Mitigating Risk Through Educational Provision for Somali Refugees: the Role of Fugee School in Gombak, Selangor, Malaysia

MITIGATING RISK THROUGH EDUCATIONAL PROVISION FOR SOMALI REFUGEES: THE ROLE OF FUGEE SCHOOL IN GOMBAK, SELANGOR, MALAYSIA

LAI KIEN WEE

UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA

2018

MITIGATING RISK THROUGH EDUCATIONAL PROVISION FOR SOMALI REFUGEES: THE ROLE OF FUGEE SCHOOL IN GOMBAK, SELANGOR, MALAYSIA

LAI KIEN WEE

Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Social Science

September 2018

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Gloria in Excelsis Deo! All praises to God, the Almighty who strengthen me to complete this thesis but of course with the help and support from amazing people around me. First and foremost, I wish to express my heartfelt gratitude to my supervisor Assoc. Prof Dr. Benny Teh Cheng Guan for his guidance and support in this academic journey. It is through his supervision that this work came into existence.

I would like to apologize to him for my slow progress whilst completing this thesis and forever indebted with his patience to continuously supervise me. I would like to thank Dr Arzura Idris for her encouragement and supervision in the earlier stage of this thesis although major changes happened as she left the institution. The completion of this thesis is supported by Universiti Sains Malaysia –Fellowship which provide financial aid during the earlier stage of my study. I extend my gratitude to the staff of the School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia for their assistance in administrative and technical matters.

To Dr Shafie, Miss Deborah Henry, Madam Mary Henry, Ahmed, the children and young adolescent – Mahadsanid for welcoming me through the doors of Fugee School twice for an initial interview and in-depth interviews. To the Northern District

Education Office, I extend my thanks to the officers for clarifying issues on educational access and national examination system. To my brother and friend, Nik

Muhammad Mustaqim, I extend my gratitude for sticking behind me throughout the data collection and writing process with his constant nagging. My sincere thanks to

Assoc Prof Dr Juliana Abdul Wahab and Assoc Prof Dr Azman Azwan Azmawati for their moral supports over lunch/dinner for without them, this journey will be a lonely

ii one. I extend my sincere gratitude to others whom I might missed out that help make this research a reality.

This thesis is pecially dedicated to the beautiful women in my household who tells me that beauty comes from within and inspires other to work harder. To my late lola –

Vicenta Bedoria Juliano, thanks for your prayer and the gift you gave me. To my mother – Juliet Bedoria Juliano, I will forever be indebted to you for without your moral and financial support, this thesis will not come to exist. To my sister - Lai Siew

Fong, thanks for supporting the household and being there for mom during my absence.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

Acknowledgement ii

Table of Content iv

List of Tables vii

List of Figures viii

List of Abbreviation ix

Abstrak x

Abstract xii

CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Studies 1

1.2 Conflict, Terrorism and Education 3

1.2.1 The Somali Conflict Dynamics and Refugees 3

1.2.2 Terrorism and Education Declination 6

1.2.3 Al-Shabaab and Attack on Education 9

1.2.4 Terrorism and Refugees 11

1.2.5 Obligation towards Refugees and their Education 12

1.2.6 Shortcomings of International Agency on Refugee Assistance 15 and Support

1.3 Problem Statement 17

1.4 Research Question 19

1.5 Research Objectives 19

1.6 Research Significance 19

1.7 Research Scope and Limitation 20

1.8 Operational Definition 21

1.8.1 Refugees 21

1.8.2 World Risk Society 21

1.8.3 Sub-Politics Group 22

1.8.4 Reflexive Modernisation 23

1.9 Outline of Thesis 24

CHAPTER 2– LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 World Risk Society, Concepts and Funnel of Causality 26

2.2 Malaysian Policies towards Refugees 27

2.3 World Risk Society Approaches and Debates 30

2.4 World Risk Society and Risk Politics 34

2.5 World Risk Society and Cosmopolitanism 38

2.6 Cosmopolitan Sociology 39

2.7 Reflexive Modernity 41

2.8 Sub-Politics 44

2.9 Approaches to Causality and the Funnel 48

2.10 Theoretical Framework 51

CHAPTER 3 – RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Problems, Approaches and Strategies of Research 57

3.2 Problems in Methodological Planning 57

3.3 Risk Research: Biographical Approach 59

3.4 Methods of Data Collection 62

3.5 Analytical Strategies 67

CHAPTER 4 – TERRORISM, RISK SOCIETY, AND REFUGEES TRANSITION

4.1 Homeland Problems and Risk Society 71

4.2 Fear, Cultural Norms and World Risk Society 71

4.3 Refugee Challenges in Transition Country 76

4.3.1 Legal Framework and Discrimination towards Refugee in 77 Malaysia 4.3.2 Learning Obstacle and Harsh Daily Reality 81

4.4 Connecting the Dots: Terrorism as Risk towards Refugee Education 88

CHAPTER 5 – SUB-POLITICS AGAINST GOVERNMENT: PERCEPTION, DECISION AND REACTION

5.1 Perception, Decision and Reaction 90

5.2 The Sub-Politics against the Government 90

5.3 Institutional Decision on Refugees 96

5.4 Learning, Capacity Building and Empowerment 100

5.4.1 Certified Learning and Educational Institution Policy Shift 104

5.5 Working for Refugee Education: Stakeholders and Sub politics Synergy 109

CHAPTER 6 – CONCLUSION

6.1 Thoughts on Refugee Children Education, State Governance and Sub- 112 Politic

6.2 Theoretical, Methodological and Policies Implication 116

6.3 Conclusion 119

REFERENCES 123

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 3 (a) Rosenthal Flow of Analysis for Biographical Case 67 Reconstruction of Interview Table 3 (b) Types and Explanation of Triangulation Approach 69

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LIST OF FIGURE Page

Figure 2 (a) Hofferbert Funnel of Causality 50

Figure 2 (b) Adapted and Appropriated Version of Hofferbert Funnel of 51 Causality

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

UNHCR United Nation High Commissioner for Refugee

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

CRSR Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees

UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women

CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child

WHO World Health Organization

WFP World Food Programme

PENGURANGAN RISIKO AKTIVITI PENGGANAS MELALUI

PEMBEKALAN PENDIDIKAN UNTUK PELARIAN SOMALIA: PERANAN

FUGEE SCHOOL DI GOMBAK, SELANGOR, MALAYSIA

ABSTRAK

Malapetaka yang berlaku dalam kehidupan manusia datang dalam pelbagai bentuk daripada alam sekitar, ekonomi, kesihatan dan keselamatan. Idea masyarakat risiko dunia memandang malapetaka yang berlaku sebagai risiko dan mengancam keseimbangan dunia. Perang saudara di Somalia telah membawa kepada kemunculan aktiviti pengganas serta menimbulkan ketakutan dengan menyerang institusi pendidikan. Hal ini mengganggu proses pendidikan kanak-kanak dan remaja serta memaksa mereka untuk memohon status pelarian di negara transisi. Namun, Malaysia tidak mempunyai kewajipan terhadap pelarian kerana kerajaan tidak menandatangani

Konvensyen dan Protokol berkaitan dengan Status Pelarian Pertubuhan Bangsa-

Bangsa Bersatu. Golongan pelarian mengalami diskriminasi dan eksploitasi oleh pihak berkuasa dan majikan tidak sah serta tidak ada akses kepada peluang pekerjaan dan pendidikan. Dalam idea masyarakat risiko dunia, sub-politik merupakan golongan yang berfungsi di luar kerangka politik formal demi mencapai objektif untuk menyelesaikan masalah yang diabaikan oleh kerajaan. Pendidikan kanak-kanak dan remaja pelarian terhenti akibat daripada akses ke sekolah awam tidak dibenarkan atas alasan dokumentasi, maka penyelidikan menyiasat Fugee School sebagai sub-politik yang menumpukan kepada pendidikan kepada pelarian daripada Somalia. Maklumat dikumpul melalui temubual mendalam dan temubual kumpulan berfokus dengan pengasas, penyelaras, guru besar serta kanak-kanak dan remaja di sekolah tersebut.

Laporan rasmi dan berita serta kajian dahulu turut digunakan untuk membuktikan

x pendapat yang terkumpul adalah konsisten melalui proses penyegitigaan. Corong bersebab dan pendekatan biografikal membimbing analisis penyelidikan ini.

Penemuan penyelidikan ini menunjukkan bahawa aktiviti pengganas telah menggangu perkembangan kognitif kanak-kanak dan remaja pelarian. Namun temubual telah menunjukkan bahawa norma-norma budaya memberi kesan kepada perolehan pendidikan antara jantina. Ketakutan muncul dan menolak rakyat negara bergolak untuk mecari kawasan perlindungan. Meskipun kerajaan mendiskriminasi dan mengabaikan kebajikan golongan pelarian, Fugee School terjelma sebagai sub-politik dan pengaturan refleksif dengan ciri-cirinya melalui perkhidmatan yang diberikan serta berkerjasama dengan pemegang amanah yang lain sehingga berjaya mengubah dasar pendidikan institusi pengajian tinggi swasta untuk menganugerahkan sijil kepada remaja pelarian. Penyelidikan ini membuktikan bahawa tugas normatif kerajaan tidak kerap bertemu pada titik empirikal yang secara relatifnya membawa kepada kewujudan sub-politik untuk mengambil tindakan untuk berkerjasama dengan pemegang amanah untuk menyelesaikan masalah sosial yang berkait dengan risiko.

MITIGATING RISK THROUGH EDUCATIONAL PROVISION FOR

SOMALI REFUGEES: THE ROLE OF FUGEE SCHOOL IN GOMBAK,

SELANGOR, MALAYSIA

ABSTRACT

Catastrophic event occurred across a wide spectrum of human lives from environment, economics, health and security. World Risk Society thesis viewed the occurrence of the events as risk and threaten the balance of the world. The occurrence of civil war in Somalia have subsequently led to the rise of terrorist activities inciting fear within the state by attacking educational institution which subsequently disrupted the education of school-going children and young adolescent where they eventually leave the state and seek refugee status in transitional countries. However, in Malaysia, the government have no obligation towards refugees as they are not the signatories of the United Nation Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees.

Refugees are discriminated and exploited by the authorities and illegal employer whilst being denied access to job and education opportunities. Within the world risk society thesis, the sub-politics are those who work beyond the formal political process to achieve their objectives by handling issues neglected by the government. Refugee children and young adolescent educations are stunned as they are not allowed entrance to public school due to lack of documentation, the research examined the Fugee School as sub-politics on educational provision for Somali refugee. The information was collected through in-depth interview and focus group interview with the founder, coordinator, principal, children and young adolescent of the school. Official and news reports along with past literature served as triangulation tools to proof consistencies of the information from interviews. The funnel of causality and biographical approach

xii guides the analysis for this research. The findings for the research shows that terrorism disrupted refugee children and young adolescent cognitive development. Interviews also yielded results that showed cultural norm effected educational attainment between genders. Fear manifest itself and pushes citizen to seek refuge elsewhere. Despite the government negligence and discrimination, Fugee School embodied the essence of sub-politics and reflexive regulation by providing services through variety of networking and cooperation with other stakeholders to the extent of attaining certified learning through educational policies shift of private educational institution. The research proofs the facts that the normative duties of a government were seldom met empirically thus causing the sub-politics emergence to take action and cooperate with other stakeholder in solving risk related social issue

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Studies

Chernobyl, global warming, mad cow disease, severe acute respiratory system (SARS),

Asian financial crisis, the September 11th Terrorist attack that evolves into more terrorist group emergence and attacks are different dimensions and dynamics of World

Risk Society (Beck, 2002). The analysis of risk and security studies do not often communicate with one another as each encompassed of a different field. Risk analysis relates itself to the field of sociology, economic and of the natural sciences whereby security studies are related to the field of international relation. However, with the rise of policies focusing on terrorism, climate change and other transnational threats, it allows both fields to communicate with each other. Catastrophic events resulted from the miscalculation and deliberate action of certain individual or organization have allowed the field of security studies and risk analysis to have a common research agenda with similar empirical theme (Petersen, 2008). Although both fields have tackled the field of risk effectively in its own research agenda but the effects of terrorism towards people such as education disturbance, refugee and internally displacement issues, government instability were not addressed in the research agenda.

Khalifa Umar Mansoor, Taliban commander clearly stated that all forms of educational institutions (schools, colleges and universities) in Pakistan will continuously be attacked as the terrorist believed that it provides a space to produce apostates (Hussain,

2016). Hussain (2016) cited Erin Miller from the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism of the University of Maryland where she highlighted the fact that educational institution have less security and is easily a target for terrorist activities to

1 take place as the space are open and accessible to the public. Knoope (2016) in Hussain

(2016) commented that Islamic extremist attacks are motivated by the ideology of the terrorist group which could be categorise into two (1) the widespread of western education and (2) the potential of education as threat to terrorist obscurantist and regressive ideology. He also mentioned the approach to attacks on western education is because they (terrorist group) viewed it as rival and against the Quranic or Islamic religious education delivered in the olden Somalia. The mindset presents a dangerous situation where Islamic extremist dominates the mind of the younger generation.

Beyond the conflict situations that occur in war torn and terrorist active countries which contribute to the movement of people, government institution also faces the crisis of public distrust and it steadily rises to be a global phenomenon (Norris, 1999).

Public opinion derived from diverse sources has established the fact that public confidence towards government has deteriorated and remain low (Park & Bae, 2012).

The Malaysian government policies and reaction towards refugees are ad hoc, inconsistent and subjective because of its non-signatory status to the United Nation

Convention and Protocol relating to the Status of refugees (Wake & Cheung, 2016).

This research examined the lives of refugee within the duration they fled their origin to transitional country. The first stage of the research identify the causality of refugee’s movement which present the occurrence of conflict and extent of terrorism activities in Somalia. This process is employed to identify the roots of risk and establish the connection which deteriorates the basic essentials of a human. Upon establishing the connection, the second stage examined the causes of shortcoming within international agencies and the non-obligatory action from Malaysia government in handling refugee crisis. This stage is important to establish the understanding of political process which is flawed and requires the need of an alternatives. The final stage examine the sub-

2 politics as an alternative that function beyond the walls of formal political process in attempt to restore educational provision for refugees.

As the problems of refugees are immense, this research addresses the effort and limitation in terms of education provision for refugee from both the government and sub-politics group.

1.2 Conflict, Terrorism and Education

This part is dedicated to give an overview on the three themes mentioned above in relationship to provide and understand the background of this research. The details of each sub topics are as follow: The Somalia conflict dynamic and refugees, Terrorism and educational opportunities, Al- Shabaab and attack on education in Somalia,

Terrorism and refugee, and the Obligations towards Refugee.

The intertwining relationship of conflict, terrorism and education sets the tone for this research by understanding the situation of political unrest and instability in Somalia which subsequently creates terrorism related risk. The risk related situation connects to the thesis of world risk society which examined the effects and reaction of the contemporary society on refugee issues particularly on the obligation and shortcomings of the government and international agencies. This section is divided into six topics which traces the relationship of conflict, terrorism and education that subsequently contributes to refugee crises. The Malaysian government and international agencies shortcomings in handling refugee issues forms the basis to discuss sub-politics group within world risk society.

1.2.1 The Somalia Conflict Dynamics and Refugees

The post-cold war era has caused awareness among peoples but it also affected many countries and Somalia is not excluded on the list. The dynamics of conflict in Somalia

3 reveals a series of different factors that drives them – the divide of Somalis through clannism and clan cleavage contributed to conflict over resources and power. In

Somaliland, civil war broke out in 1988 which paved the way to end the state of governance in Somalia. Somalia witness a coup d’ état that crushes the regime of

Dictator Siad Barre thus emerge a land of statelessness. Factions’ rivalries in the country are fighting to control and establish power where a situation of anarchy replaced the government. For two year, Somali “warlords” pronounced war with others to solidify their bases of strength and among the famous warlods are General Hussein

Aideed and Ali Mohamed from Mogadishu and Mahdi respectively. Drought landed itself on the country in turmoil causing famine in its aftermath. The United Nation (UN) fall short in establishing authority, stability and order in the country despite their effort to manage conflicts and relieve sufferings of the peoples (Leeson, 2007). However, upon the evacuation of UN from Somalia, the Somali economy actually improved instead of deteriorating (Little, 2003).

The mid 1990s witnessed some fighting but slowed down since 1991. Somalia conflicts since 1991 are fought with the name of clan which sparks from the use of militia and making reconciliation almost impossible. The ouster of former dictator is not replaced by a new government but instead replace with a period of violent anarchy and warfare. Clan based militia fight with one another to claimed control over town, seaports and neighbourhoods. The conflicts that occur way before the 1991 downfall of the dictator regimes have caused an outflow of refugee where 400, 000 Somalis cross the Ethiopian borders as refugees as a result of the civil war between the Somali military and the Somali National Movement (SNM) where the rivalry sparks as a control over northwest Somalia (Africa Watch, 1990).

Drought as mentioned previously causes natural resources scarcity which later contributed to the massive famine in the late 1991 and early 1992 contributed towards conflict. As there is an imbalance of supply and demand of natural resources due to the fact that there are limited rainfalls and scarcity of water sources have caused clashes between pastoral groups over an access to limited rich pastureland (Puntland

Development Research Center, 2004; Center for Creative Solution, 2004). It was believed that at least 30,000 Somalis and many humanitarian workers were sacrificed due to war and famine (Del Boca, 1993).

Somalia is always pictured as a landscape with endless violence and displacement since the ouster of Siyad Barre in 1991. However, it is important to note that the dynamics of conflict in Somalia have gone through different phases, configurations and evolution in terms of human displacement. Before conflict break out in Somalia, the country was a major refugee hosting country for an estimated 650,000 Ethiopian

Somali as the 1977-1978 border war ignited in Ethiopia (Hammond, 2014). Peace found again its place in most parts of Somalia in the late 1990s. But once again, peace was threaten with the attempted reestablishment of central government where a new violence and conflict emerged and triggers small scale rivalry in few areas (Menkhaus,

1998, 2004; Nenova, 2004).

The threats was later identified as an ouster of the Union of Islamic Courts by

Ethiopian troops and support from its partners despite the effort to position administration in Mogadishu and supports from many parts of Somalia. The invasion of the foreign militia marks the emergence of Al-Shabaab movement. Violence spiraled into the lives of Somalis again in early 2017 where the terrorist movement attacked people indiscriminately in and around Mogadishu causing civilians to flee from the capital of the country as it witness the new violent period since the collapse

5 of the state (Hammond, 2014). Peoples seek refuge with their rural relatives and moved out of the country eventually towards Kenya and Ethiopia (Lindley, 2010). The United

Nation Higher Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Malaysia have reported 154,

140 refugees and asylum seekers were registered by the end of April 2016 and 1,510 of them are from Somalia.

1.2.2 Terrorism and Decline of Education

The major catalyst for children and families decided to migrate is educational opportunity however refugee children and young adolescent often stumbled upon road block in beginning or continuing their education which was largely contributed by a countries restrictive migration policies (United Nations Children’s Fund, 2016). Policy

Paper 22 or Fact Sheet 31 which was jointly released by the United Nations Education,

Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Education for All Global

Monitoring Report (2015) have reported that school year ending in 2013 have 124 million children and young adolescent between the ages of 6 and 15 years have never started school or dropped out and the amount increased from 2011 with 122 million.

Jones and Naylor (2014) took upon the literature of schools, colleges, students and staff that were attacked. The series titled Education under Attacks were reports that span across a duration of four years from 2009 to 2012 where it records a staggering amount of over one thousand schools, universities, student and staff in six countries experienced attacks. Jones and Naylor (2014) however mentioned that the process to quantify all the institution being attacked and the affected human is hard, the belief that thousands of educational institution were attacked is enough to know that hundreds of young minds were interrupted from being nurtured and might leave a permanent mark on them.

Iraq, between 2003 and 2004 conflicts have caused at least 85% of damages to schools in the country. Rwanda, more than two-thirds of primary and secondary school teachers were killed or displaced from the genocide. This is sufficient to illustrate the situation that war on education do not only harm school going children’s and adolescent but those dedicated to teaching and provide education. Armed conflicts frequently lead to forced migration which in turn interfere the learning process for millions of children. The UNHCR (2014) have reported that the Syria conflict has caused 900,000 school going age children to live as refugees and more than half of them were not able to attend schools.

Conflict and Political Violence in the Middle East made school going children and teacher faced the line of fire. A staggering 13 million children are unable to attend schools due to conflicts in the region. Syria, Iraq, Yemen and Libya received a devastating impact where an estimated more than 8,850 schools that previously provide shelter for displaced families were attacked and cannot longer be used for it is damaged and destroyed (UNICEF, 2009). It was a harsh reality to accept the fact that school that once offered knowledge is turned into a battle field by combatant groups in conflict countries endangering the civilians.

The motives of terrorist attacks on educational institution and people in it were outlined in a report by the Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack (2014:12) and they are as follow:

1. Anti-government group attempts to destroy symbol of government control and to demonstrate control over an area.

2. Girls education and alien (western) type of education that teaches religious or cultural value, history and languages that were not familiar by indigenous are suspended.

3. Teachers trade union activities and academic freedom are limited.

4. Abduction of school going children as combatants, sex slaves and military operational purposes.

5. Educational institutions were seized by terrorist group and utilised as barrack and bases to attack opposing forces.

The above motives clearly outlined the attack on education bring effects to children’s and teachers be it psychologically and physically. The attacks mentioned above clearly focus on three themes: power, ideology and extremism.

Terrorism group like the Taliban and Boko Haram have different view on educational attainment and the syllabus of certain subjects. Taliban with only two percent of overall attack were on schools and educational institutions however their ideology of teachings and education was that girls are not to be educated and when they seized power, girls’ age eight and above were deprived of education for they were banned from attending schools. Seven attacks were conducted in the year 2013 that targets girls attending schools in the northern region of Afghanistan causing over 160 casualties. The Pakistani Taliban also similar with those in Afghanistan opposed westernized and girls’ education where they targets schools that advocate’s equal education. The issue of terrorism on education gained world recognition with the shooting of Malala Yousafzai who was then a 15 year old school girl and advocate of female education. Although the news brought attention to the world but it do not halt

8 violence attack with over 100 attacks on educational institution and 150 casualties on

2013 in Pakistan (Institute for Economics & Peace, 2014).

