deforestation and United Nations Conventions degradation – especially from on biodiversity, climate, and West Africa has lost 90% of its human intervention through desertification, the Sustainable Upper Guinean Forests. The unsustainable logging, illegal Development Goals and remaining 10% of these forests mining activities, etc. West the 2016 Paris Agreement. (7.3 million ha) are in fragmented Africa faces a huge challenge to Without restoring degraded blocks and patches mainly in reduce the rates of deforestation lands, nations cannot make Liberia 50 %, Côte d’Ivoire 21%, and forest degradation. Even progress towards achieving their Ghana 17 %, Guinea 6%, Sierra though enormous efforts have Sustainable Development Goals. Leone 4 %, and Togo 2 %. The been made with the support of All the international agreements proportion of forest loss over development agencies in the and goals make it clear that the last 40 years is estimated region there is a lot more to do. restoration is an international at 37% (Fig. 1). This implies priority through which other that almost half of the total Land and soil restoration are loss occurred within the last 4 key components in many decades.

Figure 1: Deforestation of the West African Forests - EROS/USGS1

For the same period (last four folds between 1950 and 2015 decades), a closer look at while the world average increase individual countries, reveals a range of deforestation rates is only three folds); causing going up to 77% (Table 1) of resources and the expansion of agriculture due to numerous factors, (11 folds). including population growth (5

1 The Center for Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) is a United States Geological Survey (USGS) data management, systems development, and research field center. It serves as the national archive of remotely sensed images of the Earth’s land surface acquired by civilian satellites and aircraft.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 17 Table 1: Forest cover loss of West African countries 1975 - 2013

Country Deforestation (1975-2013 ) Benin Woodland (70%), Gallery forest (27%) Burkina Faso Gallery forest (30%) forest and mainly in Protected Areas Cote d’Ivoire Forest (67% ) Degraded forest (28%) woodland (48%) Gambia Gallery forest (42%) Ghana Forest (17%) Gallery forest (8%) Guinea Forest (33%,) Gallery forest (3%), woodland (1%) Guinea Bissau Forest (77%) Liberia Forest 15%, woodland 98% Mali Gallery forest (23%) Niger Gallery forest (66%), Sahelian short grass savanna 27% Nigeria Forest 45% Senegal Woodland (42%), Gallery forest (19%) Sierra Leone Forest (30%) Degraded Forest (26%) Gallery forest (22%) Togo Forest (21%) Gallery forest (36%)

Source: eros.usgs.gov/westafrica/land-cover/land-use-and-land-cover-trends-west-africa

To reduce further degradation 10 000 hectares by 2020. restoration worldwide. African and possibly reverse the trend, Some countries in West Africa countries have a large share in countries from all over West have experiences in plantation land degradation. Africa has the Africa have embarked on establishment, which essentially largest restoration opportunity programmes and projects on is basic tree planting. Ghana, for of any continent in the world – forest restoration. Some of the example, put in place a national more than 700 million hectares countries have put in place forest plantation strategy for of degraded land. Most of the national policies in support of 2016 and 2040. Most of the 700 million hectares are losing, tree plantings, while others have countries tree planting exercises or have lost, the functions they made ambitious commitments do not follow a forest landscape are noted for – ranging from to international conventions, restoration approach, which ecological sustainability to the pledges and agreements – involves integrating various provision of social and economic notably the “Bonn Challenge” spatial scales to address goods and services. West Africa for the restoration of large multiple elements of biodiversity, is of importance because it is tracts of degraded forest and landscape connectivity and one of the sub-regions with other lands, the Africa Forest watershed management. high rates of deforestation and Restoration (AFR) 100, the Great forest degradation. Moreover, Green Wall of the Sahara and Forest landscape The Guinean forests are home Sahel Initiative, etc. Notable restoration – what to substantial biodiversity, pledges made to the Bonn with many species not found Challenge and AFR 100 so exactly does it mean elsewhere, i.e. in central Africa. far include – Cote d’Ivoire - 5 in the context of West million hectares, Ghana - 2million Africa? Forest Landscape Restoration hectares, Guinea - 2 million (FLR) is a process that aims to hectares, Liberia – 1 million It has been quantified that regain ecological integrity and hectares, and Niger - 3.2 million over two billion hectares enhance human well-being hectares, Nigeria – 4 million, of degraded or deforested in deforested or degraded and Sierra Leone plan to restore lands offer opportunities for forest landscapes. In addition

18 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 to the reforestation and Union for Conservation of Nature systems, ecological corridors ecological restoration potentials, (IUCN) on FLR – especially degraded forest/woodland FLR involves bringing all in the use of the Restoration areas, and river and lakeside stakeholders together in the Opportunity Assessment plantings to protect waterways process of restoring the function Methodology (ROAM) to should be further explored. This and productivity of degraded quantify the areas suitable for is, in fact, the way to strengthen forest lands through a variety of restoration in West Africa – landscape resilience to optimize interventions. notably the Mano River Union their ecosystems goods and (MRU) countries (Guinea, services and address people/ The West Africa Sierra Leone, Liberia, and society’s needs. The process Biodiversity and Climate Cote D‘Ivoire) and Ghana. The will require leveraging a suite of use of ROAM aligns with the strategies ranging from natural Change (WA BiCC) Economic Community of West regeneration to tree planting, approach African States (ECOWAS) Forest avoiding further reduction of Convergence Plan developed natural forest cover, tailoring Tetra Tech ARD in partnerships in 2013 for the Sustainable to local conditions, involving with Palladium, Columbia Management and Utilization stakeholders, using adaptive University’s Center for of Forest Ecosystems in West management and searching for International Earth Science Africa. This document embodies multiple benefits. Information Network (CIESIN), the ECOWAS strategic vision PCI Media Impact (PCI), and for the sound management of WA BiCC intend to promote FLR Pact -- were awarded the USAID natural resources, environmental as a viable land use mechanism contract for implementation of preservation and sustainable to reverse deforestation, West Africa Biodiversity and development in our ecosystems. forest degradation and Climate Change (WA BiCC) One of the priority areas of the biodiversity loss, and also use project activities starting convergence plan focuses on the process to estimate the from May 2015. The WA BiCC forest ecosystems management climate change mitigation and program is expected to run and reforestation in which forest adaptation potentials of the through May 2020. This Program landscape restoration plays a West Africa forests through the is designed to strengthen the significant role. enhancement of carbon stocks. resiliency and sustainability of West African institutions, WA BiCC and ECOWAS intend to WA BiCC has commenced ecosystems, and communities. mainstream the concept of FLR, consultations with selected by providing support to some West Africa countries especially Two of the three components of the West Africa countries in those that have demonstrated of the WA BiCC program is the identification and mapping interest and commitment to about working with the West of potential priority sites for FLR. The countries of priorities African people to increase restoration. An African /Hausa are those that form part of coastal resilience to climate proverb says- «Mai lura da ice major watersheds including change and reducing the bashin jin yunwa» i.e. “He who the watersheds of river Niger, threats to deforestation, forest takes care of trees will not Senegal, Gambia, Mono, Volta, degradation and biodiversity suffer from hunger”. Hence, the Tano, Bia, Komoe, Sassandra, loss in WA BiCC targeted promotion of not just the planted Cavally, Cestos, St John, St Paul, coastal and forest landscapes. trees, but also the broader Lofa, Mano, and Moa rivers Strategies have been developed consideration of the functions (Fig. 2). These watersheds are focusing on supporting effective of forests in a landscape should ideal environments for FLR and interventions and creating an be taken as priority actions quick restoration of ecological enabling environment. One of by the governments of West functions of the landscape and the approaches identified by WA African States and supported biodiversity. BiCC for the implementation of financially. Restoring the whole the strategies includes Forest landscape targeting watersheds Landscape Restoration. and complementing (not displacing) existing land uses WA BiCC is following up on the such as sustainable agriculture, activities of the International agroforestry, improved fallow

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 19 Figure 2: West African watersheds as ideal sites for initial FLR program Source: EROS/USGS/West Africa/Atlas

As mentioned above, WA BiCC will partner with institutions and sub-regional economic bodies including ECOWAS, MRU, SERVIR West Africa, and national governments in the promotion of FLR in the sub-region.

The following are the pledges and supporting the of the areas available to approaches that implementation of national meet the pledge. The Ghana priorities that can lead to Assessment report will be WA BiCC is employing increased food productivity, useful in supporting the for FLR interventions in water security, biodiversity, forest sector investments, by West Africa: and resilience to climate ensuring ease of working in change, each of which will areas of highest potentials. • Stakeholder consultation benefit the countries and the The report will support on the concept of FLR in global community. This can the implementation of the six countries of West Africa be the starting point for the Ghana REDD+ strategy and notably – Burkina Faso, development of a Regional the Forest Investment Plan. Guinea, Liberia, Niger, FLR Strategy for West Africa It will serve as the basis Senegal, and Sierra Leone. or at a minimum Mano River for replication in the MRU This aims to introduce the Union FLR Strategy. countries. concept of FLR and stimulate multi stakeholder processes • Finalize the Ghana ROAM • Application of Regional in the countries. It will also processes started by IUCN. ROAM in Manu River Union enhance the knowledge and WA BiCC intend to follow up (MRU) – WA BiCC intend to understanding of the FLR and and finalize the earlier work employ ROAM to estimate ROAM assessment process of IUCN in the use of ROAM i) the current and future across national stakeholders. for the development of the carbon sequestration This will entail inviting Ghana FLR Opportunity map potentials and ii) the all stakeholders that are and use it in the estimation biodiversity potentials of the involved in the management of the amount of carbon Mano River Union landscapes and use of natural resources. that could be available from and corridors with the aim of The idea behind the forests for climate change producing a West Africa FLR consultations go beyond the mitigation and adaptation. map. The rationale behind introduction of FLR concept, Ghana has also pledged 2 this is the decline in forests it will also demonstrate the million hectares to both the cover in MRU countries. countries’ willingness in AFR 100 and Bonn Challenge The rate of deforestation meeting up to their Bonn and the mapping will be and degradation have Challenge and AFR 100 useful in the identification been different in each of

20 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 the countries but the trend benefit from using the FLR Conclusions remains the same. Land approach. It is envisaged degradation associated with that this could be one “best It is envisaged that the soil erosion is also increasing. practice” that ECOWAS implementation of the WA BiCC This trend has negative might want to replicate in approach on FLR in West Africa impacts on the ecological other part of the region, for will lead to resilience of the different example the Sahel. landscapes of the sub-region a) a better understanding of and their ability to provide • Engagement of private perspective and achieving ecosystem services that sector in FLR implementation. national buy-in to the support livelihoods of millions WA BiCC has identified the concept of FLR through of people. There have been method of restoration used consultations involving all some mitigation efforts by by Form Ghana (one of stakeholders in the countries the countries – for example the private sector actors selected; through their respective involved in forest restoration National Development Plans. in Ghana) as an ideal b) support and showcasing As mentioned above, the four method to replicate with the Ghana and Cote d’Ivoire countries of MRU pledged other private restoration assessments as pilots and a to contribute to the Bonn companies in West Africa. learning opportunity in the Challenge commitment - WA BiCC will organize sub-region. The Cote d’Ivoire Cote d’Ivoire - 5 million, exchange visits between assessment was carried out Guinea - 2 million, Liberia Form Ghana and other by IUCN; – 1 million, and Sierra Leone private sector companies. plan to restore 10 000 ha Form Ghana benefits in two c) further piloting FLR/ by 2020. By employing a fronts – they are able to sell ROAM in targeted learning regional ROAM, the MRU their sustainably managed landscapes within MRU countries will be able to timber products as well to generate lessons on identify areas available as also get paid for the how FLR can be adapted for restoring degraded ecosystem services they to varying ecological and forest landscapes leading rendered through the offer socio-political contexts – for to improved ecosystem of their carbon credits. Form example producing sub- quality and resilience, Ghana’s restoration activities regional ROAM assessments providing new opportunities have been independently in transboundary landscapes for rural livelihoods, while validated under the Verified of securing adequate water Carbon Standard (VCS). and energy supplies and i. Ziama-Wonegizi-Wologizi- supporting low carbon • Organization of a Regional Foya between Liberia and economic development. Technical Learning Event on Guinea, and This will be the first example FLR in West Africa – there of regional integration in have been discussions ii. Gola Transboundary forest management and will between ECOWAS, IUCN, and Landscape between be an ideal strategy for the WA BiCC on the importance Liberia and Sierra Leone; maintenance of the Fouta of organizing a regional Djallon watershed. The FAO/ workshop on best practices d) some of the private sector Africa Union “Fouta Djallon in FLR. This learning event in the sub-region will be Highlands Integrated Natural will be for technical people employing FLR process for Resources Management from governments, civil plantation establishment; and Project” and the MRU/IUCN/ society, and the private GEF “Mano River Union sector involved in restoration e) the lessons learnt through Ecosystem Conservation activities. ECOWAS will be the process will be useful for and International Water expected to play a leading replication in other countries Resources Management role in this learning event within West Africa. Project” are specific and subsequent high-level examples of projects that will events to follow.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 21 References IPCC (2006), 2006 IPCC or sub national. Working paper Guidelines for National (Road-test edition), Gland, CILSS (2016). Landscapes of Inventories, Switzerland: IUCN. 125pp West Africa – A Window on a Agriculture, Forestry and Other Changing World. U.S. Geological Land Uses, Volume 4. http://www.afr100.org/ Survey EROS, 47914 252nd St, Garretson, SD 57030, UNITED IUCN (2016): Opportunities for http://www.bonnchallenge.org/ STATES. Restoring Degraded Forests and Landscapes in Cote d’Ivoire http://www.formghana.com FAO. 2000. Global Forest (Final Report) Accessed April 04, 2018http: Resources Assessment 2000 (FRA 2000): http://www.fao.org/ IUCN and WRI (2014) Guide to //www.fao.org/forestry/ forestry/fra/86624/en/ the Restoration Opportunities watershedmanagement Assessment Methodology andmountains/74917/en/ Forestry Commission and MLNR (ROAM): Assessing forest (2016): Ghana Forest Plantation landscape restoration http://www.greatgreenwall.org Strategy: 2016-2040. opportunities at the national

Cows drinking water from a trough at Nakaseke, Uganda ©FAO

22 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 OPINION PIECE

Africa’s ambitions in landscape restoration Mafa E. Chipeta1

Mankind is prone to committing sins – including many against the environment. Most talked about over the last decade has been man’s massive discharge of , methane and various nitrogenous and sulphurous gases which now account for a heavy blanket around earth that makes the atmosphere a greater trap for heat than before mankind made his contribution. As progressive planetary warming occurs and leads to even higher temperatures, earth is already subject to frequent and very severe climatic events – floods, snowfalls and droughts. To moderate the global warning which dominates climate change symptoms, man has identified the planting or retention of trees and other vegetation to capture carbon as one part of effective penance for sins committed.

Foresters have committed review the state of play in that in the global fora themselves to playing restoration, how best to Africa stepped forward their part and on the 6th have complementarity in to play its part: the 2015 of December 2015 at the their efforts to advance the Paris Global Landscapes Global Landscapes Forum restoration agenda, and Forum witnessed the on the margins of the to propose a roadmap for launch of the African Forest UNFCCC Conference of interventions. It became Landscape Restoration Parties (COP21) in Paris, clear right from the start Initiative (AFR100) as a they showed their intention that, as reported by pan-African but country-led to pursue aggressive Akinnifesi (this issue of the effort to restore 100 million vegetational restoration of journal) some 2 billion ha of hectares of degraded and landscapes. The Paris events land is available globally for deforested landscapes by were a follow-up to the restoration, of which over 2030. Africa was present September, 2011 decision 700 million ha is degraded and active in Bonn as of world leaders assembled land in Africa alone, which also at other occasions in Bonn to launch the world’s is increasing by 3 million ha where international treaties largest-ever landscape annually. . are signed in favour of restoration initiative, which development, environment, has been labeled “the Africa therefore has the trade, agriculture and food Bonn Challenge”2 whose greatest need for and gives security, intellectual property ambition is to restore 150 the largest opportunities or other topics. The Bonn million hectares of degraded for forest and landscape commitments add to Africa’s and deforested lands by restoration among the own range of agreements 2020. Subsequently, on continents. Akinnifesi quotes under the African Union or December 17, 2017 in a recent FAO assessment subregional organizations Bonn, the Global Partnership indicating that in order to conserve, enhance on Forest and Landscape to halt and reverse land or combat illegal and Restoration (GPFLR) and degradation in the Sahel irresponsible treatment of Global Restoration Council and the Horn of Africa alone forest/woodland and wildlife (GLR) held their joint summit will call for about 10 million resources. “Scaling up Collaborative ha of annual restoration. Action on Restoration”3 to It was only right therefore

1 Mafa E Chipeta, [email protected] is retired and generally writes on forestry, agriculture and food security from Limbe, Malawi and Pretoria, South Africa.

2 see http://www.forestlandscaperestoration.org/topic/bonn-challenge and http://www. forestlandscaperestoration.org/sites/default/files/topic/the_bonn_challenge.pdf]

3 http://www.afr100.org/content/gpflr-partners-meeting-glf-bonn

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 23 This issue of Nature & Faune chances of such interventions breeds etc) so that boosting focuses on African ambitions being sustainable over the farm output does not call to satisfy agreements made long horizon. The following are for extensive forest and under the Bonn Challenge and among the dimensions proposed woodland clearing. at the Global Landscapes Forum for consideration: in Paris to reclaim damaged 3. In Africa more than or destroyed landscapes: in 1. Change is a permanent elsewhere, methods for many regions, this is largely feature of all evolution in vegetation restoration must viewed through a forestry lens nature, including of ecologies; not just be cost-effective and Africa is no exception. The some of the change will but also seriously low-cost journal carries some excellent necessarily involve replacing per unit land covered. This is papers – some giving an former green cover with because Africa is poor and overview of the magnitude more bare landscapes. The its limited funding capacity of restoration needed (e.g. ambition of re-greening/ can only be modestly spared Akinnifessi; WRI) and others landscape restoration should for re-greening given the giving specifics on programmes therefore not aim to turn existence of other large or projects or on initiatives in the clock back and reverse pressing demands for health, specific countries. Fortunately, evolution in all cases but education, infrastructure etc. the collection of writings does should select areas where As orders of magnitude, it not suggest that interest in degradation has become is well to note that with its restoration was invented either too severe to ignore. billion-odd people, Africa has at Bonn 2011/2017 or at Paris Nevertheless, in a continent about 15-16% of the world’s 2015: there are foundations and where massive deserts total human population experiences to build upon some already exist (some probably but has an economy that of which (including the fencing formerly forested or wooded) accounts for only 2-3% of off of land to allow regeneration) – Africa should feel obliged the global GDP and its share have gained much from African to walk the extra mile in of global trade has similar experiences and experiments regaining vegetation relative orders of magnitude. With during the post Sahelian to other continents. poverty and poor capacity drought. to fund its own interventions 2. Also, Africa’s smallholder being among Africa’s Ideally, Africa should fully agriculture runs mostly on defining attributes Africa implement the treaties it is the low-input/low output must be selective on where signatory too, including the one model and so its people it intervenes, at what scale, on landscape restoration; if it clear vegetation from the and where the chances are does that, Africa will be among land at a most unsustainable best for sustaining long-term the most environmentally pace. If effective measures intervention; responsible and compliant are not taken to raise regions in the world. But it agricultural productivity 4. Historically, when new faces some challenges which and so to slow down this initiatives come, their early should not serve to discourage degradation/deforestation, stages attract easy donor action or dampen commitment the benefits of re-greening funding: this can be a trap. but should help guide already degraded areas will Donor funding is also still towards realistic approaches be largely nullified. This will needed and is inadequate to intervention. This opinion be a case of running after for many other pressing piece draws attention to such a fast-growing problem. needs in Africa (education, considerations – it carries no It is absolutely essential food, health, development ambition of introducing new that in Africa more than etc) – Africa must exercise information or insights into elsewhere, restoration good judgement based the commendable desire to efforts be accompanied on dispassionate analysis re-green landscapes but to by policy measures to as to how much priority it raise some points of necessary slow down damage to new should give to this latest contextualization so that action vegetation- especially by and most fashionable desire is anchored in realism of raising farm productivity to re-green landscapes as ambitions and thereby improves through (fertilisation, better compared to channelling

24 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 some aid to older but also 7. Tree cover is not in place institutional and pressing needs; synonymous with correct policy arrangements to restoration; nature is too ensure inclusive planning 5. Given poor capacity to clever to accept tree-only or and execution of restoration internally fund interventions, tree-focused re-greening as initiatives in context of a particularly important a substitute of natural reality. overall sustainable national question for Africa has been Since none of the papers development; alluded to earlier: how to suggests the potential value choose for low cost and of renewing landscapes 9. Bonn and its re-greening for cost-effectiveness. This using non-tree vegetation agenda is only the latest will require careful choice (grassland, shrubs etc) high-profile initiative Africa between cost-intensive Society must encourage all is excited about. To mention technologies (such as key umbrella initiatives - such a few, every single African planting afresh) and less as AFR100 or the Great country also has to act costly but socially difficult Green Wall of the Sahara on its obligations under natural regeneration (how and the Sahel Initiative, agreements on combating to keep out people from to combine a range of desertification, climate using resources to allow vegetation and animal life in change, biodiversity, food re-growth). In fact, when restoring nature. [It is unlikely security and nutrition, money is as tight as in Africa, that nature if left alone industrialization, trade and we should not applaud would have wanted to be its globalization, health and interventions based on restored only to trees; most education ambitions, the superficial gain (e.g. massive likely it would have evolved SDGs and their preceding plantations appearing to combinations of many MDGs, the outcomes of almost overnight) but should life types. Globally, carbon endless global summits on subject them to rigorous capture for example may gender, child development, comparative cost-benefit be at least as high via sea human rights etc. Internally analysis relative to the many algae as through terrestrial each country may have other pressing things the vegetation – that is how signed off on the AU NEPAD investment could have been open-minded nature is.]; ambitions, AU 2063 vision, applied to; and subregional agreements 8. In almost all sub-Saharan both inside and outside 6. Most papers in this issue African countries, 60-80% forestry. Africa has been of the journal are silent on of the population is still sequentially excited about the cost at which landscape rural and therefore interacts all these agreements when restoration will be achieved. intimately with landscapes they were still fresh. Africa The environmental benefits and their resources, may wish to act differently may be clear but rural including using them as this time: the tendency to communities will want more a land bank to convert to promote action vigorously than this - in particular, farming. Urbanisation and simply because initiatives landscape restoration should infrastructure expansion also are in fashion is unhealthy. also offer them employment eats away daily at natural Africa should link the new and income – even longer- landscapes: such pressures restoration to many earlier term prosperity – and not are often an absolute need related actions for example just a greener environment. for development. To the under the UN Desertification I appeal for designers of proposals in the papers in Convention, Tropical Forest programmes to include a this journal which focus on Action Plan, and Great Green visible economic dimension introducing green cover onto Wall of the Sahara and the in restoration/re-greening the land, society must press Sahel and other initiatives. interventions. Without this, for complementarity with It should also sustain it may be hard to motivate non-forest, non-tree uses interventions in non-greening local people to take part in of the landscapes, some of and non-forest activities such activities; which are also very important that the continent needs for local people. This may for balanced and sustained call for governments to put development.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 25 The speed with which Africa restoration? The land and its own human energy and financial has embraced global intentions natural cover is the capital upon resources, with donor support to to restore landscapes is which sustainable development be only a complement. commendable and Africa’s is founded. It is only the unwise foresters and all others who who allow their very foundations But in doing this it should not work on the land must be to remain threatened. Given forget that its people cannot proud. But they need to that the level of degradation is eat a green environment; they ensure that this goes beyond worse than in any other region are poor and they will embrace governmental statements of of the world, Africa should set restoration action only if it is intent. Governments in Africa the lead in restoration efforts. done in such a way that they can have committed to many other It must plant; it must enclose also derive income, employment ambitions, such as food security, land to allow regrowth; it must and long-term prosperity but for failure to mobilise integrate life-saving vegetation from the interventions. Africa their people and institutions, on farmlands as well as in the needs not “environment” or countries have made only urban space. And it should “development” but both; and it modest gains. Should we allow demonstrate commitment by can do it. this to also happen for land allocating substantial sums of its

Moctar Sacande, forest seed and restoration specialist, FAO, leading a group of farmers for harvesting seeds in Tera, Bajirga, Niger. ©FAO/Giulio Napolitano

26 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 ARTICLES

From pledges to action: Africa’s 100 million hectare restoration goal comes into focus Tangu Tomeo1, Salima Mahamoudou2 and Emily H. Averna3

Summary

Forest landscape restoration—the process of returning productivity to forest, agricultural, pastoral, and even urban landscapes—is a critical pathway to achieving human prosperity and environmental sustainability. Experience from the African continent demonstrates how restoration can boost food and water security, household income, and communities’ resilience to climate change. An African restoration movement is underway to scale up these successes and transform hundreds of millions of lives and hectares across the continent.

An African efforts have resulted in a thousand-fold increase in restoration improved crop production irrigated land, self-sufficient and food security, increased food production, and a movement is taking household income, reduced 50% drop in the number root fuelwood collection time of people living below for women, and increased the national poverty line Africa is home to the carbon sequestration – (Reij, 2015 & World Bank, world’s largest restoration estimated at 25 million tons 2015). The 2017 Future opportunity, with more than of carbon over the past two Policy Award—known as the 700 million hectares of decades. “Oscars for best policies”— deforested and degraded was awarded to Tigray as 4 land that could be restored. Community members, local having the world’s best land The continent is also home government, and donors restoration policy. to some of the world’s most came together in Ethiopia’s iconic restoration successes. Tigray region to restore Momentum for forest For example, farmers more than one million landscape restoration and community members hectares of degraded land (FLR) is surging across the in Niger implemented through FMNR, rainwater continent. farmer-managed natural harvesting, and stone bund regeneration (FMNR) and and terrace construction. soil and water conservation Restoration in Tigray has to restore five million been associated with hectares of land. Their multiple impacts including

1 Tangu Tomeo, Department of Forestry, Ministry of Natural Resources, Energy and Mining. Department of Forestry Headquarters, P.O Box 30048, Lilongwe. The Republic of Malawi. Tel.: +265 999 397949 Email: [email protected]

2 Salima Mahamoudou, Research Analyst, African Forests. 10 G Street NE, Suite 800, Washington DC, 20002 +1 202 729 7767 World Resources Institute. Email: [email protected]

3 Emily H. Averna. Associate, African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative (AFR100). 10 G Street NE, Suite 800, Washington DC, 20002. Tel.: +1 202 720 7720 World Resources Institute. Email: [email protected]

4 Forest landscape restoration (FLR) refers to the ongoing process of regaining ecological functionality and enhancing human well-being across deforested or degraded landscapes. FLR takes a landscape approach and is implemented not just in forests but also in agricultural, grazing, and even urban areas. FLR, or tree-based landscape restoration, includes activities such as agroforestry, assisted natural regeneration, silvopasture, and farmer-managed natural regeneration as well as tree planting.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 27 To date 26 countries have on the ground. Malawi and as 7.7 million hectares—80% of made ambitious commitments— Madagascar have launched first- the country’s total land area. totaling nearly 85 million of-their-kind national restoration hectares—to the African strategies that outline where and A number of common themes Forest Landscape Restoration how restoration interventions are emerging as countries Initiative (AFR100) and the Bonn can be implemented pivot to implementation. These Challenge. Through the AFR100 (MNREM-Malawi, 2016; NRPF- include effective community partnership, stewarded by the Madagascar, undated). Malawi’s engagement, accessing private NEPAD Secretariat, countries are strategy outlines five restoration finance for restoration, and accessing technical support and interventions that can be linking restoration with efforts to financial assistance to translate implemented to restore as many halt deforestation and improve their commitments into action land use planning.

