( Winterroe.aina 1983/84 Vol.oy.. 4, No. 1, B.F. Skinner on Humanism, Freedom and the Future of the Human Species The Mormon Church George Smith Sterling M. McMurrin The Anti-Science o CLAIRVOyq GQ,P ...çßOLOGY tiC'((.. ,,,,C.) F.-PS II `° Fso -7 Vogue C? "S- ó ZS TIT H vr

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NATONG\- °"1' Antony Flew: Was George Orwell a96s/4/ Humanist? Bonnie and Vern Bullough: Population Control in China Gerald Larue: Who Really Killed Goliath? Levi Fragell: Humanism in Norway Academic Freedom at Liberty Baptist College

WINTER 1983/83 ISSN 0272-0701 VOL. 4, NO. I Contents

3 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

ARTICLES 4 Interview with B. F. Skinner: Humanism, Freedom, and the Future of the Human Species 7 Was George Orwell a Humanist') Antony Flew 12 Population Control vs. Freedom in China Vern and Bonnie Bullough 16 Academic Freedom at Liberty Baptist College Lynn Ridenhour

SPECIAL. II A I l'RI O\ I HI \1OR!s1ON CHI RCH 20 Joseph Smith and the Book of Mormon George D. Smith 32 The History of Mormonism and Church Authorities: An Interview with Sterling M. McMurrin

36 Anti-Science: The Irrationalist Vogue of the 1970s Lewis Feuer 47 The End of the Galilean Cease-Fire? James Hansen 49 Who Really Killed Goliath? Gerald A. Larue 50 Humanism in Norway: Strategies for Growth Levi Fragell

BOOKS 54 On Finding an Ethical Voice: A Response to Sontag and Maclntyre Anthony Weston 56 Defining Out-of-Body Experiences Gordon Stein 15 POETRY 62 CLASSIFIED 60 BARRICADES

Cover photo by Christopher S. Johnson

Editor: Paul Kurtz

Associate Editors: Gordon Stein, Lee Nisbet

Assistant Editors: Doris Doyle, Andrea Szalanski

Art Director: Gregory I.yde Vigrass

Contributing Editors: Lionel Abel, author, critic, SUNY at Buffalo; Paul Beattie, president, Fellowship of Religious Humanists; Jo-Ann Boydston, director, I)esAcc ('enter; Laurence Briskman, lecturer, Edinburgh University, Scotland; Vern Rullough, historian, State University College at Buffalo; Albert 111k, director, Institute for Rational Living; Roy P. Fairfield, social scientist, Union Graduate School; Joseph Fletcher, theologian, University of Virginia Medical School; Antony Flew, philosopher, Reading University, England; Sidney Hook, professor emeritus of philosophy, NYU; Marvin Kohl, philosopher, State University College at Fredonia; Jean Kolkin, executive director, American Ethical Union; Gerald Larue, professor of archaeology and biblical history, USC; Ernest Nagel, professor emeritus of philosophy, Columbia University; Cable Neuhaus, correspondent; Howard Radest, dirc*t•tor, Fthieal.Culture Schools; Robert Rimmer, author; M. I.. Rosenthal, professor of English, New York University; William Ryan, free lance reporter, novelist; Svetozar Stojanovic, professor of philosophy, University of Belgrade; Thomas Szasz, psychiatrist, t''pstate Medical Center, Syracuse; V. M. Tarkunde, Supreme Court Judge, India; Richard Taylor, professor of philosophy, University of Rochester; Sherwin Wine, founder, Society for Humanistic Judaism

Editorial Associates: H. James Birx, James Martin-Diaz, Steven L. Mitchell, Marvin Zimmerman

Executive Director of CODESH, Inc.: Jean Millholland Poetry Editor: Sally M. Gall; Book Review Editor: Victor Gulotta

Staff Richard Seymour (computer operations), Barry Karr, Alfred* Pidgeon, Jackie Livingston, Suzanne Fiscus, Paul E. Loynes

FREE INQUIRY (ISSN 0272-0701) is published quarterly by the Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (CODESH, Inc.), a nonprofit corporation, 1203 Kensington Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14215. Phone (716) 834-2921. Copyright tr'' 1983 by CODESH, Inc. Second-class postage paid at Buffalo and at additional mail- ing offices. Subscription rates: $14.00 for one year, $25.00 for two years, $32.00 for three years, $3.50 for single copies. Address subscription orders, changes of address, and adver- tising to: FREE INQUIRY, Box 5, Central Park Station, Buffalo, NY 14215. Manuscripts, letters, and editorial inquiries should be addressed to: The Editor, FREE INQUIRY, Box 5, Central Park Station, Buffalo, N.Y. 14215. All manuscripts should be accompanied by two additional copies and a stamped, addressed envelope. Opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors or publisher.

2 QOI;irY. fans who remain silent because they believe that Christianity offers the best hope for instilling moral values in their children. Al- though the real "good work" performed by LETTERS TO THE EDITOR American Christian churches should not be overlooked, it is necessary to discard the emotional view of life and find a more rational basis for our humanity. It is all very well and perhaps necessary to recognize the Humanist Laureates as listed; however, secular humanism has a The Future of Humanism 1 was very encouraged by the Fall issue of bad reputation. The misconception that FRI-I IhUriss, in spite of Paul Kurtz's article because communists are atheists and secular It's the morning after 1 read far into the on humanism. I feel that there is a human- humanists are atheists, therefore secular night, which 1 don't do that often. 1 was ist behind every tree, but unfortunately humanists must be communists, is prevalent. reading "The Future of Humanism" (FI, many of them are being kept under cover 1 think you need to link American secular Fall 1983). Beyond the compelling clarity of by the attacks printed in newspapers. humanists to democratic capitalism, which, Paul Kurtz's vision, three passages in par- combined with freedom, made America ticular on page 1I led to this writing: (I) the Conrad Healy great. emphasis on rational inquiry and commit- San Diego, Calif. The Academy should also publicize the ment to evidence-based truth, as against true definition of humanism. Up until a few faith, mysticism, and authority; (2) the qual- Humanist Statements years ago 1 thought it was merely the study ification that "To be committed to science of the humanities. does not mean that we ignore art, poetry, 1 have read with sympathy your recent state- morality, passion ... "; and (3) the state- ments on the meaning of humanism ("Human- Leonard R. Reid ment of ethical humanism's "commitment ist Self-Portraits," FI, Fall 1983). However, Milwaukee, Wis. to free inquiry" and to living fully and a problem with secular humanism is that it proudly with an abiding "respect for the lacks foundation for its morality. It meets Special Invitation to rights of others and dedication to the dignity this deficit by proposing obscure principles Our Readers of the individual ... " and some contradictory objectives. For example, it is probably beyond the capacity FREE INQUIRY is sponsoring an all- Charles G. Wieder of most human beings to be tolerant and to day conference on "Armageddon Appalachian State University accept compromise (humanist prescriptions) and the Biblical Apocalypse: Are Boone, N.C. while acting morally. We Living in the Last Days?" on Humanists skirt such difficulties by pro- February 27, 1984, in Los Angeles Paul Kurtz's article concerning humanism posing vague standards of conduct. For at the University of Southern was excellent, although he has a darker esti- example, with due respect to Professor mate of the future than 1 do. He should California. See page 19 for details. Brand Blanshard ("One Man's Humanism"), • consider what a highly organized minority the objective of acting "for the greatest good can do politically with lies . . . then con- of all" is not empirical. One can never know A Look at 1984 sider what a highly organized minority can whether his or her action satisfies this non- do democratically with truth. rational principle. Moreover, it is an impos- "War is Peace," "Freedom is Slavery," and Humanism will never be more than an sible goal. Contrary to Jeremy Bentham and "Ignorance is Strength" are the three slo- intellectual and cultural movement led his followers, we cannot maximize two gans of George Orwell's fictitious democratically by philosophers, writers, col- values simultaneously. totalitarian regime in 1984. How does 1984 lege professors, teachers, and artists, with look so far'? perhaps small organizations of those who Gwynne Nettler The bad news is that Big Brother's are most aware of their own philosophy. University of New Mexico catch-phrases do apply to parts of our daily This. however, does not mean that human- Albuquerque, N.M. life. The American-Soviet nuclear arms race ism is "weak," or that it cannot have a most is crippling the world economy and is powerful influence even upon history. It is The Academy of Humanism threatening the existence of all life in the what we allow those we touch to do for name of "peace." The Shiite Muslims of themselves that makes us so powerful and The Academy of Humanism as proposed in Iran and the Bible Belt Christians of yet so weak. We promote thought and free the Fall 1983 FREE ImUt isv is an excellent America are advocating abolition of per- inquiry. which is the only "doctrine" that idea. 1 believe that your maximum effort sonal choice in the name of "freedom." And can solve any problem, meet any challenge. should be directed to the "small" people of the Reaganites are shunning health, educa- or adjust to any time. The values that spin our educational system, which has many tion, and welfare in the name of "strength." out of that lesson are self-generating and teachers who claim to be Christians, but A fresh example of Orwellian "double- always individually appropriate. It's what really do not believe in the divinity of Christ, think" is in the news. The United States Socrates taught, and it's proven its ability or the occult. They are afraid of losing their Coalition for Life has issued its religious to survive. jobs and worry about the wrath of the "hit list" to the White House [see the Nov. • Ronald Mohar community. The Academy's efforts could Dec. 1983 The Humanist]. This group Syracuse, N.Y. also be directed toward the doubting Christ- (continued on p. 57)

Winter 1983/84 3 On Humanism, Freedom and the Future of the Human Species An Interview with B. F. Skinner

Paul Kurtz: In what sense do you consider yourself a humanist? of us alive on the earth today are presumably only a small B. F. Skinner: In the sense of one who puts the present sample of the species. I believe a genuine humanism must look and future well-being of the human species above all other to the future. things. Everyone is a humanist who acts to preserve the re- The trouble is, the future doesn't exist. We deal with it sources of the world, prevent its pollution, keep the population only as a prediction, and hence ineffectively. To make matters within bounds, and make a nuclear holocaust impossible. worse, action that is likely to promote a future tends to conflict Kurtz: Would you add the term secular? with current interests. For example, there are many reasons Skinner: By all means. I do not believe that the inhabitants why the earth is overpopulated: sex is highly reinforcing, in of one of the smaller planets of a small sun will ever fully many parts of the world children are important economically, understand this enormous universe how it began or what governments and religions often assess their power in terms of will happen to it. It does not help me to suppose that it was the sheer number of constituents, and so on. Those are current created according to plan by a god, nor do I believe that any reasons, and they conflict with any effort to reduce the popula- god has ever revealed to us any such action or plan. Moreover, tion of the earth in order to prevent its ultimate destruction. I think we know enough about human behavior to know why My book Beyond Freedom and Dignity was a defense of all cultures have invented gods, usually in the image of a ruler the future of the species against present personal satisfactions. or father to turn to for help and to thank for good fortune, as I was not saying "Down with freedom and dignity"; I was well as to administer supposed rewards and punishments for saying that something lay beyond them. The gains which have social purposes. come from the historical struggle for freedom are very real and Kurtz: There are humanist critics of your viewpoint, par- should be preserved in a continuing defense of personal rights, ticularly of the idea of freedom (e.g., Thomas Szasz, Eric but the process can go too far. I recently prepared a paper for Fromm, Karl Popper). Can we clarify in what sense you believe an international congress on the environmental future in which in freedom? We are not talking about determinism vs. free will I drew a parallel between our current concern for rights and but, given alternative political and social systems, whether you the disease anorexia nervosa. In a typical case, an overweight believe in democracy. woman starts to reduce, passes through a satisfactory weight, Skinner: Note that I said that my first and ultimate con- and proceeds to become extremely emaciated. I suggested that cern was for the present and future well-being of the human a similar illness might be called "libertas nervosa." We reach a species. I would almost be willing to say simply future. Cer- stage in which the individual is freed from unreasonable control tainly the future is more important in terms of quantity. Those by the group and then pass on to a demand for lesser "rights" that do not contribute to the future of the species. Indeed, the "right to be let alone," to breed, consume, pollute the world, B. F. Skinner is considered to be the leading behavioral psy- and construct weapons that could destroy all life on the earth chologist in the world, and surely the most influential and may prove to be a lethal trait. controversial. He is the author of numerous scholarly articles Another illness might be called "caritas nervosa." A culture and books. His Walden Two and Beyond Freedom and Dignity is strong if it gives help to those who need it — among them have evoked intense debate. Dr. Skinner is professor emeritus the very young, the severely ill, the aged, and the impoverished of psychology at Harvard University. but a culture actually grows weaker when it gives help to those who do not need it. A wise god would not help those who help themselves;,he would not deny them the satisfaction

4 "My first and ultimate concern [is] for the present and future well-being of the human species. . . . I believe a genuine humanism must look to the future."

Photo by Christopher S. Johnson

Winter 1983/84 of achievement. In a world in which it is too easy to get help, completed the third and last volume of my autobiography, to we lack incentives. Very few reasons for doing anything survive, be published under the title A Matter of Consequences. In it 1 and we turn, as the leisure classes have always turned, to tried to use my own life to make that point. alcohol and drugs, gambling, extremes of sexual gratification, The individual does not originate anything. Darwin re- and vicarious violence, as in professional sports. placed the Creation of Genesis with natural selection, and in a Western civilization is suffering from both libertas nervosa modern analysis the origin of behavior is explained as Darwin and caritas nervosa. Technology has freed us from starvation, explained the origin of species. The role of the individual is extremes of heat and cold, and many illnesses, but it has gone diminished, but the role of the species is aggrandized. on to free us from the slightest annoyances and discomforts Kurtz: Do you prefer some kind of society in which the and to gratify our slightest wishes. (Watch the advertisements behavioral scientists play a strong role? Would it be only advi- on television if you want proof.) And all in the name of rights. sory or would they have power? How does it differ from Plato's None of this is any longer working for the welfare of the philosophical kings? species. It is, in fact, a threat. Thomas Szasz has a bad case of Skinner: 1 believe, as Lincoln did, in the control of the libertas nervosa and Eric Fromm was suffering from caritas people by the people for the people, but I would prefer a nervosa. society in which there were no strong personal controllers at Kurtz: What about those critics who maintain that you all as in Walden Two. I should like to see behavioral science do not appreciate pluralism, dissent, and the open society? used in the design of a world in which people naturally behave Skinner: 1 believe that it has been a good thing to chal- in the ways needed to support and advance that world. Be- lenge, weaken, and destroy central autocratic forms of power. havioral scientists would participate .in such a design, but no To date, a relatively unplanned pluralistic society has probably one would be in the position of Plato's philosophical king. In done more for the future of the species than any closed plan. Walden Two it is the world in which people live that induces But that is not so much evidence of the success of an open them to do the things they need to do to perpetuate and society as of the failure of all other plans to date. Can anyone improve that world. People respond to people with com- accept the world today as proof of the ultimate value of any mendation and censure but only for reasons of the moment. past or present form of government, religion, or economic No one controls the behavior of anyone else. system? 1 think we should look for better forms, and they will Kurtz: How influential do you think behaviorism is today necessarily be planned. Placing the good of the species above in psychology and the social sciences, in comparison with ten the individual is not placing the state above the individual. A or twenty years ago, say? good plan would certainly preserve diversity and remain "open" Skinner: Psychology is, I think, in disarray. For economic to change in the light of experience. In particular, it would reasons the national society has become almost wholly profes- sample and respond to satisfactions and dissatisfactions much sional rather than scientific. The experimental analysis of more accurately than does democracy in America today. I behavior seems to me to he the only field that has maintained believe that the traditional aggrandizement of the individual in an earlier commitment to science. (I regard ethology, phar- govermental, religious, and economic philosophies is respons- macology, neurology including the study of sense organs ible for much of our present trouble and for the present very --separate sciences. Cognitive psychology is, 1 think, a fad, real threat to the species. spurred on by its mistake in taking the computer as a model of There was a deeper significance to the argument in Beyond the human organism.) Freedom and Dignity, which I elaborated shortly after the Kurtz: What do you think is the most important issue in book was published in a lecture at the Poetry Society in New the world today? York. The lecture was called "On `Having' a Poem," and in it 1 Skinner: If we are really concerned about the future of the drew a parallel between a poet and a mother. The mother has species, rather than the aggrandizement of the individual, we a baby. It is her baby, but she is not responsible for any of its should: features. She gave it half its genes, but she got those from her I. Dismantle all nuclear arms, giving complete freedom of own father and mother. She simply nourished and protected inspection to a large, well-financed international agency. the developing organism during a critical phase. I suggested 2. Reduce the number of people in the world--by devis- that the same thing could be said of poets. If we knew all the ing better methods of birth control and sex education, by reasons they write poems, we should not give them credit, any ameliorating the economic conditions that cause families to more than we give mothers credit for any feature of their have many children, and by strongly opposing the political products. and religious encouragement of breeding. At the turn of the century, Samuel Butler made the point 3. Reduce the consumption of all resources and the pollu- that a hen is simply an egg's way of making more eggs. Gen- tion of the environment - at first with governmental and eticists put it a different way today: The organism is the servant economic measures, but eventually and primarily through ed- of the gene. The human mother is the way in which human ucation. genes make more human genes. The poet is the way in which a To do all this we must improve our understanding of literary tradition makes more of a literary tradition. Much the human behavior. To me that means better behavioral science, same can be said of science, philosophy, and all the other and humanism. As 1 said several years ago when I received the fields of human endeavor. The person is, of course, the locus Humanist of the Year Award, behaviorism is effective of variation as well as the agent of transmission. I have just humanism. •

6 Was George Orwell a Humanist?

George Orwell (1903-1950), the great apostle of liberty, was far ahead of his time in his condemnation of totalitarian society. As 1984 begins, it is inevitable that we reflect on how close various societies are to the one depicted in Orwell's Nineteen-Eighty-Four. FREE INQUIRY asked Antony Flew, a distinguished British scholar and humanist, to reflect on George Orwell and to what extent he might he considered a humanist.— E Ds.

Antony Flew

ome difficulties do confront us if we want to claim George cremated) according to the rites of the Church of England in SOrwell as, without qualification, a lifelong humanist. Cer- the nearest convenient cemetery....". tainly we know from one of his Eton contemporaries that Eric Nevertheless, whatever the truth about the ambivalent Blair, as Orwell was originally named, "was prominent in period of personal "rearrangement" at The Hawthorns, it is bringing into College the solvent represented by Wells, Shaw, clear that both before and after, and right up to the end, and Samuel Butler, and before that, Gibbon and Sterne." Orwell was by conviction both mortalist and secular. His in- Another confirms that he was a spokesman for "this sceptical sistence on a traditional Church of England burial has to be rationalist tradition" right from his first year, having presum- understood as an expression of English patriotism, of com- ably read at least some of the key works before entering Eton. mitment to the ordinary and the rural. Cremation he must But then in the early thirties, after his return from service in have seen, however wrong-headedly, as one more of the de- the Burma Police and after his penitential period as a "down tested crankinesses of the cosmopolitan and alienated intel- and out in Paris and London," while he was teaching at The lectuals—the sort of socialists he had pilloried in The Road to Hawthorns (a small private school in Hayes, Middlesex), Wigan Pier. That there was no deathbed conversion, no final Orwell became a regular churchgoer and started to take the hope of eventual resurrection, is nicely demonstrated by his Church Times. (This was a High Church weekly, then and for official biographer's account of the efforts required to meet many years thereafter edited by a man who was in politics Orwell's request for a religious service, and for burial in a strongly socialist.) The widow of the curate at the church country churchyard.' (lt took the combined efforts of the future Orwell attended has since testified to her conviction that television pundit Malcolm Muggeridge and the press baron Orwell, of whom she and her husband saw a great deal at that David Astor!) time, was not merely a practicing but a believing Christian. Orwell's world outlook was in fact as secular as any Others spoke of this as a period in which he was "rearranging humanist could wish. Yet he seems never to have offered in himself." print any direct reasons for adopting a world-outlook of this Orwell never joined the National Secular Society, wrote sort rather than a religious and supernaturalistic alternative. for the Rationalist Press Association, or in any other way He appears, that is, never to have published any deployment identified himself with organized humanism. On the contrary, of evidencing reasons for believing that the universe is as it might be urged, both his marriages were conducted under humanists rather than as theists believe it to be. Taking the the auspices of "the church by law established, " and his will truth of secularism and mortalism absolutely for granted, in ended: "And lastly 1 direct that mm body shall be buried (not his later years his interests in religion—such as they were—seem to have been exclusively sociological and psychological. That is, he was curious about how many or how few actually be- lieved what, rather than about any evidencing reasons they Antony Flew is professor of might have had, or thought they had, for believing this rather philosophy at the University of than that. He was also concerned about the possible or actual Reading in England. He is the practical and political effects of the holding of various beliefs author of Thinking Straight, and disbeliefs. But there was for Orwell no arguing with and Philosophy: An Introduction, against religious believers about their beliefs. Yet he was ready and The Politics of Procrustes. to recommend, in one of his "As I Please" columns, the Rationalist Press Association book The Follies and Frauds of Spiritualism. (His concluding comment was: "Significantly, the people who are never converted to spiritualism are conjurors."2) Courtesy of Sport & General Press Agency

Winter 1983/84 7 Typical of Orwell's sociological and psychopolitical ap- published discussions of human conduct, noting what pleased proach is the passing remark in a letter of 1931 about a him most and what it was that most stirred his anger. For staunchly anti-Roman Catholic Bible Society shop window: anyone seeking a paradigm of humanist values can scarcely do "So long as that spirit is in the land we are safe from the better than to look to Orwell. R.C.'s"3 More seriously, and more substantially, in a review of Take, for instance, the splendid, swinging editorial written some of T. S. Eliot's later poems Orwell writes of "the immor- to defend Polemic against charges brought by the Muscovite tality of the soul": "The various 'proofs' of personal immortality Marxist Modern Quarterly. Polemic had been faulted by that which can be advanced by Christian apologists are psycholog- journal, of all journals, for "persistent attempts to confuse ically of no importance: what matters, psychologically, is that moral issues, to break down the distinction between right and hardly anyone nowadays feels himself to be immortal. The wrong."s Yet in their very next paragraph, as Orwell im- next world may be in some sense 'believed in' but it has not mediately pointed out, those editors asserted, inconsistently, anywhere near the same actuality in people's minds as it had a that "the whole basis of ethics needs reexamination." This few centuries ago."4 more characteristic theme was developed later in the same Later, in another "As I Please" column, Orwell returns to issue by the Jesuit-trained physicist and Stalinist J. D. Bernal. this loss of belief. Again his interest is in its psychological and Allowing, generously, that "Many of the basic virtues—truth- political rather than its logical implications: "If death ends fulness and good fellowship—... need no changing," he went everything, it becomes much harder to believe that you can be on to urge that "those based on excessive concern with in the right even if you are defeated.... I do not want the individual rectitude need reorienting in the direction of social belief in life after death to return, and in any case it is not responsibility." likely to return. What 1 do point out is that its disappearance Orwell at once transposes all Bernal's Latinate abstractions has left a big hole, and we ought to take notice of that fact."5 into plain and concrete English prose, supplying from recent Orwell's last word on this subject comes in "Lear, Tolstoy and Communist party practices and propaganda what Bernal so the Fool." That last word is explicitly humanist: "... a normal prudently eschews, a few necessary illustrations. What it all human being does not want the Kingdom of Heaven: he wants amounts to, Orwell correctly concludes, is that the claims of life on earth to continue.... Ultimately it is the Christian any and every ordinary virtue—of truthfulness, of good fellow- attitude which is self-interested and hedonistic, since the aim is ship, and of common decency may and must be being forever always to get away from the painful struggle of earthly life and overridden by the demands of the party and the government. to find eternal peace in some kind of Heaven or Nirvana. The Orwell continues, touching on various by this stage favorite humanist attitude is that the struggle must continue and that themes. For instance: "The connection between totalitarian death is the price of life. 'Men must endure their going hence habits of thought and the corruption of language is an impor- tant subject which has not been sufficiently studied. Like all "... It is clear that both before and after, and right up writers of his school Professor Bernal has a strong tendency to to the end, Orwell was by conviction both mortalist drop into Latin when something unpleasant has to be said." and secular. ... Orwell's world outlook was in fact as Whereas the collected works of Bernal can never have stim- secular as any humanist could wish." ulated so much as one single solitary smile, Orwell even here gives us a grin: "in F. Aristey's Vice Versa 'Drastic measures is even as their coming hither: Ripeness is all'—which is an un- Latin for a whopping.' " Christian sentiment."' Again, Orwell notices that Bernal and his editors prefer So far, so good. But it is not nearly far enough. For, were "even the bestialities of Fascism" to the "unreal and useless we to allow that in order to be rated a humanist it is sufficient tenets" of what both Marxists and fascists denounce as rotten, to affirm human mortality and to maintain some secular and bourgeois liberalism. (F. A. Hayek's The Road to Serfdom, naturalistic viewpoint, then we should become committed to which Orwell reviewed with notable sympathy in 1944, must accepting into our company many of the altogether unaccep- have been one main source for his recognition that the totalitar- table and monstrous. There could be no question of disqual- ian extremes of centralizing left and so-called right unite in an ifying Lenin or Hitler, Stalin or Pol Pot -to say nothing of all execration of classical liberalism more intense than their hatred those others happy to give from afar their support for the of each other.9) Orwell's unsigned editorial concludes: "We regimes of such men, or even to work to undermine resistance think we have said enough to show that our real crime, in the to their further extension.' eyes of the Modern Quarter/r, lies in defending a conception We have, therefore, to demand the satisfaction of some of right and wrong, and of intellectual decency, which has further conditions as necessary for the award of what ought to been responsible for all true progress for centuries past, and be an honorable title. To score as a humanist a person must without which the very continuance of civilized life is by no surely be committed to values that are not only through and means certain." through secular, this-worldly, and man-centered but also The upshot of the polemic against Bernal, and of so many humane, kindly, realistic, honest, individualistic, and libertarian. similar onslaughts on so many other spokespersons for totalitar- It is quite impossible here and in brief adequately to specify ian tyranny, is that Orwell's humanist values embrace all the what these further necessary conditions must require us to traditional decencies as well as at least some of the classical include and to exclude. Perhaps the best way of proceeding -- liberal political values rotten, bourgeois, liberal values, as and certainly the most apt—would be to go through all Orwell's Marxist tyrants and would-be tyrants love to say. ("Decency"

8 was a favorite Orwellian term, as it remains a favorite English one, for the commending of conduct.) So the question arises: "In what sense, if any, did Orwell remain to the end a socialist?" To answer this we have also to answer the question: What were the intended morals of his two most powerful and most popular works, Animal Farm and 1984? From at least the time of his return from the Spanish War right up to the end of his life Orwell insisted that he was a socialist, but a democratic socialist. As such he both said he was and in fact was wholeheartedly and without reservation opposed to every form of totalitarianism, and not merely to German National Socialism and those other so-called right-wing totalitarianisms now usually and almost, if not quite, emptily labeled "fascist." Thus, in a 1947 letter to Victor Gollancz, Orwell wrote: "I don't, God knows, want a war to break out, but if one were compelled to choose between Russia and America ... I would always choose America.") I should hope so! But there are many who have tried to pass as democratic socialists who would opt in the opposite sense. G. D. H. Cole, for instance, as chairman of the Fabian Society, announced in 1941: "Much better be ruled by Stalin than by the restrictive and monopolistic cliques which dominate Western Capital- ism."' About socialism Orwell was equally forthright and un- equivocal. On his lips or from his pen the word always referred to—to quote the statement of aims in Clause IV of the Con- stitution of the British Labour Party "the public ownership of all the means of production, distribution and exchange." Occasionally he would suggest that this is not sufficient, men- tioning other values that he and others have believed might in George 0rwell fact be realized or realizable only in consequence of such total and wholesale nationalization. But always for him as for Those in Britain who have read recent Labour Party manifestos everyone else who has had to have dealings with that Labour threatening "irreversible changes," and who have heard the Party and with those labor unions that created, sustain, and leaders of powerful labor unions calling for a nationalized control it—the implementation of Clause IV was the necessary press, responsible to "the organized workers," will not need to condition for the imposition of a socialist order. be told that the irremovable party does not have to be called a The confusion and the controversy about the interpreta- "communist" party. tion of Animal Farm and 1984 arises, I suggest, because so Given this close practical connection between socialism many of those who are, in this understanding, socialists do not and totalitarianism it should be no surprise to see socialists who in fact, although they may sometimes wish to pretend other- are by no means anti-totalitarian—who may even choose to wise, share Orwell's total opposition to all forms of totalit- pretend that they do not know what that word means— arianism. As it becomes increasingly obvious, from the ever- doubting whether Orwell was truly of their company. Indeed, accumulating experience of ever more almost completely socia- in a very real sense he was not, since, had he ever become list states, that it is just not practically possible to base a persuaded of the impossibility of a liberal and democratic pluralist political life upon a state-monopoly economy, those socialism, he would surely have dropped the socialism rather who remain or become socialists are inclined to see enemies of than the opposition to totalitarianism. In his official biography totalitarianism as, necessarily, enemies of socialism. Bernard Crick points to "Raymond Williams in his Fontana There is now a rich and revealing literature on this theme Modern Masters study Orwell" and to "Isaac Deutscher in his from many Marxist-Leninist sources. I will here quote only polemic against Nineteen-Eighty-Four" as two who "doubt from a statement issued in 1971 by the Institute of Marxism- whether he should be on their terraces at all." But, for reasons Leninism in Moscow. With its eyes most immediately upon unstated yet presumably arising from his own continuing Chile and France it sketched a program for achieving, through Labour Party commitments, Crick prefers not to spell out the "United Front" or "Broad Left" tactics, irreversible communist reasonableness of this doubt." domination: "Having once acquired political power, the To his credit, Orwell himself recognized the enormous working class implements the liquidation of the private owner- practical difficulties of reconciling socialism with liberty and ship of the means of production.... As a result, under democracy. He was thus one of the few reviewers to accept in socialism, there remains no ground for the existence of any 1943 what he called "the negative part of Professor Hayek's opposition parties counter-balancing the Communist Party." thesis" in The Road to Serfdom: "It cannot be said too often—

Winter 1983/84 9 at any rate it is not being said nearly often enough—that Czechoslovakia in that year could you so much as see a copy collectivism is not inherently democratic, but, on the contrary, of any noncommunist journal. gives to a tyrannical minority such powers as the Spanish Of course, too, 1984 is set in England under Ingsoc, or Inquisitors never dreamed of."14 His hope was, a hope perhaps English Socialism, not in any part of the Russian Empire. And against hope, that we English, with our rather special and of course the lone dissident was given the same given name as peculiar traditions, could bring off what could not but be an the then Leader of His Majesty's Opposition, Sir Winston excessively difficult feat. But in 1949, in the explanatory press Churchill. But that does not make the book an attack on the release designed to remove misconceptions about the meaning administration of Clement Attlee, which Orwell supported; as, of 1984, there is a sinister warning: "If there is a failure .. . I may add, I did myself. Nor, however, does it make it any the tougher types than the present Labour leaders will inevitably less a nightmare warning based on the current and continuing take over, drawn probably from the ranks of the Left, but not realities of a vast and still continually growing totalitarian and socialist world. "From at least the time of his return from the Spanish To return, finally and briefly, to the connections or lack War right up until the end of his life, Orwell insisted of connections between Orwell's humanist values and his secular that he was a socialist, but a democratic socialist... . beliefs: Christopher Hollis, an Eton contemporary, a Roman Catholic, and a Conservative Member of Parliament, suggested Orwell [was] against every form of totalitarianism." rather than argued that these values were "logically a product of a Christian faith which Orwell rejected.'" Thus in his essay sharing the Liberal aspirations of those now in power. Members "A Hanging" Orwell insists on the "unspeakable wrongness" of of the present British government ... will never willingly sell capital punishment, that it is wrong in itself irrespective of its the pass to the enemy ... but the younger generation is suspect, consequences. Hollis comments that this "is clearly a position and the seeds of totalitarian thought are probably widespread that is only tenable on the basis of a theology. Since man is among them."15 destined to die anyway, nothing could well be less self-evident Given our present understanding of Orwell's commitments, than the proposition that the preservation of life for a few the problems of interpreting Animal Farm and 1984 simply more years is of enormous importance." "7 Second, Hollis sees dissolve. To pretend that either or both of these books are Orwell as asking "What sanction could one provide that would really nothing but belated reactions against unhappy schooldays induce the bad to behave decently?" and realizing that "If you is itself nothing but pseudo-profound psychoanalytic silliness. can believe that villainy, when it escapes punishment in this For Animal Farm quite obviously is an allegory of the Bol- world, will nevertheless meet its deserts in the next and that shevik October coup and its aftermath while, equally obviously, virtue will be similarly rewarded, you have very satisfactorily 1984 is a nightmare vision of totalitarianism in its Soviet form. provided a motive for good conduct."" Third, he comments Crick's comparison with Leviathan is very much to the point. on the dialogues between Smith and O'Brien in 1984: "The For, just as Hobbes delineated an idealized version of the trouble is that, if the materialist premises which Winston Smith contemporary French despotism, so Orwell based his own anti- and O'Brien share are true, if death is inevitable and the end of utopia on a Soviet model. all things, if, whatever Winston Smith says or does, no one Of course both it and Orwell are against every form of will ever hear of him or his protest again, then O'Brien is right. totalitarianism. Nevertheless, all the particular resemblances Smith is mad. There is no purpose in his integrity." 9 And so, are to Soviet models and not to any earlier periods in Italy or apparently, "the logical conclusion of 1984 is that it is only by Germany. The machinery for the systematic falsification of the the appeal to God that O'Brien can be defeated." ° past, for instance, was, under the German National Socialist Now it is clear that in these three passages Hollis is saying and Italian Fascist regimes, comparatively embryonic. There very different things, things that certainly do not stand or fall had in any case been far fewer drastic changes of the party line, together. First, it just is not inconsistent to hold both that and fewer and far less extensive purges of personnel. So there death is final and that capital punishment is "unspeakably was, in a word, less work for Minitrue to do. wrong" in itself. Presumably Hollis is misled to think that it is Again, it is worth recalling my own astonishments when, inconsistent because he himself holds the further value posi- with memories of my many visits to Germany in the thirties, I tion—which Orwell surely did not share—that nothing really first entered a country subject to a Leninist collective despotism. matters except what goes on forever. Now if you do hold this, All the differences made Czechoslovakia in 1962 more like and also hold that men are ephemeral, then indeed it is incon- 1984 than like Germany under National Socialism. The most sistent for you to hold at the same time that anything human immediately striking and the most depressing, though not by really matters. But if you don't, and Orwell didn't, then it isn't. the same token the most important differences, lay in the Second, we may well agree with Hollis, and Orwell, that pervasive and overwhelming tattiness of Czechoslovakia and belief in a future life offering rewards and punishments can in the tighter restrictions on information: Where the display provide motives for doing what will be rewarded and avoiding cases for Volkischer Beobachter had always been smart and what will be punished. Indeed, such beliefs can provide such a freshly painted, those for Rude Pravo were everywhere worn, convenient supplement or counterweight to the deficiencies of chipped, and rusty: and whereas you could at main railway earthly systems of reward and punishment that many of the stations in Germany under Hitler buy foreign non- and anti- wisest of the ancients were misled to think that they had been Nazi newspapers, save for particular banned issues, nowhere in first introduced deliberately for that very purpose.

