ANTROPOMOTORYKA Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences (JKES)
Vol. 27, no. 2 (78), 2017
UNIVERSITY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN KRAKOW, POLAND
UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN WROCLAW, POLAND
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COMMITTEE FOR REHABILITATION, PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SPORT KINETICS – IASK UNIVERSITY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN KRAKOW, POLAND UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN WROCLAW, POLAND
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
CHAIRMAN Edward Mleczko
VICE-CHAIRMAN Zofi a Ignasiak
ASSOCIATE EDITORS-IN-CHIEF Jan Chmura, Jerzy Januszewski, Andrzej Klimek, Tadeusz Koszczyc, Lesław Kulmatycki, Wiesław Osiński, Joachim Raczek, Teresa Sławińska-Ochla, Włodzimierz Starosta
ADVISORY BOARD
Michal Belej (Slovakia), Józef Bergier (Poland), Peter Blaser (Germany), Tadeusz Bober (Poland), Janusz Czerwiński (Poland), Józef Drabik (Poland), Stefan Grössing (Austria), Peter Hirtz (Germany), Vladimir Issurin (Israel), Jan Junger (Slovakia), Andrzej Jopkiewicz (Poland), Grzegorz Juras (Poland), Han C.G. Kemper (The Netherlands), Krzysztof Klukowski (Poland), Vladimir Lyakh (Russia), Robert M. Malina (USA), Ryszard Przewęda (Poland), Igor Ryguła (Poland), Albertas Skurvydas (Lithuania), Michał Spieszny (Poland), Peter Weinberg (Germany), Stanisław Żak (Poland)
EDITOR’S OFFICE Executive Editor: Joanna Gradek Editorial Assistant: Renata Nieroda al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kraków, Poland www.antropomotoryka.pl http://e-antropomotoryka.pl/
Original version of the journal ANTROPOMOTORYKA is the electronic version
Linguistic editors: AmE Native Statistical editor: Stanisław Matusik
© Copyright by The University of Physical Education in Krakow, Poland
e-ISSN 2353-3986; ISSN 1731-0652
Indexed in: Ministry of Science and Higer Education 2016: 9 pts; IC Journal Master List – ICV 2015: 85.91
Design and DTP: Studio Grafi czne Piotr Kurasiak, ul. Szymanowskiego 10a/8, 59-400 Jawor
Print: Drukarnia EIKON PLUS Dominik Sieńko, ul. Wybickiego 46, 31-302 Kraków
Antropomotoryka – creating an English-language version of the journal – task financed under agreement No. 544/P-DUN/2017 from the funds of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (MNiSW) designated for activity aimed at the popularization of science
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REGULATIONS FOR ARTICLE PUBLICATION
Description and profi le of the journal provided that the author obtains written consent to reprint the article from the foreign journal in which the text has been or Antropomotoryka. Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise will be published. Sciences (JKES) is the offi cial, reviewed, quarterly academic publication of the International Association of Sport Kinesiol- ogy (IASK), issued by the University of Physical Education in Requirements for submission Krakow since 1989, and from 2010, in cooperation with the Submitting the paper should be done via the Index Coperni- University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw. The jour- cus Publishers Panel – the electronic system for management of nal has received academic patronage from the Rehabilitation, the editing process. For this purpose, it is necessary to register Physical Education and Social Integration Committee of the on the following website: http://970.indexcopernicus.com/. Polish Academy of Sciences and can be found in the IC Jour- Manuscript registration takes place in accordance with nal Master List international indexing database. Since 2014, the the instructions for authors: http://970.index-copernicus.com/i journal is published in the original electronic version in English. c_publishers_panel_instrukcja_obslugi_dla_autorow.pdf On subscribers’ request, the journal may be issued in English and Polish in book format. • Once registered on the IC Publishers Panel platform, au- Editorial offi ce: Antropomotoryka thors should contact the editorial offi ce via the IC Publish- Al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kraków. Poland. ers Panel e-mail or the editorial offi ce directly via e-mail: E-mail: [email protected] [email protected]. • The author responsible for correspondence with the pub- lisher concerning the article receives notifi cation confi rm- Aim ing submission of the article, and information about stages of its publication. In Antropomotoryka. Journal of Kinesiology and Exer- • Editors will not accept an article in which the phenomena of cise Sciences (JKES) the results of innovative experiments “ghostwriting” and “guest authorship” is present or showing and observations on human locomotive activities conducted signs of any aberrancies. under natural and laboratory conditions by researchers of hu- • All publications are copyrighted on the basis of the Berne man motor skills (anthropomotorics) or related fi elds and dis- Convention and the Universal Copyright Convention, ex- ciplines, such as: physiology, psychology, physical anthropol- ceptions being only cases allowed by national law. ogy, biomechanics, medicine, computer sciences, economics, • The author submits a statement (in the case of collaborative genetics, pedagogy, sports education are presented. This al- papers, the lead author submits the statement on behalf of lows to acquaint oneself with the essence of human physical all co-authors) asserting that materials submitted for publi- activities, their structure, skills, motor functions and aptitudes, cation become the sole property of the publisher and cannot learning of these motor functions, their monitoring and control, be published in whole or in part by other journals or digital and the health and sports effects of the broadly understood media without the permission of the publisher. human notion of physical activity. • Submission for publication is tantamount to the author(s) In accordance with the aim of the journal, the subject of relinquishing ownership rights to the publisher, which is the article should fall under one of the four thematic categories: claimed by the lead author in a statement posted on the I. Theoretical and applied aspects of kinesiology (Funda- website: http://970.indexcopernicus.com/ mental and Applied Kinesiology). • The lead author is required to determine the contribution of II. Scientifi c basis of motor function training in sports and the co-authors in creation of the article in accordance with the requirements of the IC Publishers Panel – electronic recreation (Sport Sciences). system for managing the editorial process. III. Teaching, controlling and monitoring motor functions. Article preparation for publication in Antropomotoryka. Scientifi c basis, formation and evaluation of activity and Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences (JKES) physical fi tness (Exercise Sciences). IV. Reviews, debates and discussions, historical elaborations, conference announcements, reports from conferences Texts submitted for publication should be and congresses of the IASK and brief summaries of papers written in English or Polish in accordance printed in foreign journals, book reviews on the theory of with the following editorial requirements: human motor skills and also, assessment of the current state and prospects for the development in anthropomo- • The volume of empirical work including the summary, fi g- toric research achievements (Varia). ures and tables should not exceed 22 pages, and the re- Papers of high scientifi c value previously qualifi ed for views – 30 pages standard A4 size (up to 1,800 characters publication in another foreign journal may also be submitted, including spaces per page);
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 3
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• Texts should be prepared using only Microsoft Offi ce Word determined whether they are properly suited for the purpose text editor, pages should be numbered, font: Times New of research. The author of the review or meta-analysis should Roman; size: 12 points; spacing: 1.5; justifi ed text; title provide methods of searching for materials, methods of selec- written in bold typeface; centred. tion, etc. • Tables and fi gures labelled using Arabic numerals and head- Results. Presentation of the results should be logical and ers, explanations and descriptions of illustrations below the cohesive, and closely linked to the data in the tables and fi g- fi gures and the results above the tables should be placed on ures. Referencing results presented in the tables or fi gures, separate pages in the English and Polish versions. Head- the abbreviated name of the table and fi gures (Table 1, Fig. ers, explanations and descriptions below the fi gures and 2) should be placed in parentheses and on the margins of the above the tables should be in English and Polish. work, suggesting their location in the comments. In the main Example: body of the paper, the same results in tables and fi gures cannot Tabela 1., Ryc. 1., Objaśnienia, Chłopcy be repeated. Table 1., Fig. 1., Commentary, Boys Discussion. The author should relate the results to data • Figures and tables should be placed on separate pages from literature (other than described in the introduction), high- (See: Illustrative material); lighting the innovative and signifi cant aspects of his/her work. The adopted hypotheses should be verifi ed or falsifi ed. Title page (English and Polish versions on separate pages Conclusions. Presenting cognitive and applicative fi ndings, – if article is meant for publication in both English and Polish) the posed hypotheses should be considered and vague state- containing the full title of the paper and its short title (up to 40 ments not supported by the results of the research should be characters including spaces) to be placed in the running head, avoided. names of author(s), affi liation of the author(s) presented ac- Acknowledgements. A list of persons or institution(s) con- cording to the following scheme: faculty, university, country, tributing to the preparation of the article, fi nancially or tech- contribution of the co-authors in the creation of the article us- nically supporting the research process or article publication ing symbols in the case of collective works (pattern of symbols may be given. It is particularly desirable to provide the study according to the instructions in IC Publishers Panel); mailing grant number. address of the lead author (author’s full name, address, e-mail References. The bibliographic list contains only items address and phone number). which are referenced in the body of the text. Bibliographic descriptions, enumerated using Arabic numerals and listed Abstract and key words (English and Polish versions on in the order of citation (not in alphabetical order) should be separate pages – if article is meant for publication in both Eng- printed on a separate page. Each referenced item should start lish and Polish), taking the following structure into account: with a new line. The sequenced number of the bibliographical Full title of the work, summary about 250 words with division item, given in square brackets, must correspond to the order into parts: (in English) Purpose. Basic procedures. Main fi nd- of reference to the publication in the body of the text. ings. Conclusions (in Polish: Cel pracy. Materiały i metody. Bibliographic description of the article should include: Wyniki. Wnioski), keywords containing from 3 to 15 words the name of the author(s), initial(s), surname(s), title of the ar- (preferably using the MeSH dictionary); ticle, name of the journal in functioning abbreviated form, year of publication, issue, volume number, pages, DOI number (if the The main body of the text (in English and Polish) publication has one). Bibliographic description should end with a full stop. The main body of the text should include the following The Vancouver Referencing Style, also known as the au- parts: thor-number system of citation, recommended for medical sci- Introduction. Introduction acquaints the reader with the ences should be used in the publication (https://www.library. subject of the article and places it against the background of uq.edu.au/training/citation/vancouv.pdf). Enumeration of the existing research (literature review). referenced texts and principles of citation are defi ned by the At the end of the Introduction, the aim, research problems so called Vancouver Convention drawn up by the ICMJE (Inter- and hypotheses should be clearly stated. national Committee of Medical Journal Editors). According to Material and methods. An accurate description of the it, referencing material from the source in the body of the text research subject (material) should be presented in the meth- should end in the bibliographic item number in square brack- odological part. The number of subjects, their age, sex and ets, e.g. [1]. In the case that reference is made to the authors, other characteristics of the participants should be indicated. the reference is placed immediately after the author’s surname Additionally, information regarding the conditions of testing, (without fi rst name initial) (e.g.: “According to Aronson et al. time and methods, techniques and research instruments, with [23] this study is ...”). particular emphasis on the description of the used apparatus Repetition of the reference to the same publication is done should be given. The name and address of its producer should by its earlier established number. References of attachments be given. If an original method or technique of research was are organized according to the order of their citation in the body used, it should be described precisely by presenting its va- of the text. Citing two or more publications should be included lidity and reliability (reproducibility). In the case of modifying in square brackets in chronological order of their publication. already recognized methods, the applied changes must be Explanatory notes or supplementary text should be num- described and the need for these changes must be justifi ed. bered using the Oxford Referencing System, maintaining con- Statistical methods should be explained so that it can be easily sistency throughout the article.
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Examples Articles published in journal supplements [12] Geraud G, Spierings EL, Keywood C: Tolerability and safety Monograph by no more than six authors: of frovatriptan with short- and long-term use for treatment [1] Butler SW: Secrets from the Black Bag. London: The Royal of migraine and in comparison with sumatriptan. Head- College of General Practitioners; 2005. ache. 2002;42 Suppl 2: S93-9. [2] Cheers B, Darracott R, Lonne B: Social care practice in [13] Glauser TA: Integrating clinical trial data into clinical prac- rural communities. Sydney: The Federation Press; 2007. tice. Neurology. 2002;58 (12 Suppl 7): S6-12. (Issue with supplement) Monograph by more than six authors After the sixth author, the following abbreviation is placed: et al. Articles in journals published in electronic version with- out DOI (digital object identifi er). Enter the URL (Uniform Re- [3] Hofmeyr GJ, Neilson JP, Alfi revic Z, Crowther CA, Gulmezo- source Locator) – journal website) glu AM, Hodnett ED, et al: A Cochrane pocketbook: Preg- nancy and childbirth. Chichester, West Sussex, England: [14] Lemanek K: Adherence issues in the medical manage- John Wiley & Sons Ltd; 2008. ment of asthma. J Pediatr Psychol [Internet]. 1990 [cited 2010 Apr 22];15(4):437-58. Available at: http://jpepsy. Subsequent editions of the monograph (Edition number oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/15/4/437 is placed after the title) Articles in journals published in electronic version, with [4] Murtagh J: John Murtagh’s General Practice. 4th ed. Syd- digital DOI ney: McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd; 2007. [15] Fletcher D, Wagstaff CRD: Organisational psychology in Monograph publisher (collaborative work) elite sport: its emergence, application and future. Psy- chol Sport Exerc. 2009;10(4):427-34. DOI: 10.1016/j. nd [5] Breedlove GK, Schorfheide AM: Adolescent pregnancy. 2 psychsport.2009.03.009. ed. Wieczorek RR, editor. White Plains (NY): March of Dimes [16] Darling E.S. et al .: The role of Twitter in the life cycle Education Services; 2001. of a scientifi c publication. “PeerJ Preprints”, 2013; 1: e16v1. http://dx.doi.org/10.7287/peerj.preprints.16v1. Chapter in the monograph (collaborative work) 2013.09.22. [6] Meltzer PS, Kallioniemi A, Trent JM: Chromosome altera- [17] Donsmark M, Langfort J, Ploug T, Holm C, Enevoldsen tions in human solid tumors. In: Vogelstein B, Kinzler KW, LH, Stallknech B. et al.: Hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) editors. The genetic basis of human cancer. New York: expression and regulation by epinephrine and exercise in McGraw-Hill; 2002. p. 93-113. skeletal muscle. Eur J Sports Sci, 2 (6), 2002. Available at: URL: http://www.humankinetics.com/ejss/bissues. Conference reports (papers) cfm; DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2002.10142575. [7] Christensen S, Oppacher F: An analysis of Koza’s compu- tational effort statistic for genetic programming. In: Foster Articles in journals published in electronic version, found in the PubMed database. JA, Lutton E, Miller J, Ryan C, Tettamanzi AG, editors. Ge- netic programming. EuroGP 2002: Proceedings of the 5th [18] Von Itzstein M, Wu WY, Kok GB, Pegg MS, Dyason JC, European Conference on Genetic Programming; 2002 Apr Jin B, et al.: Rational design of potent sialidase-based 3-5; Kinsdale, Ireland. Berlin: Springer; 2002. p. 182-91. inhibitors of infl uenza virus replication. Nature. 1993 Jun 3; 363(6428): 418-23. Cited in PubMed; PMID 8502295. Monographs published in electronic version [8] Bartlett A. Breastwork: Rethinking breastfeeding [online Important information for authors of articles submitted monograph]. Sydney, NSW: University of New South for publication Wales Press; 2005 [cited 2009 Nov 10]. Available from: In view of the fact that since 2014 onwards, the quarterly NetLibrary. journal will be published in the original electronic version in English, please translate into English: titles of articles in the Articles in journals. Standard, list only six authors, bibliographic listing published in a language other than English, above six – abbreviated: et al. providing the language of the original in square brackets after [9] Snowdon J: Severe depression in old age. Medicine To- the English title. The title of the journal must remain in full day. 2002 Dec; 3(12):40-47. version or in functioning abbreviated form. Example: [10] Skalsky K, Yahav D, Bishara J, Pitlik S, Leibovici L, Paul [19] Jaskólska A, Bogucka, Świstak R, Jaskólski A: Mecha- M: Treatment of human Brucellosis: systematic review nisms, symptoms and after-effects of delayed muscle and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMJ. soreness (DOMS) [in Polish]. Med Sportiva, 2002, 4, 2008 Mar 29; 336(7646): 701-4. 189-201. [11] Rose ME, Huerbin MB, Melick J, Marion DW, Palmer AM, Schiding JK, et al.: Regulation of interstitial excitatory The National Library of Medicine recommends placing amino acid concentrations after cortical contusion in- the English translation of the title in square brackets, and in- jury. Brain Res. 2002; 935 (1-2): 40-6. formation regarding the language of the article after the page
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 5
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numbers (cf. International Committee of Medical Journal Edi- Appropriate Procedures of Reviewing in the Sciences: tors (ICMJE) Recommendations for the Conduct, Reporting, http://bbn.uksw.edu.pl/sites/default/fi les/dobre_praktyki.pdf Editing and Publication of Scholarly Work in Medical Journals: Sample References. Available at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/bsd/ Veracity in Scientifi c Research and Respect for Intel- uniform_requirements.html lectual Property: Example: http://bbn.uksw.edu.pl/node/76 [20] Ellingsen AE, Wilhelmsen I. [Disease anxiety among medi- cal students and law students]. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen. Ethical Principles of a Scientifi c Researcher: 2002 Mar 20; 122(8): 785-7. Norwegian. http://www.instytucja.pan.pl/images/stories/pliki/Komisja_ ds_Etyki_Nauce/dokumenty/Kodeks_etyki_ pracownika_nau- Illustrative material kowego_31.12._2012.pdf • Technical requirements Figures – should follow a consistent background colour Regulations regarding eligibility scheme; do not use grid lines or shading. for printing: Tables – standardized format, reducing grid lines to a mini- mum. • Articles not prepared in accordance with the requirements Example: of the “Article publication requirements” will be returned to the author for improvement. The publisher reserves the Table 1. Differences (d) in body height and mass as well as BMI between student right to remove linguistic defects or apply abbreviations. group A and B • The publisher reserves the right to adjust or condense the text, make improvements related to terminology standard- Group AB Signifi cance d ization. Variable Me SD Me SD level p • The publisher decides whether the article will be released for Age [years] 21.5 3.2 22.0 1.5 –0.5 publication based on the reviewers’ opinions and the respons- Body height 176.2 3.3 178.0 4.1 –1.8 0.567 NS es of the authors or lead author to the reviewers’ comments. [cm] • After translated, proofread and edited, the article is sent to the Body mass 68.3 2.7 79.4 3.5 –11.1 0.005 * author(s) for approval. The publisher sets a one-week dead- [kg] line for submission of further modifi cations by the author. BMI [kg/m2] 22.3 2.2 25.7 2.8 –3.4 0.006 * • Before publication, the author responsible for correspon- dence with the publishing offi ce will receive the article by NS – statistically non-signifi cant difference e-mail (in PDF format), edited in accordance with the jour- * – p<0.05; ** p<0.05; ***p<0.001 nal’s style template, to obtain consent for its publication. At this stage of publishing, only minor, fi nal modifi cations Scanning. The resolution of scanned illustrations must be may be made. Delay in re-submission/consent may cause at least 300 dpi. Black and white illustrations (lines of the art.) the article to be moved to the next issue. should be in TIFF format, or colour and images (grey) in TIFF or JPEG format (low degree of compression, up to 10%). All fi les can be compressed using RAR or ZIP; Symbols, for example: Concluding remarks arrows, asterisks or the abbreviations used in tables or fi gures • Publication of articles in Antropomotoryka. Journal of should be clearly explained in the legend. Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences (JKES) is free of Equations must be written legibly, especially indices and charge. exponents in powers. • The author responsible for correspondence concerning the article receives a free PDF fi le with the issue of the quar- Regulations for reviewing: terly journal, in which his/her paper is published. • Abstracts and full texts in English and Polish are posted • Articles submitted for publication by the IC Publishers on the following websites: http://www.antropomotoryka. Panel are reviewed by at least two independent reviewers. pl/ and http://970.indexcopernicus.com/ The names of the reviewers are not revealed. Authors and • Subscription to issues of the journal published in book reviewers do not know each other’s identity (double-blind format can be ordered for a fee at: joanna.stepien@awf. review process). krakow.pl. • The publisher reveals a list of reviewers to the public once • Distribution and sales of current and archival issues of a year, in the last issue of the quarterly journal. “Antropomotoryka. Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise • Reviews are performed using the IC Publisher Panel review Science” can be found at: worksheet. Reviewers are required to formulate a clear – Department of Academic Research and International Re- conclusion regarding approval or rejection of an article lations at the University School of Physical Education in for publication. Cracow. Address: al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kraków, • Reviewing procedures should be in accordance with the Tel./Fax: 48 12 683 1224; Tel.: +48 12 683 1278. guidelines of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education – Krakow Physical Culture Bookshop. Address: al. Jana of Poland, which may be found on the following websites: Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kraków, Tel./Fax: 48 12 681 36 22.