The Boko Haram of Nigeria clearly spell out their “mission” in their terrorist group name which literally meant ‘western education is forbidden’. The group is similar with the Taliban where they are against anything Western and they attack educational institutions to emphasis their anti-western education sentiments (Institute for

Economics & Peace, 2014). Thus it is clear that terrorism on education is related with the terrorist group ideologies and beyond the conflict that occur within the country.

The following part illustrates the terrorism activities of Al-Shabaab that occurs in

Somalia and their influence as a push factor of forced migration.

1.2.3 Al-Shabaab and Attack on Education

Al-Shabaab and schools have strong relationship in the most negative way possible where most of the terrorist group combat operation are featured in schools and through schools that they seized, they continued to find ways to be the “puppeteers” of Somalis’ daily lives. The school was turn into battlefields where they have bad intentions of putting students and teachers with risk after they fired the African Union Mission in

Somalia (AMISOM) and Transitional Federal Government (TFG) forces while awaiting for return fire from the forces. The school also serves as a ‘labour’ institution where the terrorist group recruits students and teachers as combatants while girls are abducted and subjected to rape and forced marriages. The militant terrorist group of

Al-Shabaab pressured schools and teacher to enlist or release thousands of children to be given military training and to be recruited into their ranks.

The long history of Al-Shabaab interference in local education was familiar where within the area of their control, schools are gender segregated where girls are threaten

9 to not enroll in school otherwise they will be remove from the school eventually. The boys also were pulled out from their classes and learning institution to join the terrorist groups rank of peoples (Odhiambo, Wasike & Kimokoti, 2015). The attacks on Garissa

University College have killed 148 civilians and dozens are wounded and the causes was recorded through an audio message by Al-Shabaab spokeperson, Ali Mohamoud

Raghe:

“… the university had been targeted because it was educating many Christian students in a Muslim land under colony,”

It was clear that Al-Shabaab objective of ideological destruction were in play and their act of anti-western sentiments where the spokesperson claim that Kenya plan to spread

Christianity and infidelity among peoples of the Somali ethnics in parts of Kenya that was not successfully claimed by the Somalia.

Al-Shabaab attacks on school students are not rare. The Ministry of Education in

Somalia was terrorise on October 2011 where students and parents await the results of scholarship examination leading to 100 or more casualties. The Al-Shabaab claim responsibility upon the attack and condemned students of wanting to study abroad and the education systems that is deemed to be pro-Western. The terrorist group captured areas have forced schools to implement their interpretation of Islam and intimidate or murder teachers or school authorities that defy with their demands. The teaching of

English, geography and history were restricted; students are exposed to extreme

Islamist ideology and separation of boys and girls in school is implemented. The

United States State Department also release an alarming issue where academic excellence is awarded with AK-47 rifles which might not only endanger other students, teacher and civilians but prolong the terrorist activities in the country through the younger generation.

The international humanitarian law has outlined several guides to protect civilians from attacks and prohibited from being attacked. Attacks towards civilian objects such as school are also prohibited. The utilization of students and teachers as ‘human shields’ could be categorized as a form of war crime and endanger civilians. However attacks on educational institution and its people still prolonged and continue to advance terrorist agenda and propaganda which is anti-western ideology.

1.2.4 Terrorism and Refugee

With the amount of refugees escalating to a new high from the occurrence of 32 armed conflicts in 26 countries globally (Themmer & Wallensten, 2013). The consequences brought about by armed conflicts have proven interrupted education and caused an increase of out of school children and adolescent. The age of terrorism (Laquer, 1987) and the age of migration (Castles & Millar, 2003) have come into the present day however we often think of migration as a term of that defined people that are crossing international border. But the dynamics of migration are immense; the contemporary human mobility could be free or forced, regular or irregular in their own ways. The amount of peoples flow is believed to increase as issues related to climate change that causes bad harvest and the rise of sea levels as well as the unstable political scene and insecurity in an individual’s home country (Timmerman & Friedrich, 2016).

Inkster (2015) estimated potential migrants will increase as high as 1.6 billion people which are an equivalent to one fifth of the world population – the reasons that there will be such an increase is because that people were threatened by various forms of insecurity. However it is important to reiterate the needs of the studies on link between migration and terrorism just as Simsek (2007) mentioned that there is a scarcity of migration literature that reflects their relationship with terrorism. The following will

11 illustrate the push force of refugees from Somalia and other countries and the terrorism that contributes to escalating amount of refugee.

Central government of several countries collapsed post-cold war era and leaving the sovereign territories ungoverned. The ousting of Somalia dictator of over two decades

– Mohamed Siad Barre have spark new crisis. The country was split into parts such as

Puntland, Somaliland, Jubaland and the Federal Republic of Somalia as the country was colonized by Italy and Great Britain previously. The emergence of Al-Shabaab which was believed that numerous warlords are involved in building its foundation have further led the country into devastation and pushing civilians into forced migration. Failed states such as Afghanistan (after 1992) and Iraq (after 2003) have experienced immense terrorism experiences and the products – large refugee flow

(Schmidt, 2016).

The hypothesis of Simsek (2007) on Turkeys’ terrorism and migration that focused upon three dimensions – terrorist areas, terrorist activities and casualties have proven to be supported. When areas have high terrorist activities and casualties, the migration rate is also relatively high. Following this, the basis of discussing the relationship of terrorism and migration is form to further explore the problems and phenomenon that occurs in the world.

1.2.5 Obligation towards Refugees and their Education

The responsibility imposed upon the host society towards the immigration of refugee was always questioned. As this particular immigration was often uninvited or unwelcome by certain host societies and along with it bear a certain price tag. States attempts to ensure the assimilation of the refugees and guarantee their safety by

12 providing them with housing, jobs, education and etc (Martin, Schoendtz & Fisher,

2005).

Thinkers around the world are fascinated with the term of social justice. The Republic, one of the major works of Plato (427-347 BC) has argued that four virtues are needed to create an ideal state and they are wisdom, justice, courage, and moderation. Kirk

(1993) quoted Thomas Aquinas who was influenced by Aristotle where he wrote that justice is a certain level of righteousness in mind for a man to act in line with the circumstances they are facing. Aquinas believed that justice was a form of a natural duty owed by one person to another. The term – natural duty was grounded in the foundation of political obligation which will further thus making it perfect sense on the obligation to the circumstances around us.

Reformers egalitarian spirit and policy makers have been promoting social justice but despite all these the market that controls privatisation and marketization of education and society, the uncertainty of the past legacy and the issues of critical education and policy were left cold on the shelf and ‘remain on policy agenda’ (Zajda, 2002).

However, these unresolved issues lead to the issues of inequality (Coombs, 1982).

Thomas Christiano (2015) talked about the duty of international community on normative lenses where he mentioned that the duties of the international community are to cooperate and provide a safe and welcoming space for refugee resettling. The rights are built on the premise of fundamental belief that a person should be assisted in avoiding violence and persecution by other human beings and the international community has the duty to help properly realise those rights. However, Christiano

(2015) also mentioned that the states should not be given unsustainable burdens while helping refugees and this is the point where the international community plays their

13 role as a kind of unified political entity to make sure that refugees go to states that are able to help them. However, in the context of Malaysia, the government is not the signatories of the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (CRSR) where the state claims that without binding with the CRSR they have had offered protection to refugees on humanitarian grounds where brings a contrast with the view painted by

Christiano (2015).

Malalal Yousafzai (2016) words were quoted in the Policy Paper prepared by

UNESCO and UNHCR where she mentioned that since world leaders have promised to provide every child with 12 years of education by 2030, young people that were displaced by wars should not be exempted from this goal. However, not all country are willing to provide refugees any services. Kang (2016) mentioned that Malaysia has maintained their no obligation stance towards refugee as they are not part of the CRSR, however, he argued that the obligation towards refugees does not refer to only those from the CRSR as obligations were well founded in other conventions and customary international that complements CRSR. He also noted that Malaysia is a party to the

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the Convention on the

Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and

Convention of the Right of Children (CRC). These treaties bear significant importance for the protection of refugees as Malaysian government has not acceded to other human right treaties except for those mentioned above. Although the international community have voiced out concern of refugees however the Malaysian government stay firm with their ground of no obligation towards the refugee communities which subsequently led to a situation where shortcoming of international agency limits the assistance and supports for refugee.

1.2.6 Shortcomings of International Agency on Refugee Assistance and

Support

As the conflicts and terrorism activities escalates in Somalia, forced migration and displacement of Somali occurs. However, the understanding of obligation is blurred with the risk perceptions towards refugee’s influx into host countries. The importance of this sub-theme is to illustrate the shortcomings of international agency aid which stemmed from the irregularities and inconsistent funding’s by the state, corporate and donor. This portion will attempt to explain the shortcomings in depth and its effect upon certain provision for refugees on a global scale.

There is a substantial increase of needs such as shelter, water and sanitation, food, medical and education. The displacement by conflict contributed to the increase of refugees and displaced people to 42,000 person in 2014 as compared to 11,000 person in 2010 as commented by the UNHCR, António Guterres. Grant (2015) highlighted the fact that the basic needs of millions of people could not be met as the refugee crisis increases in the Middle East, Africa and Europe whilst the United Nation humanitarian agencies are standing on the cliff of bankruptcy. Guterres commented that the global humanitarian community is not broken and working effectively as compared to before but financially broke.

In Iraq, the World Health Organization (WHO) is only being funded $5.1m from donors whereby WHO aims to raise $60m for healthcare. Dr Michelle Gayer, Director for emergency risk management at WHO stated that as the gap between desperate health attention from countries such as Iraq and funding levels widens, it pose as permanent damage to public health across the refugee and displaced population.

“People are not vaccinated. They suffered malnutrition and mental health issues caused by the conflict which sets countries lagging behind.”

The situation illustrated peoples are at risk as virus carrier although the WHO have attempted to work within the situation. The global masses should be aware that international agencies and global community collaborate with each other to tackle emergency cases especially in this time where events occurs at an unprecedented scale and nature. Conflict situation have caused health impact towards people who fled from their country of origin to seek refuge elsewhere (Grant, 2015).

Grant (2015) also reported the cut down on the World Food Programme (WFP) ration in several countries. In Lebanon, $13 is allocated for food each month where WFP official warned such situation might push refugees to be recruited into extremist group activities. The pattern of food provision cut down is repeated around the globe. From early 2015 WFP cut the food provision for refugees in the Dabaab and Kakuma camps of Northern Kenya twice whereby Sudanese refugees in Uganda also faced the same fate. Beyond the cut in food provision, refugees risked their freedom by returning to country of origin or irregularly travel to Europe.

“This is a hand-to-mouth operation where the second money flow in, the money flow out. WFP is operating in a funding deficit as of early 2015 and found ourselves short of $149m to assist Syrians refugee throughout September and October.”

The above statement shared by Dina El-Kassaby, spokeswoman of WFP based in

Cairo proof the shortcoming of international agencies are not limited to healthcare but possibly to other area of needs such as food, education, shelter and safety.

The highest priorities within refugee communities is education where it was reported in the UNHCR publication Refugee Education: a Global Review. However, UNHCR equally faced funding and supports shortage to ensure every refugee children and young people gain rights and access to education. The lack of financial and supports for international agencies relatively led to an education of lower quality for refugees

16 and subsequently obstruct the goals of Education for All as agencies faced limitation to achieve durable solution and sustainable development (Educate A Child, n.d).

However, the international agencies are not to be blamed upon the shortage of funding as Human Right Watch (2017) research in Turkey, Lebanon and Jordan have pointed out that the policies from host countries are barriers to access education with children being coerce into the workforce or marriage as compared to attending school.

Although donor have exceeded the target of $1.4 billion, donor missed funding’s for

Jordan and Lebanon which subsequently led to a funding problem stemming from donor lack of attentiveness in funding.

Despite understanding the shortcomings and conflict that occurs in refugee country of origin, International Crisis Group (2016) reported that host communities complain about the effects of refugee movement on the labour force, social benefits and the risk of crime and terror increase. However in the context of Malaysia, refugee are not guaranteed any social benefit or access into the workforce as the government is not a signatory of the CRSR thus enabling the government of non-obligatory duties toward refugees.

1.3 Problem Statement

The work of Ulrich Beck on Risk Society is discussed extensively over two decade against the backdrop of incalculable uncertainties of the Chernobyl disaster, global warming, mad cow disease, global pandemics (Avian flu, Zika virus, Severe Acute

Respiratory Syndrome), the Asian financial crisis and global terrorist attack

(September 11th World Trade Center attack, Islamic State of Iraq and Syria movement) which reflected the concern of Beck works that span across different areas from environmental, health and man-made destruction. The occurrence of catastrophic events such as man-made and environmental destruction contributed to the human

17 movement in search of a refuge. This resemble the multifaceted dimension and dynamic of the world risk society.

Conflict and terrorist activities in the war torn Somalia have subsequent long term effect towards the surrounding communities in terms of shelter, food, education and healthcare. Terrorism and migration studied separately have contributed to a huge pool of knowledge pertaining to it. However, in-depth intersectional studies on terrorism and migration are lacking (Schmidt, 2016). Terrorist attacks on educational facilities contributes to the movement of attacked communities as refugees. Children and young adolescent were impacted by terrorist activities as they were not privileged to travel or escape the situation which subsequently forced them into joining militant activities.

Despite of some “privileged” refugees are able to escape persecution and misery of the conflict, they faced problems with the authorities in Malaysia as the state is not a signatory of the CRSR.

As the amount of refugee increase across the decades of conflict and terrorism, the

Malaysia government have no intention of providing public facilities and services for the refugee communities within the countries. International agencies faced shortcomings as state donors and funding pledges did not meet the intended funding’s target. As both the host government and international agencies faced policies limitation and funding’s inconsistencies, within the world risk society thesis, the concept of sub- politics emerged out of the formal political process to deal with ignored issues by aligning their expertise towards it. This research focused upon Fugee School based in

Gombak, Selangor as the sub-politics which deliver educational provision for a majority refugee children and young adolescent from Somalia beyond the framework of formal political process with an extensive discussion and reflection on empowering refugee through passionate sub-politics group and its networking.

1.4 Research Questions

Based upon the problem statement, the following research questions are formulated:

1. What is the relationship between terrorism, refugees and education based on the risk society approach?

2. How does the Fugee School act as a sub-politics group in terms of delivering educational facilities and empowering refugee children and young adolescents?

3. How do local and refugee communities cooperate in supporting the development of refugee children and young adolescent education?

1.5 Research Objectives

The research objectives are the reflection of the research question and they are as follow:

1. To identify the linkage between terrorism, refugees and education in connection with the risk society approach.

2. To investigate the Fugee School’s role as a sub political group in the area of delivering educational facilities and empowering refugee children and young adolescents.

3. To analyse the cooperation between the local and refugee communities in supporting the development of refugee children and young adolescent education.

1.6 Research Significance

The research contributes to an extended field of risk research in light of terrorism and refugee issues. The educational content of this research is intended to guide researcher on understanding the intersection of conflict (terrorism), refugees and education

19 attainment. The biographical approach utilized in this research open space to illustrate experiences and continually be used as a tool of realistic painting of risk and terrorism.

The risk politics features will also shed light on empirical research and encourage changes across time with the emergence of new risk. This research also approaches the risk that was not able to be extended by Ulrich Beck and seeks to fortify World Risk

Society thesis by examining the theories of reflexive modernization and sub-politics with the contemporary issue that occurs around the globe in addition to the issues of environmental risk discussed previously by scholars.

1.7 Research Scope and Limitation

The coverage of this research are upon Somali refugee communities that attend school in Fugee School. The selection of this coverage is contributed to the fact that the former beauty queen and her team along with the refugee communities worked in a harmonious way despite of problem and challenges in the earlier phase of building the school. The selection is also due to the fact that there are numerous groups of refugee communities and schools in Malaysia where it does not have a track record of more than five years and coverage from media as the matter of consistencies and access to information is important for the research. The limitation that occurs are the interviewees were selected influential people in setting up the Fugee School and the children’s that attended the school to understand their aspirations in life and the educations they received from the school.

There are two groups of people that could not be interviewed and do not wish to be interviewed. The teachers are not able to be interviewed as they have a packed class schedule and the intervals between each class is 15 minutes which is not conducive for in-depth interviews. The other groups are students from the grade 4 classes where their parents do not allow them to join the interview session without any explanation. Thus

20 the perception of teachers are not grasped to understand the teaching of the school, however, this portion was explained by the educational coordinator which illustrate the whole teaching processes that will determine whether the way of teaching echoes the suggestion in the analytical framework.

1.8 Operational Definition

1.8.1 Refugees

Based upon the 1951 United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, refugees is defined as a person with well-founded fear of being persecuted due to reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political option is out of the country of his or her nationality and is unable to avail him/herself of the protection of the country and with the existing fear is reluctant to return to it (Convention Relation to the Status of Refugee Article 1:A, 1951). Conflicts combined with drought and famine has escalated the amount of refugees from Somalia to a staggering 1.5 million people. The term refugee for this research is based upon the legal explanation that suits the situations illustrated within the law itself where refugee of Somali origin flee conflict and natural disaster in Somalia. The geographical location for this research is located in Gombak, Selangor within a community school for refugee along with the refugee community and other personnel with knowledge on managing educational facilities.

1.8.2 World Risk Society

The modernity era witnessed a wide spectrum of revolution ranging from information, genetic, nano-technological to the recent revolution of the global terrorist threat. The immensity of the global terrorist threat signalled the importance of government within this context in connection with security provision. Risk society is a development phase of a modern society where social, political, economics and individual risk are escaping

21 the formal institutions which monitor and protect the society. The risk society within this research refers to the late modernity risk through Beck lens with three significant traits – areas, production and limitation. As compared to the previous risk such as the

Chernobyl incident, its occurrence coverage is within Ukraine (former Ukrainian

Soviet Socialist Republic till 1991) and pandemics could be controlled within infected territories. However, Beck stated that the risk and uncertainties “manufactured” within the late modernity as a global threat as opposed to the previous time where it is territorially specific. There is no limitation on the risk that could occur on a global scale especially in the era of global terrorist threat. The idea of world risk society within the context of this research refers to the late modernity where risk occurs at global scale affecting states across the world. The risk discussed is man-made and unlimited – terrorism activities which subsequently requires society to combat it as the government have policies and limitation pertaining another issue that sparks from the same risk. By understanding the limitation and the nature of the risk within the risk society, it leads to the idea of sub-politics and the need to explain it closely behind the notion of world risk society.

1.8.3 Sub-Politics Group

The usage of this term is to synchronies with the work of the late German sociologist

Ulrich Beck where he rejected the traditional labeling of private and public, sub- politics occurs outside of the conservative politics of parties and parliaments. They function in the public within a specific movements, communities and places where although they are small groups, it does not equate that they have no influence (Havelka,

2016). Beck (1997) advises us instead of looking politics within a wrong and limited space. As we move into the new era, the political landscape also refreshes where issues

22 are discussed beyond the formal structures of political parties, parliamentary debates or election.

But as formal political agenda created the vacuum of relevant issues being discussed, sub-politics group emerge as the agenda from below. Following the act to fill up the vacuum, the social framework of sub-politics group enabled the actors to define and discuss issues without referring to the formal political structures and hierarchy. This research observed three particular characteristic of the sub-politics group: small-scale, beyond formal political structures and discussed issues beyond the formal political structure. By observing the characteristic of the sub-politics group, this research identify Fugee School as the sub-politics subject for it is a small scale educational provider to refugee children and young adolescent from Somalia and other countries in turmoil. The school functioned beyond formal political structures and refugee’s educational concern is discussed without the formal political institutions monitoring.

1.8.4 Reflexive Modernization

The approach to reflexive modernization assist this research to situate the facts and information collected for investigation in a more general perspective. This approach provides interpretative assumptions pertaining to processes of reflexivity which relatively guide the analysis of relations between the structural changes in complex societies and the emergence of new forms of collective action that proofs incremental level of reflexivity. This research looks upon the work of Gidden (1990, 1994) where he expanded the theoretical implication of the processes of social changes in connection with the modernization risk. This research addressed the modernization risk which include the influx of refugee contributed by terrorism and conflict in country of origin whilst the processes of social change is reflected with the formation of Fugee School to provide education for Somali refugee in Malaysia-transit country.

1.9 Outline of Thesis

The entire research is presented into six (6) chapters and the followings are the description for each chapter.

Chapter one presents the background of studies and literature reviews which entails three connected keywords – conflict, terrorism and education. The problem statement, research questions and research objectives, research significance and research scope and limitation were specified in this chapter to guide the research. The operational definition presented the four (4) keywords for this research – refugees, world risk society, sub-politics group and reflexive modernity.

Chapter two presents two key components for this research – literature review and theoretical framework. The literature framework entails the idea of world risk society and its accompanying concept of risk politics, cosmopolitanism, cosmopolitan sociology, reflexive modernity and sub-politics. The theoretical framework entails the approaches to the idea of causality and the funnel of causality which lastly led to the integration process of components within the world risk society into the funnel of causality which forms the basis of theoretical framework for analysing the collected data and information from fieldwork and documents.

Chapter three presents the research methodology by focusing on the problem, approaches and strategies of the risk-related research. The problems in methodological planning describe the idea of cosmopolitanism and the difficulty of formulating proper methodology which led to the idea of conducting risk research through biographical approach. This chapter also presented the methods of data collection and analytical strategies.

Chapter four presents the problems faced by refugees where terrorism influence falls upon Somalia. The fear and cultural norm were described by the refugee children and young adolescent as well as Dr Shafie Sharif. This chapter also presented the challenges faced by refugees in transition country whereby the legal framework and discrimination towards refugee and the learning obstacles and harsh daily reality that were faced by refugees. The chapter closed by tying the components of the refugee situation from their homeland and during their stay in transitional country by stressing the risk of terrorism causing educational breakdown among refugee children and young adolescent.

Chapter five presents the work of sub-politics against the backdrop of government.

This chapter focused upon the efforts of the sub-politics against the government inactive role to address the issue of educational access for refugees. The learning, capacity building and empowerment process is also an emphasis within this chapter and describe several institutional policy shift. This chapter closed with a summary on the importance of stakeholder and sub-politics involvement in delivering effective education to refugee regardless of the government opinion pertaining to issue of refugee welfare in Malaysia.

Chapter six presents the thoughts on refugee children education, state governance and sub-politics. This chapter also summarise the research with three implication – theoretical, methodological and policies. This thesis ends with the list of references.

