20 years at the Koestler Unit

ANY people have experienced seemingly phenomena, M such as having a dream that predicts the future, seeing a , or thinking of a long-lost friend and then outlines the continuing influence of receiving a telephone call from that person moments later. In addition, some the Edinburgh unit on the field. individuals appear to possess psychic abilities, including mediums who claim to to obtain lectureships and established their mechanism that may underlie apparently communicate with the dead, healers who own parapsychology research groups in experiences. In some cases, an seem to help cure illness, and who other UK departments. Two are experience that is initially interpreted as can apparently bend keys and cutlery using now professors (Deborah Delanoy at the paranormal may turn out to be attributable just the power of their minds. University of Northampton and Richard to quite well-understood mechanisms, Such allegedly psychic experiences and Wiseman at the University of including , poor observation or abilities have been reported throughout Hertfordshire). A new brood of PhD recall, self-deception, and deception by history – however, it is only in the last students – one might think of them as others. In other cases, psychic experiences hundred years or so that researchers have may be explained through an extension of carried out systematic and scientific work what science already knows about human into these topics (for a historical review sensorimotor capabilities, or new human see Beloff, 1977). The Koestler capabilities may be discovered. Most Parapsychology Unit is one such group of parapsychologists would consider researchers. Based within the psychology ‘paranormal’ phenomena to fall into either department at the , or both of the latter two categories, and the KPU includes the only endowed chair would assume that they can apply the tools of parapsychology in the UK, established of science to investigate these possible by a bequest following the suicide in 1983 extended or new capabilities. of internationally acclaimed intellectual, Some terminology: parapsychologists writer and journalist . use the theory-neutral term psi to Koestler had a lifelong interest in the encompass the two main categories paranormal, seen most clearly in his 1972 of allegedly paranormal phenomena. book , and he (ESP) refers wanted the subject to be given serious to apparent paranormal communication, attention within a university setting. where a person seems to obtain In 1985 American parapsychologist information from another person without Robert Morris was appointed as Professor Robert Morris the use of the currently known senses or Edinburgh’s first Koestler Professor of inference. An example of this would be the Parapsychology. A figure widely respected Morris’s grandchildren – is now emerging feeling of knowing who is calling before by psychologists, parapsychologists and from under the wings of individuals whose answering the phone. ESP breaks down sceptics alike, Morris died unexpectedly in careers in psychology and parapsychology into three sub-categories: refers August 2004, after almost two decades as started at the Koestler Unit. to apparent mind-to-mind communication; Koestler Professor. The Koestler Chair is refers to apparently obtaining currently vacant. Basic concepts information from the environment (e.g. Over the years, 30 students gained their The Koestler bequest defines from inside a sealed envelope); and PhDs under Morris’s supervision, and parapsychology as ‘the scientific study of refers to apparently obtaining about 120 undergraduate psychology paranormal phenomena, in particular the information about a future event. The students conducted their final-year projects capacity attributed to some individuals to second main category of psi phenomena is and dissertations with KPU staff. A number interact with their environments by means (PK). This refers to apparent of KPU research staff and students went on other than the recognised sensory and paranormal influence, where one person motor channels’. As Morris did, I have appears to affect an animate or inanimate emphasised that this definition not only object in their environment through thought WEBLINKS includes the study of hypothesised alone. For example, people commonly ‘genuine psi’ but also ‘what’s not psychic report feeling the hairs stand up on the For more details on KPU researchers’ interests but looks like it’ (Morris, 1986) – what one back of their neck, turning round and and publications, see: might call pseudo-psi. Following the remit finding they are being stared at. There are http://moebius.psy.ed.ac.uk. of the bequest, work at the Koestler Unit three sub-categories of PK: macro-PK makes no assumptions about the refers to large-scale apparent PK effects,