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CONTENTS
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF’S FOREWORD
SECTION – FUNDAMETAL AND APPLIED KINESIOLOGY Wacław Petryński A scientifi c evening with P. Feyerabend, C.S. Peirce, J.S. Bruner and T.S. Kuhn ...... 11
SECTION – SPORT SCIENCES Grzegorz Sudoł, Wiktor Adamus, Edward Mleczko Models of training race-walkers during the mezocycle of the direct preparation for starts based on the multi-criteria method of the analytic hierarchy process ...... 19
Henryk Duda, Aleksander Stuła Evaluating the level of creative support in teaching football game tactics ...... 33
Iwona Janas Leadership behaviours of coaches, perceived by athletes in basketball and self-effi cacy in youth sport ...... 39
Janusz Jaworski, Leszek Gargula, Dariusz Tchórzewski, Krzysztof Durlik, Ewelina Kołodziej Identifi cation of somatic and functional variables determining the effectiveness of test games in various football training groups ...... 47
Jan Jaszczanin, Wojciech Przybylski, Waldemar Moska, Egle Kemeryte-Riaubiene, Grzegorz Chruściński Physiological and biochemical changes in adolescent Judo athletes caused by training during the start period ...... 57
SECTION – EXERCISE SCIENCES Krzysztof Kmiecik, Henryk Król, Grzegorz Sobota Are lower limb electromyogram profi les symmetrical during a barbell squat? (A case study) ...... 65
Iwona Sulowska, Anna Mika, Łukasz Oleksy The infl uence of plantar short foot muscle exercises on foot posture and gait parameters in long-distance runners ...... 75
Helena Popławska, Adam Wilczewski, Agnieszka Dmitruk, Wojciech Hołub The effect of physical activity level on body build and physical fi tness of girls and boys aged 10-19 ...... 87
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 7
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EDITOR-IN-CHIEF’S FOREWORD
THE 78TH ISSUE OF ANTROPOMOTORYKA: CONFIDENCE AND RELIABILITY IN THE PRACTICE AND THEORY OF HUMAN MOTOR ABILITY, A CONTINUATION
The relations between theory and practice are quite is headed. And how should this truth be understood? tight in physics. Unfortunately, in biology, and – all the According to the reconstruction of Einstein and Popper’s more – in psychology and in motor control, the theory is stances, it can be assumed that scientifi c truth should by far more distal to reality than in physics. meet at least fi ve important cognitive values. These are: 1. Generality (high degree of generalisation), 2. Exact- (Wacław Petryński: A scientifi c evening with ness, accuracy, precision (high degree of exactness, ac- P. Feyerabend, C.S. Peirce, J.S. Bruner and T.S. Kuhn) curacy), 3. High informational content, 4. High logical simplicity, and 5. Epistemological certainty. It would be diffi cult to disagree with the author of the Yes, these fi ve mentioned cognitive goals, reach- above-motto, coming from his considerations found in ing them, causes science to attain the non-trivial truth, the article titled A scientifi c evening with P. Feyerabend, i.e., theoretically interesting and useful at the same time, C.S. Peirce, J.S. Bruner and T.S. Kuhn, stating that “(...) which allows learning to fulfi l two important social func- in biology, and – all the more – in psychology and in tions: 1. Theoretical function consisting in a better un- motor control, the theory is by far more distal to reality derstanding of the world and, 2. Practical function, to than in physics”. It should be added, however, that more provide people with better, i.e. more and more accurate broadly, in the science of human motor ability, and per- and more reliable, predictions for effective action. haps also in empirical sciences, there is no better theory Adding K. Popper’s accurate claim that the objective than good practice (as it has already been noted a long of science should be relatively considered, depending on time ago!). the context of considerations, we have been trying fulfi l Scientifi c knowledge owes its high cognitive sta- the mission of presenting scientifi c knowledge regarding tus to the fact that science is focused on acquiring the human motor activity on the pages of our Krakow Antro- non-trivial truth, which is diffi cult to reach, but is both pomotoryka – Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sci- theoretically interesting and practically useful. It is truth ences (JKES) for more than a quarter of a century. In one which is fi rst and foremost, theoretically interesting. It section, we publish articles - the goal of which is to seek serves, after all, the theoretical function of explaining only the truth (“truth-entitlement”), and in another – the and understanding phenomena and processes taking search for respectable explanations, or those only erect- place in the world. But it is also practically useful, serv- ing claims about high information content (“content of ing to fulfi l a second important - social function – one theory”). I believe that our maintaining on the publishing that is practical, and thus to anticipate the occurrence market in Poland for such a long period of time and with and course of phenomena. Prediction is termed as the such high competition, proves the legitimacy of prolong- function of practical learning due to the fact that without ing this mission of the Krakow journal for coming years. predicting what is to occur, there is no effective action, Undoubtedly, this is due to our faithful readers and that is, transforming reality in accordance with human colleagues. The author of the aforementioned, further needs. Therefore, the specifi c practical function of sci- column, has been a part of our journal’s circle for many ence consists in providing social systems (including years. It really is worth studying. According to the Editor- sports, physical education, recreation, rehabilitation or in-Chief’s comment, its content stimulates discussion broad participation in physical culture) with knowledge on the mission of our journal and, more broadly, on the and skills that ensure effective functioning. This is, fi rst issue of status in the structure of scientifi c knowledge of all, technical and functional knowledge of predictive under the name of anthropomotorics (or as others would nature. There is no effective action without prediction. call it - motor theory). It is to be hoped that after reading Explanation and understanding of phenomena would be the next empirical articles published in the 78th issue of impossible without the assumption that the attainable Antropomotoryka. Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise goal of science is real cognition, towards which science Sciences (JKES),readers will share the earlier expressed
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 9
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view on what is considered worthy of presentation in physical activity on somatic and motor development in a journal of scientifi c profi le. children from a rural environment, in the article: The ef- In the section of Sport Sciences, in three articles, the fect of physical activity level on body build and physical authors draw attention to the importance of supporting fi tness of girls and boys aged 10-19, the results of two decision-making during various situations in competitive interesting experiments can be found. sports. In the article titled Models of training race-walk- In the work: Are lower limb electromyogram profi les ers during the mezocycle of the direct preparation for symmetrical during a barbell squat? (A case study), the starts based on the multi-criteria method of the analytic impact of physical load on changes in EMG profi les and hierarchy process, the possibility of applying an interest- motor patterns (values of angles in the lower limb joints) ing multi-criterial mathematical method in making deci- during the performance of a barbell squat with increasing sions while developing a training model of a race-walker load was considered. On this basis, the degree of sym- preparing for participation in the Olympics in Rio de Ja- metry of six homologous muscles (tibialis anterior, gas- neiro was used in Poland for the fi rst time. The author of trocnemius medius, rectus femoris, biceps femoris, glu- this method, as well as the Super Decisions and Expert teus maximus and the erector spinae) was determined. Choice TM computer programmes available for calcula- The research results allowed to determine the impact of tions, was the American outstanding eminent mathema- increased load on the rise in asymmetry of the homolo- tician, economist and politician – T. Saaty – who sadly, gous muscle profi les. Furthermore, greater asymmetry of passed away last year. the subject during the squat with a maximal load caused The content of the article titled: Evaluating the level worseningin movement smoothness. of creative support in teaching football game tactics em- In turn, based on the results of research presented phasizes the need for implementation of modern decision- in the article titled The infl uence of plantar short foot making methods in teaching tactics. Based on the results muscle exercises on foot posture and gait parameter in of a diagnostic survey conducted among Polish football runners, it was proven that there is a positive effect of clubs, attention was paid to the unsatisfactory state and plantar short foot muscle exercises on their shape and conditions for conducting modern tactical training among gait technique in people practicing long-distance running young footballers. at an amateur level. In the work Leadership behaviours of coaches per- Concluding a very brief review of the contents in the ceived by athletes in basketball and self-effi cacy in youth 78th issue of our scientifi c periodical, it is not appropriate sport, the importance regarding young athletes’ aware- for the editor to prove true the thesis posed at the begin- ness of the role of a coach’s leadership in solving tactical ning stating that in the nine articles, fi ve of the listed ob- tasks by them during a match is greatly highlighted. jectives of scientifi c cognition have been achieved. It is The next two works included in the Sport Sciences believed that readers will give their positive opinion about section, refer to issues of training effectiveness concern- the scientifi c knowledge included in the content. This will ing motor potential among athletes at various stages of undoubtedly be great compensation for the effort put into sports championships. In the article Identifi cation of so- the publication of this next issue of the Krakow scientifi c matic and functional variables determining the effective- journal. The effort of the whole editorial staff who have ness of test games in various football training groups, been performing social work for years, and of the au- the authors addressed the topic of improving somatic thors who in their articles, aimed to attain the non-trivial and motor potential of young football players’ technique. truth, i.e., theoretically interesting and simultaneously On the basis of empirical research, they proved that the useful. In this way, for years we have been contribut- effectiveness of technical solutions for a selected game ing to a better understanding of the essence of physical fragment (1x1) is determined by different models of so- activity of man practicing sports, or even just physical matic and motor potential at various stages of ontoge- exercises performed to improve oneself, and we provide netic development and sports advancement. knowledge about better and better, i.e. more and more In the article Physiological and biochemical changes accurate, predictions for effective action. in adolescent Judo athletes caused by training during With such conviction, we hand over the next issue start period, the existence of the low impact of young of our, now just Krakow, Antropomotoryka. Journal of judo athletes’ training on the level of maximal oxygen up- Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences (JKES), to our read- take and greater – on improving the maximal anaerobic ers, wishing a positive intellectual experience. power of their muscles is noted. In the Exercise Sciences section, apart from the well- Editor-in-Chief recognized problem of the positive impact of increased Edwar d Mleczko
10 Antropomotoryka
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SECTION – EXERCISE SCIENCES
(1.1) DOI:
A SCIENTIFIC EVENING WITH P. FEYERABEND, C.S. PEIRCE, J.S. BRUNER AND T.S. KUHN
Wacław Petryński Authors’ contribution: A. Study design/planning B. Data collection/entry Katowice School of Economics C. Data analysis/statistics Katowice, Poland D. Data interpretation E. Preparation of manuscript F. Literature analysis/search G. Funds collection Keywords: certainty, reliability, theory creation, inventiveness in motor control
Abstract
The author emphasises the constructivist nature of science and the specifi c role of abduction in creation of theories. He points out to eclectic nature of science and theory creation and compares scientists’ strategy to that of Foraminifera, as described by E. Heron-Allen. To build tests around their uni-cellular organisms they use any suitable grain of sand. The only mechanism for theory building is the abduction, eclectic by its nature. Basing on that, the author presents language not as a passive tool for reality description, but as an active instrument for sci- ence creation. He illustrates it with the specifi c interplay between notions “certainty” and “reliability”. Such an interplay unveils specifi c mechanisms underlying creation, development and improvement of theories (and science as a whole, as well). He points to the fact that certainty belongs to the sphere of abstraction, and reliability – to the sphere of practice. The relations between theory and practice are quite tight in physics. Unfortunately, in biology, and – all the more – in psychology and in motor control, the theory is by far more distal to reality than in physics. As a result, in motor control the share of theoretical reasoning in motor control is by far greater than observations and measurements. In motor control the intellectual courage is, then, by far more needed than the experimental diligence.
Eagles soar, but weasels never get sucked into jet engines. only the grains of sand of specifi c parameters to build Elf Sternberg a test around their one-cellular bodies. Still later, in 1941, L. Cuénot attributed some kind of intelligence to each cell Introduction of a living organism [4]. Accordingly, intelligence is not a “divine gift”, which only human individuals dispose of, In 1881 C. Darwin stated: but an information processing strategy ubiquitous in the world of living creatures. If worms have the power of acquiring some notion, however rude, In science, what might be termed “Foraminifera strat- of the shape of an object and over their burrows, as seems to egy” is often described, rather pejoratively, „eclectic”. be the case, they deserve to be called intelligent; for they act However, whole science is in fact eclectic, because just in nearly the same manner as would man under similar circum- stances [1]. the mental diversity underlies its fertility. On the other hand, methodologically pure „inbreeding” wallows in tau- In 1906 H.S. Jennings argued that even the behaviour tologies and fi nally leads to intellectual impotence. of Protozoa may be termed “intelligent” [2] In his work It is worth noting that eclecticism makes the very of 1915 E. Heron-Allen argued that one-cellular Foramin- heart of the greatest intellectual achievement of human- ifera dispose of a kind of intelligence [3]. At that time, ity, i.e., the culture. Thanks to invention of speech, it be- it sounded not simply revolutionary: it was a heresy! came possible to make use of valuable ideas, no matter, Heron-Allen has observed that the Foraminifera select when and where they are conceived. In other words, lan-
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 11
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guage enabled elimination of temporal and spatial con- (proprioceptive, contactceptive, teleceptive, verbal and straints existing in reality identifi able by senses. In fact, symbolic) [5]. This is why this branch of science cannot the term “eclectic” is by no means pejorative. rely on experimental observations to such an extent as, Symptomatically, in such an approach the intelli- say, physics. Consequently, in motor control the share of gence cannot be regarded as a highest developed infor- mental speculations is by far greater than that of obser- mation processing technique in living beings. This made vations or measurements. Here the appeal of mathema- a basis for specifi c defi nitions of intelligence, intuition tician and physicist A. Sokal sounds especially instruc- and instinct [5], which together make a system (intel- tively: Don’t ape the natural sciences! [9]. Sometimes lect), and not a sum. In fact, the intelligence is the most apparent, superfi cial similarities may result with analo- primeval of them. This testifi es to the fact that in science gous relations being observed in reality, yet the mecha- terminology is not a passive tool for description, but an nisms underlying the phenomena or processes under active instrument co-creating the science. consideration may be diametrically different. This is why in motor control experimental research cannot support 1. Truth, Freedom and (Motor) Science scientifi c reasoning to such an extent, as it is in physics.
In my papers from the series A scientifi c evening… 2. Certainty, reliability and progress in science I follow the same strategy as Foraminifera do. In this ar- ticle, the fi rst eligible „grain of sand” is the idea by P. However diffi cult its creation may be, just the ab- Feyerabend that the development of human knowledge stract theory makes the very heart of science. This may results from a specifi c interplay of Truth and Freedom be illustrated with the Street Lamp Analogy [10]. Let us [6]. In short, the sober Truth orders the achievements if develop this idea to a greater extent. The idea of “ab- human mind and makes them useful, whereas the day- ductive reasoning pillar” of the lamp bases on theories dreaming Freedom makes the leading edge of intellectual of both C.S. Peirce [11] and J.S. Bruner [12]. In short, progress. The former is rather safe, the latter – risky. theory is being actively created by a scientist (Bruner) This is expressed by another „grain of sand” – the motto using the methodology of abduction (Peirce). to this paper. The “output end” of science may be regarded as The Freedom exists in the sphere of abstraction, the a specifi c interplay of abstract certainty and real reliabil- Truth – in reality. They are only indirectly dependent on ity [5]. The former is a “daughter” of theory, born as each other. Where a specifi c resonance between Free- a result of deduction, which – by defi nition – is infallible. dom and Truth occurs, the Science is being born; the However, the latter is the “granddaughter” of theory, term “resonance” in this respect has been used by M. which should be unfailing. Unfortunately, abstract cer- Heller [7]. However, sober Truth underlies properly or- tainty not always is followed by practical reliability. dered science, whereas fl ighty Freedom – generously In science, the language is not a passive tool for inventive philosophy. The former is intellectually stiff, reality description, but an active instrument for science the latter – fl exible, so their ways only in some short creation [5, 13]. The differentiation of the terms “cer- fragments may fall into resonance – in those regions the tainty” and “reliability” may underlie the specifi c model science is being born – and then inevitably have to part of science development. At fi rst, newly created theory is of each other. being applied rather timidly (Fig. 1). Consequently, such Such a relation underlies a general mechanism of an “underestimated theory” is not used in full and has science creation. In physics, the ways of Truth and Free- some “application reserves”. dom run rather close to each other, hence detection of By the way. Such an interpretation of language may a specifi c resonance is quite easy. Probably because of contribute to simplifi cation of the division of language this, just the physics developed explosively since 17th functions into communicative and representative, invent- century. However, in living beings – and especially in ed by N. Chomsky [14]. In fact, as the essence of such humans – the mechanisms of such a resonance, under- division may be regarded time perception. If linguistic lying the motor behaviour, is much more complicated. representation concern items, phenomena or processes, The relations between Truth and Freedom are by far less which exist or happen “here and now”, this might be obvious and much more complicated. Roughly, they identifi ed with the communicative function of language. are determined by many factors of various resonance It consists in simple assigning a specifi c word to a given frequencies. Sometimes only one of them falls into item, phenomenon, or process. The other function – resonance with external infl uences. Such a resonance is which may be roughly associated with the representative being termed “parametric resonance” [8]. In motor con- one as by Chomsky – includes the active time percep- trol in humans, this is still more complicated, because tion. It enables extending the verbal descriptions of real- particular parameters are also of various modalities ity beyond the limited scope of “here and now”, far into
12 Antropomotoryka
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THEORY Abductive reasoning
Possible Actual reliability certainty
Figure 1. The underestimated theory
past and into future. Especially the latter is responsible conditional esteem – however justifi ed it may be – but for probably the highest developed intellectual poten- a barbarian “sparring-partnerism” makes the “engine” of tiality of a living creature: the ability to anticipation. Its science development (and sometimes progress). meaning in motor control – the “model of desired future” According to Popper, if a given theory does not pro- – has been illustratively described by I.M. Feigenberg duce reliability, then it should be rejected. This would be [15]. To sum up, one might imagine only one function justifi ed if a theory were a mental structure, shaped once of language – the representative one – with division into and for all. However, according the constructivist para- time independent and time dependent sub-categories. digm by J.S. Bruner, a theory is rather freely shaped by Along with time passing, the new theory becomes a scientist. R.A. Schmidt wrote: more and more “tamed”. Consequently, one has to do with the process termed “testing the limits” [16]. As Since laws are the product of human creativity, different laws can be formulated by two different individuals who are examining the same ob- a result, fi nally the regions of actual certainty and pos- servations. Laws do not automatically spring forth from the facts [18]. sible reliability coincide with each other (Fig. 2). In such a model the limits of “possible reliability” and the “work- Accordingly, laws or theories are in fact rather “plas- ing reliability” overlap each other. tic” mental structures, liable to corrections. This makes While looking at Fig. 2 one may learn that in such a basis for “logic of loops” as by M. Heller [19]. Thus, a model a theory is not an “absolutely versatile” men- an imperfect theory may be improved, and not neces- tal structure, but it is tightly (though usually indirectly) sarily refuted. associated with a specifi c portion of reality. Moreover, If a given theory works well in practice (i.e., produces a specifi c interplay between certainty and reliability en- reliability) then it becomes more and more trustworthy dows it with some fl exibility. and… petrifi ed. So the paradigms according to T.S. Kuhn The proposed interpretation of relation between cer- are being born. They may become dangerous to scientifi c tainty and reliability enables another look at the principle progress, because, as Kuhn – the author of theory of sci- of refutability by K.R. Popper [17]. In this paper, we will entifi c revolutions – argued, “rules… derive from para- treat him not as an unshakeable intellectual monument, digms, but paradigms can guide research even in the ab- but as an intellectual sparring-partner. In fact, not an un- sence of rules” [20]. Paradigmatic petrifi cation foretells
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 13
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THEORY Abductive reasoning
Possible reliability = working reliability = actual certainty
Figure 2. The well estimated theory; the possible reliability equals to working reliability and fully coincides with the actual certainty