10 Free qy' Third, it is entirely wrong to infer, as Hollis does, from misses no chance of emphasizing both his own commitment to socialism no the fact that an action would have no consequences, and hence matter what and his own supercilious anti-anti-Communism: Crick is, we that it could not be a means to be a consequential end, that it may be glad to know, not of "the camp of the Cold War, Encounter magazine and the CIA" (p. 408). would be irrational to perform that action. If Smith holds 8. Quoted in Collected Essays, vol. 4, p. 185. All later references are to integrity to be a thing good in itself, precisely what this means the same editorial, pp. 185-92. is that he holds it good in itself, and quite apart from any 9. Ibid., vol. 3, pp. 142-44; The Road to Serfdom is here incongruously consequences it might or might not produce for him or other associated with a book by that archetypical Communist party fellow-traveler people. Hollis's attack on Smith's position can only be decisive Konni Zilliacus. 10. Ibid., vol. 4, p. 355. on the assumption: either that it is irrational to do what you I I. Significantly, and outrageously, Crick lists Cole along with Shaw hold right when it is unpleasant to do so, unless you can hope and the Webbs as "non-Marxist or liberal Marxist democratic Socialist for reward or fear punishment; or that it is irrational to hold theorists" despite the statement quoted above, despite Stalin, and despite the something good or bad in itself and quite apart from its con- fact that the Webbs went overboard in their support for Soviet Communism: sequences. Surely he would not wish to make either of these A New Civilization. p. 18. alarming assumptions: the former because it is to say that all 12. George Orwell: A Life, 13. Deutscher as a Trotskyist objected only to the manning rather than disinterested self-sacrifice is irrational; the latter because to say the institutions of the Soviet state. About Williams, I have had my say in that anything is good as a means implies that something else is Sociology, Equality and Education (London: Macmillan, 1976), p. 28. taken as good in itself. 14. Collected Essays, vol. 3, p. 143. So even if it is true (which perhaps it is, though this is 15. Quoted in George Orwell: A Life, p. 566. Everyone who follows another story) that the methods of Ingsoc could in fact only be British politics will know that those seeds have now grown big, and that the resulting plants show no signs of withering. My unfriendly comments on resisted successfully by religious believers, Hollis has not made Crick respond to his continuing activity in and support for that party. out his case that it is inconsistent for Orwell to uphold his 16. Christopher Hollis, A Study of George Orwell (London: Hollis and values while rejecting all religion, and Roman Catholicism in Carter, 1956), dust jacket. particular. 17. Ibid., p. 40. We can go further than this. Hollis rightly insisted that 18. Ibid., p. 42. 19. Ibid., p. 198. as a satire only those Conservatives who took Animal Farm 20. Ibid., p. 204. on Stalinism "interpreted it too narrowly and too much to suit 21. Ibid., p. 20. their own convenience. Orwell's whole record from Spanish 22. Ibid., quoted on p. 150. • days onwards shows his impartial hatred of all tyrannies and of all totalitarian claims.'»t Surely that protest, coming from a man who could complain that the radio version of Animal Farm cast "a sop to those stinking Catholics,"22 may be taken James Madison's Home as extending against theological tyrannies too. It is not merely perverse to think also, when Orwell presents Smith as finally To Be National Landmark brainwashed into loving Big Brother, of those who contrive to see as a Great Father a Being whom they claim keeps many of his creatures in eternal torment. "He gazed up at the enormous face. Forty years it had taken him to learn what kind of smile was hidden beneath the dark moustache. O cruel, needless, When FREE. INQUIRY announced the formation of the misunderstanding! O stubborn self willed exile from the loving James Madison Memorial Committee in March of this breast! ... But it was all right, everything was all right, the year (see FI, Spring 1983) one of the Committee's prin- struggle was finished. He had won the victory over himself. He cipal aims was to seek to have Montpelier, Madison's loved Big Brother." Virginia home, declared a National Historic Landmark. We are now pleased to report that this is closer to becom- ing a reality. Notes Professor Robert Alley, chairman of the Committee. has been informed that the recent death of Mrs. DuPont I. Bernard Crick, George Orwell: A life (Harmondsworth and Ness Scott brought to light her gift of this historic estate to York: Penguin, 1982), p. 580. Crick, having several times noticed the re- the National Trust for Historic Preservation and her semblance between Leviathan and 1984, here comments that "the atheist Thomas Hobbes had needed the power of a territorial magnate, of a Duke provision of a fund for its preservation and maintenance. of Devonshire, to get him buried in sacred ground." The Committee will in the future focus upon appro- 2. The Collected Essays, Journalism, and Letters of George Orwell priate commemorations of the exceptional influences (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970) vol. 3, p. 320. Madison had upon the United States government, the 3. Ibid., vol. I, p. 73. 4. Ibid., vol. 2, p. 277. Constitution, and religious liberty. 5. Ibid., vol. 3, pp. 126-27. 6. Ibid., vol. 4, p. 344. 7. Among these others, so rightly and so constantly excoriated by 0rwell himself, we have. 1 fear, to number Orwell's official biographer. For Crick, ignoring all that his subject had to say about the Sartres of this world-"a bag of wind and 1 am going to give him a good boot" (p. 546)- -

Winter 1983/84 11

Population Control vs. Freedom in China

Vern and Bonnie Bullough

ncontrolled population growth has been almost univer- thereafter. Stressing late marriage, universal use of contracep- U sally labeled as the biggest time-bomb facing future tives, and small families, China has reduced its birthrate from generations. But experts have not agreed on what to do about 34 per 1,000 in 1970 to 18 in 1979. This decline is unequaled it. Nowhere are the dangers of overpopulation more apparent by any other large developing country. Key to China's success than in the People's Republic of China, which contains about has been the emphasis on the one-child family. It is estimated one out of every four human beings living on the earth today. that 51 percent of all births in China in 1980 were first births, Many writers have recently reported on policies of the compared with 35 percent in Taiwan and 42 percent in the Chinese government; this is another firsthand account of some United States. of these policies in actual practice. Our concern is not only When put in these terms, the Chinese accomplishment with the need to control population, but with the methods can only elicit approval for all those concerned with runaway used and their implications for human freedom. population. It is the implementation of birth-control policies We recently spent eighteen days in China with a group of that arouses serious reservations. We can understand why the health-care professionals, visiting Shanghai, Beijing, Canton, Chinese have had to adopt some of the approaches they have and other cities and villages. Both of us are nurses, and one of utilized. We can empathize with their problems, but the loss of our primary goals in visiting China was to investigate the individual freedom that is entailed in implementing these pol- contraception and abortion policies now in effect. With a icies gives us an inkling of a future that we find extremely population of about one billion people in 1981, the People's distasteful. We say this as long-time advocates of contracep- Republic of China has become the first country in the world to tion, as pioneer supporters of abortion rights, and as advocates embark on a deliberate and comprehensive course to reach of zero population growth, but also as civil libertarians and humanists. zero population growth by the year 2000 or as soon as possible Background Vern Bullough, a contribu- Population control, like almost every other issue in China, has ting editor of FREE INQUIR ç, is dean of natural and social been the subject of major ideological controversy. One of the sciences at the State Univer- primary reasons for the crisis in which the country now finds itself is that Mao sity of New York College at Zedong at first dismissed birth control Buffalo. Bonnie Bv'lough, programs as efforts to "kill off the Chinese people without his wife, is dean of nursing shedding blood." In 1949 he stated: at the State University of The absurd theory that increases in food cannot catch up with New York at Buffalo. Both increases in population, put forth by such western bourgeois have published numerous economists as Malthus and company, has not only been refuted books and articles in sex- by Marxists in theory, but has also been overthrown in practice ology as well as public health in the post-revolutionary Soviet Union and in the liberated and other areas. China. Even Mao can change his mind, and by 1957 he was writing

12 With the death of Mao in 1976 and the subsequent arrest of the "Gang of Four"—a group of radicals led by Mao's widow—the internal fight over population control among the party leadership was over. The new leadership emphasized that the key to success in modernizing China was reaching zero population growth. In March 1978 this policy was incorporated into Article 53 of the revised constitution, which reads: "The state advocates and encourages birth planning." This was immediately translated into numerical goals for population, and resulted in a fourth birth-planning campaign being announced at the People's Congress in 1979, and is best described as the "one-child campaign." In this latest campaign, drastic measures were regarded as essential because one inter- nal projection had indicated that, even if the total fertility rate remained at the 1978 level of 2.3 children per family, the Chinese population would still increase to 1.4 billion by the year 2000 and 4.3 billion by 2080. Such staggering increases were possible because 40 percent of the population of China at that time was under the age of fifteen, and vast numbers of women would soon reach childbearing age and begin to repro- duce. Some idea of the threat of this population timebomb can be seen from the fact that only 5 percent of the Chinese popu- lation was over age sixty, compared with 30 percent of those that population growth "must be controlled." China under in the United States. Mao, however, adopted an inconsistent policy, and the changes Party Chairman Hua Guofeng announced the official line: and swings in the policy tended to undermine serious efforts. The first major effort to disseminate contraceptive If population growth is not controlled, there will be a dizzy materials in urban areas in the period 1956-1958 was termi- peak [in the next two decades], making it virtually impossible nated by the Great Leap Forward in 1958, when population for the economy and all our social institutions to cope. Upon control came in for harsh criticism. A second campaign, begun careful study, the State Council deems it necessary to launch a in 1962 and lasting to 1966, had almost no impact in the rural crash program over the coming 20 to 30 years, calling on each areas and only slight impact in urban areas. The one major couple ... to have a single child, so that the rate of population exception was Shanghai, where the campaign was most suc- growth may be brought under control as soon as possible. Our cessful. This campaign also ended abruptly with the Cultural aim is to strive to limit the population to a maximum of 1.2 Revolution, which saw a rapid escalation in population. The billion by the end of the century. leaders of the Cultural Revolution did not denounce contracep- tion as had been the case in 1958; instead, they shut down Stating a policy is one thing, enforcing it is another, even factories and disrupted distribution networks, effectively cutting with the mind-boggling array of controls that the Chinese off contraceptive supplies. The party's administrative structure government can utilize. The Chinese People's Republic has an weakened, including its control over the marriage age of administrative framework that combines horizontal integra- Chinese men and women. The result was a rapid drop in the tion of all government functions at the local level with vertical marriage age, as well as in the age of women at the birth of control from the top. Birth-planning units were established not their first child. only among the health professionals but at each hierarchical A third nationwide campaign was launched after the res- level. China is divided into twenty-nine provinces, autonomous toration of order in 1971, personally initiated by Zhou Enlai. regions, and provincial-level municipalities (Shanghai, Beijing), It was known as the Wan Xi Shao (Later, Longer, Fewer) while rural areas are further subdivided into counties, com- campaign, shorthand for later marriage, longer spacing between munes, production brigades, and production teams. In urban births, and fewer children. The ideal marriage age was regarded areas there are districts, neighborhoods or wards, resident com- as twenty-four to twenty-six for women, and twenty-six to mittees, and resident small groups, as well as various kinds of twenty-nine for men, while two or three children were con- factory committees, so that workers can belong to both a sidered the maximum number each family should have. Party geographical unit and a workers unit. Each of these units has cadres were mobilized to reduce the birthrate to 10 per 1,000 quotas on births that are passed downward to the lowest level, in the cities and 15 per 1,000 in rural areas by 1975. As part of and the group is not supposed to exceed them. this movement contraceptives were made available without Undermining some of these controls, however, are tradi- charge and were widely distributed by midwives and health tional Chinese assumptions about the nature of the family and workers (barefoot doctors) in rural areas and by the health- responsibility for the elders. There is no old-age social insurance care delivery system in the cities. These efforts resulted in a as we know it in China, and both the 1950 and 1981 marriage rapid fall in the birthrate. laws stipulated that "children have the duty to support and

Winter 1983/84 13 get pregnant is submitted in triplicate, and usually a year's lead time is recommended. No woman is supposed to become pregnant before she is twenty-four. Posters portraying the one- child family are everywhere. Both the carrot and the stick are used. Women who sign a pledge to have only one baby get a longer maternity leave; parents of two or more children (unless the two are twins) are denied promotions (at least in some areas). One-child families receive priority in housing, medical care, and education for children. Second children are often barred from nursery schools, making it difficult for working mothers to care for them. In many areas of China, the single child can also earn the family additional money, with up to a third of what the parents earn given to the family as a bonus. The only child is also guaranteed a plot of land as an adult, has preference in the university, and so forth. On the other hand, having a second child can be punished by a fine that is three or four times the parents' annual salaries; and, if a third child appears, the fine can go up to as much as ten times the average per capita income. All privileges are withdrawn from the family who has three children. assist their parents." Usually this entails the parents' moving Sterilization is encouraged, primarily for women, and into the home of their eldest son. For those who do not have special rewards are given to those who undergo it. Though the children to support them in their old age, China offers only Chinese earlier did tubal ligations, in the past few years they two types of alternative care: the institutionalized "homes for have developed a new and rapid method of female sterilization the respected aged" and so-called five-guarantee households. whereby a canula is inserted through the vagina into the uterus Since there are only 200 homes for the aged in China, caring and up to the fallopian tubes. After making certain that the for less than 60,000 people, this is not a particularly viable canula is in the fallopian tubes by sending a few cubic centimers alternative. Slightly better is the five-guarantee household, of sterile water through; less than 0.1/cc drop of phenol jell wherein the elderly person remains in his own home and is concentrate is inserted into each tube. Since this results in cared for by relatives or friends, and the five basic needs (food, burning the interior tubes, sterilization comes about through clothing, shelter, medical care, and burial) are provided by the the scarring, which usually takes a couple of weeks. While collective. The nature of the guarantee varies with the collective scarring is occurring, the woman uses an intrauterine device. to which the person belongs; and, since many do not belong to The procedure is done without anesthesia, although the burning any collective, this too is limited. Traditionally, the Chinese sensation is intense for a few minutes, and there is pain for a have looked to their children, particularly sons, to take care of couple of weeks thereafter. In the sterilization clinic we visited them in their old age, and therefore the traditional Chinese there were four sterilizations taking place at the same time and household holds three generations. one team could do sixty or more a day. Abortions are given on demand. In rural areas, during the Implementation first trimester the aspiration procedure is used. For abortions after the first trimester, patients have to go to a hospital. The Inevitably, to effectively implement the one-child family re- official position is that abortion is not a method of contracep- quires what can only be called the "hard sell" approach. This is tion, but should be used in event of contraceptive failure. The what China has used, and we have qualms about the methods abortion rate in China for women aged fifteen to forty-four is employed. 26 per 1,000, with an average ratio of 318 per 1,000 live births, In the basic unit, whether factory cooperative, production more or less comparable to the United States. The rate varies, team, or resident small group, each woman is supposed to tell however, and in Beijing in 1978 there were 940 induced abortions the family-planning official what contraceptive she is using per 1,000 live births. Rural areas have fewer abortions. and the dates of her menstrual periods. The official can demand Infanticide has also been practiced in China, although to see a soiled menstrual pad, and if a women's period is late here the data is hard to come by. The Chinese are making a she is usually summoned for a conference. The woman has strong effort to prevent infanticide. In November 1982 an some choice in the type of contraceptive she will use but the article in the China Youth News estimated that in some rural government encourages the use of "long-lasting methods," communes only two of every five infants who survive after particularly intrauterine devices. Pill-users have to report every birth are girls. In some of the nursery schools we visited the month for a refill, and condom-users more frequently. The sex ratios were even more disproportionate. Some of the diaphragm and spermaticides are not widely used in China. women's groups in China have begun to speak out, and at a Having a baby requires permission of the group and its desig- recent meeting of the Chinese women's federation Kang nated official, who must consult the quotas. An application to Kenging, widow of Marshal Zhu De, the leader of the com-

14 ducted during nonworking hours. When people fail to attend such groups, they are visited by planning delegations in their Deng To, a distinguished Chinese writer, scholar, and homes. journalist, satirized Mao's policies and, as a result, Public discussion is accepted and encouraged, but failure perished in the Cultural Revolution. His poem refers to to follow through on birth-control directives can result in direct an analogous struggle against tyranny during the Late reprisals. Couples who violate the expected norms are con- Ming Dynasty in which hundreds of intellectuals—led by fronted and rebuked by a combination of neighbors and Party members of the Donglin Academy—were executed.—ED. cadres. We know from radio and newspaper reports rebuking cadres for heavy-handed measures that coercion has been strong, and some localities have dispatched teams to those households violating the now official norms in order to On the Late Ming Donglin Party "propagandize" and exercise control over their food, drinking water, and work points. In other areas, couples with male children were mobilized to undergo sterilization in order to You say, "They lectured on a mountain-top." fulfill sterilization quotas. Undoubtedly, abortions are also —But from there they could see the whole world. forced, and we know that there have been both second-tri- You say, "Their discussions were unreal." mester and third-trimester abortions. —But when the heads rolled, the blood was real enough. We have to admire the Chinese for their determination to bring their population growth rate under control. We wish that some of the more drastic forms of persuasion did not have to be used, but we have no viable alternatives to recom- Deng To (translated from mend. The one thing that the Chinese experience should teach the Chinese bt, Jack Gray) us is that many of the more severe aspects of the Chinese government's actions probably could have been avoided if Mao Zedong had recognized the problem of population growth earlier. Poor planning allowed such a demographic time-bomb munist army in the 1930s and 1940s, and a military heroine in to build. By implication, then, the United States should begin her own right, called for an end to the killing of female infants. effective birth-control planning now in order to avoid having Statistics presented at the meeting indicate that before the to take the kind of measures implemented in China. China's one-child-family policy was initiated, the ratio of boys to girls future now depends on zero population growth, and while the was 51.6 to 48.4, which changed to 58.2 boys to 41.8 girls in Chinese seem to be having considerable success, we are relieved 1963. Since under the one-child-family policy if an only child that we are not Chinese citizens being persuaded to have a dies one could apply to have another child, female infanticide one-child family. • was obviously practiced. In June 1983 the Party Congress condemned amniocentesis for the purpose of determining a RENEW NOW! child's sex (in order to abort female fetuses) and instituted Subscription Rates severe penalties for the murder of female children. Whether the new penalties will be effective is debatable. As it is, female One Year $14.00, infanticide serves as effective long-term population control. $25 00 Infanticide is a sensitive issue in China, and Steven Westley Two Years Mosher, a graduate student in anthropology at Stanford, Three Years $32.00 achieved considerable notoriety from his article on forced abor- tion and infanticide and was expelled from China. As of this Single Issue $3 50 writing it is not known whether he was expelled for his writings ❑ Bill Me ❑ or if other factors were at work. Since others have reported on Payment Enclosed infanticide and the Chinese are increasingly beginning to face Name up to it, it might be that he was expelled because he published in a Taiwanese magazine, something the Chinese would regard Address as hostile. As official policy, Chinese family planners are supposed City State lip to use persuasion rather than force. However, since all officials below the national level are held accountable for success or Add $2.00 for Canadian failure in birth planning, persuasion can easily change to pres- Add $3.00 outside U.S.A. sure. Slogans, posters, pamphlets, television and radio broad- casts, newspaper editorials, and public exhibits all carry the Free birth-planning message. Even songs, plays, and variety shows Box 5, Central Park Station are used to encourage compliance. Probably the most effective Buffalo, New York 14215 persuasion technique is the meeting of adult study groups con-

Winter 1983/84 Academic Freedom at Liberty Baptist College

On recent television programs, Jerry Falwell has been touting the virtues of Liberty Baptist College, and he has been proclaiming that it would in time become the "Harvard" of fundamentalism. Essential to any great college or university is academic freedom. We invited Lynn Ridenhour, who had been a faculty member of Liberty Baptist, to describe the state of academic .freedom at that institution. An out-of-court settlement was recently reached as the result of a lawsuit Dr. Ridenhour filed over his dismissal from the college, charging Falwell with defamation of character, false imprisonment (security guards de- tained Ridenhour at his office on the campus for several hours after his dis- missal), and damage to personal and professional reputation.—E DS. Lynn Ridenhour

was on the faculty at Jerry Falwell's Liberty Baptist College, Shortly thereafter I learned that a book I had published I Lynchburg, Virginia, for two years (1980-82). I taught was pulled from the college bookstore and "banned" from English literature and writing courses. As a teacher and writer, campus by an administrator, and I was told not to use it in I was especially interested in academic expression and freedom class. Dr. Falwell had disapproved of the book. The chairman of speech. of the Religion Department asked me if I would "stop publi- I wasn't at Falwell's college long before I began to notice cation on it." My name was then quickly removed from the what I perceived to be a lack of academic freedom—or just program for the "Super Conference," at which several other plain freedom. Because I had suffered third-degree burns on faculty members and I had been asked to give seminars in our my face and ears, I had to keep my hair over my ears to pre- respective disciplines. I was never given a reason for not being vent the sun's rays from damaging the skin grafts. But LBC allowed to participate in the conference—though I had re- has a dress and grooming code—including that no hair must quested a written response from the administration many touch male ears—and I was asked by the administration to times. have my hair cut and, if necessary, to wear earmuffs when I My office-mate, a "converted" Jew, had 5,000 copies of went outdoors. I refused. That was when I began to question Jewish tracts. All were confiscated. He claimed that, since the and challenge some of the school's policies. papers concerned Jews and made reference to Thomas Road I soon discovered that no faculty member could publish a Baptist Church, Falwell disapproved of them. manuscript without the administration's approval if the The lack of academic freedom and especially the pres- writer's affiliation with the college was given. All manuscripts ence of what I perceived to be discrimination, even at times were to be submitted to a committee. If the committee ap- racial discrimination, disturbed me. I remember, in partic- proved the manuscript, then the faculty member could submit ular, one chapel service. Students had just returned from it. It made no difference whether the article was on science, "inner city" ministry in New York. They were sharing their education, biology, or religion. experiences that morning. One girl, speaking from behind the pulpit, said, "I was so scared being in New York City witness- ing for Christ." But, she told us, she prayed and knew that "God would protect us" because "we had our secret weapon Lynn Ridenhour is now pro- with us." fessor of English at Western I sat wondering what that weapon was. Did the girls carry Illinois University in cans of mace hidden within their purses? About that time, Macomb. one of the administrators approached the pulpit and said, "Would the secret weapon please stand?" In a crowd of approximately three thousand students and faculty members (about 95 percent were white), a black girl rose to her feet. It was a quiet moment. "Praise the Lord," I overheard a white student whisper near me. I went back to my office after chapel and talked with an

16 Vtgg Incg9k ( English faculty member who had joined us from Jamaica. She was black. We discussed what we definitely thought were racial attitudes within the ministry. "When I first came here five years ago," she remarked, "people would get up and move away when I sat next to them." She was referring to attending services at Falwell's church. She left the following semester. There were a lot of things I didn't understand. I couldn't understand Falwell's statement, "There are almost as many alcoholics as there are Negroes." I couldn't understand Fal- well's close friend for over twenty-five years — a friend who served on his board of trustees—telling me of the first days of Falwell's ministry. He had asked Falwell, "Jerry, what are you going to do when a black man walks the aisle one Sunday and wants to join your church?" Falwell answered, "I'll send him to a Bible-believing, black man's church." The trustee said, "If you do that, you'll split this church wide open." I also couldn't understand a statement by one of the Photo by Aubrey Wiley cameramen who filmed the "Old-Time Gospel Hour," Fal- Jerry Falwell well's national television program. We were sitting in the col- his dog to a movie the other day and the dog died. [Chuckles lege cafeteria one day sharing lunch. The cameraman told me, from the audience.] ... Hey friends, have you read a book "We were ordered to zoom in on the blacks in the choir so it recently? Don't. You haven't missed a thing." Nobel warned would seem like there were more." Neither could I understand the students about "modern art," "modern literature," and A. Pierre Guillermin's (president of Falwell's college) state- "modern music," and then concluded his lecture, entitled "The ment in the Southern Methodist journal that was made during Decline of Western Culture" (covered in thirty minutes), with a ceremony in which he received an honorary Ph.D. degree. a comment or two on music. "Rock-and-roll emphasizes glands, Strom Thurmond, a Republican from South Carolina, a muscles, body," he said. "It denies soul and spirit." Nobel got a "Dixiecrat" running for president of the United States on a standing ovation from the faculty and students that day. racist platform, had just given the address that afternoon. Another chapel service: This time speaker James Robi- Guillermin responded to Thurmond's address by praising him son, a nationally prominent "right-wing" spokesman from as "a man wise on the issues." Texas, is admonishing the students that competition and win- The lack of academic freedom, and, at the same time, the ning is very close to spirituality. LBC's football team hadn't sense of indoctrination greatly disturbed me. Liberty Baptist won a game all year. "If you guys would win souls, you'd win College was supposedly a "liberal arts" school. It was not a games," said Robison. Sounds like they weren't "champions "Bible college." If it were, I could better understand the pres- for Christ." sure for indoctrination. But for me the essence of a liberal- arts education was inquiry, questioning, and discovery; not "I wasn't at Falwell's college long before I began to indoctrination. Yet, inquiry and openness in the classroom notice what I perceived to be a lack of academic seemed to have boundaries; severe limitations were put on them. The whole atmosphere, more or less, spoke of narrowness. freedom." A good example of the administration's attempts at indoctrination was its questioning of my students. Various And then there was Falwell's comment in chapel on Octo- students would come to me at times and say they had been ber 28, 1982, on government legislation versus the responsi- questioned: I asked: "What about? What did they ask you?" bilities of fatherhood. He was referring to new legislation And the reply was: "About you. They wanted to know if you governing rape. If passed, the legislation would prohibit a were loyal to this ministry." More than one student told me of man from being tried for rape if he is within three years of the such incidents. Some were asked by the administration to sign age of his victim. Falwell responded, "It wouldn't make any written documents saying that I was a charismatic Christian. difference. You can't try a dead man if he tried it with my The administration opposed charismatic Christians. daughter." His statement was greeted by applause. Other examples of what I perceived to be indoctrination Anecdotes like these greatly distrubed me and other faculty were shown by the chapel speakers who came through. We members, who referred to it as the Bible-belt, Bible-thumping had chapel three times a week—Monday, Wednesday, and mentality. Falwell and his followers' unwillingness to look at Friday. Let me take you to one. David Nobel, the speaker for alternatives, their litany of condemnations, their lobbying for the morning, is busy telling the student body to stay out of art favorite legislation, their indiscriminate censorship, their museums, not to read books, and to stay out of theaters. rampant one-liners, and their inflated assurances—all seemed "Have you been to an art museum recently?" he asks. "Don't a bit out of place for a liberal-arts setting. go. You haven't missed ont thing." He continues: " ... our I can think of no better case in point than one of films are so sick, they're ill. I heard about a friend who took Falwell's moments of glory. We were in chapel. Falwell was

Winter 1983/84 17 telling us, somewhat amusingly, about one of his recent con- humanists and atheists entrance into his college. He denies frontations with the press. The reporter had asked him, charismatic Christians entrance, his own brothers and sisters "What would you do, if when you arrive at heaven's gates, the in the faith. Falwell says he believes in pluralism yet he said Lord would say, `Brother Falwell, why did you get mixed up his graduates would teach that evolution was "invalid" and in politics? Why didn't you stick to preaching my gospel?' "foolish." Finally, on January 20, 1982, I was escorted from What would you say, sir?" asked the reporter. the campus under armed guard and told never to return. The Falwell paused a moment. I was sitting there on the edge administration had discovered that I had written an article of my seat, waiting for his answer — along with the rest of the for Penthouse magazine. They suspected that I was not a four thousand members of the audience. "I would know he fundamentalist Christian. was not the Lord," he answered. (Applause.) I tried explaining to them that, just because a "Christian" writes an article for a "secular" magazine, it is no reason to "Liberty Baptist College was supposedly a `liberal arts' believe that he or she supports that particular forum's views school.... Yet, inquiry and openness in the classroom on life, on sex, or on God. I gave the analogy of Falwell's seemed to have boundaries; severe limitations were put on appearing on the Tom Snyder show. This did not mean that them." he had views similar to those of the advocates of gay rights, pornography (whatever that is), and left-wing politics who are How can he be so sure? I thought. often guests on Snyder's show. Such thinking didn't seem to square with one of Falwell's I also mentioned that President Carter was interviewed in favorite expressions about LBC: "We believe in academic Playboy. Surely the administration considers him a "born- excellence." again" Christian. But they would have no part of it. Soon I And what of academic excellence? More than a few received a registered letter from the president stating: "It is administrators, including Jerry Falwell, had honorary doctor- the Administration's opinion that any article written for Pent- ates conferred upon them. There were people around campus house by an instructor of Liberty Baptist College would be a talking about "academic excellence" with no more than a high- disgrace to our College." school diploma, Bible-school degree, or bachelor's degree stuck I was dismissed from my teaching duties and sent home, in their back pocket. Faculty members mentioned to me more and my check for the remainder of my contract was mailed to than once that not having "academic" men in administrative me. I was never allowed on campus again. I asked permission positions was "one of our greatest problems." to attend a lecture by Dr. Francis Schaeffer, a prominent There was even some question about the credentials of international speaker, while he was visiting the campus, but the president of the college. A. Pierre Guillermin was adver- was denied permission by the president. However, I still had to tised in Church Aflame, one of Falwell's books, as having a fulfill my contract in order to collect my pay by attending Ph.D. from the University of London; also the Lynchburg church every Sunday morning. One day after the service was newspaper repeatedly, over the years, referred to him in news over, my wife and I were leaving the parking lot. One church stories as the "Ph.D. from London University," and as having member flagged us down, and asked, "Are you still in town?" a "doctorate of philosophy in psychology." The newspaper Another church member came to our house and told us that also stated that Guillermin had "completed" graduate studies God would bring retribution against us for speaking out against toward a masters degree in educational administration at the "the holy man" (meaning Falwell). University of Virginia and a doctorate of philosophy degree No, I did not find the principle of pluralism working at in religious education. The newspaper clips were released to Liberty Baptist College. To me, the concept connotes an the public from 1967 to 1973. Both the University of London atmosphere of open dialogue, of shifting perspectives. It and the University of Virginia denied that A. Pierre Guillermin should be an environment of freedom and exchange—not had earned degrees from their schools. The University of Lon- indoctrination, not intimidation. Pluralism exists in a liberal don had never heard of him. President Guillermin does have a arts setting: one questions and tries out. To "get fired" and be degree from St. Andrew's Ecumenical Foundation University escorted away from my job by armed guards for theological in London, a nonaccredited school listed in the National reasons and for writing an article in an American magazine is Association Foreign Student Advisory as awarding one of the not to be expected in a place of higher learning. "bogus degrees from the United Kingdom" (NAFSA Newsletter, Though academic freedom and religious expression February 1982, p. 91). in America are in a "strained" polarity, still they are not Another favorite saying of Falwell's (with a twist of irony opposites—fighting for private positions, lobbying for the in it) is: "We believe in supporting pluralism. This country lead. The relationship is meant to be one of each pulling the was founded on it." Yet in chapel he calls homosexuals other into the other, but never destroying (or interfering with) "kooks." He talks about Madalyn O'Hair going out of busi- the other. Never should one wipe out the other or overpower ness. Yet he would not tolerate this professor's appearance on the other. Religion and academic excellence should be able to Christian television. (It would be charismatic.) He does not sleep in the same camp. Indeed, the intellectual lion and the allow his faculty or staff to attend any other church in Lynch- spiritual lamb should be able to lie down together in this burg without special permission. All of his faculty and staff country. who are members of his congregation are required to tithe 10 Such is my understanding of pluralism. I do not think percent of their income to his church. Falwell denies secular Jerry Falwell and I share the same definition. •

18 Join us for FREE INQUIRY'S third national conference. Armageddon and Biblical Apocalyptic: Are We Living in the Last Days? Monday, February 27, 1984 at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles Campus University Park, Los Angeles Sponsored by FREE INQUIRY and the Religion and Biblical Criticism Research Project, and the Speaker's Bureau of the University of Southern California

8:00 - 9:00 A.M. Registration

Morning: Hancock Auditorium 9:30 A.M. - 12:30 P.M. Moderator: Paul Kurtz (Professor of Philosophy, SUNY at Buffalo)

John Priest (Professor and Chairman of the Department of Religion, Florida State University): "Just What Is Biblical Apocalyptic?"

Randel Helms (Associate Professor of English, University of Arizona): "The Nature and Danger of Apocalyptic Thinking"

Joseph E. Barnhart (Professor of Philosophy, Northern Texas State University): "Apocalypse Macabre: Evangelicalism's Ultimate Obscenity"

Afternoon: Hancock Auditorium 2:00 - 5:00 P.M. Moderator: Gerald Larue, Professor Emeritus of Archaeology and Biblical Studies, University of Southern California at Los Angeles

Robert S. Alley (Professor of Humanities, University of Richmond): "The Bible as an Engine of American Foreign Policy"

Michael Arnheim (Professor of Ancient History, Cambridge University): "Isaiah and Christianity"

R. Joseph Hoffmann (Director of Studies in Early Christianity, Department of Near Eastern Studies, University of Michigan): "Postponing the End-Time: Disconfirmation and Expectation in the New Testament"

Evening: Boyard Auditorium 7:30 - 9:00 P.M. Hal Lindsay, Author of The Late Great Planet Earth: "Biblical Prophecy and Modern Times" (Sponsored by the USC Student Council)

9:00 - 10:00 I'. M. Gerald Larue, John Priest, and James Robinson (Director of the Institute for Antiquity and Christianity, Claremont College): "Apocalyptic Epilogue"

Speakers are still being added to the program. The registration fee is $25.00. For further details, contact Gerald A. Larue, 11757 Mayfield Avenue, Brentwood, California 90049, (213) 826-8O70. For room reservations contact the University Hilton, 3540 South Figueroa Street, Los Angeles, Calif. 90007, (213) 748-4141.