Figure 1: AFR100 partner countries, as of May 2018 Source: NEPAD Agency and World Resources Institute

Communities can lead FMNR has been broadly adopted FMNR is advancing women’s the way as a means of restoring soil empowerment, particularly by organic matter and increasing reducing the time burden of Experience from Malawi crop yields (MNREM-Malawi, collecting fuelwood and fodder, demonstrates the critical role 2017). As its name implies, and also through diversified that community engagement farmers and community sources of income (MNREM- and capacity building will play members play a central role in Malawi, 2017). Research has in achieving the country’s 4.5 implementing FMNR. shown that FMNR can result million hectare target. Many in a 10% crop yield increase restoration practices are being A low-cost agricultural practice, in “good” years and a two-to- implemented throughout FMNR encourages farmers to five times higher crop yield in Malawi, including conservation manage the natural regrowth “bad” years, and can stabilize agriculture, soil and water of trees on-farm, especially fodder availability allowing more conservation, river and stream- those that have multiple uses livestock to graze in the same bank tree planting, agroforestry, and the potential to enhance area. and . In addition, land productivity. In Malawi

28 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 As indicated in Malawi’s takes a long time for farmers to understanding of FMNR and how national Forest Landscape realize the benefits of tree-based to implement it. The Department Restoration (FLR) opportunities interventions, and concerns of Forestry and PERFORM assessment, improved that trees on-farm could project have facilitated farmer agricultural technologies reduce crop yield by taking up exchange visits and peer-to- including FMNR could be space otherwise dedicated to peer trainings in villages across implemented on as many as agricultural production. Malawi to clarify: the benefits 3.7 million hectares. This is of and barriers to implementing close to 40% of Malawi’s total In order to surmount these FMNR, actors already practicing land area. However, a number barriers Malawi’s Department FMNR and where they are doing of barriers inhibit smallholders’ of Forestry, the USAID-Malawi so, simple FMNR techniques, adoption of FMNR despite its Protecting Ecosystems and pathways to engage women and many benefits. Barriers include Restoring Forests in Malawi marginalized groups in decision- a lack of emphasis of on-farm (PERFORM) project, and making, and approaches trees in agricultural extension technical partners have engaged to accelerate adoption by messaging, the perception that it communities to increase community members. ©Republic of Malawi Ministry Natural Resources, Energy and Mining Figure 2: Demonstration on pruning in a farmer’s field in Mthiko village, Ntubwi EPA, TA Nkula, Machinga, as members appreciate some young seedlings left deliberately on farm. Source: Republic of Malawi Ministry of Natural Resources, Energy and Mining and the USAID Protecting Ecosystems and Restoring Forests in Malawi (PERFORM) project.

Private finance is by environmental and social of annual funding needs for needed to restore at benefits. With as many as 700 restoration and conservation are million hectares of degraded met, leaving a gap of $250-$350 scale lands that could be restored billion annually (Faruqi, 2017). in Africa, public finance alone FLR must attract a broader Restoration has historically been will not be enough (DeWitt investor base to support funded through public finance and Weber, 2015). Research governments’ transition from from governments or long-term shows that less than 20 percent impact investors motivated

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 29 pledges to action on the ground to deliver financial returns Niger, Achats created Acacia (Wu, 2017). (Faruqi et al, 2018). For example, Senegal plantations on about F3 Life is a Kenyan company 8 000 hectares of degraded FLR can generate substantial that adopted a technology- lands, allowing the areas to revenue sources from wood, based business model, enabling be rehabilitated and water non-wood products, tourism, smallholder farmers to create erosion to be prevented. Achats and other goods and services. agricultural loan portfolios and has produced and sold gum The action of restoring is an access credit using an online Arabic in local and international investment, as restored lands platform. They are projected to markets for the past five years. can provide a steady flow of make over $100 000 in revenue Many investors do not realize goods and services and deliver in 2018, with an estimated the possible financial returns capital gains by increasing 25 000 hectares of land to from restoration, or know of property value. Restoration be restored by 2020. Achats profitable, scalable companies business models related to Service International (ASI) is that have restoration as a core consumer products, commercial another example of a restoration part of their business model forestry, technology, and project business model. Based in (Verdone et Seidl, 2017). management have been shown ©World Resources Institute/Salima Mahamoudou

Figure 3: Acacia senegal plantation established by Achats Service International (ASI) in the Tillabery region, in Niger.

Strengthening the policy Restoration must be Deforestation is of particular environment for restoration can paired with efforts to concern in tropical areas also help unlock private and (Bergen, 2017). Africa houses public finance. Governments halt deforestation the second largest continuous can take a number of actions tropical forest in the world While FLR has been welcomed including: imposing carbon after the Amazon. But in recent in many African countries, prices and utilizing those funds years, the majority of Central deforestation remains a to restore land, incentivizing African countries have seen persistent problem across restoration through subsidies, a surge in deforestation and the continent. Without halting accessing multilateral climate land degradation fueled by and reversing deforestation, finance to fund restoration, population growth and increased gains made through landscape adopting a cross-sectoral demand for (forest) land and restoration will be neutralized approach, and bundling projects trees for agriculture, charcoal and will fail to deliver urgently to increase investment size and production and firewood. In fact, needed benefits to communities. minimize risks (Ding et al, 2017). while many governments are

30 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 committing to restoring millions African countries are DeWitt, S., Weber, S., Diakhite, M. of hectares and developing partnering to make (2015, December 06). African national restoration strategies, Countries Aim to Restore 100 demand for timber, agricultural large-scale restoration Million Hectares of Degraded lands, palm oil, cocoa, oil and a reality Land [Blog Post]. Retrieved minerals is putting severe from http://www.wri.org/ pressure on the African forests Africa is poised to trigger a blog/2015/12/african-countries- that remain. continent-wide restoration aim-restore-100-million- movement, but significant hectares-degraded-land To be successful, restoration barriers must first be must be paired with avoided surmounted. Farmer innovators Ding, H., Faruqi, S., Wu, A., deforestation efforts and and restoration champions must Altamirano, J., Anchondo, integrated into broader land be fully engaged to share good A., Cristales, R., Chazdon, R., use planning processes. practices and build support for Vergara, W. (2017, December). It can be a powerful tool restoration within communities. Roots of Prosperity: The for reducing deforestation Increased private investment Economics and Finance of without compromising must flow to countries and Restoring Land [Report]. associated development while enterprises that restore land. Retrieved from http://www. supporting economic growth Avoided deforestation and wri.org/publication/roots-of- and communities’ livelihoods. restoration efforts must be prosperity Restored landscapes provide viewed as two sides of the same important alternative sources coin to inform holistic land use Faruqi, S. (2016, September 07). of wood and fuel that reduce planning and management. Forest Restoration Gets a Tiny pressure to clear primary forest. Fraction of the Money It Needs. Early-stage efforts are underway African countries are sharing How to Fill the Gap? [Blog Post]. in the Democratic Republic knowledge and working hand Retrieved from http://www. of the Congo (DRC) to solidify in hand with technical partners wri.org/blog/2016/09/forest- these links. DRC’s Ministry of and financiers to tackle these restoration-gets-tiny-fraction- Environment and Sustainable challenges and achieve money-it-needs-how-fill-gap Development is exploring restoration across 100 million options to integrate restoration hectares. Doing so will benefit Faruqi, S., Wu, A., Anchondo, A., opportunity assessment map millions of households with Batista, A. (2018, January). The layers into its Forest Atlas, enhanced food, water, and Business of Planting Trees: A a platform used to drive energy security, livelihood Growing Investment Opportunity participatory land use planning. diversification, and strengthened [Report]. Retrieved from http:// Economic analyses that show resilience to climate change. www.wri.org/publication/ the costs and benefits of business-of-planting-trees restoration activities may also be References applied to help decision-makers Ministry of Environment, Ecology weigh the tradeoffs of different Bergen, M. (2017, October and Forest-Madagascar. (n.d). land uses. 14). A River Lined with Smoke: Stratégie Nationale sur la Charcoal and Forest Loss in Restauration des Paysages the Democratic Republic of Forestiers et des Infrastructures Congo [Blog Post]. Retrieved Vertes à Madagascar [Report]. from http://www.wri.org/ Retrieved from http://mg.chm- blog/2017/10/river-lined- cbd.net/implementation/ smoke-charcoal-and-forest-loss- Documents_nationaux/ democratic-republic-congo document-cadre/strategie- nationale-sur-la-restauration-

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 31 des-paysages-forestiers-et-des/ (2017). Forest Landscape action=preview_click&show_ download/fr/1/SNRPF_Version_ Restoration Opportunities checkout=1&purchase_ WEB.pdf. Assessment for Malawi [Report]. referrer=www.wri. Retrieved from https://portals. org&purchase_site_ Ministry of Environment, Forest iucn.org/library/sites/library/ license=LICENSE_DENIED_NO_ and Climate Change-Ethiopia. files/documents/2017-029.pdf CUSTOMER (n.d). Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) Strategy [Blog Reij, C. (2015, July 28). How World Bank Group. Post]. Retrieved from http:// Ethiopia Went from Famine (2015). Ethiopia Poverty mefcc.gov.et/environment/ Crisis to Green Revolution [Blog Assessment 2014 [Report]. climate-resilient-green-economy- Post]. Retrieved from http:// Retrieved from https:// crge-strategy/ www.wri.org/blog/2015/07/ openknowledge.worldbank.org/ how-ethiopia-went-famine-crisis- handle/10986/21323 Ministry of Natural Resources, green-revolution Energy and Mining-Malawi. Wu, A. (2017, May 22). How Can (2016). National Forest Verdone, M., Seidl, A. (2017). Restoring Degraded Landscapes Landscape Restoration Strategy Time, space, place, and Deliver Financial Returns? [Blog [Report]. Retrieved http://afr100. the Bonn Challenge Global Post]. Retrieved from http:// org/sites/default/files/Malawi_ Forest Restoration Target. www.wri.org/blog/2017/05/ NFLR_Strategy_FINALv2.pdf [Article]. Retrieved from http:// how-can-restoring-degraded- onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ landscapes-deliver-financial- Ministry of Natural Resources, doi/10.1111/rec.12512/ returns Energy and Mining-Malawi. epdf?r3_referer=wol&tracking_

32 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Scaling up commercial reforestation as part of forest landscape restoration: some key factors to success Christine Naaijen and Paul Hol1

What has happened since the launch of the initiative ‘Forests for the Future, New Forests for Africa’, in 2016? How far have we got with the ambitious plan to replant 100 million ha of African forests?

Sustainable Forestry Investments (SFI), is a Dutch investment company with large- scale investments in landscape restoration in Ghana and Tanzania. It has about 30 000 hectares under management and is still expanding with the support of new investments, such as a loan from the African Development Bank (AfDB). There are tangible results and key factors to success to share, that prove that it is possible to create change.

Introduction potential for restoration (WRI, force that will make large- 2016). In fact, many African scale reforestation and Climate change, population countries are taking action, forest landscape restoration growth and predicted focusing on reforestation possible. The ‘do-good resource scarcity has led to but also on farmer-managed approach’ was developed, insights that deforestation, natural regeneration of meaning that commercial and the tragedy of the trees, agroforestry and investments simultaneously commons that had been management of rangeland improve the environmental used as an excuse for and presently non-forested integrity of the landscape too long, had to stop. In ecosystems. and the livelihoods of 2016, the African Forest the people living there, Landscape Restoration “While the priority must while also making a profit. Initiative (AFR100) was remain on preserving our Commercial reforestation launched, a country-led natural forests, the revival companies can, and should, effort to bring 100 million of denuded areas through be enabled to do so from hectares of deforested and reforestation helps not only a sustainable and inclusive degraded landscapes across Ghana but also the global business perspective, Africa into restoration by fight against climate change,” including financial 2030. were the inspiring words of independence of the project. Kofi Annan, strong supporter Africa is determined to of the AFR100 agreement, At a special session at the minimize negative effects of in the documentary Forests latest Global Landscape climate change. According for the Future – New Forum in Bonn, December to World Resources Institute Forests for Africa, which 2017, scaling up investments (WRI) and the International can be found on the website that benefit smallholders and Union for the Conservation www.forminternational.nl the landscapes they live in, of Nature (IUCN), more than was the main topic. “There is 700 million hectares (1.7 At the start of the AFR-100 nothing wrong with making billion acres) in Africa, have initiative, the private sector profit from saving the planet”, was identified as a major said Erik Solheim, Executive

1 Christine Naaijen is Forestry Consultant at Form International; Paul Hol is CEO of Form International and Director of SFI. Contact address: Eijerdijk 87, NL-8051 MS Hattem , The Netherlands, tel : +31 38 444 8990, email: [email protected], web: www.forminternational.nl

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 33 Director of UN Environment, Development Bank (AfDB), which and ecological functionality. in his opening address. “What was considered a breakthrough Restoration practices go well is wrong is making profit from in climate financing, as part of beyond simply planting trees. destroying it”. the investment is ‘concessional For the African continent, the loan’ from the Climate most direct benefits would be Doing good business, Investment Funds’ Forest to improve soil fertility and on the ground Investment Program (CIF FIP), food security, facilitate access complementing the AfDB co- to clean water, improve micro In reforestation projects we financing. climate conditions, combat distinguish three phases. First, desertification, create “green financial preparations need For the AfDB, the loan to jobs”, and bolster economic to be made, by defining a SFI destined for the Form growth and livelihoods, while 1 bankable proposal, building Ghana reforestation initiative, at the same time making a a business case and finding represents the first Private substantial contribution to investors. Then, the project Sector direct investment in climate change mitigation. is being implemented. Right restoration of degraded forests, from the start, the project of the Forest Investment As population growth and should be embedded in the Program (FIP). The AfDB loan resource scarcity is putting local context by building a will be used for restoration tremendous pressure on African balanced stakeholder framework and extension of the area of forests, the demand for timber, and forming public private sustainably managed forest in poles, charcoal, fuelwood and partnerships. Many projects Ghana. The AFDb loan enables wood fibre cannot be met by end here, but this is where the growth of the plantations from just sustainably managing the landscape challenge begins: 7 500 hectares in 2016 to remaining tropical forests. starting from one or several 11 700 hectares by 2020 and With so many degraded lands successful projects, further assist Form Ghana to maintain in the region, the concept of extension of impact beyond and bring to maturity the existing commercial scale reforestation, company boundaries should be plantations until positive cash as promoted by the AFR-100 created, including an improved flow. In this period the company initiative, can help contribute governance structure for the can expand the work force and to counteract forest landscape whole landscape. At this stage, provide jobs to over 1 200 staff. degradation. It can even provide an inclusive commercially viable By 2040, these plantations will necessary stepping-stones in business model is applied, which have sequestered approximately restoring ecological networks in 3.5 Million tons of CO . In the region that offer refuge and is also beneficial to low-income 2 communities. order to increase the number migratory paths for wildlife and of reforested hectares even promote adaptation pathways further, SFI aims to have a total for flora and fauna in the face of Unlocking capital flows of 150 million dollars invested climate change. for forest development by 2030 in Ghana, Tanzania and in Africa other African countries. Form Ghana Ltd. is a forest plantation management Over the past ten years, Forest landscape company based in central Ghana Sustainable Forestry Investments restoration (FLR) from that provides services in the field (SFI), a Dutch investment of reforestation of degraded company with large scale a commercial angle: Forest Reserves and plantation investments in landscape enhancing value, management. The company was restoration in Ghana and benefits and services established in 2007 and is an Tanzania, has invested more at affiliate company of Sustainable large scale with support from Forest landscape restoration Forestry Investments B.V. in private impact investors. In (FLR) involves increasing the Netherlands. Form Ghana 2017, a 24 million-dollar loan the density of trees across currently manages over was approved by the African landscapes to boost productivity 20 000 hectares of degraded

1 Form Ghana Ltd is an offshoot of Sustainable Forestry Investments (SFI) – Netherlands; Form International is a forest management and services company that delivers a range of technical and financial services to Form Ghana and other clients worldwide.

34 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 land in the Ashanti and Brong but will remain the basis for heavily fragmented with little Ahafo region of Ghana, of biodiversity development. coordination between land which about 10 000 hectares users, the extended partnerships has already been replanted The reforested parts in the will focus on development since 2007. Form has agreed a Forest Reserves in Ghana of a governance structure Public Private Partnership with (Afrensu Brohuma, Asubima, for sustainable regional traditional landowners and the Tain II) are considered as development, promote and pilot Forestry Commission of Ghana. ‘aggregators’, that can serve as commercial tree and perennial It is very important to achieve a a nucleus for development of crop planting and catalyze balanced stakeholder framework these wider forest landscapes, economic development and between the company, local and link groups of smallholders investment. people and the government. to investors. The vision of Form Ghana is Through a participatory that restoration of degraded Scaling up: the process this project will assist land is only feasible when landscape around the neighboring stakeholders with based on highest standards of restoring their environment, sustainable management, where Tain II forest reserve engaging in climate smart ecological, social and economic agriculture and forestry In the severely degraded components are developed outgrowing activities, thus landscape in and around the simultaneously. Form Ghana providing good social and Tain II Forest Reserve (Brong holds the Forest Stewardship economic perspectives to Ahafo region, Ghana), Form Council® (FSC®) certificate for them. Support will be given to Ghana works towards the sustainable forest management smallholders and communities restoration of the degraded since 2010. Commercial tree to raise land productivity, landscape to its former sales are the financial backbone generate more income and production function, with the of this initiative: In about 5 years’ become stewards of the land. In support of DOB Ecology. DOB time, this reforestation project different parts of the landscape, Ecology is a Dutch foundation, will provide timber, and with the restoration activities will take providing support to partners timber revenues the AfDB-loan place through various pilots, that work to protect and restore will be paid off. Commercial such as the restoration of the forests and wetlands in Africa reforestation is not a temporary threatened Eastern Guinean and South-America, and (re) solution. At the end of the lowland forest along the Tain build the conditions for resilient rotation of about 20 years, the River, providing an ecological livelihoods of local communities. harvested area will be replanted corridor. Community controlled The already established again, in order to provide a land within the forest reserve plantations of Form Ghana, near continuous and sustainable will be restored and off-reserve Berekum, are the starting point contribution in mitigating climate smallholder farmers will receive for upscaling and outreach change. Besides facilitating support to develop sustainable towards other stakeholders in a continued growth and harvest and climate-smart agriculture, broader landscape. of the commercial teak species woodlots and perennial crops. Although activities are Tectona grandis also native Collaborating with smallholders concentrated in the Tain Forest species are actively grown and other stakeholders is an Reserve (9 000 ha), and over in nurseries and planted for appropriate method to reach 2 200 hectares outside the long-term nature conservation scale. The overall goal is integral Forest Reserve, the benefits purposes and for soil protection, management of a landscape will be felt in a much bigger especially along creeks with all stakeholders to improve landscape, comprising more and waterways and in high livelihoods, productivity and than 100 000 ha. conservation areas. These the protection of biodiversity. species will not be harvested Since the landscape is currently

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 35 Figure 1. Sketch of the future landscape around the Tain II Forest Reserve; proposals for restoration and upscaling

Turning each challenge factor once a solution has been an open attitude, not being into success designed. Probably the biggest restricted by prefixed solutions challenge of each landscape on forehand, create motion and What is a challenge in the first restoration project is to start motivate others to stay with the place, can become a success connecting with partners with group.

Challenges & Success factors

Who takes the lead? In the case of Form Ghana, the company has been working for quite some time on its own plantation and restoration project. During this time, relations with public entities and other stakeholders are already developed. Once there is a basic level of trust, there is room for expansion. Landscape restoration initiatives are best led by a trustworthy entity, with a clear agenda, driven from their own interests and ideals. This kind of initiatives must have grass roots support, rather than be imposed from above.

Long-term investments: as for trees, a minimum of 10 years of growth is needed before the timber can be harvested and sold, the return on investment of approximately 10-15% a year will only then be released. Long-term investments are needed to make this possible. However, long-term investments imply high risks for investors. It is a challenge to mitigate risks in the project design to acceptable levels.

A long-term sustainable and integrated approach: highest standards of sustainable management, where ecological, social and economic components are developed simultaneously. Long-term thinking is a challenge as well as a key to success. Different aspects of the project have to be integrated and can be conflicting. Unfortunately, there is no recipe for the right proportions of ingredients.

36 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Development of a business case / bankable proposals: The economic aspects of the project need to be tackled, in the development phase. Some activities will have costs, other will generate revenues. There should be a balance in costs and expected revenues on the overall scale of the project. Commercial restoration has the aim of creating a productive landscape, which can generate revenues and sustain itself and safeguard long-term environmental and social sustainability.

Sharing costs is a challenge, and so is sharing revenues and benefits. It requires a high level of transparency and trust between partners. The creation of Public-Private Partnerships provides a solid basis for stakeholder involvement and benefit sharing. The process of defining the content and conditions of a formalized partnership can be seen as a ‘negotiation’, in which good relations are forged.

Most threats and problems (e.g. wild fires, but also poverty and climate change) cannot be solved by isolated entities and ask for cross border collaboration. Identifying all stakeholders in the local context of land tenure and their user rights, is the basis for strong relations and good landscape governance. Each stakeholder needs to be heard, and the group as a whole needs to agree on priorities. The total has to be more than the sum of the parts and each partner should see his benefits reflected. All stakeholders should be admitted taking part in the process and formulate their interest. In the upscaling phase, stakeholders cannot be treated as a homogenous group. Variations in characteristics need to be known in order to further lay-out the project. Rethinking your strategies in accordance with these characteristics is vital.

Design of a productive ‘mosaic’ landscape: Every stakeholder should have a clear benefit to participate and an eye for balance in the bigger picture. This means recognition of your own needs and your neighbours’. The challenge is not only to identify and solve conflicting land use issues but to find ‘win-win solutions’: finding optimum tailor-made solutions for every land use unit and integrating trees in the current local context, using different commodities including timber, cash and food crops, to be sold commercially or for domestic consumption.

Stakeholders cannot be asked to participate and be involved in a project if they have no income. But generating employment can only be done if there is a sound commercial element in the landscape project. Creating green jobs: Form Ghana not only generates employment for over 1 000 people. The nature of the company’s activities also makes employees aware of challenges related to forest and landscape restoration.

Proven due diligence: In the case of SFI, FSC certification has helped to prove to the investors that environmental, social and governance requirements are covered. Environmental, social and governance requirements inside and outside the landscape project should be assessed. Not all of them can be influenced by the project and should be considered as pre-conditions.

Innovative attitude is needed: R&D, constant optimization of approaches and techniques. It takes time and money to develop new techniques. Testing of new techniques has a certain risk to it but can yield dividends when good results are implemented.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 37 More than the sum of is one of the answers to climate • http://www.afr100.org/ parts change. However, in most cases ‘changing the climate’ will not • http://newforestsforafrica. Government’s support and be the ultimate motivation for org/ cooperation in this kind of participants, it can even be projects is essential. At the different for each land user. To • Doing good business – same time, the private sector’s make FLR projects successful, scaling up investments involvement is crucial to drive we need each other, and that benefit smallholders success. They are needed every single partner, whether a and the landscapes they to attract much-needed company, authority or a farmer, live in. Main outcomes of a investments, to lay-out the third needs to see the added value of successful session at the component of sustainability: participating. Global Landscapes Forum increase the financial in Bonn, 2017. http:// independence and improve List of references www.tropenbos.org/news/ the financial position for all the+success+of+do-good+b stakeholders involved in order to • World Resources Institute usiness+and+finance+appro make change on regional level. (WRI), 2016. “Restoring aches+will+largely+depend Forest & Landscape Restoration Africa’s Degraded Lands by +on+collaboration+and+con Improving Farmers’ Rights” nections

38 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Community-Based Ecological Mangrove Restoration (CBEMR): re-establishing a more biodiverse and resilient coastal ecosystem with community participation

Alfredo Quarto1 and Ibrahima Thiam2

Summary

West Africa is ranked high on the list of regions threatened by climate change. Severe drought, massive deforestation, unsustainable agricultural practices, and poor watershed management have left much of West Africa dangerously vulnerable to sea- level rise and extreme weather events provoked by climate change. Restoration and conservation of the region’s wetlands, especially their mangrove ecosystems, is a vital part of disaster mitigation and coastal protection strategy proposed for the region.

Mangrove Action Project’s true ecosystem function, CBEMR methodology, in Community-Based Ecological or project designs that contrast, works to restore Mangrove Restoration neglect underlying underlying hydrology and (CBEMR) program seeks to problems or stressors that considers adjustments to a empower local communities impact mangroves and disturbed area’s topography, to restore and steward their cause their loss in the first so that mangroves may mangroves while deriving place, such as unusually regenerate naturally, sustainable mangrove-based high salinity or disturbed resulting in true ecosystem livelihoods. Involving local hydrology - tidal flow and restoration with a richer communities in mangrove mixing of salt and fresh biodiversity. Importantly, local restoration is essential, water - essential to healthy mangrove communities learn as it offers participants a mangrove ecosystems. to perform this work, and in sense of empowerment and Inland watershed problems, the process learn to restore, involvement in resolving their such as drought or flooding value, and responsibly own environmental, social from dam releases or severe steward their mangroves. and economic issues of rainstorms, may affect Towards these ends, community development. flows of fresh water into Mangrove Action Project the mangroves, negatively (MAP) has joined forces Traditional mangrove affecting hydrology. This with Wetlands International restoration efforts face a may require creating ways Africa to implement a training fair number of challenges to capture, store, and later workshop in CBEMR in the in restoring healthy release fresh water into Saloum Delta, Senegal mangrove ecosystems. the mangroves to maintain that brought together and Most are erroneous proper saltwater/ freshwater engaged 21 participants in attempts to establish flow and balance. April 2018. monoculture plantations that lack biodiversity and

1 Alfredo Quarto, Co-founder and Program Director Mangrove Action Project. PO Box 1854 Port Angeles, WA 98362-0279, USA Email: [email protected] Tel. +1 360-452-5866 Website: www.mangroveactionproject.org

2 Ibrahima Thiam. Regional Director Wetlands International Africa. Rue 111 No 39 B Zone B. BP 25581 Dakar – Fann, Senegal. Email: [email protected] Tel: +221 33 869 1681 WWW.wetlands.org/ africa

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 39 Background Cleared forests and degraded these concerns are complex, wetlands are turned into shrimp dynamic and arising at multiple Mangrove forests are vital for ponds, oil ports, tourist hotels, levels, some of which we dealt healthy coastal ecosystems golf courses and marinas. with during the CBEMR training in many regions of the world. Today, it is imperative to workshop in April 2018 on These forest wetlands support counter these losses. This one Senegal’s Saloum Delta. an immense array of marine of the challenges taken up by and coastal life, serving as Mangrove Action Project since Seeking the most effective path vital fish nurseries, nesting and its founding in 1992. towards long-term mangrove feeding grounds for migratory conservation and recovery, waterbirds, last stands for Wetlands International too Mangrove Action Project (MAP) Bengal tigers and lemurs has joined the movement for promotes the concept and and a wide variety of other mangrove conservation and practice of Community-based mammals including manatees restoration in various places Ecological Mangrove Restoration and Proboscis monkeys, a around the world. Wetlands (CBEMR). This holistic approach myriad of insects and reptiles, International Africa has to mangrove restoration views including sea turtles. Mangroves piloted local conservation and the proposed plant and animal also support the health and restoration projects extensively communities to be restored productivity of coral reefs and on the West African coast and as part of a larger ecosystem, sea grass beds. In addition, in Kenya in the Eastern African connected with other ecological mangroves play an important, region. Wetlands International communities that also have life-supporting role for countless Africa has worked with partners functions to be protected or coastal communities and in West Africa for the adoption restored. Mangrove forests indigenous peoples who depend of a mangrove charter by can self-repair, or successfully on mangroves for life and governments. This experience undergo secondary succession, livelihoods. Mangroves now are is now being extended in a if the normal tidal hydrology is recognized for their important collaboration with the Abidjan restored and if there is a ready role in reducing climate change, Convention, which was source of mangrove seedlings or sequestering up to five times established by participating propagules from nearby stands more carbon than other forest nations of West Africa in that are accessible to reseed an ecosystems, storing that carbon 1981 via The Convention for area. in their peat soils for hundreds, Cooperation in the Protection, if not thousands of years. Management and Development CBEMR focuses on re- Mangroves are also living buffers of the Marine and Coastal establishing the hydrology, against the forces of storms Environment of the Atlantic which will facilitate this natural and waves that can otherwise Coast of the West, Central regeneration process. CBEMR devastate a coastline. and Southern Africa Region also engages local communities (Abidjan Convention in short). in the restoration process, Yet, mangroves are one of It covers a marine area from empowering them to be the most threatened habitats Mauritania to South Africa, which stewards of their environment, on earth with an annual loss covers 14 000km of coastline. and enabling them to regain outpacing other tropical The Convention provides an the livelihoods ruined when the rainforests. It is estimated overarching legal framework mangroves were destroyed. that less than 15 million for all marine-related programs Five to ten-day intensive hectares remain worldwide, in West, Central and Southern workshops train local people less than half their original Africa. to do CBEMR, and long-term area. Their disappearance is community management and primarily due to clearing for Wetlands International Africa monitoring plans ensure project shrimp aquaculture, timber has identified a number of sustainability. and fuelwood extraction, critical drivers of change for charcoal production, urban and the degradation of mangroves, Working with local communities agriculture expansion, pollution, including issues of land and NGOs, MAP has been coastal road construction clearance for agriculture, severe holding trainings in CBEMR and other industrial and drought, increasing salinity and and helping to develop and infrastructure developments. local wood harvest. Clearly implement small successful