the scientifi c revolution and destruction of a “stiff” para- ing theory” should be perfected rather, and not refuted, as digm. Let us remember that the inventive Freedom has to it K.R. Popper suggested. In short, the dissonance should be fl exible. Therefore, it cannot be harnessed by petrifi ed be killed, and not the theory. Only if this turns out to be Truth, and Science is being born only where Truth and impossible, the theory may be put into pasture or even Freedom go hand in hand. However, if stiff constraints of buried. However paradoxically it may sound, perfection of Truth become too hard for Freedom, the latter casts off a theory bases on the fact that it cannot be perfect, and them. Just this – the divergence of Truth and Freedom – thus opens the way for feedback. makes the basis for Kuhn’s scientifi c revolution. By the way: Not accidentally, the word “disproved” However, each theory is a simplifi cation and, as a re- has been written in quotation marks. Theory “resides” sult, its fi eld of validity is limited. When one tries to apply in the sphere of abstraction, hence it is valid by logi- it beyond this fi eld (Fig. 3, light grey ring), it produces cal proof, and not by experimental verifi cation. The latter actual certainty, indeed, but not the working reliability. may testify not to correctness of the theory, but to its The light grey ring in the Fig. 3, where the theory turns applicability (or not) in practice. out to be irrelevant, makes the action space for a cogni- Unfortunately, though the certainty seems to be obvi- tive dissonance [21]. This stimulates one of the most ous, the limits of applicability and reliability of a given the- marvellous mechanisms “invented” by evolution: the ory are not easily visible. This was illustratively expressed feedback [5]. by novelist J. Rydzewska, who wrote: Consequently, the process of testing the limits might be termed “pursuit of irrelevancy”. In the fi eld of social …and, besides, the Shreckinger’s cat not exactly was a joke, because sciences its equivalent is the Peter principle that “in a hi- at defi nite point such joke becomes truth, but nobody knows, where precisely that point lies, and why just there, and this lack of knowledge erarchy, every employee tends to rise to his level of in- makes a problem, and yet the key to solving the problem [23]. competence” [22]. If a given theory does not work in practice, then it This citation concerns the famous physical paradox does not necessary mean that the theory should be refut- termed “Schrödinger’s cat”. While applied the quantum ed (or “disproved”), but that it went beyond actual limits physics logics to the phenomena and processes observ- of its possible reliability (Fig. 3). Therefore, a “not-work- able in reality, then one may imagine a cat, which is both
14 Antropomotoryka
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dead and alive. In the world where we live, it is contradic- The light grey ring in Fig. 3 evokes one more refl ec- tory to the common sense. tion. An idea analogous to self-limiting of science by Consequently, in science the problem is not to Heller [7] has been expressed by J. Cohen and I. Stewart, “prove” or “disprove” the validity of a theory, but to de- who stated that the “A Theory of Everything would have limit its fi eld of applicability. Creation of quantum physics the whole universe wrapped up. And that’s precisely what did not cause putting the Newtonian physics to the pas- would make it useless” [24]. This is why the existence of ture. M. Heller remarked: a cognitive dissonance is necessary for those who really create Science (with great “S”). It is almost regularity in the history of physics that the mathemati- The situation as in Fig. 3 deserves a more detailed cal structure of a given theory becomes known in full only when this theory has already been replaced with a new one [7]. analysis. “Genuine scientists” do not accept going be- yond the limits of working reliability; the dangerous re- The same author argued that the progress in science gion beyond these limits they term “not scientifi c” or is possible only because of its self-limiting, i.e., looking “daydreaming”. If the phenomena from the light grey for answering the questions that can be answered. In other outer ring in Fig. 3 become more and more important words, the dark grey circle of working reliability should be in daily practice, the Kuhn’s scientifi c revolution be- extended gradually. However, this may happen only when comes necessary. However, it may be done by “day- the light grey ring of a “beyond limit certainty” exists. Just dreamers”, and not by “genuine scientists”. This idea there appears necessity of improving the already exist- has been expressed by many Great Minds. According ing theory, just there “resides” a cognitive dissonance, to H. Poincaré, “it is by logic we prove; it is by intuition which might be termed “engine of development”. So, in we discover”. M. Planck argued, “Scientifi c discovery science important are not only the successful scientists; and scientifi c knowledge have been achieved only by also those unsuccessful are – even more – necessary to those who have gone in pursuit of it without any practi- pave a way for progress. In this respect highly illustrative cal purpose whatsoever in view”. Engineer W. von Braun is the statement by L. Tomlin that “the road to success is stated: “Research is what I’m doing when I don’t know always under construction”. what I’m doing”. Polymath C.F. Kettering remarked that
THEORY Abductive reasoning
Working Actual reliability certainty
Figure 3. Overestimated theory; the actual certainty goes beyond the working reliability
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 15
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“An inventor is simply a fellow who doesn’t take his edu- ing, risky scientifi c thinking is absolutely necessary. And cation too seriously”. Probably most frivolous and witty unavoidable. formulation of this idea comes from R. Feynman, who As already mentioned, in physics the “real body” of said that “Physics is like sex: sure, it may give some phenomena and processes and its “mathematical gown” practical results, but that’s not why we do it”. However, so tightly fi t to each other that new observations may be though wallowing in the light-grey ring in Fig. 3.1 needs nearly directly transformed into theory correction and per- what may be termed “higher order thinking”, the way to- fection. Unfortunately, the tangible reality, where the motor ward progress is lined with dead bodies of daydreamers, behaviour of living beings, including humans, takes place mercilessly exterminated by “genuine scientists”, armed is so distant to its abstract representation – theory – that with infertile, yet effi cient scientifi c paradigms. the observations cannot be translated directly into a theo- ry and vice versa. To be brief, in biology and – all the more 3. Theory creation in motor control – in psychology and motor control, the “abductive pillar” as in Figs. 1 through 3, has to be by far higher than that However diffi cult its creation may be, just the ab- in physics. Therefore, in motor control sheer “aping the stract theory makes the very heart of science. Not the natural science” seems to be especially fruitless, however “naked” experimental results obtained even with the most technologically advanced and “fashionable“ it can be. In sophisticated technical laboratory equipment and fl aw- short, the motor control scientifi c matter is for far-sighted lessly processed statistically. As it J. Cohen and I. Stewart daydreamers, and not for learned laboratory workers, with stated, “At least 999 out of thousand scientifi c papers are their noses in computer monitors. about complex details, but the one that we treasure and for which we award a Nobel Prize is the one that reveals Conclusion a new simplicity. It is as if simplicities are all around, but scattered rather thinly. Some scientists are rather good at In a nutshell, while seen from the perspective pre- laying hands on them; they must have the right kind of sented in this paper, the creation of science consists in mind, seeing the world with unusual clarity. Albert Ein- incessant going beyond the limit of dark grey “possible stein specialized in big simplicities, and so did Paul Dirac, reliability” circle, in continuous wallowing in light grey Gregor Mendel, and Dimitri Mendeleev” [24]. ring as in Fig. 3. In this respect, let us remember the The latter needs a comment, coming also from J. Co- motto to this paper: “Eagles soar, but weasels never hen and I. Stewart, who remarked that “A theory is a kind get sucked into jet engines”, which may be regarded as of code that transforms complicated messages from na- a leading idea of “genuine scientists”. Jet engine is mind- ture into much simpler ones” [23]. From such a perspec- less and indifferent to novelties – like Kuhn’s scientifi c tive, the science as a whole may be regarded as a uni- paradigm. Unfortunately, the essence of motor science versal, all-embracing process of searching for simplicity. resides at such high regions of abstraction, where intel- It makes the collected knowledge graspable for human lectual soaring is absolutely necessary. Therefore, one minds and thus useful in practice. may confront the timid (and non-productive) aphorism Unfortunately, scientifi c simplicity cannot spring out by E. Sternberg with the brave (and productive) words automatically from the experimental results. It is a prod- of Yeshua Ha-Nozri – the character from “Master and uct of mind rather, and not an already existing item which Margarita” – that “Cowardice is the most terrible of vic- needs only be discovered. In this respect, arduous, dar- es”[25]. Also in science. Particularly in motor science.
References
[1] Darwin C: The formation of vegetable mould, through the action of worms, with observation on their habits. London: John Murray, Albermale Street; 1881. [2] Jennings HS: Behavior of the lower organisms. New York, NY: The Columbia University Press; 1906. [3] Kaminski MA: Edward Heron-Allen and his theory of “purpose and intelligence” in the Foraminifera. (In:) Whittaker JE, edi- tor, Edward Heron-Allen FRS: Scientist’ Proceedings of the 4th Heron-Allen Symposium, 2004, Opusculum VII. Chichester: Heron-Allen Society; 2005. p. 11-31. [4] Cuénot L: Invention and fi nality in biology. Flamarion, 26, rue Racuine, Paris (in French); 1941. [5] Petryński W: Motor control in humans. A system-theoretical approach. Nova Science Publishers, Hauppauge, NY; 2016. [6] Feyerabend P: How to defend society against science. (In:) Klemke ED, Hollinger R, Rudge DW, editors, Introductory read- ings in the philosophy of science, New York, NY: Prometheus Book; 1998. p. 54-65. [7] Heller M: Philosophy of science. Introduction [in Polish]. Krakow: Petrus; 2011. [8] Morawski JM (2009). Locomotion rhythms and their stigma in human psychomotor and operator abilities. Antropomoto- ryka. 2009; 46; 83-99.
16 Antropomotoryka
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[9] Sokal A, Bricmont J: Fashionable nonsense: Postmodern intellectuals’ abuse of science. New York, NY: Picador; 1998. [10] Petryński W: A scientifi c evening with Aristotle, C.S. Peirce and A. Einstein. Antropomotoryka. 2016; 74: 95-107. [11] Peirce CS: Collected papers of Charles Sanders Peirce. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1958. [12] Bruner JS: Going beyond the information given. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company; 1973. [13] Petryński W: The force of word and the word “force” [in Polish]. Sport Wyczynowy. 2004. 5-6: 120-123. [14] Kurcz I: Memory, learning, language [in Polish]. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN; 1995. [15] Feigenberg IM: The model of the future in motor control. (In:) Latash ML, editor. Progress in Motor Control. 1998, 1, p. 89-103. [16] Kliegl R, Smith J, Baltes PB: Testing-the-limits and study of adult age differences in cognitive plasticity of a mnemonic skills, Developmental Psychology. 1989. 25(2). p. 247-256. [17] Popper KR: Conjectures and refutations. The growth of scientifi c knowledge. London: Routledge; 2002. [18] Schmidt RA: Motor control and learning. A behavioral emphasis. Second edition. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publish- ers, Inc.; 1988. [19] Hohol M: To explain the mind [in Polish]. Krakow: Copernicus Center Press; 2013. [20] Kuhn TS: The structure of scientifi c revolutions. Second edition, enlarged. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press; 1970. [21] Festinger L: A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press; 1985. [22] Peter LJ, Hull R: The Peter Principle. Harper Collins Publishers, New York, NY; 2009. [23] Rydzewska J: Shreckinger’s cat [In Polish]. (In:) Jedenaście pazurów. Antologia. Warsaw: Supernowa; 2010. p. 16-67. [24] Cohen J, Stewart IN: The collapse of chaos. Discovering simplicity in a complex world. London: Penguin Books; 2000. [24] Bulgakov MA: The Master and Margarita. New York. Penguin Books; 2008.
Author for correspondence: Wacław Petryński E-mail: [email protected]
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 17
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SECTION – SPORT SCIENCES
(1.1) DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0011.6798
MODELS OF TRAINING RACE-WALKERS DURING THE MEZOCYCLE OF THE DIRECT PREPARATION FOR STARTS BASED ON THE MULTI-CRITERIA METHOD OF Authors’ contribution: A. Study design/planning THE ANALYTIC HIERARCHY PROCESS B. Data collection/entry C. Data analysis/statistics D. Data interpretation 1 ABCDF 2 ACDF E. Preparation of manuscript Grzegorz Sudoł , Wiktor Adamus , F. Literature analysis/search Edward Mleczko1 ADEFG G. Funds collection
1 Institute of Sports, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Physical Educa- tion in Krakow, Poland 2 Institute of Economics, Finance and Management, Faculty of Management and Social Com- munication, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Poland
Keywords: 50 km race-walkers, direct preparation for start (DPS), multi-criteria method for decision support AHP
Abstract
Aim. In the sports training of the best competitors around the world, there are many ways to organize the direct preparation for a start. This training stage usually determines success. Despite such awareness, there is no knowledge as to which training system model can be considered the best in preparation for the most important sports event. Selection of the most effective variant of a champion’s sports training system in direct preparation for the Olympic Games in the 50 km race-walk. Basic procedures. In our research, we based on the assumptions of the multi-criteria Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), which was developed by T.L. Saaty. The goal of the work progressed steadily: the main criteria (training measures, renewal, volume, Substantive structure training, base) were determined and subcriteria were allocated to them. A multi-level structure of the problem was built in the form of a hierarchical tree with respect to the main objective. A special interview with questionnaire was developed utilizing Saaty’s 9-level fundamental comparison scale. These interviews were conducted with 14 coaches of the best athletes in Poland and the world in the 50 km race-walk. It’s the purpose of the study was to defi ne the main criteria and sub- criteria within the structure of hierarchical dominance (preferences, weights). The article gives the priority (weight) for all criteria and subcriteria as the geometric average of all the trainers’ answers. The subsequent step in fi nding the best way to prepare the athletes for the 50 km race-walk was to develop training models and choose the best alternative. The computer programms Super Decisions and Expert ChoiceTM were used to perform calculations.
Results. Among the 5 established criteria, training measures were the highest (Ptr. meas.=0.389) for all experts (coaches). Analysis shows that training in the DPS is the most important criterion. The next two measures (Substantive structure training and
base) were given equal priorities (Pmat. str.= PB=0.180). Less important was the volume (Pvol.=0.146), and the least important – re-
newal (Pren.=0.104). The sum of the priorities is always 1 (100%). The highest global priority was achieved by the PE subcriterion (19.61%). Among the 4 decision alternatives (training models), the best turned out to be the model by the younger-generation Polish coaches. Conclusion. The AHP is an adequate tool that demonstrates the fi ndings well, therefore it may be suitable in choosing the most appropriate training alternative in the direct preparation for a start in the 50 km race-walk.
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 19
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Introduction non-measurable (elusive, intangible) things in numerical terms in the form of priorities. The results of the study Developing an optimal training system for top-level allow us to choose a decision which, given the criteria sporting events is the main task of champion training in chosen, will be the most favourable. This method is con- every sports disciplines. The importance of organizing sidered among the best in the world in the context of direct preparation for the most important start is among multi-criteria decision-making. It is successfully used in the many components of time structure in sports train- countries such as the U.S.A., Indonesia, China, Japan. ing. This is a very important issue. In spite of this aware- It is also in continuous use as support and in making ness, according to sports theorists [1], only 34-40% of important decisions by, among others, NASA, the U.S. athletes reach the peak of sports condition during the Army, the U.S. Navy, IBM, Boeing, Shell. It is also utilized target event. Improperly planned or conducted training in in various fi elds of science and social life (economics direct preparation for a start (DPS) can waste the work and management, economics, technology, negotiation) put into the entire training macrocycle or even several to study multicriterial problems [5, 6]. years of it [2]. In turn, proper preparation of Polish cham- In Poland, T.L. Saaty’s method of AHP was widely pions in swimming and Track-and-Field for the most im- distributed mainly by Krakow researchers [7-10]. So portant event in the world demonstrated improvement in far, it has not found much use in solving decision prob- personal bests [2]. lems in sports. Assessing costs, benefi ts and threats Most often in the improvement of time structure or- of organizing the large international EURO 2012 sports ganization, simulation in several variants (3-5) of phases event in Poland was based on its assumptions [11], and is considered: reconstruction, intensifi cation and super- in modelling the restructurization of hockey recruitment compensation, occurring in subsequent 7-day training and selection system in Nowy Targ, which was con- microcircuits. In addition, the impact of such variables sidered in the past “the capital of ice hockey Poland” as: sport discipline, adaptability of the athlete, regulations, a long time ago [12]. Thanks to this method, important terms and conditions of the competition, are also con- arguments for the organization of the Olympic Winter sidered. Based on theoretical assumptions and practical Games in Krakow-Zakopane were also gained, which – experience, it is a very impoverished set of factors de- unfortunately for various reasons, will not be organized termining the effectiveness of training developed in direct in Poland or Slovakia (reneuszras.pl/relacja-z-konfe preparation for a start of the best athletes in the world. It is rencji). known that starting effi ciency depends on taking a num- The choice of method was thought out and dictated ber of other factors into account. In sports theory [2, 3], by the desire to break the belief that the sport training they are grouped into 5 basic subsystems determining system is a complementary one in which all elements are success in sports, such as: of great importance. In the Analytic Hierarchy Process 1. qualifi cation for sport: recruitment and selection, (AHP), the main criteria and their subtypes are distin- 2. prediction: development of the sports discipline, sports guished by having a different contribution to explaining the results and shaping sports careers, phenomenon. Alike every multi-criteria and one-criterion 3. infrastructure and fi nancial security of training (base), method, the proposition of T.L. Saaty’s method also has 4. level of knowledge of the training staff (training cham- its advantages and some limitations [6, 13]. It is charac- pionship), terized by simplicity, versatility, generality and fl exibility. 5. central training link: training sessions, competitions This makes it possible for those without mathematical (rivalry), renewal. education to use it. The methodological approach comes In attempting to develop an optimal variant of direct down to three principles: decomposition of the problem, preparation for the start (in DPS) of a race-walker rep- expression of opinion by comparison and hierarchical resenting the championship international class, in our composition (synthesis) of priorities. Research methods study we tried to use a different methodological approach and standard tools are used. The use of the AHP method to organizing the training system. It was based on the leads to the selection of the best model (in our case, di- Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). Its creator was Prof. rect preparation for starting in the Olympic Games) from Thomas L. Saaty, honorary doctor of the Jagiellonian Uni- different alternative versions. versity, eminent mathematician, economist, psychologist and politician and long-time professor at the University of Aim of own research Pittsburgh. The Analytic Hierarchy Process is one of the heu- Selecting the most effective variant of a champion’s ristic methods border-lining on two separate domains, sports training system in direct preparation for the Olym- practically combining elements of mathematics and psy- pic Games in the 50 km race-walk using the Analytic chology. The main domain of this method is to present Hierarchy Process.
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Research questions – hierarchical composition of the problem consisting in multiplying the value of local criteria by the values 1. What main and sub-criteria are currently preferred of the global criteria, and then adding them to the in the direct preparation for a start in the most im- values of the elements placed lowest. Values of the portant competitions around the world by the best criteria – the so-called priorities, are obtained after coaches of champions in the 50 km race-walk? normalizing the vector of their matrix, 2. Which training system model used in the direct prepa- – choice of alternatives (models) in order for an ex- ration for starts in the most important competitions pert to compare them with one another using Saaty’s around the world used by trainers for the 50 km race- 9-grade scale, walk can be considered most effective in light of the – comparing the alternatives (peer-to-peer, relative to results obtained using the Analytic Hierarchy method? all subcriteria), – choosing the best alternative. Material Tools and techniques Interviews were conducted with 14 coaches of 50 km race-walkers, representatives of the international champi- The model of Analytic Hierarchy Process (Fig. 1) de- onship class from Europe and Asia. 5 of them were from veloped by T.L. Saaty was selected. Based on the meth- Poland, the others represented Slovakia, France, Russia, odological approach [14-18], the solution of the main Belarus and South Korea. Each of them had substantive research problem in the form of a hierarchical tree model competence to speak about the research problem. Their is presented (Fig. 2). Its top-level structure comprises opinions were used to determine priorities in the training of: the precedent aim of the hierarchy, the next level rep- system during the direct preparation of the athlete to start resents criteria (sub-goals, attributes), the next subcri- in the 50 km race-walk at the Olympic Games. The criteria teria, sub-subcriteria subtypes and alternatives (Fig. 2). for selecting trainers considered: Alternative decisions (variants, models, scenarios) for- – at least four years of work experience with master mulated the lowest level of the model. This allowed hi- class players, erarchical ordering of issue importance ranging from the – the race-walkers trained by them won championship highest to the lowest. titles at international competitions in the 50 km race- At the next step of the methodical procedure, the ex- walk (e.g. European Championship, World Champion- perts had to perform comparison of the degree of impor- ship, participation in the team of World Cup winners). tance and the preference of the elements relative to the common criterion at a higher level at each hierarchical Methods level. In the interview with the coaches (experts) of the best Polish and international athletes in the 50 km race- The information was collected in accordance with walk, Saaty’s 9-grade scale of comparison was applied the assumptions of T.L. Saaty’s Analytic Hierarchy Pro- [4, 19]. cess (AHP) multi-criterion method [4, 14-18], taking The respondent, answering a series of questions, under consideration the following methodological steps had to give an opinion on which of the criteria is more (Fig. 1): important in relation to the main objective, and then – posing the problem and identifying the main objec- which of the subcriteria is more important for the cri- tive, terion, and if they are more important on a scale from – decomposing the problem consisting in building balanced (1) to absolute superiority (9). The evaluator a problem in hierarchical form, where the overriding noted the preferences on the comparison table in pairs: objective is placed at the top of the hierarchy, and criteria, dominance (advantage) of one criterion over the the next level is occupied by criteria, then subcriteria, other on a verbal scale ranging from equal, weak, strong, and at the lowest level of the structure, the so-called very strong to absolute. If one criterion did not dominate alternative decisions are placed, the other with respect to the object of comparison (case – expressing opinions by experts via comparison – at of equivalence of the two criteria in the assessment), each level of the hierarchical structure of the elements the evaluator marked equal dominance of the criteria and pair-wise („peer-to-peer”), in relation to the crite- (no superiority of one above the other). The score was ria placed higher in the hierarchy. Saaty’s fundamental recorded on the comparative table as “balanced”. The scale was implemented used for comparisons, calculated weights for each criterion proved the rank of – calculating conformity ratios (CR), i.e. the logic of the individual components of the 50 km race-walkers’ verbal pair comparisons, the main criteria and partial training system in direct preparation for a start in impor- sub-criteria, tant sports competitions.