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 World Risk Society, Concepts and Funnel of Causality

The world risk society as a concept is absorbed into this research as the backdrop of terrorism is invoke in this case to examine the relationship of terrorism, refugee and their education specifically in the context of Somali in Malaysia. Ulrich Beck revisited world risk society on the aftermath of the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center.

The usage of concepts in our lifestyle, thoughts and society is incapable to describe the events that occurred (Beck, 2002). He continued to criticize that there is no answer to a simple question related to the terrorist attack of 9/11. He proposes that the collapse of language that made false idea and concept emerges during the aftermath of

September 11 forms the fundamental situation in the new millennia which was identified by him as the world risk society.

This chapter opens with a review on Malaysia government policies towards refugee across a few decades to identify the trends of protection towards refugee. Followed by a focus on the content of world risk society and the different approaches to the theory which sparks debate within the academia. The focus upon sub-politics and cosmopolitan sociology provide a background to further understand the metamorphosis of both the concept and features which will further deepen the understanding of the research subject with the current body of literature. The funnel of causality is layered according to the situations that occurs from the conception of the terrorism as risk that spark from the instability of the refugees country of origin, the transitional states and the decision-making and conversion of decision by two groups of peoples – the government (elites) and the sub-politics group (citizen/grass root) that leads to an output that differs between both group.

2.2 Malaysian Policies towards Refugees

The policies formulation process for refugees in Malaysia are not established due to the fact that Malaysia has yet to be a signatory of The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. The

Malaysian government has also yet to establish its own system in determining ones’ asylum or refugees claim nor establish neither a protection framework nor recognition to peoples who seek refuge within Malaysia shores despite UNHCR mandate that recognise refugee from conflict countries which are in need of temporary protection

(Human Right Watch, 2004).

The establishment of Malaysian policies towards refugees only occurs since the 1970s where there is an influx of refugee and asylum seekers from neighbouring countries which deemed to be a pressing situation for the government. The implementation of policies is apparent with the introduction of the IMM13 documents to refugees which comes in a form of a Social Visit Pass that is issued by the Malaysian Government under Regulation 11 (10) of the Immigration Regulations 1963 which permits refugees or migrants to reside and work in Malaysia for a two years period (Kaur, 2008).

However, there are different situations which permits the issuance of the IMM 13 documents (Duraisingam, 2016).

Vietnamese boat people marked Malaysian Government first challenges in coordinating and dealing with refugees issues. The Vietnamese boat people received temporary refuge in Malaysia prior to repatriation or resettlement in a third country – this measures comes about to address the arrival of the boat people to the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia with assistance from UNHCR to resettlement and/or repatriation of the Vietnamese. However, Malaysia doesn’t provide the option for local integration as the state is not prepared to accept refugees as its residents. Due to intense

27 influx of Vietnamese boat people, the government threaten to shoot any incoming boat in 1979 to ensure refugees and asylum seekers alike will avoid to land in Malaysia.

With the promises of third countries to provide resettlement for the Vietnamese boat people, the Malaysian government began relaxing its policies which allow more refugee from Vietnam to land in its territories. Indochinese (another name for

Vietnamese) Muslim however resettled in Malaysia as they received permanent residence which were mainly contributed by their religious and cultural bear resemblance to those of the local Malay community (Idris, 2012).

In the late 1970s, the Indonesian Government and the Free Aceh Movement were at war which relatively becomes the push factors for Acehnese for the Northwest

Sumatera to search refuge in Malaysia whereby the Malaysian Government acknowledge them and allowed them to stay. However the 1997-98 economic crisis forced the Malaysian government to take drastic decision to deport Acehnese who were seen as illegal immigrants and stretch through in 2002 which witnessed to a further deportation of Acehnese back to Aceh and Sumatera (Fuller, 1998). In 2003,

Acehnese continues to seek refuge in Malaysia which was mainly contributed by the military operation conducted by the Indonesian government, hostilities ceased in 2005 whereby the Malaysian government issued between 32,000 to 35,000 IMM13 documents. The policies pertaining to the issuance of IMM13 documents was extended as a symbol of humanitarian assistance by the Malaysian in connection with the 2004

Tsunami and cessation of hostilities in Aceh which devastated the population of Aceh and those from Aceh. The situation of refugee from Aceh depicts the granting of legal status to formerly refugee or asylum seekers turned irregular migrants with the end of hostilities in their homeland.

Migration of Filipinos to Sabah occurs between 1970 and 1977 during the Mindanao insurgency in the Philippines with the authoritarian rule of President Marcos, the migrants were considered as Suluk and/or Badjau origin refugees which were found in

Sandakan, Tawau and Lahad Datu (Sadiq, 2005). Over 54,00 IMM13 documents were issued under Regulation 11 (10) Immigration Regulations 1963. For a decade between

1977 to 1987, UNHCR intervene to assist the situation in Sabah. With the change of governance in the Sabah state government in 1985, the State’s government recognition of the humanitarian obligation towards refugee was hit by the enforcement of the laws against illegal immigration to curb the influx of irregular migrants. The State government instituted a ‘legalization drive’ during the economic crisis in 1997-98 whereby Filipino were to re-register as refugee based on their reasoning of entrance into Sabah during President Marcos administration in the 1970s. However, the relationship breakdown between Malaysia and the Philippines in 2001 (Fuller, 2000) which subsequently cause the revoke of Filipinos refugee status and was allowed further stay provided with valid work permits. The situation led the Filipinos to sought for IMM13 documents to allow them to gain access to lawful employment, education and healthcare.

The conflict in Myanmar which witnessed the genocide of Rohingya have increased the amount of Burmese refugee to sought refuge in Malaysia. Since the 1980s,

Burmese arrived at Malaysian shores. They were mainly the Christian Chins and the

Muslim Rohingya along with other ethnicities such as Myanmar Muslims, Mon,

Kachins and other minorities (Kaur, 2008; Duraisingam, 2016). With the intervention from UNHCR, the Burmese Chins staying in Malaysia were promised resettlement in the United States of America whereby the Rohingya were promised IMM13 status in

2004 (Adnan, 2007). The procedure rolled out in 2006 however was halted as

29 authorities abused their power and shifted the privilege of IMM13 to the wrong group of people instead of the Rohingya.

Refugees and asylum seeker from different countries were dealt in an ad hoc basis.

The conflict that occurs in Bosnia and Herzegovina which witness the fight between

Serbian forces and Boasniak and Croat forces created a push factor whereby 360

Bosnian refugees were given temporary refuge in Malaysia and awaits ether for resettlement or repatriation to Bosnia and Herzegovina when the conflict ended (Khoo,

2010). Amongst other refugee that arrived in Malaysia are Somalis, Iraqis, Afghans and Palestinians (Palestinian are considered as de jure stateless refugees).

The policies of Malaysian government towards refugees have its limitation and requires a constructive and structured policies which include basic necessities and access to public facilities and services to sustain refugees’ lives in limbo. The erratic nature of the policies also reflect the lack of commitment from the Malaysian government to address the needs of refugees which demand the refugees to seek assistance from sub-politics group where this research attempt to address the vacuum of governance and the mechanism which act as the alternative for the lack of government assistance.

2.3 World Risk Society Approaches and Debates

The concept of World Risk Society by Beck (1986/1992, 1988/1995) is often associated with major disasters and accidents. The dangers associated with it are industrial accidents like Chernobyl, Sandoz, and Bhopal that causes devastating and lasting damages towards human health and environment (Perrow, 1999). With the technological advancement and changes in the changing environment and climate, it is reasonable to expect that we are living in a world filled with risk and disaster will

30 continue to happen thus the constant reference to the world risk society. However mentioning that the constant reference to the world risk society has created numerous debates on the concept. There exists incompleteness within the concept of risk society where it was associated with the disaster.

The sociology of risk and uncertainty have sparks different approaches. Beck (1992) idea of risk society approach assumes that the transformation of modern societies is based upon new technological and environmental risk such as nuclear power, climate change or the recent global financial crises. However, Douglas (1992) argued that the increasing domination of individualist value is the result of cultural approach interprets the concerns of ecological risk. Dean (1999) however provides a governmentality approaches that assumes the quality of new risk were less of an effect as oppose to the new style of governing societies that causes a fundamental change within a society.

The system theory, however, argued that the ongoing social differentiation results in a growth of risk communication which fuel the negotiation on the responsible person for undesired societal events (Luhmann, 1993; Japp & Kusche, 2008).

The concept of risk in Beck risk society was criticized as being narrowed down to the responses of technical and environmental risk as an unexpected effect of industrialization. Japp (2000) referred it as a danger-consequence society fall short to capture the essence of a general societal development regarding the concept of risk as a strategy to manage uncertainties. The strategy, however, was linked with the idea of insurance with the statistical method of calculating modernity developed uncertainties

(Ewald, 1986). Risk theorist has shared the view of insurance and statistical (Krohn &

Krücken, 1993; Bonss 1995; Japp, 2000) however with the contemporary societies perception of risk and risk responses, uncertainties are managed differently.

Douglas and Wildavsky (1982) grid or group scheme was drawn upon to discuss the risk and culture approach which was developed in order to understand the varieties of the logic of risk expressed in a social group or organization. The grid dimension suggested by Douglas and Wildavsky illustrated the level of involvement of an individual within a societal description, while within a group it depends upon the motivation and restriction of thoughts and action of their commitment towards a social unit larger than an individual. Through this framework developed by Douglas and

Wildavsky, it assumed that there is a relation between social organization and responses to risk and culture are adequately represented by the framework.

The approach of risk and culture, however, was critique as it reduces social risk- perception to the extent of culturally biased use. Risk perception is assumed to be far more complex and dynamic where it went beyond the categories of the risk and culture approach imply (Renn et al, 1992; Boholm, 1996). As the early cultural approach of

Douglas (1990) have assumed that risk is real but the politicisation process is a social process and it depends on the selection and politicisation of risk. Although it shows how an institution which was chosen as a body that organise our social life and shapes the selection and responses to risk. However, the approach have faced difficulties in explaining social changes with the quality of new risk. This making Douglas and

Wildavsky (1982) resistance against nuclear power to be explained in the light of shifting social values towards individualism instead of a catastrophic quality of a new technology.

Foucault (1991) have conceptualise a new style of governance in modernity and is related to the literature body of governmentality and risk. It is a characterised as a body of institutions, procedures, analyses and reflections where calculation and tactic paved the exercises of a very specific form of power. As Zinn (2004) suggested that there are

32 no similar or general approaches in the studies on governmentality thus it also reflected the studies of governmentality and risk. Rose (1999) mentioned that governmentality is neither a homogenous school nor a closed sect where Dean (1999) also mentioned that it is not a single paradigm.

Ulrich Beck (2002) has discussed the notion of living in a world of risk related to terrorism act in relation with the 9/11 and the continuous terrorist activities around the world. Beck offered a different approach towards the terrorist activities as he mentioned that,

“11th September stands for the complete collapse of language. Ever since that moment, we’ve been living and thinking and acting using concepts that are incapable of grasping what happened then. The terrorist act was not a war, not a crime and not even terrorism in the familiar sense.”

The collapse of language forms the foundation for the situation that occur in the 21st century where Beck called it as the world risk society. Beck (2002) differentiates the axes of conflict in the world risk society into three which are ecological conflict, global financial crises and emergence of global terror network post 9/11 event. The three axes of conflict are global and it happened during the post-World War II era. Beck (2002) also mentioned that the 9/11 events which led to other terrorist attack as a limitless boundaries of uncontrollable risk and commented that the increase does not matter but it is more important to know that the de-bounding effects of risk.

Although the axes was said to be global however Beck stance was that it should not be equated as a homogenisation of the world where regions and cultures are now threaten by an uniform set of non-quantifiable and uncontrollable risk within the areas of ecology, economy and power. The global risk is unequally distributed where its occurrence happened in different ways based upon their historical backgrounds, cultural and political patterns respectively. As noted, this research focuses upon the

33 terrorism threats in the world risk society thesis of Beck (2002). The differences between the axes could be categorise into two with the ecological and financial threats on one end and the global terrorist networks threats on the other end. The ecological and financial threats are results of the distribution and production of goods with the central decisions from the society that comes along with an unintentional side effect.

The essence of a terrorist activity is always with a bad intent where their effects are similar with those effects produce unintentionally by other crises.

The globe acknowledges the risk that sparks from the terrorist action is shockingly immense with the horrific images of terrorism on global media in contrast with the recognition of environmental and financial risk which were not truly acknowledged.

Terrorist group have established themselves as the new global player opposing nations, economy and civil society.

2.4 World Risk Society and Risk Politics

The transformation of the world is immense where people constantly questioned the science, politics and economic production which affect the governance of natural and industrial disasters. The questioning process spiral into a battle of adverse consequences related with technology advancement such as mobile phones, food safety and security, tensions between medical doctors and patient or tension brought about by terrorism, or even the public outrage of inefficient government action within the service provided for the publics (health, education and etc) that significantly founded the traits of societal transformation. Uncertainties comes along with such transformation as individuals loses trust (Warren, 1999; Löfstedt, 2009) towards the elites and institutions especially in terms of health and safety issues, they form social movement to pressure the dominant powers instead of approaching through the traditional approach of political parties of mediation channel.

The demands of the society in transformation are becoming immense where they demand transparency, participation and accountability from government officials and other peoples of expertise in risk issues (scientist, risk manager and etc). These uncertainties faced by the elites and institutions were associated with institutional or reputational risk (Hood et al, 2001; Power, 2007). The political and bureaucratic elites fears the blames of mismanagement and underperformance (Hood & Rothstein, 2001) however the Malaysian government are selective in their way of assistance where the

Malaysian government with their tug of war on refugees issues by allowing refugees to stay in the country provided they have valid UNHCR identification papers but on the other end the government lack coordination with other enforcement agencies causing failure to handle maltreatment (Supaat, 2014).

Ulrich Beck major work of Risk Society published since 1986 focused upon environmental risk where it was frequently revisited by Beck in year 1999, 2005 and

2009 where he explore beyond the central arguments of environmental risk by improvising and expanding his definition of risk to other issues related to economic such as the financial crises and those resulting from terrorism such as Al-Qaeda and

Al-Shabab (Beck, 2002). This research will utilise the idea of Ulrich Beck (2006) as a theoretical framework for analytical purposes. As the theory of world society theory maintains, the modern societies however are shaped to face new kinds of risks where the foundations are shaken by the anticipation of a global catastrophes. Such perceptions yielded three features: de-localisation, incalculableness and non- compensability.

Beck (2009) explained the features as follow. De-localisation is the situation where the causes and consequences are not confined with one geographical location which relatively meant that it is omnipresent. The consequences of risk are incalculable for

35 the foundation is built as a ‘hypothetical’ risk which is based upon science induced of not-knowing and normative dissent. The non-compensability feature refers to the desire to make risk calculable and controllable however the risk that occurs in recent times are irreversible which led to the introduction of “precaution through prevention” principle (Beck, 2006).

Beck (2009) further explained that the phenomenon of the de-localisation of incalculable interdependency risk occurs at three levels: spatial, temporal and social.

In the spatial level, the new risk does not respect nation-state or any other borders.

Temporal level indicates that the new risk have a long latency period where it is difficult to determine the time for the effects to linger on. The social level looked at the complexity of the problems and the length of the chain effect, the capabilities to understand the causes and consequences is no longer reliable on any degree. Judging upon the three levels elaborated by Beck (2009) it points toward the direction of the unknown and issues were beyond border.

Chan (2008) mentioned that as risk could not be understood without a particular context (scientific, political, economic or popular) thus leading to the selection of using the term of risk politics to further illustrate the case in light of political issues. Risk politics that occurs within the reflexive modernity period yielded four features where this research elevates it as the main analytical tools to illustrate the biographical perspective on risk research. Individualisation, sub-politics, science-politics relationship and reflexive regulation is explained as follow to illustrate the relationship of each feature with risk politics.

Beck (1994) explained individualization as a process of disembedding and reembedding of the industrial society into a new found way of life where individuals

36 need to produce, stage and cobble their biographies. However, this does not necessarily mean that individuals are free to have a free self-definition and still shaped within an overall condition. But the standard biography turned into ‘reflexive biography’ where the individual action and choices are perceived to be more unrestricted as compared to the functionalist role model (Chan, 2008). Beck (1994) stands with his view that risk politics blends and the combination of the classical poles of politics and repeal the division of the conservative cleavage of left and right wing.

Sub-politics as the second feature is the approach of shaping the society from below.

Beck (1994) argued that such group should be separated from politics and agents outside the political or corporatist system would then emerged on the stage of social design (agents included are professional and occupational group, technical intelligence, skilled worker, research centers and etc). It is important to note that not only social and collective agents are involved but individuals as well where they emerge and compete with each other’s to shape the power of the political.

The science-politics relationship is the third features within the risk politics. As mentioned in the former where the attention of science are focus upon environmental problem and here it evolved into the form of politicization of science and scientization of politics. Nature is in dire needs of reconstruction, shaping and transforming. The internal discord between experts on using different explanation led to the de- monopolization of expertise and reflexive regulation which eventually sparks the debate process (Beck, 1994, Bulkeley, 2001). However this features is questioned in the context of terrorism activities as it does not include the effect of science in their activities. But it is still debatable that science in this context could be reinterpreted to make it relevant for this research.

Lastly, the fourth feature of risk politics is the main mechanism to justify that risk politics could be at work. Reflexive regulation are government responsibilities that were transfer to the community or shared responsibility but within the context of this research we shall only focus the provision of providing education to people that was the main theme of research invoke here. Agents of different background gather to form a supposingly sub-politics movement to determine the way of planning, implementing and monitoring the efforts for the supposed movements. This regulatory move is not confined to a certain form but it could either be formal through privatised regulation, drafting guidelines and agreements or informal where code of conducts are applied

(Matten, 2004).

2.5 World Risk Society and Cosmopolitanism

The risk society phenomenon emerges and becomes visible when the societies are exposed to certain risk and no longer have any kind of protection (Beck, 1993).

However, it is important to note that risk is not a new phenomenon. There is an importance in understanding the social and political dynamic and transformation of the twenty-first century through the lens of the World Risk Society. The risk was accumulated and expanded through a spectrum of issues such as nuclear, ecological, financial, military, terrorism, biochemical and informational which is omnipresent in our daily lives. Since there are omnipresent elements of risk thus making peoples have three reactions: denial, apathy, and transformation.

Risk is a concept that presented a major challenge for social theory and research.

Environmental toxin have threaten the environments and inspired groups of people to resist the effects of environmental toxin such as the nuclear effects of the Chernobyl created the emergence of social movement that threaten ruling parties and defying dominant ideologies from the ruling government (Draper, 1993). Draper perspectives

38 were drawn upon the work of Beck (1992) where the main focus are on scientific development and technological issues especially in terms of nuclear risk that occurs in

Chernobyl. Beck has presented a stimulating argument that class society and their alliances were replaced by global endangerment as an organizing principle. The class based societies previously clearly victimized the proletariat however in the world risk society point of view is that all layers of the societies are threatened. But the view of such replacement seems to be over exaggerated for environmental hazard threaten the poorest of poor and those marginalized groups (Farley & Allen, 1987; Draper, 1991).

The following are the definition for the mentioned reaction. Denial was engraved into the first modern culture and ignores the political risk of denial. Apathy paves the path of a nihilistic strain in postmodernism. Transformation is the benchmark for the concept of world risk society to emerge where anticipation of man-made futures and its risk that might bear consequences of transforming the perception, living condition and institution within a modern society (Beck, 2012). Following the discussion of people's reaction, various researcher approaches the subject of risk differently thus leading to the following discussion to establish an understanding of the overall risk research landscape and forming the theoretical framework for the analysis of the research.

2.6 Cosmopolitan Sociology

World Risk analysis should not be disengaged with Beck (2002) cosmopolitan which was viewed as a “revolutionary effort”. Beck cosmopolitanisation should not be confused as a philosophical normativism that attempts to organise the world or even the global ideal. The cosmopolitanisation here happens to be housed under the sociological perspective which highlighted the not-at-all pure process that drive us to assume world risk with complex solution which is inclusive of the cosmopolitan

39 element. Through the cosmopolitanisation, it is mandatory for everybody to cooperate with each other by considering that our reality is penetrated with contradictions and conflicts. We should approach an empirical-analytical cosmopolitanisation which differ from the normative cosmopolitanism; it is an enthusiastic drive rather than a voluntary choice (Beck, Blok, Tyfield & Zhang, 2013).

Nation-state are constantly gather and engaged with the network of interdependency within three dimension of risk – ecological, economic and terrorism where these risk connect different nation between developed or underdeveloped countries. The new historical reality with a cosmopolitan outlook have made individuals viewing themselves as living within a threatened space and it is parts of their lives. The degree of risk exposed to individuals of different religious culture provides individuals an understanding of the world where violence, anger and opportunity occurs.

The cosmopolitanization thesis for Beck (2002) is a methodological concept that counters methodological nationalism with an intent to construct a new frame of reference to analyse emerging social conflict dynamic and structure of second modernity. Beck (2002) took upon the ideas from Friedrich Nietzsche – Age of

Comparison where Nietzsche mentioned that a person is not bounded by any cultures and heritage and given the chance to pick a suitable one for them where various cultures also started to interpenetrate with each other. Beck (2002) mentioned that social changes is part of a modernity and social sciences thus it relates to the transition of the methodological cosmopolitanism which coordinates and categorize changes.

So how does it relate to the world risk society? As cosmopolitan sociology focuses upon fundamental question related to redefinition, reinvention and reorganization.

There are two terms which involves processes – globalization and individualization.

As individualization is part of the world risk society features making it important to consider cosmopolitanism in this research. As the globalization processes were debated upon the territorial bias, individualization goes on a route to question and criticized the collective bias of the social sciences (Beck & Beck-Gernsheim, 2002).

The debates are triggered by three problems – conceptual, methodological and organizational (Beck, 2002).

Beck explained the three problems as follow. The conceptual problem was that the sociological classics are least effective in explaining the contemporary world we are living with the changing economy and society. The methodological problems emerged as a result of the social sciences methods of methodological constructivism where it excludes two component of otherness – nature and objects (Latour, 2001, 2002). The methodological nationalism also contributed to the problem of methodology. It assumed that the nation state acts as a powerful container of social processes and the nation is being ‘confined’ to be studied on major social, economic and political processes.