Winter 1983/84 19 The Mormon Church

The Salt Lake Temple

Introduction

Mormonism—the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day can be baptized by proxy and thus join their relatives in Saints—claims a worldwide membership of 5.2 million. the hereafter. Because of these beliefs, Mormons have It is one of the world's fastest growing religions, with as been considered outcasts by mainline Christian denomi- many as 200,000 new converts in 1982 alone. Because of nations and as heretics by religious fundamentalists. the church's aggressive missionary program, covering Joseph Smith was a controversial figure in his day— more than one hundred countries, it is spreading even to he was both worshiped as a saint and denounced as a third-world countries. fraud. Because of persecution he led his band of loyal Mormonism is both puritanical in moral outlook followers from Palmyra, New York, westward to Ohio and evangelical in preachment. The church is run along and then to Illinois, where in 1844 he was shot to death strict authoritarian lines. Led by a president, who alleg- by an angry mob. Brigham Young, who reportedly had edly receives revelations directh' from God, and a group as many as eighty wives, took over the leadership of the of twelve apostles who attempt to maintain orthodoxy in church and led the Mormons further westward, to found belief and practice, the church is opposed to abortion, the new Zion in Salt Lake City. Following the teachings pornography, sexual freedom, women's rights, and other, of Joseph Smith in the practice of polygamy was perhaps in its view, immoral influences of secular society, and it the Mormons most controversial practice in nineteenth- forbids the use of tobacco, alcohol, coffee, and tea. century America. Centered in Salt Lake City, the church is extremely While other religions go back many centuries— wealthy and politically powerful in Utah and many other Muhammadanism, 1,200 years; Christianity, 2,000; and western states. Among well-known present-day Mormons Judaism, 3,000—and attempts to examine their begin- are Ezra Tqft Benson (former secretary of agriculture), nings are difficult, extensive historical investigation of the Osmond family, the Marriotts of the hotel empire, Mormon roots is possible. We have with Mormonism a and a score of high-placed government officials. case history of the birth of a religion and its growth and The Mormon church was founded in western New persistence. Some Mormons are willing to examine this York in 1830 by Joseph Smith, who claimed that by history objectively, but others maintain that such scru- divine revelation he had found gold plates containing tiny is dangerous to the faith. hieroglyphics buried on a hill and that with the help of In the following pages, FREE INQc iRy presents two visits from the angel Moroni he had been able to trans- articles about the Mormon church. First, George D. late the writing into the Book of Mormon, the basis of Smith, a lifelong member of the church, provides a de- Mormon belief This book, written "by the command- tailed critical examination of Joseph Smith and his claim ment of God, "claims that the ancient Hebrews settled in that the Book of Mormon was divinely revealed. Second, America about 600 B.c.E. and were the ancestors of the we present a portion of an interview with philosopher American Indians. Mormons believe that those who have Sterling McMurrin, also a Mormon since birth, who been baptized in the "true church" will be reunited after questions the treatment of the history of the church by death and that deceased non-Mormon family members Mormon authorities.—Paul Kurtz

20 Joseph Smith and the Book of Mormon

George D. Smith

In March 1830, Joseph Smith, a twenty-five-year-old farmer in and a faithful following that is still increasing, almost 140 western New York State, produced the Book of Mormon, years after his murder in 1844. Within nine months of the claiming it to be a record of the Hebrew ancestors of the founding of the church with six friends and family members American Indian that he had translated from "reformed on April 6, 1830, Joseph Smith took his flock of sixty to Egyptian" characters engraved on gold plates. He said that Kirtland, Ohio (near Cleveland), and gained 150 converts from these plates had been buried in about A.D. 420 on a hill near the literalistic Disciples of Christ. In two years, the number of his home and that an angel had told him where to find them. converts totaled about two thousand, and at the time of Joseph On January 4, 1833, "by commandment of God," Joseph Smith Smith's death, about twenty thousand.' The Mormon church described this work to N. E. Seaton, a Rochester, New York, (Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) currently records newspaper editor, as recorded in the History of the Church:' over five million members, with adherents on every continent.5 Such growth can be attributed to several events and per- sonalities, but the Book of Mormon was so important that The Book of Mormon is a record of the forefathers of our 6 Diaries western tribes of Indians, having been found through the Joseph Smith termed it "the keystone of our religion." ministrations of an holy angel, and translated into our language and letters of early converts to the Church of Christ (as the by the gift and power of God, after having been hid up in the early Mormon church was called') point to the Book of Mor- earth for the last 1,400 years, containing the word of God mon and to the charisma of Joseph Smith as the primary which was delivered unto them.... By it we learn that our sources of the conviction that they had found the "restored western tribes of Indians are descendants from that Joseph church."8 In 1851, Mormon apostle and missionary Orson which was sold into Egypt, and that the land of America is a Pratt wrote: promised land unto them .... The Book of Mormon claims to be a divinely inspired record, written by a succession of prophets who inhabited Ancient Joseph Smith reportedly used a "seer stone" to translate America.... the Book of Mormon from the gold plates.2 Four years earlier, This book must be either true or false. If true, it is one of he had attempted to use such a stone to look for buried treas- the most important messages ever sent from God to man.... ure. At that time, he was brought to trial as a "glass-looker" If false, it is one of the most cunning, wicked, bold, deep-laid and an imposter and was convicted of disorderly conduct.3 impositions ever palmed upon the world.... In contrast to his early experience with the seer stone, the The nature of the message in the Book of Mormon is Book of Mormon brought Joseph Smith international renown such, that if true, no one can possibly be saved and reject it....9

In 1923, LDS general authority and historian B. H. George Smith is president of Roberts warned church president Heber J. Grant that "Main- Signature Books, which pub- tenance of the truth of the Book of Mormon is absolutely lishes the works of authors in essential to the integrity of the whole Mormon movement, for the Mormon community. He it is inconceivable that the Book of Mormon should be untrue has written for Dialogue and in its origin and character and the Church of Jesus Christ of Sunstone, two intellectual Mor- Latter-day Saints to be a true church.") This literalistic true- mon magazines. false dichotomy continues today as Mormon leaders assert both that "this is the only true church" and that the Book of Mormon is a literal history)'

Winter 1983/84 21 The Book of Mormon

Written primarily in the style of the King James Version of the Bible, the Book of Mormon relates the history of two emigrant peoples who leave the Middle East and sail to the New World: the "Jaredites" from the Tower of Babel, and later, the "Neph- ites" and the "Lamanites" from Jerusalem.''- The Jaredites came first, after the "Lord confounded the language of the people" when they displeased Him by building the Tower of Babel. The language of Jared's family was not confounded because the brother of Jared was "a man highly favored of the Lord." Instead, the Lord taught the Jaredites how to make boats that were "tight like unto a dish" and led them across the ocean "into a land which is choice above all the other lands of the earth." The Jaredites became numerous and spread out over "all the face of the land." Joseph Smith later wrote that they "covered the whole continent from sea to sea, with towns and cities."13 After many generations, they became proud and sin- ful. According to the Book of Mormon, the Jaredites destroyed one another completely, long before the second wave of Hebrew migration to the America's around 600 B.C.E. The Book of Mormon's Nephites and Lamanites were descendents of Lehi, a prophet who was warned by the Lord to flee Jerusalem before it was taken by Babylon (in 587 B.c.E). Like the earlier Jaredites, the Nephites and Lamanites sail to the New World and "cover the whole face of the land, both on the northward and on the southward, from the sea west to the Joseph Smith From an oil painting by Majors, made in Nauvoo sea east."" However, the Lamanites "dwindle in unbelief" and As a "new witness" for Christ, the Book of Mormon "God did cause a skin of blackness to come upon them." united the New World with the Old. Ever since the Spanish Because of this curse they became "dark and loathsome, ... an discovered the Americas in the fifteenth century, the authority idle people, full of mischief and subtlety,"15 and eventually of the Bible had been challenged for making no mention of the exterminated the light-skinned Nephites, who were mostly American Indian—or of America. This omission seemed to hard-working, pious, and peaceful. nullify the supposedly universal salvation of Christianity as well as the reliability of the creation accounts in Genesis.16 The "In March 1830 Joseph Smith produced the Book of Book of Mormon included the American Indian within the Mormon . . . translated from `reformed Egyptian' gospel of Christ, and its accounts of Hebrew migrations to the characters engraved on gold plates." New World traced Indian lineage back to the creation nar- ratives. Joseph Smith had joined the battle against the Deists and other skeptics who questioned the validity of the Bible. About A.D. 421, one of the last Nephite survivors, Moroni, son of Mormon, abridger of the plates, "seals up the records of Revivalism and Egyptian Translations his people." (The Nephites were inveterate record-keepers, in- scribing their important records on gold plates.) The reasons for acceptance of the Book of Mormon may For hundreds of years, the plates lay hidden in the hill be as many as the number of converts. However, it is clear where Moroni had buried them. In 1823, Moroni, by that time that Joseph Smith's story appealed especially to frontier people an angel, appeared to Joseph Smith and told him about the who wanted clear and definite answers to their religious ques- plates. In 1827, after yearly conversations with Moroni, Joseph tions. The controversies among Protestant groups made people Smith received the plates and began the work of translation. profoundly uneasy. Unitarians rejected the trinitarian view of The most remarkable event in the Book of Mormon is a three-person God. Deists rejected the biblical portrayal of an Christ's visit to America in A.D. 34. After his resurrection and arbitrary, vindictive, and cruel God and advocated the study ascension into heaven, Jesus appears to the Nephites and re- of nature as true theology. To counter the movement of peats several of the miracles depicted in the New Testament. "Rationalism," the churches launched the Second Great Awak- He also heals the sick, retells (with variations) the Sermon on ening, a wave of revival meetings in search of spiritual conver- the Mount, picks twelve apostles—Nephi, Timothy, Jonas, sions. There were claims of divine intervention and warnings Mathoni, Mathonihah, Kumen, Kumenonhi, Jeremiah, Shem- of an imminent end to the world. William Miller announced to non, Jonas, Zedekiah, and Isaiah (3 Nephi 19:4)—administers his Seventh-Day Adventists that Jesus would visit the earth in a sacrament of bread and wine, and recites a version of the March 1843 and begin the millennium.'? In the History of the "Lord's Prayer" (3 Nephi 11-28). Church, Joseph Smith described the time immediately preced-

22 Incoiror ing his first vision as a period of "great confusion and bad feeling" with "no small stir and division amongst the people, some crying `lo, here!' and others, `lo, there!' " So intense and prolonged were the religious excitement and contention in western New York (where Joseph Smith lived) at this time, that it was called the "burned-over district."1R The first part of the nineteenth century was dominated by romanticism, reflected in a high regard for originality and Hill Cumorah Courtesy of the Utah State Historical Society emotional sincerity. Strong feeling was considered a surer guide translations presented were "correct, more so than any he had to truth than reason. Joseph Smith's personal testimony to the before seen translated from the Egyptian." Professor Anthon, truth of his new church swayed many people. To this testi- on the other hand, declared in a letter of February 17, 1834: mony, the Book of Mormon added evidence that the "only "The whole story about having pronounced the Mormonite true church" of Christ had been restored. His followers were inscription to be `reformed Egyptian hieroglphyics' is perfectly convinced that Joseph Smith must have been directed by God. false." He described the paper brought by Martin Harris as Their prophet was as unschooled as they were. How could he consisting of "all kinds of crooked characters disposed in possibly have created the Book of Mormon on his own? columns, and had evidently been prepared by some person Many nineteenth-century theologians, of course, scoffed who had before him at the time a book containing various at the idea that Christ had visited the Americas, but the more alphabets. Greek and Hebrew letters, crosses and flourishes, credulous welcomed the news. A strong spirit of nationalism, Roman perpendicular columns, and the whole ended in a rude along with pride in America and its future, was abroad in the delineation of a circle divided into various compartments, land. The idea of an American religion was welcomed by many decked with various strange marks, and evidently copied in patriotric citizens. such a way as not to betray the source whence it was derived.22 People were accustomed to looking to the Bible for ex- Five years after the Book of Mormon was published, the planations of any mystery. Discoveries in philology, geology, Mormon prophet claimed to have made another translation and anthropology would have a great impact on religion, but from Egyptian. In 1835, at Kirtland, Ohio, Joseph Smith paid at this time people felt there could be no real conflict between a collector $6,000 for four mummies. From the papyrus scrolls science and religion. Because religion was considered "true," found with the mummies, he translated the "Book of Abra- scientific discoveries must naturally support biblical explana- ham," including an account of the Creation attributed to the tions. The "Hebrew tribes" explanation of Indian origins sup- Old Testament patriarch. Subsequently, scholars have identi- ported the Bible and at this time seemed reasonable. fied these papyri as funerary scrolls from the Egyptain Book of Egyptian theories of Indian origins accompanied Hebrew Breathings, commonly buried with the dead.23 theories. The discovery of huge burial mounds made by un- On April 23, 1843, a group of men recovered six bell- known Indian groups who had long since disappeared made shaped brass plates covered with "hieroglyphics" from an old people wonder if the American Indian could be related to the earth-mound outside of Kinderhook, Illinois, near Nauvoo. ancient pyramid-builders of Egypt (who had, of course, been The "Kinderhook plates" were brought to Joseph Smith, who mentioned several times in the Bible). Stories of the Mayan pronounced them to be genuine and began to translate them. pyramids in Central America enhanced speculation about the His diary for May 1, 1843, reads: "I have translated a portion ancient civilization of mound-builders. These mounds dotted of them and find that they contain the history of the person the countryside of Ohio and western New York and eight such with whom they were found. He was a descendent of Ham mounds were located within twelve miles of the Smith farm in through the loins of Pharaoh, King of Egypt, and that he Palmyra.19 received his kingdom from the Ruler of heaven and earth" Nineteenth-century interest in the mysterious Egyptian (History of the Church, vol. 5, p. 372). Photographs of the six language followed Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1799. plates were included in the History of the Church (vol. 5, pp. Egyptian artifacts circulated through the museums of Europe 374-76). and America, and the puzzling hieroglyphics enchanted both It was later discovered that the Kinderhook plates were professional linguists and amateurs alike.20 Indian picture fabricated by Joseph Smith's enemies to entrap him into pre- writing was often compared to Egyptian hieroglyphics.21 tending to translate a writing that was not genuine. On June The "Reformed Egyptian" inscriptions upon the Book of 30, 1879, Wilbur Fugate, one of the nine men who recovered Mormon plates were carefully concealed. Witnessed "in a the plates, confessed in a letter that they were a "humbug" cut vision" and authenticated only by Joseph Smith's close asso- out of copper, etched with acid, rusted with nitric oxide, old ciates, the gold plates were taken away "by an angel" and were iron, and lead, and buried under a flat rock eight feet deep in a never available for scholarly examination. mound (Wilbur Fugate to James T. Cobb, June 30, 1879, However, in 1828, Martin Harris, an associate of Joseph printed in the Improvement Era, Sept. 1962, p. 660). Smith, took a facsimile of the Book of Mormon inscriptions, Sophisticated tests have proved that Kinderhook plate No. prepared by the prophet, to Professor Charles Anthon of 5 (recovered from the Chicago Historical Society) is a brass Columbia University. In the History of the Church, Joseph alloy "typical of the mid-nineteenth century" and was etched Smith reported that Anthon said that the characters were with acid. Mormon scholar Stanley P. Kimball described the "true" Egyptian, Chaldaic, Assyriac, and Arabic and that the results of the "sophisticated analytical" tests performed by a

Winter 1983/84 23 Northwestern University materials engineer in 1980 and con- Mormon writers have suggested a possible relationship between cluded, "The time has come to admit that the Kinderhook the story of the Book of Mormon and the Masonic legend of plate incident of 1843 was a light-hearted, heavy-handed, fron- the gold plate of Enoch. tier-style prank, or 'joke' as the perpetrators themselves called As Masonry (and anti-Masonic agitation) spread through- it" (Mormon History Association Newsletter, June 1981; tests out the early nineteenth century, hardworking, often poverty- reported in The Ensign, August 1981). stricken frontier people were fascinated by the Masonic legend of a buried treasure, the treasure of Enoch, which was said to "In spite of all the evidence to the contrary, faithful have been hidden beneath a sacred hill. A University of Utah Mormons still accept Joseph Smith's `translations' from English professor, Jack Adamson, wrote, " ... almost every element of the legend seems to have an analogue of some kind the Egyptian as literally `true.' " in the history of Joseph Smith or in the scripture which he produced." Considering the possible relationship between The stories of the Book of Mormon gold plates, the "Book Masonic legends and Jewish cabalistic lore, there are many of Abraham" papyrus, and the Kinderhook plates form a pat- cabalistic undertones in both the Book of Mormon and in tern of claiming to translate divine messages from inscriptions Joseph Smith's "revelations" to the church (recorded in the in the unknown Egyptian language. In spite of all the evidence Doctrine and Covenants).29 to the contrary, faithful Mormons still accept Joseph Smith's Some of the Book of Mormon resembles Joseph Smith's "translations" from the Egyptian as literally "true."24 own personal experiences. Nephi, the nominal author of the first books, begins, "I, Nephi, having been born of goodly Sources of the Book of Mormon parents," just as Joseph Smith begins his autobiography: "I was born in the town of Charon ... of goodly parents."30 Joseph Smith's family was easily convinced of his supernatural Like Joseph Smith, Nephi has five brothers, two of them older; calling. Perhaps they were only hysterical responses to the two brothers in each family share the same names, Joseph and revivalistic fervor of the times, but many people in the "burned- Samuel. Nephi's unkind older brother, Lemuel, has the same over" area had reported seeing visions and hearing voices. name as a neighbor of the Smiths, Lemuel Durphee, who Members of the Smith family were no exception. In her Bio- signed an affidavit in 1833 charging Joseph Smith with im- graphical Sketches of Joseph Smith, the Prophet ... , Joseph moral character.31 Nephi even includes a prophecy of Joseph Smith's mother, Lucy Smith, relates her own visions, and those Smith's own coming, calling him "a choice seer" and predicting of her father and her sister Louisa. She describes her brother that his name would be called Joseph, "after the name of his Jason as a professional faith-healer. Joseph Smith's father father. "32 apparently also had visions, one of which seems to anticipate Nephi's father, Lehi, relates a vision that closely remembles his son's story of finding a box of gold plates with the help of a dream that Joseph Smith's father was said to have had in an "angel." Lucy Smith describes her husband's "first vision" 1811, nineteen years before the Book of Mormon was pub- wherein he was walking with "an attendant spirit" who told lished. His dream was recorded by his wife, Lucy Smith, in her him he would discover "on a certain log a box, the contents of Biographical Sketches.33 which, if you eat thereof, will make you wise, and give you wisdom and understanding." He dropped the box, however, when he came across "all manner of beasts, horned cattle, and roaring animals."25 A visitor to the Smith family around 1830 later wrote: "Joseph Smith, Senior, we soon learned, from his own lips, was a firm believer in witchcraft and other supernatural things; and had brought up his family in the same belief."26 In that same interview, Joseph Smith, Senior, was said to look for buried money using a divining rod, a precursor to his son's digging for hidden treasures using a "seer stone" in a hat. Mormon historian B. H. Roberts acknowledged that some of Joseph Smith's ancestors "believed in fortune telling, in war- locks and witches."27 Joseph Smith's occult practices were examined in 1974 by LDS Institute of Religion director, Reed C. Durham. Before the Mormon History Association, Dr. Durham described the "Jupiter Talisman" that Joseph Smith was wearing at the time of his death. An occult object related to astrology and magic, the Jupiter Talisman contained cabalistic Hebrew letters with numerical equivalents.28 Since both Joseph Smith and his brother Hyrum were Masons (Joseph, in 1842, and Hyrum, in about 1827), some Lucy Smith Courtesy of the Utah State Historical Society

24 ~S~@ SaYy Herald asserted that the nature of the artifacts "clearly prove A Comparison of Lehi's Vision them to be the work of some other people," concluding that and Joseph Smith, Senior's, Dream "what wonderful catastrophe destroyed the first inhabitants is beyond the researches of the best scholar and greatest anti- Vision of Lehi, Book of quarian." In the May 26, 1819, Palmyra Register, the demise Dream of Joseph Smith, Senior(1811) Mormon (1830) of civilized ancestors is explained: "This country was once inhabited by a race of people, at least, partially civilized, and ... this race had been exterminated by the forefathers of the 1 had traveled . 1 beheld 1 thought I was traveling in present and late tribes of Indians in this country." ... a large and spacious field. an open, desolate field. The local press also suggested that the undeciphered Egyptian language might be the same as that used on ancient ... away into the broad roads, "Broad is the road, and wide American documents that had been recently discovered. On is the gate that leads to death that they perish and are lost June I, 1827, the Wayne Sentinel presented an account of a ... " 1 came to a narrow . . . And I also beheld a path. straight and narrow path. Mexican (Mayan) manuscript written in hieroglyphics that was considered proof that early inhabitants of Mexico and Egypt I beheld a beautiful stream of 1 beheld a river ... a rod of "had intercourse with each other, and ... had the same water ... I could see a rope iron; and it extended along the system of mythology." A View of the Hebrews, by Ethan Smith running along the bank of it bank of the river. (no relation to Joseph), first published about forty miles from Joseph Smith's birthplace in 1823, seven years before the Book of Mormon, described some Indian inscriptions as "hiero- ... a tree ... bore a kind of 1 beheld a tree, whose fruit glyphic records and paintings."35 fruit ... as white as snow was desireable ... did exceed The Hebrew origin of the American Indian had been pos- 1 found it delicious beyond the whiteness of the driven tulated by writers since the colonial period. Well-known description ... 1 went and snow ... 1 began to be de- preachers, such as William Penn, Roger Williams, Cotton brought my family. sireous that my family should Mather, and Jonathan Edwards, had all considered the Amer- partake of it also.... ican Indian to be a remnant of the Lost Ten Tribes of Israel. The historian Hubert Howe Bancroft acknowledged that "the ... a great and spacious 1 beheld a spacious building theory that the Americans are of Jewish origin has been dis- ... filled with people who building ... And it was filled cussed more minutely and at greater length than any other." were very finely dressed ... with people ... their manner they pointed the finger of of dress was exceeding fine Josiah Priest advocated that view in 1825 and later referred to scorn at us ... we utterly ... they did point the finger forty-six authors who espoused similar views, adding that "the disregarded. of scorn at me and those who opinion that the American Indians are descendants of the Lost were partaking of the fruit. Ten Tribes is now a popular one and generally believed."36 but we heeded them not. In A View of the Hebrews. Ethan Smith quotes the Ger- man explorer Baron von Humboldt, who held that: "Israel brought into this new continent a considerable degree of civili- zation; and the better part of them long laboured to maintain In addition to these specific autobiographical elements in it. But others fell into the hunting and consequent savage state; the Book of Mormon, Joseph Smith's mother revealed that whose barbarous hordes invaded their more civilized brethren, young Joseph enjoyed telling elaborate stories about ancient and eventually annihilated most of them" (p. 184). The story Indian civilizations:14 of the Nephites and Lamanites seems to follow this script. The similarities between the Book of Mormon and A View of the Hebrews are pervasive. In the opening chapters, During our evening conversations, Joseph would occasionally both authors write of the destruction of Jerusalem and the give us the most amusing recitals that could be imagined. He would describe the ancient inhabitants of this continent, their scattering of Israel, then predict the gathering of Israel in its dress, mode of traveling, and the animals upon which they own land. Isaiah is quoted extensively by both authors in rode; their cities, their buildings, with every particular; their support of this prediction. The Book of Mormon incorporates mode of warfare; and also their religious worship. This he eighteen chapters of Isaiah nearly verbatim. would do with as much ease, seemingly, as if he had spent his Whereas Ethan Smith traces the American Indians to "ten whole life with them. tribes of Israel" (p. 85), the Book of Mormon describes their Nephite ancestors as coming from mainly two tribes, Ephraim Stories of the mysterious Indian burial mounds and spec- and Manasseh, along with some "Mulekites" from the tribe of ulations about the origin of ancient civilizations appeared in Judah. The Book of Mormon Jaredites are not unlike Ethan local newspapers before the Book of Mormon appeared. On Smith's "lost tribes." The tribes in both stories journeyed north- January 21, 1818, the Palmyra Register referred to the mound- ward into a valley and crossed the sea to an uninhabited land builders as a lost race killed in battle that "had made much — "where there never had man been" (Book of Mormon, greater advances in the arts and civilized life" than any con- Ether 2:5) vs. "where man never dwelt" (A View of the temporary Indian races. On February 19, 1823, the Palmyra Hebrews, p. 75).

Winter 1983/84 25 Both books told of inspired prophets among the ancient Biblical Sources for the Book of Mormon Americans, who were a highly civilized people. In each story, savage tribes destroyed their civilized brethren in a final great In ways that are problematic, the text of the Book of Mormon battle. Here, the Book of Mormon seems to follow the error of incorporates numerous passages from the King James Version prevalent folklore, by presuming, like Ethan Smith, the use of of the Bible. Of the approximately 27,000 words of text taken iron and steel weapons in a stone age culture.37 The savage from the Bible, a significant amount consists of New Testament group had been "judged" (A View of the Hebrews) or "cursed" passages used in stories dated earlier than Jesus.42 As a result, (Book of Mormon Lamanites) by God and had become idle the Book of Mormon presents New Testament language and hunters in the wilderness. ideas in an Old Testament time-frame. The biblical source of In both accounts, sacred records, handed down from gen- many Book of Mormon passages is confirmed by the inclusion eration to generation, were buried in a hill and then found of the italicized English words interpolated in the King James years later. Ethan Smith related an Indian tradition "that the translation from Hebrew to make the Bible read more smoothly. book which the white people have was once theirs," that The Book of Mormon also uses old Testament passages "having lost the knowledge of reading it ... they buried it of a time represented as earlier than that of the Hebrew with an Indian Chief." He tells of some Hebrew parchments prophets. Here, Nephi, who is supposed to have kept his "dug up ... on Indian Hill (near Pittsfield, Massachusetts)... records 550 years before Christ, apparently quotes Malachi, probably from an Indian grave" and speculates that this could who lived nearly 150 years later. have been once possessed by a "leading character in Israel" and could have been buried with him when he died.38 Similar For, behold, the day cometh that shall burn as an oven; and ideas are found in the Nephite figure Mormon's description of all the proud, yea, and all that do wickedly, shall be stubble; and the day cometh that shall burn them up. [Malachi 4:1] burying sacred "records which had been handed down by our father," burying them up "in the Hill Cumorah" (Mormon ... shall the Son of righteousness arise with healings in his 6:6). wings. [Malachi 4:2] Both authors identify the American Indians as the "stick of Joseph or Ephraim" (from the northern Ten Tribes of Israel) Similar passages from Nephi: that is expected to be reunited with the "stick of Judah" (the Jews of the southern kingdom of Judah). (See Ezek. For behold, said the prophet, ... the day soon cometh that all 37:16-17.) In 1830, advertising circulars portrayed the Book the proud and they who do wickedly shall be as stubble; and of Mormon as "the stick of Joseph taken from the hand of the day cometh that they must be burned. [ 1 Nephi 22:15] Ephraim. "39 Both texts advocated the mission of the American nation Wherefore, all those who are proud, and that do wickedly, the in the last days to gather these Indian remnants of the house day that cometh shall burn them up, ... for they shall be as of Israel and convert them to Christianity, thus fulfilling stubble. [2 Nephi 26:4] prophecy and bringing about the millennium.40 After examining the numerous similarities between these He shall rise from the dead with healing in his wings. [2 Nephi two nineteenth-century works, Mormon historian and General 25:13] Authority Brigham H. Roberts wrote:41 But the Son of righteousness shall appear unto them; and he Did Ethan Smith's View of the Hebrews furnish structural shall heal them. [2 Nephi 26:9] material for Joseph Smith's Book of Mormon? It has been pointed out in these pages that there are many things in the There are two difficulties with representing Nephi as former book that might well have suggested many major things in the other. Not a few things merely, one or two, or a half quoting the later writings of Malachi. First, Malachi's words dozen, but many; and it is this fact of many things of similarity are quoted prematurely. Second, since Nephi is described as and the cumulative forces of them, that makes them so serious leaving Jerusalem for the New World at about 600 a.C.E., he a menace to Joseph Smith's story of the Book of Mormon's would not have had access to any Old Testament writings later origin. than that, even if they were quoted in a proper time-frame. Like Malachi's, some of the Old Testament writings of Isaiah were quoted in the context of a time earlier than that in which they were actually written. Nephi is made to repeat parts of Isaiah written after the Babylonian captivity of Jeru- salem in 587 [ice., and long after Nephi had allegedly sailed for America.43

The Book of Mormon Today

Acceptance of the Book of Mormon as the literal history of American Indian progenitors is still a main tenet of the Mor- 0liver Cowdery Martin Harris David Whitmer mon faith. Twice a year at nationally televised "General Con- The Three Witnesses to the Book of Mormon

26 9 ferences" Mormon General Authorities testify that an angel authors of articles of inquiry about subjects dealing with delivered to Joseph Smith for translation the history of the Mormon origins and history.49 Hebrew ancestors of the American Indian, a people whom Only a small number of LDS students confront the over- Jesus visited after his resurrection. This message is reinforced whelming evidence of contemporary source material used by in weekly Sunday school lessons, "correlated" to reaffirm these Joseph Smith when he translated the Book of Mormon. Still, "truths" and to exclude any doubtful material. Seminary and many Mormons continue to look for answers to questions that Institute of Religion classes present LDS high school and col- challenge their faith. lege students with "faithful history"—putting faith first and In a letter to church president Heber J. Grant et al. dated using "history" that is edited to strengthen testimonies in the December 29, 1921, church historian B. H. Roberts wrote: "I literal truth of Mormon origins, especially in the Book of am thoroughly convinced of the necessity of all the brethren Mormon.44 herein addressed becoming thoroughly familiar with these Book Nevertheless, some Mormons have characterized the Book of Mormon problems, and finding the answer for them, as it is of Mormon, not as literal history, but as inspired allegory—a a matter that will concern the faith of the Youth of the Church story to express the inspired communication received by Joseph now as also in the future ... "50 Smith. Others view it as uninspired allegory. Notes "The membership of the Mormon church is taught not I. History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, 7 vols., to `question the mysteries': 'When the Prophet speaks, B. H. Roberts, ed. (Salt Lake City: Deseret, 1974), vol. I, pp. 315, 326, the thinking has been done.' hereafter cited as History of the Church. 2. When digging in a well in 1822, Joseph Smith found "a chocolate- colored, somewhat egg-shaped stone," which he used as a "seer-stone" The Mormon belief-system has survived many assaults (B. H. Roberts, Comprehensive History of the Church of Jesus Christ of from science and history.45 When discovery of the Bering Strait Latter-day Saints, 6 vols. (Salt Lake City: Deseret, 1930), vol. I, p. 129. He migrations seemed to invalidate the Indian origin premise of reportedly used the "Urim and Thummin" (two stones in a breastplate found the Book of Mormon, some Mormon scholars adopted a with the gold plates) to translate the first 116 pages, which were then lost. According to his wife, he used the seer stone to translate what became "limited region" theory of Nephite occupation of the New published as the Book of Mormon. She wrote, "Now the first that my World; church authorities, however, preferred Joseph Smith's husband translated, was translated by use of the Urim and Thummin, and initial revelation on the subject.46 In a similar manner, the faith that was the part that Martin Harris [Joseph's scribe] lost, after that he used has survived the Anthon statement that Joseph Smith's fac- a small stone, not exactly black, but was rather a dark color" (Emma Smith simile of Book of Mormon characters was meaningless, and Bidamon to a Mrs. Pilgrim, March 27, 1876, held by the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of latter Day Saints Library, Independence, Mis- the discrediting of Joseph Smith's "Book of Abraham" transla- souri, referred to in Fawn Brodie, No Man Knows. Mr History, 2nd ed. tions from papyrus scrolls. [New York: Knopf, 1971], p. 43). The membership of the Mormon church is taught not to David Whitmer, a scribe of Joseph Smith and one of three witnesses to "question the mysteries": "When the Prophet speaks, the think- the Book of Mormon, further describes the "translation" process: "I will ing has been done." Feeling is placed over evidence, spirit over now give you a description of the manner in which the Book of Mormon was translated. Joseph Smith would put the seer stone into a hat, and put science, and faith over history. Feeling, spirit, and faith reflect his face in the hat, drawing it closely around his face to exclude the light; instruction from church leaders, confirmed by personal prayer and in the darkness the spiritual light would shine. A piece of something and study. The message is obedience.47 resembling parchment would appear, and on that appeared the writing. One When Mormon General Authority and historian B. H. character at a time would appear, and under it was the interpretation in Roberts addressed the church leadership on "Book of Mor- English. Brother Joseph would read off the English to Oliver Cowdery, who was his principal scribe, and when it was written down and repeated by mon Problems," they responded with disinterested silence. In a Brother Joseph to see if it was correct, then it would disappear, and another January 9, 1922, letter to church president Heber J. Grant, character with the interpretation would appear. Thus the Book of Mormon Roberts complained, "There was so much said that was utterly was translated by the gift and power of God, and not by any power of man" irrelevant, and so little said, if anything at all, that was helpful (David Whitmer, An Address to All Believers in Christ [Richmond, Mo., in the manors at issue that I came away from the conference 1887], p. 13, quoted in Richard Van Wagoner and Steven Walker, "Joseph Smith: 'The Gift of Seeing,' " in Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought quite disappointed ... I cannot be other than painfully con- 15. no. 2 [Summer 1982], pp. 48-68). scious of the fact that our means of defense should we be Joseph Smith's wife, Emma, explained that during the translation pro- vigorously attacked along the lines of Mr. Couch's questions cess the plates were not used but lay close by, wrapped in a tablecloth [on problems of archaeology, language, and Indian origins], (interview by her son, Joseph Smith Ill, in Saints' Herald, Oct. I, 1879, vol. are very inadequate."" 26, no. 19, pp. 289-90, cited by James E. Lancaster in "The Method of Translation of the Book of Mormon," John Whitmer Historical Association Those who make their questions public risk being excom- Journal (Lamoni, Iowa) 3 (1983), p. 52. municated, as were historian and author Fawn Brodie (niece 3. In October 1825, Josiah Stowell, an established farmer of South of prophet David O. McKay) and, by their own request, the Bainbridge, New York, hired Joseph Smith for fourteen dollars a month to now anti-Mormon writers Jerald and Sandra Tanner (great- discern by means of a seer stone the location of a lost silver mine in the granddaughter of Brigham Young). Mormon scholars who Susquehanna Valley, Pennsylvania. Unsuccessful in his efforts, Joseph Smith was tried for disorderly conduct on March 20, 1826, in Bainbridge, New express their questions in a context of faith are sometimes York. and "by most accounts was convicted" (Donna Hill, Joseph Smith: subjected to pressure from church leaders. The Salt Lake The First Mormon [Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1977]. pp. 61-66). Tribune recently reported such an "inquisition" of fourteen In 1971, among Chenango County, New York, court documents, the