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 21
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Decision problem Creating a comprison matrix
Building a hierarchical tree composed of influential factors Calculation of result evaluation (priorities) – local and global
Determining the criteria in relation to the significance of decisional main objective elements by conducting peer-to-peer comparison of elements at hierarchical level subcriteria in relation to Ordering of Total degree of (determining their criteria criteria and fulfilling criteria dominance/preferences decision by the variant relative to one another) variants alternatives in relation to subcriteria
Comparisons done using Measurement of non- Solution to decision problem Saaty’s 9-grade scale conformity in comparisons – non-conformity ratio CR ( 10)
Fig. 1. Stages of solving undertaken problems using the AHP method in own research The Analytic Hierarchy Process Source: Adamus et al. 2011.
Formula: P = P x P Methods of research result analysis gij Ki Sij
Conformity ratios (CR) were calculated, i.e. the logic of where: verbal pair comparisons, the main criteria and the partial P subcriteria that occurred during interviews with coaches. gij – wieght (priority) ”global” for j of this subcrite- This was done using Saaty’s 9-grade scale [4, 19]. The rion in relation to i of the main criterion, P permissible margin of error in the opinions should not ex- Ki – weight (priority) i of this criterion, P ceed 10% (CR=0.1). Its excess was not permitted, simi- Sij – weight (priority) local j of this criterion in rela- larly as 100% consistency in comparisons (CR=0) was tion to i of this criterion. unfavourable. The weights of priorities for the criteria and subcrite- In the fi nal stage of searching for the best way to pre- ria were determined using the Super Decisions and Ex- pare for a start in the 50 km race-walk, alternative train- pert ChoiceTM computer programmes. On their basis, the ing models were identifi ed and conducted using Saaty’s global priority was calculated, which is the percentage 9-grade scale, and the Super Decisions computer pro- ”share” of a particular subcriterion in the posed problem gramme was used to determine the weight of alternatives (the total process of training competitors in direct prepa- in relation to the considered subcriteria. Finally, we chose ration for a start). the best alternative of training system for the champion’s
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Main goal F CRITERIA A compared inrelation C to MAIN GOAL T Criterion 1 Criterion 2 Criterion 3 Criterion n O R S Factor A1 Factor A2 Factor A3 Factor An = SUBCRITERIA Factor B1 Factor B2 Factor B3 Factor Bn S compared in relation U to relevant CRITERIA Factor C1 Factor C2 Factor C3 Factor Cn B Factor D1 Factor D2 Factor D3 Factor Dn C R I Factor n1 Factor n2 Factor n3 Factor En T ALTERNATIVES E compared in relation R to SUBCRITERIA Alternative 1 Alternative 2 Alternative 3 Alternative n I A
Fig. 2. Diagram of Analytic Hierarchy Process model according to T.L. Saaty [19]
Main goal
DPS in 50 km race – walk
Substantive Training Renewal Volume structure Base meaures training
ORWE Nutrition Up to Overall 3HUVRQDOL]DWLRQ 1,2 100 km/week HIğFLHQF\ of training Technical PE Supplementation 100-150 km/week preparation Place of training
Run 3K\VLFDO 150-200 km/week Tactical Training WKHUDS\ prepartion monitoring
Strength Above Mental Financial 3KDUPDFRORJ\ 200 km/week preparation UHVRXUFHV Overall HIğFLHQF\
Alternatives Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
Fig. 3. Hierarchical tree of direct preparation for the start (DPS) of a 50 km race-walker according to Saaty’s method [4, 19] Source: Own elaboration. Note: the defi nitions of the names of criteria and subcriteria can be found in available textbooks on Track-and-Field [21] and sports theory [2]. Extra explanations: training measures used in the competitor’s training:
ORWE1 (overall race-walker endurance 1) – fi rst level of intensity, to maintain previous training level, to perfect the functions of cardiovascular and respiration system. This level is in charge of removing fatigue product from the muscles. Physiologically it is the intensity below the oxygen balance.
ORWE2 (overall race-walker endurance – 2) – second level of intensity, to work in full oxygen balance, it has important impact on training level. It is one of the basic training work form of the competitor for 50 km. PE (Pace Endurance) – third level of intensity, it is similar to special endurance. In practice there is the possibility to work in the continual, repeated or variable form with the intensity exceeding the oxygen balance, so the effort is not fully compensated with oxygen. Strength – training muscle strength in race walking. Overall effi ciency – exercises of all basic muscle groups.
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 23
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sport training system in the direct preparation for the Olym- The following is an abridged summary of their character- pic Games in the 50 km race-walk. istics (values are given in percentages).
Research results Criterion – training measures On the basis of the data presented in the table above, The Fig. 3 show a description of the hierarchical tree it was assumed that in determining the fi tness of a walk- model of direct preparation for the 50 km race-runner, er during the direct preparation for a start in the 50 km which was created according to Saaty’s method [4], race-walk, the experts gave the highest priority within the following consultation with trainers (experts), athletes, main training component to training measures, the sub- sports managers, club directors, sports theorists (ex- criterion pace-endurance (PE) was given (P=50.6%). perts in various disciplines). The main objective, which Lower weight was given to: ORWE (P=29.7%), while the was to create the optimal training model in direct prepa- remaining components of the training structure in direct ration (DPS) of the champion for the 50 km race-walk preparation for starts were considered too insignifi cant in the most important competitions (the Olympics, the for achieving success in major competitions: overall World Championships), was placed at the peak. The next effi ciency (P=8.2%) > strength (P=7.6%) > running level consisted of 5 main criteria: training measures, (3.6%). renewal, volume, substantive structure training and base. 4-5 subcriteria for each of them were added at Criterion – biological renewal lower levels. Decision possibilities were placed at the Within the framework of the main criterion of biologi- lowest level, which include 4 alternative training models. cal renewal, the experts drew attention to the following subcriterion: nutrition (P=54.0%). The remaining subcri- Determination of criteria importance in relation to teria achieved lower weight; physical therapy (P =18.8%) main aim of research > supplementation (P=14.6%) > pharmacology (P= 12.3%). As it can be concluded from the following table (Fig. 4), according to the experts’ opinions expressed via T.L. Sa- Criterion – training volume aty’s 9-grade scale, the highest priority in the mesocycle Of the subcriteria included in the training volume main for the direct preparation of athletes performing 50 km criterion, which should be carried out in the week of direct race-walking (values given in percentages) in relation to preparation prior to the start, the experts gave the highest the main objective which was developing the best train- priority to the volume of 150-200 km/week (P=43.95%) ing concept for starting in the most important sports and its range of 100-150 km/week (P=38.33%). Little event, was granted to training measures (P=38.9%). The recognition was given to high and low training load vol- other main criteria were: (i) Substantive structure training umes of 200 km/week (P=11.32%) and up to 100 km/ and base (P=18%) > volume (14.6%)> renewal (P= week (P=6.3%). 10.4%) were given lower weights (value). Criterion – training Substantive structure training In the Substantive structure training main criterion of Training measures 0.388989 training, the experts emphasized the importance of the Renewal 0.104492 overall effi ciency subcriterion (P=59.77%). To our sur- Volume 0.146511 prise, the subcriterion of technical preparation (P=19.47%) Substantive structure 0.180004 was given relatively low priority and the remaining ele- training ments of the training structure were of low importance in Base 0.180004 the preparation for a start: mental preparation (P=12.8%) and tactical preparation (P=7.8%). Fig. 4. Values of main criteria regarding the direct preparation of a 50 km race-walker for a start Criterion – training base As it can be seen from the data on the signifi cance of Determining the importance of local priorities of subcriteria within the base main criterion, the experts were subcriteria on Saaty’s scale relative to particular main particularly divided in expressing their opinions on prior- criteria ity distribution. Training personalization (P=37.87%) ob- tained a slight advantage while the other subcriteria were Table 1 lists the juxtaposition of local subcriteria similar with regard to given weight values: fi nancial re- weights (priorities) in relation to the main criteria that sources (P=24.3%)> training monitoring (P=19.6%) > were included in the 50 km race-walker training model. place of training (P=18.1%). Attention is drawn to the
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lack of interest regarding high-altitude training in the direct Calculation of global priorities preparation phase (a subcriteria of place of training). Only some Polish and Slovakian coaches have emphasized the In Tab. 1, the values of subcriteria of local and global importance of training in specifi c climatic conditions to priorities in relation to the main criteria are presented. As succeed in major sports competitions. it is known, global priorities mean the individual impact of each subcriterion on the main goal: the effectiveness of Determining the reliability and logic of verbal pair training in direct preparation for starting in the most comparisons important 50 km race-walk championship event. On the basis of the analysis of their weights, large In order to determine the logic and reliability of the variation among the weights (priorities) of all subcriteria verbal pair comparisons, the CR coeffi cients for main can be noticed. Of all the subcriteria considered, 3 ex- criteria and partial subcriteria were calculated [4, 19]. ceeded 10% of the desired individual impact on the main The 10% margin of error was not exceeded in any of the goal: PE (P=19.6%) > ORWE (P=1.5%) > overall ef- cases. The value of the compliance ratio was calculated fi ciency (P=10.8%). Signifi cant subcriteria are also: nu- using the Super Decisions* computer programme. The trition (P=8.9%), 150-200 km/week (P=6.0%), training obtained results authorized further analysis of the col- personalization (P=4.9%) and technical preparation lected material. (P=3.5%).
Tab. 1. Juxtaposition of local priority values relative to main and global criteria in relation to the research aim
Criteria Subcriteria Local priorities Global priorities ORWE 0.297976 0.115407 PE 0.506474 0.196159 Training measures Running 0.036442 0.014114 0.387304 Strength 0.076779 0.029737 Overall effi ciency 0.082329 0.031886 Total Σ=1.000000 Σ=0.387304 Nutrition 0.540948 0.088598
Renewal Supplementation 0.146890 0.024058 0.163782 Physical therapy 0.188578 0.030886 Pharmacology 0.123584 0.020241 Total Σ= 1.000000 Σ=0.163782 Up to 100 km/week 0.063895 0.008832
Volume 100-150 km/week 0.383334 0.052987 0.138228 150-200 km/week 0.439518 0.060754 Above 200 km/week 0.113253 0.015655 Total Σ=1.000000 Σ=0.138228 Overall effi ciency 0.597751 0.108057
Substantive structure training Technical preparation 0.194772 0.035210 0.180773 Tactical preparation 0.078969 0.014275 Mental preparation 0.128508 0.023231 Total Σ= 1.000000 Σ = 0.180773 Training personalization 0.378799 0.049211
Base Place of training 0.181515 0.023581 0.129913 Training monitoring 0.196846 0.025573 Financial resources 0.242840 0.031548 Total Σ=1.000000 Σ=0.129913 Σ=1.000000 Source: Own elaboration.
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 25
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Seeking the best alternative sports training model 3. Euro-Asian model M-3 – comprised of foreign for 50 km race-walkers in the direct preparatory pe- coaches from Europe and Asia. riod for starts in the most important sports event 4. French model M-4 – due to the criteria applied, only one French coach who was a World Championship The next stage of research was the development of alter- medal trainer and a two-time European Champion in the native models of 50 km race-walker training in direct prepara- 50 km race-walk were included. tion for the most important sport event. Their creations are Following analysis of the material aimed at bringing based on the results of previous research using the two high- the considered subcriteria down to parallel numbers, the est weights given by the experts in the main criteria. It was models were compared with each other using T.L. Saa- assumed that their sum in local priorities should explain more ty’s 9-grade scale. The obtained results were analyzed than 50% of validity with respect to the main criteria. Table 2 using the Super Decision computer programme. The cal- also lists the global importance of these priorities. They pro- culated weights of alternatives regarding 21 subcriteria vided a benchmark for expertly distinguishing 4 alternative are presented in Tab. 3. training models and identifying their distinctive features. 1. Polish model M-1 – represented by older-gener- Description of weights relative to subcriteria ation trainers with vast training experience. They can be – result of ”peer-to-peer” models counted among the creators of the “Polish school of race-
walk training”. ORWE1,2 2. Polish model M-2 – comprised of a group of young- Regarding the subcriterion of overall race-walk endur-
er Polish trainers, including distinguished race-walkers. ance – ORWE1,2, the best (62.5%) training alternative was Among them was an Olympic champion and a group of the Euro-Asian model (M-3) (S.W., St.M.). Apart from experienced Polish coaches, recruited mainly from former the Polish model (M-1) of the older generation of trainers race-walkers. (K.K., I.M., B.B., M.S., L.L.), for whom the weight of the
Tab. 2. Description of decision alternatives of training models in DPS for 50 km race-walk
MODEL 1 MODEL 2 Criteria Subcriteria Global priorities Subcriteria Global priorities ORWE 0.115909 ORWE 0.115909 Training measures 1,2 1,2 PE 0.197013 PE 0.197013 Nutrition 0.056525 Supplementation 0.015349 Renewal Physical therapy 0.019705 Physical therapy 0.019705 100-150 km/week 0.056162 100-150 km/week 0.056162 Volume 150-200 km/week 0.064394 150-200 km/week 0.064394
Substantive structure Overall effi ciency 0.107598 Fitness training 0.107598 training Technical preparation 0.035060 Mental preparation 0.023132 Base Training personalization 0.068185 Training individualization 0.068185 Financial resources 0.043712 Training monitoring 0.035433 MODEL 3 MODEL 4 Criteria Subcriteria Global priorities Subcriteria Global priorities ORWE 0.115909 ORWE 0.115909 Training measures 1,2 1,2 PE 0.197013 PE 0.197013 Nutrition 0.056525 Nutrition 0.056525 Renewal Pharmacology 0.012914 Physical therapy 0.019705 100-150 km/week 0.056162 150-200 km/week 0.064394 Volume 150-200 km/week 0.064394 Above 200 km/week 0.016593
Substantive structure Overall effi ciency 0.107598 Technical preparation 0.035060 training Mental preparation 0.023132 Tactical preparation 0.014215 Training personalization 0.068185 Training personalization 0.068185 Base Financial resources 0.043712 Training monitoring 0.035433
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Tab. 3. Juxtaposition of weight (%) relative to subcriteria in distinguished training models (M–1, M-2, M-3, M-4)
Subcriteria/Models M-1 [%] M-2 [%] M-3 [%] M-4 [%]
ORWE1,2 23.9 8.1 62.3 5.3 PE 11.3 56.9 4.9 26.7 Training measures Running 36.7 30.7 24.2 8.1 Strength 14.0 19.9 16.9 4.9 Overall effi ciency 35.5 8.8 16.1 39.5 Nutrition 62.0 6.7 9.9 21.2
Renewal Supplementation 13.0 62.2 10.8 8.8 Physical therapy 7.8 26.4 4.9 60.7 Pharmacology 14.3 8.7 71.3 5.5 Up to 100 km/week 16.3 32.6 36.2 14.7
Volume 100-150 km/week 9.8 22.7 62.2 5.1 150-200 km/week 18.4 18.5 4.0 59.0 Above 200 km/week 31.8 8.9 8.8 50.3 Overall effi ciency 30.5 12.3 52.7 4.3 Substantive Technical preparation 43.9 24.5= 6.9 24.5 structure training Tactical preparation 7.6 13.4 7.6 71.2 Mental preparation 6.3 54.0 26.3 13.1 Training personalization 6.4 54.9 23.8 14.6
Base Place of training 38.4 8.7 38.4 14.2 Training monitoring 4.3 20.5 12.3 52.7 Financial resources 66.8 9.9 16.9 6.2 Source: Own elaboration.
alternative relative to the subcriterion was set at 24%, it the French model (M-4). Their lower priority was found was relatively low in the remaining cases: M-2 (8.1%) in models: M-2 (19.9%) > M-3 (16.4%) > M-1 (14%). and M-3 (5.3%). Overall effi ciency PE Similarly, as in the case of race-walker strength train- In the case of developing the race-walkers’ endurance ing, in the French model, the highest priority of the alterna- – PE, the highest rank of alternatives (56.9%) was found in tive relative to the subcriterion regarded overall effi ciency the M-2 Polish model of trainers from the younger genera- (M-4) (39.5%), which was comparable to the Polish tion (R.K., W.M., G.S., S M.). Apart from the M-3 model model of the older-generation M-1 coaches (35.5%). The (2.6%), in other cases the share of alternatives relative to lowest weight of the alternative was obtained by the model the subcriterion was more signifi cant: M-4 (26.7%) and of Polish younger-generation coaches: M-2 (8.8%), and M-1 (11.3%). slightly higher weight was noted in the case of the Euro- Asian (16.1%) M-3 model. Running A very unusual form of movement for developing Nutrition the walking technique, i.e. running, gained a relatively The value of the alternatives’ priority relative to the high weight of alternatives relative to the subcriteria: M-1 subcriterion of nutrition showed that only the model of (36.7%). M-2 (30.7%) and M-3 (24.2%), with the excep- Polish senior trainers had the highest rank of alternatives tion of the French model M-4 (8.1%). (62.0%). The subsequent position was occupied by the French model (21.2%). Very low weight of alternatives Strength was found in the model of Polish M-2 younger-gener- The highest weight (49.5%) in alternatives relative to ation coaches (6.7%) and in the Euro-Asian M-3 model the subcriterion of strength development was found in (9.9%).
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 27
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Supplementation passes all measures used to develop a race-walker’s mo- In the case of the signifi cant subcriterion, i.e. the use tor effi ciency, was found in the Euro-Asian M-3 (52.7%) of supplementation in the training of athletes (supple- and Polish M-1 (30.6%) models. Lower values were found mentation), it must be stated that the highest alternative in the Polish M-2 model (12.3%) and the French M-4 was found in the M-2 model of young Polish coaches model (4.3%). (67.2%), while the lowest was found in the French M-4 model (6.6%). The alternatives of the two following mod- Technical preparation els slightly exceeded the value of 10%: M-1 (13.0%) and Apart from the M-4 French model (2.4%), relatively M-3 (10.6%). high alternative weights occurred in the M-1 (43.9%), M-2 (24.5%) and M-4 (24.5%) models relative to the technical Physical therapy preparation criterion. In reference to the subcriterion regarding the use of physical therapy by race-walkers, the best alternative Tactical preparation (62.5%) was found in the French M-4 model (60.7%). Considering the weights of alternatives relative, the tac- The Polish M-2 training model (26.4%) was also of great tical preparation subcriterion, the signifi cant advantage of importance. The M-1 Polish model (7.6%) and the Euro- the French M-4 model (71.2%) emerged. In the remaining Asian M-3 model (4.9%) were of the least priority. models, the value of alternatives was low: M-2 (13.4%) > M-1 and M-3 (7.6%). Pharmacology In the alternative relative to the pharmacology subcri- Mental preparation terion, the highest weight was observed in the Euro-Asian Apart from the younger-generation Polish trainers M-3 model (71.3%). In the remaining models, the weights M-2 (54.0%) and the Euro-Asian M-3 model (26.3%), of alternatives were lower in the Polish models: 14.3% for in the remaining cases, the weights of alternatives rela- M-1, 8.7% for M-2, and the French model: 5.5% for M-4. tive to the mental preparation subcriterion were low: M-4 (13.1%) and M-1 (6.3%). Training volume up to 100 km/week Evaluating the weight of alternatives in 4 training mod- Training personalization els with respect to the subcriterion, where the application Data on training personalization indicate that only in the of a low training volume up to 100 km/week was assumed, model of the younger generation of Polish trainers was it it turned out that there was an advantage of alternatives in was possible to fi nd high weight of the alternative relative the case of 2 models: M-2 (32.6%) and M-3 (36.2%); for to the training personalization subcriterion (M-2; 54.9%). In the remaining models: Polish older-generation coaches: addition, in the Euro-Asian model the value of the alternative M-1 (16.3%) and the French M-4 (14.7%). was noticeable (M-3; 23.8%) and was low in the following models: French M-4 (14.6%) and Polish M-1 (6.4%). Training volume of 100-150 km/week Considering the weight of alternatives relative to cri- Place of training terion: training volume of 100-150 km/week, it turned Analysis of the alternative weights relative to the place out that there was a very clear advantage only in the of training subcriterion allows to state that only in the M-1 French model: M-4 (59.0%). While there were very simi- model of senior Polish coaches and the Euro-Asian M-3 lar alternative weights in the Polish models: M-1 (18.4%) model were they at a similar, average level (38.4%). The and M-2 (18%), the weak alternative appeared in the French M-4 (14.2) and the M-2 Polish younger-generation Euro-Asian model: M-3 (4.0%). coaches (8.7%) had low values.
Training volume above 200 km/week Training monitoring In the case of alternatives relative to the subcriterion of The highest weight of alternatives relative to training very high-volume training sessions, above 200 km/week, monitoring, a very important element of control in the it turned out that their high value was revealed in the M-4 training process, was found in the M-4 French model French model (50.3%) and the Polish M-1 model (31.8%). (52.7%) and the younger generation of Polish trainers: Similar weights of the alternatives in the Polish M-2 (8.8%) M-2 (30.5%). In the remaining cases, their values were and in and Euro-Asian M-3 (8.9%) models were low. low: in the M-3 (12.3%) and M-1 (4.3%) models.