2.7 Reflexive Modernity

The theory of reflexive modernization were often misunderstood as it is not a redundant way of emphasising the self-referential components which is constitutive part of modernity but instead it refers to the phase where modern society faced modernization. Radicalization of a modernization occurs at a certain level and begins to transform itself for the second time. The transformation does not only involved the key institutions but along with the principle of society and the transformation are those of a modern society (Beck, Bonss & Lau, 2003). Braeckman (2008) further explains that the theory of reflexive modernization provides a credible explanation on the erosion of nation state today it aligned itself as the emphatic follower of the idea of

41 cosmopolitanism. Thus, the reflexive modernization is connected with the elements of cosmopolitanism. It is important to note that the theory of reflexive modernization and risk society placed forward by Beck emerged post Chernobyl disaster – making it focus upon the subjective calculation of risk and the natural environment. Beyond the focus Beck goes beyond the single-minded focus on material distribution and group equality which belongs to the empirical social science of the Europe and the United

States of America. Beck thematise cross sector mediation and the limits of social differentiation which differs from Luhmann emphasis on fragmentation and self- referentiality (Alexander, 1996).

The idea of reflexive modernisation in its simplest form is a signal the movement of the third stage of social development within modernity. The evolution according to

Lash and Wynne in the work of Beck (1992) was from the first pre-modernity to simple modernity and reflexive modernity. Beck (1997) explained that although there might be a tendency to full accept one shape of modernity but the emergence of many modernities may be possible. McMylor (1996) commented on the work of Beck by mentioning that there is an inclination towards freeing agencies from structure and the multiplying process of individualization that brings hope to change future of an alternative modernities. Sociologically, McMaylor (1996) refer Beck work as the return of oppressed agency post domination of structural determinism in both functionalist and Marxist forms. The comments by McMaylor signalled to the direction of the formation of sub-politics.

As Braeckman (2006) have related the reflexive modernization towards cosmopolitanism thus with this vision it made us citizen of the World Risk Society which the unity and cohesion generated by the risk that threatens us on a world-wide scale. His illustration though stay at a grass root level where he clarified that the world

42 risk society although sound like a unified global approach however this society is not unified in any political sense. The idea of a world state is also none existence and the idea was rejected. In order to ensure the idea of world risk society is working, a certain kind of sub-politics movement emerge which was accompanied by the rise of new social movement as the contributing factor of social change and emancipation.

As technology-based production creates devastating ecological risks rather than reassuring certainties and faith in sciences, it is clear that within the risk society thesis

– security becomes the primary good that was aimed to be produced by economic organization instead of material wealth. The solution to move forward is with more reflexivity within the following domain. First, science should be democratised so that the calculation of risk are not within the power of the elites and separated from the concrete experiences of daily life. Second, the social spheres of contemporary life which was increasingly differentiated and self-directed should reconnect by creating the intermediate policy-making bodies based upon the model of round-table. Lastly, as mentioned sub-politics develop with the rise of social movement that emphasis on protection and security it increases the shift of decision-making away from the formal institutions of parliaments and executive bodies (Alexander, 1996).

Reflexive modernization of modern societies examines the fundamental transformation of society within modernity. Crisis that could be related with the risk is the transformation and radical social changes drives modernity. Modernity is becoming problematic and heave not evaporated. The changes of social structures that comes along with the transition of a reflexive second modernity does not just witness the changes but the revolution that attached towards the changes (Beck, Bonss & Lau,

2003).

Reflexive modernisation occurs in a post-traditional society whereby the power of tradition to influence behaviour is deteriorating and was deduced to merely a guiding role (Giddens, 1994). In contemporary social theory, the spectrum of social life are characterised by and requires reflexive form of conduct. There are claim that contemporary social life demands reflexive actions and this demands are continuously being debated within the sphere of social sciences (Alexander, 1996; Boyne, 2002;

Lichtblau, 1999; Pellizzoni, 1999). Through this demand, it is apparent that in order to understand late modern societies, it is crucial to grasp the understanding of reflexive modernisation or reflexive modernity (Beck et al., 1994). Beck et al. (1994) extended that as the societies increasingly being modernised, the emergence of agents becomes more intense where agents (sub-politics group) are able to reflect on the social conditions of their existence and to transform them accordingly.

2.8 Sub-Politics

Politics, expressed outside of a conservative system with a specific intent rather than to complete the government ideological packages is labelled as sub-politics according to Beck (1997). The declination of interest towards the conservative politics does not necessarily illustrate the situation that there is lack of political orientation or action in society (Linde & Lindgren, 2010). Linde & Lindgren (2010) relates the concept of sub-politics as the method a small scale decision with political significance of an individual either they have a direct political frame of reference or aggregations.

Politics of the new era differs from the former era where it was discussed only within political parties, parliamentary debates or election. Beck alerts us that it is imperative to avoid looking politics in wrong and limited place. This research argues that refugee education through non-governmental organisation as a sub-political practice that emerges from a new place. So what is the relevance of discussion on sub-politics in

44 this research and its relation with world risk society? Skovgaard (2015) mentioned that

Beck concept of sub-politics is developed within the framework of world risk society.

Within the theory of risk society that was disillusion with the institutional politics have produced what Beck (1997) called as sub-politics which operated beyond the formal political processes with a different agenda. The issues of consumption and lifestyle which circles around the foods that we eat, the music we listen to and our own desire are parts of sub-politics. The agenda emerges from the below as a reaction to the absence of relevant issues from the formal political agenda (Drake, 2010). Drake (2010) continues to elaborate upon the social framework of sub-politics which enables its actors to define the issues without depending on the views of experts. The political agenda is no longer restricted to certain ideology which addresses the distribution of resources and opportunities of goods.

As such unrestricted political agenda emerges; conventional political parties would need to conduct focus groups and consultation in order to understand the status and making electoral pronouncement as an attempt to regain control of of the political agenda. But undelivered electoral pronouncement of dreams and promises creates a situation where it further disillusion the structure of the conventional politics which delegitimise the formal political actors and institution along with the democratic electoral processes. With this ongoing trend, the sub-politics mentioned in the works of Beck (1997) acts as a positive sign of the revitalisation society that seems to be immanently democratic.

Politics and institution conventionally focused upon production and accumulation where they are handicapped to deal with emerging risk and the efforts of satisfying new demands of participation are bound to fall (Beck, 1997; Matten; 2004). This new

45 form of politics are built upon two premise where there is a de-monopolization of expertise and informalisation of jurisdiction that require the political system to be more participatory and all processes of decision making and negotiation results to be debated and made public. With such approach, the government centralised rule making system that dominated the states will decrease (Chan, 2008). The sub-politics group emphasis changes upon a rule directed formal system into a rule altering politics which relies upon the network constituted between state, civil society and market (Beck, 1994).

However, it is important to note that as each person or movement might have their own agenda which is influenced by individualisation where the forces from below will have the tendency to be disorganised and uncoordinated or contested with each other for their own meanings, claims and actions. The subject of discussion between representatives of established and informal political identities circles around the meaning and strategies towards a certain issue. However, traditional political systems that managed to retain power and influence are usually those that aligned with sub- political institutions and actors to define terms, explanation and strategies (Beck, 1995;

Bulkeley, 2001).

The application of basic principles of modernity which empower citizens to participate in societal governance to challenge the supremacy and legitimacy of the existing political governance structures that created a new obscurity was referred as sub- politics (Habermas, 1985). The new obscurity presented a weakening of social structures, the mobility of citizens, single issue protest and larger social movement attempted to affect changes however the second modernity (characterised by the politicization of the previously non-political or sub-political movement) have enabled citizens to challenge the power of conservative political institution that earns trust among its citizen.

The term sub-politics put forward by Ulrich Beck (Havelka, 2016) is a special form of non-political politics as Ulrich Beck and Anthony Giddens (work with the phrase “life politics”) have used the term to refute the tension between private and the public. For them (Beck and Gidden), the occurrence of sub-politics are made outside of parties and parliaments, and it happened in public through particular movement, communities of specific areas or within a small group where it have influences.

Beck (1997) views sub-politics as a new that effects social transformation which has taken over the role formerly manage by the central agencies which includes the state.

The sub-politics are formation of society from below or more commonly known as grass-root organization that occurs out of the formal political structure. Beck (1994) cited the reaction of demonstrator towards the nuclear industry that initially planned to have a reprocessing plant in Wackersdorf however the conflict ended as the company announced the shift to France due to financial circumstances. Its apparent that the conflict have not been intervene by official political process thus proof that the sub-politics have potential to take over the duty and responsibilities formerly undertaken by central agency.

Sub-politics of the new era influences the change process (Aiken, 2000). Beck (1994) have defined the sub-politics as agents that do not belongs within the political or corporatist system and were allowed to appear on the social design phase. Aiken (2000) extended his explanation on the composition of the groups that includes professional and organized grouping from certain research institutes, organisations and industrial plants and extends to citizen action groups, individuals and collectives.

2.9 Causation and the Funnel

This subtopic aims to discuss the functionality of causal explanation and building the funnel for the purpose of this research. The fundamental question of causality is – Why?

It was where Aristotle pointed toward four cases of causation – material cause, formal cause, efficient cause and final cause. Material cause occurs as materials of an object determine its behaviour – the light weight of feather or the weight of a rock that determines their position in a tube of air. Formal cause occur where the form of a thing determined the role or nature of a thing – the differences of a human and a statue of human. Efficient cause sees a significant change on things such as a human lifting a rock and beyond. Final cause is the end of existence of thing where even human have limited or unknown knowledge of the end. However fast forward towards the Middle ages, the Aristotelian approaches on final and formal causes was criticised by Niccolo

Machiavelli (political thinking) and Francis Bacon (general science). The modern definition of causality was suggested by David Hume where he reject the idea to perceive cause and effect but suggested the development of a habit or the sense to associate two types of object or events are contiguous and occurs subsequently (May,

1970; Hume, 1896).

In the situation of refugee, past research have highlighted that refugees outflow could be a contributing factor of transnational terrorism which positioned itself as risk, however Milton, Spencer and Findley (2013) does not have intention to identify refugees as terrorist or potential terrorist. Countries incapability to govern the nation led to the vicious cycle where citizens are made victims which subsequently turned them into refugees and suspected of being linked with terrorism activities.

The funnel of causality may have been effectively employed in electoral behaviour analysis however Melville (1999) believed that the heuristic potential is way beyond

48 the initial studies – voting behaviour. The funnel of causality is modelled by a group of Michigan School researchers to explain voting behaviours during American elections (Campbell et al., 1960) which was later employed into policy studies. The purpose of the funnel is to capture the causes of causes as suggested by Miller and

Shanks (1996). Usage of the funnel of causality has been consistent regardless of its reasons. It functioned as a guide to the selection and articulation of methodological tools namely factor analysis that was used within the work of Eger and Marlowe (2006) and Hofferbert (1974), stepwise regression in Mazmanian and Sabatier (1980), path analysis in Hofferbert and Urice (1985) as well as bloc recursive modelling in Miller and Shanks (1996).

Simeon suggested an approach to take institutional linkages and other relationship between state, society and environment seriously (1996) in order to make consideration before any decision-making processes is done (Simeon, 1976). The framework in Figure 2 (a) is the funnel of causality put forward by Hofferbert in 1974 with the intention to illustrate from macro-structural factor (wider end) to the micro- behaviour of elite decision makers (narrow end). The figure illustrated may seem complicated with the multi-directional relationship which elaborates on three representations of direct effects, developmental sequences and policy relevant incidents.

Figure 2 (a): Hofferbert Funnel of Causality (1974)

As Melville (1999) believed that the funnel of causality to have wider heuristic potential beyond voting behaviour and employed it in his analysis of democratic transition in order to provide multi-faceted approach to analyse the factors from the macro level to those of the micro-level. The factors lay out for his analysis were as follow: International context, state building and nation building, economic and social level of development and modernisation, social classes and group, values and culture, political processes and individual factors. For Melville (1999), each mentioned factors regulates the conditions, process and results of democratic transition however it was understood that nothing is sufficient to elaborate a phenomenon in full. The attempt to work our way down the funnel is to exhaust the explanation on each level and to explain each processes logically through causation.

2.10 Theoretical Framework

Upon the accumulation of ideas on literature of world risk society which subsequently lead to comprehension of concepts such as sub-politics, reflexive modernity and cosmopolitanism, this section summarize the body of literature which guide the analysis for this research by appropriating the funnel of causality to the context of world risk society and sub-politics as the theoretical framework. The heuristic potential of the funnel approach was highlighted by Melville (1999) and was used in research related to regime change (Mahoney & Snyder, 1999; Stepan, 1978), electoral studies

(Bartels, 2008; Campbell et al., 1960) and policy processes (Hofferbert, 1974).

Hofferbert (1974) uses the funnel approach to determine incidents that contributes to policy making. However, this research intends to approach the funnel of causality to determine incidents that contributes to a social change specifically in the context of providing Somali refugee with education in Malaysia. Figure 2 (b) adapted the basic structures of Hofferbert funnel of causality and appropriated for the research.

4th & 5th Phase

1st – 3rd Phase

Figure 2 (b): Adapted and Appropriated Version of Hofferbert Funnel of Causality

The theoretical framework analyses the situations in different phase with different actors. From the wider end (the first phase), this research have conducted literature reviews to grasp the problems that occurs within the refugee country of origin and the situation was further elaborated by the respondents from this research which consolidated the situation where state instability contributes to the formation of every other levels of the funnel of causality. Although Bryden (2003) have conducted terrorism analysis within the backdrop of Somalia statelessness and insecurity, his analysis ranked Somalia terrorist risk lower compared to other countries due to the fact that the country telecommunication, airspace and coastal waters are under constant surveillance of the United States military presence in neighbouring countries. Somalia geographical landscape of flat, semi desert terrain limits hideouts and accessible for foreign military forces. It is impossible to disregard that terrorism contributed to the emergence of refugees outflow. The analysis of Bryden (2003) was later countered by

Mentan (2004) as he highlighted that African countries consisted of weak states which could be infiltrated by opportunistic terrorist group. Newman (2007) fortifies Mentan

(2004) opinion by mentioning that Somalia is amongst the ideal-type failed state which opens the chance for terrorist group to seep in. Despite the reasoning of geographical landscape and surveillance of United States military groups in neighbouring countries, the fact that there is a lack of central governance attracted terrorist to ground themselves in Somalia are contributed by the hard-to-trace transaction and the shipments of goods and personnel (International Crisis Group, 2002). Thus, the importance to identify the problems could lead into analysing the following layers of the funnels.

With the emergence of Al-Shabaab in Somalia, refugee and internally displaced people from the country increases thus creating the society where Beck coined as World Risk

Society is presented in the second phase. The limitless boundaries of uncontrollable risk and its increase do not matter but it is more important to understand the de- bounding effects of risk (Beck, 2002). Thus, it is important to consider the fact that

Bryden (2003) views that Somalia poses a concrete and immediate threat to international security although he did not particularly highlighted terrorism risk which later emerged as continuous threats to Somalis and contributed to the lack of educational access for the children and young adolescents. It is important to understand that the world risk society illustrates that the modern societies are shaped to face new kinds of risks where the foundations are shaken by the anticipation of a global catastrophes.

The third phase within the funnel is the transitional state. Transitional state refers to a situation where Somalia instability and terrorism trickled the forced migration of

Somali to transitional countries. As each transitional countries consist of different judiciary ruling regarding the status of refugees, Malaysia have their set of judiciary decision on refugee entering the borders. Amnesty International (2010) has reported that Malaysia is country that function as both destination and transitional country for a significant amount of refugees and asylum seeker. Although Malaysia is targeted as a destination to seek refuge and transition for refugee, the country failure to ratify international instruments that protect and promote the rights of refugee and asylum seeker. The first three phases is mark with a straight arrow throughout till the transitional state where it depicts the changes of peoples from a country with exposure to risk specifically terrorism to a situation where risk society made up of refugee and internally displaced peoples emerged without boundaries and the occurrence of flow of possible risk which relatively led them to enter other sovereign state whereby the

53 government have restrictions towards refugee and asylum seekers which lead to discriminatory action from government of the transitional state.

The fourth phase depicts the activities of the government as an inactive agents and

Fugee School that plays an active role in shaping and decide the fate of the refugee within the country. The government have differing views and approaches towards refugees in the country. As the issue of refugee access to public facilities and services is immense, this research focuses upon the provision of education for refugee children and young adolescent. The Malaysian government illustrate that refugee and asylum seeker does not exist within the country thus leading to the situation where neither legislative nor administrative frameworks were established for refugees. The

Malaysian legal system also made no distinction between illegal migrants, refugees and asylum seeker (Amnesty International, 2010) which aggravate the situations of refugee that have targeted Malaysia as a transitional and refuge destination.

The sub-politics group is viewed it as is a group that view politics expressed outside of a conservative system with a specific intent rather than to complete the government ideological packages (further information on Chapter 2 Section 8 – Sub-politics) (Beck,

1997). As the traditional funnel of causality focused only upon one actor decision over the other, however, this research attempts to view the reaction of sub-politics against those of the government to illustrate the holistic backdrop for this research.

The fifth phase depicts the institutional decisions which refer to the Malaysian government and sub-politics group decision making processes and understanding the situations and effects of the decision taken by both actors. Prior to the analysis of this research, Malaysia government have played their roles as a receiving country since the

Vietnamese refugee crisis during mid 70’s by cooperating with the UNHCR. Although

54 the government have assisted the Vietnamese refugee by pursuing long term solution along with humanitarian supports (Amnesty International, 2010).

However, the plight of refugees extended beyond the 70’s as states instability, natural disaster and emergence of terrorism occurs, peoples are forced to flee from a risky atmosphere. But the government lack of initiatives to have a framework to provide education have triggered the creation of a parallel system whereby education are provided through community learning centres and the refugee community along with the local society plays a role in sustaining the schools (UNHCR, 2016). With the existence of a parallel education system, both side decided the fate of the refugees on either positive or negative impacts. This stage determine the motivation and the synergy of stakeholders’ involvement in Fugee School as opposed to the government ad-hoc and inconsistent policies pertaining to the educational access of refugee children and young adolescent. The fourth and fifth phase is mark with a dotted line which indicates an undetermined procedure and the relationship of refugee with either the government, the sub-politics group or both where refugees are subjected to their legal status in Malaysia but the reflexive nature of agents create an uncertain relationship of refugee, government and sub-politics group. As the government follow strict traditional roles where else the sub-politics group took on a reflexive approach and attempt to transform the current situation of refugees.

The decision conversion process is an important step to pre-determine the output that would be produce. This level of analysis examined the reaction resulting from the decisions made by the government and the sub-politics group. As mentioned the decision conversion process determined the output which refer to the state of refugee living in Malaysia and the output will reflect both government and sub-politics decisions and its effects towards the lives of the refugee. The output will be the result

55 of the analysis of interviews conducted with refugee and local communities as outlined in the research methodology chapter. In addition to it, reports in connection with government reaction towards refugee are collected to illustrate the output created.

Upon considering the fact that the former funnel of causality streams into one output only through the decision of the elites, the research attempt to offer a more holistic analysis by providing the effects and decision conversion process for both the government and sub-politics group. The decision to combine the idea of the funnel of causality and appropriating to the concepts of sub-politics and world risk society is to advance the understanding of risk society and the relevance of sub-politics against the backdrop of the current political scene and governance system in a systematic way.

Terrorism attacks educational institutions and inflicted fear upon the people of Somalia which extends to the refugees movement from Somalia. However, educations offered by sub-politics group for refugees are limited in funding, infrastructure and human resources as the host countries that were not signatories of the 1951 Refugee

Convention and its Protocol have neither obligation nor policies to effectively handle the issues of refugee and allocate any crucial provision such as healthcare, education and employment opportunities. The funnel of causality which initially fine stream into one output is challenged to scrutinize the decision-making process from both formal political and those of the sub-politics to avoid any occurrence of bias opinion.

CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Problems, Approaches and Strategies of Research

This chapter is presented in three-folds – problems, approaches and strategies. The problems pertaining to this research is the concepts of cosmopolitanism which is related to the idea of world risk society. As the idea of cosmopolitanism is an ideal concept, it poses certain difficulty to be examined empirically. However, literatures on risk research have guided the methods of collecting data and information to further illustrate and justify the phenomenon through the approach of biographical research.

The approaches further strengthen the strategies to analyse the information and data collected to suit the suggested theoretical framework through the lens of the interviewee with other official reports to further justify the phenomenon that occurs around them. The next section discusses the problems in methodological planning.

3.2 Problems in Methodological Planning

The diverse origins and discourses on the term of cosmopolitanism have paved a rocky road ahead for researchers to operationalise in empirical scrutiny. However contemporary researchers are inclined to study upon the attitudes and behaviour implication through the structural transformations in modernity brought about by globalisation and transnationalisation. They transfer from the states of abstraction to making cosmopolitanism work as a category to describe certain perspectives and practices relevant to the 21st century social life.

The main reason that made cosmopolitanism hard to be investigated as a reality in and between people between people was argued by scholars like Roudometof (2005),

Philips & Smith (2008), Holton (2009) amd Skrbis & Woodward (2011) where they

57 expressed dissatisfaction that there are no universal definition on cosmopolitanism to be investigated. However it spiral to a situation where researchers employ different operationalisations to communicate with the same theoretical concept (Lindell, 2014).

Reasons that contributed to the above situation are two folds. Firstly, the idea of cosmopolitanism is a highly normative concept where it have overflowing theoretical on what is and what is not cosmopolitanism. Second, researcher conducting quantitative research often relied upon secondary data from a wide spectrum of tools such as World Values Survey, European Social Survey and the International Social

Survey Programme which does not picture cosmopolitanism accurately moreover explicitly measure it. This growing array of indicator reduces the general validity of the fields of cosmopolitanism studies.

Based on the above explanation, it pictured cosmopolitan studies in need of an methodological solution instead of the inclination towards a pick and choose methodology where in the long run has limited the usage of the cosmopolitanism concept as an analytical tools to understand the contemporary social life. The method which has the abilities to surpass most limitation is believed to be the qualitative methodologies as it inveterate among important works such as Werbner (1999),

Lamont & Aksatorva (2002), Szerynski & Urry (2006) and Skey (2012).