Winter 1983/84 27 Reverend Wesley P. Walters discovered a bill of court costs for 1826 which, Orson Pratt's Works (Liverpool: Pratt, 1851), p. I. like the published court record, mentioned the trial of "Joseph Smith the 10. Cover letter with Roberts's published paper "A Book of Mormon Glass Looker" on the same date as recorded in the published account of the Study," to church president Heber J. Grant et al., March 15, 1923, in trial, and stated the same $2.68 trial fee (Jerald and Sandra Tanner, The University of Utah Special Collections, Salt Lake City, quoted in George D. ('hanging World of Mormonism, 2nd ed. [Chicago: Moody, 1982], pp. Smith, "Defending the Keystone: Book of Mormon Difficulties," Sunstone 67-75). Among those who have described Joseph Smith's "money-digging" (Salt Lake City) 4, no. 3 (May-June, 1981), p. 45. using a seer stone in a hat were his associates Oliver Cowdery (in Messenger I I. Joseph Smith claimed that God the Father and his son Jesus Christ and Advocate, October 1835, p. 207) and Martin Harris (in a July 1875 visited him in 1820 and told him to join none of the churches, "for they were interview with Ole A. Jensen, recorded by Grant Ivins, "Notes on the 1826 all wrong" (Pearl of Great Price, Joseph Smith 2:18). He then proceeded to 'Dial of Joseph Smith," LDS Church Archives, cited in Donna Hill, op. cit., restore the "only true church." The reality of Joseph Smith's claim of the p. 66); Brigham Young (Journal of Discourses, 26 vols. [Liverpool, 1854- "true church" and revealed scriptures was asserted recently in the official 18861 vol. 19 [1878], p. 37); and his mother, Lucy Mack Smith (in Bio- Church News: "The Angel Moroni did in reality come as a messenger from graphical Sketches of Joseph Smith the Prophet, and His Progenitors for Almighty God to the boy Joseph Smith.... It was an actual visit, not a Many Generations [Liverpool: Published for Orson Pratt by S. W. Richards. dream, not a séance of any kind. It was the visitation of one physical being 1853], pp. 91-92). (a resurrected personage) to another physical being, here on this physical The 1826 trial was recorded in the Evangelical Magazine and Gospel earth. And he left a physical reminder of his coming.... He revealed the Advocate by A. W. Benton April 9, 1831, p. 120 ; Frazer's Magazine, New gold plate record of the Book of Mormon ... that is Moroni's evidence, that Series, vol. 3 (London: Longmans, Green), Feb. 1873, pp. 229-30; Daniel S. is the memento he left of his visit" (Deseret News, Church News Section, Tuttle, "Mormonism," New Schaff-Herzog Ency. of Religious Knowledge September 18, 1983, p. 16). (New York, 1883), vol. 12, p. 1576. 12. Lehi and Ishmael, two descendants of the Hebrew tribes of Manas- Joseph Smith's father-in-law, Isaac Hale, at whose Harmony, Pennsyl- seh and Ephraim, remained in the Southern Kingdom of Judah, and thereby vania, home Joseph stayed when on the digging expedition, equated the escaped captivity and dispersal of the "Ten Tribes" by the Assyrians during process by which his future son-in-law gazed into a hat to find treasure with their invasion of the Northern Kingdom of Israel in 722 B.C.E. These two that by which he translated the Book of Mormon: "The manner in which he tribal remnants, plus a small group led by a man named Mulek (from the [Joseph Smith] pretended to read and interpret, was the same as when he tribe of Judah) are represented as leaving Jerusalem before the Babylonian looked for money-diggers, with a stone in his hat, and his hat over his face, captivity of the Southern Kingdom of Judah in 587 B.C.F. These people, while the Book of Plates were at the same time hid in the woods" collectively referred to in the Book of Mormon as Nephites and Lamanites (Susquehanna Register, May I. 1834, cited in Eber D. Howe, Mormonism (indicated as ancestors of the American Indian) kept a record that is repre- Unvailed [Plainsville, Ohio: Eber D. Howe, 1834], p. 77, quoted in Van sented as the "stick" of Joseph or Ephraim, complementing the "stick" of Wagoner and Walker, op. cit., p. 52). See also James Lancaster, "The Judah, the Bible. Method of Translation of the Book of Mormon," John Whitmer Association 13. Book of Mormon, Ether 1:33, 34, 42; 2:17; 7:1 I; Times and Seasons Journal 3 (1983), pp. 55-56. 3, no. 22 (Sept. 15, 1842), p. 922. 4. Brodie, op. cit., pp. 94-99, 120, 128, 209-10, 362-63. 14. Book of Mormon, Helaman 11:20. 5. The Mormon church is estimated to have 5.2 million members- 3.5 15. The curse of the Lamanites with a "skin of blackness" is related in million in the United States (Los Angeles Times, June 26,1983, p. 1) -and the Book of Mormon, I Nephi 12:23; 2 Nephi 5:21-24; Jacob 3:5, 9; Alma assets conservatively estimated at $2 billion, with an annual income of $1.4 3:6-10. Just as the Lamanites once "were white, and exceeding fair and billion, which comes from "tithing" as well as from working assets (Denver delightsome" (2 Nephi 5:21), for those who were reconverted, "their curse Post, November 27, 1982, p. I). was taken from them, and their skin became white like unto the Nephites" (3 Besides the Mormon church, approximately fifty churches have claimed Nephi 2:15). to represent Joseph Smith's "Restored Gospel" after he died. The second This association of black skin with God's curse is found in other Mor- largest church claiming this authority is the Reorganized Church of Jesus mon scriptures. The "Book of Moses," "as revealed to Joseph Smith the Christ of Latter Day Saints (RLDS, as opposed to LDS), with about 250,000 Prophet, in June, 1830," and now published as part of the Mormon scripture members. The RLDS church, led by male descendants of Joseph Smith, The Pearl of Great Price, states that "the seed of Cain were black" (Moses beginning with his son, Joseph Smith III, is headquartered in Independence, 7:22), and when the Lord cursed the land of Canaan, "a blackness came Missouri. (See Stephen L. Shields, Divergent Paths of the Restoration, A upon all the children of Canaan, that they were despised among all people" History of the Latter Day Saints Movement, 3rd ed. [Bountiful, Utah: Res- (Moses 7:8). In the "Book of Abraham," "translated from the [Egyptian] toration Research, 1982].) Papyrus, by Joseph Smith," 1835, also found today in The Pearl of Great 6. Joseph Smith's journal, Nov. 28, 1841, LDS Church Archives, Salt Price, the Pharaoh was reported to partake of Canaanite blood through Lake City. Joseph Smith also wrote: "Take away the Book of Mormon and Ham, and therefore was cursed "as pertaining to the Priesthood" (Abraham the revelations, and where is our religion? We have none" (Joseph Smith, 1:21-27). Ed., Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith, (Salt Lake City: Deseret, Brigham Young explained the practice of withholding the Mormon 1972), p. 71. priesthood from black members: " ... the curse remained upon them 7. On April 6, 1830, six men, Joseph, Hyrum, and Samuel Smith, because Cain cut off the lives of Abel ... the Lord had cursed Cain's seed 0liver Cowdery, and Peter and David Whitmer officially organized the with blackness and prohibited them the priesthood" (manuscript History of "Church of Christ," which name was indicated by revelation (Doctrine and the Church, Feb. 13, 1849). Covenants [D & C], Sec. 21). On May 3, 1834, a church conference at On June 9, 1978, Mormon church president Spencer W. Kimball issued Kirtland resolved to change the name to "The Church of the Latter-day a revelation on behalf of the church leaders stating that every worthy male Saints." On April 23, 1838, in Far West, Missouri, the name was changed by member of the church may now hold the priesthood, effectively reversing revelation to "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints"(D&C, Sec. the black exclusion doctrine. The church offered no explanation, either for 115; see James B. Allen and Glen M. Leonard, The Story of the Latter-day the original doctrine or for the reversal. Saints [Salt Lake City: Deseret, 1976], p. 47). 16. When the American Indians were discovered, some theologians sug- 8. Mormon historian Donna Hill observed that most of the early con- gested a separate creation, possibly predating Adam and Eve. Religious verts to Mormonism "had a history of social mobility, economic insecurity, skeptics found the omission of the Indians from the Bible narratives a dissatisfaction with contending sects and hope for a millennium." Referring reason to dismiss the Bible as a human fabrication based upon Hebrew to Oliver Cowdery, Brigham Young. Wilford Woodruff, and others, as legends. An unpublished paper, "An Environmental Approach to the Book examples, she concluded: "To the converts, Joseph's church was not only of Mormon," by Dan Vogel, examines three centuries of writings, prior to based upon the Book of Mormon, but the book was its reason for having Joseph Smith's Book of Mormon, that address these issues. come into existence" (Hill, op. cit., pp. 102, 105). In 1655, Paul Cabrera recorded a "pre-Adamite" theory voiced shortly 9. Orson Pratt, "Divine Authenticity of the Book of Mormon," in after the Spanish conquest: "About the middle of the last century, Isaac

28 Peyrere erected his system of the Preadamites ... that all the human race printed later in the Church News and Ensign, Mormon General Authorities are not the descendants of Adam and Eve, and consequently denies original reassert the literal truth of Mormon origins and the new scriptures translated sin and the principles of our holy catholic religion; producing the popula- by Joseph Smith. Two years after professional translations reconfirmed that tions of America as the chief support of this hypothesis, and the ignorance the Abraham papyri were Egyptian documents, Mormon apostle president that exists as to the source of its origin" (A Theological System Upon the N. Eldon Tanner stated: "The First Presidency of the Church of Jesus Christ Presupposition That Men Were Before Adam, (London, 1655); quoted in of Latter-day Saints accepts the 'Book of Abraham' as 'Scripture given to us Vogel, p. 93). through the Prophet [Joseph Smith]' " (Salt Lake Tribune, May 4, 1970). In his American Universal Geography (2 vol. [Boston, 1793,], vol. I. p. Referring to the Book of Mormon, apostle Bruce R. McConkie affirmed 75) Jedediah Morse argued against multiple creations and that the first that the book was "true and was translated correctly." Quoting the Doctrine peoples of America came from descendants of Noah. and Covenants 17:6, he added, "By revelation [to Joseph], the Lord said of Vogel reports that Morse's Geography went through many editions, Joseph Smith: 'He has translated the book, even that part which I have was advertised in the Wayne Sentinel, Oct. 22, 1823, and was listed in the commanded him, and as your Lord and your God liveth it is true'" (Mor- Manchester, N.Y., rental library (Accession #42). This work would have mon Doctrine, 2nd ed. [Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1966], p. 99). been available to Joseph Smith. 25. Lucy Smith, Biographical Sketches of Joseph Smith the Prophet 17. Brodie, op. cit.. p. 15. and His Progenitors for Many Generations (Liverpool. England: 1853), 18. History of the Church, vol. I, pp. 2-3; Whitney R. Cross, The p. 57. Burned-Over District: The Social and Intellectual History of Enthusiastic 26. Fayette Lapham, Historical Magazine. May 1870, p. 306, quoted in Religion in Western New York 1800-1850 (Ithaca. N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, Jerald and Sandra Tanner, Mormonism, Magic and Masonry (Salt Lake 1950). City: Utah Lighthouse Ministry, 1983), p. 18. 19. In A View of the Hebrews (1825), Ethan Smith describes Indian 27. Brigham H. Roberts. Comprehensive History, vol. I. pp. 26-27. burial mounds at Marietta, Circleville, Newark, and Chilicothe, 0hio (pp. 28. Reed C. Durham, Jr., Mormon Miscellaneous, vol. I, no. 1 (October 188-98), and relates the contemporary speculation as to their origin from 1975), pp. 14-15. See discussion in Tanner, op cit., pp. 2-5. Hebrew descendants. (View was published in 1823 by Smith & Shute. 29. According to Masonic legend, Enoch was taken up in a vision to a Poultney, Vermont, the second edition in 1825. In 1964. Utah 1.ighthouse hill called Moriah, where he saw a gold plate engraved with an unknown Ministry (then Modern Microfilm), Salt Lake City, photomechanically re- language buried in a cavern. Enoch sought to preserve the gold plate from produced the second edition. In 1977, Arno Press, New York, a subsidiary the Great Flood by placing above the door to the cavern a marble pillar of the New York Times, reprinted the 1823 edition.) Fawn Brodie, op. cit., with a hieroglyphic account of the Tower of Babel. and a brass pillar with a p. 19, identifes the location of mounds near the Smith farm. history of the creation. On top of the brass pillar was a metal ball that 20. See Richard G. Carrott, The Egyptian Revival: Its Sources, contained maps of the world and that also served as an oracle. Enoch Monuments, and Meaning, 1805-1858 (Berkeley: University of California deposited the two engraved pillars in the Hill Moriah along with the gold Press, 1978), pp. I. 2, 47-50. Carrott wrote: "References to Egypt were plate and covered the cavern with a stone lid. He predicted that after the common, and even prior to the high point during the 1830's and 1840's of flood an Israelite descendant would discover this sacred buried treasure. Egyptian Revival architecture, numerous travel hooks about Egypt had been Years later, when King Solomon and his builders, the Masons, were published ... But not only could Egypt be read about, it could be seen in the excavating to build the temple, they discovered the buried records. A Mason nascent museums of the country ... In 1835, when the Egyptian Revival was (a widow's son) defending the records was killed. His dying words in the already at flood tide, Joseph Smith, the Mormon prophet, purchased two legend have since become a Masonic distress call: "Oh Lord, My God, is mummies recently arrived in New York from Paris. In the chest of one was there no help for the widow's son?" The attacker was slain in his sleep with a papyrus which Smith claimed as a part of the Book of the Dead. One copy his own knife. Solomon's temple then received these treasures, including the was printed in 1842, another with comments in 1844. It will be remembered marble and brass records, the metal ball, the gold plate, a breastplate, and that the Prophet had already translated the Book of Mormon through the the Urim and Thummin. miraculous Spectacles, which had been written in 'hieroglyphics' (1830)" Mormon Institute of Religion director Reed C. Durham, speaking (p. 48). before the Mormon History Association in 1974, spelled out the legend's 21. For example, Ethan Smith wrote of "hieroglyphic" books and "remarkable resemblances with Joseph Smith and Mormon history." Joseph paintings among the Indians of Mexico (op. cit., pp. 182-85); Vogel (op. cit.. Smith identified himself with Enoch in the Doctrine and Covenants, Secs. p. 155) reports several attributions of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing used by 78, 92, 96, 104. The Mormon record was also buried in a hill by a man who the Indians. had the inital "M" (Moroni, son of Mormon). There were gold plates con- 22. See Joseph Smith, Jr., History of the Church, vol. I. pp. 19-20. taining mysteries of God. The writing on Joseph Smith's gold plates was Roberts quotes part of Anthon's letter on p. 20n: letter is published in its said to be unknown, like the engraving on Enoch's gold plate, and Egyptian, entirety in Eber D. Howe, Mormonism (Invaded, op. cit., p. 270-72). like the marble record in the Masonic legend. As in the Masonic legend, Since Egyptian was not understood in 1828-- Champollion, using the Joseph Smith claimed to find brass plates with an account of the Creation Rosetta Stone to decipher hieroglyphics, published his Egyptian Grammar and also an account of the Tower of Babel. Like the Enoch legend, Joseph in 1836 and his Egyptian Dictionary in 1841-Anthon could not have Smith at first had a vision of a hill and a cavern covered with a stone lid. validated the correctness of the transcript. Furthermore, the "Anthon trans- I.ater, he also reported finding other treasures in a stone box beside the cript" has not subsequently been authenticated as Egyptian; neither has a engraved records-a breastplate, the Urim and Thummin, and a round metal second "Anthon transcript," discovered in 1980 and thought to be the ball that, like the metal ball atop Enoch's brass pillar, served as a guide and original, been authenticated as Egyptian. (See History of the Church, vol. I. oracle (in the Book of Mormon, the Liahona). p. 71; Danel Bachman's discussion in Brigham Young University Studies 20, In the Book of Mormon, a villain was beheaded with his own sword in no. 3 (Spring 1980). pp. 324-40; church historian Dean C. Jessee. The Herald a dispute over sacred records (the "Brass Plates of Laban"). On June 27, [Provo, Utah], May I, 1980; and Jerald and Sandra Tanner, Book of Mor- 1844, when Joseph Smith, a Master Mason and a widow's son, was being mon "Caractors"Found [Salt Lake City: Utah Lighthouse Ministry, 1980].) shot, he reportedly began to call out the Masonic distress signal, "Oh Lord, LDS author Donna Hill concludes, "0ver the years various attempts My God ... ," unable to complete it with " ... Is there no help for the have been made to identify these characters as some form of Egyptian, but widow's son?" nothing definite had been established" (Joseph Smith: The First Mormon, p. Durham comments that "All of these aspects of the legend seem trans- 79). It appears that the characters from both copies of the "Anthon trans- formed into the history of Joseph Smith, so much so that it even appears to cript" are incompatible with Egyptian. be a kind of symbolic acting out of Masonic lore." 23. History of the Church, vol. 2, p. 236, 238, 245-47; Brodie, op. cit., Jack Adamson, "The Treasure of the Widow's Son" (Salt Lake City, pp. 170-75. 293, 421-25; Hill, op cit, pp. 192-94. n.d. [c. 1970], and Reed C. Durham, Jr., "Is There No Help for the Widow's 24. In semiannual "General Conferences" broadcast across the country Son?" (1974) compiled by Arthuro De Hoyos, The Masonic Emblem and on commercial television channels and to some other parts of the world, Parchment of Joseph and Hyrum Smith (Provo, Utah: De Hoyos, 1982).

Winter 1983/84 29 Kinderhook Plates

A FA[etM11.[ FAOM THE et ,UG UY AeJA11AM

Anthon Manuscript Reproduced from press release photograph in 1980, courtesy of Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

LI

Ea YLANATION Of THE AeooF CUT.

Fig I. The Angel 61 the 1.ad 2 Abraham fastened upon an sits, u..s pr st of I.IF chah attelnptme to oflet up A h ahay, Gaal us,:, ll,e 4 TIDY sitar fur earl bo, by the idolatrous I s'aura, 51.1,20 t net., the ,Nib of f Ieenah, l,br,an, Mahmacarah, N uh, and l'r,ara,.h 5r The iAulat rout eod of Ersenah. 6 The ,dulatroua 4,1 u1 I .nn.,h 7 The Idulalruua Rod of Mahm.rhrah tl The ,doi.trous ‘,,,t of Kurash U The d„iattuua god of Ph. t sob IU Atrr•h•rn ,n fept. II Designed to represent the pt1s,• of heaten, understood by the Egyp n12 btu e, sien.fs,ru e.laa. the ,r firmamentos our heads. but le th,. case ,n relat,en to Ilns subject. the Eenptial,e meant rt I,, a,en,ty St..umsu tu I,e h,Ith. or the heavens. ana,ver,he W the Hebrew ...act Jhaumatrseem.

11

To the left is a photograph of the original papyrus from which Facsimile No. 1 in "The Book of Abraham" was taken. To the right is a copy of Facsimile No. 1 as it appears in the Pearl of Great Price together with Joseph Smith's interpretation. The original was reconstructed with a human head in place of Anubis the Jackal, which was missing because of damage to the Scrolls.

Masonic sources of the legend of Enoch's gold plate include Thomas S. Dean C. Jessee, "Early Accounts of the First Vision," Bit' Studies, sol 9, Webb, Free-Mason's Monitor (New York, 1802), and Henry Dana Ward, pp. 279-94. Freemasonry (New York, 1828). Also, see discussion in Tanner, op. cit., pp. 31. Ephraim, a seventh brother in Joseph Smith's family, died young. History of the Church, vol. 4, p. 557. See Brodie, op. cit., p. 43n. 30. The first (1832) version of Joseph Smith's autobiography is found in 32. Book of Mormon, 2 Nephi 3:6, 7, 15. A second prophecy of Joseph

30 Free I Smith's coming may be found in his revision of Genesis. See Brodie, op. cit., he is justifiably liable to be criticized for dishonesty" (Salt Lake Tribune, pp. 73, 116-17. Feb. 28, 1982, pp. BI-3). 33. Lucy Smith, op. cit., pp. 58-59; Book of Mormon, I Nephi 8, II. 45. Noted archaeologist of Mesoamerica, Michael Coe, of Yale Univer- This is one of several dreams Lucy Smith remembered in detail. sity, commented upon the evidence for Joseph Smith's translations: "Mor- 34. Lucy Smith, op. cit.. p. 85. The reference indicates that these stories mon archeologists over the years have almost unanimously accepted the were told sometime before the death of her son Alvin in November 1823, Book of Mormon as an accurate, historical account of the New World possibly about the time Joseph Smith said he was visited by the angel peoples between about 2000 B.C. and A.D. 421. They believe that Smith could M oroni. translate hieroglyphs, whether 'Reformed Egyptian' or ancient American, 35. Ethan Smith, A View of the Hebrews, op. cit., pp. 182-83, 212. and that his translation of the Book of Abraham is authentic. Likewise, they 36. Hubert Howe Bancroft, Native Races (San Francisco: A. L. Ban- accept the Kinderhook Plates as a bona fide archeological discovery, and croft, 1886), vol. 5, pp. 79-81: Josiah Priest, Wonders of Nature and the reading of them as correct. Let me now state uncategorically that as far Providence Displayed (Albany, 1825, 1826), and American Antiquities as 1 know there is not one professionally trained archeologist, who is not a (Albany: Hoffman and White. 1833 [eight editions were published between Mormon, who sees any scientific justification for believing the foregoing to 1833 and 1838]). Other works include James Adair, The History of the be true, and I would like to state that there are quite a few Mormon American Indians (London. 1775): Elias Boudinot, A Star in the West: or, a archeologists who join this group ... the picture of this hemisphere between Humble Attempt to Discover the Long Lost Ten Tribes of Israel (Trenton, 2000 B.C. and A.D. 421 presented in the book has little to do with the early N.J., 1816). Indian cultures as we know them, in spite of much wishful thinking ... The 37. B. H. Roberts, A Book of Mormon Study, Part I. Chapter 8: bare facts of the matter are that nothing, absolutely nothing, has evershown "Could it be that Ethan Smith, influenced and misled by the reported dis- up in any New World excavation which would suggest to a dispassionate covery of the evidence of iron and its uses among the native Americans in observer that the Book of Mormon, as claimed by Joseph Smith, is a ancient times, was innocently followed into this error by the author of the historical document relating to the history of early migrants to our hemi- Book of Mormon? For there is nothing on which the later investigators of sphere" (Dialogue 8, no. 2 [Summer 1973], pp. 41, 42, 46). our American antiquities are more unanimously agreed upon than the matter 46. In an unpublished paper, BYU anthropologist John L. Sorenson of the absence of the knowledge of, and hence the nonuse of, iron or steel argues that the Book of Mormon peoples lived within a confined region in among the natives of America." Central America, and thus attempts to explain why their history made no 38. Ethan Smith, op. cit., pp. 1 15, 217-18, 223. mention of the previously arrived migrations from the Bering Strait ("An 39. Ethan Smith, op. cit.. pp. 52-54; the Doctrine and Covenants 27:5. Ancient American Setting for the Book of Mormon," 1978). This idea was Ethan Smith includes the "Ten Lost Tribes" from the Assyrian capture of previously rejected by Mormon historian and apostle Joseph Fielding Smith, the Northern Kingdom in 722 B.C.E. under the stick of Ephraim; the Book of later president of the church (Deseret News, Church Section, February 27, Mormon describes three tribes, two from Joseph and one from Judah, who 1954, pp. 2-3). left Jerusalem before the Babylonian captivity of the Southern Kingdom in In his Doctrines of Salvation ([Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1954], vol. I, 587 B.C.E. See Note 12. p. 151), President Smith reaffirmed the traditional Mormon explanation of 40. Further evidence that Joseph Smith may have become familiar with the origin of the American Indian: "Six hundred years before the birth of A View of the Hebrews is that he quoted from it later in his church news- Christ another civilization supplanted that previously mentioned (Jaredite) paper to illustrate the historical accuracy of the Mormon scripture (Times which was destroyed about that time. This second civilization flourished and Seasons 3 (June I. 1842): 813-814). Rather than quoting the 1823 1825 about 1000 years. The people multiplied and spread over the face of the A View of the Hebrews directly, he gave a secondary source, Josiah Priest's entire continent. Their descendants, the American Indians, were wandering American Antiquities (1833), published three years after the Book of in all their wild savagery when the Pilgrim Fathers made permanent settle- Mormon. ment in this land." 41. A Book of Mormon Study, Part I, Chapter 13, pp. 19-24. Responding to continuing speculation on Book of Mormon geography, 42. Word volume estimated from the Bible is found in Brodie, op. cit., the church advised against giving the subject further consideration: "The p. 58. This represents about 10 percent of the total 275,000-word manuscript geography of the Book of Mormon has intrigued some readers of that dictated to 0liver Cowdery from April 7, 1829 to July. Brodie refers to volume ever since its publication. But why worry about it? Why not leave Francis W. Kirkham's "The Writing of the Book of Mormon," Improvement hidden the things the Lord has hidden? If He wants the geography of the Era, June 1941, pp. 341 ff. New Testament passages used before Jesus' time Book of Mormon revealed, He will do so through his prophet, and not found in Sunstone 4, no. 3, p. 48. through some writer who wishes to enlighten the world despite his utter lack 43. According to modern biblical scholars. Isaiah 40-66 is a sixth-cen- of inspiration on the point" (Deseret News, Church News Section, July 29,1978). tury work. See Peter R. Ackroyd, "The Book of Isaiah," The Interpreter's 47. The LDS Improvement Era once carried the cautionary message: Commentary on the Bible, ed. Charles M. Laymon (Nashville, Tenn.: Abing- "Lucifer ... wins a great victory when he can get members of the Church to don, 1971), p. 329-71; Carroll Stuhlmueller, "Deutero-Isaiah," Jerome Bibli- speak against their leaders and 'do their own thinking.' ... When our cal Commentary, eds. Raymond E. Brown et al. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: leaders speak, the thinking has been done" (June, 1945, p. 354). In a Prentice-Hall, 1968), ch. 22. The Mormon "Isaiah problem" and attempts to message to "follow the prophet," apostle N. Eldon Tanner updated this resolve it by asserting single authorship for this work covering three centuries admonition: "When the prophet speaks the debate is over" (The Ensign, is found in George D. Smith, "Isaiah Updated." Dialogue: A Journal of August, 1979, pp. 2-3). Ezra Taft Benson, president of the Twelve, offered to Mormon Thought (Salt Lake City) 16, no. 2 (Summer 1983), pp. 48-49. a devotional assembly at BYU "Fourteen Fundamentals in Following the 44. In an address to LDS church educators, Elder Boyd K. Packer of Prophets" (February 26, 1980). He quoted the words of church president the Quorum of Twelve Apostles admonished "selective" writing about the Heber J. Grant: "My boy, you always keep your eye on the President of the church and the teachings of "faith-promoting history." Elder Packer cau- Church, and if he ever tells you to do anything, and it is wrong, and you do tioned seminary and institute teachers that "there is no such thing as an it, the Lord will bless you for it" (Conference Report, October 1960, p. 78). accurate, objective history of the church without consideration of the spir- An antecedent to this submission to authority was voiced by Joseph itual powers that attend this work," noting that Brigham Young said not to Smith in a letter to Nancy Rigdon in an attempt to justify plural marriage to teach even the times tables without the spirit of the Lord ("The Mantle is her after she had refused the prophet's proposal: "Whatever God requires is Far, Far Greater than the Intellect," 1981, reprinted in BYU Studies 21, no. right, no matter what it is" (Journal of Mormon History 5, [ 1978], p. 32). 3 [Summer 1981], p. 259.) In a debate on "the question of faithful history" 48. Special Collections, Marriott Library, University of Utah, Salt Lake (Feb. 25, 1982, Univ. of Utah), historian James L. Clayton rejected selective, City. "faith promoting" history as "intellectually and morally irresponsible," and 49. " 'Inquisition' Reported: Mormon Brethren Silencing Scholars?" advocated a simple "willingness to tell the truth." In a talk at BYU, historian Salt Lake Tribune, May 26, 1983, p. 4-B. D. Michael Quinn responded in a similar way, declaring that if a historian 50. Special Collections, University of Utah. • "fails to make reference to pertinent information of which he has knowledge,

Winter 1983/84 31 The History of Mormonism and Church Authorities

An Interview with Sterling M. McMurrin

The following interview was adapted from churches perverting history. This has been wanted genuinely honest scholarship, and I a longer one conducted by Blake Ostler that done ever since we have had churches, and think that for the most part it did. But 1 appeared in the Seventh East Press earlier I suppose it will continue as long as churches don't see very much evidence that warrants this year. The Seventh East Press was a persist. Most institutions, including that belief today.... After all, the church student newspaper distributed at Brigham churches, look out for themselves, and they doesn't pay its teachers to destroy the reli- Young University. An apostle of the Mor- often find it advantageous to ignore histor- gious faith of the people. . . . [Its] basic mon church, namely, Ezra Taft Benson, ical facts and do a little reconstructing here interest, naturally, is the defense of the faith, reputedly brought pressure on the president and there on their own history. Most cer- and apparently for ... many ... church of the university to prohibit distribution of tainly this is not a new thing in our church. leaders, the faith can't survive the light of that issue of the paper on the BY campus. But a historian who intentionally distorts all the facts. As a result, the paper was forced to cease history obviously is a dishonest historian. Q: Do we have so much to fear from publication. He doesn't deserve to be called a historian. history? Sterling McMurrin, professor of his- If the church is interested in controlling its McMurrin: Sure we have.... Nothing tory, philosophy, and the philosophy of edu- history to make it look better than it actu- can produce a more rapid deterioration of cation at the University of Utah, is one of ally is, or as a means of achieving a measure religious faith than the honest study of the the leading Mormons in America. He has of thought-control over its people ... [the history of religion. Now, I don't mean to written several books on philosophy and the church historian's task would be] to pursue say that a person can't face history honestly theological foundations of Mormonism and the purposes of the church as a defender of and still remain religious, but you just have is former U.S. Commissioner of Education. the faith.... to recognize that in the case of Mormonism There has recently been a dispute about the Q: Would you see this as desirable? the faith is so mixed up with so many com- historical record pertaining to Joseph McMurrin: Of course not. It is repre- mitments to historical events, or to events Smith, and traditionalists within the church hensible and odious. I suspect that in this that are purported to be historical, that a have sought to suppress that record.—EDs. matter the situation is worse now than it competent study of history can be very disil- has ever been in my lifetime. A historian lusioning. Mormonism is a historically ori- who does not respect all the relevant facts ented religion. To a remarkable degree the available to him and make a serious effort church has concealed much of its history Q: Do you think that it is fair for to give honest interpretative explanations of from its people, while at the same time caus- church authorities to stipulate the type of those facts simply isn't a historian. When ing them to tie their religious faith to its history that church historians should write? the church refuses its own historians access own controlled interpretations of its history. McMurrin: Well, that depends on what to the materials available in its archives it So there is no point in arguing as to whether you mean by fair. The church authorities obviously has something to hide... . or not a serious study of Mormon history control the church, and I suppose they can But in one sense I'm not sure that the may have a deteriorating effect upon the do as they please in such matters. I'm sure historians who are in the church's employ faith of large numbers of Mormon people-- that some of them would like the histories have solid grounds for [complaint]. Surely it certainly will have that effect in countless to be honest. But obviously some want dis- they knew when they hired on as historians cases. But that is the church's fault, or the torted history, distorted to order. for the church that they would be up against fault of the weakness of the faith, not the Q: Is it honest to control history? this sort of thing. I have known that for a fault of today's historians, most of whom McMurrin: Certainly dishonest history good many years. Yet when I became an are both honest and highly competent. The isn't honest, but it isn't always possible to employee of the church back in the thirties church shouldn't tie religious faith to its determine what written history is honest. in many ways things were quite different, history. Religious faith should be faith in Besides, honesty is not a particularly com- believe it or not. Those of us who went into God and in one's fellowmen—not faith in mon virtue of churches, or of any other seminary and institute teaching in those days some historical events and their official organizations. There is nothing new about were really led to believe that the church interpretation.

32 MxriG °°I.!•i) treat, and they must have some kind of framework for the interpretation and evalu- ation of their data. It is a question of the justification of their grounds of selection and of their interpretations.... Q: Does the authoritarianism of the church disillusion you? McMurrin: I really can't say that that is the case. 1 don't like authoritarianism, but anyone who was reared as a natural- born Mormon, as I was, became accustomed very early to authoritarianism in the church. That's the way the church is set up and that is the way it runs. There's no indication that this will ever change, at least not in our day. Like most other Mormons, 1 am simply calloused and somewhat insensitive to church authoritarianism. That the author- itarianism of the Mormon church should develop on American soil among American Sterling M. McMurrin people is in a way rather strange. But it is Q: So what you're saying is that the ual of intellectual freedom. hardly a disillusioning thing for Mormons, church has allied itself with a historical in- In my opinion, no church can stand a simply because they have been accustomed terpretation which may in fact prove to be very close scrutiny of its origins and history to it all their lives ... false? without a good deal of moral and intellec- Q: Are you disillusioned with the McMurrin: The church hasn't settled tual cringing. Mormonism should judge it- church? on a single treatment of history but has been self by its accomplishments, its fruits, the McMurrin: No, in a general sense I am involved with several approaches to its own strength and happiness that it brings to its really not disillusioned because 1 was never history. I have no objection to this in prin- people, and hopefully someday to large illusioned in the first place. 1 have never ciple because no one should rely on a single numbers of others as well, rather than by experienced the frustrations and disillusion- historian. Full historical objectivity is an im- its early beginnings, where it encounters a ment that many Mormons experience. 1 now possibility, and there is no justification for good many unsavory things that must be occasionally encounter young people who assuming that any particular historian has faced but should not be distorted so that the whole picture or the entirely true pic- they can be stones in the foundations of the "To a remarkable degree the church ture. The writing of history is exceedingly faith. has concealed much of its history complicated and difficult. The best that any Q: Are you suggesting that certain from its people." lay person can do is to read several histo- spiritual experiences were fabrications? rians on the same subject if he wants to McMurrin: I'm not sure how much ter- are discovering for the first time things achieve an adequate grasp of the facts and ritory you mean to cover by the term "spir- about the church that they should have a satisfactory causal explanation of the his- itual experiences." What is spiritual to one known from their childhood. They are the torical events. No one should settle, for in- person is not necessarily spiritual to another. ones who become disillusioned. Often they stance, for a single historian on the origins And churches don't have spiritual experi- are caught in difficult intellectual and per- of Christianity, or of Mormonism, or of ences, only individuals and, in some cases, sonal struggles with themselves and their any other religion. The Apostle Paul and groups of individuals have spiritual experi- families. Joseph Smith, and Buddha, were immensely ences. I never challenge anyone's report on 1 will say this, however, that in those complicated persons, and it is futile to think his own religious experience. This is a very more open days some of us thought that that .we will ever have a full and accurate personal and subjective matter. through dedicated and persistent effort, work- picture of them. To settle for a single his- 1 don't say that the church has inten- ing for and in the church, we might con- torian or a single historical view would be tionally fabricated historical data. What it ceivably help to effect changes that appeared as foolish as to sell out to a single phil- has done at times is become somewhat con- desirable. 1 was probably disillusioned with osopher or philosophical position. fused on matters of fact as well as on the regard to that prospect, as I don't take it at Q: That places a lot of responsibility interpretation of fact. Many things have all seriously now. I have had numerous on the individuals who must judge the evi- been intentionally ignored and sometimes experiences that have confirmed my convic- dence. concealed or have been taken to have relig- tion that from the standpoint of the intel- McMurrin: Certainly it puts great re- ious meanings or implications which, in my lectual life things are not getting better, but sponsibility on the individual. Each individ- opinion, have no religious connections rather worse, in the church. ual is ultimately responsible for his own be- whatsoever. I believe that the church has For instance, a few years ago 1 was liefs. The problem we have is that at the intentionally distorted its own history by invited to give a lecture on academic free- present time the church is not encouraging dealing fast and loose with historical data dom to the Brigham Young University the individual to accept that responsibility and imposing theological and religious inter- chapter of the American Association of Uni- and really think through his problems. We pretations on those data that are entirely versity Professors. Against my better judg- are going through a stage of intense indoc- unwarranted. All historians must be selec- ment, I accepted the invitation. The affair, trination in the church that robs the individ- tive in identifying the data that they will it turns out, was held off the campus and

Winter 1983/84 33 was scheduled at 3:00 in the afternoon on a don't know enough about him to com- that is of importance for religion and the day when the university was in session. In petently judge his motives and personality. moral life that is not already at least in addition to three persons who accompanied My point is that I came to the conclusion principle in the Bible. This is not to say that me, five other people came, three of them at a very early age, earlier than 1 can re- there are not good things in the Book of officers of the Association. They were a lit- member, that you don't get books from Mormon, as well as some bad things. Nor tle embarrassed by the size of the crowd as angels and translate them by miracles; it is is it to say that the Book of Mormon is not well as by the fact, as one of them acknow- just that simple. So I simply don't believe sacred literature. Things are not sacred in ledged, that they were not able to hold the the Book of Mormon to be authentic. 1 and of themselves. They are made sacred event on campus. We discussed academic think that all of the arguing over the authen- by those who regard them as sacred or holy freedom, a matter that apparently at that ticity of the Book of Mormon is just a waste and develop sacred attitudes toward them. time was of some concern to some mem- of time. You should understand that 1 don't Though I don't regard the church's position bers of the BYU faculty. 1 told them that 1 mean to say that there aren't some inter- with respect to the Book of Mormon as could see no reason whatsoever why BYU esting and worthwhile things in the Book of authentic, I certainly recognize that it is a professors should experience disillusionment Mormon: I really don't even want here to very remarkable book and I respect it in on the matter of academic freedom pertain- attack the Book of Mormon, but 1 want to the way that I respect any religious litera- ing to matters of religion and morals as simply deny its authenticity. 1 don't think ture—even more, of course, because it is they should have known before they signed that it is what the church teaches it to be. I the sacred literature of my own people... on at BYU that they would not have this know of no real evidence in its support and Q: Are you a Mormon in any real sense kind of freedom. There are various types of there is a great deal of evidence against it of the word? limitations which university teachers Q: Doesn't that mean then that in your McMurrin: Of course I am. I am a encounter, and a limitation upon this kind opinion the church is merely a facade? member of the church. I was reared in it, of freedom is to be taken for granted at McMurrin: Of course not. I think it is and my parents and all of my grandparents BYU. unfortunate that a church should ground were reared in it. My personality and char- I have the impression that some years itself so thoroughly on something that is, in acter, for good or bad, are to a large degree ago the situation was somewhat different, my opinion, not genuine and obviously is a product of it; its teachings continue to especially under the leadership of President seriously doubted by thousands of persons greatly affect my attitudes and ideas; it is Franklin S. Harris. But for several decades who are in the church and love the church. the foundation of my religion; its history is the policy of the church has placed severe But the church is not a book, nor is it a just as much a part of my cultural heritage limitations on academic freedom in matters collection of books the Standard Works. as if I were orthodox; its social life is an relating to religion and morals. In my opin- Nor is it simply an ecclesiastical organiza- important element of my environment; its ion, those who elect to teach at the BYU in tion. The church is the people who consti- ecclesiastical affairs are of positive interest fields relating to religion should simply face tute it and their relationships to one an- and concern to me; its moral teachings are that fact in advance. I have had very little other, their hopes and aspirations, their the basis of my own moral beliefs and ideals. contact with BYU in recent years, and am joys and tragedies. Whatever one might say I must say again that many of the orthodox, willing to be corrected if things are different about the church's scriptures or about its who often are not nearly so orthodox when now. For instance, I greatly admire Presi- ecclesiastical organization or its theological you get under the surface, find it strange dent Holland's decision to allow your news- or historical claims, the church is certainly that most of the unorthodox feel close to paper on the BYU campus. This is a very not a facade. It is a living, moving, religious the church.... good thing, and I hope that if you print this community and should not be judged on Q: Would you consider yourself an interview, it will not be seen as a violation any other terms than its character and agnostic? of the trust he and others have placed in quality—its capacity to bring satisfaction McMurrin: Technically, yes. 1 am an the Seventh East Press.... and happiness to the people, to give them agnostic. But 1 have strong religious sen- Q: What is your opinion of the Book the strength and courage to live through the sitivities. I am an agnostic in the sense that of Mormon? dangers and tragedies of life. 1 do not believe that we can either prove or McMurrin: 1 never did consider the I am well aware that the Book of Mor- disprove the existence of God. In my opin- Book of Mormon to be authentic. At least mon has had a strong impact on the life of ion, belief in God must be essentially a I have no recollection of ever seriously be- the church, particularly as an instrument matter of faith rather than any kind of lieving in the Book of Mormon. No doubt for conversion. Anyone who studies the his- proof. But don't assume, as many would, when I was a child I did have that belief, tory of religion knows well that a religion that when I say I am an agnostic I mean to but I have no recollection of it. Actually, 1 that has a literature of its own is streng- simply say in a more polite way that 1 am am always somewhat amused by those who thened, and the Mormon church has been an atheist. Because that is not the case. make extensive studies of the Book of Mor- strengthened in its institutional life and in Incidentally. 1 should say here that the great mon through archaeological remains, com- the faith of its people by the Book of Mor- question is not whether Mormonism it true puter word studies, etc., in their attempt to mon. But it is the simple existence of the or even whether Christianity is true but prove its authenticity or to come to some book rather than what is in it that has made rather whether religion is "true." And what conclusion as to whether or not it is what it the big difference. Whether or not the Bible that means is, "Are the things that matter purports to be. would have been sufficient as a scripture most ultimately at the mercy of the things Q: Are you saying that the story of is an open question. I do not agree with the that matter least?" The real question has Moroni dictating the Book of Mormon to common Mormon view that the Book of little to do with the authenticity of books or Joseph is in fact fabrication? Mormon was necessary as a "new witness prophets, or the truth of typical religious McMurrin: 1 won't comment here on for Christ." The Bible itself was a sufficient dogmas. It is far more profound and im- Joseph Smith and his claims because he was witness as far as literature is concerned. 1 portant than any of these. Religion does a remarkably complicated person and we know of nothing in the Book of Mormon not depend on the churches. •

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Winter 1983/84 35

Anti-Science The Irrationalist Vogue of the 1970s Anti-science and irrationalism are growing today. A distinguished philosopher diagnoses the nature of this social illness.