Overall effi ciency Financial resources The highest weight of alternatives relative to the sub- In light of the results of our research, it turned out that criterion of overall effi ciency, the name of which encom- the weight of alternatives relative to fi nancial resources
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is very diverse in the 4 alternative training models. Sur- Summary and discussion prisingly, they were the highest in the Polish model of older-generation M-1 coaches (66.8%). Other models The presented results do not have a reference point had low values: M-3 – 16.9%, M-2 – 9.6% and M-4 to similar ones documented in domestic or foreign litera- – 6.2%. ture. Although Prof. T.L. Saaty’s Analytic Hierarchy Pro- As a result of the above, there were clear differences cess (AHP) model has been known for a long time and is in the creation of models for the preparation of an athlete successfully implemented in various areas of social life for the most important 50 km race-walk event. [5, 7-12, 18-20], in this publication, it is applied for the fi rst time in order to develop an effective model of sport Selection of the best alternative training model training for professionally competing athletes. According to the methodological approach of the An- In order to select the best alternative training model alytic Hierarchy Process, it was agreed after discussion from among those considered, we further analyzed the with the experts that the aim of research would be to try weight of the alternatives relative to subtypes in the 4 to create an effective concept of preparation for a start training models using Saaty’s 9-grade scale. Raw calcu- in the most important sports event of a 50 km race- lations were analyzed using the Super Decision computer walker, i.e. the Olympic Games or the World Champion- programme. The fi nal results of selecting the best model ship. Thanks to information from 14 domestic and foreign are given in Tab. 4. In addition, the indicators for their coaches of the best 50 km race-walkers around the world normalization were calculated. The reference point was and other experts in the organization of the training pro- regarded as the highest priority value given to the model cess in a very interesting athletic competition, the main that reached the highest raw score (0.276). On the ba- and subcriteria allowing to fulfi l the purpose of research sis of data analysis, the model of younger-generation and alternatives were identifi ed. Polish coaches: the M-2 model, should be recognized With the use of AHP methodology and computer pro- as the best alternative training model in relation to grammes, numerical values of local and global priorities the main objective of developing the most effective were obtained in relation to the main criteria. Analysis of training programme in direct preparation for starting the values of the main criteria shows that our research in the most important 50 km race-walk competition. has found their varied effect on the objective of study i.e. The following places were occupied by the Euro-Asian on the effectiveness of training in the direct preparation M-3 model> the Polish older-generation of trainers M-1 for a start in the most important 50 km race-walk event. model> the French M-4 model, with only slight differenc- The highest weight (in percentages) may be attributed es. The best alternative model was based on the coach to the selection of training measures (P=38.9%). Less training concept created by those who were outstanding weight was obtained by other criteria: Substantive struc- athletes in the past. The multiple-time Olympic champion ture training and base (P=18%)> volume (P=14.6%)> R.K. and European vice-champion G.S. could be found renewal (P=10.4%). This phenomenon has also been among them. confi rmed by the analysis of the value of global priority However, it should be noted that the differences be- subcriteria. Only 3 of them exceeded 10% of the desired tween the models were small. They were within the range individual impact on training in the direct preparation for of 5% (min 0.226-max 0.276). In addition, it should be the start: PE (P=19.6%)> ORWE (P=11.5%)> overall emphasized that in all models, the impact of the training effi ciency (P=10.8%). concept on the training effect in direct preparation for On the basis of the obtained results, it can be assumed a competitor’s start in the most important event did not that 14 trainers (experts) presented their own views on exceed 30%. training solutions during the period of direct preparation
Tab. 4. Selection of best training model in the DPS for the 50 km race-walk
Model Graphical presentation of priorities Normalized values of priorities Raw results (training alternatives)
MODEL 1 0.847126 0.234203 MODEL 2 1.000000 0.276456 MODEL 3 0.950417 0.262748 MODEL 4 0.819638 0.226593 Σ = 1.000000
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 29
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Fig. 5. Weight comparison (%) of alternative training models (M-1, M-2, M-3, M-4) relative to subcriteria
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for the most important event of the best race-walkers in Conclusions the world. We may not rule out that this evidenced by the necessity to adapt the training system to the adaptive The results of our research, conducted using T.L. Saa- abilities of a particular athlete. It is also possible to see ty’s AHP multi-criteria hierarchy decision-making process, the confi rmation of the already well-established regular- based on the strong foundations of cognitive psychology ity that trainability of an athlete is an individual and not and mathematics, indicate the possibility of using this population-based feature [22]. The stated phenomenon method to develop a concept of training in race-walking could also perhaps be the consequence of averaging the during the direct preparation for starts at competitions at results of the opinions of 14 coaches (experts). the highest level. High expectations were associated with the creation of In an applicative sense, it resulted that applied meth- alternative training models and the results of their “peer- ods of training used by Polish and foreign trainers are not to-peer” comparison relative to the adopted subcriteria. indisputable and can be implemented in the practice of However, it turned out that similarly as in the model creat- preparing a champion for competitions at the highest rank. ed by 14 trainers, there is a large variety of approaches to Among the 4 alternative models considered: older solve the problem of effective preparation of a champion generation of Polish trainers (M-1), younger generation race-walker. This may be confi rmed by the graphic illus- of Polish coaches (M-2), Euro-Asian (M-3) and French tration of the weight of 21 subcriteria in 4 training models (M-4) (M-2), the M-2 model comprised of younger gen- (Fig. 5). eration Polish coaches resulted to be the best, however, Despite the possibility of performing taxonomies of the differences in alternative weights between models the models according to the value of alternatives with were minor. the aid of the Super Decision computer programme, and Both the value of global priorities and the weight of demonstrating that the model by the Polish younger-gen- alternatives relative to the subcriteria in the 4 training mod- eration coaches is the most appropriate (Tab. 4), atten- els allow to state that there is relatively small impact of the tion should be drawn to the small (5%) range of differ- so-far implemented training systems of the world’s best ences in alternative weights between models: min 0.226 race-walkers on their success during the most important – max 0.276. This leads to the perception that it would be competitions. tempting to develop new, more effective training concepts There is a need to develop new, more effective train- for future 50 km race-walking champions. ing concepts for future 50 race-walk champions.
References
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Author for correspondence: Grzegorz Sudoł Phone number: +48 602 395 532 E-mail: [email protected]
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SECTION – SPORT SCIENCES
(1.1) DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0011.6797
EVALUATING THE LEVEL OF CREATIVE SUPPORT IN TEACHING FOOTBALL GAME TACTICS
Authors’ contribution: Henryk Duda1 ABCDEFG, Aleksander Stuła2 ABD A. Study design/planning B. Data collection/entry C. Data analysis/statistics D. Data interpretation 1 Faculty of Sports and Recreational Games, Sports Institute, Department of Physical Education E. Preparation of manuscript and Sports, University of Physical Education in Krakow, Poland F. Literature analysis/search 2 Department of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Opole University of Technology, Poland G. Funds collection
Keywords: tactics, creative teaching, football
Abstract
Aim. Teaching tactics in team games is a diffi cult process, because it requires not only the optimal preparation of the player in the physical and physical sphere, but above all, deliberate action in the sport. Situations that arise when playing football usually require selecting one of several possible decisions. Not all decisions are optimal. It is on the basis of the optimal decision that you can judge the advantages of a player and then interpret his/her abilities. In order to rationally solve a task in a game, a player must have the best knowledge about effective action, and such tactical preparation methods also need to be used so that the player can consciously and creatively participate in the training process. The purpose of research. To determine whether modern football clubs use tactical training based on creative support in teaching football tactics. Basic procedures. The empirical material was collected by anonymous polls conducted among randomly selected football players in two age categories: juniors (140 CLJ players and MW leagues) and seniors (160 players IV and III leagues). Research was conducted in the years 2015-2017 in randomly selected Polish clubs, with the largest number (about 80%) being players from the Małopolska, Świętokrzyskie, Podkarpackie, Silesia, Opole and Lubuskie Provinces. Results Main fi ndings. Analysis of the research results shows that football players from the surveyed clubs are less likely to benefi t from the knowledge transfer which facilitates learning tactics. The reason for this situation is not only due to the limited organizational conditions for rational training but can also have its basis in the competence of trainers. This problem is signifi cant for young athletes, which can limit not only the smooth operation of the game but also hinder the process of full development of the player. Conclusions. 1) Tactical training dominates traditional forms of instructions which limit a player’s conscious participation in the game. 2) Among trainers, there is a low level of knowledge about the use of tactics to help teach game tactics. 3) In order to make more use of tactic teaching aids, there is a need to include this learning direction in the training of coaches and football instructors. 4) Base conditions at football clubs limit the use of modern laboratory measures in teaching tactics.
Introduction game, which requires creativity in action – that is, conscious and purposeful task solving during a game [2] – Fig. 1. Teaching tactical actions in team games is a diffi cult pro- The situations which arise during a football game, as cess, as it requires not only optimal preparation of a player in a rule, make it necessary to choose from one of sev- motor and physical spheres, but above all, effective conduct eral possible decisions. Not all decisions are optimal. It for achieving the goals of a game [1]. Such a requirement in is on the basis of the optimal decision that one can judge a sports game is related to the situational specifi city of the a player’s merits and then interpret his/her abilities.
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 33
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Fig. 1. Types of situations occurring due to uncertainty of performing an action (according to: Naglak) [2]
In order to rationally solve tasks during a game, the sizes the obligation of such training. Taking the essence of player must have optimal knowledge on effective action creative preparation in the effective action of a player [1, 2] [3], hence, it is required to use such methods in tactical and requirements in modern training of football players in preparation so that the player can consciously and cre- our country [11] into account, the study attempts to anal- atively participate in the training process [2]. This means yse tactical training in terms of shaping creativity in foot- that tactical training should take the impact on a player’s ball players. It seems that recognizing this problem can intellectual sphere into account [4, 5]. It is believed that signifi cantly facilitate the process of rational management the training process should use effective methods of of footballers’ education. communicating messages regarding how to effectively solve tasks during a game, as they can facilitate fast and Study aim accurate decision making [6]. It seems that these conditions in teaching game tac- In this work, the tactical preparation of football play- tics can be met through theoretical preparation using ers in the fi eld of intellectual training (shaping creativity) audiovisual means (video-camera-computer), perform- in teams of randomly chosen clubs in Poland has been ing the function of strengthening message transmis- analysed. The aim of the research is to determine wheth- sion – e.g. teaching in simulated laboratory conditions er football clubs use modern trends in tactical training [2, 7]. Also, the use of intellectual exercises (task-orient- based on the means of creative support in teaching foot- ed, problem-based methods) can to a great extent develop ball tactics. a player’s creativity [2]. These methods are used with great conviction in the training of Western European footballers Research questions and hypotheses (the Netherlands, France, Germany), whose sports level sets the direction of training in modern football [8, 9]. It Analyses of available research papers [1, 7, 12, 13] seems that the target-matter in such an organized training and the author’s own experiences allowed to formulate process is to achieve a high level of sports, i.e. the physi- research questions. cal (motor), technical and mental development of a player, Research questions: thus, his/her rational preparation with a wide spectrum of knowledge about the game, and in the conditions of 1. Is support for a better understanding of the struc- sports competition, to make conscious and accurate de- ture and essence of a player’s activity during a game cisions, making full use of one’s own disposition in the used in the process of teaching game tactics? game [10]. By choosing this way of educating a player’s 2. Are training conditions for creative training used in tactical training, nowadays in Poland, training content that the process of teaching tactical actions? includes creative programs is becoming more and more Research hypotheses: appreciated (in training materials for coaches this problem is often discussed). The Polish Football Association, in the 1. Most trainers in teaching game tactics use traditional newly developed National Programme [11], also empha- methods based on a spontaneous manner of passing
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knowledge on the game during practical exercises, The data contained in the table above show that al- omitting the forms of knowledge transfer in labora- most 50% of respondents have not encountered support tory conditions (fulfi lling the function of support in methods shaping action creativity while teaching game teaching). tactics. It can therefore be assumed that the process of 2. Among football players, there is a need to use intel- teaching tactical actions may be limited due to its ef- lectual support for the effective reception of informa- fectiveness. tion about actions during a sports competition. Further analysis of the research results indicates that the junior group of players is characterized by greater Study material and methods knowledge of measures supporting creativity in teaching tactics. This is a very signifi cant observation, indicating The research material consisted of players practic- that in organized football training, the level of the training ing football in two age categories: juniors (140 CLJ and staff’s competence in training junior groups regarding MW league players) and seniors (160 players of IV and the aspect of creative support in teaching tactical actuibs III league). Research in 2015-2017 was conducted in is more interested in this teaching direction. Although the randomly chosen Polish clubs, of which the largest num- values obtained are higher within this context than in pre- ber (around 80%) were players from the Małopolskie, vious studies [13], the obtained values are of low diag- Świętokrzyskie, Podkarpackie, Śląskie, Opolskie and Lu- nostic value for the effective training of tactical actions. buskie provinces. The next juxtaposition of research results referring The empirical material was collected via anonymous to the previous one concerns the actual use of support survey among randomly selected football players. measures in teaching game tactics by coaches accord- The survey questions concerned the following issues: ing to the opinions of the athletes (Tab. 2). – rational (action-based) manner of teaching football tactics, Table 2. The level of using creative aids in teaching game tactics among football players – use of methods and means in providing information on the game, Type of answer 1 2 – reasons for using (or not using) support methods in J = 50.2% YES 40.1 % teaching game tactics, S =41.7 % – the legitimacy of using audiovisual measures in train- J = 49.8% NO 59.9 % ing players, S = 58.3% – knowledge and competence of the training staff in de- veloping a rational teaching manner From analysis of the presented data, it can also be – transfer of information about the game, taking the club stated that the use of support is at a low level. This may conditions allowing the use of support measures in be due to the lack of trainers’ confi dence to use such teaching game tactics into account. measures for effective training. This may also be due to the lack of trainers’ knowledge on the need for such ac- Presentation and discussion of research results tivities in the effective teaching of game tactics – the ne- cessity of a logical understanding of game activities for First, the material concerning knowledge of the sub- making accurate tactical decisions [14]. This problem jects on creative support and the use of these methods may also result from the requirement for trainers to pre- in teaching game tactics was analysed (Tab. 1). pare materials for creative training, but this is illusive, as The opinion of the players is presented in the following well-developed materials can be used many times [2]. manner: If such assumptions were correct, then obviously this 1. all players approach of trainers would be a mistake, because nu- 2. with division according to players: juniors (J) – se- merous studies [1, 2, 4, 7] indicate that the use of sup- niors (S). port measures shaping the player’s creativity not only facilitates the mastery of tactical actions but more thor- Table 1. Level of knowledge on measures supporting teaching game oughly shapes the process rational decision making in tactics among selected football players game conditions. The obtained data also indicate (which is positive prognosis) that forms supporting the creative Type of answer 1 2 teaching of game tactics are applied to a greater extent J = 54.4% YES 54 % in work with the youth. This value (51.4%), however, is S = 46.7% still not satisfactory from the point of view of effective- J = 45.6% NO 46 % ness in teaching game tactics and indicates high tra- S = 53.3% ditionalism in training.
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 35
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Table 3. Place of carrying out tactical training ing effi cient interaction during a game. Also, the already Type of place 1 2 mentioned low degree of utilizing teaching in laboratory conditions may improve the effi ciency of the conscious J = 9.2% Club rooms for theoretical classes 5.1 % S =10.4% participation of the player in the diffi cult process of teach- ing game tactics to a small extent [2, 7]. This analysis un- J = 1.4% Club libraries 0.6% ambiguously indicates limited possibilities of using teach- S = 0.4% ing aids. It follows that the trainers slightly diversify the Audiovisual rooms (projection of fi lm J = 8.0% 3.3% diffi cult process of teaching game tactics. It seems that in materials) S = 11.2% the education of the surveyed players this state may, on Computer labs with tactic teaching J = 0% 0.3% the one hand, indicate low skills of professional trainers, software S = 0% and on the other, their routine (non-creative) workshop. Sports training pitches (poor-quality J = 69.9% 51.3% The only justifi cation for this state of affairs may be the surface) S= 17.3% limited base possibilities at sports clubs, in which to raise J = 11.5% Main sports pitch (optimal surface) 39.4% the level of training, the didactic and sports base must be S = 60.2 % unquestioningly raised (requirement for newly emerging football academies). The level of effective football training is also infl u- enced by the training base which allows the use of optimal Table 4. Means used in teaching game tactics means for tactical preparation. Fulfi lling this conditioncan Means/tools 1 2 signifi cantly shape a player’s creativity [13]. In Table 3, Theoretical lectures on the rules of J = 4.9% 5.2% the possibility of implementing tactical preparation is il- tactical action S = 7.5% lustrated, indicating the low possibility of using aids in Presenting fragments of tactical J = 2.2% the teaching process. The results of the research indicate actions (photos, developed video 16.3% S = 3.5% a low possibility of using teaching support in laboratory material) conditions (computer or audiovisual labs), which may J = 5.0% Training videos 5.1% limit conscious analysis of the tactical structure, reducing S = 6.2% the process of creative teaching [2]. Research values in- J = 0% Computer programmes 1.2% dicate that the main place to teach tactics is on a football S = 0% pitch, which is often training on a poor quality surface. Materials developed on the basis of J = 0% 0.4% This fact not only hinders the effective performance of video-graphic technique S = 0% Teaching game tactics through practi- J = 36.8 motor activities but also confi rms that the teaching of tac- 24.7% tical actions is conducted without any intellectual prepa- cal exercises with detailed instructions S = 35.6% Teaching game tactics through practi- ration and done rather mechanically. A disturbing signal J = 51.1% cal exercises without detailed instruc- 47.1% regarding the conditions of teaching game tactics is the S = 47.7 tions (schemes) fact that young players have worse educational condi- tions in this area, which in the future, does not promise good mastery of this game element. Further analysis on the type of measures used in In the opinion of the players, analysis of teaching game teaching game tactics among the studied players shows tactics, due to the teaching methods used, still confi rms (already confi rms) the dominance of the traditional way the low degree of using creative support while teaching of preparing players (Fig. 2). game tactics (Tab. 4). The low percentage of developed It can be noticed that tactical training is dominated didactic computer programmes, also based on animation, by forms of practical classes and current information can be noticed, which according to [2], have great value transfer (“operating instructions”). It seems that the ad- in supporting the process of teaching tactics in sports vantage of these forms of teaching and the low degree games. A disturbing element in teaching tactical actions of using creative support methods can signifi cantly limit is the lack of detailed instructions in decision-making ac- the conscious participation of a player in the manner tions. In the research by Panfi la [2, 7, 12], the authors of solving tasks during a game (Panfi l 2000). Empirical indicate that mechanical teaching of game tactics without data confi rm the results of previous studies [13], and a detailed understanding of goals does not only limit the although the level of obtained results is slightly better for understanding of these actions but also contradicts the the current state of training, this level is still unsatisfac- essence of tactical teaching. tory. At this point, one should consider answering the Additionally, the dominance of tactical training on train- question – what infl uences the poor diagnostic results ing pitches, the conditions and surfaces of which leave obtained in the tests? Is it the low level of performed much to be desired, is probably not conducive to master- training activities, or the base conditions at the clubs of
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69% 70%
60% 1 50% 2 3 40% 31% 4 30% 5 20% 12% 6 6% 8% 7 10% 5% 2% 0%
1. Problem solving in teaching game tactics 2. Photos depicting particular phases of tactical actions 3. Video materials depicting the main detail of a tactical action 4. Video materials depicting the tactical action presented in slow-motion 5. Video materials depicting the tactical action presented in normal-motion 6. Using support in teaching tactical actions 7. Teaching tactical actions without support Fig. 2. Ways of teaching game tactics
the studied players? It seems that a partial answer to the tiveness, there are still considerable defi ciencies in this above questions may be the general summary of data area. It seems that the problem of shaping creativity in regarding base conditions in the studied football clubs, players may result from ‘headworded’ notions [2]. It is professional competences of trainers and the use of di- talked about (training courses), but there is no develop- dactic aids as support. Unfortunately, from the present- ment or adherence to methodological requirements in ed data (Fig. 1), the signifi cant dominance of traditional creative teaching of football players. At this point, the methods in tactical training of a player can be noted. reason for such a situation should be considered. There This fact indicates that the training staff bases more on may be many reasons, but according to the author, it is mechanical ways of teaching the game, it also seems mainly due to the lack of competence in this fi eld not that the coaching workshop lacks coaching refl exivity. only regarding trainers but also the institutions respon- Such an attitude of the coaching staff in the teaching sible for devising programmes and supervising the as- process may limit a player’s preparation in understand- pects of organized training of football players. ing the content of tactical tasks [1, 2]. The information (knowledge) in tactical exercises Conclusions facilitates making the right decisions in motor actions, hence the requirement of conscious participation of 1) Tactical training is dominated by traditional forms of a player in the process of tactical preparation is neces- teaching which limits a player’s conscious participa- sary [2, 7, 12, 15] . Therefore, it seems that this process tion in the game. can be greatly facilitated by laboratory-based exercises, 2) Among trainers, there is a low level of knowledge about for example game action simulation [13] treated as re- the use of support resources in teaching game tactics. inforcement in teaching game tactics. It also seems that 3) Base conditions at football clubs limit optimal condi- this way of preparing the player can signifi cantly improve tions for teaching game tactics (unfavourable terrain the level of tactical training, thus contributing to their ef- conditions, low level of modern laboratory tool usage). fectiveness in the game [16]. 4) In order to make greater use of the aids supporting From analysis of the collected research material, it teaching game tactics, there is a need to include this can be assumed that in Poland, despite signifi cant ac- teaching direction in the training of coaches and foot- cents of creative training in football players’ game effec- ball instructors.