424 July 2006 The Psychologist Vol 19 No 7 Parapsychology

such as metal-bending or table levitations, their apparent abilities are demonstrated that are visible to the naked eye; micro-PK and observed. These circumstances may be refers to apparent PK effects that can only fruitful ones for the simulation of psychic be detected statistically (such as deviations abilities, therefore an important aspect of in the output of electronic random number the KPU’s pseudo-psi research has been generators that correspond with the mental the development of methodological intention of an operator); bio-PK or guidelines for testing psychic claimants DMILS (direct mental interaction (Wiseman & Morris, 1995a). Morris (1987) between living systems) usually refers to has also published recommendations the apparent influence of one person’s for minimising participant fraud in volition on another person’s physiology parapsychology laboratories. It is hoped (for example, psychic healing), though that the KPU’s pseudo-psi research will be parapsychologists have also studied beneficial not only to parapsychological DMILS in animals and with samples studies, but also to cognitive and clinical of tissue or bodily fluids in vitro. psychology and other disciplines where Work at the KPU largely falls into three deception may be involved. broad strands: the study of pseudo-psi, psi, and paranormal beliefs and experiences. 0141 954 0101/07768993244 Psi research ANN

C Looking at the psi hypothesis, several C

Pseudo-psi research: What’s M different kinds of ESP and PK studies have

not psychic but looks like it ERRY been conducted, but I will focus on a single In many real-world, spontaneous psychic G example: ESP studies using the ‘ganzfeld experiences, normal psychological The Koestler Parapsychology Unit is based technique’. The ganzfeld is a mild sensory processes can lead a person mistakenly to within the psychology department at the isolation procedure that is thought to be label their experience as paranormal (for University of Edinburgh conducive to ESP. It is is based on a noise- a review, see Watt, 1990–1991). Take reduction model of ESP that hypothesises as an example. Not only are psi believers tended to remember fewer that ESP functions like a weak signal that we notoriously poor judges of probability, details relevant to how the trick was done is ordinarily drowned out by surrounding but also the law of truly large numbers (Wiseman & Morris, 1995b), suggesting a well-understood signals, such as somatic, states that with a large enough number of functional distortion of processing that visual, and auditory information. By people and events, apparently meaningful serves to support pre-existing beliefs. reducing external and internal sources of coincidences are bound to happen. Individuals claiming psychic abilities distraction, parapsychologists reasoned that Furthermore, psychologists have shown tend to be found in circumstances where any ESP ‘signal’ would be more easily that when an individual personally the claimants have some control over how noticed. Two individuals are usually experiences a coincidence, this coincidence is rated as more surprising and meaningful than the same experience related by DOES THE EXPERIMENTER’S another person (Falk, 1989). Poor observation and inaccuracies in recollection MATTER? may also account for some pseudo-psychic I have conducted a series of studies (e.g.Watt & Ramakers, 2003) looking at the question of experimenter experiences. effects in parapsychology. It has been suggested that the belief of the experimenter may influence the One major factor causing people outcome of their study – such that sceptics tend to find what they expect, and so do believers. Indeed, to mistakenly label an experience as some have claimed that the experimenter’s own psi may affect the outcome of the study. paranormal is deliberate deception. This has been an important line of research at We selected a number of individuals who scored extremely high or extremely low on a paranormal belief the KPU, where we have attempted to questionnaire, and then trained them to administer a psi task to naive participants.The results for all develop theoretical systems to describe sessions combined showed overall significant positive scoring on the psi task. More interestingly, when and understand deception (e.g. Wiseman & comparing sessions conducted by believer experimenters with sessions conducted by sceptics, the effect Morris, 1994). This work includes looking was entirely limited to those participants tested by believer experimenters. Participants tested by sceptical at physical effects, such as the ways to experimenters obtained chance results on the psi task. misdirect attention and to make things The positive psi result could not be due to subtle cueing of the experimenter or participants, because all seem to vanish or appear (Lamont & were blind to the randomised condition manipulations that were taking place during the psi task. Sensory Wiseman, 1999), and mental effects, such leakage was also ruled out by locating experimenters and participants in separate isolated rooms. as simulating psychic powers (e.g. Roe, Questionnaire measures suggested that participants’ expectancy and motivation were unaffected by their 1995). For example, in one KPU study experimenters’ paranormal belief, raising the possibility that it was the experimenter’s psi that influenced participants were shown videotapes of a the outcome of the study. If experimenter psi effects are real – and this question needs further faked psychic demonstration of metal experimentation – then this suggests challenging questions not only for parapsychology but also for bending and were later asked to recall science in general.Traditionally the experimenter is conceptualised as an objective observer of the data, details of the demonstration. The results rather than being another participant in the study. showed that compared to psi disbelievers,