Lindell (2014) sets out to propose a systematic outlook on research methodology of the cosmopolitanism concept. According to him, the complexity of the concept is best to be approached in the intersection of the theoretical and empirical. However the methods Lindell (2014) propose employ quantitative methods and might limits the discourses of data collected but it does not disapprove the validity of the data analysis of his research whereby it is important to map out the theoretical claims and aligned it

58 to the research objectives which is similar to the approach laid in his papers. The concept theoretical claims were then classified according to their similarities and as such create the working definition to guide the research process. In order to advance the idea of a methodological planning, risk research literatures are invoked to aid the methodological mapping for this research.

3.3 Risk Research: Biographical Approach

The World Risk Society thesis proposed by Ulrich Beck and engaged within the theoretical framework for this research led to the understanding of the importance on risk research which subsequently examined the methodologies applicable for the research. The linkage between problems of risk and the society were contributed in sociology but as more approaches emerged, it increasingly impacted the researches which subsequently led to the difficulties of identifying which approaches are significant. The capacity to research risk which was embedded within the society with specific objectives and technical risk assessment is weak. In order to have a holistic risk research, there is the need to include the lens of risk sociology. The shortcoming and limitation of the government calls for an examination on the duties of a society in researches (Zinn, 2006).

Risk and culture related research are approached through standardized quantitative and qualitative method. The standardized quantitative method examined whether the masses risk perception are culturally biased in which the extent of risk is lightly elaborated through cultural content. The standardized approach although improvised, it creates a disillusioned conclusion where cultural biases overall are relatively weak in explaining risk perception (Sjoberg, 1995) where the usage of other valid instrument have proven no improvements (Rippl, 2002). Wynne (1982, 1987, 1996) have consistently mentioned the existence of a multifaceted risk within a society which

59 relatively meant that scientific risk knowledge are not dominant as compared to societal related risk knowledge which includes local or lay people. The wide spectrum and level of knowledge related to risk research are acknowledge within this research in order to relate with the risk knowledge applicable for the research.

The acknowledgement of the wide spectrum of approaches in conducting risk research however revealed one neglected yet significant approach in risk research which is the biographical approach. Risk research have not applied biographical approaches in the social sciences and in turn biographical approach paid less attention towards the development of the risk research development (Chamberlayne et al, 2000). However,

Zinn (2010) pointed out that there are no particular biographical approach but rather several approaches were revealed. The widely accepted research that applied biographical approach is within the fields of health and illness, it examined the ways people cope with illness (Faircloth, Bolystein, Rittman, Young & Gubrium, 2004;

Caricaburu &Pierret, 1995), history of breast and ovarian cancer among healthy women (Kenen, Adern-Jones & Eeles, 2003), families with child diagnosed with chronic disease (Cohen, 1993) and the understanding of health risk among old age with the influence of class (Pound, Gompertz & Ebrahim, 1998).

From the boundaries of sociology (Apitzsch, 1990, 2003) and educational science

(Krüger & Marotzki, 1999), biographical research expanded unto other social and human science discipline such as psychology (Straub, 1993; Jüttemann & Thomae,

1987) and oral history (Passerini, 1992). The approach also extended to medical and health science, theology, social work and gender studies (Kraul, 1999; Dausien, 1996) and migration studies (Apitzsch & Siouti, 2007b). Fritz Schütze developed the hermeneutic textual interpretation of biographical interviews in the 1970s and 80s to explore the structures of personal and social processes of action, sufferings and

60 resources to cope and change. The method developed by Fritz Schütze is believed to be influenced by phenomenological sociology and the sociology of the Chicago School with emphasis on symbolic interactionism and ethnomethodology (Apitzsch & Siouti,

2007a).

The mainstream risk research concentration on technological and environmental risk have neglected the objectivity to research risk related to the people grounded value/belief system toward risk which is relative to Zinn (2010) findings that such negligence is less likely to include experience and the socialization processes of individual which subsequently contributed to a person perception and responses to risk.

There are modes which have tendency to dominate in risk research and they are mental

(Atman, Bostrom, Fischhoff & Granger Morgan, 1994) and perceptions (Slovic, 2000).

The process of identity construction and change within biographical approach researches differs from approaches mentioned above. The biographical approaches mentioned is the work of Gubrium & Holstein (2007), Ville (2005), Boeije et al (2002) and Inowlocki & Lutz (2000). There also distinction between biographical approach research with Fisher-Rosenthal (2000) biographical structuring and Hoerning (2000) and Hoerning & Alheit (1995) work features on biographical socialization. The phenomena of risk society or late modernity are linked with recent social change

(Gidden, 1990; Beck, 1992; Beck, Gidden & Lash, 1994) which revealed traits of an individual being influenced to have strategies or abilities in handling risk and uncertainty.

Beck (1992) revealed that across time the risk research framework are analysing issues beyond the traditional responses in connected with risk society, the research experience a shift where new technological and environmental risk such as nuclear power, genetic engineering or international terrorism. The responses towards new

61 social risk is a reflection of the society awareness towards risk environment in a timely manner (Taylor-Gooby, 2004). Social policy research was suggested to apply the life course approach to study the inter-connection between risk, life course and social policy (Bovenberg, 2008) however the Organization for Economic Co-operation and

Development (2007) highlighted the approach does not fully incorporated the risk perspectives. Biographical discourses on new risks and new social risks should be appropriated with the discourses that views risk as dangers and technology that deal with danger – these appropriations represent a holistic approach to handle the context of risk and uncertainty from multiple level of social decision ranging from macro to micro level.

Biographical approach emphasis on biographical identity or biographical structuring to establish a link between structure and individuals where could be interpreted through the analysis of an individual personality during his/her life course development (Fischer-Rosenthal, 2000). Biographical analysis focused beyond the reconstruction of intentionality by examining the individuals’ life course embedded within a social macro structures (Apitzsch & Siouti, 2007a). Schütze (1983) relates the approach as a process-analytical procedure that elaborate the beginning of the social events by recording the social reality from an individual experience of being the acting and suffering subject which is relatable to the theoretical framework that suggest a holistic view of the sequential events that occurs to the target group of respondents.

3.4 Methods of Data Collection

As suggested in the theoretical framework, the research strategy is to collect data at a case structure form as it served as the central aim of analysis. The selection of collecting the data in a case structured through a single case with the individual

62 experience is that it was assumed that such analysis would be able to form the linkage of social context and individual in its best form (Zinn, 2004).

The central form of data collection is through interviews under the approach of narrative interview introduced by Schutze in 1976 within the German discourse. The following describes structures of interviews where two steps are involved by doing the first step, a free narration and second step is probing deeper into the issues. In the first step the respondents are asked an initial question to provide a general view of the narration of events and experiences from their own lives. In the first step, further questioning were not included but continued with non-verbal expression to show interest and attention. This approach is used to avoid any undesired effects on the respondents to remember about their self-presentation. This space is particularly important for the respondents as it could help guide the narration of the issues that was important and needed emphasis.

The second phase invoke the period of questioning where the researcher initiate questions related to the narration provided by the respondent. The questioning phase required elaboration on topics and events mentioned in the first phase. In addition to the first phase, the researcher probes on issues that have not been addressed in the former phase.

The above provided a guide to form the following interview procedures and was carried across the data collection phase for this research. Respondents of significance for this research were interviewed in order to illustrate and analyse the motivation behind the formation of the Fugee School in Kuala Lumpur. Following is the profile of Fugee School:

Fugee School is found by Deborah Henry, Shikeen Halibullah and Shafie Sharif which prepare education for refugee students since early 2009. Fugee School believed that every child is entitled to an education regardless of their origin and their status. Fugee

School mission to ignite the endless passion learning and growing in every child. Every

Fugee student is given chances to realise their full potential and value by equipping them with the right academic, creative and lifeskills in an environment free from discrimination and exclusion for education is the key that can open doors to a brighter future. Fugee School is located at Gombak, Selangor, Malaysia (*Information on address is kept private to protect the refugee childrens).

The interviews were conducted as follows.

1.) Mr Ahmed and Mrs Mary – March 2015.

2.) Dr Shafie Sharif – September 2015

3.) Miss Deborah Henry – July 2015.

4.) Student (refer following for details) – July 2015

The following is the profile of the individuals interviewed:

1. Mr Ahmed and Madam Mary

Mr Ahmed was a former student turned mentor at the Fugee School. He was

amongst the refugee that flee from Somalia to seek refuge in Malaysia. He is

currently in his 2nd year Engineering course in a University in Malaysia. He

returned to Somalia in 2015 and shared images of the realities of street children in

Somalia through Instagram. Madam Mary is the Coordinator of Education and

Program at Fugee School. With her educational qualification in Montessori

Education, she serves previously in multiple international school in Malaysia. She

designed the syllabus for the refugee children’s’ at Fugee School.

2. Dr Shafie Sharif

Dr Shafie Sharif is an activist for peace and teacher in Somalia. He flee the conflict

in Somalia as he received death threats from terrorist. He set up schools/tuition

center to cater the educational needs of Somali refugee and in 2009 joined forces

with Miss Deborah Henry to form Fugee School which cater to refugees regardless

of their origins. He pursued his Doctorate in the International Islamic University

of Malaysia and graduated in 2017 where he subsequently returned to Somalia.

3. Miss Deborah Henry

Miss Deborah Henry is former Miss Malaysia World (2007) Universe (2011). She

attended the University of Queensland and graduated with a degree in Political

Science and Economic. She was exposed to the plight of refugee whilst filming an

in-house documentary for UNHCR. She initially started giving Mathematic and

English tuition with her friend, Shikeen Halibullah to the 4 children she met whilst

doing the in house documentary. Deborah Henry then met Dr Shafie Sharif to

established Fugee school which instead of education only 4 Somali children

extended to over hundreds refugee from different origin.

4. Group of students

The group of students are from four different grade – Grade 1, Grade 2, Grade 5

and Grade 9 and above. The students sample are from Somalia origin. The students

from Grade 9 and beyond are aged 17 and above. Grade 1, 2 and 5 depends on the

performance of the students within the grade thus an age group is inapplicable in

this context. The students from Grade 9 and beyond are more engaged in the focus

group interviews whereby the students from other Grade are least engage with the

interviews. Students from Grade 9 also appear to have more experience in

comparison with the students from lower Grades. The students from lower grades

response very directly to questions asked toward them and did not further elaborate

their response.

The interviews above are conducted at Fugee School with the month of interview indicated above. The first two was conducted in a form of in-depth interview with the strategies of narrative interviews. The third interviews comprises of four groups according to their grades. However, it is important to note that there is a grade where their parents do not give consent for their children to be involved with the interview session without further explanation.

Mr Shafie Sharif was interviewed through phone calls since it is hard for the researcher to meet him due to time constraint. The phone interview was conducted on September

2015 and the challenges while conducting phone interview is the connection are not consistent causing break during the interview session. However, the data collected are still audible and play a major role in the analytical phase.

The process of data collection and processing extends beyond by extracting information from the talk of Deborah Henry and her students in various location that could be retrieved through Youtube. The following is the list of the speech that was selected to fortify the results of this research:

1. The future of young refugees (TEDxUTP)

2. Compassion, enabling passion (TEDxINTIU)

3. Building Communities that Matter (Incitement KL)

4. WVM Child Rights Advocate – Deborah Henry in Lebanon

5. Ahmed Bashiir Kahiye – Lost in Translation No More Incitement

The selection for the above list of YouTube videos focus upon two main actors of the

Fugee School which is Deborah Henry and Ahmed Bashiir Kahiye.

Depending on primary data alone are not sufficient to justify the whole research purpose thus a collection of reports from International Non-Governmental

Organization and United Nations agencies to support and validate the content of the interviews conducted between the researcher and his target groups of interviewee.

Literature from past research with keywords of risk society, sub-politics, education, refugees and funnel of causality are presented in appropriate portion of this research reports.

3.5 Analytical Strategies

The data collected are all categorise to allow space for analysis and for a biographical case to be presented. Box 3a is the steps of analysis for a biographical case reconstruction for the interviews suggested by Rosenthal (2004).

General analysis of biographical data – Text and thematic field analysis – Microanalysis of individual text segment – Comparison and contractive of individuals life history and issues addressed

Table 3a: Rosenthal Flow of Analysis for Biographical Case Reconstruction of Interviews (2004)

The qualitative content analysis will be engaged for this research as it emphasis upon the integrated views of speech or text within a specific content as mentioned by

Mayring (2002) where the approach of empirical and methodological controlled analysis of text within a context of communication which followed a content analytic rules and step-by-step model without rash quantification. In addition to it, the volume of qualitative materials supports a qualitative data reduction and sense-making processes to identify meanings and their consistencies (Patton, 2002).

However, depending on the interview content analysis is not sufficient to justify the phenomenon of refugees, government and sub-politics relationship in connection with the efforts towards educations for them. Thus, an extensive approach known as triangulation is employed. At the data collection phase, primary and secondary sources accumulated with the intention to address the issues discuss for this research. Denzin

(1970) and Flick (2007) commented that data triangulation is a process that takes several methodological or theoretical perspectives to establish a connection across the duration of the research. The usage of triangulation approach established the true and certain result with varieties of collected sources. The intention is to illustrate the situation or phenomenon accurately and precisely without the saturation of sources while maintaining the validity of the research.

Triangulation was defined by scholars in different way. Cohen, Manion and Morrison

(2000) pointed that triangulation is an attempt to elaborate the complexities of human behaviour from several standpoint. Altrichter, Feldman, Posch & Somekh (2008) mentioned that the approach provides detailed and balanced picture of a situation or phenomenon. O’Donoghue and Punch (2003) mentioned that triangulation is the approach where cross-checking information from multiple sources were used identify regularities in order to produce accurate result with certainty in connection with the data collection process. Creswell (2008) highlighted the fact that triangulation is used to enhance the accuracy of certain studies. Ndanu and Syombua (2015) mentioned that the approach is commonly known as a research method within the social sciences where two or more method is invoked within a study to validate the results. By using the approach of triangulation, it allows a researcher to be confident in presenting the results to the academic community. Before explaining the usage of triangulation in length, it is important to know the types of triangulation that exist. Denzin (1978) have

68 identified however there are arguments pertaining the amount of triangulation types

(Ndanu & Syombu, 2015). In the articles of Ndanu & Syombu (2015), they identified five types of triangulation in contrast with Denzin (1978) which has four only. The five types of triangulation are data triangulation, investigator triangulation, theory triangulation, methodological triangulation and environmental triangulation. The following table clarifies and elaborates the types of triangulation mentioned.

Types of Triangulation Explanation 1. Data Triangulation The usage of different data sources and information. Suitable for case extension. Easiest to implement. 2. Methodological The usage of multiple qualitative and/or quantitative Triangulation methods. Suitable for phenomenon studies. Method includes: interviews, observation, document analysis or reasonable and practical methods. Requires more resources to conduct studies. 3. Investigator The usage of different investigators to conduct Triangulation studies. Issues to be studied with same qualitative method with different investigators. Findings will be compared. Possible outcomes – If conclusion are uniformed thus validity is achieved. However, if conclusion contradicts thus further studies is required to uncover true and certain findings. 4. Theory Triangulation The usage of multiple professional perspectives to interpret data or information. Selection of professionals preferably from other disciplines. Possible outcomes – as professionals interprets the data or information in an uniform way, it establish the data or information validity. 5. Environmental The usage of different locations, settings and other Triangulation factors in connection with the environments. It is use to identify whether environments effects the data collected. If findings appear to be consistent, it could be established as valid. Suitable for longitudinal studies.

Table 3b: Types and Explanation of Triangulation Approach

Based on the explanation of the type of triangulation, this research utilized methodological triangulation as it fit the data accumulated which consist of focus

69 group interviews, in-depth interviews and the reports pertaining to the issues discussed which further forms the basis for a triangulation data analysis.

The analytical strategies of data triangulation and qualitative interviews analysis aligned itself to the theoretical framework where it attempts to address each layer within the funnel and its specific criteria to exhaust the explanation of cause which subsequently lead to the end purpose of this research and aligned with the objectives outlined for this research. With the above as a guideline for the research analysis, the features from the theoretical framework will serve as the guiding principle to organise and stream the text into their respective theme or groups of analysis. The main component in the analytical phase is to view the case in light of the world risk society theory in connection with the terrorism movement that causes one of the largest displacement that occur in the new millennia. The main theme to be observed is the synergy of sub politics group in delivering critical needs – education from the experience of the people involved in the Fugee School in contrast with the limitation of the government.

CHAPTER FOUR TERRORISM, RISK SOCIETY, AND REFUGEES TRANSITION

4.1 Homeland Problems and Risk Society

This chapter aligned itself with the theoretical framework suggested in chapter two to provide a causal explanation for the phenomenon of instability, conflict, and insecurity in a country which subsequently contributes to the emergence of terrorist attacks on the peoples in Somalia. As this research discussed upon the provision of education thus causal explanation are required to illustrate the problems in the refugee’s homeland, transitional states/host countries. With the situation of accepting countries viewing refugees as risk, the origin of fear and education stagnation are discussed as to illustrate the causal explanation in connection with the problems in their homeland and risk society that take roots from the perceptions of peoples in transitional countries.

The following sub-chapter built on the catalyst of risk society in connection with terrorist activities in Somalia.

4.2 Fear, Cultural Norm, and World Risk Society

Instability and insecurity of country have escalated the presence of armed conflict and deliberate attacks against teachers, students, and educational infrastructure created a barrier for the right to education in connection with protection issue. Educational environment has since become risky in contrast with the norm of school as a safe, secure and protective areas. Mohammeed Azim Karbalai, Director of Planning

Department, Ministry of Education, Kabul mentioned that schools with no proper building or qualified teachers painted the image of insecurity to parents sending their children to schools. The Human Right Watch also reported that the motivation for terrorism on educational institution has devastating effects. The cycle of effects cause stagnation in education with parents feared of sending children to school (children out

71 of school), the teacher is afraid to teach (lack of qualified teachers) and schools are shut down (buildings destroyed out of deliberation) (Human Rights Watch, 2005).

Abdi, Matthews and Yocum (2009) reports mentioned that Somalia education infrastructures weakened along with decades-long of colonial neglect and the outbreak of a civil war in 1990 which contributes to displacement and paralysis of social services. However, this does not justify the fact that education in autonomous part of the countries (Autonomous Republic of Somaliland) is free from illiteracy or access to education despite the existence of a stronger government and expansion of social services. There is an interesting point which could relate to the qualitative interviews that the researcher conducted with the Somalia children and young adolescent that coincides with the reported content that cultural norms and practices contribute to a low access of schooling.

So how does the fear and stagnation of education is related to the formation of the world risk society? According to Ben-Eliezer and Kemp (2008), they’ve connected that the studies on transnational social movements in world risk society inclined to the centrality and effectiveness of two major transformation – the decline of nation-state as the primary source of power and sovereignty along with the emergence of assertive civil society’s sub-politics. The interviews with Mr Shafie of the Fugee school provides insights on the fear factors that causes education stagnation in Somalia. Mr

Shafie is formerly an activist working with civil society and a teacher. He tries to promote peace awareness amongst his people through civil society organization but the initiatives were shortened with the escalating conflict between the government and anti-government movements. He took on the opportunity to the media pipes and reported peoples who are involved with war crimes. I questioned was he being viewed as a threat and he responded:

“Yes, I am viewed as a threat. I continued to report on the activities conducted by the anti-government movements through the media. I will say what has this man done, he is involved with what war-related activities and etc.”

He further added:

“I received death threats. They will send me messages almost every day to stop reporting anything if not they will attack my families. And they said if continue to talk, they will just shut me up.”

Mr. Shafie continues to illustrate his life back in Mogadishu where he went into hiding to avoid being murdered or arrested by the group of peoples sending death threats to him. He discovers that the people who send death threats to him are involved in the shooting of his friends involved with the activism movement that they are doing together. He realized that he needs to flee the country before his time comes where he will be one of the many casualties in Somalia war. Fear forces people out of a certain institution and to the extent leave a country for the fear of their life and their future.

This is the example that shows teacher is afraid to teach because they receive threats.

The procedure to shift from Somalia to Malaysia is a long process and Mr. Shafie is forced to leave his family behind and arrange for his families to follow suit after one year. The decision to flee Somalia and transit into Malaysia instead of neighbouring countries is the facts that Ethiopians aided the war that was happening in the late 2007 and peoples might have perceptions of Somali entering the Ethiopia boundaries which turn into another form of fear factors for him to enter Ethiopia. Above all, he already has a connection in Malaysia which makes the transition easier. He took his flight to

Malaysia with his friend’s assistance. He has the perceptions that Malaysia is a safe country through his classmates in Somalia which fortifies the fact that the consideration to make Malaysia as a destination for refugees.

The interviews between me and the young adolescent group of Fugee school also gave interesting feedbacks on gender and school. Syafa (fictitious) answered the questions regarding her female friends that do not attend school:

“I think it is a cultural thing. Because back in Somalia and most Asian countries, they believed that every girl does not have the right to study. It’s like, first cook and takes care of your family. Then study, no problem. For some they still have that thought saying: You (girls) have no reason to study! Because eventually you’ll get married and that’s it so no point.”

This coincides with the script inside the short movie that the Fugee school have produced for Ikal Mayang ‘Unspoken Truths’ on 2014 entitled A Girl is Half. The opening scene depicts young Somali girls cutting onions while the father asked her to prepare for class however the mother started to reprimand her and the following is the script:

“Iftin, you are not going to escape again. You have to learn to cook and organise yourself. And you (father) encouraging this madness! No, I will not be called ‘useless’ when this one cannot tell the difference between a carrot and a turnip!

It clearly illustrates the lives of modern and conservative parents as well as the importance of education to household management. But the interesting part came in, some boys are actually out of school and with many efforts from me and the other girls within the group, one of the male students stated the ‘ugly truth’:

“I think maybe the reason is… … is at night they will be watching a football match and they stay up until the next morning. School, we have to come at 2 p.m and they will not wake up at 2 p.m. They will be lazy to come to school. And that is what they do. I tried to pull them to school but I know three of my friends are really lazy. They would just walk out of their room and roll on the sofa.”

The gender of a person does not determine the situation of a person attending school or not. It was the social construct and the attitudes of the individual that determine whether a person is interested or appreciates the opportunity that was offered to them.