Lewis Feuer

iberals long took it for granted that belief in anti-science— What then explained this efflorescence of astrology among generally, belief in magic and astrology—would decline as young people of the middle class at the very time when the science advanced. Anti-science was regarded as an outgrowth achievements of atomic science were vividly in the popular of ignorance.' At the end of the nineteenth century, scholars consciousness? Forty-three percent of the respondents in the believed, for instance, that astrology had disappeared once and 1963 survey placed the astrologer on the same footing as the for all. In 1966, the leading historian of occult practices in scholar, and in their judgment he was not to be denigrated as a France wrote that they could never revive in a world where charlatan.5 The leading investigator of this astrological vogue science and industry, with their controls and predictions of attributed it to the "difficulties people experienced in adapting change, were ascendant.2 But in 1963, a representative sample to industrial civilization." This could scarcely, however, be the of 2,000 French adults had revealed a contrary state of affairs: explanation, for at the end of the nineteenth century, when 46 percent of the employee (middle-class) group avowed them- astrology was at its lowest ebb, the problems of unemployment, selves believers in the astrological explanation of personality insecurity, and exploitation arising from the industrial basis of traits of individuals; these people knew their own zodiac signs society were far greater than now. and read horoscopes. The astrological enthusiasts, moreover, Twelve years later, in 1975, the astrological movement in tended to be young people, not the middle-aged, nor the elders. the United States had come to number, according to a Gallup The youngest adults, those in their early twenties, were the poll, 22 percent of the nation's adult population.' The un- most numerous among astrology's followers; 38 percent of churched and the churchgoers were equally involved though them were its devotees.3 The French Socialist government, women were twice as numerous among its followers as men. elected in 1981, dedicated to the advancement of scientific More that 90 percent of those under the age of thirty could research, was yet constrained to point out that "anti-science identify their "sign." Astrology could claim to be more news- attitudes are prevalent in France." A new edition of the worthy than religion. The director of the Academy of Mystic prophecies of Nostradamus had enjoyed a phenomenal success Arts in New York boasted that "1,250 out of 1,500 daily news- in the previous year. Paris required the services of 30,000 prac- papers carry an astrology column, and six universities, inclu- ticing clairvoyants, while four out of ten French people ding the New School, have had academic courses in astrology." believed that the sun went around the Earth.4 The president of the International Society for Astrological Re- search averred that its vogue was "the result of a search for meaning in life." Yet such a search had characterized other Lewis Feuer is professor of places and times that had turned to rationalism and science for sociology at the University their answers. Why then was the meaning of life being sought of Virginia in Charlottesville. in anti-science? A psychologist at the Menninger Foundation, He is the author of numer- Dr. Stephen A. Appelbaum, who had been studying the phenom- ous books and articles, in- enon for two years, observed pointedly that the astrological cluding The Scientific Intel- vogue was part of a rejection of "the rules by which Western lectuals. civilization lives," for if those rules could be broken "then anything might come true that we all wish would come true, including that you're not going to die." An intellectual rebellion

36 Ltet 4 ` • ~i against the scientific method and world-view of the elders had become the trend. "What then explained this efflorescence of astrology "Americans in growing numbers," reported the New York among young people of the middle class at the very Times on November 18, 1976, are "trying spiritual or mind- time when the achievements of atomic science were expanding disciplines that were little known in this country a vividly in the popular consciousness?" few years ago." A Gallup poll, taking a roll call of the new irrationalists, announced "that millions of Americans, about 12% of those polled," were actual participants in a "variety of The Fourierist socialist movement, which attracted so movements that have been introduced in recent years"—"mys- many American intellectuals, was indeed "intimately bound tical cults, Oriental religions, yoga, Transcendental Medita- up" with its spiritualist contemporary, as the historian of tion, charismatic renewal, and healing through the `speaking in spiritualism, Frank Podmore, observed in his wide-ranging tongues.' " About six million Americans were estimated to be study: adherents of Transcendental Meditation, five million were devotees of yoga, while charismatic renewal and "mystic" cults There appears to be some natural affinity between Socialism drew three million each. Two million people were committed of a certain type and Spiritualism. The vision of a new heaven to Eastern religions. Young college students, persons between will perhaps be most gladly received by those whose eyes have eighteen and twenty-one, were especially attracted to Trans- been opened to the vision of a new earth, the dwelling place of cendental Meditation and yoga. A vogue of "consciousness righteousness. It is certain that many Socialists have been Spiritualists ... The connection between the Socialist revival heightening," "the new wave," commented the New York of 1840-1850 and the gospel of 1848 was more intimate still. Times, constituted "a revolt against the scientific, rationalistic There were those who traced a definite resemblance between view that has created a profoundly secular climate." the ideals of Fourier and Swedenborg. It is certain that there A vogue of "religion-hunting" is definitely an indication were many disciples of the one prophet who joined in the cult that the affected society is in an unstable equilibrium. The of the other. is "gods of the fathers" stand discredited, repudiated. An intense form of generational rebellion ensues when a young man rejects his parents' religion, its creed and ritual, and, feeling ashamed In the United States, the famed editor of the New York of or estranged from it, seeks a new god. When a tribe of Tribune, Horace Greeley, the philosophical writer Henry Indians was most depressed by defeat and disease, it would James, father of William and Henry, and the influential then be most susceptible, as Francis Parkman tells, to conver- Universalist, the minister Adin Ballou, founder of the Hope- sion; it would accept the white man's religion, for that of its dale Community and the American author Tolstoy admired fathers had failed.8 Americans, however, who reject their par- most of all, mixed their socialist ideology with the spiritualist ental creed are only partially moved by defeat; their motives experiential metaphysics.14 In Britain, the most influential are more akin to those that affected the Roman citizenry. It is popular socialist propagandist, Robert Blatchford, and John noteworthy too that the search for an "alternative technology" Ruskin, whose tract Unto This Last was a canonical inspiration is often conjoined with a search for an "alternative religion." to many young intellectuals, from R. H. Tawney and J. A. Sometimes they have coalesced in a call for a Buddhist tech- Hobson to Charles A. Beard, likewise avowed themselves nology.9 spiritualists.15 Now there have been earlier movements which set them- Until the First World War, spiritualism remained so potent selves against the "scientific establishment." Most notable was in its appeal for the English middle-class society that Bernard the spiritualist movement which began in western New York Shaw in his Heartbreak House characterized that social era as on March 31, 1848, when two girls, Margaret and Kate Fox, "superstitious, and addicted to table-rapping, materialization, reported that a spiritual force was availing itself of rappings to séances, clairvoyance, palmistry, crystal-gazing and the like to communicate with them. The movement spread rapidly during such an extent that it may be doubted whether ever before in the next decade among the high and the lowly, among proud the history of the world did soothsayers, astrologers, and radicals and humble meek. Many prominent abolitionists were unregistered therapeutic specialists of all sorts flourished as adherents of spiritualism, "some of the best of them," as they did during this half century of the drift to the abyss."t6 Thomas Wentworth Higginson put ít.10 The eloquent William To be sure, the so-called scientific socialist movement of Lloyd Garrison and the future author of Uncle Tom's Cabin, Karl Marx and Frederick Engels rejected spiritualist meta- Harriet Beecher Stowe, were attracted to the spiritualist orbit; physics; they shared the scientific culture of the European intel- Garrison was a strong believer. Proponents of socialism were lectual movement that was led by such men as Spencer, Dar- often spiritualist partisans. Robert Owen,. manager of the New win, and Huxley. Engels as a young man, having observed in Lanark mills, guide of the New Harmony colony in Indiana, Manchester in the winter of 1843-44 the demonstrations of a and virtual founder of British socialism, became a spiritualist, spiritualistic mesmerist, then undertook to replicate them in a as did his son, Robert Dale, in America.) 1 Owen indeed re- secular fashion. He later directed his sardonic criticism against ported that he had received messages from "the spirit of my the naive credence of Alfred Russel Wallace, the codiscoverer friend and warm disciple Thomas Jefferson, and his particular of the theory of natural selection, but conveniently overlooked friend, the celebrated Benjamin Franklin," both still mindful to that Wallace was probably the most socialistic of English nine- help improve the condition of the world's people.)» teenth-century scientists."

Winter 1983/84 37 During the next generation, such socialists as Annie Besant and A. L. Orage traveled toward the occult. The socialist as- piration and the occult yearning are, logically speaking, two Help Further the Cause of Humanism independent vectors, and socialists indeed are often secular Mention FREE INQUIRY in Your Will and scientific-minded. No intrinsic requirement of their ideol- Although humanist do not believe in immortality, they ogy, however, leads them to a naturalistic philosophy; rather know that the good work they do will survive them. they have been anti-religious because European religious insti- tutions were linked with reactionary political ones, setting the If you are devoted to free thought and humanism, stage for an anti-clericalism that undoubtedly weighted the you can help perpetuate the educational goals of FREE socialist movement toward a secular direction. In the nineteen- INQUIRY by making a bequest to this nonprofit magazine sixties, on the other hand, many of the New Left youth, the in your will. children of secular-minded parents, religious at most in a For further information, please contact Jean formal and organizational sense, felt a comradeship with new Millholland, executive director. All inquiries will be held religious modes that contravened established science and in the strictest confidence. promised primitive access to a divine and communal union. By contrast, the spiritualist movement in the nineteenth century was not anti-scientific. The year 1848 was indeed a FreeI year in which men saw visions, both political and spiritual. A new social order seemed to be in gestation; everything seemed possible; and terrestrial bonds were evidently being sundered, P.O. Box 5, Central Park Station as were the social. The prestige of science was high and un- Buffalo, New York 14215 dimmed in the mid-nineteenth century, and spiritualism, far 716-834-2921 from counterposing itself to science, itself claimed to conform to the canons of scientific method. Spiritualists felt themselves "adamant champions of empiricism" who were extending the coming a big business," reported the Wall Street Journal late scientific method to a novel set of phenomena. They claimed in 1969; a bookstore in New York specializing in "occultica" to have received encouraging communications from the spirit reported a rise in sales of 100 percent in three years. Even in of Francis Bacon himself."H Their theory seemed to them not the old, conventional Scribner Book Store on Fifth Avenue, less mysterious or intelligible than those of electricity and the the occult displaced the traditional religious works. Audiences ether. Unlike contemporary anti-scientists, the spiritualists were flocked to motion pictures dealing with magical exorcism. An "totally committed to the idea of progress." They accepted Occult Trade Journal arose to help in the sales and financial American technology, its mores and its promises, and were aspects of the movement. The number of books on the occult often skilled technologists themselves. They saw no war be- reached an unparalleled level; with 169 paperbacks on the tween science and religion, for they felt both confluent from occult already in print in 1968, the figure rose the next year to their empiricist standpoint.'9 They were indeed thoroughgoing 519. materialists, for they believed that spirit was a higher, more The revival of the occult was acknowledged to be primarily perfect form of matter. a youth phenomenon. The "beat generation" in the late fifties, The new anti-scientists, on the other hand, beginning with cultivators of Zen Buddhism, were the precursors of the mas- the 1970s, do regard themselves as aligned against the basic sive generational shift toward the occult that took place in the values of science and Western civilization. Their novelty lies next decade, with astrology leading the field. In 1969, of the not so much in their doctrines as in the new ethos and animus 373 books printed in occultica, 68 percent were astrological. In by which they are informed. Today's anti-scientists feel no the early 1950s, only about 100 newspapers had assigned inclination to take up the traditional nineteenth-century conflict regular columns to horoscopes; but by 1970, 1,200 of the 1,750 between religion and science. For they do not propose to revert daily newspapers (according to the trade magazine Editor and toward the traditional concept of God; in their eyes, God Publisher) presented their readers with such provender.20 Most remains too much an authoritarian, establishment figure; as of the middle-aged persons with an astrological bent pursued generational rebels, they repudiate the notion of a "God of my the matter no further than through such newspaper columns. fathers." They retain a sympathy for the son, the rebel, Jesus Astrological activists, on the other hand, were primarily persons Superstar; on the other hand, their new supernaturalism is of college age; a group that grew most notably in the occult tinged with polytheism. For the anti-scientists, enthusiasts for revival, they were versed in the precepts of astrology, consulted "participatory democracy" feel more at home with the concept with professional astrologers, and availed themselves of com- of a world peopled with a commune of gods and goddesses, puters to process their horoscope information. By contrast, the with all manner of spirits. adherents to the flying-saucer cult were invidiously described The "occult revival" began to attract attention in 1968. as "neurotic middle-aged ladies."2' Possibly the symbolism of Time magazine then noted: "A mystical renaissance is evident the flying saucer had a psychoanalytical significance for this everywhere, from television to department stores." The "as- stratum. The core of astrological activists itself was in symbiotic trology boom" had led the way, but two years later Satanism contact with a much larger body of fellow-traveling students and witchcraft were a competing fashion. "Mysticism is be- for whom astrology in a general sort of way provided "a meaning-

38 ful view of their universe" and "a means of establishing their know I'm a Moon child, born under Cancer," he said. "I can identity." Although the astrological fellow-travelers sometimes feel it in my veins." The celebrated actress Marlene Dietrich complained that the astrological forecasts were vague and un- advised the United Nations General Assembly to choose a verifiable, they still remained loyalists for the "grand concep- more favored date for its meeting, according to astrological tual-philosophical scheme." signs.25 The book market surged with its astrology cookbooks Leftist activists of the sixties found a natural next activist and astrological guides to love-making and marriage; astro- stage as occultists of the seventies. As one of them wrote: logical dating services enjoyed a vogue. Many youths oscillated in the late sixties between the activism of the New Left and astrology. Empowered by marijuana and psychedelic drugs, The early 1970s were for me, as for so many others, a time of pain and confusion ... And 1 began to study astrology, they were "intent on establishing closer connections with the regularly and seriously. At the time, I don't think I could have cosmos." "In the years ahead," they said, "thought waves will explained coherently to anyone why 1 was studying astrology. render telephones and even space ships obsolete. The mind 1 was drawn to it, that's all instinctively and somewhat alone will travel to the furthest reaches of the galaxies."2 blindly. Of course, 1 wasn't the only one of my political comrades to wander off into such "far out" places ... yoga, "The spiritualist movement in the nineteenth century astrology, Buddhism... was not anti-scientific.... The new anti-scientists .. . beginning with the 1970s, do regard themselves as align- As an astrologer, she came to realize "that the scientific power- ed against the basic values of science and Western civili- elite felt so seriously encroached" that "certain sets of sacred, zation." long-held beliefs—and the power structures they help maintain— are in the process of being challenged.. .. What is at stake is Traditional spiritualism, falling far behind the astrological over two centuries' worth of the consolidation of technical/ vogue, was estimated to have the loyalty of a relative remnant, technological/ scientific power in the hands of a ruling class [at only 150,000 devotees throughout the United States, compared this particular time, corporate capitalism]."22 with the approximately 40 million attached to astrology.27 For The New Astrology, of course, read from the heavens the spiritualism also lacked that ingredient of "catastrophism" imminent triumph of the New Generation and its New Left. associated with the tenets of astrology or Velikovskian cos- As one treatise on the subject read, "The 'Now Generation' mology. The spiritualist communications were notorious for comprises, approximately those born between 1942 and 1956. the middle-class world that the spirits depicted themselves as ... The planets that are most closely associated with astrology, inhabiting—the cottages, the gardens, and the discussion metaphysics, and the occult arts in general are Uranus, Nep- groups. The astrologist on the other hand could announce tune, and Pluto." Evidently the sign-planet configurations were mighty portents of calamity in the sky. Astrologers have been during that interval especially favorable to "humanity's rela- predicting the end of the world since A.l). 1000 and "have been tionship with itself." "You were born at a time when the plan- at it steadily since, most recently in 1962, when half of India ets `conspired' to produce the Generation!"23 they announced, sat up all night waiting for it to happen and a covey of believers even as the Delphic Oracle had once heralded Socrates. In in Arizona shinnied to the top of a mountain to get a better Berkeley, it was reported that a survey made by a local under- view."2S Moreover, the astrologer subserved the egotism of the ground magazine showed "that 94% of the kids read magazine young with the doctrine that all the heavens concurred in horoscopes." Though only 6 percent of them believed that the legislating one's character and one's fate. Ten thousand full- predictions "regularly came true," almost all of them said they time astrologers, together with an estimated 150,000 part-time believed in psychic phenomena; even in Berkeley over half colleaguery, ministered to an immense constituency.29 Satanry believed in flying saucers, while old-fashioned spiritualism, and witchcraft, in contrast, were marginal cults; the 9,000 evidently obsolescent, evoked the endorsement of only 14 per- reputed Satanistic practitioners in the world, and the less than cent; the rebellious youth were evidently less interested in trying 3,000 self-described American witches, lacked the catastrophic to communicate with the dead. Berkeley could boast that in component. The Transcendental Meditators, too, despite their June 1970 it was the first American university to grant a 2,400 instructors in Transcendental Meditation, often of college student a degree as Bachelor of Arts in Magic; this alumnus age, also lacking the note of catastrophe and cosmic denoue- did indeed become Berkeley's most famous occult character. ment, tended consequently to become more of a therapy and The university that had nurtured Oppenheimer, Teller, Sea- less of an ideology.3o borg, Alvarez, and Segré was the alma mater of Isaac The new anti-science, with its ingredient of catastrophism, Bonewitz, "the Wizard of Mod."24 differed basically from movements like Christian Science that Distinguished leaders of the popular mind articulated the had toward the end of the nineteenth century seemed a har- authority of the occult. Norman Mailer, the most well known binger of irrationalism. Mark Twain, for instance, had not left-wing novelist, opined that those born under the sign of been able to maintain his sense of humor when he watched Taurus must predominate, otherwise the Republicans' choice Christian Science spreading. Spiritualism, in his opinion, was of a materialistic city for their convention site would not be a spent force, but not so Christian Science. The boom of explained. Marshall McLuhan, Canada's well-known medion, spiritualism, he wrote, had lasted half a century; but in 1907, admired alike by the New Left and the New Media, asserted it could appeal only "to the few," claiming something "far that astrology was one of the media of the electric age: "I short of four millions of adherents in America." But he declared

Winter 1983/84 39 that the field for Christian Science seemed to him limitless, perience was more than a "hippie acid trip," Rennie Davis "horizonless," for it extended to all "who are ailing in body or insisted. He claimed to have known the inner radiance of a mind."31 The Christian Scientists, however, never challenged transcendental experience, superior and definitive. According the values of American civilization. They believed in work, to a past comrade, however, Davis was the "elite spokesman" technology, and initiative; their newspaper, the Christian Sci- for all those who after their fling with political activism were ence Monitor, became respected for its political judgment. They turning to a "multitude of devotional ideologies—yoga, en- extended the conviction of freedom to the utmost, affirming in counter groups, life in the country, free schools, Diametrics, the boldest terms the supremacy of mind over matter. William McGovernism, Jesus, .. ."37 Fear, according to the reporter, James, America's greatest and most representative philosopher, seemed to be the dominant emotion of the audience. Of what experienced an intimate kinship between the faith-healers and were they fearful? The New Leftist alumnus explained: his pragmatism and will to believe; in many private sessions he derived repose from the practitioners of this popular metaphy- For Rennie's presentation raised another specter to haunt us siCS.32 the image of spiritual fascism, monolithic as of old, but riding The centrally important fact is that at the very time of on wings of new technology. The woods grow increasingly full of bands of believers, ... seeking an answer ... —not simply a America's greatest scientific technological triumph, large num- personal answer, but a total answer, triumphant and unifying. bers of its younger generation were drawn toward a macro- But hasn't everyone recognized the intimation that our scopic repudiation of its values. As the curve of scientific civil- age is growing ripe for the advent of the Leader, someone of ization reaches a maximum, generational revolt becomes im- the charismatic stature of Hitler, or Jesus ... bued with a compulsion to move toward the downward slope, And isn't the intimation growing? ... If the crusade away from the maximum toward the minimum. A point of erupts, ... its aspect will be, as we fear, totalitarian ... inflection may then have been turned. The anti-civilizational mood expresses itself too in anti-scientific modes of feeling Among the veterans of transcendental politics, this con- and th'ught. Frequently the cults of political violence, obscen- tagion of "transcendental worship" aroused a personal anxiety ity, and American defeat were interwoven with the pursuit of that one's reason was near the critical point of collapse, "a the irrational. "It is apparent at once from a browse through root of private terror that I think found soil in many people any bookstore, a stroll through a college campus, or a glance there. If Rennie, why not me?" There loomed a "naked void. through an underground newspaper that mystic chic has re- In Rennie each person faced his own private predicament." placed radical fashions on the trend charts this year," wrote a Leftist politics, generational rebellion, anti-science, the collapse reporter of the New Left.33 In certain areas, "it supersedes the of reason, the Great Anxiety, and an emergent totalitarianism politics of the '60's," he observed. People who had once found merged in an amalgam of readiness for social retrogression. political action "meaningful and enlivening" now found it Perhaps the most curious harmonic movement of anti- "empty and boring."34 Booksellers, observers of the intellectual science was that associated with the ideas of Dr. Immanuel weather, found the works of Marx, Lenin, and Mao Zedong Velikovsky, an erudite psychoanalyst; basing himself on an attracting fewer customers; the literati, desirous of being cog- interpretation of ancient myths and texts, or the lack of texts, noscenti of the occult, purchased the guiding texts. During the Dr. Velikovsky proposed that planetary catastrophes had taken depression years of the thirties, no young radical would have place in relatively recent times, a hypothesis that contravened dreamed of being found reading books on astrology, demon- the standpoint and science of all leading astronomers and ology, or witchcraft. In that period, young Marxist intellectuals physicists. Several converging lines of social rebellion and prided themselves on their rationalism, and valued the pre- feeling attracted many young intellectuals to Dr. Velikovsky's sumed greater power of their socioeconomic theory for ex- formulations. In the first place, Dr. Velikovsky professed to plaining events. It was the pride of Marxists that so many of find truth, astronomical truth, no less, in shadowy ancient the world's greatest scientists endorsed, in varying degrees, the myths. Those rebellious against the discipline of scientific Marxist mode of thought—Einstein, Oppenheimer, J. B. S. method, liked the notion that there was a neglected, even higher Haldane, P. M. S. Blackett, Julian Huxley, Joseph Needham, truth, in myths. To the classical scientific anthropologist, myths J. D. Bernal.35 The scientists were inspired by the idea of a were useful for assisting insight into the irrational or nonra- society in which scientific planning would at long last enable tional in man, for understanding his unconscious, with its fears, man to control the development of his society. But the leftists nightmares, and hopes. The New Irrationalism, on the con- of the late sixities and early seventies, on the other hand, made trary, turned to myth for an insight higher than the nondra- the transition to irrationalism. matic uniformities of experimental science. Myth was the There was the celebrated case, for instance, of Rennie methodology for the irrational elite in a nonrational world. Davis, famed as one of the "Chicago Eight," who had planned Second, New Leftists felt they had found in Dr. Velikovsky the disruption and riots at the Democratic National Conven- a martyr to the hypocrisy of the Old Left and the scientific tion in 1968. Davis had experienced an illumination while establishment. Drawn themselves to idealistic myths, Neo- watching a guru, fifteen years old, called Maharaj Ji. He came Leftist ideologists rallied around a man allegedly maltreated to Berkeley, "the mecca of the movement," to give witness of by the "scientism" of the elder generation. Elder Marxists and his conversion. A thousand persons gathered, "comrades from fellow travelers had indeed from the first led the attack on Dr. ancient strata of the conflict, along with current activists, all Velikovsky. Harlow Shapley, staunch "progressive," partisan slightly hysterical ... ," as one of them recorded.36 His ex- of Henry Wallace and his Progressive party, veteran of many a

e Qqv•, 40

fellow-traveling committee, signatory of multiple manifestoes,38 disgruntled with the scientific establishment. Its "catastroph- and the greatest name in Harvard astronomy, had indeed ism"—its imagery of cosmic collision, of the heavens filled threatened to sever relations with the Macmillan Company if with awesome descending objects, and all having taken place they published Dr. Velikovsky's volume, which he called in the relatively recent recorded memory of men corresponds "nonsense and rubbish"; Shapley's influence also was said to to the mood of the disaffected who would call down a judg- have contributed to the dismissal of a senior editor and director ment of doom on scientific civilization. Canadian scholars and of the Hayden Planetarium.34 The most eminent English (old) scientists who shared an anti-American animus organized, with Marxist scientist, J. B. S. Haldane, characterized Velikovsky's the support of friends from the governmental Canada Council, book as an attempt by United States warmongers to soften the a symposium at McMaster University that was dominated by intellect of their people and make them more malleable for the advocates of Dr. Velikovsky's doctrines. One such physicist, atomic war that they were planning to launch.40 The Daily author of an essay protesting the "Americanization of Cana- Worker saw in the popularity of Dr. Velikovsky's ideas a sure dian physics," espoused the Velikovskian cause, declaring: sign that bourgeois society had reached its dying days.41 Pro- "There are certain things in vogue at a given time. Nearly fessor Harold Urey, distinguished Nobel laureate in chemistry, everything published in high energy physics, for example, is and likewise regarded for many years as a man of the Left, a junk."43 He further complained that the "professional journals" respected signatory enlisted on behalf of innumerable leftist made it hard to get dissentient ideas like Velikovsky's into causes, reportedly advised a student "to shut the book [Worlds print. The Canadian symposium, he rejoiced, showed that in Collision] and never look at it again in your lifetime." To Velikovsky's ideas were coming into greater favor: "The mood the stance of the crackpot, Professor Urey had counterposed of the seventies was even more favorable, partly because of a the consensual, collaborative, intersubjective method of science: changed attitude to science among American youth ... "44 "The mass of material we get is so consistent that not one fails A mythopoeic longing is evidently part and parcel of the to recognize that it is true except crazy folks. There are always contemporary mood of anti-science. It helped draw literary fringe people—people who still talk about a flat earth. And intellectuals, classicists, and philosophers to the Velikovskian there are men in science like Emanuel [sic] Velikovsky, author banner. For many of this group had long felt themselves as of Worlds in Collision, who can toss out all the excellent work displaced intellectuals, rendered obsolete by scientific progress. of centuries and assume that Venus moves in some curious The relative prestige of the humanities had declined in the and funny orbit that suits him."42 universities during the thirty years after the Second World The Velikovskian model for various reasons was (and is) War. Plato had called for a republic in which the philosophers congenial to marginal scholars or marginal scientific technicians would be kings; but after 1945, it seemed emphatically clear

troversies. The twenty essays collected Science and here—most of them written expressly for this book—answer the claims of the so-called "Scientific Creationists," Creationism who, using the Book of Genesis as Edited by ASHLEY MONTAGU their main authority, argue that evolu- tion is an unsound explanation of the origins of life and its diversity. Each of the essays reflects the partic- ular writer's area of expertise, and taken together, they explore the cre- ationism issue in all its various aspects: scientific, historical, theological, legal, educational. The pieces range from Gould's "Evolution as Fact and Theory" to George M. Marsden's "Understanding Fundamentalist Views of Science" to Hardin's "The Folks Who Hate Darwin: What to Say to Al your bookstore or send a check to

Them." Also included is the full text of Ili Lb OXFORD Judge William R. Overton's U.S. Dis- SINCE UNIVERSITY tephen Jay Gould, Garrett Hardin, trict Court decision, which struck down 1478 SGunther Stent, Isaac Asimov— the Arkansas law stipulating that PRESS these are among the noted thinkers "creation science" must be taught Box 900 who, in this stimulating volume, con- alongside evolution in the public 200 Madison Avenue New York, NY 10016 front one of today's most heated con- schools. $24.95

Winter 1983/84 41 that not philosophers but scientists would have access to the returning to his earliest metaphysical speculations. chambers of authority. The invention of the atomic bomb —An instructor at San Diego Evening College who permanently transformed the configuration of prestige, power, asserted: "One or more Apollo missions could have been spared and finance among the several groups in the university com- were Velikovsky's books and memoranda considered." (Anti- munity. Therefore, with a grievance in their souls, literary and scientists were generally bitter against the Apollo moon humanistic intellectuals were preeminent among the advocates landings.) of Dr. Velikovsky; he had dared use humanistic sources in a —An assistant professor of the history of art, two mem- scientific project, and that was why, they said, the scientific bers of the modern languages and physics departments at establishment wanted to ostracize him. Selkirk College, and another from Fort Worth, a graduate student in archaeology at Rice University. "The new anti-science internalizes a revolt against civili- —A technician and electrical engineer from Carborundum zation ... It congeals diverse anxieties into an all- Company and Bell Laboratory, respectively. inclusive dread of the environment and the future soon —Professors of philosophy from the universities of Trent and Buffalo. to come." —An editor of Harper's magazine who praised Velikovsky for "breaking barriers between disciples." Most imposing of Velikovsky's defenders was Horace M. —A young historian of science from McMaster University Kallen, a prophetic figure who, emulating his beloved teacher, in Canada, whose doctoral thesis had encountered opposition William James, always befriended the intellectual underdog, from several high personages of the "Scientific Establishment." the scientifically homeless. James, America's greatest philos- The young historian of science, now tending to blur the distinc- opher, had pleaded that the scientific scheme of things accord tion between science and ideology, wrote that "uniformitarian- a place for psychical researchers and faith healers. He be- ism in geology was basically a political doctrine" and that the friended not only he pragmatist scientist Charles Peirce, but constancy of gravitation was a tenet that derived from theo- also the spiritualist medium Mrs. Piper. His disciple, Kallen, logical considerations. during the more than ninety years of his life, fought gallantly Like all revolutionists, both successful and unsuccessful, for movements that were unrespectable, disregarding the in- Dr. Velikovsky appealed to the younger generation over the terests of his own personal career; trade unions, pacifists during old, to, as he put it, "you young scholars and scientists!" ready the First World War, Zionists, Negroes, dismissed professors, to question "assumptions of Victorian vintage." The source of Communist fellow-travelers all of them could count on the opposition to himself he described "as in great part psy- Kallen's stalwart support. Now once again he intervened to chological: my critics could not accept my bringing their un- question and challenge the action of Harlow Shapley in trying conscious to consciousness."47 When finally, in response to to prevent the publication of Velikovsky's book. Yet Kallen, external pressures, the American Association for the Advance- too, as Harold J. Laski observed, was a "misfit," with a blend ment of Science late in 1973 devoted a session to Velikovsky's of the confirmed malcontent and secular rabbi, standing some- how aloof or above the grueling labor in the library or labora- tory.45 It was Kallen who said: "As between Shapley and Velikovsky, the record for integrity is entirely in favor of Velikovsky." The deeper question, however, was ignored. Grant- ing that Harlow Shapley had behaved in an unconsidered fashion in trying to prevent his publisher from publishing Velikovsky's book, this was indeed an isolated episode that had not impeded the tremendous sales and circulation that Velikovsky's book enjoyed. And then one wondered whether the anti-scientists came to the court of free inquiry with clean hands. How much free thought and free inquiry would the anti-scientists allow in a society whose shaping of intellectual policy they controlled? Would the strata of anti-scientists promulgate as directives their own varieties of anti-intellectual- ism? Were they the spear-bearers and forerunners of a future Lysenkoism of the mediocrities?46 The May issue of Pensée, a journal that Velikovsky's advocates published, provided abundant evidence that theirs was a movement predominantly of "alienated" humanistic intellectuals and members of the lower rung of the scientific hierarchy. The contributors were: —A classicist at Berkeley who affirmed that "celestial mechanism and ancient mythology meet in the same nexus," Immanuel Velikovsky and that scientific revolutions might be man's means of