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 37
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References
[1] Memmert D: Teaching Tactical Creativity in Sport – Research and Practice. New York. 2015. [2] Duda H: Intelektualizacja procesu nauczania a rozwój dyspozycji do gry sportowej (na przykładzie piłki nożnej). Seria Studia i Monografi e. AWF Kraków, 2008; 50. [3] Henninger ML, Pagnano K, Patton K, Griffi n LL, Dodd P: Novice volleyball players’ knowledge of games, strategies, tactics, and decision-making in the context of game play. Journal of Physical Education. New Zealand. 2006, 39 (1): 16-34. [4] Frank G: Fussball-Kreatives Training. Mayer-Mayer, Verlag. Germany 1998. [5] Memmert D, Roth K: The effects of non-specifi c and specifi c concepts on tactical creativity in team ball sports. Journal of Sport Science. 2007; 25:1423-32. [6] Duda H: Racjonalne kierowanie uzdolnionym graczem (na przykładzie edukacji w Szkole Mistrzostwa Sportowego Piłki nożnej im. Józefa Kałuży i Henryka Reymana w Krakowie). Monografi a. AWF Kraków, 2017; 32. [7] Panfi l R: Edukacja uzdolnionego gracza i zarządzanie zespołem sportowym. AWF, Wrocław. 2000. [8] Staszewski G: Świadomość i nawyki pracy podstawą metodologii akademii Athletic Club de Bilbao. Asystent Trenera, PZPN. 2016: 60-63. [9] Grycmann P, Szyngiera W: Nowoczesne nauczanie i doskonalenie gry w piłkę nożną, Grycmann-Katowice. 2016. [10] Wein H: Developing youth football players, Human Kinetics. USA. 2007. [11] Dorna M, Paluszek K, Stępiński M, Stolarczyk M, Śliwowski R, Zalewski B: Narodowy Model Gry. PZPN. 2016. [12] Naglak Z: Kształcenie gracza na podstawowym etapie. AWF, Wrocław. 2000. [13] Duda H, Basiaga-Pasternak J: Realizacja szkolenia taktycznego w opinii zawodników drużyn piłki nożnej. W: Żak S, Spieszny M, Klocek T. (red): Gry zespołowe w wychowaniu fi zycznym i sporcie. 2007:21-26. [14] Bar-Eli M, Plessner H, Raab M: Judgement, decision making and success in sport. Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell. 2011. [15] Stuła A, Duda H, Szweda S: Organizacja działań w grze w piłkę nożną (na przykładzie gry zespołu FC Barcelona w latach 2008- 2012). Studia i Monografi e – Politechnika Opolska. 2016, (461): 189-195. [16] Light R: Game Sense: Pedagogy for Performance, Participation and Enjoyment. New York. 2013.
Author for correspondence: Henryk Duda E-mail: [email protected]
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SECTION – SPORT SCIENCES
(1.1) DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0011.6819
LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS OF COACHES, PERCEIVED BY ATHLETES IN BASKETBALL AND SELF-EFFICACY IN YOUTH SPORT
Authors’ contribution: Iwona Janas A. Study design/planning B. Data collection/entry C. Data analysis/statistics D. Data interpretation M.A., Ph.D. studies University of Phisical Education, E. Preparation of manuscript Krakow, Poland F. Literature analysis/search G. Funds collection
Keywords: leadership behaviours, basketball coaches, self-effi cacy, athletes
Abstract
Introduction. Leadership of a coach is mainly instrumental in enhancing the motivational state of a group [6], which is the ulti- mate basis of performance effectiveness. Research on the leadership process and athletes self-effi cacy in sports may signifi cantly contribute to the understanding of sport performance. Aim. This project was initiated to describe and distinguish types of behaviours of basketball coaches in the opinion of players. The study included athletes’ preferences for specifi c leader behaviours and the perceptions of their coaches’ behaviour in relation to an athlete’s self-effi cacy. Basic procedures. The study covered 50 professional basketball players between the age of 16-18 years. The following scales were used for evaluation: The Polish adaptation of the Leadership Scale for Sports (SPS) by Z. Wałach-Biśta [14], and the General Self Effi cacy Scale (GSES) by R. Schwarzer, M. Jerusalem and Z. Juczyński [9]. Results. Statistical calculations revealed the compatibility of respondents in the analyzed parameters. The study results indi- cate a correlation between level of self-effi cacy and the 2 sub-scans of the SPS questionnaire: training and instruction as well as democratic behaviour. Conclusions. Coaches should be aware of athletes’ self-effi cacy to be able to modify their behaviour accordingly.
Introduction damental aspect of sports achievements, especially in a team sport environment [4]. The defi nition of leader- Modern sport represents many different forms of ship clearly states that it is to infl uence the cooperation activity. It covers various forms of competition, goals and coordination of the group members in their pursuit and means of implementation [1]. Both in competitive of a specifi c goal [5]. For many years, sports psycholo- and general sports, the presence of a person coordinat- gy has been interested in aspects related to the work of ing the work of a group of people is extremely impor- coaches. Leadership is essential in improving the moti- tant. The possibility of fulfi lling this role is, according to vational status of a group [6]. Chelladurai [7] proposed Martens [2], a real privilege. Here, we are talking about a multidimensional leadership model, which assumes a coach or a guide for young people on their sports path. that the effectiveness of a coach’s behaviour depends The modern trainer is a specialist whose goal is to prop- on the interaction between a player’s preferences for erly plan, organize and implement the training process, a specifi c behaviour of the leader and the requirements leading the athlete to full development and the highest that arise. Therefore, he distinguished fi ve dimensions achievements [3]. To accomplish this, the coach should defi ned as behaviours directed towards the leader’s re- have a number of leadership skills. Leadership is a fun- lationship with a group of subordinated individuals.
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 39
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Table 1. Dimensions of coaching behaviours on the basis of Chelladurai’s Multidimensional Leadership Model [8]
Coach behaviour dimension-variable Interpretation Coach’s behaviour aimed at improving athletes’ results by instructing the players, providing instructions on the work of the team. Activities involving training in the fi eld of technology 1. Teaching and Instruction and tactics of a given sports discipline. The aim of the behaviour is to strive to activate the player’s physical potential. Instruction mainly regards providing constructive comments on made mistakes and how to improve them. Coach’s behaviour aimed at improving the athletes’ results by instructing the players, providing instructions on the work of the team. Activities involving training in the fi eld of technology and 2. Democratic Behaviour tactics of a given sports discipline. The aim of the behaviour is to strive to activate the player’s physical potential. Instruction mainly regards providing constructive comments on the made mistakes and how to improve them. Coach’s behaviour associated with independence in making decisions and emphasizing the 3. Autocratic Behaviour authority towards athletes. This is the dominant form of behaviour consisting in emphasizing power within the team. Coach’s behaviour characterized by care for the good of athletes and an individual approach to the athlete. It includes maintaining positive group atmosphere and sincere interpersonal relation- ships with its members. Thanks to this behaviour, the players are aware that they can receive 4. Social Support help from the coach in the event of such a need. The variable also indicates behaviours that go beyond matters strictly related to the performed sports discipline and also includes personal favours of a coach for players, informal social events, encouraging confessions. Coach’s behaviour strengthening the athlete, thanks to the use of the reward method for good results. It is based on providing relevant feedback on how well a player is training or performing 5. Positive Feedback tasks. The variable also applies to the presentation of recognition and respect by the trainer, even in the presence of third parties.
The pursuit of achieving a player’s maximal effective- ception and the coach’s perceived behaviour and their ness in sport has created the need to learn ways to lead preferences towards the coach. Based on the Multidi- the team, as well as to examine the variables that affi rm mensional Leadership Model according to Chelladurai individual beliefs of athletes. An example of such a feature [8] and according to the separate research objective, the that may be related to the coach’s leadership is perceived following research questions were formulated: self-effi cacy. Self-effi cacy is a psychological construct 1. Are there any differences between the expectations about the individual’s awareness of the ability to achieve of the tested athletes and their subjective opinion on goals. It expresses the image of the competence of a unit, the behaviour of the coach? its equipment allowing to carry out intended activities [9]. 2. What leadership behaviours do people with high self- According to Bandura, the conviction about the effective- effi cacy prefer? ness of one’s own actions causes determination and per- 3. What leadership behaviours do people with low self- severance in pursuing a goal, strengthening motivation effi cacy prefer? for work. Low self-effi cacy entails the fear of failure and failure to act [10]. Our own effectiveness can be seen as Material and Methods special self-confi dence, affecting the types of actions tak- en. Behaviours that demonstrate self-effi cacy are particu- 50 competitors from three different teams actively larly evident in failures [11]. Hazelwood and Burke [12] playing basketball participated in the study. The tested investigated whether belief in self-effi cacy plays an im- basketball players were people aged 16-18, playing in portant role in predicting triathlon results by researching competitions qualifi ed into the 2nd Women’s League. The the utra-endurace of a triathlon group. Analysis showed average team experience was 5.62 years. The minimum that self-effi cacy had signifi cant impact on athletes’ per- criterion for training experience was 2 years, due to the formance. Athletes with higher self-effi ciency awareness author’s assumptions that only after 2 years of training worked better than those with lower effi ciency levels. If can female athletes form a certain opinion about a given the awareness of one’s own capabilities is refl ected in coach and evaluate the examined aspects. The specifi city sports results, it is worth checking on what the level of of the group is that the athletes, despite their young age, perception of effectiveness is dependent. take part in the 2nd Women’s League, i.e. senior competi- The aim of research was to determine interdepen- tions. In addition, most of them take part in youth compe- dence between self-effi cacy of basketball players’ per- titions for their age categories at the same time. Accord-
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ing to coaches, their participation in senior competitions version of the tool diagnosing a coach’s leadership was is to serve the purpose of gaining experience. This is in created by P. Chelladurei and S. D. Saleh [8] and was line with the rules of the league games. The study was called the Leadership Scale for Sport (LSS). On the ba- carried out in summer (June-August) during meets and sis of factorial analysis, fi ve factors called dimensions sports camps preparing for the 2017/2018 season. In were determined: Teaching and Instruction, Democratic each case, the team’s coach agreed to the performance Behaviour, Autocratic Behaviour, Social Support Behav- of the test, and in the case of underage players, the author iour and Positive Feedback Behaviour. The original Sport obtained parental consent. The research project was car- Leadership Skill Scale is a questionnaire consisting of ried out by the author personally, and the questionnaire three parts: Athlete perception, Athlete preference and was voluntary and anonymous. Coach self-assessment. The study uses a Polish ad- aptation of the tool that incorporates only the fi rst two The study used two measurement methods: parts. The tool consists of 40 items, which distinguish The Generalized Self-Effi cacy Scale (GSES) by R. Schwa- fi ve dimensions of a coach’s behaviour: Training and In- rzer, M. Jerusalema and Z. Juczyński [13] and the Pol- struction – 11 items, Democratic Behaviour – 8 items, ish version of the Leadership Scale for Sports – a ques- Autocratic Behaviour – 7 items, Social Support – 7 items tionnaire for examining coaching behaviour by Zuzanna and Positive Feedback – 7 items. Twice, the tested ath- Wałach-Biśta [14]. To answer the research questions letes give answers about the same 40 coach behaviours: about the self-effi cacy of basketball players, the follow- fi rst with the instructions “I would like my coach…”, ing scales were applied: The Generalized Self-Effi cacy later with the instruction “My coach…”. Thanks to this Scale (GSES) by R. Schwarzer, M. Jerusalema, which structure of the questionnaire, it is possible to determine was prepared in Polish version by Z. Juczyński [13]. the discrepancy between the expectations of athletes The scale consists of 10 statements that are part of and the perception of the actual behaviour of coaches one factor. It measures the strength of the general belief towards them. Zuzanna Wałach-Biśta suggests that the of the individual regarding the effectiveness of dealing Sport Leadership Scale should be used only to examine with diffi cult situations and obstacles. He refers to the the preferences or opinions of athletes on the subject concept of self-effi cacy created by A. Bandura. The of coaching behaviour, without using the self-descriptive general indicator, after transformation into standardized version for coaches [14]. The information provided by units, is interpreted in accordance with the character- Z. Wałach-Biśta proves that in four of the fi ve subscales istics of the sten scale. Results between 1-4 stens are analysing the preferences of athletes and in three sub- rated as low, 5-6 average and 7-10 as high. The vari- scales analysing the behaviour of the coach perceived ables mentioned in the test are related to each other and by athletes, Cronbach’s alpha index reached the value of the conviction about self-effi cacy also applies to self- 0.70 and higher. acceptance and an optimistic attitude. It can therefore The study observed Cronbach’s alpha coeffi cient be assumed that the perception of self-effi cacy is a de- which was calculated for each of the Sports Leadership terminant of intentions and actions from various areas Scale subscales. The results are high and acceptable of human behaviour. Consequently, it is assumed that which proves the reliability of individual subscales, as the higher the level of self-effi cacy, the higher goals are they remain at the level of 0.605 in the case of expected set by the individuals and the more they are involved in Social Support, and reached 0.861 in the case of actual them. This increases resistance to failure. Participants Democratic Behaviour. responded by selecting one of four answers, where: The dimension not meeting the expected require- 1 corresponds to NO; 2 – rather NOT; 3 – rather YES; ments, similarly as in the original version, is the one of 4 – YES. The sum of all points gives a general indica- Autocratic Behaviour. Cronbach’s alpha score is in this tor of self-effi cacy, which can be in the range of 10-40 case was 0.512. points. The higher the index, the higher the sense of It was also verifi ed that the exclusion of a particular self-effi cacy [13]. The psychometric equivalence of items does not signifi cantly increase Cronbach’s alpha the tool in terms of reliability and accuracy was tested. internal consistency ratio. To assess the reliability of the scale, Cronbach’s alpha alignment coeffi cient was used – reaching the high Research results value of 0.828. In order to examine the existing general differences The second tool allowing to answer the research ques- between the three teams, the Eta-squared test was used, tions is: which did not show differences between the teams (the The Sport Leadership Scale (SPS), which is a se- relationship between the team and individual variables lective, reliable and accurate diagnostic tool. The original does not exceed 0.054 in any of the cases).
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 41
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Table 2. Indicators of measurement reliability of Cronbach’s alpha the coach (M = 3.66) and reluctance towards Autocratic variables in own study Behaviour (M = 2.18). A similar situation occurs in the GSES case of reality evaluation. Most of the athletes perceive Alfa 0.828 the coach’s behaviour as taking their opinion into account After exclusion of gses3 0.842 and indeed, according to the respondents’, less behav- iour of the coaches is focused on the abuse of power Players’ expectations regarding „Teaching and Instruction” and demanding absolute obedience to them. The studies Alfa 0.733 used Spearman’s rho correlation due to the small sample Players’ expectations regarding „Democratic Behaviour” size (N = 50). Alfa 0.786 What kind of leadership behaviours do individuals with Players’ expectations regarding „Autocratic Behaviour” a high sense of self-effi cacy prefer? Alfa 0.512 The correlation between the GSES test and the di- After exclusion of o38 0.541 mension of leadership in the context of expected Demo- Players’ expectations regarding „Social Support” cratic Behaviour at a signifi cance level of 0.05 totalled Alfa 0.605 0.421. Therefore, it can be said that the tested female basketball players who are characterized by a high sense Players’ expectations regarding „Positive Feedback” of self-effi cacy expect Democratic Behaviour from the Alfa 0.751 coach in the context of leading the team. People who Players’ observations regarding „Teaching and Instruction” are aware of their capabilities are more likely to see Alfa 0.794 themselves being in a co-responsible role for the fate of Players’ observations regarding „Democratic Behaviour” a sports team and would be more willing to participate in Alfa 0,861 the creation of training processes. Also noted was the re- Players’ observations regarding „Autocratic Behaviour” lationship between self-effi cacy and the expected coach Alfa 0.806 behaviour which is strictly training in nature (Coaching Players’ observations regarding „Social Support” and Instruction = 0.358) and Positive Feedback from the Alfa 0.715 coach (0.417). This proves that the higher the respon- dents evaluate their own effectiveness, the higher their Players’ observations regarding „Positive Feedback” expectations for instructing on the part of the coach and Alfa 0.81 receiving positive feedback. This then means that the players are aware that the coach controls their progress. The basketball players expect both specifi c instruction Are there any differences between the studied female and evaluation of the task. athletes’ expectations and their subjective opinion on the It should also be mentioned that the expectations of subject of the coach’s behaviour? the players in terms of Training and Instruction as well as The research conducted on the female-players showed Positive Feedback are correlated (0.669). The more the slight differences between preferred and perceived fre- players willingly undertake tasks ordered by the coach, quency of behaviour. This means that the athletes have the more they expect positive effects of their actions and higher expectations towards coaches compared to how are happy to expect behaviours in which the coach ex- they perceive their behaviour in reality during training and presses appreciation for their achievements, also in the matches. presence of other people. If they are willing to listen to The respondents attributed the greatest importance in directions about their work, the more they learn the posi- the context of leadership to Training and Instruction, thus tives sides of their activities thanks to coaches’ insights. emphasizing the coach’s behaviour of strictly training na- What kind of leadership behaviours do individuals with ture towards players, in particular, including task defi nition a low sense of self-effi cacy prefer? and explanation, both in terms of expectations (M = 4.3) The results of the research show that the lower the as well as subjective opinions about the actual behaviour self-effi cacy of the respondents, the higher the expecta- of their coaches (M = 4.2). An equally high average of re- tions of behaviours related to instructing, and vice versa, sponses was noted in the assessment of actual preferences the higher their self-effi cacy, the more the athletes expect (M = 4.22) and observations (M = 4.06) in comparison to guidance from the coach in training and matches. The so-called Positive Feedback, i.e. the contents provided by same is true for expectations regarding the democratic a coach, including appreciation for an athlete’s good work approach and receiving feedback. The more the level and positive results, and expressing recognition. of self-effi cacy decreases, the less often the basketball The values obtained in the study show the prefer- players expect the above behaviours. The analysis did ences of players for Democratic Behaviour on the part of not show a signifi cant relationship between self-effi ca-
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Table 3. Mean values (M) and standard deviation (SD) of variables describing preferred behaviours of coaches in the opinion of the female players
Female players’ expectations Team GSES Training Democr. Beh. Autrocr. Beh. Support Feedback 1 M 6.56 4.22 3.61 2.22 3.54 4.10 SD 1.55 0.43 0.55 0.51 0.74 0.50 2 M 7.18 4.30 3.60 2.15 3.44 4.19 SD 1.7 0.46 0.54 0.41 0.66 0.66 3 M 6.88 4.37 3.76 2.17 3.41 4.36 SD 1.76 0.34 0.69 0.59 0.46 0.42 Total M 6.88 4.30 3.66 2.18 3.46 4.22 SD 1.66 0.41 0.59 0.50 0.62 0.54
Table 4. Mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) of variables of actual behaviours of coaches in the opinion of the female players
Female players’ observations Team GSES Training Democr. Beh. Autocr. Beh. Support Feedback 1 M 6.56 4.16 3.38 2.34 3.53 4.14 SD 1.55 0.47 0.82 0.64 0.93 0.59 2 M 7.18 4.28 3.60 2.49 3.46 3.93 SD 1.7 0.39 0.66 0.86 0.67 0.74 3 M 6.88 4.15 3.46 2.21 3.16 4.11 SD 1.76 0.43 0.83 0.68 0.38 0.45 Total M 6.88 4.20 3.48 2.35 3.38 4.06 SD 1.66 0.43 0.76 0.73 0.69 0.60
Table 5. Correlations between sense of self-effi cacy and expected leadership
GSES Exp_lead_train Exp_lead_democr Exp_lead_autocr Exp_lead_sup Exp_lead_feed GSES 1 0.358 0.421 -0.233 0.074 0.417 Exp_lead_train 0.358 1 0.22 -0.13 0.133 0.669 Exp_lead_democr 0.421 0.22 1 -0.196 0.339 0.254 Exp_lead_autocr -0.233 -0.13 -0.196 1 0.298 -0.284 Exp_lead_sup 0.074 0.133 0.339 0.298 1 0.163 Exp_lead_feed 0.417 0.669 0.254 -0.284 0.163 1
Table 6. Correlations between sense of self-effi cacy and actual leadership
GSES Ac_lead_train Ac_lead_democr Ac_lead_autocr Ac_lead_sup Ac_lead_feed GSES 1 0.346 0.551 -0.12 0.2 0.245 Ac_lead_train 0.346 1 0.382 -0.015 0.372 0.675 Ac_lead_democr 0.551 0.382 1 -0.392 0.384 0.256 Ac_lead_autocr -0.12 -0.015 -0.392 1 0.128 0.088 Ac_lead_sup 0.2 0.372 0.384 0.128 1 0.176 Ac_lead_feed 0.245 0.675 0.256 0.088 0.176 1
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 43
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cy and the female players’ preferences for autocratic the team’s mood and consistency. The players’ moods traits of a coach. The correlation assumes the value of deteriorated signifi cantly when they negatively assessed -0.233. coaching and teaching methods. Differences between the In turn, when interpreting the results of research, style of leadership, attitudes and behaviour of the coach a negative correlation was found between the expected preferred by the players clearly affect their feelings, re- Autocratic Behaviour and Positive Feedback. This means sults and satisfaction. Therefore, coaches should – if that the greater the expectations of autocratic attitudes, possible – take the expectations of players into account the less the female players accentuate their preferences [16]. towards praise and words of appreciation from their Training and Instruction as well as Positive Feedback coach. Then, the athletes are aware that the trainer gives are correlated with each other. The more the researched constructive attention but know that positive words must players willingly undertake tasks ordered by the coach, be deserved through hard work. We can assume that the the more they expect positive effects of their work and tasks are performed due to internal beliefs, without the are happy to expect behaviours in which the coach ex- expectation of praise from the trainer. presses appreciation for their achievements. If they are Correlations between the GSES test and the female willing to listen to constructive criticism about their work, players’ preferences to accept a coach’s behaviour re- the harder it is for them to fi nd good aspects of their pre- lated to Social Support among the tested players do not vious actions thanks to the coach’s insights. Research indicate a signifi cant relationship. The analysis of research conducted on competitors from other sports disciplines shows, in turn, a dependence in which the basketball play- (judo, kayaking, Track-and-Field, and others) has shown ers showing greater expectations of democratic attitudes that athletes with a greater sense of self-effi cacy prefer represented by the coaches admit that Social Support is Democratic Behaviour of coaches more than others, as equally important to them (0.339) and they expect it from well as their support [19]. their coaches. It is also clear that Democratic Behaviour With regard to the obtained results, the further direc- excludes an autocratic approach regarding both the pref- tion of research on a larger sample size may be to evaluate erences and perceptions of players. the coaches who allow team members to participate in the decision-making process regarding the team and training Discussion course, and at the same time, creating conditions to check the resourceful skills of players. And hence, to examine A coach performs leadership functions; however, it whether their sense of their own effectiveness increases seems that it is a role more imposed on coaches than di- thanks to this. rectly arising from their nature [15]. Prominent coaches One should be aware that the dimensions of trainers’ show some common features in terms of personality, leadership behaviours used in this article do not prove leadership skills or motivation, but one should be aware a univocal style of team leadership. Therefore, on the ba- that there is no unique set of features for all coaches sis of the tools used, we cannot state that the coach is achieving high scores [16]. Although research shows characterized by democratic leadership. The tools pro- that athletes generally prefer Democratic Behaviour, in vide information on the preferences or observations of many cases, coaches choose Autocratic Behaviour in the players regarding particular behaviours that may indi- making decisions [17]. cate, for example, a democratic nature of the coach’s ap- Among all the examined teams, there was a slight dif- proach. However, it is known from practice that a coach’s ference between the preferred and perceived frequency work is based on multidimensional activity. Therefore, of behaviours. This means that the athletes have higher each of these dimensions has its share in the creation expectations towards the coaches compared to how of sports reality, however, with a different intensity. The they perceive their behaviour in reality during training person taking on the role of a coach should be aware and matches. The tested basketball players with a high that s/he is responsible of putting events in action via sense of self-effi cacy expect Democratic Behaviour from other individuals. Martens [2] summarized leadership as their coaches in the context of leading a team. It can be “knowing what course to take, to give others guidance on assumed that those who are aware of their abilities are what they should do, while visualizing the fi nal effect of more likely to see themselves as co-responsible for the their actions”. fate of their team and would be more willing to participate in the creation of training processes. Chelladurai [18], in Conclusions research on 196 leading basketball players, wrestlers and athletes from university clubs, noted that the perception 1. The main task of a coach, in addition to instructing and evaluation of leadership style were inconsistent with players and giving guidance in the discipline being the expectations of players, which negatively refl ected on practiced, is generating positive feedback on the ath-
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letes’ progress. Analysis of the tests clearly suggests one may have reservations that the training process that this is one of the most important dimensions will not be suffi ciently effective. expected by the tested female athletes. 4. The players’ expectations and perception of behaviour 2. Coaches should be aware of the expectations of those that is democratic in nature is related to the high level under their care. This allows to plan the training pro- of self-effi cacy of the basketball players. Therefore, cess appropriately, allowing implementation of rela- it can be assumed that a coach’s behaviour allowing tionships expected by the players. participation in making decisions is a direction aimed 3. In the case of differences between the behaviour ex- at increasing the players’ resourcefulness and raising pected from coaches and that perceived by players, their awareness in coping with unforeseen situations.