This sub-chapter have clearly illustrated that wars and terrorism are main contributors to education stagnation with Mr. Shafie as an example of activist and teacher being threatened however the interviews discover the fact that cultural norm also contributed to education stagnation where girls are inferior in Somalia culture and the place a girl could fit in is their own homes. Deborah in her speech titled The future of young refugee under TEDxUTP programme mentioned the refugee's thoughts when they flee:

“Food, water, shelter – these are important for your everyday survival. Education not really, nothing else matter you just need to live day by day.”

This is also another reality that refugees faced when they flee and educational opportunities start to diminish as they only think on surviving. Thus, there are no limitations of arguments on refugees in connection with education stagnation but fear and threats were discussed heavily in past researches.

Within the similar speech, Deborah recognized the fact that refugee situation globally made us realised how borderless the world we live in. She mentioned two things relatable to the world risk society concepts:

“From a security perspective, terrorism. From a disease perspective, the diseases are popping up all over the place as people are moving everywhere.”

But beyond all the perspectives, she mentioned about cultural differences and education. Educational institutions are changing their approaches to allow refugees to gain access to education. This is the contrasting side between chapter four and chapter five where accessibility to education are discussed and go beyond the formal political processes and government procedures which also echoes the efforts of sub-politics groups in Malaysia and how does the transformation in educational institution creates an opportunity for refugee children.

4.3 Refugees Challenges in Transition Country

“How do I feel a bit of normalcy in my life? So this is a tented school where a lot of international organisations are building within the tented settlement of internally displaced peoples.”

The sense of normalcy is questioned here: does building schools in tented areas sufficient to restore the sense of routine or the sense of normalcy to refugee children and young adolescent? Deborah in TEDxUTP reminds us that although there is an approach of providing normalcy into the lives of refugee children however they are still toddlers, they’ve been out of school now for a duration between one to three years which is overwhelming. If the average age of a person as a refugee is 17 years, a person who was refugee since four years old have been robbed of their teenage life – no school life, no chances to enter university and not even graduate since there are not any education, to begin with. She continued saying about this piece of information and relate it with resettlement for refugees where less than one percent of refugees get resettled globally which is alarming. Deborah questioned:

“Why does a suspected over 200,000 refugees come here (Malaysia)? They come here for peace! For peace so that they can escape war, they can escape death and persecution. They stay in Malaysia between two years to a decade, many decades in fact.”

As refugee children and young adolescent found themselves in new surroundings, it poses new challenges for them in order to blend into the culture of a different country.

Following this in mind, two sub-themes emerged in connection with challenges of refugees which is the legal framework and discrimination towards refugees in

Malaysia (governance issues) and learning obstacles (refugee children cognitive development).

4.3.1 Legal Framework and Discrimination towards Refugee in Malaysia

Refugee, undocumented and stateless children in Malaysia are provided education by a range of people from individuals, community groups, faith-based organizations, foundations and Non-Governmental Organization (UNICEF, 2015). It was due to the establishment of learning centers by the mentioned group of people that Malaysia has achieved reduction of out-of-school population significantly from 4% to around 40% between the years of 2006 to 2014 (UNESCO, Global Education Monitoring Report

& UNHCR, 2016:5). However due to the as refugee children and adolescent are not provided free access to primary education, the parallel education system established by the mentioned group leaves undocumented children to complete primary education without recognized certification which stripped off their options to pursue higher education (UNICEF, 2015). The occurrence of this issue is contributed to the fact that since Malaysia is not signatories to either the 1951 Convention on the Status of

Refugees or its 1967 Protocol that led to a situation where the government has no legislative framework to regulate nor deal with refugees which subsequently caused the non-entry to formal education for refugee children and adolescent (UNHCR, 2011,

2013).

Deborah Henry likened the current government as the Pandora Box for they hold the most negative element that pushes the establishment of learning centre around the country. The government instead of helping to achieve one of the eight pillars of the

Millennium Development Goals – Achieve universal primary education, they are creating a hesitant decision which Deborah exaggerate the famous rhyme of three-step forwards two steps back but instead of two, she changed it to five. She questioned whether the convention and protocol relating to refugee would be ratified in the nearest time. She commented no but the following is her humble request:

I am not asking them to ratify the convention but tell them “look you have over a hundredth or a hundredth fifty thousand refugees here, more than that, these are the ones registered with UN and we still have these others, their age group is from this to that. To me is like dude you have to take advantage of the situation of those here. So I am just asking for a little bit of intelligence and a little bit outside of the box to see how to turn this into a positive thing and that is where I am coming from.”

This request highlighted the need for the government to turn something negative such as refugee influx into something positive by leveraging the possible potential these refugees possess. The problem of not providing education extends to uncertainties in future. Mears (2016) reported that as refugees lack legal recognition, it directly translates to a situation where they are sidelined to obtain access to residences, work permits, education, healthcare which equates to the exclusion from the formal economy. Deborah asked us to imagine if the value of Fugee School is multiplied by

150 that equates to 150 schools like them but imagine again if these schools does not exist, the children will have nowhere to go. She said the following emotionally:

By the time they reach 8, 9 and 10, they will be on the streets involving in all sort of rubbish. They become a nuisance and people will begin to say – oh refugees, they are causes of social illness in our country!

It’s apparent that she has her own worries on the upbringing of the refugee children.

Her statement echoed Richard Towle (2017) where he mentioned that the perception of Malaysian Civil Society towards the refugee groups are in two folds. First, they group threaten the Malaysians way of life by bringing diseases, insecurity and criminality as well as competition for employment. Second, refugees are viewed as illegal migrant without any legal rights and were condemned to the lives of insecurity and open for exploitation within the societal economics of grey or black market. This fortifies the opinion of Deborah of imagining without the existence of these schools or learning centre, refugee children and adolescent could grow and become the contributors of social illness in the country.

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) card fraud in

Malaysia has caused the collapse of legitimacy. The fake cards are inexpensive, quick and convenient to get and above all, it looks similar to the genuine ones issued by the

UNHCR (Tasnim, 2016). Although the government or specifically the Immigration

Department are aware of the Somali community in the neighbourhood, the fake card fraud might fuel raids to occur where Deborah describes the raid as follow:

They had the van turn up, they put peoples up into the van. They put women and children in the lorries and then they have to negotiate like – do not take the women and children. But they still detained underage below 18 or those considered as a child, they still detained about three children.

The refugees are still viewed as illegal migrants and with or without the UNHCR cards, they are still subjected to the arrest until verification is conducted between authorities and UNHCR personnel. Deborah Henry extended her opinion by not denying the fact that there are refugees are using fake UNHCR cards however she commented that there is possibility of misuse of the cards among non-refugee such as migrants be it economics or illegal. She speaks strongly against the raids that were going on as follow:

What is the goal with this arrest with this detainment? What is the point? What do you want to achieve? What is your end goal here? Because doing something like that is counterproductive, so they do not like come directly to the school and arrest.

It was apparent that her view on the government agencies raid is unproductive as it was a pretentious act of the agencies. The United Nations have confirmed deaths of refugees in the detention centre since 2015. Around two dozen refugees become the casualties of detention centre but the death toll is higher than reported (Barron, 2017).

In the same report by Barron (2017), it was reported the home ministry did not respond or commented on the issue but instead cited limitation on budgets have triggered to the poor maintenance of facilities. This response clearly echoed Deborah opinion of the government is only capable to sweep problems under the carpet however it does not

79 signal to the solutions of problems. As there are no formal legal frameworks established for refugees thus the problems still linger on and there is a need to address the vacuum that existed regardless of the hierarchy of issues.

The UNHCR is limited to function as reception, registration, status determination and protection under the mandate given to them, however, there are refugees and asylum seeker maintained unregistered and unprotected. Police do not honour protocol by conducting raids routinely, echoing the interview of Deborah is Tenaganita.

Tenaganita reported that they face cases of refugees registered under UNHCR being arrested and the detainee is expected to wait for months before gaining liberties with

UNHCR intervention. The government selective policies also affected the livelihood of the refugees in Malaysia. Immigration Act Section 55 (1) with the introduction of

IMM13 permit released for certain groups or individual. The 2006 Rohingya influx and attempts of the government to introduce IMM13 permits for them are smeared with fraud and corruption believed to be connected with the failure of the government to get UNHCR to coordinate the administration of issuing IMM13 which subsequently led to the halt of issuing the permit after 17 days. The bias also pushes the non- governmental organization to widen the scope of refugee community to receive the permit which empowers refugee to engage in legal employment, enrol their children in public schools and access to public services.

With the failure of IMM13 permit issuance, the access to legal work no longer seems realistic. Mahmood Adam, former Secretary General of the Home Ministry stated:

“Refugees cannot work here, but they can do odd jobs.”

Refugees are recruited to work in built and agriculture industries, there are also refugees that worked as servers and dishwasher in the service industry aligned with

80 the odd jobs as mentioned by the Secretary-General. However, the action of allowing the refugees to do odd jobs instead of legal jobs have created the situation where refugees are required to work in dangerous and abusive conditions. In Trapped – The

Exploitation of Migrant Workers in Malaysia by Amnesty International (2010: 34), one leader of a refugee community described the working condition of a steel factory in Penang:

“The wages are 15 ringgit daily and workers are not paid any wages. Workers are not paid any wages for the first three months. Therefore, if they stopped working within the first three months, they would not get any wages. This did happen quite often when people left because of the bad condition.”

“The workers were not allowed to leave the factory at all, not even to buy provisions. The employers and relatives are always present and prevent the workers from leaving. They (employer) also use guard dogs to prevent people from entering the areas. The factory owners’ relatives would come to the factory to sell things including vegetables, but all at higher prices that available outside which leaves the worker without any option but to buy products from them.”

The situation illustrated by the refugee leader clearly painted the image of an opportunistic and scheming employer that operates without sympathy and exploits the workers of their financial and physical freedom within a depressing workspace. It is not only the matter of exploitation but discrimination where refugee workers are under the eyes of their employer at all time.

4.3.2 Learning Obstacles and Harsh Daily Reality

The effects of displacement towards children and caregivers are immense with exposure to trauma and disrupt family structures. Within foreign social structures, refugee’s relocation is an additional stress where the families need to adapt. This complex dynamic leads a child to enter new learning environment which involves multiple transitions from family, friendship, school, community, language, culture, and identity (Correa-Velez, Gifford & Barnett, 2010). The adaptability of a refugee is

81 challenged and the situation of transition is real from the experience of a refugee –

Ahmed. He illustrates his situational problems when he first arrived in Malaysia.

“So my first year in Malaysia, the problem that I faced. No friends. Imagine the first time I arrive in Malaysia, that is the time I become a refugee. Imagine I left all my friends back in Somalia. I have no friends in Malaysia at that time. I could not speak English. No relatives. And no Somalis in the building. There I came to a new country no friend, cannot speak English, no relative, no Somalis in the building”.

As Ahmed found difficulties to blend into local cultures and the boundaries of language. Deborah has her share of stories regarding the experience of teaching refugee children in the early stage. She draws upon the experience teaching the children back in 2009 where she coming from a background not related with education, she approached the children by giving them coloured papers and crayon to draw and have fun. However, she found something that made her dumbfounded – she was struggling to make the children put pen to paper. Previous studies have yielded results that teachers were presented with challenges where refugee youth as they are illiterate in the host countries dominant language, having traumatic experience and being pushed into forced migration as well as having difficulty of trust towards authority

(Brown, Miller, & Mitchell, 2006; Dooley, 2009; Ferfolja & Vickers, 2010; Hones,

2007; Miller, 2009). Ahmed shared his experience of coming to Malaysia without prior education and the language barrier he has with local children and youth.

I came down and I see some Malaysian boys playing football in the downstairs building. And I was like they are playing football and I like football, why do not you join with them and play with them? Then I got closer to the court, the futsal. And then I realized that they could not speak Somali, I could not speak English. So how am I going to ask them – I want to play with you guys.

The situation forces him to communicate with his own way to be able to play the game he loved. He questioned himself and found the answer to communicate through body language. It was through these little decisions that proof refugees are not a failure and

82 are creative at the required time. However it is undeniable that difficulty in learning and developing English literacy skill were contributed by the limited levels of literacy in their native or dominant language (Brown et al., 2006; Cummins, 1996, 2001;

Cummins & Schecter, 2003).

Although past research has shown that children and youth of refugee backgrounds required unique learning needs due to the trauma they have experienced (Brown et al.,

2006; Kanu, 2008; Stewart, 2011). But the fieldwork yielded opposite results when interviewing Deborah Henry whether there are any students from the school have a traumatic experience, her response did not reflect the situation as described by another researcher. Although her earlier video illustrates the situation where children are traumatized by not only the conflicts that occur in their country of origin but also the process of migration has intensified the traumatic experience. The following is her statement in two videos:

Of course 8 years ago when I started the school and garnered all the refugee, I did not realize for a lot of this kids it’s a very traumatic experience. They go through something that was unimaginable for us.Millions of people have to flee their homes, run away from everything they have. Their lives, their homes, their valuables. They lose family member, people die around them. They witness war, they witness conflict. They need everything, they have a very, very traumatic experience.

During the interviews, the researcher takes the chance on questions about traumatic children in school, Deborah after working with refugees for years has different answers but she did not exclude the fact that she was careful initially.

Not so much (traumatic students). And one thing here is that they do not talk about it so much. In the beginning, I was very careful and all that, but then no one ever seems to … either they talk candidly about what had happened like chattering away or they just do not really talk about it. I believe there are students who get stressed and sleeps at night and all they could dream about is – I want to go to America, I want to go to America! I want to be resettled; I do not want to be here… you know. That’s trauma.

Initially, the research was influenced by the level of traumatic experience of children that might be of difficulties for any sub-political group to assist however the response of traumatic is the dream of being resettled in another country mainly for the reason that they do not want to be here which literally reflects the legal framework and policy making that Malaysia is lacking to provide refugee protection and access to public facilities.

The body of literature work reporting on the importance of the education for refugee youth and families are consistent (Kanu, 2008; Rummens & Dei, 2010; Rummens,

Tilleczek, Boydell, & Ferguson, 2008; Stermac, Elgie, Dunlap, & Kelly, 2010; Stewart,

2007, 2011). However, these situations are only possible only those who have resettled and transitioned in their host countries as past research are mostly in Canada which is one of the resettlement countries. As mentioned, in Malaysia, refugees are not granted access to education and only recently were reserved for the Syrian refugees thus creating a two-tier refugee management system.

So what happened to refugees who cannot access education? Deborah Henry in one of her talks highlighted the transformation of educational institutions that allow refugees access to education. As Anthony Lake, United Nation Children’s Fund (UNICEF)

Executive Director explained in How Conflict in the Middle East is Depriving

Children of their Schooling reports (UNICEF, 2015) a school is a place for learning and opportunities which heals and restores health as well as providing normalcy and hope for the future in the face of violence and instability. With the transformation of an educational institution, it will enable refugees to feel comfortable and continue some normalcy by completing their education despite the turmoil happening in their countries.

As Malaysia is never “responsible” for the effects of catastrophe and viewed itself as non-World Risk Society member thus proven that out of the formal political structure, sub-politics group emerge to demand changes. The World Risk Society thesis where

Beck (1995) quoted the works of Hannah Arendt which informs us that risk politics resemble the most tyrannical form of all power because nobody would be held responsible in this situation. The risk that occurs uncovers the bureaucracies and alarmed the public on the existence of a form of organized irresponsibility. Within this notion, the government literally relinquished their power to the bottom which echoed reflexive regulation where government responsibilities were transferred to the community or shared responsibility but within the context of this research, we shall only focus the provision of providing education to people that were the main theme of research invoke here. Agents of different background gather to form a supposing sub- politics movement to determine the way of planning, implementing and monitoring the efforts of the supposed movements.

While education for refugee is not provided by the Malaysian government, individuals like Deborah Henry worked with friends, families and the refugee communities to deliver educational supports for refugee children and youth. Formerly when Deborah is managing the school with her team, they were in ad-hoc. The following is the situation as illustrates in her talks:

When Fugee school first started, we were ad hoc. We did not know what we were doing – random syllabus, random exams. We were using a band-aid strategy – we have a cut, we place a band-aid on it. But we were not dealing with the crux of the problem. We know, we knew, we could not continue these efforts, we could not continue making mistakes like this and we realized that we had to partner together with the right education institutions who were willing, who had the desire to say – Look! We want to ensure that these children and these refugee youth have access to education, have access to learning and we’re going to, we’re going to shake things up.

This was also fortified further when the researcher asked about strategies in managing schools for refugee and she admitted to the flaws they have before as follow:

To be honest, when we started Fugee School, we do not have any strategy at all. We were two younger women who basically were thinking the situation about the kids and said – no, these kids must get an education! This is not acceptable, let's do something. So we stumbled along, we did not have a plan and we do not know what are we doing. And both of us are not in education. Of course fast forward, six years later, we recognized that there are processes, structure and management.

Through these processes, it also supports the fact that sub-politics group’s handles issue within their capacity in all areas and fields of action applicable in a society (Beck,

1997). In addition to handling issues, it is also important to reconnect to the situation where government negligence and blind sighting the issues – it fuelled the mobility of sub-politics group (Beck, 1995, 2003, 2005) and the idea of subpolitisation is the renaissance of a political participation in the new form of political culture (Beck, 2003).

Despite challenges of the legal framework and learning difficulties as well as the problematic start-up of a school for refugees, community learning centre such as Fugee

School was able to exist. However, upon discussing the legal status of refugee children and their learning difficulties, the gap of certified learning are not addressed appropriately in past researches.

As a sub-politics group that advocates on educational issues relating to refugee. Their intention was clear which is:

“We want to ensure that these children and these refugee youth have access to education, have access to learning and we’re going to, we’re going to shake things up. We’re going to do what we have to do so that these refugee kids can go to a school that we’ve embarked on a new education path, not restricted and not limited by traditional constraints and by policy.”

Although there are plans to break through the walls of policy and traditional constraint.

The boundaries maintained where certified learning are not available and refugee

86 children attend school for basic education without proper qualification which could potentially create problems for the future of a refugee in a resettlement country. I’ve consulted the Northeast District Education Office whether refugees are allowed to take the standardized examination as a private candidate to access their competency in education but as of the year 2015, Malaysian standardized examination is no longer allowed for students without proper identification documents. As government limits the access to standardized examination, I approached Deborah and asked whether the students of Fugee school undertake any standardized examination and she responded that there is an arrangement to send the teenage refugees for international examination where the refugees need to study and accumulate their own saving to allow it to be arranged. Thus, there is a need for certified education which empowers them to have the qualified skills to get employed or further studies instead of being held back for not having a piece of the certificate.

Education aside, the speech of Deborah in Voice of the Children during the Launching of Stateless: Forgotten Children Documentary have called upon the Malaysian community to come together despite the complexities we are facing. She mentioned:

“We all know our world is complex and our 1Malaysia is just as complex. But what is the point of thinking big? What is the point of unity and togetherness of these individuals (refugee/stateless children) cannot get our one on one relationship?”

Her words asked us to reflect on the lives of the refugees, our relationship with refugees and she continued:

“If our idea of unity is simply tolerance, putting up with something or someone, then that’s a very dangerous place to be. Do we know how to treat one another with love, with respect, with honour, with kindness and a favour? How do we treat someone of a different race, religion, and background and should we even need to ask ourselves these questions.”

The following chapter will further examined the programs from the school and the issues of maintaining the schools as well as to examined the work of reflexive regulation of educational institutions in Malaysia and as to what extent the sub-politics group are able to achieve out of the formal political structures within the World Risk

Society thesis and the times of reflexive modernization.

4.4 Connecting the Dots: Terrorism as Risk towards Refugee Educational

The discussion of risk as mentioned in the literature includes the axes of conflict which were differentiate by Beck (2002) into three which were ecological conflict, global financial crises and emergence of global network post 9/11 event. It was the non- territorial nature of the risk poses a threat to the contemporary society. Risk is also an accumulative body of activities related to issues which could potentially harm the peoples which includes nuclear, ecology, financial, military, terrorism, biochemical and information. The mentioned body of activities directed towards the reactions of people which are denial, apathy and transformation. The reaction taken by refugee could fall within the cracks of apathy and transformation through the analysis of data.

The findings compiled within this chapter illustrated the sorrows and plight of the refugees which subsequently contributed to the apathy reaction of the children. The respondents – Deborah Henry and Mary Henry both were shocked. Deborah was shocked with the children incapability and apathy reaction towards colours and creativity. Mary is equally critical when it comes to the syllabus created by UNHCR for the children to study. Her voice echoed through this research to call upon the appropriate syllabus for refugee children:

“Look at this book (showing booklet for teaching purpose by UNHCR). It is dull, there is no colour. These children are out of this dangerous place and you (UNHCR) give them this?! Please do not tell UNHCR I show you these.”

The connection of terrorism is apparent where it effect the children and young adolescent capabilities as terrorism activities destroyed their dreams by destroying schools and threatening the teachers and staff. Whist the families of refugee transition into the country, the effects of conflict and terrorism shadowed over them where the children and young adolescent despite being exposed to a new environment which allows cognitive and creative growth to take roots. Terrorist have a track record for not only turning schools into their personal “playground” but they were also known to threaten teachers by not allowing them to teach Westernized syllabus and limiting their voices of retaliation to reached the outside world.

However, it is important to note that although terrorism related risk is identified through past literature as to why education is limited in Somalia but there are other factors which makes refugees children and young adolescent lose interest in education.

The data collected through interviews with the young adolescent have indicated that the culture and social norm of the traditional Somali positioned women in their homes and only limited to household chores. Interestingly, the boys despite being given opportunities to receive education, some decided to sleep after watching football matches in the wee hour of the day. This established the fact that despite opportunities, it depends on an individual choices to indulge into education or wasting their time and being illiterate. Thus, illustrating the realities of refugee lives through the glasses of risk society axes of conflict which includes terrorist activities have magnified the situation of stunned education and the dull minds of refugee children and young adolescent which lack positive cognitive development.

CHAPTER FIVE SUB-POLITICS AGAINST GOVERNMENT: PERCEPTION, DECISION AND REACTION

5.1 Perceptions, Decisions and Reaction

As the chapter heading suggested, this chapter align itself with the appropriated funnel of causality and attempt to make sense of the data collected (interviews and reports) in order to illustrate the perceptions, decisions and reaction of both the government and the sub-politics group selected for this research. The perception echoes the position of both government and sub-politics which taken into consideration of a framework to decide the fate of refugees. The decision, therefore, extends to reactions from actor of both axes – government and sub-politics group. The following are the arrangement for this chapter which aligned to the funnel of causality proposed for this research.