42 Fiee In, uy theories, a kind of massive mobilization took place of non- imental perceptions of "directly unusual and magnificent phenom- scientists and quasi scientists, exerting tactics that had become ena" in Dr. Velikovsky's myth-grounded speculations. There customary in such circles since the Berkeley "student" move- was no "Velikovsky Effect" in physics or astronomy as there ment of 1964. "The symposium," noted astronomer Donald was, for instance, the "Edison Effect" adduced by the inventor- Goldsmith, one of its organizers, "itself turned out to be the engineer. best attended, and the most widely reported of the hundreds Now Veblen was aware that even "in the most advanced held at the AAAS meeting."48 The correspondent for the British communities" and indeed "among the adepts of modern sci- New Scientist observed that Velikovsky "has a band of young ence" something of the savage dislike may persist for dispas- supporters indistinguishable from followers of the Guru sionate, impersonal explanations. Breaking through the crust Maharaj Ji," and that "the acolytes" at the meeting intimidated of scientific discipline, this longing for a more dramatic, per- the chairman. The British Sunday News likewise reported that sonalist world may express itself in Christian Science, astrology, the "Velikovsky movement" was seen "as a sort of religion, or some more recondite branch of anti-science.53 But under complete with true believers who accept the leader as the one what historical conditions does this mythopoeic recrudescence source of revealed truth," and that in the eyes of the large take place? Clearly a people's historical situation and historical group of disciples accompanying him to the session, "the master experience are far more significant to the causation of anti-sci- could do no wrong." The London Observer noted the chagrin ence than their class origins. Moreover, the phenomenon of on the part of professors provoked by "the fact that thousands "anti-science" does differ in one important respect from the of their students swallowed them [Velikovsky's theories] with traditional occult. "Anti-science" appears only after science has an almost religious fervor, and saw the craggy, white-haired already flourished and made its tremendous contribution to scholar as a wronged genius."49 A Berkeley professor of astron- the growth of civilization; "anti-science" is a reaction against omy declared the symposium had been organized "since there an already existing science in the present and immediate past. was a rising groundswell of interest, particularly at Berkeley, The primitive or medieval magic, myth, and astrology were and that this would be an attempt to bridge the gap between not, however, a reaction against science, but rather recognized the public and science." If so, it turned out to be more of a modes of thought that had coexisted since time immemorial "confrontation" at which the massive pressure of mythopoeic with empirical ones, which they sought neither to contest nor anti-scientists could be brought to bear against the scientists.5° to discredit. "Anti-science," on the other hand, is a doctrine A "quasi-religious tone" permeated the exchange, noted Donald with a mission, an ideology; it can reinstate myth only if it Goldsmith; "a patriarch" who wished to restore the importance undermines the prestige of science. and the truth of the biblical account of the Exodus faced "a It would appear that the increase in uncertainty concerning later generation of Jewish scholars" who had turned away the human lot, the misery of economic depression, the shame from the literal truth; the youngest activist generation, how- of military defeat, the longing to communicate with those killed ever, made common cause with him.51 in war sons, daughters, lovers, husbands, fathers, mothers The phenomenon of the new anti-science did not fit the would be sufficient to explain the increase in anti-science. "The accepted schemes of sociological explanation. In his theory of First World War," wrote James Webb, "intensified the anxieties the occult, or as we would say, "anti-science," Thorstein Veblen, which had been responsible for the original Occult revival. the sardonic sociologist, in 1899 had maintained that a devotion Spiritualist societies sprang up in every large town.... In to the occult was primarily an expression of the mentality of Germany, the shock of defeat combined with the appalling the leisure class, which, in his view, provided "a dispropor- economic and political crisis to create an epidemic of Occultism tionately large number of believers in occult sciences of all such as the country had never known before."54 Nevertheless, kinds and shades."52 According to Veblen, those whose habits powerful though this evidence may seem, one must note that of thought are not controlled by contact with industrial pro- such anxiety does not invariably lead one toward the occult. cesses are perforce attracted toward the occult. Thus, the The Jews after the experience of the Holocaust in the Second learned classes, especially doctors of divinity (in his view), World War betook themselves not to astrology or spiritualism, impress the uneducated by their presumable powers as masters but to enthusiasm for the state of Israel. The young devotees of the magical arts, the Black Art, and the occult; they are of anti-science in the United States in the late sixties, dispro- counterposed by the lower learning, that is, empirical science, portionately children of the economically comfortable, turned which survives despisedly among working men, craftsmen, and "hippie" or "drop-out" despite the fact that they were econo- peasants. Evidently, however, Veblen's theory of the occult mically cushioned and self-cushioned from the anxieties of fails to account for the fluctuations in the prevalence of anti- economic or military existence. For all the economic anxiety science. Indeed, it was even noted at the conference on Dr. of the thirties, people had not resorted in the United States to Velikovsky's ideas that "engineers accepted the possibility of the occult for succor. Velikovsky's theories more readily than astronomers and We seem, in short, to be dealing with a long-wave histor- physicists." Contact with industrial processes did not immunize ical movement of history, a secular one, in the sense of the the engineers against anti-science; their spokesmen pointedly long period of time involved. Science and civilization, as they argued that engineers were more open to experiences of reach a pinnacle of achievement hitherto envisaged only in "directly unusual and magnificent phenomena" that were un- science fiction, do begin to awaken a resentment on the part of predictable on the basis of "theoretical equations used in the a literate many. Even if science had not brought forth the laboratory setting." There were hardly, however, any exper- atomic and hydrogen bombs, a countermovement against sci-

Winter 1983/84 43 ence would probably have evolved. The invention and explo- mode of thought, catastrophism stands opposed to uniformitar- sion of the bombs only provided a suitable occasion for argu- ianism; to the rebellious-minded, to the crackpot, or frequently ments with which to fortify an antipathy that already was in indeed to the generational revolutionist, the uniformitarian the making. The return of the repressed irrational takes place world is drab, lacking in spontaneity, conventional, devoid of with such a magnitude and intensity that it willfully disregards novelty or vitality. The principle of the uniformity of nature the cumulation of scientific evidence.55 affirmed that the same laws of nature would be valid for all The new anti-science involves a self-conscious rupture with places and times. Hegelian romantics and Marxist revolution- the methods and values of science and civilization. The classical ists, however, have longed for a "dialectical" world in which spiritualists had included among their numbers highly eminent there are not universal laws, and in which both nature and scientists who wanted psychical research to be recognized as human history are characterized by dialectical, discontinous, an accredited branch of scientific inquiry, with a section in the catastrophic transitions from one system of laws to another Royal Society. Sir William Crookes, Sir Oliver Lodge, Alfred qualitatively different.58 John Stuart Mill, however, had in his Russel Wallace, Pierre Curie, and the venturesome psychologist inductive logic made central his principle of the uniformity of William James, were men who believed that an entirely novel nature, while Lyell had done the same in geology with his domain of phenomena should be opened to scientific scrutiny. principle of uniformitarianism. They themselves were in the highest sense men of science, and Catastrophism, with its finimundialist overtones, its pre- even of the scientific establishment. The new anti-science, how- monition of the dramatic dénouement with the end of things, ever, is led by an activist elite conscious of itself as challenging its sense of "ominosity" (as we might call it) was strangely the methods of the scientific establishment. Their organiza- absent in European annals from the latter part of the seven- tional form is not that of the laboratory, but more congenially teenth century to the end of the nineteenth. Leibniz, child of the social organization of a Divine Light Mission, the mirror the Thirty Years' War, nonetheless in his Theodicy envisaged a image of what a New Left headquarters was.56 Activists indeed world-order that realized the highest possible happiness for all migrated easily from the latter to the former because of their beings. Catastrophism is rather the trait of prophets, those structural similarity; simple transformation equations obtain who inveigh that perdition is at hand, the end of mighty king- between the modes of anti-science and the modes of neo-leftist doms, condemned and obliterated for their sins. The prophets, activism; both seek a "perfect knowledge" that no scientific moved by formidable aggressive impulses, find satisfaction in evidence could conceivably falsify; both wish to prophesy, and their role as pronouncers of verdicts. And catastrophism gen- both have wanted their prophecy to have an apocalyptic, erally seems to flourish when the potential energies of aggres- finimundial dénouement. Having rejected in juvenocratic fash- sion are rising toward a maximum. Underlying the new anti- ion both the old politics and the old science, they replace them science with its search for a novel "paradigm"of catastrophism with primitivist reversals, seeing in a fifteen-year-old adolescent is the longing to see all reality under the aspect of potential or in some Asian or "third worlder" one uncontaminated by ruin, sub specie calamitatis. Catastrophism thus has a non- any scientific education, a source of highest wisdom. Anti-sci- logical, emotional basis. The child tiring of its plentiful toys ence and ideologists alike despise the doubter, the liberal, the turns on them, to destroy them. The generation raised in the measuring, weighing empiricist; anti-science becomes an ideo- time of the highest scientific and industrial achievement experi- logical ingredient for an elite messianically self-appointed to ences the growing surfeit of aggressive energies. It feels itself in redeem the world's peoples from civilization and its corrup- its comfort frustrated by the sense that a maximum has been tions. achieved and that its energies and intelligence may not match That "catastrophism" was the mark of the crackpot was or surpass those of its forebears. A society so frustrating seems long ago observed by Thomas Henry Huxley; during the to new generations one that should be terminated. Julius infancy of a science, such as geology, its practitioners, he noted, Caesar, in Bernard Shaw's version, was unmoved by the spec- were attracted toward catastrophist modes of thought; "catas- tacle of the library of Alexandria in flames; though it housed trophes of prodigious magnitude and frequent occurrence .. . the memory of mankind, he found that memory shameful, and were the favorite asylum ignorantiae of geologists, not a quarter would see it burn. Shaw's Caesar, however, anticipated a still of a century ago," wrote Huxley; Sir Charles Lyell and the greater future to be built. The new anti-science, on the other catastrophists quarreled not because he denied that catastro- hand, had no desire to recapitulate the scientific journey; the phes could occur but rather because he felt that they had an mental state of the "drop-out" is projected on the course of emotionally based "habit of calling on their god catastrophe to civilization as a whole. Personal aggression, transmuted into a help them" whenever they had some difficult phenomena to resentment of the methods and values of civilization, thus issues explain. " `Catastrophe' is a relative conception," Huxley noted, in a standpoint of its cataclysmic decline. an importation into scientific thinking of a highly subjective The new anti-science internalizes a revolt against civiliza- adjective, for judgments as to what was catastrophic would tion that is becoming an ingredient in the "dialectical person- vary with one's social standpoint.57 Like scientists generally, he ality of our time." It congeals diverse anxieties into an all- regarded it as a sound scientific principle not to introduce inclusive dread of the environment and the future soon to discontinuities into nature and explanation unless they were come. The Great Catastrophe portends, whether in atomic made imperative by the failures of continuities. finale, or world starvation, or racial war, or the depletion of What then is the socio-psychological source of the pro- raw materials or the life-maintaining atmosphere, a class of pensity to catastrophism? Part and parcel of the mythopoeic alternative modes of dread. In such a frame of mind, the

44 anxiety-laden person tends or chooses to regress toward the slow in social development, indifferent to close personal rela- more infantile stage of "omnipotence of thought," to magnify tionships, group activities or politics." In their response to the allegedly sheer legislative power of the will in a compulsion psychological tests, the physical researchers, engineers, and to catastrophe. "The basic dread" of an external catastrophe, science majors stood lowest in social relations, while nonscien- as Gerhart Piers wrote, challenges "the omnipotence of tists, especially lawyers and "social science majors," scored thought," for the portended catastrophe lies outside the in- higher. Physicists and engineers stood at opposite poles from dividual's domain of knowledge or possible control.59 The in- the businessmen and lawyers as far as social behavior was dividual therefore aims to restore the conviction of his concerned.62 No governing elite could be fashioned out of the "omnipotence of thought" not only by "imagining the worst" scientists as a social stratum; no group that did not enjoy the but also by preparing himself through anti-science by affirming everyday hurly-burly of the exercise of power with, through, that he has "known it all along." The retreat to the irrational and over the people has ever become a governing elite. leaves the individual all the more likely to sustain defeat at the Nor does it seem to be the case that an atomic anxiety, hands of the genuine problems whose severity he has aggra- spreading among children, has made them more susceptible in vated. The German proverb has it: "If you paint the devil on their later years to the irrationalism of anti-science. The dis- the wall, he'll come." The anti-scientists, painting the Devil tinguished child psychiatrist Dr. Martha Wolfenstein reported, repeatedly, seek perdition as their compulsive form of salvation; "Children today are afraid of the same things that they have they internalize defeat. always been afraid of. 1 don't have any evidence in my practice Most frequently (as we have seen) the anti-science move- to support the theory that anxiety has increased."63 The anxiety ment is said to express the disenchantment of people with the to which anti-science provides a rationalization seems rather to sociopolitical consequences of science. It is urged that people, have arisen as a recoil from the advancement of civilization having seen whether science led, namely, to the atomic bomb itself on the part of generations who feel that the work done and its attendant horrors and resultant anxieties, have shed by their fathers stands and that notable achievements hence- their previous esteem for such knowledge and are disillusioned forth can only be negative. The "Great Refusal" of which they with the pretensions of scientists to constitute a political elite then speak becomes a slogan for the Will to Regress, the with political influence. "Over the last thirty or forty years," "Great Regression." writes Stephen Toulmin, "the profession of science has lost its public reputation for living up to the proper ideals of its own occupation ... And it is only if we are ready to admit this sad Notes fact that we can understand (I believe) the full virulence of the contemporary reaction against science."6 ) Yet there is little I. "We should expect that as the field of human knowledge expands, magical beliefs should correspondingly decline. Indeed, this seems to be the evidence that the anti-science movement derives from a feeling case." Paul Blumberg, "Magic in the Modern World," Sociology and Social that the scientific elite is morally guilty for its inventions in Research, 47, (1962-63), p. 158. nuclear military technology. Rather, such considerations are 2. Jacques Maitre, "The Consumption of Astrology in Contemporary adduced by those who already adhere or are predisposed to Society," Diogenes, Spring 1966, pp. 85 86. anti-science for quite other, nonlogical, emotional causes. The 3. Ibid., p. 90. 4. Andrew Lloyd, "Mitterrand Gives a French Lesson," New Science, people of Japan who experienced the trauma of two atomic 93 (7 January 1982), p. 20. explosions did not react by condemning science. The president 5. Ibid., p. 93. of the National Scientific and Technological Council of 6. Loc. cit. "Astrology, then, makes progress in the city, in the midst of Venezuela, Marcel Roche, expressed the astonishment of his the modernity which is still developing and already undergoing crisis .. . countrymen with the strength of the anti-science movement in [W]omen and youth are also good conductors of astrology. Examining them, we discover vast areas of archaism ensconced in the very heart of--and the United States: "I come from an underdeveloped country, developing along with -modernity. Modern culture has as a by-product Venezuela, and we are shocked by the reaction against science. 'unculture.' " Claude Fischler, "Astrology and French Society: The Dialectic But we note that this reaction is restricted to a small corner of of Archaism and Modernity," in Edward A. Tiryakian, ed., On the Margin the world [the U.S. and Europe, seen as a small peninsula of of the Visible: Sociology, the Esoteric, and the Occult, New York, 1974, p. Asia] and that, in fact, 90 percent of the world's people still 290. 7. New York Times, October 19, 1975. passionately desire science ...'61 8. Francis Parkman, The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth That the scientists would really become contenders for Century (1867), Boston, 1897, vol. 1, pp. 179-180,226-227. political power in the sense in which lawyers, businessmen, 9. E. F. Schumacher, Small Is Beautiful (1973), rep., New York, 1975, and labor leaders have been practicing politicians is extremely pp. 54-55. improbable. For the scientists are virtually disqualified for the 10. Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Cheerful Yesterdays, p. 193. R. Laurence Moore, "Spiritualism and Séance: Reflections on the First Decade role of political leadership simply by their own modes of char- of the Spirit Rappings," American Quarterly, 24 (1972), p. 474. acter. The eminent psychologist Lewis M. Terman concluded I I. Frank Podmore, Robert Owen: A Biography, (1906), reprinted Lon- from a careful comparison of scientists and nonscientists ex- don, 1923, pp. 328-614. tended over many years that "the bulk of scientific research is 12. Robert Owen, The Life of Robert Owen, London, 1920, pp. 274-75. carried on by devotees of science for whom research is their 13. Frank Podmore, Modern Spiritualism: A History and a Criticism, Lon- don, 1902, vol. 1, p. 209. life and social relations are comparatively unimportant." His 14. Andrew D. White, Autobiography, vol. 2, New York, 1906, p. 83. study, and Anne Roe's study of the psychology of occupations, 15. Arthur Conan Doyle, The History of Spiritualism, New York, 1926, showed that as a group the "physicists tended to be shy, lonely, vol. 2, p. 262. Ross Terrill, R. H. Tawney and His Times, p. 30.

Winter 1983/84 45 16. Bernard Shaw, Heartbreak House (Penguin Ed.), London, 1964, he is ignored and attempt to make an academic freedom case of it ... As I p. 14. see it, the threat to academic freedom comes the other way around: by such 17. Frederick Engels, Dialectics of Nature, tr. Clemens P. Dutt, New tactics the Velikovsky party tries to compel interest by scientists in work in York, 1940, pp. 298 301. which they can find no interest. 18. R. Lawrence Moore, op. cit., pp. 486 87 56. Kopkind, op. cit., p. 47. 19. Ibid., p. 497. 57. Thomas Henry Huxley, "Science and Pseudo-Science," in "Scientific 20. Tom Buckley, "The Signs Are Right for Astrology," New York Times and Pseudo-Scientific Realism" (1887), Science and Christian Tradition, Magazine, Dec. 15, 1968, p. 31. Collected Essays, vol. 5, London, 1909, pp. 70, 71, 79, 100. 21. Martin Gardner, Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science, New York, 58. Karl Marx's collaborator, Engels, attacked those who held to the 1957, rev. ed. p. 329. "conservative outlook": "Natural science, at the outset revolutionary, was 22. Martha Gold, "The Dialectics of Astrology," Liberation, 20, no. I confronted by an out and out conservative nature, in which everything (1976), pp. 30-31. remained today as it was at the beginning of the world, and in which right to 23. Doris Kaye, Astrology and the Now Generation. New York, 1970, pp. the end of the world everything would remain as it had in the beginning." 9, 26. Engels, Dialectic of Nature, p. 186. 24. David St. Clair, The Psychic World of California, New York (Bantam 59. Gerhart Piers and Milton B. Singer, Shame and Guilt: A Psycho- ed.), 1973, p. 93. analytic and Cultural Study, 1953, reprinted New York. 1971, p. 42. 254 Tom Buckley, op. cit., pp. 30, 135. 60. Stephen Toulmin, in Civilization and Science: In Conflict or Col- 26. Ibid., p. 135. laboration, A Ciba Foundation Symposium, Amsterdam 1972, pp. 29, 30. 27. Nat Freedland, The Occult Explosion, New York, 1972, p. 24. Martin Gardner, the well-known writer of the Scientific American, also felt 28. Tom Buckley, op. cit., p. 145. that the "widepread anxiety caused by fear of atomic war" was evidently 29. Nat Freeland, The Occult Explosion, p. 132. Marcello Truzzi, "The "turning the minds of countless frightened people toward religion and; or Occult Revival as Popular Culture," Sociological Quarterly, 13 (1972), p. 19. mental therapy." Nonetheless, he thought that "the primary cause of the new 30. Henry P. Scarupa, "Transcendental Meditation: The New Serenity," flowerings of pseudoscience" was "a hunger on the part of a gullible public The Psychic Scene, Martin Ebon, ed., New York. 1974, p. 1 1 1 -12. Truzzi, op. for sensational science news." Martin Gardner, "The Hermit Scientist," cit., pp. 19, 26. Antioch Review. 10 (1950), pp. 448 -49. 31. Mark Twain, Christian Science. New York, 1907, p. 52. 61. Marcel Roche, in Civilization and Science, op. cit., p. 18. 32. Gay Allen, William James: A Biography (1967), rep., New York, 62. Lewis M. Terman, "Are Scientists Different?" Scientific American, 1969, pp. 368-69. 192, (Jan. 1955), p. 29. 33. Andrew Kopkind, "Mystic Politics: Refugees from the New Left," 63. Carol Botwin, "Violence and the City Child," New York Times Ramparts, 12 (July 1973), p. 26. Magazine. January 11, 1970, p. 73. • 34. Ibid., p. 28. 35. Neal Wood, Communism and British Intellectuals, London, 1959, p. 121 ff. THE HUMANIST INSTITUTE 36. Michael Ressman, "Show Us Your Lotus Ass, Rennie!: Bliss and Fear in Berkeley," Social Policy, 5, (Sept.-Oct. 1974). p. 33. A LEADERSHIP TRAINING PROGRAM 37. Ibid., p. 35. Realizing humanist ideals requires effective organization. 38. Harlow Shapley, Through Rugged Ways to the Stars, New York, 1969, Organization demands leadership. The Institute's role is to p. 150 ff. 39. Pensée, vol. 2, May 1972, pp. 7, 47. train both new and existing humanist leaders and volunteers 40. Ibid., p. 6. in religion, the arts, professions, science, and politics. 41. Loc. cit. To this end, the Institute will offer graduate courses and 42. Pensée, vol. 2, May 1972, pp. 4, 22. seminars, work with other educational institutions to 43. Pensée, vol. 4. Spring 1974, p. 44. 44. Lynn Trainor. "Velikovsky, Pro and Con: The Debate Continues develop courses relevant to its curriculum, identify potential Among the Savants," Science Forum. October 1974. p. 25. leaders, and seek jobs for its graduates. 45. Mark DeWolfe Howe, ed., Holmes-Laski Letters: The Correspon- Courses will be held at the headquarters in New York City dence of Mr. Justice Holmes and Harold J. Laski. Cambridge. Mass., 1953, and at other locations. vol. I, p. 309. 46. When an Australian anti-communist lecturer Dr. Swartz, toured Institute faculty will be community and academic leaders American universities in the early 1960s, many professors at Berkeley self- with relevant expertise. righteously threatened his publishers with a boycott of their own manu- Dean: Howard Radest; Administrator: Jean Kotkin scripts. Nobody seems to have thought that Dr. Swartz was a civil liberties martyr. INAUGURAL PROGRAM, 1984 47. Pensée, vol. 2, May 1972, pp. 48, 49. Contemporary Humanist Philosophies, 2 credits, March 30- 48. Donald Goldsmith, ed., Scientists Confront I elikovsk y, Ithaca, April 1, N.Y.C. 1977, p. 26. 49. Pensée, vol. 4. Spring 1974, p. 45. An intensive seminar: 20 hours of discussion of religious 50. Ibid., p. 27. and secular humanism. Relevant works of Dewey, Huxley, 51. Goldsmith, loc. cit. and Fromm will be read in advance. Critical examination 52. Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class. p. 366. of Humanist Manifestoes I and II and of current philo- 53. Thorstein Veblen, The Place of Science in Modern Civiliation, New sophical issues. York, 1919, pp. 26, 27. 54. James Webb, "On Occult Revivals," Encounter, 46, April 1976. Ethical Issues and Humanist Perspectives, 4 credits, August 55. As the publisher of the Scientific American noted: "We have not 26-31, N.Y.C. encountered a single scientist working in any of the many fields, from archae- ology to astrophysics, on which Velikovsky touches who finds any interest FURTHER INFORMATION whatever in anything he has to say ... The controversy seems to be The Humanist Institute, 2 West 64th Street generated wholly by Velikovsky and his sympathizers. They cry 'fool' because New York, N.Y. 10023

46 Evolution is acceptable to most organ- ized religions. God may have chosen to work that way. It is "directed" evolution, triggered The End of the Galilean Cease-Fire? and guided by a supreme being. Man is not authorized to disturb this mechanism, but he has figuratively taken the back off the television. A consultant's report to the same Secretariat for Non-believers--which is James Hansen charged with watching some of the activities of godless science described how this is t a distance say, from Rome—the centuries. It is not just a question of the happening: Abattles over evolution being fought creation of "compounds with some of the From contraceptive technologies, through and occasionally won by creationists in the characteristics of life" in the laboratory, in vitro fertilization and ultimately in vitro United States seem ridiculous and terribly according to Father Vittorio Marcozzi, a gestation, to nuclear transplantation (clon- American. Three hundred and fifty years Jesuit philosopher at the Gregorian Univer- ing) there is and will be a massive effort ago the Vatican tried Galileo, got what it sity in Rome. "Life might turn out to be a to regulate human reproduction qualita- wanted, and has regretted the outcome ever property inherent in some materials," he tively and quantitatively ... we move from since. That interesting faux pas, and the says. It is the potential for tinkering with "sex without babies" to "babies without similar one by the Protestants regarding the nature of man implicit in recent ad- sex." Copernicus, helped bring on a cease-fire vances in genetics that worries the church. The list is incomplete. Throw in vasec- between the big, organized churches and Recombinant genetics as applied to tomies and female sterilization. Then abor- science. The decisive battles over Darwinian humans may be a "denial of the sacramen- tion: Taken together with the techniques of evolution in the first half of this century tality of the human body and the human fetal diagnosis of genetic defects and the were not fought in Rome, Canterbury, or soul," in the words of Robert Brungs, an determination of the sex of the unborn it Mecca, but rather at the end of the world American Jesuit and philosopher of science. must inevitably affect the makeup of the in Arkansas. In a study prepared for the beautifully human gene pool. Transplants of natural Still, this policy of the "two cultures"— yielding unto Einstein what is Einstein's has been a policy of continual retreat: a round earth, heliocentric planetary motion, and apes for ancestors. Official Christian doctrines once held there could be no sexual distinction among plants since Gen- esis clearly indicated they were created before the creation of animals, and so, of sex. R. D. Laing said something quotable about all this. "Many people used to believe that angels moved the stars. It now appears they do not. As a result of this and like revelations, many people do not now believe in angels." Leaders of thought in numerous faiths now wonder if these continual retreats from scientific advances are not becoming a rout and think it may be time to come off the defensive. This thinking leads to move- The Trial of Galileo ments ranging from creationism to "Kor- Courtesy of The Bridgeman Art Library anic" physics. Still, scientific-minded people are inclined to see creationism as just an- named "Secretariat for Non-believers of the and artificial organs muddy the waters even other wave of unrest passing through the Vatican," Father Brungs went on to suggest further. The question, according to Father great unwashed, and Muslim objections to that genetic meddling may be a "great Brungs, becomes "How much can we change modern physics depend largely on the Jewish heresy," on a par with Protestantism and the human body and still be sure we're last names of some of its practitioners and the controversy over the nature of God that dealing with human beings?" theorists. led to the Trinitarian compromise—im- History is always rich ground for col- But suppose researchers get their hands plicitly, a "major attack on Christian truth." lectors of irony and it is nice to know that on life itself. It could happen. "Life is God's, Concern begins with a new twist on a the church now finds itself in this difficulty any god's, essential miracle." There are familiar story. "Old problems in the history directly as a result of the genius of two many signs that this prospect is sufficiently of the evolution of the human species are monks: the Augustinian Gregor Mendel awful to bring even the whole weight of the re-emerging with the profound difference and Lazzaro Spallanzani, an Italian Jesuit. Roman Catholic church into full scientific that they show the mark of a hardly con- Mendel, his sweet peas, and the resulting battle for the first time in more than three trollable `man-steered evolution,'" according Mendelian laws of inheritance are too well to Angelo Serra, a Jesuit geneticist at the known to require any amplification, even if James Hansen is a free-lance writer living School of Medicine of the Catholic Univer- there is now some statistical reason to in Rome. sity in Rome. believe that he may have cooked his results. Winter 1983/84 47 Spallanzani is a more obscure figure. He "such 'planning rhetoric' is pervasive in bio- roughly that this knowledge cannot be in was an eminent biologist of the eighteenth technological literature." contrast with faith if it reflects the reality century and the author of essential studies The fear that lurks behind all this froth- made by God. But no similar consideration on respiration, the circulation of blood, and ing is that man in his ingenuity may have can be given to the immoral use of such the human digestive tract. What interests us found a way of committing a second Orig- knowledge. Here it is the act rather than here is that he also invented artificial insem- inal Sin. A fifth-century Pope, St. Leo the the thought that can be condemned. There ination, managing, in 1777, to artificially Great, is brought in as an authority: "Wake is, too, a powerful precedent—atomic impregnate a female dog with "a device of up man and recognize that high estate of weaponry. It is held that science as a system brass warmed to body temperature." your human nature. Remember, you are is incapable of developing moral statements. Spallanzani's intent was probably not so made in God's image, and that, though That is the reason "It is necessary that sci- much to find a better way to do these things defaced in Adam, the image has been re- ence should always be accompanied and con- as it was to demonstrate with scientific rigor stored in Christ." Seen in this light, human trolled by the wisdom that belongs to the what most people already empirically under- genetic engineering is a precise equivalent permanent spiritual heritage of humanity," stood about the dynamics of baby-making. of the apple that once changed man's nature according to John Paul II. Whatever Mendel and Spallanzani had for the worse. What all this means is that the gloves in mild, they helped let the cat out of the Geneticists and biotechnologists do not are coming off. The Galilean cease-fire is bag. John Gran, the Roman Catholic bishop as a rule describe the aim of their research over. The children can play and learn till of Oslo, says: "So long as science had re- as the creation of soulless monsters. The they get to the matches, but burning the mained speculative it had caused no great less ambitious purpose is usually stated in house down is too rich a learning experience. danger to Faith. With its present day over- terms of freeing man from defeats and gene- Until now this cease-fire has been recip- whelmingly tangible results it clearly does linked disorders that keep him from reaching rocal, with earnest scientists demonstrating so." For Bishop Gran, little matter that the his potential. This hope might be betrayed. that the volcanic explosions which des- earth moves around the sun and not vice American bishop Mark Hurley has written troyed the Minoan civilization might also versa. It is what touches men that matters. that "The blessings of the genetic and bio- have caused the parting of the Red Sea, or Genetic engineering touches man. For medical revolutions are tempered by the that certain astronomic configurations might Father Brungs, "these new technologies horrible manipulations and gross experi- have caused a star to seem to rise over a aimed directly, immediately and systemat- mentations that are reducing human beings manger in Bethlehem. Now researchers may ically at the human person represent an to utterly expendable things, objects, brute be very close to creating those "materials almost wholly different situation." First, matter." Even the relatively benign applica- with the property of life" in the laboratory, indirect intervention in evolution became tion of these techniques to deal with genetic and at the outer edges of theoretical physics feasible by way of the control of birth and disorders ranging from hemophilia to sickle- scientists are posing questions that were fetal development. Now, advances in gen- cell anemia is probably out. The church once the domain of priests and preachers: etics may make it possible to intervene already forbids the voluntary sterilization What governs the universe? What is the directly. All of this can be—likely will be— of healthy carriers in these cases. It is a universe? What, in sum, is everything all reduced to a slogan: If we really are created denial of the sacramentality of the human about? in the image of God, we mess with his body. It is never easy for clever, scientific- handiwork only at the risk of our immortal These are not arguments about how minded people to remember that Christians souls. many angels can dance on a gene. The believe. The church believes it already Doctrinal storm clouds really are gather- Roman Catholic church has now clearly seen knows what "everything is all about." It is ing over this point. The otherwise careful that it must reach a decision about genetic about God. The church believes that answers documents by which the church decides engineering as applied to humans—and what to some questions are His monopoly. what it thinks grow shrill over the potential it decides will have real effect. It will govern The last part of the New Testament is of human genetics engineering; they drag the research policies of some six hundred called "Apocalypse." It tells a grim story. out possibilities like the laboratory creation Catholic institutes of higher learning scat- The Book of the Seven Seals containing the of literal chimeras—monstrous constructs tered around the world and affect the aims secrets of God's kingdom is opened. At the half beast, half man; or even half plant, half and interests of Catholic scientists. Full war breaking of the Seventh Seal, the Four man. The consultant's report to the Secre- on genetic engineering would inevitably Horsemen of the Apocalypse come forth. tariat for Non-believers, cited earlier, even spread to "right-to-life" groups, already in- Horrible events follow. It is a time of beasts brings in Cosmopolitan magazine - as a volved in the controversy over experimenta- and half-men. There is the beast from the source, excerpting this passage: tion with human fetuses. Papal expressions sea—or was that sea the salty water of an of opinion on these matters, in or ex artificial womb? At any rate, it is the end of Dr. Haldane [J. B. S. Haldane, the late cathedra, would be a powerful source of the world. British geneticist] predicted we might propaganda, influencing arguments about If you believe that, well, you are prob- breed, for one thing, a race of legless research and funding even outside the im- ably obligated to act on the information. If mutants with prehensile tails or feet for mediate Catholic world. Such prestigious you do not, disbelief will likely cause, if not space travel. Other scientists would like opinions could even find a ready-made obligate, a wholly different sort of behavior. to see women laying eggs that could be constituency in organized creationism. The one side is going to ask the other to hatched or eaten; human beings with gills This will sound familiar, reminiscent of abandon a very promising avenue for im- to facilitate underwater travel; people with trying Galileo or burning Giordano Bruno proving mankind in the here and now rather two kinds of hands, one for heavy work, by way of putting a finger in the dike against than the maybe then. The question of being the other for lighter tasks ... science. It is not quite the same. Catholic human is the heart of the problem. We need The paper mercifully admits that this dogma is now perfectly willing to accom- to know what men are. Either way, it does is an "extreme statement," but adds that modate scientific knowledge, holding not appear that we will know in time. •

48 :)-(51-10-101e Who Really Killed Goliath? Not David, says Gerald Larue, on the basis of the best available in biblical criticism.