40 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 CBEMR projects in Senegal, restoration, only described 2) the availability of waterborne Thailand, Indonesia, India, previously in scientific journals, seeds (propagules) of Myanmar, Honduras and El to the socio-economic and mangroves from adjacent Salvador. MAP is planning further cultural situation of mangrove stands is not disrupted CBEMR training workshops communities, NGOs and or blocked (Lewis, 1982; in both East and West Africa, governments of developing Cintrón. and Shaeffer-Novelli, working with field-based NGOs countries in Africa, Asia and 1992). such as Wetlands International the Americas. In the process, Africa in Senegal and Guinea based on the principles of Since mangrove forests may Bissau. Many challenges remain, ecological mangrove restoration recover via their natural however, such as the need for MAP has developed CBEMR, a reseeding process, , the need more robust monitoring and sustainable model that engages for labor-intensive hand planting evaluation with internationally and integrates local communities and mangrove nurseries can recognized outcome indicators. in the long-term process of be greatly reduced. It has been Also, there are challenging conservation, restoration and recommended that restoration issues of land tenure and management. planning should first look at the site availability; restrictions potential existence of stresses imposed by donors; carbon Community-Based such as blocked tidal inundation offset plantings encouraging Ecological Mangrove that might prevent secondary ecosystem conversion rather succession from occurring, and than true mangrove restoration; Restoration (CBEMR) plan on removing those stresses and securing government defined before attempting restoration permits and approvals. (Hamilton and Snedaker, 1984; Ecological Mangrove Restoration Cintrón and Shaeffer-Novelli Reforestation programs where (EMR) was first developed by 1992). the mangroves have been Robin Lewis over the 40 years of lost would therefore aim to his extensive international work Long-term observations or re-establish mangrove forest on mangrove restoration. EMR monitoring should be carried protection, while furthering is a more holistic approach to out over six months to one the potential for sustainable mangrove restoration that also year to verify if natural seedling development. The improvement includes a view of the proposed recruitment is occurring of mangrove ecosystems plant and animal community to once the stressors have been through restoration will enhance be restored as part of a larger removed. There should be their functions as a natural water ecosystem with other ecological evidence of volunteer seedlings treatment system and spawning communities that also have on site within one year of the and nursery grounds for fish functions to be protected or hydrological adjustments. If and shrimps, thereby improving restored. Lewis has used EMR not, a reassessment of the health and livelihood possibilities very effectively to restore both attempted restored hydrology to the benefit of marginalized the biodiversity and functionality and identification of other local communities; and restoring of mangrove ecosystems (Lewis, potential problems should be the vital carbon sequestration 2009). EMR aims to restore undertaken. If seed limitation is powers of these forests. certain ecosystem traits and a factor, then collected seeds replicate natural functions as can be broadcast or released MAP has witnessed the all too mangrove forests can self- on an incoming neap tide, frequent failures of the so- repair or successfully undergo which can then recolonize the called “traditional” hand planting secondary succession over area in question. Only if natural approaches when performed periods of 15–30 years if: recovery is not occurring should at large scale. There is great the third step of assisting natural need for the wider dissemination 1) the normal tidal hydrology recovery through planting be of the ecological mangrove is not disrupted; and, if considered. (Brown, B., 2008). restoration methodology disrupted, attempts are to improve the success of made to restore that prior mangrove restoration. The hydrology challenge was to adopt and introduce ecological mangrove

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 41 Contrary to this scenario, effort goes into monitoring species biodiversity and many mangrove restoration and evaluating these types of zonation. (Lewis, 2005). projects move immediately restoration efforts, whereby into planting of mangroves failures are not noted, nor This method has proven without determining why natural reported, and valuable lessons extremely successful in recovery has not occurred. not learned. Instead of this kind numerous past endeavors by There may even have been of non-scientific approach, MAP Robin Lewis – for example in a large capital investment in supports the restoration of a West Lake, Florida where 14 ha growing mangrove seedlings in naturally functioning habitat of mangroves were restored at a a nursery and time and labor in through the six-step EMR very low cost. CBEMR has been hand planting before the stress approach to restoration and implemented by MAP in small- factors are assessed; this often does not support “plantation scale projects in Honduras, El results in failures of planting forests” which disregard natural Salvador, Indonesia and Thailand efforts. Unfortunately, very little (see Figure 1). ©Asociacion Manglar/ Eco-Viva, El Salvador ©Asociacion Manglar/ Eco-Viva, El Salvador ©Asociacion Manglar/ Eco-Viva, El Salvador

Figure 1. Photo sequence of a successful CBEMR project MAP helped initiate in El Salvador eight years ago resulting in good mangrove recovery after the blocked hydrology was restored by volunteers from the resident communities.

In the last few years, MAP has applications of CBEMR where Community-Based Ecological been working in Thailand to it is needed. MAP is especially Mangrove Restoration (CBEMR) introduce CBEMR at 10 sites, interested in restoring some of involves a more methodological working closely with the local the estimated 400 000 ha of ecosystem approach than the communities along the Andaman abandoned shrimp farms, rice usual monoculture restoration Sea coast. The program aims paddies and cleared charcoal efforts, incorporating natural to build capacity to implement concessions in former coastal mangrove dispersal and CBEMR and empower selected wetland areas in Africa, Asia and ecological recovery. The key local leaders from the villages Latin America (Robin Lewis, pers. is in the restoration of the to disseminate CBEMR to other comm. 2012). MAP and Wetlands hydrology of the area being communities, and to advocate International Africa have recently considered for restoration, and the CBEMR approach to launched a partnership to work then working with nature itself government. This is occurring together for this aim in the to help facilitate regeneration through field visits, training, Saloum Delta region. of the area’s naturally occurring coaching and building capacity mangrove species. Adequate with study tours, environmental Advantages of monitoring and evaluation education and sustainable Community-Based follow this at each site to assess livelihoods. progress and take corrective Ecological Mangrove action to ensure success and Such small-scale projects serve Restoration over other replicability (Lewis et al., 2006). as working models, intended to current methods CBEMR is based on principles inform and inspire larger-scale of community engagement and

42 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 empowerment, recognizing that plantations at best, or, more Restoration practitioners must sustainable restoration requires often, large-scale failures at define more clearly and much the active participation of the worst. Planting competitions earlier the outcome indicators affected local communities. The have even been introduced to used for determining the result. importance of local community the “restoration” scene, when What exactly are they looking for involvement in mangrove one-day mass plantings of over in determining what constitutes conservation and restoration a million mangrove seedlings a successful restoration - cannot be overstated, as it is have set and reset superficial restored biodiversity, forest these local communities who Guinness World Records in density and height, number of reside on-site and have most countries such as Pakistan and surviving seedlings, or other to gain from a healthy, living the Philippines among others. factors? But such assessments mangrove buffer, including However, what do such records are not short-term. Monitors improved livelihoods from mean if these planted seedlings need to implement long-term increased wild fisheries and do not survive, or if once assessments of at least 5 years protection from storms and viable coastal ecosystems are to determine if the restoration wave surges, These communities irreversibly altered? effort succeeded and to deal also possess important local with issues that may arise. knowledge of their community And, who is doing the follow-up base and surroundings, and are and noting the particulars of Funder-driven more able to monitor and assess these “restoration” attempts? restrictions the status of their mangrove There clearly needs to be a areas on an ongoing basis. follow-up on the many attempts Too often, funding restrictions of at restoration to ensure donors make it hard to pursue Challenges, obstacles restoration is actually occurring, effective CBEMR programs by and opportunities and these follow-ups need to be providing only one or two years done over a period of at least ahead of funding, whereas medium to five years or more to confirm the long term funding (at least five results. How can we learn the The majority of past and current years) is needed to carry out lessons that need to be learned, restoration efforts utilizing CBEMR effectively because of and avoid the mistakes that the traditional hand planting the more intense monitoring need to be corrected, without techniques have been failures. A and evaluation needs. Donors such follow-up assessment comparative analysis of current seeking to support only short- and evaluation with an agreed methodologies is needed, so term results are unwittingly upon set of “best practices” we can learn from our mistakes engendering long-term failures. as guidelines for mangrove and avoid these in the future. Support for several year’s restoration? We need to define more clearly monitoring and assessment of what constitutes “restoration” a restoration project is crucial. Further analysis is needed In other words restoration is not and what should be labeled to determine more accurate a “success.” Too often, just a one-moment event, but an values of selected benefits and ongoing one that must include planting a certain large number services, and the intrinsic worth of Rhizophora (red mangrove) the M & E effort as integral to of such factors as biodiversity the whole process. What did propagules represents success, and resilience to restore an when in reality these mass we do right, what went wrong? ecosystem that benefits both We can learn much from such hand-plantings may be dismal nature and livelihoods. failures with quite poor seedling evaluations, and in so learning improve on our methodology to survivability, and if “successful” Success is often judged by ensure future greater success. resulting in the forced percentage of surviving This is what restoration should conversion of one important seedlings at 3–6 months, and entail - a significant learning wetland ecosystem (a mudflat sometimes one or two years process, where success or salt flat where most of these after the attempted restoration, increases with experience, and mass plantings occur) into but several years are needed to we do not repeat the same another (a mangrove). These better understand the nuances mistakes over and over. We mass single-species plantings that determine success or failure need not hide our failures to most often result in monoculture at each unique restoration site.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 43 avoid embarrassment, which is propagules by hand, our good photo images of local seen to threaten chances for approach does ensure a much community participants involved further funding. Though CBEMR better chance of real success in various stages of the CBEMR may not provide the cute involving much better informed process (See Figure 2). images of photogenic school restoration practitioners. children planting red mangrove And, if needed, we can show ©Dominic Wodehouse/Mangrove Action Project

Figure 2. Local community participants involved in CBEMR training Saloum Delta, Senegal. Source: The CBEMR training workshop in Saloum Delta, Senegal; 17th April to 1st May 2018.

Limited number of integrate local knowledge and Kenya Marine and Fisheries mangrove experts. practitioners’ experience to Research Institute, the African build a knowledge base and Mangrove Network, the Nairobi In many countries with feedback into the conservation Convention and other partners. significant mangrove and restoration projects. The specialists trained out of populations, and in particular Wetlands International Africa has that program will be a positive in the African region, there is a launched a Mangrove Course in asset for further implementation dearth of mangrove experts who West Africa in 2018 working with of CBEMR in Africa. can help provide the science the Cheikh Anta Diop University base of conservation activities, in Dakar (UCAD) and the perform necessary action Abidjan Convention. Wetlands research, collect and interpret International has already data from field activities, supported the same course in East Africa working with the

44 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Challenges caused by rainforests and the bountiful Yogyakarta: Mangrove Action climate change marine and terrestrial life Project Indonesia. these wetlands support. Climate change and consequent Working collaboratively with Cintrón, G. and Shaeffer- rising sea levels present urgent Wetlands International Africa is Novelli, Y., 1992. Ecology and cause for concern for the future a great opportunity for MAP to management of new world of our planet’s mangroves. demonstrate the principles of mangroves. Pp. 233–258 in: New siting challenges will CBEMR to a new and interested Seeliger, U. (ed.), Coastal Plant arise because mangroves audience, and teach mangrove Communities of Latin America. will need open areas upland restoration practitioners San Diego: Academic Press. to colonize when rising sea the skills to implement this levels force them to migrate more natural, science-based Hamilton, L.S. and Snedaker, inland, otherwise they will be ecosystem approach to S.C. (eds), 1984. Handbook of permanently submerged and restoration that better ensures Mangrove Area Management. drown. Therefore, forethought long-term success. MAP hopes Honolulu: East-West Center. must go into planning to that the recently concluded establish and preserve a buffer (April 2018) first CBEMR training Lewis, R.R., 1982. Mangrove behind the mangroves where workshop in Senegal’s Saloum forests. Pp. 153–172 in: mangroves can “migrate” inland Delta has opened doors to work Lewis, R.R. (ed.), Creation and as the sea level rises to re- in other parts of coastal Africa Restoration of Coastal Plant establish themselves above where mangroves are found. Communities. Boca Raton: CRC the rising low tide mark. This We also hope to introduce Press. will prove a challenge because our “Marvelous Mangrove Lewis, R.R., 2005. Ecological of the extensive development Curriculum” to Senegal and other engineering for successful happening behind mangroves, parts of West Africa as a way to management and restoration including roads, shrimp farms, educate the future generations of mangrove forests. industrial complexes, hotels, of decision makers about the 24, agriculture and urban centers. importance of mangroves. (see 403–418. Online at: http://www. These will potentially hinder Youtube- Marvellous Mangroves mangroverestoration.com/ or block the necessary access Curriculum) Ecol_Eng_Mangrove_Rest_ areas which mangroves can Lewis_2005.pdf. colonize as sea levels rise. There is still much to do, and The infrastructure and dikes, we are really only now at the Roy “Robin” Lewis III, Ecological berms and roads can also block starting gate, but with time and Mangrove Restoration(Lewis et important freshwater inputs into opportunity, MAP hopes to al. 2006). the mangroves, causing high collaborate further with Wetlands salinity and stress. International Africa and others in teaching more mangrove Lewis, R.R., 2009. Methods and criteria for successful mangrove Conclusion restoration practitioners the principles of CBEMR. We are in forest restoration. Pp. 787–800 in: Perillo, MAP is currently engaged in a this race together to win back timely endeavor to disseminate our planet’s mangrove wetlands and prevent their further loss. Stevenson, N.J., Lewis, R.R. the CBEMR approach on a wider and Burbridge, P.R., 1999. scale. With the majority of past Disused shrimp ponds and mangrove restoration efforts by References mangrove rehabilitation. Pp. others failing and the continuing 277–297 in: Streever, W.J. (ed.), Brown, B., 2008, 6-Steps losses of primary mangrove An International Perspective to Successful Ecological forests to unsustainable on Wetland Rehabilitation. Restoration of Mangroves. developments, prospects are Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic dim for our planet’s coastal Publishers, 338 pp.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 45 Is developing rice farming compatible with preserving waterfowl in the Senegal delta? Patrick Triplet1, Claire Pernollet2, Ibrahima Gueye3 and Abdou Salam Kane4

The President of the Republic of Senegal has set the objective of reaching rice self- sufficiency in his country with a target production of 1.6 million tons of paddy rice in 2018, against 906 000 tons in 2015, of which 438 000 tons in the Senegal Delta, representing 32.1% of national needs (SAED data, 2016). To that end, large rice development and water management sites are being put into operation in the Senegal Delta. Areas that had been, up until recently, arid, are now transformed into artificial wetlands. Existing temporary wetlands are also being managed in such a manner that their water network could be modified, preventing their filling up, or on the contrary, filling them up with polluted water flowing out of paddy fields. The areas developed for paddy fields covered 87 500 ha in 2016 and are projected to cover 91 250 ha in 2017 (SAED data, 2016). All these areas are not exploited and some remain without function or service due to the lack of funds, thus transforming these landscapes into large clear-cut areas.

The Senegal Delta is also until now, no reflection representatives of village one of the main wintering has been initiated in the communities. The workshop areas for numerous Delta concerning rice helped define the current waterfowl species development and the level of knowledge on birds- indigenous to Europeor waterfowl presence, and paddy fields linkages in the reproducing in Europe. especially on their relevance Delta and to compare it with About 330 000 Anatidae for bird watching and game results gathered elsewhere (ducks, geese, swans) activities, two potential in the world. This article live in Senegal Delta from sources of economic growth reports relevant parts of the November to March each for the Delta (ongoing conclusions of the workshop year. RESOURCE FAO Project). and provides an overview of the issues that need to Ornithological literature As the Senegal Delta be promptly addressed to often relates the antagonistic is transforming into a ensure that the Senegal relationships between vast complex of paddy Delta is still considered as waterfowl and rice farmers, fields, a workshop held in one of the largest wintering while other examples September 2016 in Saint- areas for birds in Africa. indicate that these birds, Louis, Senegal, under the especially ducks, could initiative of the Directorate Geographic be valuable helpers for for National Parks, gathered framework rice farming, if particular 45 rice producers, bird measures are put in place conservationists and The Senegal Delta is a vast (Pernollet et al., 2015). Up other stakeholders and alluvial plain that covers

1 Patrick Triplet, European Institute for the management of wild birds and their habitats (OMPO), 59, Rue Ampere, 75017 Paris, France. Email: [email protected]

2 Claire Pernollet, Unité Avifaune Migratrice, Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage, La Tour du Valat, Le Sambuc, 13200 Arles, France. Email: [email protected]

3 Ibrahima Guèye, Directorate of National Parks. BP 4055 Dakar, Senegal. Email: [email protected] and [email protected]

4 Abdou Salam Kane, Directorate of National Parks. BP 4055 Dakar, Senegal. Email: [email protected]

46 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 320 000 ha, from Rosso to it influences the image that most Thus, the numbers of Ruffs the Atlantic Ocean (i.e. 165 km rice farmers have of birds. have dropped from over 130 long). In the 50’s, that area was 000 during the 90’s (Trolliet et a floodplain covering 74 000 The absence of uniformity in al., 1992) to less than 10 000 to 110 000 ha in Senegal and farming practices: The work of currently (Triplet et al., 2014), about 80 000 in Mauritania (cf. Tréca (1999) and discussions and the numbers of Black- Triplet & Yésou, 1997, for a initiated during the workshop Tailed Godwits have dwindled detailed description). have shown that waterfowl, from about 11 000 in the early especially Fulvous Whistling 90’s (Trolliet et al., 1995) to an Described by, among other Ducks, Dendrocygna bicolor, average of 1 700 during the authors, Engelhard (1986) and mainly used rice fields where 2013-2017 period (Database, then Triplet & Yésou (1997), rice farming produced ‘mirrors’ Directorate of National Parks of hydro-agricultural developments on which these birds can land Senegal/OMPO/ONCFS). Both are at the origin of rice farming. at night and attack the ears of species appear to be declining Two types of rice production rice. One of the outcomes of that over their entire distribution are practiced: - a traditional workshop is that it is preferable area (http://wpe.wetlands.org/ production, less mechanized, to consolidate production on search). However this global practiced by villagers for very high-yielding units, without decline does not reach the subsistence food production mirrors, and to have lesser- proportions observed in the on collective lands spanning a yielding zones where waterfowl Senegal Delta, which indicates few hectares, and an industrial could forage. This could be the that there is no global reduction production made possible case for the buffer zone at the of the population due to the through foreign investors, Djoudj National Bird Sanctuary situation in the Delta, rather mechanized and practiced on where 1,423 ha are already a transfer of the numbers to larger areas. In the second case, cropped out of the 22,466 ha other wintering areas that yields and access to chemical farmed in the Delta (data from provide more adequate feeding fertilizers and phytosanitary Djoudj National Bird Sanctuary, conditions. products are much higher than 2016). in the former. It was facilitated Discharge of overflow water by the commissioning of the Stalk heights: Up until the early and drainage water from rice Diama dam (Tréca, 1999), 90’s, harvesting was done using fields: While an outlet enables paving the way for a second scythes or combine harvesters to collect most of the drainage rice season (from February to that cut rice straws close to water from rice fields in the April, summer farming or off- the ground leaving short stalks Delta, the situation is not the dry season) in addition to the on field and facilitating straw same with rice fields located wintering cropping traditionally recycling to feed the livestock. at the outskirts of the Djoudj established between seedling, The volume of grains on the National Bird Sanctuary which in July-August, and harvesting in ground forms the basic diet of receives effluents containing November-January. the Black-Tailed Godwit, Limosa chemical fertilizers and limosa and the Ruff, Philomachus phytosanitary products, leading The possible causes of pugnax. The use of more modern to the stimulation of plants, ricebirds conflicts and efficient harvesters has led mainly Southern Cattails (Typha to an increase in the cutting domingensis) and other exotic Quelea quelea: The species height, leaving 25 to 30 cm-high plants. The volume of organic identified as a big pest for stalks that restrict the movement matter produced by these rice is the Red-Billed Weaver, of the two above-mentioned plants obstructs backwaters and Quelea quelea, a passerine species whose numbers have could, in the short term, and with populations numbering dropped in the Delta. On the in the absence of appropriate in the hundreds of thousands other hand, these high stalks do measures, reduce the land area individuals. Even though it not prevent Red-Billed Weavers accessible to waterfowl. does not belong to the group from accessing the food of waterfowl, it is necessary to resource as they easily perch on keep in mind its depredation as high stalks to feed themselves and keep reproducing.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 47 Possible solutions Regarding rice fields’ Tréca (B.) 1999. - Rizières drainage water discharges et Dendrocygnes fauves au The September 2016 meeting filled with chemical fertilizers Sénégal. Rev. Ecol. (Terre et Vie) was a landmark .For the and phytosanitary products, 54 : 43-57. first time, all stakeholders the project to build a dam in the land with diverse but separating these from the Triplet (P.) & Yésou (P.) 1997.- interconnected interests Djoudj National Bird Sanctuary Contrôle de l’inondation dans le interacted in all serenity and is progressing slowly. It is delta du Sénégal : les Anatidés suggested solutions both on rice heartening to point out that this s’adaptent ils aux nouvelles development and on waterfowl problem is being addressed and situations environnementales ? conservation. Actually, there discussions about building of Ecologie 28 : 351-363. are real possibilities for mutual the dam have been initiated and understanding and for creating the project has been validated Triplet (P.), Diop (I.), Sylla (S. I.) & common projects. These involve within the framework of the new Schricke (V.) 2014.- Les oiseaux the possibility of designing site management plan endorsed d’eau dans le delta du fleuve waterfowl conservation-friendly in May 2017. Sénégal (rive gauche). Bilan de practices at the outskirts of 25 années de dénombrements the Park and developing rice In the context of the project hivernaux (mi-janvier 1989- fields elsewhere that are highly “Strengthening expertise in Sub- 2014). OMPO, ONCFS, DPN, productive and in which land- Saharan Africa on birds and their SMBS, 125 p. leveling enables to avoid mirrors rational use for Communities and thus waterfowl’ landing, and and their environment Triplet (P.), Schricke (V.), rice depredation. (RESSOURCE1)” coordinated Diouf (S.) & Yésou (P.) 2004.- by FAO, a second international Aménagements hydro-agricoles Natural rich wetlands should workshop is being planned for et anatidés dans le delta du also be preserved to continue 2020 to compare situations in fleuve Sénégal, relations entre providing human food such as various African countries. les niveaux d’eau, la riziculture fish. One of the participants to et les effectifs d’oiseaux. Bull. the workshop thus explained References OMPO 24 : 39-47. that if no measure is taken, in a few years, the Delta will produce Engelhard (P.) 1986. - Enjeux Trolliet (B.), Girard (O.), Fouquet rice but there will be no fish to de l’après-barrage, vallée du (M.), Iba ñez (F.), Triplet (P.) cook with it. Also, agreements Sénégal. ENDA, Ministère de la & Léger (F.) 1992.- L’effectif should be concluded so that Coopération, Paris, France, 632 de combattants Philomachus livestock breeders can retrieve p. pugnax hivernant dans le delta straws or allow their animals to du Sénégal. Alauda 60 : 159 – graze on these plots. Pernollet (C. A.), Simpson (D.), 163. Gauthier-Clerc (M.) & Guillemain The Delta is also suited for (M.) 2015. - Rice and duck, a Trolliet (B.), Fouquet (M.), Triplet the development of discovery good combination? Identifying (P.), Girard (O.) & Yésou (P.) routes of rice fields’ birds, and the incentives and triggers 1995.- A propos de l’hivernage this would help to develop for joint rice farming and wild de la Barge à queue noire birdwatching activities and duck conservation. Agriculture, Limosa limosa dans le delta du strengthen or even create Ecosystems & Environment 214: Sénégal. Alauda 63 : 246 – 247. eco tour guide jobs for village 118-132. communities.

1 Project RESSOURCE (Strengthening expertise in Sub-Saharan Africa on birds and their rational use for Communities and their environment) aims at improving the natural resources management in large Sahelian wetlands where local populations benefit greatly of these resources, especially in terms of food security and local development. Waterfowl are the natural resource targeted by the project.

Focus: Sahelian Africa: Nile Basin, Lake Chad Basin, Niger Basin, Senegal Basin

Partners: FAO (coordinating body), FFEM, EU, MTES, ONCFS, CIRAD, OMPO, Tour du Valat, Wetland International, BirdLife International, Ramsar Convention, AEWA, Target countries: Senegal, Mali, Chad, Sudan, Egypt.

48 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Inappropriate village land use plans impede conservation efforts in Kilosa District, Tanzania Charles Joseph Kilawe1, Hillary T. Mrosso1, and Numan S. Amanzi2

Summary

Village Land Use Plan is increasingly becoming a tool for land resource management in rural areas of Tanzania. The plan is expected to enhance conservation and reduce resource use conflicts and degradation. Despite the good prospects of the plan and large investments vested in it, little is known about its adoption and implementation. This paper provides the required information, based on interviews administered to households and key informants in two villages located in East Central Tanzania. Results revealed that on average a village land use plan is adopted and implemented by only 45%. Low level of implementation is partly due to inadequate involvement of local community and lack of land suitability analysis during the planning stage. Poor adoption and implementation of land use plans threatens the conservation efforts since land set aside for conservation is used contrary to the prescription.

Introduction resource use conflicts and village (Mango and Kalenzi environmental degradation. 2011) Land use planning in Tanzania was firstly A village land use plan The government has in proposed in 1980s to (VLUP) has the potential place the comprehensive address a perceived of reducing landscape guidelines for developing problem of environmental fragmentation and land and implementing VLUP degradation associated with use conflicts; formalizing (NLUPC 2006). However, it poor farming methods. After settlement; modernizing appears that the process a decade of institutional agriculture; improving becomes lengthy and reforms, it was officially natural resource costly if the guidelines are formalized after the conservation; improving followed. For example, the enactment of National Land tenure security and reducing cost of creating one village Act No. 4 of 1999, National land grabbing (NLUPC land use plan could go as Village Land Act No. 5 of 2006). VLUP is one of the high as Tanzania Shillings 1999 and National Land best documents the village 12 000 000 (USD 6 000), Use Planning Act No.6 of government should possess. an amount that cannot be 2007. Land use planning It is a pre-condition for raised by local governments can be done at national, provision of customary land (Mango and Kalenzi 2011). zonal, regional, district and tenure tittles, designation In order to overcome this village levels but this paper of conservation areas and a challenge, the government focuses only at village level requirement for acceptance invited private sector to where there are a lot of of any external funded facilitate the process of development project or land use planning through private investment in the provision of financial and

1 Department of Forest Ecosystems and Conservation, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3010, Morogoro, Tanzania, Tel.: +255 752 581 069; E-mail: [email protected]

2 Department of Forest Research, Tanzania Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box, Morogoro, Tanzania

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 49 technical support (Hart et al. villages were approved in 2011. key informants were the Village 2014; Mango and Kalenzi 2011). The process was financially and Chairman (VC), Village Executive Most of the new actors (private technically facilitated by two Officer and other people who sector) have developed their local NGOs, namely Tanzanian were leaders in various natural own guidelines-which are time Forest Conservation Group- resource committees such as and cost effective but skipped (TFCG) and Network of forest the Environmental Committee, important steps for participatory dependent communities in Beekeeping Committee, Forest land use planning. There are Tanzania (MJUMITA), but with committee, and Village Land growing concerns about the foreign funding. The NGOs Use Management Committee. quality of VLUP produced by not were involved because they Respondents were requested following the national guidelines were interested in establishing to give their assessments on (Hart et al. 2014). a Village Land Forest Reserve the implementation of five land (VLFR) aimed at carbon use categories identified in the The aim of the present paper is sequestration through Reducing land use plans: Agriculture (crop to assess the extent of adoption Emissions from Deforestation production), forestry, grazing, and implementation of village and Forest Degradation (REDD) settlement, and community land use plans by the local pilot project. services (markets, religion, community. The paper provides schools, hospitals, and sports). information that can be used by Data were collected in Respondents were requested to planners and policy makers to 2014, using questionnaires rate their perception on a scale develop implementable plans administered randomly to 88 of 1-100%, with 1 as a very low and hence achieve the desired households; 52 in Ibingu and level of implementation and outcomes. 36 in Chabima. The difference 100% the highest. in sample size between the Methodology and villages was due to a difference Results revealed that on average results in population size between them. a village land use plan was The larger population in Ibingu implemented by only 45% (Table The study was conducted in necessitated a larger sample 1). Generally the adoption in all Ibingu and Chabima villages in size. In-depth interviews with land use categories was poor, Kilosa District, Morogoro region, key informants and reviewing of but grazing was unexpectedly Tanzania. Land use plans in both the plans were also used. The extremely low.