Perceptions of the different axis of people which is between the sub-politics and the government present the harsh reality of the world against refugees.

5.2 The Sub-Politics against the Government

“We talk about food, water and shelter as being the basics for survival. That without these you will die. But honestly, in today’s world, a life without education is setting someone up for failure. I am talking about basic education. They are children in Malaysia and if they cannot even spell their names that is unacceptable.”

Deborah Henry has painted an image of basic education in Malaysia for refugees that should not be blinded by any individuals and these are the problems faced by the growing population of refugees in transitional countries worldwide. During the in- depth interview session with Deborah Henry, her opinion circling around the term of stakeholders such as the parents of refugees, the local community, the teachers and the founder of the Fugee School founded by her, Shikeen Halibullah and Shafie Mohamad.

She related the government hesitance to be part of the signatory of the United Nation instruments for Refugees which were highlighted in several reports. One particular minister in the Prime Minister’s Department, Datuk Seri Shahidan Kassim commented on the government lenient stance by allowing refugees to seek refuge and living in

Malaysia which spiralled to an uncontrolled situation. He further relates that refugees are the main problems in Cameron Highlands and Perlis as they have rough attitudes.

Above all, the minister takes one step further to ask the United Nation whether the organization have any intention to stop giving out refugee identification card with an assumption that migrants from war-torn (Palansamy, 2015).

In an interview with Prestige July 2015 issue on the social cause, Deborah Henry mentioned these interesting remarks that juxtapose the ministers’ opinion:

“Lots of people would say that when you have problems in your own backyard, why not focus on that first? But I do not believe there is a hierarchy of issues when it comes to what’s important.”

Her remarks on the hierarchy of issues certainly reflect the current government situation where there is an inconsistency on refugees issue and resolutions are based upon the pressing human rights situation. As the issues of Syrian refugee escalated in

2015, Al-Jazeera has reported Malaysia government to assist Syrian refugees while other refugees of another background namely, Somali, Myanmar-Chin and others to continue living in limbo. Prior to this Human Right Watch (2014) have also reported that Malaysia government have breached the principle of non-refoulement in connection with the government decision to return three person (two as refugees and one in the process to claim refugee status) to Sri Lanka. This is the fear of the government in accepting the risk and these refugees suffered under the hands of the authority.

The decision within the sub-politics lens is where previously unpolitical decisions become political (Beck, 2003). The decision of refugees’ education for Syrian refugee in Malaysia proof to have a political influence as the former Prime Minister of

Malaysia – Najib Razak has promised in the October United Nations General

Assembly to allow the entry of 3,000 Syrian migrants and granting them jobs and education opportunities (Channel NewsAsia, 2015). This contradicts with the

Malaysia government stance for they have not signed any convention related to refugees namely the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967

Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees which literally translate to a situation that the refugees are identified illegal immigrants where they are not allowed to work or send their children to school. However, with the promise given, Lia Syed, Head of the

Malaysian Strategic Research Institute fears that the divide of refugees might cause chaos as one group of people have more rights than others (Mayberry, 2015). When probing upon the role of the government, Deborah Henry responds as follow:

They are like the question mark stakeholder. I mean the government we all know when it comes about refugee, the government is not a signatory, the role the government played is much passive because they have this mindset of – we let you exist and we do not kacau (disturb) you, that’s good enough.

Through the worries of the public and experts and the response to the interviews, it clearly points out the fact that the government are not consistent in their decision making and stance which subsequently cause a two-tier refugee management system as mentioned by Mayberry (2015) in her report. Further building on the case where the issue of unpolitical decisions becomes political is Alice Nah, lecturer of the Centre for

Applied Human Rights, the University of York in Mayberry (2015) respond that

Malaysia government despite having the will to provide refugee protection, they prefer to provide the protection within their own term and were selective while picking the group of people they intended to provide protection. Reflecting upon the statement of

Beck (1995) regarding the collapse of power, legitimacy and credibility of a governing institution, the situation led to the emergence of sub politicisation. Subpoliticized society is a civil society that handles the issue with their capacity in all areas and fields of action applicable in a society (Beck, 1995). The intensification of a sub-politic society is mainly contributed to the fact that distrust in political and corporate actors existed (Beck, 1995, 2003, 2005). Deborah Henry emphasis during the interview that

Fugee School is doing a job that the government is not doing for education alongside healthcare are essential services provided by the government. She said:

Essentially we are doing a job that they are not doing. If I ask you to put a dollar value on these facilities, our monthly cost, the financial cost plus the cost to the community, we are educating them – they are not Malaysian but they are living in Malaysia. They are interacting with Malaysian on the street. The dollar cost – these kids who could be on the street are now in the classroom. What is the cost of that, the value? So if you want to put a dollar cost on this entire facility running then we are providing this country with a service.

As mentioned by Beck (1995), sub politicized society as a civil society that handles the issue with their capacity in all areas and fields of action applicable in a society.

With the situation of refugees not addressed appropriately, Deborah commented as follow:

At the end of the day, when the government do not do stuff, you end up with what do you call that cultural innovation, you ended up with individuals like me, individuals like us, who starts an initiative on our own. And we make stuff happen. I am Malaysian but I feel like I am the citizen of the world. I am a champion of humanity.

This above statement transitioned us to understand that the sub-politics emerge within the thesis of World Risk Society – reflexive modernity theory. Risk and dangers are manufactured by industry, externalized by economics, individualized by the legal system and legitimized by the science and politics made it appear harmless to the public. The power, legitimacy and credibility of institutions crumble at the emergence

93 of risk politics that put the institution on the spot. This process led to the elements of sub politicization of world society (Franklin, 1997).

The researcher took a chance and questioned Deborah the difference of leadership and reflecting on the asylum policy during the leadership of the late Tun Haji Abdul Razak bin Hussein. Her opinion was that the current government leadership was weak and they work in a measured reaction where the problem is thrown at them and straight to the solution. Without doing an analysis of issues, the solution will not serve any purposes as the roots of the problem are not addressed appropriately. She added leaders should be capable of making a tough decision that maybe people will not understand nor agrees and to the extent of being appreciated.

She voiced out her opinion as follow which undermine the government capabilities:

And you still need to deal with it and that’s the point here, a refugee is just one of the topics. There are still so many things going. You need to deal. People are just brushing their side and they said let's do not talk about it. It’s not dealing and you are telling me now with so many intelligent minds and educated and experienced mind in our government in which I started to doubt but nobody can sit in a roundtable and talk about policy, think about the active solution?

She questioned and doubted the capabilities of the “intelligent, educated and experienced mind” within the government to address the issue appropriately especially in terms of refugee protection and access to public facilities and services. As simple modernization evolves into reflexive modernization, it goes to the extent that releases themselves from the illusion of the ready-made premises. Through this process, it led to the undermining of every aspect of the nation state from the welfare, legal system, national economy, the connected corporatist system and the parliamentary democracy which governed the whole of the nation-state (Beck, Bonss & Lau, 2003). Deborah cited Bono:

Our world today, we have the resources, we have the money, we have the intelligence, we have the technology, we have the know-how, just solve the problem. But the only thing that we do not have is the political will and the will of humanity because everyone has an agenda.

There is a purpose to discuss the government decision to not allow to work legally which subsequently lead to exploitation of refugee worker as it spirals down to the situation where without any financial strength, education is a far away dream for some of the refugee children. As Deborah said in her speech for Incitement KL titled

Building Communities that Matter:

“Millions of people have to flee their homes, run away from everything they have. They lose a family member. They witness war, they witness conflict. They need everything. It’s just like forcing us to flee Malaysia and you are not welcome anywhere else.”

We could not deny the fact that refugees are burden to a country but considering the fact that they are traumatized by the experience of witnessing war and conflict, the obligation is aligned with Thomas Christiano (2015) opinion on duties of the international community are to cooperate and provide a safe and welcoming space for refugee resettling. However, Deborah continued:

“You look at Malaysia, the case of Malaysia, there are unwelcomed settlers in our country, and they are here. No one wants them to be here.”

The government as illustrated in chapter four have echoed the opinion of Deborah. The current government are indecisive, biased and lack of proper structures and policies which could cater to the need of the refugees that view Malaysia as a safe haven and transition country. The discrimination towards refugees are immense as reported in chapter four and the focus are on adult refugee but the lack of causal explanation on the discrimination towards education is the point where clarification is critically needed. Thus, following the speech of Deborah, it provides a linking that one could hardly deny:

“They are handicapped because as an adult they cannot work. So they are not allowed to formally have any legal employment. As a parent, you cannot provide for your family. You feel unproductive when you do nothing. Can you earn money? No. Can you provide? No. Can you send your kids to school? No.”

Every door that a refugee knock on was slammed right onto their face. During the interview with Deborah, she mentioned about decision making which connected to the situation at hands and reflected the government decision to have their back towards the problem instead of dealing with the problems heads on.

“It seems you have a problem and sweeping it under a carpet does not make the problem go away. There is still a lot of dust to clean up. And you still need to deal with it and that’s the point here, a refugee is just one of the topics…… people are just brushing their side and they said let’s do not talk about it.”

The incapability of the refugee to work and without any formal documents have limited their children access to education. This situation according It clearly shows her opinion and disappointment towards the government negligence on refugees issue and the inconsistent attitude of the government to accommodate and assist refugee in

Malaysia. Thus, there is a motivation for subpolicization to emerge.

5.3 Institutional Decisions on Refugees

The sub-politics group and the government have a different perception on refugees. It was apparent that the government view refugee as a risk for the government has labelled them as irregular or illegal migrants and their actions of detaining and abusing them in detention centre proofs that the government does not take refugee issues as a priority. However, there are some situations that illustrate that the government does not have a firm stance on the issues regarding refugees. For example, the agreement to receive 3,000 Syrian refugees was announced in the United Nation General Assembly which includes the government efforts to provide them shelter, employment opportunities and even education. So what is special about the Syrian refugees over

150,00 refugees with different nationalities are still living in limbo without proper

96 employment and access to education are still made unavailable for them. The

Malaysian government is also selective in providing assistance to refugees or certain nationalities. Aside from receiving Syrian refugees and providing assistance to them, the government also designed scheme to provide employment opportunities in selected companies of the agriculture and manufacturing sectors which could provide the skills and financial support for them before being relocated to another country for resettlement (Prem Kumar, 2017).

However, the assistance for refugees seems to be contradictory to the actions and perception of the government. Defence Minister of Malaysia, Datuk Seri

Hishammuddin Hussein identified refugees as a risk when he perceived the movement of refugees from Iraq and Syria as a plan to establish a new Kawasan Islamiyyah or known as Islamic militant zone within the South East Asian region (Ismail, 2016). The

Malaysian Trade Union Congress (MTUC) commented on the government intention of granting employment opportunities for refugees to companies that intend to hire refugee. MTUC President, Abdul Halim Mansor perceived that refugees that were employed will resettle in Malaysia instead of repatriating or resettle elsewhere due to legal loopholes (Tan, 2017). However, the law has an emphasis that refugees have no legal rights in Malaysia nor do they have access to public education and healthcare so the issue of legal loophole could not be established.

However, Malaysia Employers Federation (MEF) is quick to differ and responded that the intention of employing refugees over foreign workers is worthy of consideration as a much-unemployed refugee are frequently involved with social problems. MEF

Executive Director Shamsuddin Bardan second the opinion for he believes refugees without employment in a country could potentially lead them to commit crimes which happened to be the current scenario. He continued with the population of refugee in

Malaysia amounting to 145,000 persons instead of hiring a foreign worker, it is easier to employ the person in the country. He also suggested that flexibility should be injected into designing current policy for employment and decreases our dependency towards importing foreign worker and to date, two million legal foreign workers have flooded Malaysia. As refugee is perceived as a risk, it is important for the government to conduct due diligence on the refugee employed to prevent any abused by opportunistic migrants.

As mentioned before the research focus upon the educational provision, thus it is important to scrutinize the role sub-politics have done against the backdrop of

Malaysian stance on the educational provision for a refugee. Since Malaysia is not a signatory to the United Nation Refugee Convention thus refugee children and young adolescent similar with adults are labelled as illegal migrants where it throws them a dysfunctional card to access government-funded school in Malaysia. The alternatives for the refugees are informal learning centres and education projects facilitated and run by UNHCR in partnership with non-governmental organisations (NGO) or community-based classes organized by the community with the support of NGO

(Azizan, 2017). For an instance, while local students are ready for school, it is not the same situation with community-run school. In news reports, it highlighted a Rohingya

Arakanese Refugee Committee run school that caters to 100 Rohingya children in

Ampang, Kuala Lumpur is having financial difficulties to pay rentals, teacher or even purchase study materials for students. This dilemma is also shared with 26 other

Rohingya refugee learning centres in Malaysia.

Deborah provides her experience of turning something negative into positive. She understood that no countries in the world want to be flooded with refugees but neither do people wanted to be refugees and flee to some foreign land. Refugees took such

98 measures out of necessities which is much like a life and death situation. Deborah motivation is clear to make Malaysian a destination, not a place that people dread hearing off as she commented:

“My personal feeling is I am Malaysian and I do not want these people when they get resettled and think about their time in Malaysia as it was horrible, you know nobody helped us, no one cared, no one this, no one that.”

It was this pure intention that she is committed to delivering aid to refugees:

“I want them to think about their time here and be like WOW. Wow, I remember Malaysia with a positivity, is a fond memory. I learnt and I grew and I developed. And I got something good.”

The sub-politics institution for this research – Fugee school faced obstacle along the years while dealing with the issues related to children and young adolescent from refugee background gaining access to education. The first hurdle she and her team have to go through is cultural differences. She mentioned the environment as follow:

“It’s a huge cultural difference, you are working not just with the same communities – I do not understand, I do not come from where they come from, I do not have experience that they have, nothing! The only thing we have in common is we are human and we all want to have a good life and provide for ourselves.”

Her intention is to understand and provide services to the refugee but there is a communication barrier that is required to be addressed. She quoted her professor at a university in the interview with Prestige:

“The biggest reason project failed is because of the lack of communication or cross-cultural dialogue. I come in thinking this is what you need and you come in thinking that’s what you need and we never really see eye to eye.”

In the interviews between me and Deborah, she puts back the pieces which fortify the need of cross-cultural dialogue and communication to ensure the educational provision provided by the sub-politics group are aligned with the needs of the refugees. She mentioned:

“We are providing a service, educational service but there needs to be a communication, open communication between both parties. I would need to be willing to ask them what you would want, how can I help you, do you like this/do you not like this. And they will have to come and tell me – Deborah, I do not like this, can you do this better and etc or this is how we can help you. Those channels need to be opened.”

Deborah emphasis the need for communication to be established across the interview session.However, the challenge is not limited to just opening the channel. There are three challenges she and her team faced in connection with the refugees – language, lack of education and conservative. Beyond all these challenges, she admitted that it is challenging but she learns every day communicating with them.

Despite all the challenges, Deborah has always hoped for something which is appreciation.

“So for us to come in and say Okay! Education for your children, yes, we think they should be like yeay and kiss our feet? Of course not. … … I guess my comment when they did not appreciate it meant children need to appreciate all the stuff.”

It was clear during the interviews, Deborah wanted to restore normalcy into the lives of children’s and young adolescent of refugee backgrounds by injecting the essence of appreciation for thing given to them and have ownership over it with a relatively low school fees. Teachers and parents need to be mindful and understand that children need to be taught on how to appreciate things although it is impossible to run from the fact that children are children and we cannot expect them to think like an adult. This was the chances that Deborah takes to mention how all the stakeholders are part of a jigsaw puzzle where all come together to form a complete image.

5.4 Learning, Capacity Building and Empowerment

Why are we talking about sub-politics group efforts if we do not see the results? The following is the compilation of transcription done upon speeches of Deborah Henry

100 released on Youtube and interviews conducted with the children and young adolescent of the school. Education in its own capacity is able to shine a ray of hopes to children and young adolescent of refugee’s background. As Deborah mentioned once in her speech:

“Without hope, what life is there to live?”

There is a roadblock on the path of refugees to obtain proof of learning achievements or appropriate certification. Graca Machel (2001) mentioned

“Education, especially literacy and numeracy, is precisely what girls need during and after armed conflict in order to prepare adolescent girls to take on new roles and responsibilities which they are obliged to take upon in face on conflict situation.”

As the Ministry of Education in Malaysia has not taken any proactive approaches in providing thus the dependence on refugees on charitable education institution stemmed from the sub-politics group is relatively higher. Although Kirk (2009) highlighted the

Minimum Standards in the education of emergencies and post-emergencies reflected that it is the primacy of government for they hold responsibility for the children’s right to quality education. However, he acknowledges there could be a gap in educational provision where the international and national organization could address to ensure the continuity of educations for children and young adolescent. The limitations of the international and national organization to address the issues regarding the educational provision for refugees, however, are from a non-governmental organization working together with international agency, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.

Thus the gap is not only limited for the mentioned entity (international and national organization) but it runs deep at the individual level and refugee community themselves to form synergy in delivering educational provision to children’s and young adolescent of refugee’s background.

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Through the programmes carried out by Fugee school, it is important to note the facts that aside formal educational programmes, workshops in and out of the school provides refugee students with the opportunities to gain exposure in understanding the world. Despite the rocky start in the earlier stage of setting up the school, the Fugee school have reached a milestone since then. Deborah and her team acknowledged the need of processes, structure and management. Tad Walch (2017) have reported that we are engulfed with the dark clouds of the Great Humanitarian Crisis with the United

States cutting off an estimated 50% of funding assistance to the United Nation which equates to an estimated 5 billion US dollar to famine and refugee relief. The budget cut from the year 2015 and 2017 are different but across the years, the spectrum of support being cut off is increasing with the limitation of food rations and closure of clinics (decrease in refugee reliGrant, 2015) to decrease of famine relief and beyond that decrease in refugee relief (Walch, 2017).

However, the phenomenon of financial cut from the United Nation is not a new phenomenon. As reported in Steiner, Gibney and Loescher (2003) Problems of

Protection: The UNHCR, Refugees, and Human Rights – the dependency of a non- governmental organization towards UNHCR is not sustainable and has its own drawbacks. Since the end of 2000, budgets were cut down and some refugee programmes managed by the non-governmental organization are impacted by it. In

Bolivia, the Centro de Estudios Especializados Sobre Migration (CESEM) which is one of the longest-running refugee programmes was forced to shut down. With the budget cut-down, the sub-politics would need to think of alternatives to solve their problems on any shortcoming.

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The output that was produced by the Fugee School focuses on capacity building and according to Practical Guide to Capacity Building as a Feature of UNHCR

Humanitarian Programmes by Furley and Otsea (1998:3):

“Capacity building implies the reinforcement of human, institutional or community performance, skills, knowledge and attitudes on a sustainable basis.”

Despite the emphasis of UNHCR on capacity building that was aimed to be carried out in a sustainable matter, the fact that budget cut-down is weakening the system however for Deborah Henry when questioned upon the UNHCR sessional meeting with a sub- politics group that focuses on the educational provision for refugee children’s, she answered:

“I saw people complaining to UNHCR that they need this and they need that. Come on, people. If you want to wait for UNHCR assistance, it will be for a very long time.”

It was clear to Deborah and her team that the status quo of the UNHCR on fundings are limited and they needed to find alternatives to solve the problems. She was also frustrated with the sessional meeting as illustrated below:

“That is what frustrated me so much like urghh… What am I doing here? Like what’s the point? Do I come here and complain and talk and talk and nothing happens?”

She mentioned about the challenges in providing educations for refugee children and young adolescent. However, she highlighted the fact that everybody will face challenges and it depends on the individuals and their organization to handle it. She responded that Fugee School is proactive in searching for the private sector to establish networking, fundraising and basically doing what is within their capacity to fix any shortcoming.

Deborah talked about the need for survival for refugees,

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“In development work, we always talk about the things we need for survival. You can survive a week or so without foods but without water you are gonna die in a couple of days.”

However, she argued that education is a basic need of survival. Filippo Grandi of the

UNHCR echoed the fact that Deborah has mentioned about the duration of refugee children spends in transition country which is an average of twenty years. He stresses that twenty years is beyond an entire childhood which equates to a person’s productive working years significant portion which makes it critical for us to think beyond a refugee basic survival that includes only food, clothes and shelter. Deborah highlighted the lack of education in her speech,

“Without education, it may not be a physical death. But it’s a very slow painful death. And without an education, without an access to education for children, instead of setting them up for success, we’re setting them up for failure.”

Refugee faced various adversity however we should acknowledge the fact that they have skills, ideas, hopes and dreams which was magnified through the Refugee

Olympic Team where they showed resilience, toughness and creativity to reach for their own destinies which chances should be given to them. He echoed once again the opinion of Deborah by mentioning that education capacitates children and youth not only to the extent of surviving but thrives for themselves.

5.4.1 Certified Learning and Educational Institution Policy Shift

As mentioned in chapter four in connection with certified learning, this research explained on the government unwillingness to provide refugee children access to the formal educational framework. This strengthens the will of the Fugee school founder to discuss and provide alternatives for her students to gain access to formal education institution to gain certification which would further enhance the skills of the students and assist them in gaining an edge over others. For examples, Deborah in her speech

104 highlighted two students Nawa and Ahmed where both are identified as great students that perform highly and with great potential. She continued:

“She (Nawa) started off just like the other kids in the school. You know, did not pretty much speaks English, pretty much shut down, nothing will spill out when-when you speak to her.”

The situation might have seemed similar to any other refugee children and young adolescent. However for Nawa, being a girl and aged beyond 15 and entering school, she faced adversities attending classes as the Somali culture bear the norms of insignificant and unnecessary education for girls. Nawa was forced to quit school for one term and was discovered working in DVD shop where Deborah does not want her to be a lost cause which made her attempt stopping her to sell DVD and persuade her to return to school. Deborah further features Nawa in a write-up on Marie Claire website where she mentioned that the arrangement of Nawa to work in DVD shop is normal for the parents as they subscribe to the cultural norm in Somalia where girls education are least important. Ntiri (1987) stated that women are taught to believe that family is their ultimate achievement and women are behind man in educational attainment. This phenomenon could be related with Nagira Consultants Limited (2016:

14) findings on the low access of education based on gender and three of which are strongly related to gender are early forced marriage, cultural barrier (gender preference) and illiteracy or negative attitude of parents towards girls education in Somalia. Thus, strengthening the fact that although refugees migrate from one place to another but some maintain their cultural norm and belief which subsequently led to a phenomenon of lost generation.