425 July 2006 www.thepsychologist.org.uk Parapsychology

involved in this procedure: the sender Using this procedure, a number of will attempt to mentally communicate a KPU studies have looked at individual randomly chosen ‘target’ to the receiver. differences in scoring on the ganzfeld ESP The sender and receiver are placed in task. One theme that appears to be separate acoustically shielded rooms. The emerging is that individuals who regard receiver wears translucent eye-shields and themselves as ‘creative’ (e.g. artists, is bathed in red light. The receiver also musicians) tend to score more ‘hits’ (to reclines in a comfortable chair and wears correctly identify the target from a set headphones that play ‘white noise’. The of four possibilities) than less creative aim is for the receiver to become mentally individuals (see Dalton, 1997; Morris et and physically relaxed, and for their eyes, al., 1998). This line of research may ears, and bodies to receive unchanging throw some light on the question of the and unpatterned stimulation (ganzfeld conditions needed to demonstrate psi, and literally means ‘whole field’ and originates further studies are needed to understand from gestalt psychology). Under such why creative individuals seem to perform stimulation, thoughts and images become well at ESP tasks. more salient to the receiver. Included in the KPU’s psi research A computer is used to randomly choose are meta-analytic reviews of the wider a target (such as a one-minute video-clip) experimental literature, including ganzfeld from a large selection of possible targets, ESP (Milton & Wiseman, 1999) and and plays that clip repeatedly to the sender. a comparison of clairvoyance and

At the same time, the receiver reports out ELENSKY precognition (Steinkamp et al., 1998). loud any thoughts or images that come to W Methodological guidelines have also OY mind (the ‘mentation’), and these verbal R been produced for ESP testing (Milton reports are recorded. Of course, neither the Participant in a ganzfeld ESP study & Wiseman, 1997), and issues about the experimenter nor the receiver has any idea validity of different research approaches of what target the sender is viewing. At techniques. Extrasensory perception is have been discussed (Stevens, 2004; Watt, the end of the sending period, the sender inferred to have taken place if the target is 1994). remains in their room while the computer correctly identified more often than chance plays four video clips to the receiver – the expectation. Research into paranormal target plus three decoys. The receiver’s task There are good methodological reasons beliefs and experiences is to compare each clip to their mentation, for presenting the target along with three This line of research is primarily concerned and to select which of the clips most decoys. Firstly, it controls for the process with exploring the psychological factors closely matches the mentation. of subjective validation (Marks & underlying people’s paranormal beliefs and If no information transfer is taking Kammann, 1980) – with a single target it experiences. Many anomalous experiences, place (this is the null hypothesis), then is easy to find similarities between aspects for example out-of-body experiences, near- we would expect the receiver to correctly of the target and various mentation items. death experiences, past-life experiences, identify the clip that was viewed by the Similarities will of course occur by chance and spontaneous psi experiences, are not sender 25 per cent of the time by chance alone, but with four different target uncommon, and psychologists and alone. If the target clip is correctly possibilities there will be chance matches parapsychologists are beginning to build identified, this counts as a ‘hit’. Over a to each of the possible targets. However, a picture of their phenomenology and number of trials, usually with different if ESP is taking place, one would expect psychological function (e.g. Cardeña et al., sender–receiver pairs and with different there to be a greater number of matches 2000). For example, one KPU study of sets of targets and decoys, the actual hit- (i.e. more similarities) between the actual individuals claiming vision found this rate is compared with the chance target and the receiver’s mentation. to be positively correlated with imagery expectation using standard statistical Secondly, having four target possibilities abilities, as did experiences of being out of enables parapsychologists to know the one’s body (Alvarado & Zingrone, 1994). exact likelihood of obtaining a hit by Another study (Lawrence et al., 1995) DISCUSS AND DEBATE chance alone, and this enables statistical found evidence that childhood trauma Should mainstream researchers invest resources in tests to be used to quantify the outcome of was associated with belief, supporting studying people’s paranormal experiences? the study. In typical real-world situations, a psychodynamic model of paranormal Should students be encouraged to study the psi the factors leading to a coincidence – say belief. This finding suggests that, for some, hypothesis, when mainstream scientists do not between a person’s dream and real-world paranormal belief fulfils a need for control yet accept there is evidence for psi? events the following day – are so complex in an otherwise chaotic and uncontrollable Does psychology focus too much on topics that are that it is practically impossible to give an environment. easily studied but boring? accurate calculation of the odds of that Have your say on these or other issues this article coincidence. This is one reason why Present and future directions raises. E-mail ‘Letters’ on [email protected] or parapsychologists tend to focus on Currently, the KPU has five research staff. contribute to our forum via www.thepsychologist.org.uk. laboratory methods such as the ganzfeld to Members of the public sometimes contact investigate ESP. the KPU seeking help with unusual