Table 1. Assessment of households on adoption and implementation of different components of land use plans

Land use category Ibingu (n=52) Chabima (n=36) Average

Agriculture 47% 47% 47%

Grazing 15% 2% 9%

Forestry 58% 52% 55%

Settlement 62% 56% 59%

Community services 60 % 55 % 58%

Average 48 % 42 % 45%

The main reason for the low Chabima only about 40% of the of participation can be related level of adoption of the land households were involved in the to the fact that most of the use plans was explained demarcation of the boundaries areas allocated to different land to be the low level of local of areas allocated to different use categories were already communities’ participation in the land uses and in Ibingu only demarcated on maps by the land use planning process. In about 20% (Fig. 1). This lack facilitators (using Geographical

50 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Information System), prior to imposed top-down from outside participation. To a lesser extent the start of the actual planning on them. this was also true for meetings. process. The local communities The objectives of these were just required to accept and Relatively high degree of meetings and seminars appears approve the pre-determined participation was reported in to inform participants of what land allocation for different seminars that mainly involved had been decided rather than land utilization types that were few nominated people, mainly taking their opinions on desired village leaders who were future land uses. rewarded allowances for

Figure 1: Involvement of households in various activities in land use planning process.

Furthermore, we learned land utilization types, land use conservation agriculture (Kilawe that some land users, in requirements and existing et al. 2018). Poor soil fertility, particular shifting cultivators socio-economic settings of local soil erosion and weed pressure and pastoralists were not communities. Consequently impeded implementation of represented at all in meetings many of these were not the proposed conservation or seminar. Poor representation implemented or abandoned. agriculture. In studies also in of marginalized groups in Tanzania, Rioux and San Juan the community can lead to Land utilization categories that (2015) found that there are serious conflicts in the future were very important for the barriers and challenges to the (Benjaminsen et al. 2009). communities were reduced in implementation of conservation This lack of involving of the size or completely excluded. agriculture and that these need communities during the In Chabima village only a small to be addressed. Conservation development of the VLUP was piece of land was allocated for agriculture will not be adopted if the main cause of poor adoption grazing, thus explaining the it is just simply imposed. and failure of the plans. The low implementation of grazing outsiders who drafted the plans in that village. In Ibingu village The long distance to the areas clearly did not understand land under shifting cultivation allocated to croplands hindered the socio-economic, cultural, was converted to forest reserve the implementation of proposed religious, etc. situations in the and the farmers resettled to concentrated settlement. In villages. As a result there were concentrated sub-villages where many African cultures women mismatches between proposed they were required to practice are responsible for tending

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 51 to the crop fields (planting, Discussion and interests. Exclusion of local weeding, etc.). But they also conclusion communities during the land have household’s chores to use planning process creates perform. Thus, crop fields need Findings of this study showed tensions and frequent conflicts to be close enough to the that the village land use plans among local communities and homesteads so that the women are implemented by only 45%. between local communities can perform both duties. In The result implies that majority and the village government addition a rural “village” is often of the land (55%) is used and/or with the investors, thus not the usual type of village contrary to the prescriptions diminishing the usefulness with houses close together, but of the VLUP. Low adoption of of the land use plans. On a consists of homesteads spread the plans has and diminished broader scale it should resonate within the village area. These the outcomes desired by the the statement by Rosenthal people often do not want to outsiders who drafted the (1977); “It must be kept in mind move into a situation where their plans, such as reduction of that agricultural development homes are boxed in between a deforestation and enhancement is intended to benefit the lot of other homes. of conservation. It has been community, not to gratify the shown in other studies that land donor.” Some areas allocated for use conflicts and deforestation community services were not have increased despite land Poor implementation of the well conceived. For example use planning in Kilosa District land use plan was, furthermore, worshiping and burial areas were (Benjaminsen et al. 2009; Kilawe associated with a lack of located far from settlements, et al. 2018). physical/biological resource contrary to usual practice in surveys and land suitability both villages. Most people in In this case the poor adoption evaluation. Furthermore surveys the villages prefer to bury their could mainly be attributed to of available infrastructure, relatives near their ancestors exclusion of the communities services and socio-econmic within their homestead area. during the drafting of the plans. conditions need to be done It was also not normal in the The objectives and priorities (URT 1999) villages to allocate worshiping of the outside planners were areas for Muslims and Christians clearly in conflict with those All the problems encountered in the same neighborhoods. of the communities. This study in these two VLUPs could have illustrates the fallacy of a top- been avoided if the developers Low levels of implementation down planning process that of the plans adhered to the legal of the land use plans were also ignored the practices and requirements of Tanzania’s Land associated with the lack of livelihood strategies of locals, Use Planning Act (NLUPC, 2006), detailed resource surveys (soil, which are adapted to their which stipulates that climate, water, and vegetation) circumstances. Facilitators and land suitability evaluations. dominated the planning process, • Participatory approaches Key informants revealed that and shaped it to fit in with their must be used in land boundary demarcation for the interest – carving out protected use planning. With a different land use categories areas. The local communities participatory approach is was based on convenience for were used purely as rubber meant that the community the developers of the VLUPs, stamp to pass readymade must be central to the who skipped the processes of decisions by inviting them to planning process. The resource surveying and land participate in meetings where outsiders should be involved suitability evaluation in order superficial information about only in a facilitating/advisory to cut down the cost of land the process was provided. capacity and should not be use planning, rather than the This resonates with studies of dominant. qualities of land. Loveless (2014); Moyo et al. (2016); Hart et al. (2014); and • The necessary resource Igoe and Croucher (2007) who surveys and land suitability argue that experts manipulate evaluation must be done. the so-called participatory process in favour of their

52 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Recommendations and Reference in the making of Randileni suggestions for further WMA. MSc Thesis, University of Copenhagen, Available online research Benjaminsen, T. A., Maganga, F. P., Abdallah, J. M. (2009). The at http://www. ucl. ac. uk/pima/ 1. In order to increase adoption Kilosa Killings: Political Ecology outputs. htm# theses, of land use plans, we of a Farmer and Herder Conflict Mango,G., Kalenzi, D. (2011). The recommend the involvement in Tanzania. Development and Change 40: 423-445. study to develop a strategy for of all land users categories establishing cost effective land in all steps of land use Hart, A., Tumsifu, E., Nguni, W., use plans in Iringa and Njombe planning right from the Recha, J., Malley, Z., Masha, R., regions, National Land Use start. Participation should Buck, L. (2014). Participatory Planning Commission, Dar es not be limited to seminars land use planning to support Salaam. and meetings during which Tanzanian farmer and pastoralist attempts are made to investment: Experiences from Moyo, F., Ijumba, J., & Lund, J. convince communities to Mbarali District, Mbeya Region, F. (2016). Failure by Design? participate in preconceived Tanzania. International Land Revisiting Tanzania’s Flagship plans that are imposed Coalition Policy Focus 1-36. Wildlife Management Area top-down on them. A true Burunge. Conservation and Participatory Rural Appraisal Igoe, J., & Croucher, B. (2007). Society, 14(3), 232 (PRA) approach should be Conservation, commerce, followed. and communities: the story NLUPC (2006). Kiongozi cha of community-based wildlife Mwanakijiji katika Ushirikishwaji 2. In order to match the management areas in Tanzania’s wa Mipango na Usimamizi wa proposed land use northern tourist circuit. Matumizi Bora ya Ardhi Vijijini, categories or land utilization Conservation and Society, 5(4), Ndanda Mission Press, Dar es types with land qualities, we 534. Salaam. recommend that the required resource surveys and land Kilawe, C. J., Mertz, O., Silayo, Rioux, J., San Juan, M. G. (2015). suitability evaluations be D. S. A., Birch-Thomsen, Soil fertility and climate benefits conducted. T., Maliondo, S. M. (2018). of conservation agriculture Transformation of shifting adoption in the highlands of 3. We suggest studies to cultivation: Extent, driving forces Tanzania. Nature and Faune 30: determine the extent to and impacts on livelihoods in 90-93. which top-down non- Tanzania. Applied Geography 94: participatory approaches 84-94. URT.(1999). The Village Land Act to development have No.5. Dar es Salaam,Tanzania, aggravated land degradation Loveless, S. (2014). Establishing Ministry of Lands and Human and conflicts. WMAs in Tanzania: the role of Settlements Development.,PP community-level participation 1-342.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 53 Benthic macroinvertebrate assemblage as a tool for the detection of degraded landscapes: lesson from Malawi Elias R. Chirwa1,* and Limbikani Chilima2

Summary

In a number of poor countries of the tropics, efforts to restore deforested and degraded landscapes are beset by lack of clear and affordable methodologies of assessing land degradation. A study was carried out in central Malawi to investigate the potential use of benthic macroinvertebrates as an affordable and cost-effective tool for the detection of degraded landscapes that require restoration. The study involved use of both physico-chemical and benthic macroinvertebrate indices to evaluate the ecosystem health of two comparable reservoirs built on streams that pass through different land use patterns. Bunda stream, on which Bunda reservoir is located, passes entirely through deforested agricultural fields. Much of Lilongwe stream, on which Kamuzu Dam I reservoir is found, traverses through forested area of the Dzalanyama Forest Reserve. Since the water quality of rivers and their reservoirs reflect conditions in their catchment area, the ecological integrity of the surrounding landscapes was inferred from the ecosystem health of the reservoirs. Although physico-chemical indices largely failed to elicit significant differences between water quality of the two reservoirs, benthic macroinvertebrate indices were able to show that Bunda reservoir was enriched with organic matter attributable to eutrophication through nutrient loadings from erosion of the soils in the surrounding deforested agricultural land. Since soil erosion and its resultant nutrient loss is associated with land degradation, it was concluded that Bunda reservoir was surrounded by degraded landscapes that needed restoration through afforestation. The ability of benthic macroinvertebrates to elicit differences in ecosystem health between the two reservoirs suggested that benthic macroinvertebrates have a greater potential for use as a fast, efficient and affordable technique for the evaluation of water quality and detection of degraded landscapes in Malawi and other poor countries of the tropics.

Introduction disturbance and can worsen lie under their administrative the living standards of jurisdiction (www. Deforestation is a global the poor (Black, 2008). bonnchallenge.org). environmental and economic Considering the negative problem (Kapalanga, 2008; impacts of deforestation, Since not all deforested land Houghton, 2005). It leads the Bonn Challenge is degraded, the first step in to land degradation, global encourages countries to any land restoration initiative warming, water cycle restore deforested and is to determine how much alteration, ecosystem degraded landscapes that of the deforested land is

1 Elias R. Chirwa, the corresponding author is a PhD student at the Department of Aquaculture & Fisheries Science, Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (LUANAR), P.O. Box 219, Lilongwe, Malawi. Tel.: +265 888381091. E-mail: [email protected]

2 Limbikani Chilima is a research assistant at the National Aquaculture Centre (NAC), Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Development, P.O Box 44, Domasi, Malawi. Tel.: +265 888044000. E-mail: limbie.b.chilima@ gmail.com

54 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 actually degraded and in need method for effective evaluation for four months (December of restoration (Higginbottom of the ecological health of rivers 2016 to March 2017) and Symeonakis, 2014). Many and their landscapes (Uherek between 07:30 and 13:00 hrs. countries, particularly the poor and Gouvela, 2014). Although Physico-chemical parameters ones of the tropics, have found they are relatively inexpensive measured included Secchi this first step a difficult task due to use, their potential use in disk depth (SDD), Ammonia to lack of clear and affordable developing countries of the nitrogen (NH3-N), phosphorus methodologies of assessing land tropics has not been adequately (P), dissolved oxygen (DO), degradation (Lanly, 2003). For explored (Deborde et al., 2016). electrical conductivity (EC), example, 40% of the African This paper reports of a study salinity, temperature, pH countries participating in the conducted in two comparable and Chlorophyll-a (CHL-a). African Forest Landscape reservoirs occurring in the same Standard methods were Restoration initiative (AFR100), agro-ecological zone in Malawi used for the determination of including Malawi, have not yet to investigate the potential utility physicochemical parameters been able to determine how of benthic macroinvertebrates (APHA1, 2005). Benthic many hectares of land to be put as a tool for the detection of sediments were collected by under restoration. degraded landscapes in poor using a Van Veen Grab sampler countries of the tropics. of 0.052 m2 sampling area. Traditional methods of assessing The macroinvertebrates were land degradation have included Materials and methods isolated from the sediments, remote sensing, expert opinion identified to orders and families surveys, erosion models, The study was conducted and counted. Biodiversity productivity changes, land in Lilongwe West Rural indices such as Simpson’s index cover assessment, sediment Development Project (RDP) (D) and diversity index (1-D), yield analysis and other physico- of the Lilongwe Agriculture Shannon’s index (H), Margalef’s chemical techniques (Kapalanga, Development Division (ADD) (DMg), Pielou’s index (Jˋ) were 2008). These techniques have located in central Malawi determined using version 3 not provided early detection of between latitudes 13o29ˋ of Paleontological Statistics land degradation, have suffered and 15o20ˋ S, and longitudes (PAST) software (Hammer et al., from subjectivity bias, have 33o14ˋ and 35o56ˋ E. Sampling 2001). Community assemblage tended to measure only some was done at Bunda reservoir metrics (% EPT2 abundance, aspects of land degradation, and Kamuzu Dam I reservoir % Chironomidae, % Dominant did not reflect the long-term for four months. Although the taxon) were also computed situation of ecosystems two reservoirs lie in the same from the enumeration data. and were too expensive for agro-ecological zone and are Student t-tests were applied developing countries (Deborde comparable with respect to their on the biological and physico- et al., 2016). physico-chemical and biotic chemical data to compare the features, the catchment area of ecological health status of the Countries in the temperate Bunda stream on which Bunda two reservoirs at confidence zone have benefited from using reservoir is located is dominated level of 5% (p=0.05). biological indicators, particularly by agricultural farms whereas benthic macroinvertebrates much of the catchment area Results in streams and reservoirs to of Lilongwe stream on which understand the ecosystem Kamuzu Dam I reservoir is found Seven hundred and health status of the surrounding is covered by Dzalanyama seventy eight (778) benthic landscapes (Czerniawska-Kusza, Forest Reserve. macroinvertebrate individuals 2005). These indicators provide belonging to ten (10) taxonomic complete spatial-temporal Benthic macroinvertebrates and groups were encountered integration of knowledge of physico-chemical data were in the study area. By order freshwater ecosystems and collected from four randomly of importance the groups their surrounding landscapes, selected sampling stations on included oligochaete worms making them an excellent each reservoir every month (30.70%), bivalves (15.04%),

1 American Public Health Association

2 Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 55 leeches (12.08%), crustaceans substances and particulate al., 2014). Soil erosion and (11.18%), chironomids (8.99%), matter can originate either from the accompanying loss of gastropods (8.22%), stonefly inorganic materials such as nutrients is associated with land nymphs (4.24%), mayfly nymphs sediment, clay, silt or organic degradation because it deprives (3.60%), caddisfly larvae (2.70) matter such as plankton, algae land of its productive potential and dragonfly nymph (2.70%). and decaying material, all that allows accumulation of Oligochaete worms dominated of which may arise from the energy in form of vegetation the macroinvertebrate fauna surrounding catchment area (Ovuka, 2000). Thus, landscapes at both reservoirs, seconded through erosion due to land use surrounding Bunda reservoir by bivalves (21.76%) at Bunda or autochthonous production are considered degraded. This and EPT (20.5%) at Kamuzu within the water body (Wetzel, agrees with Munthali (2013) Dam I. T-tests showed that there 2001). The dominance of who found that except for were significant differences the benthic invertebrate areas near Dzalanyama Forest in the mean numbers of EPT, assemblage by oligochaete Reserve, much of the landscape oligochaetes and chironomids worms and chironomid larvae in Lilongwe West Rural between the two reservoirs suggests that much of these Development Project (RDP) is (p<0.05), with Bunda reservoir dissolved and particulate degraded due to inappropriate having less EPT and more matter is organic in nature. agriculture practices and oligochaetes and chironomids Oligochaetes and chironomid deforestation which leaves than Kamuzu Dam I reservoir. larvae tend to dominate benthic the soil exposed and prone to Diversity indices also showed invertebrate assemblages in erosion. significant differences between organically polluted habitats Kamuzu Dam I and Bunda because they can tolerate low Conclusion reservoirs (p < 0.05), with dissolved oxygen due to their Bunda reservoir having higher cutaneous respiratory capability Bunda reservoir is enriched with Simpson’s index (D) and lower (Mandaville, 1999). Further organic matter due to nutrient diversity index (1-D), lower evidence of organic matter loadings from soil erosion of the Shannon’s index (H), lower enrichment in Bunda reservoir surrounding agricultural fields.

Margalef’s (DMg) and lower is the low EPT index. Organic Since landscapes that lose soil Pielou’s (Jˋ) indices than Kamuzu pollution leads to decrease and nutrients through erosion Dam I reservoir. Physico- in EPT value and increase in are considered degraded, chemical parameters of water chironomid abundance (Hamid the deforested agricultural quality tested in the study and Rawi, 2014; Lencioni et al., land around Bunda reservoir were generally not significantly 2012). In addition, the higher are regarded as having lost different between the two Simpson’s index (D), lower their reproductive potential reservoirs (p>0.05), except SDD Simpson’s diversity index (1-D), to accumulate energy in form which was significantly higher Shannon index (H), Margalef of vegetation. In contrast, a

at Kamuzu Dam I than at Bunda index (DMg) and Pielou’s comparable Kamuzu Dam I reservoir (p<0.05). CHL-a was evenness index (Jˋ) indices at reservoir, lying in the same significantly higher at Bunda Bunda reservoir show that the agro-ecological zone, is not reservoir than Kamuzu Dam I water body has low diversity organically polluted, likely (p<0.05). of benthic fauna, a situation because much of its catchment typical of organically polluted area is forested. It is therefore Discussion water bodies (Morris et al., recommended that afforestation 2014; Dudgeon et al., 2006). initiatives be considered SDD is affected by both colored High levels of CHL-a at Bunda to restore the degraded dissolved and particulate reservoir suggest that much of agricultural landscapes substances because of their the organic matter is algae and surrounding Bunda reservoir. It ability to absorb and scatter light plankton. The major driver for is also important that efforts to (Molot, 2009). The lower secchi algal and plankton proliferation curb deforestation which has disk visibility at Bunda reservoir in water bodies is eutrophication become rampant in Dzalanyama suggests that the reservoir through nutrient loadings of Forest Reserve in recent years has a high concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus due to charcoal burning be these substances (Khattab et from erosion of deforested increased. al., 2015). These dissolved agricultural land (Withers et

56 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 While both physico-chemical Land Use on Stream Benthic methods. Final Project”. Land and benthic macroinvertebrate Macroinvertebrates”. Science Restoration Training Programme, indices were used to gauge Diliman (July-December 2016) Reykjavik, Iceland, 2008. ecosystem health of the 28:2, 5-26 two comparable reservoirs, Khattab, Mohammed and Merkel, the former indices failed to Dudgeon, D., Arthington, A.H., Broder and Broder. “Secchi disc reveal significant differences Gessner, M.Q., Kawabata, Z., visibility and its relationship with between the two water bodies. Knowler, D.J., Lévêque, C., water quality parameters in the Much of the difference in Naiman, R.J., Prieur-Richard, photosynthesis zone of Mosul ecological health between the A.H., Soto, D. Stiassny, M.L.J. Dam Lake, Northern Iraq”. FOG - two reservoirs was elicited by “Freshwater biodiversity: Freiberg Online Geoscience 39 benthic macroinvertebrate Importance, threats, status and (2015). indices, suggesting that these conservation challenges”. Biol. are more robust indicators of Rev. 8 (2006), 163–182. Lanly, J-P. “Deforestation and ecological conditions even in forest degradation factors”. XII the tropics and can reveal the Hamid, S. A., & Md Rawi, C. S. paper, occurrence of ecologically- “Ecology of Ephemeroptera, 2003. significant environmental Plecoptera and Trichoptera changes which physico-chemical (Insecta) in Rivers of the Gunung Lencioni, V., Marziali, L. and methods may be unable to Jerai Forest Reserve: Diversity Rossaro, B. “Chironomids as show. It is recommended that and Distribution of Functional bioindicators of environmental Malawi and other developing Feeding Groups”. Tropical Life quality in mountain springs”. countries in the tropics utilize Sciences Research (2014), vol. Freshwater Science (2012), vol. the capabilities of benthic 25, no.1, 61–73. 31, no. 2: 525-541. macroinvertebrate indices for rapid, efficient and affordable Hammer, Ø., Harper, D.A.T., Ryan, Mandaville, S.M. “Bioassessment detection of degraded P.D. “PAST: Paleontological of Freshwaters Using Benthic landscapes. statistics software package for Macroinvertebrates – A education and data analysis”. Primer”. 1st edn. Soil and Water References Palaeontologia Electronica Conservation Society of Metro (2001), vol. 4, no. 1: 9pp. http:// Halifax. 1999, 244pp. APHA. “Standard methods palaeo-electronica.org/2001_1/ for the examination of water past/issue1_01.htm Molot, L.A. “Color of Aquatic and wastewater”, 2005. 21st Ecosystems”. Encyclopedia of edn. American Public Health Higginbottom, T.P. and Inland Waters (2009). Association, Washington, DC Symeonakis, E. “Assessing Land Degradation and Desertification Morris, E. K., Caruso, T., Buscot, Black, R. “Nature loss ‘to hurt Using Vegetative Index Data: F., Fischer, M., Hancock, C., global poor’”, BBC News, 29 May Current Frameworks and Maier, T. S., Meiners, T., Muller, 2008. Future Directions”. Remote C., Obermaier, E., Prati, D., Sens. (2014), 6, 9552-9575; Socher, S.A., Sonnemann, I., Czerniawska-Kusza, I. “Comparing doi:10.3390/rs6109552 Waschke, N., Wubet, T., Wurst, S. modified biological monitoring and Rillig, M. C. “Choosing and working party score system Houghton, R. A. “Tropical using diversity indices: insights and several biological indices deforestation as a source of for ecological applications based on macroinvertebrates greenhouse gas emissions”, from the German Biodiversity for water-quality assessment”. in Tropical deforestation and Exploratories”. Ecology and Limnologica, vol. 35, no. 3 Climate change, edited by Evolution (2014), vol. 4, no. (2005), pp. 169–176. Moutinho, P. and Schwartzman, 18, 3514–3524. http://doi. S., Amazon Institute for org/10.1002/ece3.1155 Deborde, D.D., Hernandez, Environmental Research, Belem M.B.M. and Magbanua, F.S. Brazil, 2005, pp 13-20. Munthali, K.G. and Murayama, “Benthic Macroinvertebrate Y. “Interdependences Community as an Indicator of Kapalanga, T.S. “A review of between Smallholder Stream Health: The Effects of land degradation assessment Farming and Environmental

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 57 Management in Rural Malawi: Uherek, C.B. and Gouvela, Wetzel, R. G. “Limnology: Lake A Case of Agriculture-Induced F.B.P. “Biological Monitoring and River Ecosystems (3rd ed.)”. Environmental Degradation in Using Macroinverebrates of 2001. San Diego, CA: Academic Malingunde Extension Planning Water Quality of Maroaga Press. Area (EPA)”. Land (2013), 2, 158- Stream in the Maroaga 175. Cave System, Presidente Withers, P.J.A., Neal, C., Jarvie, Figueiredo, Amazon, Brazil”. H.P. and Doody, D.G. “Agriculture Ovuka, M. “More people, International Journal of Ecology and Eutrophication: Where Do more erosion? Land use, soil (2014), Article ID 308149, We Go from Here?” Sustainability erosion and soil productivity in 7 pages. Hindawi Publishing (2014), 6, 5853-5875; Murang’a District, Kenya”. Land Corporation. http://dx.doi. doi:10.3390/su6095853 Degradation and Development org/10.1155/2014/308149 (2000), vol. 11, no. 2: 111-124.

A Vietnamese aquaculture officer speaking with a fish farmer on the banks of an aquaculture pond in Bongor, Chad ©FAO/Sia Kambou

58 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Implications of conversion of customary land tenure to leasehold tenure on the management of natural resources : a case study in Zambia Janet Nyanga1

Summary

This study examines the implications of tenure conversion on the management of natural resources. Using Focus Group discussions and in-depth interviews with local people and key informants, the study found that where conversion of customary tenure to leasehold tenure is not allowed, the communal rules and regulation on the use and extraction of natural resources is strictly controlled under group management. In such areas, this study found no evidence of exploitation of natural resources. This is attributed to the tight hierarchical control over land and natural resources that traditional leaders exercise. Thus, local people profit from managing natural resources. On the other hand, the study found tenuous management of natural resources in areas where conversion of customary tenure to leasehold tenure is allowed. Thus, natural resources are exploited unsustainably as there are no strict measures to deter perpetrators from unsustainable harvesting of natural resources. This tends to jeopardise the already fragile natural resource base on which the local people derive their livelihood from.