Gerald A. Larue

One of the best-known and most popular known today as the Gaza Strip. Egyptian stories in the Bible is that of David's en- portrayals of the Sea People depict them in counter with Goliath. Through the millennia kilts similar to those worn by Aegean people it has assumed symbolic dimensions repre- and in high-feathered headdresses. The pot- senting the defeat of the stronger by the tery recovered from the excavations of weaker. It has been applied to unexpected Philistine sites in Palestine provides clear victories in politics, sports, wars, and inter- links to the pottery styles and forms of personal relationships. It has been recorded Mycenae, Greece. Despite such links to in art and in song. The mighty champion is Mycenae, scholars are still not sure about Contradictions and Anachronisms portrayed as a boisterous, sure-of-self, well- the identity of the Sea People, nor are they armed, and overconfident bully; the smaller, sure just why they began their migrations Saul, the first Hebrew king, suffered from presumably weaker and less well-equipped across the sea. bouts of deep depression that some modern victor turns out to be a better warrior than The Philistines, having established them- psychologists have diagnosed as manic-depres- expected. selves along the coast, began to expand in- sive. His compatriots discovered that his Many who have used the simile of a land; and their pottery is found throughout depression responded positively to music. David versus a Goliath never really read southern Palestine. At this same time the David, a young shepherd who played the the biblical account. Many who have, have Hebrews, having entered Canaan from small lyre (not a harp) was introduced to read it uncritically. To the alert reader, a across the Jordan River, were beginning to the court in a role that today we would number of contradictions and anachronisms organize themselves into a united people, a label a "music therapist." His music had a become apparent. nation, under King Saul. The biblical record calming effect on the troubled monarch, and indicates that one of Saul's major tasks was because of his winsome personality, David The Setting of the Battle to contain the expansion of the Philistines. soon became a member of the court The encounter in the valley of Elah was "family." When the giant Philistine taunted The story is set in the tenth century B.C.F. in therefore a significant meeting of forces. the Hebrews and no warrior responded, the valley of Elah (oak trees), which is be- The Philistines were better armed. From David volunteered to confront him. At lieved to have been in the Judean foothills the Hittites they had wrested the secret of Saul's insistence, David tried on the mon- west of Bethlehem. The adversaries were the iron-working, and the spear of their hero arch's protective armor but found he could Philistines and the Hebrews. The Philistines warrior was tipped with this new, harder not handle the heavy equipment and chose (Peleste) were part of the second wave of metal rather than with the customary softer to use a shepherd's weapon, a sling and sling "Sea People" who attacked the eastern sea- bronze. They followed a battle pattern stones. board of the Mediterranean. They subdued familiar to us from Homer's Iliad, where Despite the pre-battle conversation be- the Hittites (who lived in what is now part two warriors engaged in insults prior to tween Saul and David, and despite David's of Turkey), the northern Syrians, and the battle (VII. 65 ff.). They mocked and intimate role in the court, the reader of the people of Cyprus, but were thwarted in their taunted the Hebrews. They presented a giant story is surprised to discover a few verses attempt to invade Egypt during the reigns warrior six cubits and a span in height. later that neither Saul nor his general, of Mernephtah (c. 1234-1222 B.C.E.) and Since a cubit is approximately 18 inches, Abner, have any idea who David is. Saul Rameses Ill (c. 1195-1164 B.c.E_). Some Sea this soldier was about ten feet tall! He chal- asks "Whose son is this?" meaning "Who is People settled along the Palestinian coast in lenged any Hebrew warrior to do battle with he?" Abner responds, "I can't tell" (1 Sam. five key cities approximately in the area him and promised that the outcome of the 17:55). If Saul's concern was really about man-to-man struggle would represent the David's patrimony, the question would still Gerald A. Larue is professor emeritus of outcome of the battle: if the Hebrew warrior be confusing, because David had been intro- biblical history and archaeology at the won, then it would be assumed that the Phil- duced into the court as "a son of Jesse, the University of Southern California at Los istines were defeated; if the Hebrew lost, Bethlehemite" (16:18). Angeles. He is chairman of FREE !WI IRr 's then the Philistines would be conquerors. After David stunned the Philistine, he Religion and Biblical Criticism Research According to the biblical narrative, David killed him by cutting off his head, after Project. accepted the challenge. which, we are told, he "brought it to

Winter 1983/84 49 Jerusalem" (17:54). This statement is most Yahweh, his god, was on his side, how could Yahweh Shrine at Nob and asked for certainly an anachronism, for Jerusalem re- Saul fail? How could David replace him? weapons. The priest, Ahimelech, responded: mained an independent Jebusite city until The writer explains that Yahweh was dis- "Look, the sword of Goliath the Philistine, David conquered it and made it his capital pleased because Saul failed to carry out the whom you killed in the valley of Elah, is after he had become king (2 Sam. 5:6-7): vicious slaughter of Agag and his holdings wrapped in a cloth back of the ephod. Take To confuse matters even further, it is (1 Sam. 15:9). Saul did not obey Yahweh, it, for it is the only one here." Thus, the noted in 2 Sam. 21:19 that "Elhanan, the so Yahweh replaced him with another hero, best evidence that we have suggests that the son of Jaareoregim, the Bethlehemite, killed David, and commissioned Samuel to se- story of David's victory over the Philistine Goliath the Gittite, the shaft of whose spear cretly anoint the new messiah (16:1-13). It giant was part of the earliest (and therefore was like a weaver's beam." The description was important to the editor to convey his potentially less contaminated) history of of the spear is similar in both the David belief that what had happened in the early David. David did kill the Philistine. and the Elhanan accounts, and the identity history of the emerging nation of Israel was But what of the statement in 2 Sam. of the Philistine warrior is the same: not by happenstance or by the political 21:19 that is also from the early source, Goliath. The question now to be confronted machinations of David, but because Yahweh which states that Elhanan killed "Goliath is: Who really killed Goliath the Gittite? willed it to be so. the Gittite"? There have been those in the Elhanan or David? The fact that there were conflicts in the past who suggested that perhaps David's two accounts might have caused some dif- real name was "Elhanan" and that the name The Way of the Scholar ficulty, but a study of Hebrew literature "David," which can be linked to the word makes it quite clear that the Hebrew people meaning "beloved," was a special name given How do scholars explain the contradictions were able to live with differing and contra- to this much-admired monarch. But names and the anachronism? The scholar begins dicting theories in their theological litera- signifying beauty or preciousness are often with the assumption that a Hebrew writer ture. There are two quite different, conflic- given to children. The name "Jameel," often was not stupid and would be aware of con- ting accounts of creation in Gen. I:1-2:4a given to males in the Arab world, means flicts in the account. Why then would a and 2:4b-3:24. One need only compare 1 "beautiful." The name "Pearl," given to single writer permit contradictions to re- Maccabees and 2 Maccabees (found in the women, refers to a precious gem, and so main? The best answer is that the biblical Apocrypha in Jewish and Protestant Bibles) on. This explanation seems forced. account is the work of more than one to see how 2 Maccabees has added theologi- Another suggestion was based on the author. Several writers contributed differing cal dimensions to the more data-oriented term dawidum, which appears in the stories about how David entered Saul's accounts in 1 Maccabees. Biblical history is court and about the battle with the Philistine so overwritten with theological interpreta- "What of the story of David's en- giant. One said that David was in Saul's tion that it has often been recognized as a counter with the Philistine? ... Is it employ prior to the battle; the other said record of the acts of God. Christians live a fabrication designed to exalt that David did not become a member of comfortably with the differing and conflic- the court until after the battle. ting stories about the resurrection of Jesus David?" Scholars have traced what is called an and are able to see a progressive interpreta- "early source" and one or more "later" tion in the gospels extending from Mark to Amorite texts recovered from the excava- sources in the David story. The early source John. Perhaps, as Jacob Myers had noted, tions of ancient Mari (Tell el Hariri), a city begins in 1 Sam. 16:14-23 and tells of David "the two stories of his [David's] coming to that flourished on the middle Euphrates coming to Saul's court as a musician. It the notice of Saul were so firmly established during the second and third millennia H.C.E. continues through 17:1-11, 32-54 with verses in the tradition that neither could be sup- The word refers to the leader, and it was 41, 48b, and 50 recognized as editorial ad- pressed in favor of the other." The editor suggested that the title David (dawidum) ditions. This story contrasts with that of the included both. was given to Elhanan after he became ruler. "later source," which says that David came But what of the story of David's en- But this is not a convincing argument either. to the battle lines with provender for his counter with the Philistine? Is it simply Both explanations seem to be extreme brothers, who were in Saul's army. He heard religious fiction? Is it a fabrication designed efforts to maintain David's reputation as the Philistine's taunts and went out and to exalt David? Was the true hero Elhanan, "Goliath killer." killed him, after which he was introduced one of David's soldiers, and did David or A much simpler and more acceptable to Saul (17:12-31, 55-58; 18:1-5; note that his biographers "steal" the story of Elhanan's explanation had come from the study of 17:31 is an editorial transition sentence). victory over Goliath and attribute it to the Hebrew text. It is clear that the name Sometime during the compiling and David? Was the true account preserved in 2 "Goliath" was added to the story of David's transmitting of the David story an editor Sam. 21:19 only by happenstance? encounter with the Philistine giant. In other combined the two accounts and ignored the Most scholars believe that the story of words, in the earliest account the Philistine obvious contradictions, perhaps because he David's encounter with the Philistine giant David killed was anonymous and the words was not sure which was correct, but more fits best into the early source. Certainly there "named Goliath of Gath" in 17:4 and "the probably because he found in the later have been those who have thought to isolate Philistine champion from Gath named materials theological implications absent in it as coming from a special source, perhaps Goliath" in 17:23 and the name "Goliath" the earlier account. Obviously the theo- fictional, but there is a reference in the early in 21:9 should be recognized as interpola- logical concepts were important to the source at 1 Sam. 21:9 that refers back to tions and not part of the original text. editor. The late source, beginning in 1 Sam. the battle and which supports the placing of According to this analysis, David did 15, sought to explain why Saul, who had the battle in the earliest material about kill a Philistine giant, but he did not kill been chosen by Yahweh to lead the Hebrews David. In this reference David, who had by Goliath, The early source in 2 Sam. 21:5-22 and had been anointed by Samuel (1 Sam this time earned the enmity of King Saul, informs us that there were a number of huge l0), had failed to fulfill his mission. If was in flight. He stopped briefly at the Philistines slain by the Hebrews. David was

50 rescued from a giant named lshbenob, who was killed by a Hebrew soldier named Abishai, son of Zuriah. Saph was killed by Sebecai the Hushite, Goliath was slain by Elhanan, and the giant with six fingers on Humanism in Norway each hand and six toes on each foot was killed by Jonathan, David's nephew. Some- how it seemed important to some editor that Strategies for Growth of the Humanist David's giant have a name, so he inserted the name "Goliath." Much later, during the fifth century Movement R.c.r., when the books of Samuel and Kings were being rewritten by the author or authors of what we today call Chronicles, the editors were troubled by the conflicting accounts of who killed Goliath. The David story had already achieved the status of "history," so they altered the record of Levi Fragell Elhanan's victory and wrote: "Elhanan, the son of Jair, killed Lahmi, the brother of Goliath the Gittite ... " (I Chron. 20:5). In the Fall issue of FREE INQUIRY, we published "The Future of Humanism" by Paul Kurtz. Once again we are permitted to see how a Here is another view of the future of the humanist movement. Levi Fragell is the executive text could be altered at a later date by the director of the Humanist-Ethical Association of Norway (Human-Etisk Forbund i Norge). insertion of new materials. By simply adding Under his leadership, its membership has increased from 1,500 to 20,000 in just a few short the phrase "Lahmi the brother of" the years. His explanations of how and why are therefore important, especially given the fact that Chroniclers were able to adjust the text to Norway is a small country with a population of only four million. Norway has its own state protect the reputation of David as Goliath- church, and humanists provide an alternative for those who do not accept it. This article is killer and at the same time eliminate a based on a talk delivered by Mr. Fragell at the 1983 General Assembly of the Humanist-Ethical contradiction. Association of Norway.—Ens. Conclusion n several occasions, 1 have discussed ritory, find the boundary markers, and run In the light of the best analysis of the text 0the international humanist movement, up our own pennants, we may risk losing we can make at this time, and with what and in my opinion there are some pertinent our rights and become mere tenants or les- archaeological and historical evidence we reasons for bringing up the subject in a sees of the well-set church state, by whom have from the past, we can assume that Norwegian humanist-ethical context. I shall we may be permitted to grow our own David was a shepherd who became a musi- mention just two of these reasons: potatoes, graciously protected by the pro- cian in King Saul's court, that he felled a I. Humanism is introduced nowadays prietor, but not allowed to compete with or giant Philistine with a stone from his sling, into educational and cultural debates on an displace the squire's products. In other and that he killed the huge man with the international scale. Philosophy textbooks words, we may freely putter about with an Philistine's own sword by hacking off his and theological tracts often discuss human- alternative moral education of a quiet-man- head. David did not kill Goliath, Elhanan ism in a broad perspective, frequently with nered minority, but the Christian basis of did. Later editors added the name "Goliath" a great deal of knowledge and competence. education would remain ineradicable. to the David story. This is an area we humanists have con- Bearing a distinctly clear identity as sidered our own territory, one that we have international humanists, we know that the Note staked out and partly settled. It is important state of things ought to be quite the op- to our identity. If we do not succeed in posite: World culture—art, science, politics Some of the resource materials to support the arguments in this paper should be easily acces- establishing the orientation of our own ter- is no longer religiously founded but is based sible in public libraries, in college and university upon secular and human values. In the libraries, and certainly in seminary libraries. See, future, the religious communities should for example, George B. Caird, "Samuel," in The become the ones that in the name of toler- Interpreter's Bible (New York Nashville, 1953): ance are permitted to carry out their activi- Peter Ackroyd, The First Book of Samuel. Cam- ties within a joint territory based upon bridge Bible Commentary (Cambridge, 1971); humanist culture. Eugene H. Maly, The World of David and Sol- 2. The second reason for discussing the omon (New Jersey, 1966); items "David" by life and activity of the international human- Jacob M. Myers and "Philistines" by Jonas ist movement rests implicitly with the fol- Greenfield in The Interpreter's Dictionary of the lowing query: If humanism represents the Bible; William F. Stinespring's annotations on glorious possibilities just mentioned, then Samuel in The Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha (Revised Standard Version); and Jay why are the world's humanist organizations A. Wilcoxen's annotations on Samuel in The of such trifling size that (in proportion to New English Bible with the Apocrypha: Oxford the total population) the Norwegian associa- Study Edition. • tion appears as a Gulliver in the Lilliput of

Winter 1983/84 51 organized humanism? In other words, what in the eighteenth-century freethinkers of in the Western world. unfortunate errors are being made world- France, England, Germany, and the United The second main type of international wide that prevent expansion and renewal? States. humanist organization operates from an How are we to avoid these errors? I shall One of the oldest organizations of this exactly opposite basis. These groups began endeavor to provide a piecemeal answer. type is the National Secular Society of within the religious communities and have Parenthetically, I admit that the pro- Britain, founded by Charles Bradlaugh, a been more interested in what they have in gress of humanist ethics in the world does member of parliament who spent periods of common with religious believers than in the not depend upon the number of members his life in prison because of his beliefs. particulars that separate them, and stress only. Nor are humanists apt to organize British workers by the tens of thousands, as the importance of ethics. Those humanists solely on the basis of their vier of life. Only well as intellectuals, joined Bradlaugh and have said goodbye to the Bible and the sporadically and occasionally will that be his successors. A number of books were Christian faith on a scientific and rational the case. published, and pamphlets and brochures basis; but they do not want to "throw out The following is a vital point for our were distributed by the millions to mines, the baby with the bath water," and in their self-esteem: We should never be public houses, and boarding schools. ethical admonitions may very well quote embarrassed because our numbers are so To a large extent the English society Moses or Jesus Christ. small compared with those of the religious was de-Christianized during the nineteenth Within these circles it is not appropriate communities. All over the world, organized century and the early part of the twentieth. to express oneself too frequently, too affiliation with some religious community is Triumphantly, allied with the great pioneers strongly, or too crassly on religious errors motivated by the desire for salvation and of natural science, freethinking continued and shortcomings. Instead, efforts are con- eternal life. Nine hundred and ninety-nine to grow in strength throughout Europe. centrated on finding a positive platform that out of every thousand Christians join What kind of message did those free- addresses common human problems: pov- churches on account of that obligation. On thinkers bring forth? What did they stand erty, alienation, oppression, war, and ex- the other hand, among humanists circum- for? ploitation of the third world. Humanism in stances are quite different: Nine hundred 1 have secured some of the printed the United States is characterized by that and ninety-nine out of every thousand re- material that was mass-produced at that line of action, and, typically, the latest issue gard it as rather immaterial whether or not time. Some of the headings read as follows: of the Humanist is a special edition on the they belong to a humanist organization, "Is the Bible the Word of God?"; "Chris- humanization of the educational system. unless they feel that their membership could tianity and Women"; "Violence in the Bible"; However, none of the American humanist be of practical significance for some objec- "Hell and the Devil." There are sufficient organizations counts more than a few thou- tive outside their own souls (if 1 may be historical reasons for claiming that those sand members. Admittedly, there are church permitted to borrow that obscure concep- topics were essential, that those brochures communities in the United States based tion for the sake of parallelism). were necessary, that we today benefit from upon humanism, without any god or Similarly, membership meetings are the the criticism of religion at that time. The dogmas, but the great majority of American problem child of many local groups. They fact remains, however, that today no British humanists have not organized. Why? see only a fraction of their members in freethinker organization can claim more than Because an organization that has no- attendance. This is even more painful a few thousand members. thing else on its program but the furthering because of the knowledge that simultane- It is possible to expose the Bible once of proper subjects will never become the ously hundreds of thousands of worshipers and create a great commotion; ten times, object of priority when disposing of money are gathering for religious services. and cheeks still get red and young eyes for membership fees. And, as stated before, To church members, a life of service sparkle. However, upon the thousandth it is not necessary to organize to maintain and congregation activities is the road to time, what then? The British freethinker one's humanist view of life. salvation. By social company with the sacred periodical appeared relatively frequently for The West German humanist associa- one's personal religious life is being realized several generations. Week by week readers tion, Bund Freireligiöser Gemeinde, is a in preparation for the ultimate target: an learned that Christ did not actually walk on variant of the latter type of organization, eternal joy in heaven. There is no correspon- water; nor did he turn water into wine or counting approximately 28,000 members, ding obligation among humanists. Actually, rise from the dead. At that time, liberal and is the largest humanist organization in the question arises as to whether organized bishops of the English church were saying Europe. Within that organization, militant meetings are simply the heritage of Chris- the same thing. freethinking is rated low. Its positive signif- tian services and whether we should instead I do not claim and do not feel that icance probably is the fact that general con- devote our energies to other types of social freethinker organizations have had their day. siderations in respect to cultural life are events, such as study groups, social action, While reactionary Bible waves are constantly being put ahead of everyday social chal- drama, and so on. rolling toward our coasts, revivals flourish- lenges. However, in this case a second, or Now let us return to the question set ing, immature youths being captured by perhaps more correctly a third, main line forth: Why don't our sister organizations totalitarian organizations, the freethinker has been developed: civil ceremonies are grow proportionally? Why are they so small? groups do perform an important task. How- being taken care of to a large extent, primar- The humanist organizations of the ever, field work of this sort more and more ily civil comfirmation and civil funerals. world may be classified in two or three tends to become a highly specialized job for The Humanist-Ethical Association of groups. First, the freethinker organizations, people with special qualifications. An increas- Norway is one of the younger humanist which chiefly busy themselves by criticizing ing number of people feel that the criticism organizations within the world movement. religion and, in some countries, demonstrat- of religion is a field in which they are not Therefore, it is still sufficiently pliable and ing their concern about the discrimination equipped to participate. able to stretch and bend to form new pat- against nonbelievers. This is the oldest type In my opinion, a mere freethinker terns and structures. We can fairly freely of humanist organization, having its roots organization will never become very popular take a stand in respect to new challenges;

52 we can learn from others and improve. humanists engage equally in everything we lines I have sketched. In the name of toler- We may address quite openly the ques- stand for. We, on the other hand, should ance, we should also accept as members tion: Which of the two or three lines of the carefully watch for any tendency to down- persons who have followed less well trodden international humanist movement will prove grade one or the other line. 1 have met paths, or who define their personal interests more appropriate in Norway? Which one humanists who consider civil confirmation in terms other than those I have used. We will attain more support from our members nonsense and who would gladly vote for should never employ the eye-of-the-needle and from those we would like to have associ- the total abandonment of that arrangement. method when evaluating our members. Nor ate with us? The answer is: None of them. Others claim that criticism of religion is do we want narrow-minded individuals, and If we decide to become primarily a free- none of our business; and there are even we should not qualify anyone for a spiritual thinker organization, emphasizing criticism among us those who deem it less important heaven. We wish for broad-minded men and of Christianity supplemented by topical to follow the humanist view of life than to women who are courageous and have their controversial matters like the current legisla- fight for abolition of the state church. own personal views. Instead of heaven, we tion in respect to education, then in the To avoid idle confusion about which is wish for a society with equal rights for all course of about ten years we may once again the right or the more correct humanist con- views of life, a society based on human be able to store our membership cards in a duct within this spectrum of tastes, 1 feel rights and human worth. Moreover, we wish shoebox—we shall hardly be able to afford the importance of agreeing that the Human- for a society permitting anyone to call one- to do anything else. ist-Ethical Association of Norway should self a humanist, no matter whether the dis- If, on the other hand, we make it the remain an organization for everyone who tinction between the terms rational and main issue to solve the serious problems of has joined us on account of one of the main rationalistic has been clearly grasped. • humanity and put all our efforts into the task of making our humanist ideals gen- erally known, then Norwegians by the tens of thousands may start reading our books, Good-looking, sturdy files nod approvingly, and perhaps become nicer people (which is by no means a poor out- to protect your copies of come). Our local groups will disappear, however, and our general assembly will be composed of a handful of amateur phil- ~a osophers. In I11% If we direct all our attention toward developing alternative ceremonies, in a few years we shall have lost our general public appeal and no doubt shall cease to exist as an organization with our last civil funeral. As of today, the Norwegian humanist organization is by far the largest one in the world, taking into consideration the popula- tion, and 1 am convinced that this is due to the fact that from the very beginning we gave all three of the aforementioned aspects their chance by not giving any of them pref- erence, by considering them equable and equally important. I do not know to what extent these matters were deliberately and thoroughly considered. However, in practice the tasks of our organization have been centered on: (I) Launching a positive human- Choose either red, yellow, blue, green or black vinyl with ist philosophy that stresses humanist ethics. gold ornamentation and convenient label-holders front and We may call it the view-of-life line. (2) The back. Each file holds 20 issues (5 years) of Free Inquiry. development of alternative family ceremon- ies and festivals- -the tradition line. (3) Crit- $5.95 each icism of false and suppressing ideas in re- plus $1.50 for postage and handling spect to view of life and unfair conditions in society the freethinker line. It is a Please send me files in combination of these elements that becomes red__ yellow_ blue green_ black_ the base, the walls, and the ceiling of an I enclose my check or money order for S organization like ours; that is a genuine alternative to some of the needs that reli- Name Street gions meet at the intellectual, emotional, and City State Zip social level. It stands to reason that indiv- idual humanists may be more or less inter- Send orders to FREE l.NQwa> ested in one or the other of those fields. Box 5, Central Park Station, Buffalo, NY 14215 It is not a desirable goal to have all

Winter 1983/84 a3

to undergird any moral language, and a number of different value theories are pos- Books sible within the general framework of human- ism. But we can say a great deal to Sontag's fear without entering the realm of theory at On Finding an Ethical Voice all. Sontag's own practice belies her pes- simism. Everywhere in Illness as Metaphor, except for the two sentences just quoted, A Response to Sontag and MacIntyre she is quite clear about what force her "facts" can be expected to have. At the very begin- ning she writes:

My point is that illness is not a metaphor, and that the most truthful way of regard- ing illness—and the healthiest way of being ill—is the one most purified of, Anthony Weston most resistant to, metaphoric thinking. [P. 3]

After Virtue, by Alasdair MacIntyre (Notre How to be morally severe in the late 20th This passage is not bedeviled by uncertainty Dame: Notre Dame University Press, 1981), century? How, when there is so much to about the relation of fact and value. It is a 245 pp., $15.95. be severe about; how, when we have a fact, presumably, that the use of illness sense of evil but no longer the religious metaphors is a kind of cognitive mistake: or philosophical language to talk intelli- Sontag, at any rate, holds that Illness as Metaphor, by Susan Sontag (New gently about evil? [p. 82] York: Vintage Books, 1979), 85 pp., $2.45. only in the most limited sense is any his- She has no doubt that evil exists in the torical event or problem like an illness. wo decades ago the death throes of world, no doubt that moral severity is in And the cancer metaphor is particularly TGod were still in the news, and every order. She does not consider religion neces- crass. It is invariably an encouragement effort was necessary just to show that "ethics sary to underwrite these judgments. But she to simplify what is complex.... [p. 82-83.] without God" was a real possibility. Human- feels inarticulate, voiceless. It is the religious ism, for many people, probably consisted of vocabulary, and certain cognate philosoph- She goes on to argue that "to describe a this claim alone. Today, however, despite ical vocabularies, of which she feels the lack. phenomenon as a cancer is an incitement to some recent backsliding, the possibility of a She senses that her outrage cannot be violence." It encourages fatalism and severe secular ethics is much more widely accepted. spoken, or if spoken would be no more than measures, she says; it may even be "implic- Certainly those who rejected the Christian raving. itly genocidal." Most crucially, perhaps, beliefs have also come to reject the conten- It must be stressed emphatically that Sontag argues that the cancer metaphor tion that the only alternative to Christianity this is a real concern. Secularists must not makes sufferers taboo, already sub- or is nihilism. People are somewhat more merely shrug it off as a form of religious super-human; it makes cancer victims them- willing to refer values to human needs and nostalgia. Looked at one way, for instance, selves deeply fatalistic. Supposing that these less dogmatic about what these needs are. it is cousin to the persistently troublesome are indeed facts, however, there is surely no Granted, even these modest advances may (even if misguided) fact-value dichotomy. great uncertainty about how we will react once again be challenged. But they are none- Moral severity, Sontag thinks, needs a to them. Surely we will follow the course theless advances. In certain ways the current "language" that links fact and value. It re- Sontag herself recommends as the most fundamentalist effort is an unmistakably quires concepts that can be used in accor- truthful and healthy. rear-guard action. dance with strict descriptive criteria and that For these are damning facts. And for This (relative) success must not blind at the same time carry an ethical force that just this reason Illness as Metaphor is itself us to a new threat; a more subtle threat, 1 all speakers of the language are prepared to "morally severe." Sontag herself "talked think, and from a very different direction. accept. "Sin" is perhaps the best example, intelligently about evil" in this very essay— This new challenge is harder to recognize, and it gives this kind of concept its appro- here the particular evil of the use of certain partly because it comes from a group of priate historical frame. It was "intelligently" metaphors. The ethical force of the essay is intellectuals for whom secularism itself has decidable which acts counted as sins, and not in fact a puzzle. What is really a puzzle never been in doubt. Although it is only the entire discussion could at the same time is how Sontag herself can have so utterly now being formulated, at least in popular take for granted the absolute proscription missed it. terms, it is beginning to make itself felt. of all such acts. But now fact and value A preliminary diagnosis—though one The new concern is with language, with have pulled apart. We can "talk intelligently" that will necessarily begin to take on theo- the texture of moral discourse. It is a fear only about facts; the ethical status of those retical overtones—is this: She has confused that we have lost the ability to talk about facts—so it apparently seems to Sontag—is the loss of certain words with the loss of the values. Susan Sontag, for example, expresses indeterminate and relativistic. So in the end ethical voice as such. It is true that there it when she asks, near the end of her Illness the fear is this: she will never know what are no more "sins." In fact, however, despite as Metaphor: force her critique actually has. She can only the risk of sounding paradoxical, one might illuminate what she takes to be the facts; even say that ethical discourse is indifferent Anthony Weston is professor of philosophy what we make of them is always up to us. to the status of such moral concepts. A at Vassar College. Ultimately a theory of values is required shared moral language is convenient but not

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Winter 1983/84 55 growing irrelevance or destructiveness of convivial change. Communities might estab- contentiousness and backtracking, democ- what they make or do. Nothing prevents us lish a voice in employment and production racy is still the most intelligent system we from trying to understand and criticize these decisions that affect them. A significant know—and who is to say that contentious- failures. Thus our point against Sontag: the enough economic diversity must be pre- ness and backtracking are not precisely what values at stake are not in any danger of served so that many different experimental intelligence now requires? In any case we evaporating. We want just what we have work arrangements can be tried. Most im- should not regret the increased difficulties always wanted, to invest ourselves in things portant, perhaps, the results of these experi- of the dogmatist. Perhaps what Sontag and worth having, and in ways of life worth ments must be widely known and discussed. Maclntyre really (though unintentionally) living, and to have some control over the Only then may we be able, as a society, to show is that ethical dogmatism is now only process. What is now required is that we reconstitute work and reestablish its more a relic of the medieval community and/ or devise alternatives to the work arrangements specific virtues. of a categorical moral language, both under- that are now breaking down. And surely It is true that these are times of peril, written in turn by religion. Today both are the democratic process is crucial to doing and democracy itself is under great strain. dead, and the religious foundation is un- so. Workers might assert democratic control But the point is that democratic community available. Those who think that they are over the workplace, not so much as an end and its associated virtues are therefore all voiceless unless they can still dogmatize are in itself, perhaps, but as a precondition for the more, not less, important. For all its not those we need most to hear. •

the subject, without question. The author is Defining Out-of-Body fair, impartial, yet open-minded. Supporting and critical evidence is presented, as well as Experiences alternative explanations for the phenom- enon. However, fairness may not be enough. After all, we are trying to resolve a factual question; namely, is there really such a thing as traveling outside one's body? We want an answer, not merely an evenhanded pre- Gordon Stein sentation of the evidence. When Dr. Black- more finally does get around to discussing Beyond the Body: An Investigation of Out- tion of an OBE is "an experience in which a the various theories which have been offered of-Body Experiences, by Susan J. Black- person seems to perceive the world from a to explain OBEs, she is again thorough and more (London: Heinemann, 1982) 271 pp., location outside his physical body." By fair. While all current explanations are dis- hardback, $18.00. Available in the United using the word experience in the definition, missed as inadequate so far, she does feel States from David & Charles, North Pom- Blackmore has managed to eliminate much that the psychological theory (with modifica- fret, VT 05053. of the irrelevant controversy. For example, tions) may yet offer the best answer to the using this definition, if a person claims to question of exactly what an out-of-body lthough the subject of Beyond the have had an OBE, we have to believe him. experience is. A Body is "far out," its possibilities are No proof is required. The definition also Her best guess lies in the altered state interesting. This is a book about whether avoids the idea that an OBE may be a type of consciousness (ASC) explanation (a sub- "out-of-body experiences" really occur and, of psychic phenomenon. It enables Dr. category of the psychological explanation). if so, what they actually are. A number of Blackmore to examine the experience itself. While this answer is not completely satisfac- books have already been written by people Before the reader dismisses the entire tory, the problem lies in science's lack of who claimed to have been able to leave their possibility of an out-of-body experience as knowledge about how the brain causes an bodies at will. However, this is the first book "occult nonsense," let me make my position altered state of consciousness. Yet, if we to try to seriously and objectively examine clear. In the broad field of "folklore" there take the characteristics of the OBE and the evidence for this puzzling experience. is an important distinction to be made be- compare them with those of the ASC, we Anyone who has ever had the feeling tween what can be called "folk observation" can see that they agree closely. In other that his or her consciousness was no longer and "folk explanation." The many hundreds words, OBEs seem to be in the same class within the confines of the head, but that it of reports (observations) about OBEs can as other events which we have collectively had moved outside of the body, knows that be correct in that such an experience does called "altered states of consciousness." the experience seems real and is both fright- occur, but at the same time the explanation While readers will have to judge for them- ening and exhilarating. There is so much that these observations are due to a person's selves whether this speculation advances our testimony to the effect that people have had "astral body" actually leaving his or her knowledge of OBEs, I feel that it does. this experience that we have little choice physical body and traveling to a distant Labeling and defining accurately are among but to accept that fact and then try to dis- point may be totally incorrect. We are con- the first steps needed to explain phenomena. cover whether these experiences have any fronted with overwhelming evidence that Anyone interested in the human mind foundation in reality. some people have had a strange experience. and its potential will be well advised to read Author Susan J. Blackmore, a profes- It is our job to give it an accurate explana- this book. It is both interesting and a fine sor of psychology at the University of tion. This is the task which Blackmore example of how organization and rationality Bristol, is careful in her definition of an undertakes. can be applied even to a subject that has out-of-body experience (OBE). Her defini- The result is the best book to date on long been viewed as mystical and occult. • r a 56 (Letters, continued from p. 3) man-made laws are influenced by the dom- it is directed? I do not believe it for the charges that organizations and persons who inant religion. Our own man-made laws interest of religion to invite the civil promote higher living standards by advocat- emanated from a value system derived from magistrate to direct its exercises, its dis- ing planned parenthood and population none other than church, i.e., religious, i.e., cipline or its doctrines: nor of the religious control are threats to American security! A God's laws. Our present pluralistic dem- societies that the general government peculiar logic indeed ... but truth is stranger ocracy encompasses more religious belief should be invested with the power of affecting any uniformity of time or matter than fiction. Already, Dr. Stephen systems than we had in this country two among them. Fasting and prayer are relig- Mumford, a research scientist at Family hundred years ago, but they still share fun- ious exercises; the enjoining them an act Health International of Chapel Hill, North damental morality in the form of absolutes. of discipline. Every religious society has a Carolina, has been fired for disputing the By nature, man is prone to tampering with right to determine for itself the times for virtues of poverty, starvation, and illiteracy absolutes for the sake of convenience, and these exercises and the objects proper for derived from a vastly overpopulated earth. for lawmakers to isolate themselves from them, according to their own particular The good news is that Fat t hot iss is the source of these absolutes would make tenets; and this right can never be safer surviving and providing free-thinking us subject to rules made from a totally sub- than in their own hands, where the Con- persons around America with humane con- jective, human viewpoint. Philosophically stitution had deposited it. cepts of peace, freedom, and strength. You speaking, religion and politics are insepar- Schlafly is wrong. The Founding are fueling a successful battle against would- able, and to cut down the laws of God Fathers did not intend that the federal gov- be tyrants and for a brighter future. Bravo! would create winds comparable to a ernment, even the Constitution, should The Affirmist Newsletter also provides tornado. prescribe any form of religious activity. camaraderie and a forum for a national net- Attempts to require time for prayer in work of writers, thinkers, and readers. We Donna I.. Rison America's public schools are directly contra- would like to hear from you. Horton, Kans. dictory to the great American ideal of relig- André Bacard, Editor ious freedom. Affirmist Newsletter Schlafly's Error Novato, Calif. James C. Robison Phyllis Schlafly says in her February 23, Renton, Wash. A Universal Grace 1983 syndicated column for the Copley News Service: "All evidence indicates that Satan and the Church 1 had a tour of duty in Iceland on the staff Thomas Jefferson and James Madison ... 1 do not know to which Christians George of Commander Iceland Defense Force. On both believed that the First Amendment Roberts has been speaking (FI, Letters, many occasions, I entertained diverse only forbade the establishment of a religion Spring 1983), but as a member of the groups at supper. There were several who by the national government ... " Obviously Catholic church (the only church histori- definitely wanted "grace" to be said. How- she did not have much evidence. cally beginning with Jesus Christ), I would ever, the differing religions and In 1808 Jefferson wrote a letter on the like to offer a correction to his theology. backgrounds made it imperative that it be a subject of the federal government's religious Despite what fundamentalist, pentacostal, "universal grace." The following is what 1 power: or Bible-belt Christians might have told devised, and 1 have used it many times since. him, neither the Bible nor Christianity I consider the government of the United teaches that Satan "was once like God, with May we who gather here, and partake of States as interdicted by the Constitution the same powers of God." (The grammati- this food, from intermeddling with religious institu- cal error was Mr. Roberts's, not mine.) Nor Gain from this fellowship courage and tions, their doctrines. discipline, or exer- has the church ever taught that Satan "can inspiration, cises. This results not only from the provi- be just as effective" as God, the true -that we may live our lives for the good sion that no law shall he made respecting teaching being that the redemptive sacrifice of all mankind. the establishment, or free exercise, of of Christ has in fact rendered Satan impo- religion, but from that also which reserves tent for all who accept Christ's grace. The to the states the powers not delegated to Henry W. Dusinherre false teaching that Satan is, was, or can be the U.S. Certainly no power to prescribe like God is called "Manichaeism," or "Albi- Norfolk, Va. any religious exercise, or to assume author- ity in religious discipline, has been del- gensianism." It was the first "heresy" for- God's Laws vs. Man's egated to the general government ... mally condemned by the church, in its pristine But it is only proposed that I should form being censured in the New Testament Senator Lowell P. Weicker, Jr., ended his recommend not prescribe a day of fasting writings themselves. Manichaeism teaches article "The Bible or the Constitution" (F1, and prayer. That is, that I should in- that matter is the work of Satan. It is a Summer 1983) with a quote from A Man directly assume to the U.S. an authority component of various Eastern religions, for All Seasons to support his position for over religious exercises which the Con- and began to spread in Europe after the separation of church and state. While it is stitution has directly precluded them from. Crusaders learned its basic ideas in Muslim It must he meant. too, that this recom- too late to enlighten Sir Thomas More, per- countries. mendation is to carry some authority, and haps Senator Weicker will benefit from the I am glad that Mr. Roberts and other to he sanctioned by some penalty on those following observation. humanists oppose Manichaeism. Being who disregard it: not indeed of fine or More says, "This country's phi -wed imprisonment but of some degree of pre- "freethinkers," they undoubtedly shudder thick with laws man's laws, not God's — scription ... at the thought of the Inquisition. Yet and if you cut them down do you really And does the change in the nature of humanists might be surprised to learn that think you could stand upright in the winds the penalty make the recommendation the the Inquisition was established in the thir- that would blow then?" In every country, less a law of conduct for those to whom teenth century to oppose precisely this fool-