As Nawa was persuaded to leave her job in the DVD shop, she strives harder where

Deborah shared in her speech:

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“She works so hard, she is a mentor in the school. She was buddy and volunteer at the school. She was in an accelerated program. And for such a passionate, she works so hard without any form formal education. Just learn everything from Fugee school. Just like what we do there is nothing like a credibility form, she was able to put together her resume and apply for a special refugee program at Nottingham University in Malaysia where she was accepted into a foundation course.”

Upon mentioning her acceptance to a tertiary education, it was important to consider beyond the formal framework of government. A cohort of six universities in Malaysia has established links with UNHCR to provide tertiary education for refugees in the country. Deborah in her speech titled The future of young refugee highlighted the fact that although refugee children and young adolescent are great students, it is important to consider an institution that has the same mindset to empower them. She said:

“… it started with Nottingham University and an institution that said we want this student to have a chance just because they’re refugee does not mean that they get to lose out on an education.”

The flexibility and adaptability of educational institution allowed refugees to further their education without any complications. The above situation is illustrated in

Deborah speech:

“They (Nottingham University) said look we understand that you guys are refugees, you’ve missed out on huge gaps in learning. Some of these refugees missed out for years of school, they said we do not want certs, we want to interview you, we want to listen to you speak, we want to listen to everything that you’ve done. And we will determine if we think you’re a good fit for us. That’s what they did, they broke down their criteria and changed their admission criteria …… and because of that two students now have a fair chance at life.”

The statement by Deborah shows the private university engagement with sub-politics group to solve the educational gap experience by refugees which relatively relate to the idea of reflexive regulation and the following is the characteristic of organization that practiced reflexive regulation. Perez (2011) stated that three common insights formed the basis of reflexive regulation. The word uncertainty appeared across all

106 three insights. First characteristic is to be equipped in order to handle uncertainties.

With the first characteristic, one could explore, identify and develop regulator method and tools which acknowledge the absent of a certain knowledge. Within the research scope, the government absence and unwillingness in providing educational knowledge established the need for the inclusion of expert individuals, stakeholders and the general public to provide the missing provision. Research by Renn (2004), Van Asselt

& Renn (2011) pointed that consideration and participation of multiple groups is essential to paint an overall picture of options, interpretation and potential actions in connection with social problem where this research focused upon educational provision for refugee children and young adolescent. Gunningham (2012) further supported the consideration and participation of multiple group could tackle issues effectively as the groups have specific skills to tackle the problem.

Second, reflexive regulation awareness of the state regulation limits which subsequently requires the acknowledgement of the role of multiple actors or groups to realization of the regulatory aim. The need to engage with stakeholders is beyond the need to equip for uncertainties but rather to tackle the social problem through cooperation as social problems are immense and requires more than a single actor to find solution. Overdevest & Zeitlin (2014) mentioned the necessities to engage public and private actors from citizens, experts, media and stakeholders to solve problems interactively. Lastly, reflexive regulation characteristic is learning as it draws upon the conception of reflexivity. The process of learning is nurtured through self-observation and self-critique. The importance of learning process is that it replaces the absence of knowledge and tactics to overcome a prototype of daily routine (Perez, 2011). As various scholars discussed the importance of not reducing the options to solve problems to one but instead create set of option and embarked on a journey of try and

107 error (experiment and learn) in order to improvised the overall framework of regulations (International Risk Governance Council, 2005; Voss et al, 2006; Sabel &

Zeitlin, 2008)

The three characteristic of reflexive regulation reflects the process of Deborah Henry, her team of friends and family, the Somali refugee community and the private stakeholder synergy in delivering education through Fugee School despite of the tough challenges that comes along the way such as “thrown-together” educational syllabus, facilities shortcoming, refugee children and young adolescent inconsistencies in attending classes and financial constraints. The Fugee School embraced the characteristic of reflexive regulation and noticed the needs to establish cooperation with various stakeholder to achieve the goal to narrow the gap of knowledge that was ignored by the government as they are unwilling to consider refugee education in the country development. By gathering people with interest on educations for refugee children and young adolescent, it will subsequently lead to the emergence of educational institutions polices shift such as those from Nottingham University

Malaysia Campus which accommodates refugees in their institution by understanding their adversities from not having proper documents to the lack of prior qualities education.

Comparatively, the government unwillingness to provide any form of supports to refugee in exception of accommodating UNHCR in the country to facilitate the registration of refugees and the resettlement processes. For refugees that were not registered under UNHCR are vulnerable and subjected to arrest and deportation despite of the non-refoulement principle established to protect refugees. They faced adversities from lacking of economic resources to limited access of public health and education whilst being exploited and abused by authorities and employers. However,

108 this situation were noticed by Deborah Henry and the awareness of children being the victims of this vicious cycle, she committed herself with a team of friends and family to form Fugee School where education is provided to narrow the gap and to save a generation. The Fugee School is not only a sub-politics group but embodied the reflexive regulation by establishing network with public and private stakeholder through learning from their Band-Aid strategies and discovering the influential network accumulated by Deborah could help to further advanced the aim of narrowing the educational gap which is the uncertainties that occurs within the refugee communities in Malaysia. This directed to us that the analysis proven different actions could result in positive or negative outcomes where the government negligence towards the refugees issues have caused turmoil within the society however through this negligence sub-politics emerged, learnt and applied changes unto the refugee community which subsequently raised awareness among citizens to engaged in offering assistance regardless of any form or shape to refugees.

The subsequent chapter served as the epilogue for this whole body of research by reflecting upon the respondent’s personality, memories and motivation to form the sub-politics group. It also concludes the relevance of biographical approach within risk research by examining the issues through a holistic framework of funnel of causality which illustrates the situation of a refugee transitioning into another country, engaged issues with authorities and the sub-politics group along with its networking.

5.5 Working for Refugee Education: Stakeholder and Sub politics Synergy

The analysis of the sub-politics and its synergy with stakeholder proven that social change is possible. Deborah and her team had planted the seeds of education to ensure refugee children and young adolescent have the knowledge and skills to sustain their

109 lives be it in Malaysia or their resettlement country. The constant innovation in revising and introducing timely and relevant courses have produced refugee children and young adolescent of a high caliber where their comprehension and social skill were enhanced. Through the interviews with students from Fugee School, the girls have highlighted empowerment program for girls during weekends which fortify the girls knowledge on protection and their rights which in turn suppress the impression of girls are only capable to do chores and stay at home. It is also through the school effort that some students are preparing to take international examination in private schools which will ease their path to resettlement.

Through these transformation initiated by Fugee School, the students were easily noticed by universities which collaborated with UNHCR to include refugee students into foundation programmes without the requirement of any official documents. Smart

Reader also sponsor learning tools to enhance the learning experience of the children.

It is through the enhancement of learning tools and opportunities to higher education that builds the synergy between Fugee School and stakeholders which brings out the confidence within each student. Deborah have mentioned that the school act as a chain of empowerment which equipped the researcher to ask the students:

“Do you feel empowered here? Do you want to go back Somalia?”

The answer spoken feels so empowered as the higher grades student says:

“Yes, I feel empowered here but I also wish to go back to Somalia to help my fellow countrymen when the country is beginning to stabilize. Most importantly, it is my home… our home.”

Thus, it is important to see that the cooperation between stakeholders and refugee communities are important as it goes beyond the boundaries of cognitive developmentbut its empowerment process is contagious which represents the

110 importance to react in order to transform the lives of the younger generation. The sub- politics served as an effective alternative in the context of educational provision for refugee. However, this research have no intention to encompass the whole community school or non-governmental organization efforts as each of them have limitation in providing educational facilities and established linkage with interested stakeholders.

But through the analysis of Fugee School, the cooperation of stakeholders and refugee communities through the establishment of the school have witnessed the many refugee who were labelled as “social illness carrier” entering universities and resettled well in countries that they resettled which in turn shut down the comments on refugees being a “good-for-nothing”.

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CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSION

6.1 Thoughts on Refugee Children Education, State Governance and Subpolitics

Upon examining the efforts of Fugee School and its collaboration with the educational and non-educational partner to provide educations for Somali refugee, the researchers find it necessary to ponder upon the action that sub-politics have done. An individual and its communities’/ sub-politics choices, passion and commitments in connection with refugee children education are the components of thoughts in this section

Deborah was inspired to share quotes where she accumulates during her visit to

Lebanon. This is one impactful message from her when she ended her speech:

“Nobody chooses to be a refugee, nobody wants to be a refugee, no one wants to leave their home, and nobody wants to leave everything they have just like that and run away and live in a foreign land that they’re not welcome.”

Deborah statement is supported by Seyla Benhabib where she expand that terms that were morally and politically motivated around the language of migration or of invasion creates fear and handicapped citizens capability to think rationally on their moral attitudes. Seyla Benhabib and Slawomir Sierakowski (2015) opinion might focus only on the Middle East but it is applicable to the whole world as refugee crises span across the globe and she highlighted that:

“Nobody wants to be a refugee. People do not just put their children on a boat and watch them die.”

As people start to talk about nobody wants to be refugee, the least that citizens of accepting country could do is sympathize refugees’ situation and politician should prevent from exploiting the situation for their own benefits by politically charging the language of migration and of invasion.

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In Deborah speech titled Compassion, enabling passion for TEDxINTIU, she questioned:

“How can I play a role in someone else’s life? What value can I add to someone else’s life?”

Her question lead her to the word that she used so often to raise awareness which is a choice. She reminisces the time she had with the father of her friend,

“He said you are so privileged and so lucky because you have the ability to make choices in your life. Millions and millions of people in this world, wake up every morning, they do not get to decide to go left or to go right, they have one direction and they have to go down that path. …… And he said to me: Do not ever give up, do not ever sacrifice the ability of yours to make a choice. The choice to be happy, the choice to study something, to decide what you want to do in life, what you want to be in life.”

Her reminiscence of the word her friend’s father gave so much impact to her humanitarian work. The reality of students being able to further their studies in the field they are interested in. But for Deborah, it was her passion to make a connection through her elaborated career in the entertainment industry and know people from different industries such as corporate, fashion, music, comedians, politically exposed person, leader and people who changed the world. Above all, the connections established between people that she knew are made purposeful for a larger community as she highlighted in the same speech:

“I have a wide range media network range that I have access to so for me I realized and I say this in hindsight because at that time I did not but I had I knew all these people. I had this very big network and for me, I decided why do not I use that for a higher purpose? Why do not I use that to basically aid a cause or to work with a cause? And my cause was refugee work.”

The current sub-politics scene is discussing on the notion of networking and coalition building which proved to be significant in the process of advocacy. The need for collaboration between individuals, communities and organization bear its significance in bringing positive change to a certain marginalized community from a negative space

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(Pact Tanzania, 2005:6). One should understand the importance of networking in order to deliver effective positive change. As mentioned in the preceding chapter, the band aid strategy engaged by the Fugee School is not sustainable as it constitutes a temporary education. Mistakes are made to serve as lesson to improvised and continuously provide a sustainable service to the target community and in this context, refugee community. Deborah emphasis the understanding and reflection of mistakes in the following statement,

“We know, we knew, we could nott continue these efforts, we could not continue making mistakes like this and we realized that we had to partner together with the right education institutions who were willing, who had the desire to say – Look! We want to ensure that these children and these refugee youth have access to education, have access to learning and we’re going to, we’re going to shake things up.”

The realisation of mistakes and thinking of alternatives to networking with willing educational institution in order to deliver continuous education for Fugee School children and young adolescent after they’ve ended their years of education in the school supported the idea of importance of networking and collaboration from different entities and individuals. Above all, the attitudes of Deborah and her team reflects the essence of sub-politics as she mentioned,

“We’re going to do what we have to do so that these refugee kids can go to school that we’ve embarked on a new education path, not restricted and not limited by traditional constraints and by policy.”

The statement above clearly illustrates that the sub-politics studied within this research proof to be a collective efforts sprouted from the grass root level.

“Where would I be without you?”

The question might sound simplistic and we often did not think or ponder upon such question. But it was based on this question Deborah started to think on the issues that

114 is happening in the world. Interconnected and interdependent is the characteristic of a

21st century world, one part of a community cannot thrive if another part is drowning.

Deborah look through news despite of the beautiful landscape the world have offered us, the amount of suffering and fighting occurs in different part of the world. The situation is not sustainable and as she continued her journey Deborah notices the devastation and desperation of families in impoverished conditions. She questioned:

“How do they survive? How, who do they rely on? Who can they look for help?

As she questioned about the adversities the families experienced, she reflected on her life where she was assisted and believed in by the people whom she disappointed previously and was given a second chance. She highlighted the facts that everybody need opportunities in life in order to advance on spreading words on issues and problems that they’ve experience. For an instance, the ISIS active recruitment of non- formally educated Syrian youth in Lebanon by leveraging on the anger and disillusionment (Watkins & Zyck, 2014) however international community response action reflected a generation of child refugees lost when less opportunities were provided to them to have access to education or other basic provision (Sirin & Roger-

Sirin, 2015),.

The cause of the emergence of sub-politics however is a reflection of policies deficiencies where social issues are not addressed appropriately. As Rawls (2009) mentioned that justice is the first virtue of social institutions. Which refer to fairness from benefits and burdens to rights and duties among everybody without discrimination. When unjust circumstances occurs, mandatory reformation or abolishment of the governing law and institution. In other words, social order must appear transparent with the governing principle accessible for public to consider,

115 examine, defend or reject. However, the news reports that appear in the preceding chapters shows inconsistencies amongst the leaders in the Malaysian government where Deborah have mentioned that Malaysia is currently under a weak leadership which was subsequently supported by Park and Bae (2012) research that pointed out that Malaysia public trust towards their government declined from 2010 to 2012 which is within former Prime Minister Dato’ Seri Najib Razak.

This segment on the thoughts of refugee education have no intention of continuously criticizing the government action on the issues of refugee welfare. However, the government should not be blame solely since the empirical and normative seldom reached or established an agreement. Since the normative question of what the government should do emerged, series of debate on the government supposed action are rising continuously however we skipped the question of what could the government do. In connection to it, another critical question emerged does the government have capacity to remove justice (Kildal, 2003). Kildal (2003) summarize by saying that for a social institution to function properly, it is not sufficient to discuss on the pragmatic and normative arguments but the ability of the government should be considered. Thus, blaming the government solely is not relevant however the government should consider establishing policies to maintain basic welfare and protection for refugee as the findings of the research discover discrimination and exploitation from authorities and scheming employer towards them.

6.2 Theoretical, Methodological and Policies Implication

This section explained the implications through this research on three basis – theoretical, methodological and policies. Formerly, the theoretical framework in connection with the funnel of causality is focused on a one-way input-output track

116 which limits the exploration of the heuristic potential of the funnel of causality. This research took upon the heuristic potential of the funnel of causality and integrated it with the concepts discuss within the World Risk Society thesis which include sub- politics and reflexive modernisation. The implication brought about by the appropriated theoretical framework could be explained in two folds, first fold focused on analysing the influx of Somali refugee which subsequently becomes refugee and asylum seeker in transit countries; second fold divides the funnel into two portions with the government on the top half and the sub-politics at the bottom half which frames the intervention of external actors and their methods of handling refugee issues.

This approach instead of focusing on one actor, it provides a non-biased analysis of actors involved in a contemporary issues or in this context refugee education in transit country – Malaysia; both track provides different approaches in handling the influx of refugees in Malaysia which highly proof that the funnel of causality is time, issue and actor sensitive instead of focusing only the output, the theoretical framework fortifies the research approach by taking a phase by phase analysis without bias towards the decision of both government and sub-politics.

The funnel of causality integrated with World Risk Society concepts of sub-politics and reflexive modernity across three subjects – Somali refugee, Fugee School and

Malaysian government display pushes the boundaries of the traditional funnel of causality by proving that firstly, it is relevant in the contemporary setting as it is time and actor sensitive; secondly, it provided space for all actors involved in a case to be studied as a whole and provide a non-bias perspective from each actors angle; lastly, the output produced through the dual track analysis provide a perspective on both ends with the potential of making the positive output to replace the negative output produced by the government. As much as this research wished to expand the

117 framework potential, due to the time constraint, the elements of the aftermath on output could not be identified as the challenges for a certified refugee education and a holistic policy for refugee in Malaysia is still undetermined.

The biographical approach in methodological of research echoes the theoretical framework components which resonates with the biographical approach as it emphasis either biographical identity and/or biographical structuring to establish a link between structures and individuals where it could interpret an individual personality development . The methodological implication witnessed the efficiency of using biographical analysis is capable to examine the intentions of individuals through an understanding of his/her life course development. In order to form a constructive discussion, the biographical approach that received data through interviews are triangulated with web -based information to justify and ensure continuity and consistencies throughout the research although this approach created a data saturation situation which eventually proven the data received through interviews are consistent and justifiable. The biographical approach thus implies that risk could be research by using a multiple source approach which focused on the individual, communities and government involved in the social changes directly or indirectly whereby the methodology could affect the way the funnel of causality is utilised for the research.

However, the biographical approach could potentially throw a curveball in data collection with the events of individuals not cooperating with the research process with personal reason but if everything falls into places the methodology is effective to illustrate a situation if matched with appropriate theoretical framework.

Despite the implementation of IMM13 and other policies pertaining to the refugees, the Malaysian government policies towards refugee are still limited. Through this research, policies are viewed as being weak, ad-hoc, inconsistent and vague which

118 reflect the lack of government initiative which subsequently lead to the emergence of sub-politics group such as the Fugee School. The IMM13 status despite providing access to public facilities and services for refugees lack a framework which should encompass the whole refugee community and address their concern effectively. The policies implication that could be derived from this research is a set of action which could address refugees concern and mitigate the negative effects which could be caused by worries of the refugee communities in Malaysia. This research suggests that policy maker to formulate a policy where refugees concern on education, health and labour are address. Before these concerns could be addressed, a proper framework of cooperation between refugees, government and sub-politics is to be established to formulate a protection policy to avoid discrimination from authorities and exploiting employer. As this research focused on education, thus a cooperation between sub- politics, government and educational institution to formulate policies to prepare an inclusive education policy for the participation of children and young adolescent regardless of their nationalities, status and education background. These policy implications could benefit from understanding this research and address the issues accordingly with the assistance of communities.

Overall, the implication towards theory, methods and policy are closely knitted and open opportunities for future research by expanding on the quality of the theories, methods and policies formulation.

6.3 Conclusion

The funnel of causality and biographical approach risk research proofs to be a dynamic combination in conducting this research. The body of literature reflects the layers within the world risk society and the layers are reconstructed in a systematic way to

119 illustrate and analyse the social issue focused within this research – refugee education.

The objectives are addressed appropriately through the approach and theoretical framework – the backgrounds of terrorism activities which effected education process and subsequently contributed to the forced migration of refugee for fear of their safety.

However, the findings through reports yielded negative results from the accepting country – Malaysia. The refugees are regarded as irregular and illegal immigrants instead of refugee nor asylum seeker for the government have been reluctant to be the signatory member of the CRSR. By not signing the convention, the Malaysian government have no obligation towards refugee. Despite the government reluctance to assist refugee, the research take into consideration the community school that provide educational service and focused upon the efforts of Fugee School which is spearheaded by Miss Deborah Henry from the 2007 and sustained to date.

The findings and analysis which span across chapter four and chapter five emphasis on the plight refugee children experienced and the sub-politics collaboration with educational facilities and private sector have proven the needs of networking in the context of supporting and sustaining a sub-politics efforts. It is important to note the educational level transition process from the community school into university are made possible not only through the sub-politics but also the consideration of reflexive regulation. The intersection between terrorism, refugee and education attainment also proven before the transition of refugee into transitional countries like Malaysia, their education were already disturbed which further fortify the relevance of this research.

As the analysis thrust forward, it appears that the government and sub-politics both produce different output at the end of the funnel of causality. The government end are neglecting the basic rights of the refugee access to public services which leads to authorities abusing their power by running raids and arrest whilst demanded payment

120 from refugees. Above that, minister contradicting statement of job opportunities for refugees and only limit the refugees access to odd job worsened as exploitation of scheming employer occurs where refugee earning are not sufficient to even consider education opportunities for their children. On another end, the sub-politics performed above the formal political process and authority’s control. Refugee children and young adolescent are opened to explore and experience normalcy in the Fugee School and was given opportunities to learn formally and access to certified education as the school lay out plans to register students who could afford O level examination in international school and providing them learning facilities through the school teachers who were mostly university students. The records of having two student from the

Fugee School to matriculate in the Nottingham University Malaysia Campus foundation program have proven a shift of regulation beyond formal matriculation process and placed education as priority for students.

The biographical approach in risk research highlighted the issues through interview sessions with respondents. The approach also provide the experience of respondents whilst talking about the issues. By probing respondents on critical stakeholders such as the government and private institutions, emotional exchange occurs thus discovering the limitation of the government and the opinion of respondents towards the government. Refugees that were interviewed also provided their opinion and adversity in their home country and also in the country they transitioned. The approach provide a holistic view of the issues instead of collecting the data targeted to address the objectives only, it is important to understand the background and experiences of the refugee communities. The news and reports collected across the research supported the claims of the refugee community and sub-politics.

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The world risk society is not a thesis to address incalculable and uncertainties of risk but extended to the form of how communities organized to work beyond formal political framework that neglect social issues that could potentially bring devastating effects to the refugee and subsequently amplify the intensity of risk brought about by terrorism as refugee out of desperation would return to their home country and involved with militant activities to survive. This research proven Fugee School embodiment of the characteristic of sub-politics that cooperate through networking with other stakeholder whilst empowering and providing education where the government fell short. However, the research on refugee are spread throughout a wide spectrum from welfare, networking and risk. Thus, this thesis have fulfilled its purpose to examined risk of terrorism and the cooperation amongst refugee, sub-politics and stakeholders is a dynamic combination as opposed to pinning hope unto the government in educational provision. This research hopes to spark more interest of examining social issues as risk and community self-organized initiatives to curb social issues with the pure intent of empowering refugees as the Malaysian government are having limitation in providing such assistance.

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