Introduction customary areas have the management of natural shown that settlement land resources by drawing Zambia has had a dual appears to be unavailable to on cases which respond tenure system since the new settlers particularly in differently to tenure colonial era. One of the areas close to cities (FSRP, conversion. Therefore, this most recent developments 2010). In areas such as paper examines comparison in the country’s tenure Chibombo and Chongwe of the implications of system is the legal provision districts, for example, land conversion of customary allowing the conversion of pressures resulting from tenure to leasehold tenure customary land tenure to urban expansion are leading on the management of leasehold tenure (Section to large scale conversion natural resources in two 8(1), Lands Act, 1995). This of customary tenure to different areas. land policy is premised leasehold tenure. Although on the idea of opening up several researchers (such Research rural areas to investment as as Tygesen, 2014) have methodology well as enhancing tenure examined this phenomenon security (MMD, 1991). for some time, there is Data were collected in 2016 Since the enactment little work focussing on from Chibombo district of the 1995 Lands Act, comparing the implications in Mungule chiefdom and surveys conducted in many of tenure conversion on Nkomeshya chiefdom of

1 Janet Nyanga is a researcher at the University of Zambia, School of Natural Sciences, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, P. O Box 32379 Lusaka. Email: [email protected]. Phone: +260 962 492 929.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 59 Chongwe district in central have allowed local people to although individuals own land Zambia. Data were obtained convert their traditional land under customary tenure, they focus group discussions (FGDs) tenure to leasehold tenure. do not have the right to sell land comprising of 5-9 people of They argued that leasehold as the land is still part of the mixed gender. Each chiefdom in tenure is expected to enhance collective. Thus, this fact may the respective district had two tenure security in the chiefdom. sometimes makes customary FGD of its own. In addition, five Traditional leaders argued land to be vulnerable to corrupt (5) in-depth interviews were held that, allocated land cannot practices of traditional leaders. with key informants, consisting repossessed by anyone from Respondents argued that there of one government official from a household without the legal is tenure insecurity as land the Ministry of Lands and four repossession process as can be repossess land from village headperson from each outlined under leasehold tenure. a household by traditional chiefdom. The data was analysed This study found evidence of leaders anytime they wish to by thematic analysis. people having title deeds to accommodate new settlers. their land. The study further Results and discussions found that the majority of those Implications of tenure obtaining leasehold tenure conversion on the Land Resources and are new settlers while financial management of natural Livelihoods in the study constraints preclude local resources in the study areas areas people from obtaining leasehold tenure. The opening up of customary The study shows that local land to leasehold tenure people derive their livelihoods On the other hand, traditional in Mungule chiefdom has from different activities such as leaders in Nkomeshya chiefdom attracted new settlers in the farming, wage employment and of Chongwe district have not chiefdom. The influx of new small scale businesses. Of these allowed the conversion of settlers has led to reduced land activities, the study revealed that customary tenure to leasehold holding sizes as larger size of farming is the most dominant tenure in the area. This implies land are being subdivided to source of livelihood. Due to the that all the common pool accommodate new settlers. On importance of farming, land is resources are controlled average, this study found that considered the most important through communally accepted the majority of people own less natural asset in both districts. norms and traditions. The than two hectares of land (the The study also found that tree traditional leaders argued that entire land held by a household resources are important as tenure conversion has the including cropland). It should be almost all households in both potential of making poor people mentioned here that individuals districts rely on fuel wood and landless as more productive ‘own’ land under customary charcoal as sources of energy. land is taken up by wealthy tenure although the land is still individuals. Data from focus part of the collective. The influx Trends in tenure conversion group discussions revealed that of new settlers has a number of trends in Chibombo and non-conversion of customary implications on the management Chongwe districts tenure to leasehold tenure of natural resources, as is an opportunity denied for summarised in Table 1. Traditional leaders in Mungule local people. This is because chiefdom of Chibombo district

Table 1: Effects of increased population due to introduction of leasehold tenure on customary land

60 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 ©Janet Nyanga/University of Zambia ©Janet Nyanga/University of Zambia

Figure 1: Villagers loading sand at Mungule Figure 2: Sand heaped for sale at Mungule chiefdom of chibombo district

The study found that the natural due to heavy sand trucks that on customary land has in some resources, such as trees, in ferry sand and to extensive areas led to mismanagement of open access areas are being deforestation. This tends to natural resources in areas where harvested unsustainably for fire jeopardise the already fragile tenure conversion is allowed. wood and charcoal production. natural resource base from Therefore in order to safeguard The respondents pointed out which the local people derive the already depleting resources that the recent increase in their livelihoods. The interviews in rural areas, the traditional population provides a ready with key informants revealed leaders and the government market for the commodity. that unsustainable harvesting should formalise and strengthen Interviews with key informants of natural resources in Mungule the rules regarding use and revealed that local people chiefdom has been perpetrated extraction of natural resources engage in the charcoal business by the existence of the dual upon which rural people derive to supplement their falling tenure systems. their livelihood from. income due to their reduced landholding sizes. However, In Nkomeshya chiefdom, the References respondents during focus group land resources on village forests discussions acknowledged that (regarded as unoccupied in this Food Security Research Project, the proceeds from charcoal study) and areas designated (FSRP)., 2010. The Status of sale do not exceed the benefits as grazing land are treated as Customary Land and How it (such as ecosystem goods open access where access free Affects the Rights of Indigenous and services) that they stand to all village members. Although Local Communities. Submission to gain by preserving the tree rules regarding use and to the Committee on Agriculture resources. The study also extraction of natural resources and Land study. Lusaka: FSRP. found that use and extraction on the communal areas are not of natural resources in Mungule formalised, local people are Government of the Republic of chiefdom is free for anyone forbidden from exploiting such Zambia., 1995. Lands Act No. (non-members and members of resources unsustainably. Thus, 29 of 1995, (Cap 184 Laws of the community). the study found no evidence Zambia). of unsustainable harvesting The study further found of natural resources in the Movement for Multi-Party rampant sand mining activities chiefdom. This is attributed to Democracy, (MMD)., 1991. Party which has employed many the tight hierarchical control Manifesto 1991-1996. MMD, youths. Respondents pointed over land and natural resources Lusaka. out that the increase of sand that traditional leaders in mining is as a result of growing Nkomeshya chiefdom exercise. Tygesen, P., 2014. No Clear construction business in the Grounds: The Impacts of Land chiefdom. The unregulated sand Conclusion Privatisation on Smallholder mining activities in the area has Farmers’ Food Security in led to the degradation of the The study concludes that the Zambia. Dan Church Aid. land as well as damaged roads introduction of leasehold tenure

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 61 Arboriculture: a relevant option for developing sustainable agriculture in Algeria Bouchaib Faouzi1and Chamisa Innocent2

Summary

The goal of this paper is to show that arboriculture is a viable option in sustainable agriculture development in Algeria. Not only has this option been the basis for designing the National Agricultural Development Plan (NADP) launched in 2000 in Algeria, but also it was also instrumental in Alexis Monjauze’s doctrine (1906-2001) during the colonial and post-colonial period. Indeed, in-depth documentary review shows that the NADP fits in with the doctrine of A. Monjauze regarding the significant role of trees in preserving soils and reducing fallows in a semi-arid country. However, divergences appear namely in the absence of soil restoration programmes (another key principle in the Monjauze doctrine) and in the implementation of NADPs (lack of management master plans). However, the approach recommended by Monjauze is based on an ideal development plan and on three five-year plans that embody a harmonious vision.

Introduction back but failed. The best of context characterized with them, often supported by long periods of dryness The issue of land an external forces formed often followed by heavy management raises the under more favorable rains and floods, especially challenge of exploiting environment, were able to on the high plateaus, leading the silviculture-agriculture restore the balance and to soil erosion and dam interface and the issue of some enclaves silting. balancing the exploitation and preservation of natural They were not able to Indeed, Algeria’s climate resources. Two issues that establish themselves could be defined by a are not easy to solve: Often sustainably. They were distinction between the wet we hear everywhere that, overtaken by the difficulty of and hot seasons. Contrary to “we should modify the maintaining barely artificial what happens in temperate cropping systems, introduce constructions requiring regions, rain and heat fodder, plant trees. (…).” excessively sustained effort, alternate during the year Development plans should in a context of other men instead of combining. The not be based solely on these who needed balance at the two conditions needed for pious hopes. In several lowest biological level (A. the development of plants instances in history, under a Monjauze, 1960). In Algeria, are not fulfilled (A. Monjauze, xerothermic climate, there this concern was addressed 1960). In the face of these have been individuals and by Alexis Monjauze (1906- difficulties, Monjauze even groups of people 2001) who endeavored to developed a doctrine that who attempted to bounce find solutions in a semi-arid may be summed up by the

1 Bouchaib Faouzi. Lecturer- Researcher. University of Blidal. Algeria.Route de Soumma BP 270 Blida (09000) Algérie. Email : [email protected].

2 Innocent Chamisa. Consultant. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)Viale delle Terme di Caracalla - 00153 Rome, Italy, Email: [email protected]

62 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 following quote: “Soil and due to security reasons. This and the NADP in developing plantations restoration provide plan was built upon, among plantations that ensure both the the key to resolve the problems others, the principle of natural use and preservation of natural in Algeria” (Monjauze, 1958). resources preservation. This resources. However, the NADP principle was Monjauze’s main did not address soil restoration, Years later (2000), the Algerian concern. Hence, the following and was not implemented government launched a National question: Is there a link between following a designed Agriculture Development Monjauze’s doctrine and the development plan. On the other Programme (NADP) with several NADP? hand, Monjauze’s doctrine was objectives: food security, sound based on the principle of soil judicious soil management, To answer, we make the restoration and provided for sound water use, and the return following assumption: there implementation following an of rural communities to their is a convergence of principle ideal development plan. homes after a forceful exodus between Monjauze’s doctrine ©FAO/ Laurent Sazy

Figure 1. A farmer with sheep on degraded land. Djelfa, Algeria.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 63 ©FAO/Laurent Sazy

Figure 2. Restoration and Development of degraded land. Tlemcen, Algeria.

Methodology reconversion process that would seeds and straws. There is no ensure sound soil management, or very little recovery by the We explored in particular by preferring plantations to soil. Therefore, the imbalance publications by Monjauze annual crops. Actually, “the increases with each passing during the colonial period fundamental fact is that the year, both in surface and (1958, 1960) and post-colonial soil is deprived of the powerful depth” (Monjauze, 1972). In (1972), but we also explored vegetation that protected it addition, the NADP had positive other publications that address and maintained its life, but the impacts on production. In fact the issue of management, strength and balance of which, « the increase of production agricultural policies restoration it in turn maintained.” (Monjauze, levels is also spectacular in and development of rural 1972). the areas of fresh vegetables areas. (Benchrit, Bedrani, (and especially potato), stone and Montaigne). Finally, the “Soil balance stemmed from fruits, dates or white meat” comparison between the two two main sources: 1) it was (Montaigne et al., 2009). Thus, sources of documentation protected and invigorated by there was an increase in tree enabled us to confirm both the powerful natural vegetation, plantations (basic principle convergences and divergences typically by trees. However, of the Monjauze’s doctrine). between Monjauze’s doctrine wheat is not a powerful plant. However, soil restoration and the NADP. Moreover, after the harvest, (another principle) is not explicit the plot remains barren for in the NADP. Nevertheless, Results and discussion months. 2) The natural soil this oversight does not harm recovered all the products of the economic impact of the The NADP helped to inject natural vegetation: the latter NADP as a whole, but the investments in plantations, maintained the humus and gave assessment of soil restoration irrigation and other related back to the soil what it had through the introduction of sectors aiming to start a taken. Now there is a harvest of bench terraces before and right

64 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 after the colonial period, was qualifications, to the difficulty logistical tools to implement mixed. It was observed that in securing the collaboration the development plans. To “numerous treated surfaces are of future beneficiaries of the that effect, there is a need to again subjected to disastrous managed land (Bedrani, 2008). train staff, secure logistical erosion”. Since the bench However, in Monjauze’s doctrine, and informational means and terraces networks have not the implementation of the an administrative structure been correctly implanted, agriculture development plan is for oversight (monitoring and or most often, because they based on a harmonious vision control), and finally, ensure are not maintained, as they implemented based on an ideal the availability of selected tree should by farmers (…) we could development plan. It starts with seedlings. Thus, agricultural make a long list of difficulties. a first five-year plan that involves development planning appears However, the main cause of finding the human resources, to be a necessity. these difficulties resides in means, legal instruments, the following fact: DRS (soil governing and control bodies References defence and restoration) could and numerous demonstrations, not integrate the agricultural before initiating the second Bedrani S. (2008). L’agriculture, economy of the regions and third five-year plan which l’agroalimentaire, la pèche, et le concerned: it appeared as consists in restoring soils and développement rural en Algérie, a foreign body, an initiative fruit plantations on 9/10 of the Options Méditerranéennes, by the administration that cultivable area. Série. B / n°61, les agricultures commissioned developments méditerranéennes, analyse par that did not address the Conclusion and pays immediate concerns of farmers recommendations and that they considered as Benchetrit M. (1970). Sur les servitude (M. Benchtrit, 1970). This article aimed at linking problèmes de l’aménagement du Monjauze’s doctrine with territoire au Maghreb, document Moreover, the implementation the National Agriculture universitaire, Université d’Alger. of the NADP was insufficiently Development Plan (NADP) using prepared: the various a desk study methodology. Monjauze A, (1972). Le sol et Directorates of Agriculture in The results obtained show that l’homme, l’Algérie agricole, EAP, ème Wilaya (department) that should plantations have been selected numéro spécial, 2 édition, have been responsible operated in the NADP as a priority to 1972, 72 pages. without the support of the trigger the reconversion development master plan. In process of farmland (basic Monjauze A. (1960). Essai pour addition, these administrations principle in the Monjauze l’utilisation rationnelle des terres were not sufficiently prepared to doctrine). However divergences en zone aride et semi-aride, implement the commission. This appear, namely in the lack of document de travail, 95 pages. lack of institutional and logistical soil restoration programmes Monjauze A. (1958). Les preparation is a consequence (another basic principle in the exigences et les perspectives of the eagerness imposed by Monjauze’s doctrine) and in the de développement agricole de political imperatives, and the implementation of the NADP l’Algérie, document, Direction need to bring back farmers and (lack of development master générale de l’agriculture en populations to their homes and plans). However, the approach Algérie, Direction de l’agriculture farms after adverse security recommended by Monjauze is et des forêts, 7 pages. conditions. That eagerness based on an ideal development had negative consequences, plan and on three five-year Montaigne E, Bessaoud O. especially at the beginning. In plans that embody a harmonious (2009). Quelles réponses au fact, ‘it seems that during the vision. 2000-2003 period several mal-développement agricole? Analyse des politiques agricoles projects were funded without The main recommendations et rurales passées et présentes, proper preliminary studies’. This first target developing regional Options Méditerranéennes, B led to relatively large waste of agricultural development master 64 – Perspectives des politiques resources (unsuccessful drillings, plans that result from agricultural agricoles en Afrique du Nord, delays in development works policies, but also improving CIHEAM - IAMM CIHEAM-IAMM, due to project reassessment, institutional instruments and lack of businesses or their poor France.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 65 Initiative to restore forest landscapes through household-managed fenced plots in Burkina Faso Michel Valette1, Daouda Traoré2, Franziska Kaguembèga-Müller3, Alain Touta Traoré4 and Barbara Vinceti5

Summary

Faced with the large scope of deforestation and forest and farmland degradation, Burkina Faso is implementing a policy to restore ecosystems. Various ecosystems restoration initiatives have been put in place with different levels of success. Among these, is an initiative based on household-managed fenced plots (from the French acronym MED (Mise en défens)). They strengthen resilience of rural communities by ensuring various additional income sources and access to medicinal plants. Moreover, they help protect biodiversity through the natural regeneration of species and the planting of a large variety of local species.

Introduction Faso lost over 2.5 million ha regeneration of woody plant of forest and other wooded species (Zida, 2007). In Burkina Faso, dry forests lands between 1990 and wooded areas cover and 2015 and currently Efforts to restore about 10 million ha (FAO experiences an accelerated ecosystems are on-going 2015). They play a key rate of deforestation linked in Burkina Faso promoted socio-economic and food to climatic and anthropic both by governmental and role for the Burkinabe factors (FAO, 2015; international organizations, population, providing Ouédraogo et al., 2011). A for example through the income, energy and diverse high population growth rate Great Green Wall project food (Ouédraogo et al., associated with reliance (http://www.greatgreenwall. 2006; Paré et al., 2010; on forest resources have org/) and by non- Vinceti et al., 2013). In induced a reduction and governmental organizations addition, 1,033 out of the fragmentation of the forest and local associations. 2,067 plant species found cover to the advantage of These initiatives to restore in Burkina Faso are used farmland (Ouédraogo et al., ecosystems often combine in traditional medicine as 2015). Moreover, wandering tree protection or planting documented in the literature animals hinder the natural with other aspects such as (Zizka et al., 2015). Burkina the mechanical soil tillage

1 Consultant, Bioversity International, via dei Tre Denari, 472/a, 00057, Maccarese, Rome, Italy, Email: michel. [email protected]

2 Socio-economist, geographer, Association tiipaalga, 06 BP 9890 Ouagadougou 06, Burkina Faso, Email: [email protected]

3 Project Leader for Burkina Faso and Benin, newTree, Bollwerk 35, 3011 Bern, Switzerland, Email: kaguembega@ newtree.org

4 Executive Director, Association tiipaalga, 06 BP 9890 Ouagadougou 06, Burkina Faso, Email: alain.traore@ tiipaalga.org

5 Researcher, Bioversity International, via dei Tre Denari, 472/a, 00057, Maccarese, Rome, Italy, Email: b.vinceti@ cgiar.org

66 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 or sustainable agricultural illustrate some of the benefits may engage in agroforestry practices. The objectives of provided by these site closures over a 12 m-large cropping these ecosystem restoration to partner farmers who establish strip along the fence and plant projects fit into a poverty them and sustainably use them. useful trees in low-density. alleviation and climate change Tiipaalga develops a local land adaptation policy. Methodology and agreement signed between results the partner, grassroots groups Tiipaalga is a local association in the community (municipal based in Burkina Faso that Methodology advisers, Village Development promotes the sustainable Councils (CVD) and Farmers’ management of natural The creation of household- Organizations (FOs)), resource resources. Since 2003, Tiipaalga based enclosures consists persons from the village (land supports, among other activities, in establishing fenced plots and/or village chiefs, religious the creation of household- managed by individual rural leaders), the local administration managed fenced plots. Fencing households. Due to the high and tiipaalga to secure the plots is a practice aiming at establishment cost (roughly USD delineated future plot. These protecting a piece of land or 3 600 of which USD land agreements include plot against various pressures 2 530 for the equipment and customary and administrative (grazing, bushfire, logging, etc.). the rest for the contribution rights and copies are filed at It contributes to soil restoration of the partnering farmer), and the city hall; other copies are and protection, reduced runoff the high demand by farmers to entrusted to the technical and erosion, and the restoration implant site closures, tiipaalga partners and tiipaalga. of the natural vegetation. Its carefully select future partners contribution to reducing the based on specific criteria The results presented here result impact of climate change foster (motivation, non-contentious from two studies. The first study adaptation through its ability to ownership of a plot of at least focused on aspects regarding alleviate the effects of heavy 3 ha). Land tenure should be the value and monetary gains rains (erosion, crusting, etc.) secure, free from contentions generated be the fenced plots. while improving soil water and verified before installing the It includes the answers to a balance in case of drought. fence. A local land agreement questionnaire administered to It is also seen in mitigation report, including customary and 105 partners of tiipaalga in the through its ability to store administrative rights, is signed central region. The second study carbon (Source: Permanent by the stakeholders – customary was conducted in the same Secretariat of Non-governmental and administrative authorities, region and focused on tree Organizations/SPONG, Burkina the partner farmer and his direct planting practices within fenced Faso). This practice could be neighbors. In case of positive plots and the seed sources improved by combining it feedback from tiipaalga, the used. The results presented with contour stone bunds, soil partner farmer is responsible include the answers of 19 scarification, half-moons and for mobilizing the aggregates partner farmers of tiipaalga, complementary afforestation and labor needed to establish representing a total of 57 ha (fenced plots) so as to enable the closure. The partner also of closures, and 14 farmers the regeneration of tree- commits to implement the who are not tiipaalga partners, based ecosystems. This forest activities as defined in his terms identified as tree growers in the restoration initiative targets a of reference and in the related same villages. The goal was to total of 308 site closures (924 action plan that covers seven compare planting approaches ha) of which 176 in the north years and is renewable only and their respective challenges (Soum and Lorum provinces) once (create a fire-break, apply and benefits between the two 1 and 125 in the Central region sustainable soil restoration groups of farmers. (provinces of Kadiogo, techniques and increase the Boulkiemdé, Oubritenga, biomass and biodiversity, etc.). Kourwéogo, Sanmatenga, and To improve the maintenance Zandoma). In this article, we will of this fire-break, the partner

1 These are the intervention zones of tiipaalga in northern and central part of Burkina. Not to be confused with the administrative ‘regions’ of Burkina Faso.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 67 Benefits for tiipaalga partner farmers

Tiipaalga focuses on developing the fenced plots (Figure 1). In degraded state, any income they income sources generated view of the fact that closures generate is considered as value- by non-wood forest products are installed on lands once added by the partner. and farming products from abandoned due to their highly © Michel Valette/Bioversity International. © Michel Valette/Bioversity International. © Michel Valette/Bioversity International. © Michel Valette/Bioversity International.

Figure 1. Non-wood forest products harvested in fenced plots in the Kourwéogo and Boulkiemdé provinces. Top left: modern beehives installed with help from tiipaalga; top right: fodder and Andropogon sp; bottom left: Securidaca longepedunculata seeds, a rare medicinal specie; bottom right: Saba senegalensis fruits.

The income generated by the are largely consumed by rural to partners with fenced plots to fenced plots reaches an average households and villagers, upon plant live fences and strengthen of USD 450 per partner/year, request, are often granted free the stability of the fence in i.e. 7.5 months of the minimum access by owners of fenced the long-term. Upon request, wage (USD 60) in Burkina Faso plots, who gain some social tiipaalga partners may be trained (based on a study conducted prestige. The seeds of trees on modern and sustainable in 2016 by tiipaalga). This within the fenced plots also beekeeping. Beekeeping is key income is highly helpful to play a role, partly in nursery in regenerating the plant cover. farming households during the production. Tiipaalga procures Honey is bought, processed and lean period (Table 1). Besides, large quantities of Acacia spp sold with the help of tiipaalga. medicinal plants are also a major and other local species and benefit of fenced plots. They subsequently distributes them

68 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Table 1. Income generated by household-managed fenced plots during the lean period. (*) Percentage of fenced plots owners (MED) in the central region (105 MED) who earned income from each of the products. Income surveys conducted in 2016.

Partners Sources of income during the lean Number of Amounts (US$) period (central region, 105 MED) individuals (%) * Wood 2 364 37 35 Fruits 3 719 44 42 Leaves 1 256 7 7 Fodder 10 000 73 70 Honey 3 242 29 28 Meat 0 0 0 Medicinal plants 585 6 6 Andropogon 5 554 76 72 Farm products from the cropping strip 8 843 55 52

Total 35 563

Biodiversity Plateau region and the Central- regenerated are protected by conservation West region, shows that site the fence. The species planted closures may contribute to in the fenced plots are more The study of tree planting the conservation of species diversified and include a greater practices conducted with highly endangered by habitat proportion of native species 33 farmers in the Central degradation and overgrazing. than those planted by farmers in The trees planted or naturally non-fenced plots (Table 2).

Table 2: Specific diversity of woody species planted by 33 farmers interviewed. (*) Species that have been reported by at least 2 farmers as formerly used by villagers and currently difficult/impossible to find..

Tiipaalga farmer Tiipaalga non- partners partner farmers

Average land area owned (ha) 14.2 11.4

Total number of species 41 21

Average number of species 8.5 4.9

Share of exotic species (%) 35 78

Number of species planted considered endangered (*) 14 3

Interviews with farmers revealed by livestock grazing or by naturally regenerated tree that fenced plots appear to overexploitation. This enables species within the fenced plots protect planted or naturally to secure investments in tree become a potential source of regenerated trees species planting and rediscover useful seeds for a great variety of which would have been, in the plants that have disappeared species that are increasingly absence of fences, threatened in some regions. In addition, hard to find locally.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 69 IV. Discussion and the fenced plots, raises the Paré, S., Savadogo, P., Tigabu, M., conclusion awareness of populations and Ouadba, J.M., Odén, P.C., 2010. motivates them to engage in Consumptive values and local The results show some of the sustainable management of perception of dry forest decline the benefits associated with lands and forests. in Burkina Faso, West Africa. implementing fenced plots. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 12, 277– This approach has its limits: the V. Literature 295. https://doi.org/10.1007/ high initial cost that requires s10668-009-9194-3 external financial support and Food and Agriculture the need for a plot of at least Organization of the United Vinceti, B., Termote, C., Ickowitz, 3 ha per partner. Despite the Nations, 2015. Global forest A., Powell, B., Kehlenbeck, limits, these initiatives present resources assessment 2015. K., Hunter, D., 2013. The clear and viable positives Contribution of Forests and aspects within the framework of Ouédraogo, B., 2006. Household Trees to Sustainable Diets. a forest landscape restoration energy preferences for cooking Sustainability 5, 4797–4824. policy in Burkina Faso. They in urban Ouagadougou, Burkina https://doi.org/10.3390/ reach several goals and help Faso. Energy Policy 34, 3787– su5114797 improve livelihoods, regenerate 3795. soils, preserve biodiversity, Zida, D., 2007. Impact of forest protect rare threatened trees, Ouédraogo, I., Savadogo, P., management regimes on rediscover some woody species Tigabu, M., Cole, R., Oden, P.C., ligneous regeneration in the that had disappeared locally Ouadba, J.-M., 2011. Trajectory Sudanian savanna of Burkina and provide highly useful Analysis of Forest Cover Change Faso. Dept. of Forest Genetics species that produce edible and in the Tropical Dry Forest of and Plant Physiology, Swedish medicinal products. Securing Burkina Faso, West Africa. University of Agricultural access to forest resources and Landsc. Res. 36, 303–320. Sciences, Umeå. protection against wandering https://doi.org/10.1080/014263 animals, motivate partners to 97.2011.564861 Zizka, A., Thiombiano, A., get involved in maintaining their Dressler, S., Nacoulma, B.M., fenced plots and in planting Ouedraogo, I., Mbow, C., Ouédraogo, A., Ouédraogo, woody species. The results of Balinga, M., Neufeldt, H., I., Ouédraogo, O., Zizka, G., this study also serve as leverage 2015. Transitions in Land Use Hahn, K., Schmidt, M., 2015. to facilitate the adoption of Architecture under Multiple Traditional plant use in Burkina sustainable practices in the use Human Driving Forces in a Faso (West Africa): a national- of natural resources. Indeed, Semi-Arid Zone. Land 4, 560– scale analysis with focus on observing restoration inside 577. https://doi.org/10.3390/ traditional medicine. J. Ethnobiol. land4030560 Ethnomedicine 11, 9.

70 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Population pressure and wildlife conservation in Benin biosphere reserves Séraphin Mouzoun*1, Toussaint O. Lougbégnon2 and Jean T. Claude Codjia3

Summary

Biosphere reserves in Benin are subjected to numerous mainly man-made pressures (poaching, clearing, etc.). Wildlife habitats are being destroyed, changed, and wildlife populations, especially the Crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata - Linnaeus, 1758) are gradually decreasing. These species are increasingly vulnerable to the effects of climate change and man-made actions. The results reveal that, in the face of anthropic and climatic effects, resources found in conservation areas are becoming more attractive since those outside the reserves are no longer sufficient to meet the livelihood needs of populations. Incursions in the reserves for poaching (84.72%), grazing (28.82%), and finding new farms and non-wood forest products have been observed.