Winter 1983/84 57 ish and intellectually destructive doctrine, themselves to blame for their alienation the Copernicans for making "reason so con- which arises in one form or another in every from religion. quer sense that, in defiance of the latter, the generation, in our times being associated Satan may indeed have something to former became mistress of their belief." with (among other things) anti-scientism. do with it; however, it is not in laboratories Arguments, according to these scientists, Nor has the Catholic church spared her own that his works are seen, but rather in the come first, commonsense beliefs, intuitions, children in this. Manichaeism became wide- inordinate pride of modern man. If scien- prejudices, and observations are secondary; spread in the sixteenth-century church tists would learn humility and submit them- they must be adapted to the arguments, or under the name Jansenism, a term derived selves to God's laws (in their personal lives interpreted in their terms. from the name of a French priest who saw and in their teaching), perhaps science Fundamentalist opponents of science satanic influence in all material or carnal would not perennially beget as many prob- invert this hierarchy. They start from the pursuits, including even marital sex. Jan- lems as it solves. I trust that no citizen of commonsense intuitions of their faith and senism was condemned by the sixteenth- the nuclear age need ask for specifics on use it to ridicule the best reasons. Aris- century church, and its adherents were this last point. totelians at the time of Galileo did the same excommunicated. Unfortunately its tenets this was the basis of their attacks on the persist in Calvinism, over which the church William M. Marceau Copernican view — while Aristotle quite has no control. Cochise College explicity emphasized common sense and This is not to say that the church does Sierra Vista, Ariz. objected to "always following the argument." not believe in the existence of Satan. It most Now it is interesting to see that large emphatically does. But Satan creates noth- More From Feyerabend areas of late twentieth-century science are ing, builds nothing, affirms nothing. He built up in a similar way. Scientists working can only corrupt. Satan has nothing to do This is the last installment in the Gardner- in these areas try to preserve the achieve- with science per se; indeed, science is the Feterabend exchange. See FI, Winter ments of the past and to defuse arguments highest fulfillment thus far of God's precept 1982-83, p. 32, and Fl, Summer 1983, p. liable to upset the consensus that arose from that mankind have "dominion over all the 58, for earlier discussions.—EOS. them. In part this is caused by important earth" (Genesis 1:28). The church does not institutional changes: research institutes such oppose science, the Galileo incident not- Martin Gardner (FI, Summer 1983, p. 59) as CERN are business enterprises; their withstanding. Pope John Paul II (a highly emphazises that the science of Galileo, obligations are defined by international educated intellectual) has himself spoken Newton, Einstein, and Bohr is not a church treaties; they are not places of free inquiry. eloquently on the reconciliation of science but an enterprise guided by a spirit of free Another reason is the close collaboration and religion. inquiry. 1 agree. As a matter of fact this is a between science and government: Many What the church does say is that man point that, according to Gardner, 1 have states forbid the formation of control groups must not place science (or any other mate- made "over and over and over again." How- that might lead to a test of orthodox rial entity) before the laws of God, or the ever 1 also pointed out that scientists, phil- medical practices even if the patients them- reverence due Him. Many scientists today osophers, and PR-men have been trying selves should favor alternative forms of treat- disregard this admonition and teach others and still are trying to turn science into a ment. And leading propagandists for the to disregard it as well. They have become church and that they have succeeded to a cause of science eschew argument and con- vainglorious under the ponderousness of surprising extent. How did they proceed? centrate on reinforcing and stabilizing the their technical knowledge, believing that One of the basic principles of the ration- commonsense of the sciences of their time. their temporal accomplishments give them alism that underlies great science is that Take Gardner. He finds it entirely natural an understanding that they simply don't arguments overrule commonsense intuitions to "ignore" my arguments (which are the have. Science by its nature cannot answer and that what counts is the cogency of an ancient skeptical arguments adapted to a fundamental questions of the universe's argument, not its packaging. Of course, we new situation) and to "concentrate on [my] ultimate origins; it can only unravel the all have our prejudices. We regard some eccentric tastes." He appeals to widespread mechanics and history of the post-creation things as acceptable and others as crazy. prejudices against astrology to discourage universe, placing its discoveries at man- Many people cannot imagine that the posi- inquiry and to ridicule results already ob- kind's service. Even our awareness of evolu- tion of the planets might have an influence tained while the two zombies from Stanford tion says nothing about spiritual realities: on historical events, while others regard speak of voodoo as if it were a bad smell. such as ultimate origins, the existence or voodoo as a superstition, not as an effective no doubt without having read a single line nonexistence of the soul (the creation of procedure. But nobody can predict (and by Walter B. Cannon, the eminent Harvard which is the real meaning of Genesis 1 and Gardner admits that nobody can predict) physiologist who did fascinating research in 2), and man's ultimate purpose or destiny. how these prejudices will fare when sub- this area. But secular science falsely claims its jected to a complex battery of tests held The results of these machinations are technical knowledge has given it knowledge together by a novel research program. In easy to foresee: A vigorous and volatile of these things. (Not even the church claims such a situation, i.e., before the tests have enterprise where anything goes (even Gard- spiritual knowledge by her own efforts, but been performed, everybody's guess is as ner now admits this!) is turned into a stale rather has the humility to admit her teach- good as everybody else's. We must wait for and self-righteous religion, into a kind of ings exist only by virtue of what God has results and adapt our intuitions to them. scientific fundamentalism. Many philoso- revealed in the Prophets and in Christ.) Some scientists went still further. Ac- phers and scientists seem to like the change. When a scientist distorts his intrinsically cording to Einstein, who more than once One can understand why: It increases their good vocation merely to justify his personal ridiculed the concern for a "verification of power and enables them to live off the rebellion against God, he makes himself a little effects," a good argument has the reputation of their great ancestors without liar. And because such distortion is so wide- power to overrule even observations and having to continue their efforts. They can spread today, most scientists have only experimental results; while Galileo praised sound like free and independent researchers

58 while establishing a new and state-supported that it was an action unworthy of a civilized church. My quarrel is with this church and country.... Summarized in one sentence. 1 SECULAR HUMANIST with the dangers it presents to democracy, would say: The more Israel reacts like a DECLARATION not with the science from which it arose, normal country. the more it will be and my main criticism of Gardner is that he respected. Thirty-five years after its indepen- Endorsed by 58 leaders of thought. disregards the difference and widens the gap dence, Israel still believes itself to be a Now available in handsome booklet by his manner of arguing. Of course he also "special" country, because of some stories form. displays the illiteracy and disingenuousness in a holy book. As nonbelievers we cannot $2.95 each (plus $1.25 for postage and customary in the PR-profession and loved accept "spiritual" arguments for national or handling. by fundamentalists but these faults are international policy. too trivial and too transparent to merit As to Dr. Kurtz's assessment of the detailed comment. Norwegian humanist movement, in my opinion, estimation of their success is Paul K. Feyerabend wrong. Norwegian humanists are not suc- University of California cessful because of their political neutrality, Berkeley, Calif. but because they have found a well-identi- fied enemy: the state-church. Their supposi- Martin Gardner replies: tion that this kind of governmental "oppres- How's that again? I liare no idea how to sion" is no longer accepted by the popula- respond to this m.t•stifving letter. tion proves to be correct. But I'm convinced that once the "oppressed" are grouped in this young, active, and democratic IHEU Resolutions movement, it will be difficult to keep the ... Reading "Humanism and the Politics of troops together. If the Humanistik Forhund Order in bulk: 10 or more copies at Nostalgia" (FI, Fall 1982), I get the impres- is successful in changing the laws, it will 40ii discount (plus $3.00 for postage). sion that Paul Kurtz's appraisal of the Inter- make itself superfluous. If it is not success- S.H.D. national Humanist and Ethical Union ful it will become necessary to find other resolutions is not correct. Let's take the topics to keep people together. Since the Box 25 Central Park Station resolution on unemployment. Unless we first target is attractive, our Norwegian Buffalo, N.Y. 14215 have changed our point of view, labor is friends do not feel the necessity to put for- considered as a way to self-fulfillment or ward more concrete goals. A fight for prin- self-realization. Moreover, it is a way to ciples can hide different approaches to other STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP MANAGEMENT contribute to the functioning of our society, problems, accents, and choices in moral AND CIRCULATION to pay back the community for what it has values. Once they come to the surface, the Date of filing. September 30. 1983. Title- FREE INQUIRY done and still does for us. More practically, cohesion will be at stake. Frequency of issue Quarterly labor is one (the only?) way to earn one's Location of known office of publication ... This is my opinion, not the one of 1203 Kensington Ave Buffalo. NY 14215 living. Political leaders in Belgium admit the Belgian Humanistisch Verhond. Location of headquarters of publisher that one out of every six youngsters will 1203 Kensington Ave., Buffalo, NY 14215 Walter Matthijs Publisher. CODESH, Inc., 1203 Kensington never find a job during their lifetime. Is Ave., Buffalo, NY 14215 that a moral problem or not? Is the IHEU Antwerp, Belgium Owner CODESH. Inc., 1203 Kensington Member, IHEU Ave., Buffalo. NY 14215 wrong to draw attention to this situation? Editor Paul Kurtz. 1203 Kensington Board of Directors Ave., Buffalo, NY 14215 think not. Has this anything to do with poli- Executive Editor: Jean Mlllholland. 1203 tics? Just as much as ignoring the problem Kensington Ave.. Buffalo, NY 14215 Known bondholders, mortgagees and other has something to do with politics. It is not A Fund for FREE INQUIRY security holders: none unintentional that this topic was chosen. Aver ne Actual no Unemployment touches the fundamental Congratulations! The Summer 1983 FKt I copies copies I'Qf•IRy is truly a masterpiece on freedom each issue single issue situation of men and women in our society. during published Why did Dr. Kurtz criticize the board's from organized religion. A copy of this issue preceding nearest 12 months filing date resolution concerning Lebanon, that should be in every library (or do libraries A Total nocopies printed condemned the Israeli seige of Beirut, as permit material challenging orthodoxy?), INet Press Run) 10,764 11.059 one sided. At the very moment our Board and in the private libraries of every legislator B Paid Circulation 1 Sales through dealers was meeting. Israel was fighting on foreign and every judge in the United States. and carriers. street Let's start a fund to distribute copies vendors and counter territory. People have forgotten that the bat- sales 138 203 tle was engaged simply because of an attack as suggested above. And toward that end, 2 Mail Subscription 7.023 6.883 C Total Paid circulation 7,161 7.086 in London on an Israeli citizen. Neither the let me be the first one to contribute the D Free distribution 2,402 2.771 Israeli people nor the territory were in dan- enclosed $25.00 with the hope that other E Total distribution ISum of C e DI 9.564 9.857 ger. and it was shameful that the govern- freethinkers will join the fight to help pre- F Copies not distributed ment misled the public. Even Israeli politi- serve our freedom of thought. 1 Office use, left-over. unaccounted, spoiled cians blamed the government for mislead- Keep up the great work your magazine after printing 1.197 1.202 is doing! 2 Returns from news ing the people in such an immoral way. agents 3 0 International reactions even those of the G TOTAL ISum 01E, F. 1 and 21 10,764 11,059 United States were similar. The more we David Stry As of Dec. 1, 1983. paid circulation was 8.513. know about this episode, the more we feel Cuernavaca, Mexico

Winter 1983/84 59

Mr. Roberts told viewers he will depend on the Holy Spirit for the healings. God always responds to prayers made in that ON THE BARRICADES manner, he said, "but not always right away. "(AP, September 13, 1983)

Polygamy Resurfaces

Salt Lake City—Royston Potter, discharged Armageddon and the President that a clergyman is not an employee of his by a suburban Salt Lake City police force church hut "a servant of God. " Commenta- because he is a polygamist, says he took Washington — Five days before the terror- tors said the decision appeared to deprive three wives as a matter of religious ist bombing in Beirut that killed more than clergy of job protection rights. conviction. 200 American troops, President Reagan won- Announcing the ruling, Lord Justice Sir Mr. Potter calls his decision "living the dered aloud if the world wasn't approach- Brian Dillon said a dismissed clergyman principle," and he has filed a lawsuit re- ing "Armageddon, " according to a lobbyist cannot sue any earthly master for compen- viving a century-old dispute in this mostly called by the president.... sation. Mormon state by challenging antipolygamy "You know, I turn hack to your ancient The case involved an appeal by Wart on laws demanded by Congress before Utah prophets in the Old Testament and the signs Parfitt, a former minister of the Methodist entered the Union. foretelling Armageddon, and I find myself Church who lost his ministry in 1980 for "It's not so much that you decide that wondering if—if we're the generation that is unexplained reasons. (AP, October 30, you want one, "he said, referring to another going to see that come about. 1983) wife. "It's necessary as far as a theology "I don't know if you've noted any of goes."... those prophecies lately, but, believe me, they The Flat Earth Theory Owen Allred, the head of the Apostolic certainly describe the times we're going United Brethren, a group that favors poly- through." Lancaster, Calif. — Columbus was wrong: gamy, estimated that 20,000 Utah residents Actually, it is in Revelation, the last the Earth isn't round, says the president of are members of multiple parent households, hook of the New Testament of the Bible, in the Flat Earth Society. And he says he can even though polygamy is a third-degree which Armageddon is prophesied as the site prove it. "Most of the world is water and felony.... (AP, September I1, 1983) of the final destructive battle between good water seeks its own level and lays flat, "says and evil to occur on Judgment Day. Charles Johnson, 58. "That's the law of Cult-style Discipline (Donald M. Rothberg for AP, October 30, physics. If water lays flat and most of the 1983) Earth is water, it's a fact that the Earth is South Haven, Mich. — The loss of their flat. "Johnson celebrated Columbus Day on children hasn't shaken the faithful at the Monday by talking about the explorer. He House of Judah here, a religious cult's camp in Favor of Prayer says Columbus himself was a flat-Earther, where a 12-year-old boy was beaten to death but "the whole story of Columbus was over the July 4th weekend. .4n overwhelming majority of Americans tangled by revisionists. " Space satellite pic- Three days after authorities took the favor a Constitutional Amendment that tures of Earth are phony, Johnson says. last of 67 children from the 22-acre camp, would permit voluntary group prayer in pub- "People say, 'Well, I saw it on TV.' Well, followers of the self-styled prophet William lic schools. that's not too much proof " (USA Today, A. Lewis remain devoted to his vision of Among the eight in /0 (82%) who have October II, 1983) God's Kingdom—earned through severe followed the pros and cons of the debate corporal punishment. over prayer in public schools, 81% say they Oral Roberts's Anointing Oil Lewis Sunday defended his ministry, favor the proposed Amendment while /4c'r saying the death of John Yarbough was oppose it and 5% are undecided... . Tulsa, Okla.—Tulsa evangelist Oral Roberts "God's will." Nearly half of the aware group (48%) is urging viewers of his television program "We haven't done any wrong because say they strongly favor the proposed to send in for packets of "anointing oil" so God tells you to put the rod to the children's Amendment, while 33% express mild sup- that he can heal them. back and that's what we're doing," Lewis port. On the disapproval side, 7% say they Mr. Roberts said Sunday that he and said.... .strongly oppose the Amendment, while 7% his son, Richard, will hold a healing crusade The cult members dislike being touched, express mild opposition... . at Oral Roberts University on Oct. 20-23. shun medical treatment and recoil from the Organized group prayer in public In the meantime, he asked listeners to write number 6—the number of the devil, accor- schools effectively came to an end in 1962 "for small packets of anointing oil. " He dis- ding to the Bible.... after the Supreme Court ruled it violated played a packet about the size of a postage The camp is dotted with I2-foot-wide, the First Amendment.... (PRRC Emerg- stamp. shoulder-deep holes dug as punishment by ing Trends, October 1983) "Send for these packets and tell me disobedient women. Men who touch an- where you hurt, " Roberts said. "When I pray other's wife or lie are "whupped" with ax Heavenly Employer for you on Oct. 2, you may anoint yourself handles—their arms, legs and head locked by placing a drop on your forehead or the in a set of blocks.... (Denis M. Wolcott, London — The Court of Appeal has ruled affected area of your body, "he said. in USA Today, July 11, 1983)

fill Ann Landers Under Attack methods perceive the profound difference... In the Pawtucket case... both the between contraception and natural family Federal District Court and the United "Dear Friend: God can work wonders, but planning, " the pope said. States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit sometimes He needs help. I beg of you not "Yet they may experience difficulties; ruled that the créche lacked a secular pur- to turn the whole job over to Him. Look in indeed they often go through a certain con- pose. .. (Linda Greenhouse, in the New the phone book .. . . "—Ann Landers, Sept. version in becoming committed to the use York Times, October 1983) 11. of the natural methods, and they stand in Dear Ann Landers: You are entreating need of competent instruction, encourage- Faith Healer Dies a young lady in the extremity of her des- ment and pastoral counseling and support.... pondency not to entrust her soul to her During the 1980 synod on the family, Ruth Carter Stapleton, the Baptist evange- maker without first seeking help from some Archbishop John Quinn of San Francisco list and spiritual healer who came to na- human or group of humans. I have long cited published studies indicating that 76.5 tional attention as the younger sister of suspected you of trying to be a priest in the percent of America's Catholic women use President Jimmy Carter, died of cancer deadly cult of secular humanism, and this some type of artificial birth control method yesterday at her home in Fayetteville, N.C. clinches it. . . . (Letter to the Editor, and only 29 percent of the Catholic priests She was 54 years old. Escondido Times Advocate, September 23, in the United States believe artificial contra- After her illness was diagnosed in April 1983) ception is immoral. as cancer of the pancreas, she said she would The pope, however, sternly told the forgo medical treatment and rely on God to School Endangering Children's Faith? bishops not to be swayed by "the negative help her. She said she would use prayer, influences of modern society. "(AP, October meditation, diet and exercise. A Henrico County couple would be "en- 1983) Mrs. Stapleton figured in the char- dangering the faith of their children" if they ismatic Christian movement, which surged enrolled them in school, according to a Legal Wrangle Over Nativity Scenes during the Presidency of Mr. Carter, him- traditional Roman Catholic priest. self a "born again" Christian. A longtime "They would be exposing them to occa- The Reagan Administration has asked the preacher, she also used her sudden celebrity sions to sin, "said the Rev. Richard J. Ring- Justices to take a giant step across the line to establish a retreat center, Ho vita, for rose, pastor of St. Athanasius Catholic dividing church and state and let Pawtucket, faith healing and to train others in her Church in Vienna, yesterday during testi- R.I., continue its 40-year-old practice of in- method.... mony in Henrico County Circuit Court. "It cluding a nativity scene in an official Christ- Mrs. Stapleton was a believer in "inner would he seriously sinful to expose children mas display. That the Justice Department healing"... to something that is against their faith." decided to join a local dispute, which the [She] preferred to be called a "spiritual The couple, Richard A. and Margaret High Court heard earlier this month and healer." She believed that her technique of Q. Snider, are charged with two counts each apparently hopes to decide before Christ- 'faith imagination, "a combination of prayer of violating Virginia's compulsory school mas, is a measure of this Government's and psychology, helped Jesus, through the attendance law... . determination to restore a religious fiber to Holy Spirit, to bring inner peace to Christ- Father Ringrose testifed that "secular American life.... ians suffering from mental anguish. humanism " prevails in both the public and The Administration is asking the Court She once defined inner healing this way: "modern" Catholic school systems. "The to endorse the governmental display of a "To me, it is communicating love to the children are asked to make value judgments fundamental symbol of a particular religion, negative repressed aspects in a human based on what they think is wrong instead Christianity. being." The basic negatives, she said, were of what God says is wrong," he said. In his argument, Solicitor General Rex fear, frustration, inferiority, guilt and loneli- He said teachings in the Catholic school E. Lee... told the Justices that Christmas is ness, traceable to a child's formative years. "would probably expose the children to rooted in religion as "a matter of undeniable To heal them, she asked the afflicted person greater dangers because religion is taught historical fact," and that to read the Con- to imagine that Jesus was with him in a and traditional doctrines are distorted—or stitution as requiring the exclusion of that childhood situation. even denied." ... (Todd Beaman, in the fact `from our national consciousness is Al a news conference in New York in Richmond News Leader, September 23, nothing less than intellectual and historical 1976, she demonstrated her technique by 1983) dishonesty." It would be, he said "cultural asking reporters to imagine, for 10 minutes, censorship." That view is not shared by the that they were 5-year-olds sitting in a com- The Pope and Birth Control National Council of Churches, the one main- fortable room in their parents' home. In this stream Christian organization to file a friend "guided daydream, "Jesus entered the room, Vatican City — Pope John Paul Ii urged of the court brief. The council contended sat with each person and helped them to U.S. bishops Saturday to launch a vigorous that government sponsorship "degrades and confront their mother and fathers and for- educational campaign to convince Catholic secularizes a sacred symbol of Christianity." give them for not loving their child enough. couples to practice "natural" birth control. The Administration's brief opened with Her method, she said, healed people In a major speech on Christian mar- an essay about how the Government 'from both physically and mentally. Skeptics riage and family life, the pontiff said the the earliest days of the Republic to the pointed out that she provided no proof of number of couples successfully using the present" has felt free to "recognize that lasting recovery from illness rather than a rhythm method of sexual abstinence is "con- religion is a part of our heritage and should spiritual experience for a susceptible be- stantly growing. ".. . continue to be an element in our public life liever.... (Wolfgang Saxon, in the New "Those couples who choose the natural and public occasions. ".. . York Times, September 27, 1983)

Winter 1983/84 61 Atheist introductory packet Free. Write Help John Pope (author of three published CLASSIFIED American Atheists, P.O. Box 2117, Austin, books) find publisher for iconoclastic new TX 78768-2117. Ms., The Devil's Bible. L. M. Fallaw, Route Rates EVANGELIZATION AND POLITICS. 9. Greenville, S.C. 29609. Per word (single insertion) 224 pages of essays from an international HUMANIST CENTURY brings stimulating 10-word minimum 40 cents theological conference held in Cuba. Issues Humanist ideas each month for $6 yearly. 10c,¡ discount for placement in of Christianity and Marxism. Christian Box 84116, San Diego, CA 92138. iconsecutive issues involvement in struggles for liberation and Box numbers available $1.00 others are examined. $4.95 plus 75c pos- JESUS NEVER EXISTED! Scholarly tage. New York CIRCUS, P.O. Box 37, Payment for insertion must accom- booklet proves Flavius Josephus created fic- pany copy. New York, NY 10108. tional Jesus, Gospels. $4.00-Vector, Box 62I5-Z, Bellevue, WA 98008. For additional information and rates "136+ BIBLICAL CONTRADICTIONS." for classified display advertising, More! $3.00. Crusade Publications. Box 200, MISCELLANEOUS write: Redmond, WA 98052. FREE CHAMBER MUSIC RECORD FRIT INQUIRY READ ABOUT ATHEIST ACTIVISM in CATALOG! Free record offer. Brass, Classified Dept. Los Angeles. Send $1.00. Sample copy: woodwinds, string, percussion. Exciting, Box 5, Central Park Station Atheist Connection Newsletter, Suite 69 unique repertoire. Crystal Records, Sedro Buffalo, N.Y. 14215 Dept-I, 2531 Sawtelle Blvd., Los Angeles, Woolley, WA 98284. CA 90064.

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62 F,~ree !riq _uy The Academy of Humanism The Academy of Humanism was established to recognize distinguished humanists and disseminate humanistic ideals and beliefs. The members of the Academy, listed below, are nontheists who are (1) devoted to free inquiry in all fields of human endeavor, (2) committed to a scientific outlook and the use of the scientific method in acquiring knowledge, and (3) upholders of humanist ethical values and principles. The Academy's goals include furthering respect for human rights and freedom and the dignity of the individual, tolerance of various viewpoints and willingness to compromise, commitment to social justice, a universalistic perspective that transcends national, ethnic, religious, sexual, and racial barriers, and belief in a free and open, pluralistic and democratic society. Humanist Laureates: Isaac Asimov, author; Sir Alfred J. Ayer, fellow of Wolfson College, Oxford University; Brand Blanshard, professor emeritus of philosophy, Yale University; Sir Hermann Bondi, professor of applied mathematics, King's College, University of London; Bernard Crick, professor of politics, Birkbeck College, University of London; Francis Crick, Nobel Laureate in Physiology, Salk Institute; Milovan Djilas, author, former vice-president of Yugo- slavia; Sir Raymond Firth, professor emeritus of anthropology, University of London; Joseph Fletcher, theologian, former professor of medical ethics, University of Virginia Medical School; Stephen Jay Gould, Museum of Com- parative Zoology, Harvard University; Donald Johanson, Institute of Human Origins; Paul MacCready, Kremer Prize winner for aeronautical achievements; Ernest Nagel, professor emeritus of philosophy, Columbia University; Jean-Claude Pecker, professor of astrophysics, College de France, Academie des Sciences; Chaim Perelman, professor of philosophy, University of Brussels; Sir Karl Popper, professor emeritus of logic and scientific method, University of London; W. V. Quine, professor of philosophy, Harvard University; Carl Sagan, astronomer, Cornell University; Andrei Sakharov, physicist, Nobel Peace Prize winner; V. M. Tarkunde, chairman, Indian Radical Humanist Association; Richard Taylor, professor of philosophy, University of Rochester; G. A. Wells, professor of German, Birkbeck College, University of London; Edward O. Wilson, professor of sociobiology, Harvard University; Lady Barbara Wootton, Deputy Speaker, House of Lords. Secretariat: Vern Bullough, dean of natural sciences, State University of New York College at Buffalo; Antony Flew, professor of philosophy, Reading University, (England); Sidney Hook, professor emeritus of philosophy, New York University; Paul Kurtz, professor of philosophy, SUNY at Buffalo, Editor of FREE INQUIRY; Gerald Larue, professor emeritus of archaeology and biblical studies, University of Southern California at Los Angeles.

Religion and Biblical Criticism Research Project The Religion and Biblical Criticism Research Project was founded to help disseminate the results of biblical scholarship— studies in comparative religion, folklore, scientific archaeology, and literary analysis. It investigates the claim that the Bible is divinely inspired, the historical evidence for Jesus and other Bible personalities, the role of religious myth, symbol, and ritual, and the possibility of basing morality upon reason and experience instead of biblical doctrine. The Research Project's goals include compiling bibliographies of the best sources of information about the Bible, publishing articles and monographs about different facets of biblical research, and convening seminars and conferences. Steering Committee: Gerald Larue (Chairman), emeritus professor of biblical history and archaeology, University of Southern California; Robert Alley, professor of humanities, University of Richmond; Randel Helms, professor of English, Arizona State University; R. Joseph Hoffman, associate professor of biblical studies, University of Michigan; Paul Kurtz, professor of philosophy, SUNY at Buffalo; John F. Priest, professor and chairman, Department of Religion, Florida State University; James Robinson, director, Institute for Antiquity and Christianity, Claremont College. Associates: Michael Arnheim, professor of ancient history, St. John's College, Cambridge; Paul Beattie, president, Fellowship of Religious Humanists; Fred Berg; H. James Birx, chairman of Anthroplogy/ Sociology Department, Canisius College; David B. Buehrens; Joseph Fletcher, theologian, former professor of medical ethics, University of Virginia Medical School; Sidney Hook, professor emeritus of philosophy, New York University; Robert Joly, professor of philosophy, Centre Interdisciplinaire d'Etudes Philosophiques de l'Université de Mons (Belgium); William V. Mayer, director, Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, University of Colorado; Delos McKown, professor of philosophy, Auburn University; Carol Meyers, professor of religion, Duke University; Lee Nisbet, associate professor of philosophy, Medaille College; George Smith; Morton Smith, professor of history, Columbia University; A. T. Steegman, professor of anthropology, State University of New York at Buffalo; Richard Taylor, professor of philo- sophy, University of Rochester; G. A. Wells, professor of German, Birkbeck College, University of London.

Winter 1983/84 Back issues of FREE INQUIRY are available! Summary of major articles:

Winter 1980/81 Spring 1982 Vol. I, no. I: A Secular Humanist Declaration. Also, Democratic Vol. 2, no. 2: A Call for the Critical Examination of the Bible and Humanism, Sidney Hook. Humanism: Secular or Religious?, Paul Religion. Also: Interview with Isaac Asimov on Science and the Beanie. Free Thought, Gordon Stein. The Fundamentalist Right, Bible, Paul Kurtz. The Continuing Monkey War, L. Sprague de William Ryan. The Moral Majority, Sol Gordon. The Creation/ Camp. The Erosion of Evolution, Antony Flew. The Religion of Evolution Controversy, H. James Birx. Moral Education, Robert Secular Humanism: A Judicial Myth, Leo Pfeffer. Humanism as Hall. Morality Without Religion, Marvin Kohl and Joseph an American Heritage, Nicholas F. Gier. The Nativity Legends, Fletcher. Freedom Is Frightening, Roy P. Fairfield. The Road to Randel Helms. Norman Podhoretz's Neo-Puritanism, Lee Nisbet. Freedom, Mihajlo Mihajlov. Summer 1982—Special 72-page issue Spring 1981 Vol. 2, no. 3: A Symposium on Science, the Bible, and Darwin: Vol. I, no. 2: The Secular Humanist Declaration: Pro and Con, The Bible Re-examined, Robert S. Alley, Gerald Larue, John Jolin Roche, Sidney Hook, Phyllis Schlafft; Gina Allen, Roscoe Priest, and Randel Helms. Darwin, Evolution, and Creationism, Drummond, Lee Nisbet, Patrick Buchanan, and Paul Kurtz. New Philip Appleman, William V. Mayer, Charles Cazeau, H. James England Puritans and the Moral Majority, George Marshall. The Birx, Garrett Hardin, Sol Tax, and Antony Flew. Ethics and Pope on Sex, Vern Bullough. On the Way to Mecca, Thomas Religion, Joseph Fletcher, Richard Taylor, Kai Nielsen, and Paul Szasz. The Blasphemy Laws, Gordon Stein. The Meaning of Life, Beattie. Science and Religion, Michael Novak and Joseph L. Blau. Marvin Kohl. Does God Exist? Kai Nielsen. Prophets of the Pro- crustean Collective, Antony Flew. The Madrid Conference, Fall 1982 Stephen Fenichell. Natural Aristocracy, Lee Nisbet. Vol. 2, no. 4: An Interview with Sidney Hook at Eighty, Paul Kurtz. Sidney Hook: A Personal Portrait, Nicholas Capaldi. The Summer 1981 Religion and Biblical Criticism Research Project, Gerald Larue. Vol. I, no. 3: Sex Education, Peter Scales and Thomas Szasz. Biblical Criticism and Its Discontents, R. Joseph Hoffmann. Moral Education, Howard Radest. Teen-age Pregnancy, Vern Boswell Confronts Hume: An Encounter with the Great Infidel, Bullough. The New Book-Burners, William Ryan. The Moral Joy Frieman. Humanism and Politics, James R. Simpson and Majority, Gerald Larue. Liberalism, Edward Ericson. Scientific Larry Briskman. Humanism and the Politics of Nostalgia, Paul Creationism, Delos McKown. New Evidence on the Shroud of Kurtz. Abortion and Morality, Richard Taylor. Turin, Joe Nickell. Agnosticism, H. J. Blackham. Science and Religion, George Tomashevich. Secular Humanism in Israel. Winter 1982/83 Vol. 3, no. I: 1983—The Year of the Bible. Special Feature: Fall 1981 Academic Freedom Under Assault in California, Barry Singer, Vol. 1, no. 4: The Thunder of Doom, Edward P. Morgan. Secular Nicholas P. Hardeman and Vern Bullough, The Play Ethic, Robert Humanists: Threat or Menace? Art Buchwald. Financing of the Rimmer. An Interview with Corliss Lamont. Was Jesus a Repressive Right, Edward Roeder. Communism and American Magician? Morton Smith. Astronomy and the "Star of Bethle- Intellectuals, Sidney Hook. A Symposium on the Future of hem", Gerald Larue. Living with Deep Truths in a Divided World, Religion, articles by Daniel Bell, Joseph Fletcher, William Sims Sidney Hook. Anti-Science: The Strange Case of Paul Feyera- Bainbridge. and Paul Kurtz. Resurrection Fictions, Randel Helms. bend, Martin Gardner.

Winter 1981/82 Spring 1983 Vol. 2, no. I: The Importance of Critical Discussion, Karl Popper. Vol. 3, no. 2: The Founding Fathers and Religious Liberty, Robert Freedom and Civilization, Ernest Nagel. Humanism: The Con- S. Alley. Madison's Legacy Endangered, Edd Doerr. James Madi- science of Humanity, Konstantin Kolenda. Secularism in Islam, son's Dream: A Secular Republic, Robert A. Rutland. The Murder Nazih N. M. Avubi. Humanism in the 1980s, Paul Beattie. The of Hypatia of Alexandria, Robert E. Mohar. Hannah Arendt: The Effect of Education on Religious Faith, Burnham P. Beckwith. Modern Seer, Richard Kostelanetz. Was Karl Marx a Humanist? • articles by Sidney Hook, Jan Narveson, and Paul Kurtz.

FREE INQUIRY Box 5, Central Park Station, Buffalo, NY 14215 Summer 1983—Special 68-page issue Vol. 3, no. 3: Religion in American Politics Symposium: Is Please send me the following back issues: America a Judeo-Christian Republic? Paul Kurtz. The First Vol. I, no. I , no. 2 no 3 no 4 Amendment and Religious Liberty, articles by Sen. Lowell P Vol. 2, no. 1 , no. 2 , no. 3 ($5.00) no 4 Weicker, Jr., Sam J. Ervin, Jr., Leo Pfeffer. Secular Roots of the Vol. 3, no. I , no. 2 , no. 3 ($5.00) , no. 4 American Political System, Henry Steele Commager, Daniel J. Boorstin, Robert Rutland, Richard B. Morris, Michael Novak. I enclose $3.50 plus $1.00 for postage and handling for each copy. The Bible in Politics, Gerald Larue, Robert S. Aller. James M. Amount enclosed $ (U.S. funds on U.S. bank) Robinson. Also, Bibliography for Biblical Study.

Fall 1983 Name (print clearly) Vol. 3 no. 4: Announcing the Academy of Humanism. The Future of Humanism, Paul Kurtz; Humanist Self-Portraits, Brand Blanshard, Address Barbara Wootton, Joseph Fletcher, Sir Raymond Firth, Jean-Claude Pecker. An Interview with Paul MacCready. A Personal Humanist Manifesto, Vern Bullough. The Enduring Humanist Legacy of Greece. City State 7ip Marvin Perry. The Age of Unreason: A Defense of the Rational Enter- prise, Thomas Vernon. Apocalypse Soon, Daniel Cohen. 0n the Ses- quicentennial of Robert G. Ingersoll, Frank Smith. The Historicity of Jesus, John Priest. D. R. Oppenheimer, G. A. Wells.