References
[1] Godlewski P: The Heterogeneous Nature of the History of Sport. A Look from the East, w: New Aspects of Sport History, red. M. Lämmer, T. Terret, ISHPES – Studies 13/7, Köln 2007: 411-416. [2] Martens R: Jak być skutecznym trenerem, Centralny Ośrodek Sportu, Warszawa, 2009: 4-6. [3] Herzig M: Trener – zawodnik – psycholog: Sport Wyczynowy, 2004, nr 7-8, s. 13-19. [4] Cotterilla ST , Fransen K: Athlete leadership in sport teams: Current understanding and future directions. International Re- view of Sport and Exercise Psychology, vol. 9,no 1, 2016: 116-133. [5] Moorhead, H, Griffi n F: Organizational Behavior: Managing People and Organizations, Ninth Edition, South-Western 5191 S.W. Natorp Blvd. Mason, OH 45040 USA, 2010. [6] House RJ. A path-goal theory of leader effectiveness, Administrative Science Quarterly; 1971; 16: 321-338 [7] Chelladurai P: Multidimensional model of leadership. Waterloo, Ontario, University of Waterloo, 1978. [8] Chelladurai P, Saleh SD: Dimensions of leader behavior in sports: Development of a leadership scale. J Sport Psychology, 1980, 2 (1), 34-45. [9] Juczyński Z: Poczucie własnej skuteczności – Teoria i pomiar. Zakład Psychologii Zdrowia Instytut Psychologii UŁ; Acta Universitatis Lodziensis Folia Psychologica 4, 2000. [10] Carr A: Psychologia pozytywna. Nauka o szczęściu i ludzkich siłach. Wydawnictwo Zysk i S-ka, Poznań 2009. [11] Moritz SE, Feltz DL, Fahrbach KR, Mack DE: The relation of self-effi cacy measures to sport performance: A meta-analytic review. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 71(3), 2000: 280-294. [12] Heazlewood, IT, Burke S: Self-Effi cacy and Its Relationship to Selected Sport Psychological Constructs in the Prediction of Performance in Ironman Triathlon. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise; 2011. [13] Juczyński Z: Narzędzia pomiaru w promocji i psychologii zdrowia, Warszawa: Pracownia Testów Psychologicznych Pol- skiego Towarzystwa Psychologicznego; 2001. [14] Wałach-Biśta Z: A Polish adaptation of Leadership Scale for Sports – a questionnaire examining coaching behavior. Human Movement, 2013. 14 (3): 265-274. [15] Kostera M: Organizacje i archetypy; Wolters Kluwer Polska Sp. z o.o. Warszawa 2010. [16] Czajkowski Z: Teorie przywództwa i ich znaczenie w sporcie. Sport Wyczynowy; 2003; 3-4: 77-90. [17] Fonseca, AM, Ferreira F, Fonseca PM, & Lopes, R: Preferred leadership styles in Portuguese competitive soccer: A study with junior perceptions of athlete preferred leadership players. paper presented at the 23rd International Congress of Applied Psychology; Madrid: 1994. [18] Chelladurai P: Decision styles in coaching: preferences of basketball players. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 1985: 56. [19] Fiedor M: Preferowane i rzeczywiste zachowania przywódcze trenerów spostrzegane przez sportowców w procesie szkolenia; Quality in sport 4 (2); 2016: 20-40.
Author for correspondence: Iwona Janas E-mail: [email protected]
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 45
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SECTION – SPORT SCIENCES
(1.1) DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0011.6802
IDENTIFICATION OF SOMATIC AND FUNCTIONAL VARIABLES DETERMINING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TEST GAMES IN VARIOUS FOOTBALL TRAINING GROUPS Authors’ contribution: A. Study design/planning B. Data collection/entry 1 ACDEF 1 ADEF C. Data analysis/statistics Janusz Jaworski , Leszek Gargula , 2 DEF 3 ABDEF D. Data interpretation Dariusz Tchórzewski , Krzysztof Durlik , E. Preparation of manuscript 4 EF F. Literature analysis/search Ewelina Kołodziej G. Funds collection
1 Department of Sports Theory and Kinesiology, Institute of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Phys- ical Education, University of Physical Education, Krakow, Poland 2 Department of Winter Sports, Institute of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Physical Education, University of Physical Education, Krakow, Poland 3 ”UEFA A” Coach 4 M.A., Ph.D. studies, University of Physical Education, Krakow, Poland
Keywords: football, sports training, recruitment and selection
Abstract
Aim. The aim of the work was to search for somatic and functional conditions of the effectiveness of 1x1 test games among football players in three training groups. Material and methods. The research group consisted of 42 football players. The scope of research covered somatic features, energy-based and neurosensory capabilities. In total, 24 variables were analysed for each athlete. In order to assess the impact of individual structural and functional parameters on the game effectiveness indicators, multiple determination coeffi cients were used. Results. The analysis of the signifi cance of Spearman’s rank correlation coeffi cients between game effectiveness perfor- mance indicators and the tested variables allowed 11 variables to be introduced into the multiple regression model. The proposed models determine performance indicators in a range from about 62% to 72% for youngsters, from 63% to 88% for younger juniors and from 64% to 88% for seniors. Conclusions. The analysed indicators of game effectiveness in the group of youngsters and juniors were most strongly deter- mined by the level of circulatory and respiratory endurance.
Introduction game effectiveness. Similar conclusions were formulated by Duda [3], who stated that the fi nal result of a game Identifi cation of the main determinants conditioning is infl uenced by a higher rate of passing effectiveness. the achievement of high effectiveness in football is a dif- In turn, Buraczewski et al. [4] observed that the winning fi cult task, which is why it is often undertaken by train- teams differed primarily in the effectiveness of shots and ers, researchers and scientists. This is mainly related to set pieces. In the literature, one can also fi nd analyses the various tasks athletes perform in different positions showing the effectiveness or lack thereof among foot- during a match [1]. ballers due to tactical preferences, as well as reliability According to Soroka [2], in modern football, the ef- characteristics of individual players in the effectiveness fectiveness and accuracy of passes are key elements of of maintaining the ball for a prolonged period of time [5].
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 47
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Analysis carried out by Szwarc and Kromka [6], Szwarc speed and “agility”, also understood as the effi ciency of and Chamer [7], Clemente [8] based on the observations using a ball. of the World and European Championships, presented the According to many authors of research [14, 16, 17, relationships between behaviour of the tested athletes dur- 18], there is also a relationship between the level of co- ing 1x1 duels, and the resultant match showed that in the ordination motor skills, technical-tactical skills and the case of running and possession of the ball, the priority for effectiveness of sports competition. Their high level can the players was to maintain it, and then to gain distance on largely determine the outcome of a competition, due the playing fi eld. However, the unfavourable result caused to the high complexity of movements and the ability to the players to primarily gain the fi eld as soon as possible, adapt to changing game conditions. Sports success and then create a situation for scoring. in team games and also in football, mainly depends on Many scientists have carried out research in the fi eld the optimal and rational application of learned technical of fi tness preparation within the aspect of game effec- skills. This requires a player, among others, to anticipate tiveness among footballers. Jastrzębski [9] believes that the movements of opponents as well as teammates. As during matches, a footballer’s effort is characterized by for any discipline in which open habits are required, sig- interval endurance work, in which oxygen processes nifi cant potential within coordination motor skills seems prevail. It seems reasonable to say that the capability for to be of fundamental importance. Therefore, early train- long-term work can be one of the factors determining ef- ing initiation, at the age of 7-8, is important in order to fectiveness of the game. Szafraniec et al. [10] subjected achieve a relatively high level of informational abilities, as two teams appearing in the Polish second division to at the age of about 12, man acquires about 75% of the progressive exercise. The fi rst of them occupied top po- abilities discussed [19, 20]. sitions, while the second occupied one of the last places. The basis of the majority of football fi eld actions is On the basis of the conducted research, it can be clearly the ability to play one-on-one (1x1). In sports competi- stated that the athletes from the team occupying a higher tions, activities from youngster competitions to games at place in the table were characterized by defi nitely better the highest European level, this type of game is a signifi - results in the proposed exercise test. This was confi rmed cant part of the match. Statistics reveal that high-class by the results obtained by Teplan et al. [11]. The test in- competitors perform about 40% of such situations dur- cluded three teams, the age range of the subjects up to 17. ing the competition [21]. Players with a high level of spe- The fi rst of them was the national team of the Czech Re- cial technical training in this type of situations are better public, the second was the best league team from the off in small games from 1x1 to 4x4 and in the game highest league up to the age of 17. The third team was proper. Although the 1x1 situation with an opponent dur- the worst team from the same league. A difference as ing a match is called “uncertain”, the players with the great as 23.3% in the endurance capabilities between highest level of training often take on such duels [22]. the national team and the weakest one in the highest Frequently, the whole team strategy is based on the indi- league was found. This result meant that a player at the vidual skills of outstanding players, especially those oc- representative level could run 451.4 meters more in an curring in the side sectors of the football fi eld (forwards) exercise test than his colleague from the last team. Sales or in the central zone of the defenders (strikers). et al. [12] examined 27 professional players appearing The 1x1 game and other technical activities of foot- in a Saudi Arabia league, wanting to determine the profi le ball players depend on the genetically programmed level of motor skills of players. The work focuses on calcu- of coordination and fi tness motor skills. Considering this lating maximal anaerobic power (551.9±73.0 W) and fact, appropriate and accurate selection for a given dis- maximal oxygen uptake (17.6±1.5 km l-1) for players, cipline together with reliable sports selection, apart from with division into their positions on the pitch. However, the training itself, are the basic tools for educating future it was not determined whether there was a statistically champions [23, 24]. signifi cant relationship between the tested variables and The main goal of this report is to look for variables de- the position on the pitch. termining the effectiveness of footballers’ game depend- Another group of researchers pointed out that speed ing on age and training experience. The following research and its components are key determinants of an effi cient questions were posed in the work: and effective game [13, 14]. They also emphasized their – Which of the tested somatic traits and selected motor importance in the starting preparation of a football player skills are of decisive importance in shaping the per- as well as during preparation for a single season. In turn, formance indicators of 1x1 test games among foot- the Czech authors [15] examined their national team rep- ballers? resentatives under the age of 16 and defi ned 3 speed – What is the system of variables determining the ef- components that are of key importance during a game. fectiveness of 1x1 test games at particular stages of The following were distinguished: acceleration, maximal sports training?
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Material and methods e) 10 m standing start run – as a test of speed abilities. Each subject performed 2 attempts, the better result The research was carried out in April and May 2015 was analysed. among the following football clubs: MTS Piast Skawina, f) Zig-zag endurance test (beep test) – as an endurance Wiślanie Jaśkowice and Skawinka Skawina. In total, 42 test [26]. The result of the test was the distance run. players were examined in 3 age-related categories. The g) Sits from lying in 30 seconds – analysed as the dy- boys born in 2002 and 2003 were qualifi ed into the D1 namic force of the abdominal muscles [26]. The result category of youngsters [25]. The category of younger of the test was the number of repetitions. juniors [25] consisted of those born in 1999 and 1998, Taking the classifi cation of motor coordination skills while the group of seniors comprised of players aged into account [16, 28, 30, 31, 32], the scope of the tests 19-32. The average training experience for the group of also included this type of ability. In the tests, the following youngsters oscillated between 3 and 5 years ( = 3.71, specifi c coordination tests of motor skills recommended SD = 0.80). It was slightly longer in juniors and included for footballers were used: the ability to combine move- a range from 4 to 7 years ( = 5.21, SD = 0.77). The ments, spatial orientation, feeling movement rhythms, stat- longest training experience was observed in the group of ic balance, kinesthetic differentiation, adaptation and shift- seniors, which ranged from 8 to 15 years ( = 12.43, ing movement activities. A detailed description of the tests SD = 2.23). can be found in the work by Ljach and Witkowski [33]. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of actions during Scope of research the game, 1x1 test games were carried out according to the proposals of Ljach and Witkowski [33]. They made it The research included basic somatic parameters: possible to quantify the effectiveness of the players’ ac- body height, sitting height, thigh and lower leg circum- tions both in the defence and attack. During all duels, the ferences, body mass, body fat (percentage of fat con- referee of the competition was responsible for recording tent was determined), agility – determined by the depth the course of the match. The 1x1 pitch was mapped out of the trunk forward bow in a seated position [26]. on a square plan with a 20 m side. The playing fi eld was di- Based on the results obtained, the following were also vided into two halves. The goals that were used during the calculated: fat mass (FM), lean body mass (LBM) and test matches were 1.5x1 m. The goal was only counted if BMI index. For somatic measurements, the tools includ- the shot was taken from the opponent’s half. The athletes ed in the Martin instrumentation and the TANITA TFB- played according to the peer-to-peer system. For victory in 551 scale were used. All measurements of body mass a single competition, 3 points were awarded, 1 for a draw, were made with an accuracy of 100 g, while for body and 0 for a loss. The duel between the two players lasted height, 1 mm. 2 minutes; after 1 minute, the players switched sides. If The scope of research also included selected motor the ball left the game square, it was introduced back in fi tness tests: from the place where it left the pitch. When changing the a) Standing long jump [26]. The measurement was con- sides and performing penalty kicks, the game time was ducted using a measuring tape with an accuracy of paused. For each offense, a penalty kick performed from 5 cm. Based on the results, maximal anaerobic work the middle of the pitch to an empty goal was dictated. (MPA) was calculated, which can be treated as an ap- proximate measure of the lower limb maximal anaero- Methods of statistical analysis bic power [27]. b) 2 kg medicine ball above-the-head throw. The mea- In order to answer the posed research questions, the surement was conducted using a measuring tape with following methods of statistical analysis were used: an accuracy of 10 cm. This test allowed to determine 1. Based on the analysis of 1x1 games (peer-to-peer the value of maximal anaerobic capacity of the upper within a given age category), quantitative character- limbs [27]. istics of performance for each player were distin- c) Run along a 3 x 5 m “envelope” – as a quick muscle guished. The following were analysed [33]: mobilization capacity test [28]. During the test, the a) the total number of points scored by individual subject ran the planned course route 3 times as fast players in the games – interpreted as an indicator as possible. 2 trials were performed, the better result of the comprehensive effectiveness of the game was recorded. both in the defence and attack (WKS), d) Zig-zag run; 10 x 3 m course – as a test of speed b) the difference between the number of scored and abilities. 2 attempts were made, the better result was lost goals in all played matches – which was in- recorded. On the basis of the obtained results, the terpreted as the difference between the player’s maximal anaerobic power was calculated [29]. effectiveness in the offense and defence (SOD),
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 49
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c) the number of goals scored in all 1x1 games, for entering the variable into the multiple regression which is interpreted as the player’s effectiveness model. during the attack (SA), d) the number of missed goals, meaning the player’s Results effectiveness in the defence game (SD). 2. Spearman’s rank correlation coeffi cients were cal- Based on the signifi cance of Spearman’s rank correla- culated between game effectiveness indicators and tion coeffi cients between the game effectiveness indicators somatic parameters as well as fi tness and coordina- and the analysed variables, those that were ultimately in- tion skills. troduced into the regression model were selected. The fea- 3. The initial list of variables was set with a certain “ex- tures most correlated with the explained (dependent) vari- cess”, based on literature analysis. Next, the prelimi- able and not correlated with each other were chosen. The nary procedure for eliminating variables was intro- applied procedure eliminated the number of variables intro- duced into the multiple regression model. The features duced into the multiple regression model. Finally, among all most correlated with explained variables (dependent) the independent variables (conditioning indicators of game but not simultaneously correlated with each other effectiveness at individual stages of sports training), the were selected [34]. following models were introduced into the multiple deter- 4. In order to analyse the infl uence of particular mor- mination model: 10 m run, 10 x 3 m run, beep test, sit from phological and functional features on the level of lying, medicine ball throw, ‘envelope’ run, MPA jump, agil- game effectiveness, multiple determination coeffi - ity, balance, kinesthetic differentiation, adaptation. cients were calculated. The procedure of progres- The determined linear regression equations for all sive selection for variables introduced into the model analysed training groups are presented in Table 1. The has been adopted. The variable was introduced into proposed models determine game effectiveness indica- the model only when it was possible to reject the tors from almost 62% to as much as 88 %. It should also hypothesis about its zero share (F-Snedecor statis- be emphasized that all proposed models were statisti- tics, p≤0.05). F≥4 was assumed as the threshold cally signifi cant.