Introduction developing countries such serious threats for the as Benin, reliance upon ecological integrity of vital With a surface area covering natural resources is relatively ecosystems, i.e. systems 114,763 km2 (INSAE, 2015), more important due to that support all forms of Benin is endowed with a population growth that leads life. For rural communities, remarkable ecological, to overexploitation for food, the loss of livelihoods is cultural and anthropological fodder, socio-economic and the most crucial challenge diversity. The country cultural services purposes. since most of them do boasts of several protected Today, biosphere reserves in not have the capacity or areas which are composed Benin (Pendjari and W-Benin) resources to adapt and of national parks and have become a target for are often vulnerable to game areas. Among these loggers, farmers, pastoralists climate change, drought protected areas, the Pendjari and poachers. Under the and desertification. This and W-Benin biosphere pressure of population challenge highlights the reserves in northern Benin. growth combined with need for approaches that increased impoverishment, involve the community in Today, biodiversity riparian communities resource management and conservation has become encroach on this protected ensure that populations are a must for any society zone in search of game, made aware of the dynamics in search of sustainable new lands for farming or between their socio- development. Natural firewood, etc. economic activities and resources are used all over natural resources. the world to achieve various The obvious consequence national and international is resources degradation development goals. In (habitat modification) with

1 Séraphin Mouzoun* Corresponding author. PhD student in Environmental Management, University of Abomey- Calavi. 04 BP. 1449 Cadjèhoun-Cotonou, Republic of Benin. Tél.: +229 95 31 46 93. Email : seramou@gmail. com

2 Toussaint O. Lougbegnon. Doctor, Teacher-Researcher, National University of Agriculture, Porto-Novo, Republic of Benin Email: [email protected]

3 Jean T. Claude Codjia. Full Professor, Teacher, National University of Agriculture, Porto-Novo, Republic of Benin.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 71 Over the past decades, the structured interviews based major problem. For example, degradation of big game on a pre-tested questionnaire. entire villages have settled populations in West Africa has Two types of questionnaires in these reserves (Kandèrou, reached alarming proportions were developed to that effect Kponta). Villagers clear the and there is no good reason and administered to local forest to create new farmland, to believe that this process populations and managers settle farming hamlets on will slow down anytime soon respectively. The questionnaires these very fertile lands and (Cornelis, 2000; Amahowé et al., included identification variables graze their livestock there. 2012). Populations of Crested of respondents and questions Riparian populations have porcupine are constantly pertaining to the activities identified the causes of wildlife declining over their entire area performed within the reserves species decline especially the due to poaching, intensive and on their outskirts, and the crested porcupine: farming, unregulated hunting and habitat challenges faced by forest poaching, population pressure, degradation, and the species is agents in performing their transhumance and climate endangered as it is haunted for mission. During the study, ten change. For riparian populations, its meat and quills (Nowak, 1999; riparian villages were studied climate hazards are the main Cuzin, 2003; Grubb et al., 2008). and 260 individuals were sources of damage caused to interviewed. wildlife and its habitat. Over The goal of this paper is the past decades, farmlands to analyze the impacts of Results have registered a drop in yields population growth on onsite that could lead to agricultural biodiversity conservation, The study area (biosphere production losses. Regarding namely wildlife species in Benin reserves) is located in the Alibori pastures, recurring droughts biosphere reserves. and Atacora departments. have led to the increased These two departments scarcity of pastoral resources, Material and methods have experienced increased conflicts between farmers and population weight due to breeders, and conflicts between Researches were conducted population growth. It should reserve managers and riparian in the Pendjari and W-Benin be noted that the population populations. Climate hazards Biosphere Reserves in northern in Alibori numbered 867,463 also affect the availability of Benin. They are located inhabitants in 2013 against other natural resources on between 10°30’–12°25’ north 521,093 in 2002, while that of which riparian communities latitude and 0°50’–3°05’ East Atacora increased from 549,457 rely and this is translated by longitude, span a surface area in 2002 to 772,262 in 2013. a degradation of wood-based of 834,040 ha and are found Both departments accounted resources for energy, among in the Sudanian zone with two for 16.38% of the total national others. This situation also contrasted seasons. The land on population in 2013. affects the occupation of rural the outskirts of Benin biosphere space and leads to agricultural reserves is subject to an The adverse effects of climate clearing, exacerbating conflicts alarming degradation. change on communities between wildlife and local neighboring biosphere reserves populations over access to An analysis of the relationship in Benin are essentially due resources. The main factors between riparian populations to slash and burn farming, of wildlife species decline in and the reserves on the one hunting, non-wood forest general and of the crested hand, and between populations products harvesting and porcupine in particular in the and forest agents on the other transhumance. Actually, the study area, have been identified hand, was conducted through a fact that populations encroach by riparian populations of both survey of the stakeholders. The on these protected areas is a reserves and are presented in survey was done through semi- Figure 1.

72 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Climate

Population pressure

Poaching Regression factors of H. cristata factors Regression

Citation frequency by populations

Figure 1: Citation frequency of Hystrix cristata populations’ regression factors.

A data analysis reveals that agents, eco-guards and local the management system put 84.72% of the individuals populations. Anthropic factors in place. Indeed, the lack of interviewed point to poaching strongly disrupt the functioning transport and control means is a as the main factor for the of ecosystems in the reserve, challenge that hinders the good regression of crested porcupine thus leading to a change in management of these reserves. (Hystrix cristata) populations, the botanical composition and In such a context, sustainable followed by transhumance structure of vegetation. development calls for concerted (28.82%), farming/clearing land rehabilitation strategies at (24.45%), population pressure In these reserves, poaching and the outskirts of the reserves or (17.90%) and climate (10.92%) vegetation fires are frequent the diversification of activities respectively. and lead to the destruction that ensure improved income for of animal habitats and thus farmers and wildlife preservation. Livestock movements create reduce the available wildlife paths and excessive trampling potential. It should be noted that The sustainable management zones everywhere, especially the of some animal of these reserves could only be around ponds and water bodies. species could slow down the effective if the needs of local These various activities that dissemination rate of some populations are well identified were once forbidden in those plant species the fruits of which by managers and integrated reserves are now conducted are carried by animals from in their program of action. It by riparian populations due one environment to the other, would therefore be desirable to the increased population or pass through the digestive to conduct appropriate actions and widespread poverty. The system of an animal to facilitate to preserve wildlife and flora in products removed are both germination; this is the case of these reserves. This will help intended for local use and sale. elephants for example. enhance the touristic potential These activities have been and thus create sources of regularly repressed by forest Conclusion income for local populations. agents who arrest the offending Also, game ranches could be individuals, confiscate their The study helped to highlight created and the breeding or equipment, destroy the farms the main activities conducted domestication of some animal and products seized or impose in and around reserves. The species could be promoted to fines. All of this leads to strained hold on the resources of these meet the animal protein needs relationships between forest reserves shows the limits of of populations.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 73 Acknowledgments Cornelis D., 2000. Analyse rouge de l’UICN des espèces du monitoring écologique et menacées. 2012.2. www. The authors would like to thank cynégétique des populations UICNredlist.org. the staff of CENAGREF and the des principaux ongulés au Directorates of the Pendjari and Ranch de Gibier de Nazinga Institut National de la Statistique W-Benin National parks, but also (Burkina Faso). Mémoire de et de l’Analyse Economique the guides and local populations DEA, Université de Gembloux, (INSAE), 2015. RGPH4: Que for their support during the data Belgique, 113 p. retenir des effectifs de collection exercise. population en 2013? Direction Cuzin F., 2003. Les grands des études démographiques, References Mammifères du Maroc Cotonou, 33 p. méridional (Haut Atlas, l’Anti- Amahowé O. I., Ouédraogo M. et Atlas et du Sahara): Distribution, Nowak R. M., 1999. Walker’s Lougbégnon O. T., 2012. Analyse Ecologie et Conservation. Mammals of the World. Vol. II., spatio-temporelle de la faune et Thèse de Doctorat, Université 6th edition, Baltimore, The Johns les pressions anthropiques dans Montpellier II, 345 p. Hopkins University Press, pp. le ranch de Gibier de Nazinga au 837-1936. Burkina Faso. Int. J. Biol. Chem. Grubb P., Amori G., De Smet K. Sci. 6(2): 613-627. et Bertolino S., 2008. Hystrix cristata. In UICN, 2012. Liste

74 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Ensuring rural energy security: a path to sustainable land restoration movement in Africa Dawit Gebregziabher, Arezoo Soltani, Ole Hofstad, and Ermias Aynekulu

Summary

Land degradation has long been recognized as a major problem in Ethiopia which threatens ecosystem functions that small holding farmers obtain from their landscapes. For decades a number of solutions have been devised and implemented with varying levels of success. Establishing exclosures (closed to human and animal interference) is one of the major interventions to rehabilitate degraded lands in northern Ethiopia. This paper identifies the reasons why farmers residing adjacent to exclosures participated in illegal wood harvest from exclosures. Despite the fact that a majority of interviewed households agreed on exclosure intervention, illegal wood harvest from the rehabilitating exclosures has been continuously reported. Survey results from 446 households and discussions with key informants and groups of farmers indicated that lack of alternative energy sources was the major driver for illegal wood harvesting. These results indicate that rural energy security is essential for successful restoration programs in Africa. To address this problem, there is a need to balance ecological rehabilitation and local communities’ economic livelihood needs, like fuelwood. Of the respondents 118 (26%) indicated that fuelwood shortage had forced them to use cow dung and crop residues for cooking which in turn negatively affects the fertility of their soils and hence food production. Using renewable energy sources such as biogas, solar panels and agroforestry practices could help narrow the fuelwood supply gaps. Forest landscape restoration is an ideal approach to balance human wellbeing and ecological rehabilitation of degraded rural landscapes.

Introduction degradation neutral world rehabilitate degraded by 2030 (UNCCD/GM, lands. An exclosure is a Land degradation problems 2016). The African Union degraded communal area exist across sub-Saharan has set a target under the where livestock and human Africa (Yayneshet et al., African Forest Landscape activities are restricted for 2009, Nedessa et al., 2005) Restoration Initiative land rehabilitation (Aerts which threatens ecosystem (AFR100) to restore 100 et al., 2009, Balana et al., functions that small holding million hectares of degraded 2010, Nedessa et al., 2005, farmers obtain from their lands by 2030. As part of the Mekuria and Aynekulu, landscapes. For decades AFR100 initiative, Ethiopia, 2013, Mekuria et al., 2009). a number of solutions for example, has committed Exclosures were established have been devised and to restore 15 million hectare by the joint effort of the implemented with varying degraded lands. local communities and levels of success. The Land governmental and non- Degradation Neutrality (LDN) Exclosure land governmental organizations target of the United Nations management is one of (Descheemaeker et al., Convention to Combat the several sustainable 2006). This paper addresses Desertification (UNCCD) is land management (SLM) the potential drivers of one of the recent global practices which have illegal wood harvest from initiatives to achieve a land been widely implemented exclosures in northern in northern Ethiopia to Ethiopia.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 75 Research methodology We used nine exclosures exclosures were 10, 15, and 20 selected from highland, midland, years old. Each age category Study area and lowland agroecologies in was represented in the three northern Ethiopia (Figure 1). The agroecological zones.

Figure 1. Locations of the selected exclosures in the Tigray region

Source: Google Earth (2017) and own collected GPS (Geographic Positioning System) coordinates

Data collection Similarly, 97% (431 households) Confiscating illegal wood and agreed on the effectiveness hiring farmers to guard the Field surveys were conducted of exclosures to rehabilitate exclosures in our view is not from October to November degraded lands (Gebregziabher an end in itself to stop the 2015. The survey consisted of and Soltani, 2018). Despite illegal harvest of outputs from interviews with 446 households the fact that the majority exclosure areas. in five districts and nine of interviewed households exclosures and field discussions agreed with the establishment One should rather aim at with key informants and groups of exclosures and are happy identifying the root cause of of farmers. We used descriptive about the existing exclosures, the illegal wood and fodder statistics to analyze the data. illegal harvesting of wood collection and find means to and fodder (like grass) has address that. About 266 (59.6%) Results been continuously reported. of the respondents stated that The group discussions also there was an increasing trend About 85% (377) of the sampled confirmed illegal harvesting in time used for fuelwood and households agreed with the from exclosures. This is the fodder collection following the establishment of exclosures main reason why exclosures establishment of exclosures, on their degraded landscapes. were protected by guards. which deny communities who

76 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 live near the exclosures to have fuelwood collection and grazing, they will be forced to engage access for fuelwood collection. though it is allowed to collect in illegal wood harvest leading grass using cut and carry to land degradation, which in Figure 2 illustrates why system. This, coupled with a lack turn, results in the establishment farmers are engaged in illegal of alternative energy sources, of exclosures. This is a vicious harvest from exclosures. and increased population cycle approach unable to satisfy Land degradation trigger causes the local community the energy demand of the local establishment of exclosures. to be unable to satisfy their communities living adjacent to Bylaws cause restricting of energy demand. As a result, exclosures.

Figure 2. Potential drivers of illegal harvest from exclosures

Conclusion and had limited benefit to the could be investigated as implications local communities, in most potential technologies to cases only collecting grass for reduce the fuel supply gap of Our study showed that the main animals fodder using cut and local communities. This in turn drivers of illegal wood harvest carry system (Gebregziabher will contribute to combating from exclosures was lack of et al., 2017). Moreover, the illegal harvest practices and alternative energy sources increasing population with developing a sense of ownership in the communities. This is diverse interest and competition by famers residing adjacent mainly because the socio- on natural resources has made to the exclosures in northern economic expectations of the the situation worse (Mansourian, Ethiopia. local communities from the 2017). exclosures were not adequately Therefore, to achieve the met due to the high priority The results clearly indicated that intended rehabilitation program given to ecological rehabilitation rural energy security is essential along with the economic over the economic benefits for sustainable land restoration benefits for the local community, like satisfying the communities’ movements in Africa. Therefore, design and implementation fuelwood and fodder needs introducing alternative should balance ecological (Gebremedhin et al., 2003, energy sources to reduce the aspects and economic Yami et al., 2013). For this dependence on fuelwood is benefits for the community. reason, despite the positive important. Using renewable Forest landscape restoration environmental impacts, the energy sources such as biogas, is also an ideal approach to introduction of exclosures solar panel and agroforestry balance human wellbeing and

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 77 ecological improvement from the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia. Degradation & Development, 22, the previously degraded forest Geoderma, 132, 291-314. 334-344. landscapes. GEBREGZIABHER, D. & SOLTANI, MEKURIA, W. & AYNEKULU, Finally, to minimize illegal A. 2018. Exclosures in people’s E. 2013. Exclosure land harvest the issue should be mind: perceptions and attitudes management for restoration of communicated clearly with in Tigray. the soils in degraded communal smallholder farmers in a bottom- grazing lands in northern up approach rather than setting GEBREGZIABHER, D., SOLTANI, Ethiopia. Land Degradation & rules that are punitive in nature A. & HOFSTAD, O. 2017. Equity Development, 24, 528-538. and that may not prevent in the distribution of values farmers from engaging in illegal of outputs from exclosures in NEDESSA, B., ALI, J. & NYBORG, harvesting. Moreover, the Tigray, Ethiopia. Journal of Arid I. 2005. Exploring ecological and community will be encouraged Environments, 146, 75-85. socio-economic issues for the to engage in environmental improvement of area enclosure protection activities, if they GEBREMEDHIN, B., PENDER, J. management. A case study from could perceive tangible benefits & TESFAY, G. 2003. Community Ethiopia. DCG Report, 38. from protection measures natural resource management: (Gebregziabher et al., 2017, the case of woodlots in Northern UNCCD/GM 2016. Land Mekuria et al., 2011). Ethiopia. Environment and Degradation Neutrality: The Development Economics, 8, 129- Target Setting Programme. References 148. Global Mechanism (GM) of the United Nations Convention to AERTS, R., NYSSEN, J. & HAILE, MANSOURIAN, S. 2017. combat Desertification (UNCCD), M. 2009. On the difference Governance and restoration. [Available at http://www.unccd. between “exclosures” and Handbook of Ecological and int/Lists/SiteDocumentLibrary/ “enclosures” in ecology and the Environmental Restoration, Publications/4_2016_LDN_ environment. Journal of Arid edited by Stuart Allison and TS%20_ENG.pdf]. Environments, 73, 762-763. Stephen Murphy. Routledge. YAMI, M., MEKURIA, W. & BALANA, B. B., MATHIJS, E. MEKURIA, VELDKAMP, E., HAILE, HAUSER, M. 2013. The & MUYS, B. 2010. Assessing M., GEBREHIWOT, K., MUYS, B. & effectiveness of village bylaws the sustainability of forest NYSSEN, J. 2009. Effectiveness in sustainable management management: An application of exclosures to control soil of community-managed of multi-criteria decision erosion and local community exclosures in Northern Ethiopia. analysis to community forests perception on soil erosion in Sustainability Science, 8, 73-86. in northern Ethiopia. Journal of Tigray, Ethiopia. environmental management, 91, YAYNESHET, EIK, L. O. & 1294-1304. MEKURIA, VELDKAMP, E., MOE, S. R. 2009. The effects TILAHUN, M. & OLSCHEWSKI, of exclosures in restoring DESCHEEMAEKER, K., NYSSEN, R. 2011. Economic valuation degraded semi-arid vegetation J., ROSSI, J., POESEN, J., of land restoration: The case in communal grazing lands in HAILE, M., RAES, D., MUYS, B., of exclosures established northern Ethiopia. Journal of Arid MOEYERSONS, J. & DECKERS, S. on communal grazing lands Environments, 73, 542-549. 2006. Sediment deposition and in Tigray, Ethiopia. Land pedogenesis in exclosures in

78 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Rights to farmers and rural households to manage trees and forest resources: sharing recommendation of Mount Marsabit forest, Kenya Diida Karayu Wario1

Summary

The aim of this paper is to show how Mount Marsabit indigenous forest is being threatened by human activities. The actions not only affect the forest cover but also the livelihoods of the growing population. Therefore, this paper briefly examines the importance of the forest and trees to the residents of Marsabit. It is worth noting that illegal harvesting of trees for firewood and construction materials are among the main contributors to the aforementioned destruction. Others are farming practices that are not adhering to good conservation standards, lack of community involvement in management of trees and forest, low investments from government and lack of enforcement of existing forest laws and policies. The article concludes that the forest is destroyed due to negligence by all stakeholders. It recommends embracing a low-cost and sustainable land restoration techniques in order to allow regeneration of trees and shrubs. There is a need to embrace proper community based management practices to manage forests and trees.

Introduction

The purpose of this paper Marsabit town, which is the forest sustains the lives and is to indicate how the headquarters of Marsabit livelihoods of the population Mount Marsabit forest in County, lies in the northern as a result of its advantaged Kenya is being destroyed part of Kenya about 700 position compared to (Figure 1.). Additionally it kilometres from Nairobi, surrounding areas. Mount recommends better ways the capital city of Kenya. Marsabit receives a mean of conserving trees and Marsabit County is one of annual rainfall of 800 mm, forest. Poor management of the 47 Counties of Kenya compared to an average of the forest resources have created by the 2010 less than 300mm in other contributed immensely constitution. The Marsabit parts of Marsabit County. to the destruction. Mount town is situated on the In a good season, the area Marsabit forest is a rare slope of Mount Marsabit, around Mount Marsabit can indigenous forest. It is around 1 400 metres support production of crops surrounded by desert and above sea level. The peak such as maize and beans semi-desert environments. of Mount Marsabit is 1,707 which form part of the staple Among its unique features metres above sea level. The food for the population. As is wild Arabica coffee that high elevation of Marsabit a result, the harvest ensures grows naturally. Mountain allows indigenous food security and food forests to flourish. This availability.

1 Diida Karayu Wario. Manager/livelihoods advisor, Food for the hungry Kenya. P.O Box 125 -60500, Marsabit Kenya. Email: [email protected] Telephone: +254720239621

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 79 © Diida Karayu Wario/Food for the hungry Kenya

Figure 1. Part of Mount Marsabit forest showing shrinking Lake Paradise

The lowlands of Marsabit There is clear evidence that of the forest resources while County begins from about a the Marsabit forest is suffering there are fulltime armed forest 20 kilometre radius around seriously from a high rate of guards Station at the edge of the the mountain, extending to deforestation and consequently forest. Unabated harvesting of about 500 kilometres to the degradation of water and forest trees for construction and furthest corner of the County. environmental resources. In the firewood was a major contributor Marsabit Mountain and forest recent past the forest area has to the reduction of forest cover can rightly be described as experienced decline from 19 (Figure 2.). Mount Marsabit is an oases and important water 000 hectares back in 1980s a very important ecosystem tower compared to the arid to about 11 000 currently for the pastoralists and agro- and semi-arid areas of Northern (Robison, 2013). The serious pastoralists who are the main Kenya. The runoff water drains destruction of this important population groups living around into the Chalbi desert to the forest occurred in the last two Mount Marsabit. west and the Lorian Swamp decades. Degradation is mainly to the east of Marsabit town. attributed to illegal harvesting

80 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 © Diida Karayu Wario/Food for the hungry Kenya

Figure 2. Women from Parkishon village in Marsabit central carrying firewood they harvested from the forest and driving donkeys with water from the springs in Mount Marsabit forest

Discussions the forest. The labourers felled more productive slopes of the several live standing trees mountain. This led to pushing The indigenous trees deep in for this purpose and started of the pastoralist from the lands Mount Marsabit forest were splitting them into building hitherto considered as pasture targeted for harvesting for wood. I realized, it was not easy reserves, causing them to construction and firewood. to determine whether a tree invade the forest areas. There Apparently, the forest guards had been alive or dead when it is also an increase in insecurity gave permits to people was cut. Splitting of trunks easily created by conflicts over land intending to harvest dead trees conceal the illegal act of cutting and other resources. In the past in the forest. Giving of permits live trees. The growing human for example, there was frequent by guards was legal according population, pastoralists who conflict between Badassa and to a policy mandate permitted settled down, poaching, banditry Songa locations, which are by existing laws. But in most and unresolved issues around dominated by Agro-pastoralists occasions they did not escort access to the forest to utilize its from the Borana tribe, and the individuals they gave products have also contributed their counterparts from the permission, with result that live to destruction of this forest. Redille tribe. Traditionally, trees were also harvested by for pastoralists, migration is those who received permits. A A growing problem is the large the most important coping case in point is when my elder scale ongoing reduction of strategy to mitigate drought and brother was constructing a former grazing land due to the minimize the effects of drought. house back in 1993. I happened expansion of agriculture on Traditional pastoralist societies to follow the hired labourers in Mount Marsabit. The area under living in Marsabit followed a cultivation has increased on the transhumance grazing strategy.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 81 This consisted of regular community in the development parliament intend to update seasonal moving of livestock of resource management the Forest act. Forest act between a dry season grazing strategies. In the recent past, 2005 revised 2012. area and a wet season grazing efforts had been made by forest areas area which were known authority to imporse a total burn b) Forest (Charcoal) Regulations to all the members of the on harvesting of wood from 2009 community. Such area is Mount Marsabit forest. The forest managed by a council of elders area is also being surveyed in These regulations were in who hold regular meetings on order to marke a clear boundary. addition to any other written grazing plans and share the It is hoped that these efforts will law relating to forestry information and decisions with contribute to conservation effort and sustainable charcoal the rest of the community. They of Mount Marsabit. production, transportation decide where their livestock will and marketing, for the time migrate to next. Their decisions The Kenyan constitution of being in force. and directions were always 2010 is very progressive in obeyed. terms of the empowerment c) Timber Act 1972/Revised of communities on matters 2012 In the past also, pastoral affecting their lives. The communities in Marsabit County constitution empowers the The Timber Act is an act of had to combat the effects of community that policies or bills parliament to provide for the droughts on their livelihoods that are enacted by parliament more effective control of the in several ways. Following the or any other body must first go sale and export of timber; for 2011 drought, inhabitants of through public participation. the grading, inspection and Moyale, North-Horr and Maikona Policies and Bills are first marking of timber; for control reduced household food drafted by experts, subjected of the handling of timber consumption, sold livestock and to stakeholders for inputs, goes in transit; and for matters migrated to towns to cope with through public participation, incidental to and connected the drought. Moving of livestock debated by members of with the foregoing was also employed by most parliament and may go for pastoralists in Marsabit with public participation depending d) The Environmental some moving as far as Southern on whether parliamentarians are Management and Co- Ethiopia in search of water and satisfied on the level of public ordination (Amendment) Act, pasture (VSF, 2011). Following participation. Upon the review of 2015. proper community grazing the parliament, the bill is sent to patterns is an old strategy the head of state if it is a national This Act of Parliament is to which has worked in reducing bill or the County governor if it amend the Environment overgrazing in Mount Marsabit is a county bill for formal signing Management Act, 1999 forests. The herders had the into law. Below are important opportunity to move far away pieces of legislations in Kenya e) Land (Group from the forest. Additionally, that are key for managing the Representatives) Act 1970/ the natural environment forest resources. Effective revised 2012 becomes increasingly relevant, community participation in the as livestock owners are processes of these legislation An Act of Parliament to expected to fulfil an important will not only comply with legal provide for the incorporation stewardship role in sensible provisions but also on ensuring of representatives of groups resource utilization. It would proper management of forest who have been recorded appear that livestock makes resources. as owners of land under the a greater contribution to the Land Adjudication. income of lower income farmers a) Forest conservation and There is evidence based as compared to higher income management Bill 2014, is justification for advocating farmers (Gill, 1999). This is a bill of parliament which if right to farmers and rural justification for involving the passed by Kenya National households for managing

82 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 trees and forests. Literature involvement in the management grazing areas should be gives enough evidence that of the forest. respected. They should be farmers and rural households allowed to make use of their can manage the trees Finally, the local people who indigenous knowledge for and forests sustainably if are pastoralist and agro- the sake of effective land and conditions are conducive for pastoralist communities living natural resource management. them to do so. The concept in the areas around the forest There is a need for government of Farmer Managed Natural were marginalised due to the and various development Resource Regeneration is reduction of their rangelands partners to significantly invest in an evidence based support as a result of conversion to protecting the forests and trees to this paper. Farmer sedentary agriculture (cropping). on Mount Marsabit. Managed Natural Resource These people then perforce Regeneration (FMNR) is a invaded the forest, with many References concept developed by World negative consequences to both Vision in Africa with a view of the people and the forest. 1) Gill. (1999). Meat production protecting the environment. in developing countries. This concept has worked Recommendations Proceedings of the Nutrition in many parts of Africa in Society. 58, pp. 371-371. contributing to conservation This paper recommends efforts. The concept employment of suitable 2) Mortimore M. 2009. advocates the community community based management Dryland opportunities: to take the full ownership of and sustainable land restoration a new paradigm for conservation in their area techniques to aid regeneration people, ecosystems hence improving natural and management of trees and and development. IUCN resource management. shrubs on Mount Marsabit. (International Union for Conservation of Nature), Conclusions Rigorous law enforcement must Nairobi. be implemented to protect the There is clear destruction of forest from illegal exploitation. It 3) Robinson, Lance W. 2013. forest and trees on Mount is very important to appreciate Mt. Marsabit, Kenya: Marsabit that went on unabated the communities’ rich knowledge An assessment of the without good checks and of their rangelands, including Governance System. balances. There is no shortage the pastoral communities Landscape-Level Ecosystem- of legal and policy measures living in the areas surrounding Based Management Working to ensure protection. However, the forest. The local resident Paper no. 2. the law enforcers failed to populations should be involved enforce these legal measures in the development of policies 4) VSF. (2011). Rapid so as to protect the forest. that affect the utilization of their assessment in communities of Sustainability is hampered by the rangelands. Their transhumance Marsabit County on impacts fact that there is little community migratory routes and seasonal of 2011 drought, Nairobi, Kenya.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 83 COUNTRY FOCUS: REPUBLIC OF RWANDA

Youths in forest landscape restoration movement in Republic of Rwanda Nicolas Ntare1, Teopista Mutesi2, and Alexis Nyandwi3

Summary

Rwanda is a small country with dense and rapidly increasing population on a fragile land resource. The country has recognized and acknowledged the crucial role forests have to play in its development agenda and therefore is involving different sectors and partners in sustainable forest management. Community and Youth groups are among the targeted actors striving for efficient forest management. Young Rwandans aged between 0-35 years account for 78.7% of the country’s population of which 39.6% are aged between 14-35 years.