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experiences (for example, feeling that they psychokinesis effects) (Stevens, 2000, he called an integrative parapsychology: are being touched when no one is present) 2001). I am interested in experimenter ‘a systematic and responsible research that they interpret as paranormal. Dr effects in parapsychology, and the programme that would integrate this Claudia Coelho is investigating whether psychology of paranormal belief and controversial area into the ongoing research such experiences may represent early experience (Watt & Ramakers, 2003; and teaching activities of the University indicators of psychological distress. Wiseman & Watt, 2004). community’ (Morris, 1995, p.24). Bob Additionally, using discursive methods Perhaps the greatest achievement of the Morris has indeed achieved this goal. she is studying how parapsychologists Koestler Unit so far has been its success in construct the concept of anomaly (Coelho, studying this controversial topic within a ■ Caroline Watt is a senior lecturer in 2004). Dr Peter Lamont is interested in university setting, in ‘seeding’ new units in psychology and a member of the Koestler the history and psychology of magic and other UK universities, and in enriching the Parapsychology Unit, School of ostensibly psychic phenomena, beliefs academic profile of our department. In Philosophy, Psychology and Language about the paranormal, psychic fraud and an article taking stock of his first 10 years Sciences, University of Edinburgh, 7 deception more generally, with a particular as Koestler Professor, Robert Morris George Square, Edinburgh. E-mail: interest in how people frame inexplicable discussed how he sought to develop what [email protected]. events (Lamont, 2004, in press). Dr Fiona Steinkamp (part-time) has been conducting postal and web studies of precognition (Steinkamp, 2000, 2001). Dr Paul Stevens FURTHER READING is studying human detection/interaction For a reader giving a broad overview of parapsychology and providing key references, see:Wiseman, R. & with weak magnetic fields at biologically Watt, C. (Eds.) (2005). Parapsychology. International Library of Psychology Series (D. Canter, Editor-in-Chief). relevant frequencies, as well as evaluating Aldershot:Ashgate. physical mechanisms underlying cases of For an introductory textbook on parapsychology and anomalous experiences, see: Irwin, H.J. (2004). extended communication (e.g. telepathy, Introduction to parapsychology (4th edn). Jefferson, NC: McFarland. sense of presence, micro-level

References

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