Youth initiatives like the More efforts are still needed Introduction “Rwanda Youth Volunteers to increase involvement in Community Policing”, of youth into different Rwanda has one of the the Environmental Clubs in programs for effective forest highest population densities schools, the collaboration management. Empowering in Africa, and the population frameworks with schools on youth groups by building is growing at 2.8% per year. tree nursery preparation their capacity will enhance The higher scenario of and different campaigns are skills that may lead to the the population projection key interventions that youth involvement in forest co- of Rwanda suggests an are using to participate in management approach that increase from around 11 forest and environmental the government is promoting. million in 2016 to about 17 protection. The National Furthermore, it will be an million by 2032 with the Forest Policy encourages opportunity for increasing density of 667 inhabitant the mainstreaming of youth decent employment among per square kilometer. As the into forest management and young generation. population grows, there are protection programs. This unprecedented pressures will foster youth engagement on land, water, agriculture in the national development and energy resources, agenda. hence the environment. This is also exacerbated by the

1 Nicolas Ntare, Technical assistant on Forest Landscape Restoration in Rwanda Water and Forestry Authority Phone: +250 788790171 Email: [email protected] PO BOX: 1699 Kigali, Rwanda

2 Teopista Mutesi Communication officer for UN FAO -Rwanda Phone: +250 788719024 Email: [email protected] / [email protected] PO BOX: 1502 Kigali, Rwanda

3 Alexis Nyandwi Communication consultant for Ministry of Lands and Forestry Phone: +250 783558557 Email: [email protected]

84 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 fact that 70% of the population national levels spur youths over 300%4. Natural forest areas are engaged in agriculture for to contribute to halting and declined by 65% during the subsistence on small plots with mitigating effects of forest 1960 – 2007 period; currently poor soil fertility due to repeated degradation and deforestation in a number of tree species are on cultivation and effects of soil Rwanda. the verge of extinction. erosion. Extent of forest In 2010, Rwanda developed a Rwanda faces scarcity of land, degradation national forest policy which was which is exacerbated by high reviewed and enacted by the 5 population density that need Forest resources have been cabinet in February 2018 . The more land for cultivation and playing and are still playing current policy states: “forest more wood for cooking.. More important roles in supporting the resources are managed to play than 83.3% of the population livelihood of Rwandans. Biomass an integral role in supporting 1 rely on firewood for cooking provides approximatively 98.5% Rwanda’s development goals leading to an increasing of primary energy in Rwanda in for sustainable, low-carbon and gap between wood supply different forms namely firewood climate resilient to improve and demand, which drives (83.3%), charcoal (15.2%) and livelihoods of present and the deforestation and land crop residues and peat (0.8%)3. future generations”. The Forest degradation. This is coupled Furthermore, the forest sector Sector Strategic Plan which was with different effects of climate contribute up to 5% to the developed in conjunction with change affecting the country GDP. Additionally, Rwandans the policy gives the direction to in different ways such as, also use wood as building achieve policy actions leading to erratic rains causing floods materials and raw material sustainable forest management, and landslides, and rising for furniture. However, high private sector involvement and temperatures resulting in harsh pressure from anthropogenic building institutional capacity dry seasons contributing to activities drive deforestation and among others. Furthermore, the forest degradation. Based on forest degradation in Rwanda. policy leads to the achievement the Baseline Climate Change Agriculture, infrastructure of the national pledge to restore 2 Vulnerability Index for Rwanda , development, urbanization, 2 million hectares from the the country is exposed to artisanal mining practices Bonn challenge, a global effort high risk of climate change and limited forestry extension to bring 150 million hectares and variability, and immediate service are main drivers with of the world’s deforested and actions are required for the underlying causes from high degraded land into restoration mitigation and adaptation. This population growth, poverty, by 2020, and 350 million therefore raises an urgent need lack of awareness, limited hectares by 2030. for the country to prioritize and alternative source of energy and increase the momentum for imbalanced wood supply and landscape restoration through demand. a wide range of awareness campaigns, adopting policies The high economic growth and implementing various of Rwanda coupled with strategies, including restoration infrastructure development and protection of forests. This exacerbate pressure on forest. paper examines and describes Karamaga et al., (2016) argue how the various initiatives put that from 1990 to 2016, the in place at local, district and total built-up area increased by

1 National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NISR), Rwanda Poverty Profile Report, 2013/14, August 2015

2 “Baseline Climate Change Vulnerability Index for Rwanda”, Rwanda Environment Management Authority, Kigali, 2015

3 National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NISR), Rwanda Poverty Profile Report, 2013/14, August 2015

4 Karamage F, Zhang C, Fang X, Liu T, Ndayisaba F, Nahayo L, Kayiranga A, Nsengiyumva JB (2017) Modelling Rainfall-Runoff Response to Land Use and Land Cover Change in Rwanda (1990–2016). Water 9: 147.

5 Ministry of Lands and Forestry: National Forestry Policy. February 2018

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 85 Youth initiatives Country’s population, which is The country’s youth have in forest and currently over 10.5 million. special responsibilities in relation to protection of the environmental The 2018 Forestry Policy environment. This is mainly due protection suggests an action to to the fact that today’s young mainstream youth equity into people will be accountable and Restoration efforts require forest related development and responsible for the Rwandan involvement and participation of decision making processes. environment for many years Rwandans from different groups Detailed activities to involve to come. The National Youth of community including the youth were developed in the Policy emphasizes the need to youth. According to the National Forest Sector Strategic Plan increase awareness on natural Youth Policy, young Rwandans including the development resource management by of the technical guidelines of integrating youth as actors and aged between 0-35 years integrating youth into forest and beneficiaries2 account for 78.7 % of the tree resource management1. © IUCN/Rwanda

Photo 1. Forest Landscape Restoration Campaign at school I Gicumbi district

The government has put in were established with the aim protection. Gilbert Gatsinzi, 20 place a number of initiatives of planting trees and sensitizing years old university student from and campaign programs for the community on the role of Nyaruguru District (southern forest protection involving the environment. part of Rwanda) participates in youth. Among them, “Where environmental clubs and states: Trees Grow, People Grow” Different views were assembled “I feel it is my responsibility to campaign through which on youth involvement in take part in such social and environmental clubs in schools environmental management and developmental works; I know the

1 Ministry of Lands and Forestry: Forest Sector Strategic Plan 2018-2024-February 2018

2 National Youth Policy. Ministry of Youth, 2015

86 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 significant role forests play in million trees across the country. preparation with schools in our daily life. This is the reason It is worthwhile to mention Gicumbi and Gatsibo District for why we must help our country that the National Strategy for the 2018/2019 tree planting protect our environment by Transformation, which is a season. Seven schools were planting trees,” said Gatsinzi. current strategy leading the identified and accepted to development agenda of the collaborate. The aim of this In 2017, youths in Ruhango country encourages allocation program is to involve youth district (Southern province) of the management of public at early age and to acquire planted about 8 000 trees on 16 forest to private investors and skills and knowledge on tree hectares of agroforestry land in to increase the percentage nursery preparation and planting Kigaga village of Munini cell. of private forest managed by technics. This will enhance Forest Owners Association in awareness among communities “We cannot afford to lose which youth group may play and will extend forest cover in our natural heritage through crucial role. Youth groups are the area. environment degradation. Our being encouraged to participate future generations depend in these schemes. Enlarging the Network on the sustainable use of for Forest Landscape environmental resources and “We need to reduce improved management of land dependence on rainfall for Restoration(FLR) areas struggling with pollutants, our activities. Trees provide champion soil erosion, deforestation fresh air and are the pivot of and degradation of national environmental protection and Building the capacity of youth resources,” said Donah preservation,” said Jean Baptiste through training, sensitization Kwitonda, the Executive Director Hategekimana, Chairman of and coaching is gradually of the ‘Association des Amis RYAF. empowering youth to speak and de la Nature’, a local non- participate in different activities. governmental organization. Youth under the movement More youth are interested in the “Youth in forest and FLR programme and champions Students at Green Hills landscape restoration” are emerging country wide Academy (a local school in 2017 alone planted 1 in primary, secondary and located in Kigali City) make million trees, empowering the tertiary institutions. More active use of other strategies to participants, showing them they involvement of youth in FLR avoid deforestation, such as can make a difference. work has led to the emergence experimenting with cooking of youth FLR champions stoves and various methods In November 2017, the ‘Rwanda particularly through school using technics that consume Youth Volunteers in Community clubs. As youth continue to gain less wood. The students also Policing (YVCP)’ launched knowledge and skills through created an environmental page countrywide development training and sensitization on key on the school website as well as programs aimed at enhancing issues like climate change, they links with other websites in the human security but also are more confident to act. In this country and abroad. environmental protection. The case, youth communicate their activities are conducted every concerns, ideas and values on Accelerating the second Saturday of the month. environmental issues. momentum They have committed to plant trees on 27 000 hectares in the Youth learn and tell their stories about climate change and Different initiatives are in place next five years. degradation through different to promote youth involvement media plat-forms, which enables in environmental protection The Rwanda Water and Forestry the public to see environmental activities in country. Youth in the Authority (RWFA), which has issues from a new angle different private sector under Rwanda mandate to manage forests from politics enabling spreading Youth in Agribusiness Forum nationwide in collaboration of climate change awareness. (RYAF) have also developed with the International Union a five-year project through for Nature Conservation which they aim to plant 60 (IUCN) initiated a collaboration framework on tree nurseries

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 87 © IUCN/Rwanda

Photo 2. Training session on Forest Landscape Restoration champions

All for forest landscape The Head of Forestry also disclosed that youth from conservation and Department at Rwanda Water various sectors in the country and Forestry Authority (RWFA) such as the Army and Police are restoration revealed that youth are major involved in establishing forest players in forest development tree nurseries as well as out The Governor of the Northern since they are the most involved planting of the seedlings raised Province declared, “It is a in seed collection, seedling in such nurseries. continuous effort as we have production as well as tree in our plans to make sure that planting activities that combine It is very clear that if the at least every primary school afforestation, re-forestation African youth does not take up in the Northern Province has and rehabilitation of degraded this task, future generations a tree nursery for fruits. There forests. will be affected by today’s are also environment clubs in course of action because both primary and secondary There are also about 40 their future depends on the schools and all of such initiatives university students working with extent to which they have highlight the role of the youth in private sector in the southern addressed concerns such as the preserving environment”. province where they help in depletion of natural resources forest inventory. The head of and the loss of biodiversity. forestry department at RWFA Therefore, by involving the

88 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 youth in implementation of Conclusion engagement in the co- forest and environmental management approach of forest projects, they not only gain Forest protection requires landscape in country. important experience but it also effort from different partners qualifies them for increased and groups of people to References participation in decision-making tackle deforestation and about environmental policies forest degradation for a bright Karamage F, Zhang C, Fang X, not only in Rwanda, but also future. Involvement of youth, Liu T, Ndayisaba F, Nahayo L, internationally. gender and other community Kayiranga A, Nsengiyumva JB groups is an added value to (2017) Modelling Rainfall-Runoff There are several ways youth the ongoing effort to increase Response to Land Use and can be involved in forestry the forest cover and enhance Land Cover Change in Rwanda in Rwanda. Developing a sustainable forest management. (1990–2016). Water 9: 147. communication strategy and The government of Rwanda mechanisms to reach youth through different policies and Ministry of Lands and Forest is crucial. Rwanda has a well- strategies lay great emphasis on (2018) National Forestry Policy. designed and operational youth involving youth in the country’s Kigali, Rwanda council working up to the District development agenda including and Sector level, and this can be mainstreaming youth into forest Ministry of Lands and Forest used as channel of information management and protection. (2018) Forest Sector Strategic to engage youth in forest Plan 2018-2024 management. This can be a path Different youth initiatives are in towards creation of more youth place to deal with environmental Ministry of Youth and cooperatives that can contribute protection. Each school in Information Communication in tree nurseries creation Rwanda has an environmental Technology (2015) National and management of new and club which aims at increasing Youth Policy. Kigali, Rwanda existing forest. awareness on environmental protection among students National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda is currently motivating and hence to the community Rwanda (2015), Rwanda Poverty private sector to invest in in general. The current Profile Report, 2013/14 forest management including collaboration among schools activities such as: tree plantation, in tree nursery preparation National Institute of Statistics of nurseries preparation, existing is envisaged to boost youth Rwanda & Ministry of Economy forest management etc. These involvement and enhance their and Finance (2012) Fourth are carried out by privates skills and knowledge in tree Rwanda Population and Housing entities, therefore youth nursery preparation and tree Census. Thematic Report: cooperatives once supported in planting. Population Projections. capacity building, can compete to carry out some of these The government of Rwanda Rwanda Environmental activities and thus get involved and its citizenry are not Management Authority (2015), in co-management of forests. resting on their laurels; they “Baseline Climate Change This is seen as an opportunity to have to continue to innovate Vulnerability Index for Rwanda”. reduce unemployment among and motivate and empower Kigali, Rwanda youth. youth groups to allow their

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 89 FAO ACTIVITIES AND RESULTS

Africa’s Great Green Wall: a transformative model for rural communities’ sustainable development. Lessons learned from Action Against Desertification towards the implementation of African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative

Moctar Sacande1 & Nora Berrahmouni2

Summary

FAO has supported the Great Green Wall (GGW) initiative, since its launch in 2007, as a game changer for Africa, given its potential to address climate change adaptation and mitigation, prevent and combat desertification, eradicate poverty, end hunger and boost food and nutrition security. With the generous support of donors such as the European Union, FAO has become a key technical partner in building this programme of opportunities for Africa’s drylands and its people. Through the EU-funded Action Against Desertification (AAD) project, FAO’s efforts are focused on supporting six African countries (Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Gambia, Niger, Nigeria and Senegal) in implementing their GGW National action plans: As a result, a comprehensive approach for large-scale land restoration — one that places rural communities at its heart— has led to on the ground interventions in an estimated 12 000 hectares of degraded lands between 2015 and 2017. The impact has been sustained by developing the capacity of local communities to become self-supporting in technical activities, such as better management of their production systems, conservation of biodiversity, and in socio-economic activities such as the production and processing of forest products benefiting their livelihoods. Although the Great Green Wall initiative is still far from completing the development of a great mosaic of green and productive landscapes, where communities can thrive. FAO’s approach to large-scale restoration is seen as a transformative model for rural community development, hand in hand with the transformation of the landscapes they live in. The methodology and lessons learned from its application can lead the way for implementation of the new commitment African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative (AFR100)3 in particular in the restoration of those degraded lands difficult to regenerate naturally because of the loss of seed banks.

Introduction (ha) of dryland Africa hectares (Bastin et al, 2017) have always depended as well on grasslands, Rural communities across on forests, which cover agroforestry, silvopastoral about 1.9 billion hectares an estimated 286 million and oasis systems for their

1 Moctar Sacande, International project Coordinator, Action Against Desertification, Forestry Department. Email: [email protected]

2 Nora Berrahmouni, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Africa. Email: [email protected]

3 African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative (AFR100) : http://www.afr100.org/

90 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 food and nutrition security eradicate poverty, end hunger 1. Enabling local institutions and livelihoods. However, and boost food and nutrition and experts to assess the those natural resource-based security (AUC/PAGGW, 2012). restoration opportunities production systems are being With the generous support of across the Great Green rapidly depleted in many places donors such as the European Wall as a result of overpressure Union, FAO has become a key on resources combined with technical partner in building this The AAD project has supported climate change. This makes programme of opportunities for the development and application these communities more Africa’s drylands and its people. of a methodology to estimate vulnerable to increased weather Through the Action Against the restoration ambition across extremes such as heat waves, Desertification (AAD) project1, the GGW, based on the analysis droughts, and floods. The lack FAO’s efforts have focused on of the data collected in of alternative socio-economic supporting six African countries 63 000 plots across the drylands opportunities, also leads to in implementing their GGW of North Africa, Sahel and the forced migration and conflicts national strategies and action Horn of Africa as part of FAO’s over scarce natural resources. plans: Burkina Faso2, Ethiopia3, Global Drylands Assessment Gambia4, Niger5, Nigeria6 and (FAO, 2016). The Collect Earth Initiatives to address land Senegal7. tool was used to collect data. It degradation and desertification enabled interpretation, by FAO trends in Africa, promote This article highlights FAO’s and regional technical dryland sustainable land management, Action Against Desertification experts, of high-resolution and restoration of degraded restoration approach, its satellite images (Berrahmouni et forests and landscapes include innovations and lessons al, 2016; Bastin et al, 2017). Africa’s Great Green Wall learned from the ongoing initiative, and 2016’s African implementation with rural The GGW area of intervention Forest Landscape Restoration communities and partners in extending over 780 million Initiative – AFR100. The latter is support of the GGW initiative. ha, includes 88 million ha of a country-led effort to bring 100 These innovations and lessons forests, 243.4 million ha of million hectares of deforested are ready for deployment grasslands, 71 million ha of and degraded landscapes in other GGW areas, other cropland and 18.9 million ha of across Africa into restoration by Africa dryland countries and irrigated cropland. For GGW, the 2030. restoration initiatives. We restoration challenge is huge. In explain here the restoration analyzing the data collected for FAO has supported the Great methodology and provide tree-based systems, restoration Green Wall (GGW) initiative some results obtained between needs were assessed and as a game changer for Africa, 2015 and 2017 as well as the estimated to reach at least 166 given its potential to address challenges still lying ahead. million ha, not taking account of climate change adaptation grasslands and oasis systems and mitigation, prevent (Berrahmouni et al, 2016), see and combat desertification, map in Figure 1.

1 www.fao.org/in-action/action-against-desertification

2 Burkina Faso (2012). Stratégie et plan d’actions de l’Initiative Grande Muraille Verte au Burkina Faso: http://www.fao.org/3/a- av144f.pdf

3 Ethiopia (2012). National strategy and action plan for the implementation of the Great Green Wall Initiative in Ethiopia: http:// www.fao.org/3/a-av141e.pdf

4 Gambia (2012). National action plan for implementation of Great Green Wall for the Sahara & the Sahel Initiative for the Gambia, 2012: http://www.fao.org/3/a-av146e.pdf

5 Niger (2011). Initiative Grande Muraille Verte, 2011: http://www.fao.org/3/a-av149f.pdf

6 Nigeria (2012). Great Green Wall for the Sahara and the Sahel Initiative: National Strategic Action Plan, 2012: http://www.fao. org/3/a-av149f.pdf

7 Sénégal (2011). Financement de la Grande Muraille Verte. Projet de Plan d’Action du Sénégal 2012-2016 http://www.fao. org/3/a-ax346f.pdf

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 91 Algiers BUILDING AFRICA'S "

Fez GREAT GREEN WALL Rabat " Mediterranean Sea " " Tripoli "

Alexandria N o r t h " Cairo A t l a n t i c " O c e a n

S AHARA

Khartoum """ Dakar "

Bamako " Ouagadougou " Kano Maiduguri Arabian Sea " " Zaria " " Conakry " Addis Abeba " Ogbomosho " Ibadan Kumasi " Monrovia " Lagos Benin " " " Accra Abidjan " " Aba " " Douala " "

Muqdisho "

Kampala LANDSCAPE RESTORATION NEEDS Major cities ( > 1,000,000) " AND OPPORTUNITIES Urban areas (Natural Earth) I n d i a n Nairobi " Rivers (Natural Earth) O c e a n

HIGH LOW Main roads (Natural Earth)

Annual precipitation (400 mm) isoline Kinshasa Dark green shows forest land, cropland, " wetland and settlements with high Lakes (Natural Earth) Mbuji-Mayi restoration needs and opportunities. Light " Areas dominated by grassland (> 90%) Dar es Salaam green represents areas with low or no " need/opportunity for restoration. Shaded Relief from SRTM radar data (CGIAR) Luanda " The designations employed and the presentation of material in the map(s) do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of FAO concerning the legal or constitutional status of any country, territory or sea area, or concerning the delimitation of frontiers. Lubumbashi " Landscape restoration needs and Figure 1 opportunities in Africa’s dryland Algiers BUILDING AFRICA'S "

Fez GREAT GREEN WALL Rabat " Mediterranean Sea " " Tripoli "

Alexandria N o r t h " Cairo A t l a n t i c " O c e a n

S A H A R A

Khartoum """ Dakar "

Bamako " Ouagadougou " Kano Maiduguri Arabian Sea " " Zaria " " Conakry " Addis Abeba " Ogbomosho " Ibadan " Kumasi Monrovia " Lagos Benin " " " Accra Abidjan " " Aba " " Douala " "

Muqdisho "

Kampala " I n d i a n Nairobi " O c e a n

Kinshasa "

Mbuji-Mayi " Dar es Salaam "

Luanda "

Lubumbashi " © FAO The resulting estimate means 2. Restoration in action: analyzing factors of success that an average of 10 million using a five-step and failure. The usefulness and ha need to be restored per community-based application of these guidelines year if we want to achieve the restoration model were tested in 10 countries restoration of the ambitious including in Great Green Wall 166 million ha target as a To implement restoration intervention area of Senegal, contribution to the SDG Agenda work, FAO has developed during an international validation by 2030. The restoration a five-step, comprehensive workshop held in 2013. This opportunity map and its resulting model for large-scale dryland comprehensive model includes numbers has become, since restoration in support of the the following elements to be its public release, a reference GGW (Sacande, 2016; Sacande implemented (not necessarily in to illustrate and emphasize the and Berrahmouni, 2016). The chronological order): challenges ahead in restoration effort is backed by FAO’s “Global across the GGW, and the need guidelines for the restoration · In-depth consultation for bigger investments. of degraded forests and to assess the needs landscapes in drylands: Building of communities and This methodology could be resilience and benefiting their preferences for refined and expanded to cover livelihoods” developed through useful and diverse plant all of Africa — particularly, a process involving experts species (trees, shrubs, Africa’s drylands, at continental from different dryland countries grasses) underpinning the and country levels to inform and regions that led to the communities’ restoration and help monitor AFR100 compilation of lessons learnt objectives (fig.2). commitments and achievements from different restoration against assessed baseline. projects and programmes, ©FAO/Giulio Napolitano

Figure 2 Consultation to assess the needs of communities and their preferences. Nigerien Forestry Officer gathering information from the local community about their needs in terms of plants to be reintroduced by a planting campaign in Tera, Niger

94 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 · Integrating science and and increase its chances of with technical guidance research with farmers’ survival and development in from seed centers and practices: this includes the constraining environment technical experts, (ii) land working with seed centers to (i.e. drought). preparation using water make quality seed available harvesting techniques for propagation of biodiverse · Direct involvement of and soil conservation and and adapted restoration local communit ies, with management, planting and material; inoculation of support from technical seeding operations, and seeds and plant seedlings’ experts and partners, - in establishment of village roots with mycorrhiza and restoration operations, nurseries (Figures: 3a b, c, d). bacteria to boost the vigor including: (i) collection of the restoration material and mobilization of seeds ©FAO/Giulio Napolitano ©FAO/Giulio Napolitano

Figure 3a Figure 3b ©FAO/Giulio Napolitano ©FAO/Giulio Napolitano

Figure 3c Figure 3d

· Management and · Continuous capacity to become organized and monitoring of the areas development for local skilled producers with an under restoration, farmers to become self- entrepreneurship level to including measuring sufficient in all operations produce, process and market performance, impacts and and development of non- their products. benefits. timber forest products (NTFP) ; to become recognized as By 2019 the AAD project will “village technicians”; and have 35 000 ha of degraded

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 95 land under restoration by local poverty, lack of economic • organizing interested communities. This corresponds opportunities, and scarcity of communities, with support to 0.25% of the total AAD project natural and financial resources. of the trained facilitators, area across the six countries. So Key to successful restoration is into producer associations far, 325 villages where 70 000 finding ways to lift communities and small-scale enterprises. farmers, half of them women, are out of poverty and improve This involved supporting involved and directly participate livelihoods, using restoration them in identifying potential in the activities on the ground. as a catalyst for developing non-timber forest products The restoration work aimed to plant-based jobs and income (NTFP), and their sustainable benefit and transform the lives of generating activities. harvesting, processing and 500 000 people and includes: marketing using the MA&D, FAO has developed a methodology. (i) assisted natural regeneration methodology called “Market when possible, Analysis and Development Guided by the MA&D (MA&D)” to help organize participatory approach, village (ii) manual and mechanized communities in producer group communities involved in AAD land preparation and water organizers and build their project selected a total of ten harvesting techniques (see institutional, entrepreneurial NTFPs for developing their figure 4), and and technical capacity to set livelihoods. Those include up successful small enterprises honey, Balanites oil, fodder (see (iii) planting of 110 woody for sustainable production, figure 5), and natural gums. and herbaceous species processing and marketing of Currently project coordination, using more than two million forest products (FAO, 2015). technical teams and partners are seedlings and over 40 tons working with the communities of seeds mobilized by the AAD project has therefore to establish the planned small- national seed centers and included and implemented as scale enterprises for sustainable trained villagers for direct part of its restoration model the production, processing and sowing. It is noteworthy following activities: marketing of their selected that seed centers, such as NTFPs. those in Mali and Kenya, are • organizing consultation contributing to quality seeds’ workshops in 2015 and Furthermore, existing mobilization in response to 2016 with communities professional networks linking the huge need for forest of the 6 AAD countries to producers and markets can and fodder seeds to meet enable them express and provide a good opportunity restoration project targets. reflect on their preferences to bring this potential to scale. of species to be used for The Network of Natural Gums 3. Generating livelihoods: restoration including those and Resins in Africa (NGARA), developing a value-chain with high socio-economic for example, developed a approach as an incentive value as highlighted in framework of priorities for 2017- for enabling sustainable section 2 above. (Sacande 2030, with support of AAD and land management and and Berrahmouni, 2016). other partners. NGARA aims restoration over the long to position African producer run. • conducting training for countries and partners as major trainers in 2017 on FAO’s global players in the sustainable Developing a value-chain MA&D methodology, production, processing and approach is critical in restoration targeting potential marketing of gums and resins to address some of the key facilitators to lead (NGARA, 2017). drivers and consequences communities groups and of deforestation and land guide them through the degradation — particularly, methodology;

96 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 ©FAO/Giulio Napolitano

Figure 5 Tera, Bajirga, Niger - Farmers charging their carts to transport hay to Tera weekly market.

4. Helping farmers, “the Acacia Operation Project1” for large scale restoration work particularly women, gain (FAO, 2010; FAO, 2015). in villages of Burkina Faso and access to appropriate Niger. As a result, much larger technologies when areas of barren and lateritic possible, to bring land were treated. The use of restoration to the the Delfino, relieved women of required scale. the very demanding manual land preparation activities. As New methods, updated tools a result, women can now turn and adapted technologies to other types of productive can mean greater efficiency work, such as seed collection, and rapidity in large scale planting and caring for the restoration of highly degraded restored areas; harvesting of lands in particular in the very fodder and other products;

constraining environmental ©FAO/Giulio Napolitano honey production, etc. Once context of the drylands. The the land is well prepared by the FAO Global guidelines for the Figure 4 - Workers in Djibo, Delfino, women are supported restoration of degraded forests Burkina Faso preparing Delfino in developing agroforestry and landscapes in drylands tractors to start ploughing. systems on the treated areas highlighted the importance growing vegetables, fruits and of the use of well tested Ten to fifteen hectares (10 to native plants/ trees and grasses technologies such as the plough 15 ha) daily can be treated with that provide nutritious food for (Delfino – figure 4) that mimics the Delfino, in contrast with the themselves and their children. the traditional manual digging traditional 1 ha daily treated of half-moons used for water manually by 100 people. harvesting and land preparation and that was tested in the Sahel Under AAD, FAO has invested by FAO through a project run with partners, in the training and between 2003 and 2010 called procurement of 2 Delfino units

1 http://www.fao.org/dryland-forestry/projects/past-projects/acacia-operation-project/en/

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 97 5. Creating opportunities seedlings and seeds to the securing the maintenance and for peer-to-peer capacity benefit of restoration projects, management of the restored development and south- Village technicians have become areas including through their south cooperation reliable partners for restoration protection from livestock. The sustainability, by collecting latter can compromise and lead The AAD project has helped seeds and setting up village restoration efforts to failure. foster south-south cooperation nurseries as well as farming To address this challenge, AAD between communities, in the restored agroforestry has built on existing solutions institutions and partners. systems. and mechanisms such as the Workshops in technical and use and reinforcement of evaluation practices, as well as To respond to the huge potential existing laws as well as periodic in regional and inter-regional and commitments for restoration surveillance and patrolling by technical restoration methods, in the GGW or AFR100, a mix of the villagers themselves. AAD have involved the six GGW restoration strategies including has also incorporated in its country teams as well as other assisted natural regeneration, restoration planning approach, GGW countries. This also helped planting through direct sowing elements to minimize risks of to mobilize technical knowledge or seedlings, can be used failure. For example, during the and improve capacities in depending on socio-economic selection process of areas to seed mobilization from other and environmental challenges be restored, the proximity to countries, such as Mali and/or and opportunities. villages and settlements was Kenya. considered among the criteria Besides the mobilization of to take into account, this makes AAD also contributed to quality seeds that was well patrolling and surveillance development of the online addressed through AAD, a more doable. In addition, the Dryland Restoration Initiative number of challenges arose. consultation with communities Platform (DRIP) expected to These include the non- and the communities’ driving be launched by mid- 2018 for systematic respect of and role in defining and stating their the compilation and exchange follow-up on the planting restoration objectives, needs of lessons learned, monitoring technical instructions including and preferred species have and sharing information on the planting period. Planting proven to be a guarantee for strategies, and impacts of needs to be done on time and protection and sustainability. restoration initiatives including in the right place to maximize the AAD. The platform can be availability of water for seeds The issue of compilation of used by African restoration and seedlings. baseline and monitoring (in practitioners and decision the field and satellite such as makers committed to the GGW Furthermore, municipalities with collect earth) remain high and the AFR100 to compile their have a crucial role to play in in the agenda of large scale experiences and learn from securing land to farmers and restoration initiatives such as other examples as well as report producer groups to enable the GGW or the AFR100. We on their past, current and future sustaining gains of restoration. believe that there is an urgent initiatives. The example of Tera Municipality need to work with countries and in Niger or Dori and Djibo in all actors involved in restoration, Conclusion Burkina Faso showed that this to harmonize tools and methods challenge can be addressed. for use by all stakeholders in a The AAD restoration approach cost-effective and transparent has proved successful when While the COGES (management manner to allow accountability, measured by the mobilization committees) were set up monitoring and evaluation of of communities, and the successfully, these still need restoration investments on the benefits they have already to be sustained and facilitated ground. generated in the early years of by technical field experts implementation. These include and the trained farmers. The It has been highlighted in the harvesting and selling of fodder COGES membership needs villages of AAD intervention that (figure 5); income generated by to be increased and gender restoration action alone is not the trained village technicians balance secured. The COGES enough to lift communities out of who are producing and selling has a fundamental role to play in poverty or build their resilience.

98 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 People often lack access to other developed with the technical and NGARA. 2017. The Network important basic needs such as financial support of FAO, EU and for Natural Gums and Resins in water, health services, social the Global Mechanism of UNCCD. Africa: Overview and Framework protection schemes, therefore, FAO, Rome, Italy. of Priorities, 2017-2030. other development partners and sectors need to be brought early FAO. 2015. Global Guidelines FAO. 2017. Building BRIDGES on in the process as one project for the restoration of degraded between Turkey and Africa’s or one sector cannot do it alone forests and landscapes in Great Green Wall. By to address those development drylands: building resilience Berrahmouni N. and Sacande and social challenges in the and benefiting livelihoods, by M. FAO flyer. http://www.fao. Great Green Wall. Berrahmouni, N. Regato, P. and org/3/a-i7952e.pdf Parfondry M. - Forestry paper Looking ahead to the 2018 175. Rome, FAO. For further information, see: restoration campaign, the six countries that have been the Sacande M., Berrahmouni N. AAD Website: www.fao.org/ focus of FAO’s efforts through 2016. Community participation in-action/action-against- AAD — Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, and ecological criteria for desertification Gambia, Niger, Nigeria and selecting species and restoring Senegal — have committed to natural capital with native species FAO Dryland forestry website restore an additional 18 000 ha, in the Sahel. Restoration Ecology. www.fao.org/dryland-forestry so as to complete the restoration DOI. 10.1111/ rec.12335 of the total area planned (35 000 ha) by 2019. Furthermore, the Sacande M. 2016. Restoration AAD approach is being expanded programme in practice for to other GGW countries such as Africa’s Great Green Wall. Nature Eritrea, Mauritania and Sudan & Faune 30. Issue 2: 62-65 with the financial support of Turkey through a new project Berrahmouni N., Laestadius by name “Boosting Restoration, L., Martucci A., Mollicone D., Income, Development, and Patriarca C., Sacande M. 2016. Generating Ecosystem Services Building Africa’s Great Green (BRIDGES)”1. This will be sowing Wall: Restoring degraded new restoration sites to grow drylands for stronger and more and build, step-by-step, the Great resilient communities. FAO Green Wall. publication, Rome.

References Bastin J-F., Berrahmouni N., Grainger A., Maniatis D., FAO.2010. Guidelines on Mollicone D., Moore R., Patriarca sustainable forest management C., Picard N., Sparrow B., in drylands of sub-Saharan Africa. Abraham E.M., Aloui K., Atesoglu Arid Zone A., Attore F., Bassüllü C., Bey A., Garzuglia M., L.G., Groot N., Forests and Forestry Working Guerin G., Laestadius L., Lowe Paper No. 1. Rome. A.J., Mamane B., Marchi G., Patterson P., Rezende M., Ricci S., AUC/PAGGW (African Union Salcedo I., Sanchez-Paus Diaz A., Commission/Panafrican Agency Stolle F., Surappaeva V., Castro of the Great Green Wall). 2012. R. 2017. The extent of forest in Harmonized regional strategy for dryland biomes. Sciences 356, the implementation of the Great 635-638 Green Wall for the Sahara and the Sahel Initiative. Document

1 http://www.fao.org/in-action/action-against-desertification/news-and-multimedia/detail/en/c/1051386/

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 99 LINKS

The coming storm “The Coming Storm”, is a new investigative report about impact of industrial agriculture on Congo Basin forests.

An investigative report released 12 March 2018 documents the destruction of the forests of the Congo Basin for industrial palm oil and rubber plantations. The Coming Storm, released by the London-based non-profit organization Earthsight, reveals that five-hundred square kilometres of forest has been bulldozed in the last five years and that the destruction is set to accelerate, as high-level corruption and some of the regions’ most notorious logging companies combine to create a toxic mix. Earthsight Projects include: https://www.earthsight.org.uk/coming-storm The Coming Storm: How Secrecy & Collusion in Industrial Agriculture Spell Disaster for the Congo Basin’s Forests

www.thegeckoproject.org Investigative reporting on land deals, corruption and rights www.timberleaks.org The inside scoop on suspect wood www.bad-ag.info Monitoring illegal conversion of forests for agribusiness Choice Cuts: How European & US BBQs are fuelled by a hidden deforestation crisis in South America www.timberinvestigator.info Helping Activists and Communities Investigate & Trade Read more: https://www.earthsight.org.uk/coming-storm Source: Sam Lawson, Director of Earthsight www.earthsight.org.uk The exceptional value of intact forest ecosystems | Nature Ecology & Evolution “The exceptional value of intact forest ecosystems” is an important paper published online on 26 February 2018 in Nature Ecology & Evolution (2018) and available by subscription on website - https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-018-0490-x Authors include James E. M. Watson, Tom Evans, […] David Lindenmayer (28 authors in total).

As the terrestrial human footprint continues to expand, the amount of native forest that is free from significant damaging human activities is in precipitous decline. There is emerging evidence that the remaining intact forest supports an exceptional confluence of globally significant environmental values relative to degraded forests, including imperilled biodiversity, carbon sequestration and storage, water provision, indigenous culture and the maintenance of human health. Here we argue that maintaining and, where possible, restoring the integrity of dwindling intact forests is an urgent priority for current global efforts to halt the ongoing biodiversity crisis, slow rapid climate change and achieve sustainability goals. Retaining the integrity of intact forest ecosystems should be a central component of proactive global and national environmental strategies, alongside current efforts aimed at halting deforestation and promoting reforestation.

Read more: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-018-0490-x

100 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Drought-hit Ethiopia moves to protect its dwindling forests Ethiopia is enlisting the cooperation of people in and around its forests to manage woodland better, hoping to protect the country from the effects of climate change while boosting development prospects for its population of 100 million. The government of Africa’s second most populous country has set an ambitious aim of reducing poverty and becoming a carbon-neutral economy by 2025, in part by transforming the way rural landscapes are managed. Its Climate Resilient Green Economy strategy aims to meet half of its target reduction in carbon emissions by adding 5 million hectares (12.4 million acres) of forests by 2020 – just three years from now – and restoring 22 million hectares of degraded landscapes by 2030.

Read more: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ethiopia-forest-population/drought-hit-ethiopia-moves- to-protect-its-dwindling-forests-idUSKBN19P19O

Source: Elias Gebreselassie Chilimo, Ethiopia (Thomson Reuters Foundation) - Women are championing mangrove conservation in Nigeria. A women-led civil society group in Nigeria is empowering women and the whole community to protect Nigeria’s extremely productive but disappearing mangrove forests, which provide abundant services to the marine environment and people. © Enobong Bassey

Nigeria’s first women-driven mangrove restoration project by Jude Fuhnwi

Read more : https://www.birdlife.org/worldwide/news/women-are-championing-mangrove-conservation- nigeria?utm_source=sidebar&utm_medium=topnews

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1101 The Global Landscapes Forum The Global Landscapes Forum (GLF) is the world’s largest science-led platform on sustainable land use. It has connected 3 000 organizations and 25 000 people through their gatherings in Warsaw, Lima, London, Paris, Marrakech and Jakarta - with 32 million others online. The GLF is greening Africa through the AFR100 and Latin America through Initiative 20x20. It is fighting to save the world’s peatlands through the Global Peatlands Initiative and shares a positive vision of what the peatlands of the Democratic Republic of Congo can look like if all work together.

Read more: http://www.globallandscapesforum.org/about/what-is-glf/ Carefully managed fires can enhance biodiversity in Africa’s fragile savannas The burning of biomass, including wood and organic matter, has played a critical role in the management of Africa’s savannas for millennia, helping control undesirable plant species, facilitating access to new growth forage, and eradicating pests and parasites.

You can find this piece at: http://www.globallandscapesforum.org/hero_teaser/carefully-managed-fires- can-enhance-biodiversity-in-africas-fragile-savannas/

102 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 NEWS

Scaling-up forest and landscape restoration and sustainable land management in Niger and Burkina-Faso Land degradation is threatening the productive potential of the world’s landscapes, impacting the livelihoods of billions of people. Through formal commitments and voluntary initiatives, such as the Bonn challenge pledge, countries worldwide are actively engaging to stop further degradation, and restore their ecosystems for a wide range of benefits. FAO supports them in meeting this ambition and alleviating the obstacles towards large-scale restoration.

In the Sahel, sustainable land partnership with national and monitoring the impact of management and restoration international organizations. restoration on the ground, have been central to policies mobilizing finance and and projects for long. Natural Aimed at upscaling sharing best practices. resources are the base restoration by empowering Among the innovative for livelihoods in the area, local initiatives in Niger and technologies to be tested, with a high dependence Burkina Faso, the project the project will adapt the of local populations on aligns with and reinforces Collect Earth Open Foris their exploitation for food, ongoing decentralization tool to the local context, fuel and feed. With recent processes in the two and facilitate a participatory regional and sub-regional countries that led to diagnosis, and biophysical initiatives, such as the increased responsibilities and socio-economic African Forest Landscape devolved to the level of the monitoring of progress. Restoration Initiative (AFR “communes”. In particular, With improved monitoring 100) and the Great Green the project will focus on of progress towards the Wall Initiative for Sahara and channeling investments for ambitious pledges made, the Sahel, the momentum for restoration and for income- evidence of impact is restoration is expanding. generation through the expected to generate budget of communes, in additional support and In this context, FAO, collaboration with dedicated inspire emulation. through its Forest and national agencies such as Landscape Restoration (FLR) ANFICT (Niger) and FPDCT More information on the Mechanism, signed in early (Burkina Faso). The project Forest and Landscape 2018 an agreement with will in particular strengthen Restoration Mechanism of the French Fund for the the Communal councils FAO is available at: http:// Global Environment (Fonds with technical agents and www.fao.org/in-action/ Français pour l’Environnment capacities, and the local forest-landscape-restoration- Mondial or FFEM) focusing processes of planning, mechanism/en/ on restoration in the Sahel. financing and monitoring That project, benefiting from of restoration and income- co-finance from the Action generating activities. Against Desertification project (AAD), the Korea In addition to facilitating Forest Service, and the local finance mechanisms Agence Française du to implement restoration Développement (AFD), activities, the project will will be implemented support mainstreaming over 4 years by FAO in innovative technologies for

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1103 Online community of practice: developing capacity for forest and landscape restoration Faustine Zoveda1, Maria Nuutinen2, Carolina Gallo Granizo3 and Caterina Marchetta4

Many organizations are now using online training and knowledge-sharing activities to increase the reach and to harmonize the quality of their capacity building worldwide. The rapid spread of the internet among more people and into more places has created unprecedented opportunities for online learning and exchanges to be used in development cooperation. In 2017, for example, 67 percent of young people between the ages of 15 and 24 were using the internet in developing countries. Even in the least developed countries there were still 30 percent of young people using the internet (see for: ITU, 2017; in comparison to: World Economic Forum, 2015; UN News Centre, 2015). The key target audience of forest and landscape restoration (FLR) activities, the development practitioners, including planners working in agriculture, are now using the internet and can access online learning opportunities.

The newly established Mechanism under the networks of individuals who online Community of umbrella of the Collaborative share the same interests Practice for Forest and Roadmap for Monitoring FLR and are motivated to learn Landscape Restoration in partnership with Global together through regular hosted its inaugural online Partnership on Forest and communication. Creating knowledge-sharing forum: Landscape Restoration such communities online “Innovative Approaches (GPFLR). allows members to share for Monitoring Forest and ideas and information with Landscape Restoration” with Communities of practice greater ease than ever a webinar and a facilitated is a concept that was before (see Image 1 showing email-based discussion in developed by Etienne location of members of November–December 2017. Wenger in 1998 to better the Online Community of The activity was organized understand social systems Practice for Forest and by the FAO Forest and that facilitate learning. Landscape Restoration). Landscape Restoration Communities of practice are

Image 1: Location of members of the Online Community of Practice for Forest and Landscape Restoration (May 2018, 790 members). Source: Screenshot from the Dgroups platform

1 [email protected]

2 [email protected]

3 [email protected]

4 [email protected]

104 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 While the knowledge-sharing Diversity Secretariat, and forum was aimed at developing who is also Vice-Chair of the participants’ knowledge and GPFLR) opened the webinar their capacity to understand with a statement about the monitoring in FLR, the online ambitious restoration targets community of practice on FLR set by countries. It is critical that continues to communicate and advances be monitored, she exchange information long after said, to support the restoration the forum is over. efforts and to communicate the achievements related to The following is a summary of such national and international the content of the webinar and commitments. of the email exchanges that followed it, highlighting a few Bernadette Arakwiye (WRI) made of the main learning points to a presentation about Collect emerge: Earth and explained how it is ©FAO/Giulio Napolitano used for monitoring restoration The knowledge-sharing in Rwanda. Collect Earth collects forum focused on three main data and makes analyses of Photo: Students from the questions: high-resolution satellite imagery. University of Kisangani, FAO and partners developed Democratic Republic of the 1) What innovative technologies Collect Earth using the Open Congo, measuring and taking exist for monitoring? Foris initiative. It includes several note of the diameter and length free and open source tools such of harvested rattan in the Yoko 2) How can innovative tools be as the application Collect Mobile. Forest. used for monitoring FLR? Stakeholders participate in ‘Mapathons’ to map land use and Alan Grainger (University of 3) How can we ensure that land use change and to interpret Leeds) introduced Citizen people participate and the data. Though Collect Earth Observatories, which is a form use these tools in their facilitates the process, it requires of participatory environmental monitoring activities? that people be trained in monitoring with great potential monitoring so the data can be There were 422 people enrolled for monitoring restoration. used efficiently. Data must also Citizen volunteers collect in the knowledge-sharing forum, be validated in the field. with 45 percent of them working data using smartphones, which empowers them as in Africa. The participants came Collect Earth has proven from more than 100 countries, environmental monitors. Data particularly successful in collected are transmitted to and more than half were landscapes with sparse tree involved in FLR activities before sensors, stored in databases and cover. Arakwiye reported that, disseminated through website the forum. Approximately 40 based on WRI’s experience, percent of participants were portals. Cobweb, WeSenseIt, Collect Earth and the Open Foris Landsense and Ground Truth women and 60 percent men. suite are user-friendly, cost- The participants indicated 2.0. are all good examples of effective and sustainable. She Citizen Observatories, which are that they were particularly recommended using Collect interested in learning about useful for monitoring challenging Earth in collaboration with local features of landscapes and for available methods and tools stakeholders who have good for monitoring FLR in a cost- complementing other forms knowledge of the local context of remote and ground-based effective manner. Many of them and environment, and she were already familiar with tools monitoring. Grainger clarified recommended developing their that the resolution of Citizen such as GIS or remote sensing capacity. applications such as Collect Observatories is suited to small- Earth. scale projects, but can easily be linked to regional and national Catalina Santamaria (from scales. The Citizen Observatories the Convention on Biological require many highly motivated

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1105 citizens and ongoing capacity monitoring more often and at FAO welcomes anyone who is development efforts to improve multiple scales. interested to join the Online data accuracy. Grainger Community of Practice for Forest concluded that accessible and The online community and Landscape Restoration user-friendly web interfaces are members agreed that people (see the links below). The team important, as is disseminating working on monitoring will involved in the work stream the results. need to use a combination of of communities of practice tools adapted to the specific looks forward to collaborating Rakan A. Zahawi (University of context of different field with a variety of partners and Hawaii) discussed the use of settings. For example, drones stakeholder groups to find lightweight Unmanned Aerial could facilitate additional data efficient methods for further Vehicles (UAVs) or drones for combination, complementing developing FLR in Africa, Asia monitoring restoration in tropical other approaches. Participants and Latin America. forest ecosystems as it related used their feedback forms to to results from a collaborative report that the webinar and For more information, please research project in Costa Rica. the overall forum helped them contact the FLRM team at FO- In the project, drones were pre- to better understand how the [email protected]. programmed to follow a specific presented tools and methods flight path. A digital camera work in monitoring landscape • Join the online Community attached to the drone would restoration, and to recognize of Practice for Forest and take pictures of the ground. The both the possibilities of these Landscape Restoration: image was then processed using tools and their limitations. http://www.fao.org/in- a particular type of software They also encouraged their action/forest-landscape- and analysed by trained users. colleagues to document their restoration-mechanism/ Drones can capture data that own innovative monitoring communities/join would normally only be possible approaches and to share the to obtain through field surveys. results. • Watch webinar videos: www. They can offer a relatively fao.org/in-action/forest- low-cost method of obtaining All the recorded presentations landscape-restoration- accurate field data. Other at the webinar are available mechanism/resources/ advantages include portability, through the Forest and videos/monitoring-webinars the possibility for frequent Landscape Restoration monitoring, and ease of use in Mechanism (FLRM) website • Related resources: www. rough terrain and remote places. where the knowledge-sharing fao.org/in-action/forest- forum’s results have been landscape-restoration- The speakers at the webinar summarized. In email-based mechanism/resources/ concluded that FLR is gaining exchanges, participants called detail/en/c/1110668/ momentum, and that participants for a holistic approach to both feel more empowered than ever. restoration and monitoring. • Article: Use of communities Practitioners are moving from Expert participants listed of practice in knowledge resource-extensive monitoring the main challenges they sharing and learning in approaches and limited data to encountered while monitoring developing countries: lighter, more agile technologies FLR, suggested approaches https://link.springer. that can collect and harness for including project-level com/chapter/ vast amounts of data. These monitoring results in national 10.1007%2F978-3-319- technological advances expand systems, and listed key 70199-8_5 (Nuutinen & Leal the scope and increase the questions to ask and tools to use Filho, 2018) possibilities for cost-effective in monitoring.

106 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 Making forest concessions more transparent, accountable and pro-poor First voluntary guidelines for forest concessions in the tropics launched

The Food and 2030 Agenda: Voluntary Other forestry news Agriculture Organization Guidelines. (http://www.fao. from Africa (FAO) launched 10 May org/3/I9487EN/i9487en.pdf) 2018 the first voluntary Kenya - https://www. guidelines for forest Making forest concessions in businessdailyafrica.com/ concessions in the tropics the tropics work to achieve analysis/ideas/Forest- to make concessions more the 2030 Agenda: Voluntary debate-needs-proactive- transparent, accountable Guidelines solutions/4259414- and inclusive - all for the 4330912-nsytn0/index.html benefit of some of the poorest and most isolated West Africa - https://www. communities in the world. expatica.com/fr/news/ Over 70 percent of forests country-news/France- in the tropics used for Cameroon-Congo-CAR- harvesting timber and other Gabon-company-forestry- forest products are state- bankruptcy_1740191.html owned or public; most of the public forests are managed Zambia - http:// through concessions allafrica.com/ that governments give to stories/201803060569.html private entities or local communities. Forest FAO commits to supporting concessions have existed forest conservation projects in many of the world’s in West Africa: http://www. poorest nations for decades, fao.org/africa/news/detail- but their contributions Read more: http://www. news/en/c/1118320/ have not always been fao.org/news/story/en/ positive. While they have item/1128150/icode/ Forest elephant Gabon: generated more jobs and better income for people An account with some in remote areas, in many nice photos of attempts cases, they have also left to photograph the elusive behind a trail of degraded forest elephant in Gabon and forests and tenure conflicts, to record the work of the says the new Making local park rangers who are forest concessions in the being supported temporarily tropics work to achieve the by British soldiers.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1107 Announcement

Access to Global of Scientific, Technical and Landscape Online Research in Medical Publishers and more restoration in Africa: than 190 science publishers. Agriculture (AGORA) prospects and programme National institutions in opportunities eligible countries may Since 2003, the Food and register for AGORA and A Global Landscapes Forum Agriculture Organization Research4Life. Eligible (GLF) event to strengthen of the United Nations non-profit institutions technical, economic, coordinates the Access include universities, financial, institutional and to Global Online Research colleges, research institutes, human capacities for in Agriculture (AGORA) government offices, landscape restoration programme, which provides extension centers, local implementation free or low- cost access to NGOs, teaching hospitals books and major scientific and national libraries; and WHEN: August 29 - 30, 2018 journals in agriculture, access may be free or at low WHERE: United Nations forestry, fisheries, climate, cost. Office, Nairobi, Kenya food security and related biological and environmental Through AGORA and SOCIAL: #thinklandscape sciences to public Research4Life, researchers, #glfnairobi2018 institutions in low and policy-makers, tutors, Read more: http://events. middle-income countries. students and extension globallandscapesforum.org/ specialists have access to nairobi-2018/ Up-to-date research is of important, high quality and great need to find evidence, current scientific online Africa’s unsung share findings and inform information in the areas scientists finally get about teaching, practice and of agriculture, forestry, public policy. By providing their own journal to fisheries, climate and food spread research access to current journals security (AGORA), health and books from the world’s (HINARI), environment leading academic publishers, A new journal to showcase (OARE), law (GOALI) and Africa’s often-overlooked AGORA aims at improving innovation and technology the quality and effectiveness scientific research has (ARDI). Nature & Faune been launched to give the of agricultural research, was added to AGORA, in education and training in low continent’s scientists better 2016, and the journal is global recognition. and middle-income countries appreciated for the content and, in turn, improve food on wildlife, protected will security. “Scientific African” area management and be the first “mega-journal” the sustainable use and AGORA is part of in Africa. It was unveiled conservation of natural in Kigali early April 2018 Research4Life, which is a resources in Africa public-private partnership at Africa’s biggest science between World Health conference, the Next Organization (WHO), Food Einstein Forum (NEF) For more information: http:// conference, and the first and Agriculture Organization www.fao.org/agora/ and of the United Nations issue is scheduled to be http://www.research4life. published at the end of the (FAO), United Nations org/ Environment Programme summer 2018. (UNEP), World Intellectual Contact: [email protected] Its editor, Dr Benjamin Property Organization Gyampoh, said the journal (WIPO), International Labour would address the problem Organization (ILO), Cornell of African scientists going and Yale Universities, unrecognised for pioneering technology partners, the International Association

108 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1 work because they lacked Europe to halt deforestation Source: Laura Jungman. Forests access to quality publications. related to some specific Policy Manager, CDP +44 (0)20 commodities such as timber 3818 3907 | +44 (0)79 3665 “There are many reputable and palm oil, scant progress 5418 | Twitter: laurajungman | journals but there is a low has been made in tackling Skype laura.jungman www.cdp. number of Africans publishing in the embodied deforestation net them partly because the costs of soy and cattle. are so high,” Gyampoh said. “We Featured Authors are reducing these costs while • Among disclosers to CDP, providing a platform for world- almost 75% companies with class research, across different links to soy production have disciplines and on par with any identified sufficient sources published around the world.” of sustainable soy. But only The publication will highlight around half of companies pioneering work of scientists asked by major shareholders searching for cures to diseases or purchasers responded like HIV and malaria and to CDP’s questionnaire - solutions to climate change suggesting that policies to improve disclosure and long- Read more: https://www. term risk assessment could theguardian.com/global- have significant impacts on development/2018/apr/10/ addressing deforestation. africas-unsung-scientists-finally- get-their-own-journal-to-spread- • The briefing recommends research that European countries work together with producing Source: The Guardian governments to create (International edition) - 10 Apr sustainability criteria for 2018 commodity imports, adapt Large-scale Forest existing regulation like the EU Restoration Analysing European Timber regulation for other commodities such as soy public and private New in Paperback: Large-scale and cattle, and use EU and Forest Restoration by David actions to tackle national public procurement Lamb © 2014 – Routledge 302 imported deforestation to enforce better standards pages | 61 B/W Illus. and align governmental CDP’s new policy brief explores supply chains with the Paris For details see: https://www. how the consumption of Agreement and UN SDGs. commodities in Europe is driving routledge.com/Large-scale- Forest-Restoration/Lamb/p/ deforestation abroad and gives Explore the research and book/9780415663205 recommendations for a join read the full briefing at: http:// approach between producing b8f65cb373b1b7b15feb- Source: Tim Hardwick Senior and consuming countries to c70d8ead6ced5 Commissioning Editor Earthscan tackle deforestation. Key points: 50b4d987d7c03fcdd1d.r81. from Routledge cf3.rackcdn.com/cms/reports/ • It is estimated that a little documents/000/003/270/ Routledge/Taylor & Francis under 25% (by value) of all original/Europe_Forests_ agricultural commodities Group 2 Park Square Milton Park Policy_Brief_2018_Final. Abingdon from illegal deforestation pdf?1522742737 in international trade are Oxon OX14 4RN UK tim. destined for import to the Share this brief with others European Union. [email protected] www. that may be interested in this routledge.com topic, and through social media • While there are regulations channels with the hashtag and commitments in #CDPForests.

NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1109 Theme and deadline for next issue Africa’s inland aquatic ecosystems: how they can increase food security and nutrition

Sustainable food security, nutrition and livelihoods are high on the agenda of every individual, family, national, regional and international organization. With the human population rising to nine billion by 2050, sustainable livelihood supporting systems are a prime focus for the global community with both governmental and non-governmental organizations getting increasingly engaged in addressing the issues. The Sustainable Development Goals1 (SDGs) aim inter alia at ending poverty and protecting the planet, including life under water (SDG 14). However, under the Blue Economy and the Blue Growth Initiatives attention prioritises the seas and oceans; it seems our freshwater lakes, rivers, reservoirs, wetlands and other freshwater bodies may have been largely left out. This apparent SDGs oversight is particularly lamentable because in only a few decades the current overfishing in the open seas will almost certainly have overwhelmed their recovery potential. Attention will then invariably have to turn to inland freshwaters to fill the gap.

Africa would therefore be well- and individual specialists by drawing upon freshwater served by bucking the global (such as hydrologists, natural science and socio-economic trend through immediately and social scientists, fisheries expertise to give in-depth increasing its focus on professionals, biodiversity considerations of sustainable sustainable management plus experts and limnologists) management and resource artificial enrichment of these to share their thoughts. enrichment for fisheries, inland aquatic resources, The special issue will cover aquaculture, ecosystem so that they can become the value/contributions of services, biodiversity more central to achieving diverse aquatic systems (including mangroves and food security, nutrition and to food security, nutrition invasive species). We need livelihoods. The next edition and livelihoods. Authors are their thoughts on threats to (i.e. December 2018 edition) invited to submit original freshwater systems, such as of Nature & Faune journal contributions of four to five wetland degradation, pollution, will focus on this particular typed pages, i.e. two to three importance of seasonal floods aspect; it will adopt the term printed pages; their sharing and the impacts of large dams, “inland aquatic ecosystems” of experiences will enrich and climate change etc. They to embrace wetlands (from knowledge on the sector all can usefully also address upland wetlands acting as over the African continent. cross-cutting issues such as sponge areas for rivers to the roles of water bodies in lowland ones providing We encourage authors agriculture and in livestock, various goods), rivers, lakes to write on the potential resilience. and reservoirs, all of them with and reality of freshwater huge biodiversity resources. It ecosystems’ contribution Please send your will offer space for discussion, to food security, nutrition, manuscript(s) by email to debate and sharing of livelihoods taking account the following addresses: experiences on how best to of gender and youth succeed under the theme: dimensions. Lay persons will [email protected] and “Africa’s inland aquatic no doubt wish to highlight [email protected] ecosystems: How they their main concerns and can boost food security what they see as prime Deadline for submitting and nutrition.” opportunities to manage manuscripts for the next these resources, including issue is 1 October 2018. This special issue will offer how communities view a dedicated platform to aquatic systems and utilize concerned members of broad their products. Specialist society as well as institutional authors can complement this

1 The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), otherwise known as the Global Goals, are a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity.

110 NATURE & FAUNE Volume 32, Issue 1