Table 1. Multi-linear regression equations for game effectiveness indicators in particular training categories
YOUNGSTERS Indicators of game effectiveness Statistical parameters WKS SOD SA SD y = 0.0872 beep test y = - 0.03662 beep test y = 0.0460 beep test y = 0.0521 beep test Linear regression equation + 2.7604 differentiation - 1.93197 differentiation - 20.7822 - 20.8610 - 85.8702 + 62.70827 R2 [%] 62.36067 72.55443 71.4144 62.7357 F 19.88154 14.53963 29.97920 9.259427 p 0.000781 0.000816 0.000142 0.004386 YOUNGER JUNIORS y = -0.01231 beep y = 0.0344 beep test y = 0.041 beep test y= 0.0258 beep test test -1.10860 agility + Linear regression equation - 39.3165 + 1.791 agility - 159.653 - 19.2584 3.19317 envelop co-ordi- nation run + 2.90864 R2 [%] 72.81617 80.27187 63.76818 88.45817 F 32.14376 22.37883 21.12002 26.82117 p 0.00104 0.00133 0.00616 0.00043 SENIORS y = 0.2742 differentiation y = 2.4174 differentiation y = 5.3110 differentiation y = 3.6447 run 3 x 10 m +1.5800 beep test +2.3580 beep test + 1.3830 beep test - Linear regression equation - 1.0372 beep test - 4.9373 run 10 x 3 m - 6.1467 run 10 x 3 m 6.1467 run 10 x 3 m - 82.0325 + 122.0494 + 108.3122 - 43.8928 R2 [%] 88.45738 86.87738 74.08602 64.68143 F 25.54484 22.06792 15.72401 6.706804 p 0.00053 0.00099 0.000595 0,008721 In bold p≤0,05; Designation of game effectiveness indicators as in the ”Material and methods” section.
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In the group of youngsters (Tab. 2), the analysed fectiveness indicators is apparent. The detailed confi gura- game effectiveness indicators were most strongly deter- tion of the model in the analysed group of younger juniors mined by the level of cardiopulmonary endurance (beep is presented in Table 3. For the comprehensive game ef- test). Such regularities were obtained for each of the in- fectiveness indicator (WSK) and the effectiveness indica- dicators in question. The highest percentage of volatility tor in the attack (SA), only the cardiovascular and respira- translation was noted for game effectiveness indicators tory endurance factor is here revealed. This explains the in the offense (about 71%), and the lowest for the ef- 72% and 63% (respectively) variability of the analysed fectiveness of the defensive game (about 42%). For two index. Next, for the SOD indicator, agility is additionally in- indicators (SOD and SD), the results of kinesthetic dif- troduced into the model, which explains about 7% of the ferentiation regarding strength parameters also qualifi ed indicator volatility. Together, they account for about 80% of into the model, and thus, a specifi c coordination capac- the SOD variability. It should also be emphasized that agil- ity. They explain approximately 11% and 20% (respec- ity was introduced to the model at a p slightly exceeding tively) of the analysed indicators’ volatility. It should be the assumed level of signifi cance. noted that for the SOD indicator, the value of the F sta- In turn, the variability percentage of the last game tistic is higher than the accepted criterion (F≥4), but the effectiveness indicator (SD) is formed by three param- variable has been introduced into the model at a p value eters. The fi rst re-emerging here is the circulatory-respi- slightly exceeding the assumed level of signifi cance. ratory factor – explaining about 68% of the variability of In the younger junior group, the complexity of vari- the indicator. The composition with agility signifi cantly ables shaping individual models is as interesting as in the increases the value of the determination coeffi cient (by case of the youngsters. The determined linear regression more than 15%), while integration of the next value de- equations are presented in Table 1. The proposed models termining the quick muscle mobilization ability (running determine game effectiveness indicators within the range along the ‘envelope’) leads to a slight increase in this from just over 63% to as much as 88%. Again, the in- ratio (by about 5%). The whole system of variables rep- fl uence of variables representing energy-based abilities resenting energy-based abilities and agility explains the (cardiopulmonary endurance) on the analysed game ef- defensive game effectiveness at the level of approx. 88%.
Table 2. Coeffi cients of multiple determination between game performance indicators and the tested variables in the youngster group
Variable intro- Indicator Spearman’s R R2 R2 change F p duced into model WKS Beep test 0.789688 0.623607 0.623607 19.88154 0.000781 Beep test 0.784027 0.614699 0.614699 19.14445 0.000904 SOD Kinesthetic 0.851789 0.725544 0.110845 4.44260 0.058806 differentiation SA Beep test 0.845070 0.714144 0.714144 29.97920 0.000142 Beep test 0.654276 0.428077 0.428077 8.981837 0.011129 SD Kinesthetic 0.792059 0.627357 0199280 5.882519 0.033684 differentiation In bold p≤0.05; Designation of game effectiveness indicators as in the ”Material and methods” section.
Table 3. Coeffi cients of multiple determination between game effectiveness indicators and tested variables in the group of younger juniors
Variable Indicator introduced into Spearman’s R R2 R2 change F p the model WKS Beep test 0.853323 0.728161 0.728161 32.14376 0.000104 Beep test 0.852985 0.727584 0.727584 32.05021 0.000105 SOD F 0.895945 0.802718 0.075134 4.18930 0.065337 SA Beep test 0.798550 0.637681 0.637681 21.12002 0.000616 Beep test 0.824954 0.680549 0.680549 25.56446 0.000282 SD Agility 0.913980 0.835359 0.154810 10.34319 0.008216 Envelope run 0.943111 0.889458 0.054099 4.89398 0.051366 In bold p≤0,05; Designation of game effectiveness indicators as in the ”Material and methods” section.
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A diametrically different model structure is observed volatility of the indicator in question. Also in the model for in the senior fraction. Apparently, the meaning of a vari- SOD, 3 variables are revealed. Kinesthetic differentiation able representing specifi c coordination abilities is drawn ability is once again located in fi rst place - explaining about here. The fi rst to enter the model, even in the case of 70% of the variability of the indicator. The introduction of 3 indicators, is kinesthetic differentiation of strength another variable (cardiopulmonary endurance) causes parameters. The linear regression equation suitable for an increase by approximately 10%. In turn, all dependent this training group is presented in Table 1. The proposed variables explain SOD at a level of about 86%. However, models determine game effectiveness indicators within for game effectiveness in the attack model, 2 variables the range of just above 64% to as much as 88%. In all were introduced: kinesthetic differentiation as well as cir- cases, the proposed models are statistically signifi cant. culatory and respiratory endurance. Together, they explain A detailed confi guration of the model in the analysed about 74% of the volatility. In turn, for the defence game group of seniors is presented in Table 4. The results of effectiveness indicator, only 2 variables were implemented 3 variables are eligible for the game effectiveness in- in the model: the 10 x 3 m run – representing speed abili- dex model: kinesthetic differentiation, cardiorespiratory ties, and the beep test – characterizing cardiovascular and strength and the 10 x 3 m run (the ability to quickly mobi- respiratory system effi ciency. This model only explains lize the muscle). Together, they explain about 88% of the about 64% of the volatility of the indicator in question.
Table 4. Coeffi cients of multiple determination between game effectiveness indicators and tested variables in the group of seniors
Variable Indicator introduced into Spearman’s R R2 R2 change F p the model Kinesthetic 0.821812 0.675374 0.675374 24.96565 0.000311 differentiation WKS Beep test 0.883546 0.780654 0.105279 5.27966 0.042199 10 x 3 m run 0.940517 0.884573 0.103919 9.00296 0.013332 Kinesthetic 0.838777 0.703547 0.703547 28.47863 0.000177 differentiation SOD Beep test 0.897600 0.805686 0.102139 5.78202 0.034948 10 x 3 m run 0.932080 0.868773 0.063087 4.80745 0.053103 Kinesthetic 0.790781 0.625334 0.625334 20.02854 0.000759 SA differentiation Beep test 0.860732 0.740860 0.115525 4.90382 0.048836 10 x 3 m run 0.720965 0.519790 0.519790 12.98906 0.003619 SD Beep test 0.804247 0.646814 0.127024 3.95616 0.072149 In bold p≤0,05; Designation of game effectiveness indicators as in the ”Material and methods” section.
Discussion test, sit from lying, medicine ball throw, ‘envelope’ run, MPA calculated on the basis of the standing long jump, The main purpose of this report was to search for so- agility, balance, kinesthetic differentiation, adaptation) matic and morpho-functional variables conditioning the were identifi ed. In terms of fi tness capabilities, fi rst of all, effectiveness of actions during 1x1 test games in football the infl uence of aerobic endurance and speed abilities on players at various stages of sports training. the comprehensive effectiveness of a player’s game at The infl uence of somatic features on the fi nal result particular stages of training was revealed. These results in football championships, in light of many publications correspond to the surveys carried out on Portuguese [35, 36, 37, 38], seems not to be fully recognized. In our players aged 11-14 in the central part of the country own research, none of the somatic features in individual [39] and in Turkey [40]. In both reports, fi tness abilities training categories showed any signifi cant correlations (speed, endurance and strength) played a signifi cant role with the analysed indicators of footballers’ game effec- in the effectiveness of a player’s performance. tiveness. In turn, relationships between the players’ ef- In light of the cited literature, it should be concluded fectiveness parameters and the results of energy- as well that the individual energy-based properties of the body of as information-based tests (10 m run, 10 x 3 m run, beep football players have great impact on the level of sports
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championship and effectiveness during the game. The termine effectiveness in collective competition (2x2 and cardiopulmonary function should be considered as a key more players). This is confi rmed by the research of Du- element in the range of fi tness abilities. Taking into ac- arte et al. [45] who, observing 11-year-old players, stated count the results of the last Football World Cup in Brazil that a very important property during dual (forward and in 2014, a relationship between the occupied place in the defender) duels was temporal-spatial orientation. Cicirko ranking and the distance covered by the athletes of indi- et al. [46] identifi ed the relationship between motor coor- vidual teams should be assumed [41]. In our own stud- dination and the 1x1 game. These observations allowed ies, in the case of younger juniors and juniors, the impact to state that the greatest correlations occur between the of fi tness (especially circulatory and respiratory endur- 1x1 game and motor adaptation (0.96 p<0.05). It has ance) on game effectiveness indicators has already been also been noted that a high level of coordination capac- clearly highlighted. In turn, taking into account the senior ity determines effective duelling behaviour in one-on-one team, the dominance of the coordination potential in this situations. group of athletes was noticed. This data is confi rmed in The quoted literature is only a small part of the gen- the results of Kalinowski’s research [42], in which the eral state of knowledge about the infl uence of various de- boys achieved the worst results of goal shots after the terminants on the effectiveness of football games. Thus, Cooper test. Therefore, it should be assumed that in this there is a need for further detailed penetration in this area training group, coordination abilities play an important of the studied discipline. role in effective execution of a play. Paying attention to the neuro-functional side of a player’s motor ability, re- Conclusions lationships with 1x1 game effi ciency was mainly located within the ability of kinesthetic differentiation, motor ad- On the basis of the presented research results, the aptation and balance (signifi cant Spearman rank correla- following conclusions can be formulated: tions). These studies are confi rmed by the publication of 1. The detailed confi guration of models developed on Garguli and Duda [43], who analysed the level of indica- the basis of multidimensional statistical analysis tors of the aforementioned properties and their impact on (multiple regression) showed that the analysed game the effectiveness of 15-18-year-old football players from effectiveness indicators in the group of youngsters the School of Sports Championship in Krakow based on and younger juniors were most strongly determined a two-year coordination training programme (experiment). by the level of circulatory and respiratory endurance. A 1x1 duel is a spectacular part of a football match. 2. In the senior training group, for: the indicator of com- According to many authors, the methods based on a 1x1 prehensive game effectiveness, the effectiveness of game meet the scientifi c assumptions place upon motor the offensive and defensive game, and effectiveness measurement tests. They are reliable attempts to assess in the attack, the fi rst place in the proposed model the athlete’s sports level against the background of a peer is occupied by the kinesthetic differentiation ability. group. The value of this kind of tests is also relative easy For each indicator, cardiorespiratory endurance also observation. According to Szwarc [44], young players qualifi es for the model, which explains about 10% of who are prone to individual action (1x1 game) largely de- its variability.
References
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[36] Sutton L, Scott M, Wallace J, Reilly T: Body composition of English Premier League soccer players: Infl uence of playing position, international status, and ethnicity. Journal of Sports Sciences 2009; 27(10): 1019-1026. DOI:10.1080/02640410903030305. [37] Kutáč P: Somatic parameters of 17-year old soccer players in the older youth category in relation to sports performance. Acta Universitatis Palackianae Olomucensis. Gymnica, 2013; 43(3): 17-26. DOI: 10.5507/ag.2013.014. [38] Gerosa-Neto J, Rossi FE, Buonani Silva C, Zapaterra Campos E, Araujo Fernandes R, Forte Freitas Júnior I: Body composition analysis of athletes from the elite of Brazilian soccer players. Motricidade 2014; 10(4): 105-110. DOI:10.6063/motricid- ade.10(4).3567. [39] Figueiredo AJ, Goncalves CE, Coelho JM, Malina RM: Youth soccer players, 11-14 years: Maturity, size, function, skill and goal orientation. Annals of Human Biology 2009; 36(1): 60-73. DOI: 10.1080/03014460802570584.
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[40] Kutlu M, Yapici H, Demirkan E, Yilmaz A: Reliability and validity of new tests on agility and skill for children soccer players. Central European Journal of Sport Sciences and Medicine 2014; 6(2): 5-12. [41] Bojkowski Ł, Śliwowski R, Wieczorek A, Eider J: Analysis of the longest distances run by the best soccer players at the FIFA World Cup in Brazil 2014. Central European Journal of Sport Sciences and Medicine 2015; 11(3): 145-151. DOI: 10.18276/ cej.2015.3-15. [42] Kalinowski M: Wpływ zmęczenia biegiem na celność strzałów w piłce nożnej zawodników w wieku 13-14 lat. Zeszyty Nau- kowe WSKFiT 2014; 9: 33-36. [43] Gargula L, Duda H: 2014. Rozwój zdolności różnicowania kinestetycznego i dostosowania motorycznego u młodych piłkarzy nożnych na przestrzeni dwuletniego treningu koordynacyjnego. W: Stuła A: (red.) Systemy szkolenia piłkarzy w wybranych krajach i klubach europejskich. Badania wspomagające efektywność szkolenia w Polsce. Ofi cyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Opolskiej, Opole 2014; 127-139. [44] Szwarc A: Związki między sprawnością działania w grach klasyfi kowanych i małych grach u młodzików uprawiających grę w piłkę nożną. Pedagogika, Psihologia ta Mediko-Biologični Problemi Fizičnogo Vihovanna i Sportu 2007; 7: 176-179. [45] Duarte R, Araújo D, Davids K, Travassos B, Gazimba V, Sampaio J: Interpersonal coordination tendencies shape 1-vs-1 sub-phase performance outcomes in youth soccer. Journal of Sports Sciences 2012; 30(9): 871-877. DOI:10.1080/0264 0414.2012.675081. [46] Cicirko L, Płeszka P, Buraczewski T: Correlation between the level of development of motor coordination abilities and the effectives of one-on-one play among young players at the age of 11. W: Sadowski J: (red.) Coordination motor abilities in scientifi c research. Wydawnictwo INTERGRAF, Biała Podlaska 2005; 401-407.
Author for correspondence: Janusz Jaworski E-mail: [email protected]
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 55
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SECTION – SPORT SCIENCES
(1.1) DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0011.6801
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL CHANGES IN ADOLESCENT JUDO ATHLETES CAUSED BY TRAINING DURING THE START PERIOD Authors’ contribution: A. Study design/planning B. Data collection/entry 1 ADE 1 FG C. Data analysis/statistics Jan Jaszczanin , Wojciech Przybylski , 1 DG 2 BDC D. Data interpretation Waldemar Moska , Egle Kemeryte-Riaubiene , E. Preparation of manuscript 1 EF F. Literature analysis/search Grzegorz Chruściński G. Funds collection
1 Gdansk University of Physical Education, 2 Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences, Faculty of Sports and Health Education
Keywords: judo athletes, VO2max, lactate concentration, Wingate test
Abstract
Aim. The objective of the present study was to estimate and compare dynamics of physical fi tness indices of judo athletes and non-training persons aged 11-17 years during this stage of ontogeny and their importance of the body’s functional adaptation. Basic procedures. The study involved 47 judo athletes, 11-17 year-olds, who were divided into three age groups: GP 11-13 years, n=16; GP 14-15 years, n=16; GP 16-17 years n=15, and 48 schoolchildren not involved in sports: GK 11-13 years, n=16; GK 14-15 years, n=15; GK 16-17 years, n=17. Aerobic and anaerobic capacity was studied in all groups. The initial stud- ies were carried out in January and follow-up studies were conducted six months later. Results: Power indicators increased in all groups, but the judo athletes’ anaerobic capacity was signifi cantly higher compared to the other groups. Judo athletes’ simulation fi ghts resulted in increased La concentrations, pH changes and heart rate alterations, whereas the level of changes depended on athletes’ age, training and training experience. Comparison of maximal oxygen uptake parameters of judo players and untrained children of the same age did not reveal signifi cant differences between these groups. The athletes aged 12 and 16 years presented signifi cantly higher anaerobic prevalence in comparison with untrained children. The differences indicate that anaerobic performance potential in older judo athletes (16 years old and above) is increased, which is refl ected by higher intensity and elevated exercise loads as well as training experience.
Conclusions: No signifi cant differences were reported in terms of VO2max between the study groups. The indicators of an- aerobic performance of children training judo (W/kg, W average/kg, time to attain max power, time to maintain max power) were signifi cantly better in comparison to their untrained peers. The maximum loads (Wingate test, especially in simulative judo fi ghts) caused a signifi cant increase in La levels accompanied by a decrease in pH in the chosen growth period.
Introduction patterns, including the ability to pursue personal goals, etc. [3-6]. However, some reports suggest that the physi- Athletes, the type of training coupled with the physi- ological parameters of training loads [7, 8] in adolescent cal load (intensity and duration of training) activates well- males are also important during upbringing [9, 10]. This understood adaptation processes to physical activity. is of special importance in terms of combat or contact Adaptive changes are more pronounced during growth sports, which can be refl ected in behaviour outside the and affect the establishment of motor functions [1, 2] as combat arena, as one would trust the acquired skills be well as the formation of specifi c mental and behavioural used for sport.
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 57
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Inadequate duration and training intensity, premature Condition standardization for study procedures establishment of a focused sport, and too many competi- The study protocol was conducted at a specialized tions are some of the most basic factors encouraging tal- judo gym and sports fi eld with a running track. The ac- ented youth to resign from further training [11, 12]. The tual tests were conducted after a 10-15 min warm-up choice of training load should consider the biological age of consisting of stretching exercises. The warm-up ended the young male, which is sometimes diffi cult from a practi- 2 minutes directly before the trial. Temperatures in the cal point of view. Furthermore, the biodynamic structure wrestling gym ranged between 20 and 22°C. The study of the training loads is far from the specialized motor ac- was conducted in the afternoon. The study was ap- tivity observed in sport competitions. This is one of the proved by Bioethics Committee at the Regional Chamber most important factors of dis-coordination, especially in in Kaunas, Lithuania. fatigue accumulation. This can lead to motor system dam- age, decreased physical training progress, or even signs Study design of regression. Therefore, the lack of success can result in During the initial and follow-up studies, which were aversion to training and quitting the sport, and it may also repeated after six months of training (controls were sub- cause biological dysfunction of fundamental processes re- ject to the same time frame), the following parameters sponsible for body growth [13, 15]. The aforementioned were tested: body mass was assessed before meals factors may be more pronounced in combat sports, as, using a medical scale according to procedure require- due to specifi cs of these disciplines, there is constant con- ments; heart rate (HR) was assessed using a PH-600 tact with a partner also aiming for success. Sport recording device (Polar INC, Finland), lactate blood Therefore, the appropriate load, training content, inten- concentration (La) was measured with a photometer LP sity and training methods are still a relevant issue in the 20 LKM-140 (Lange, Germany); and acid-base homeo- context of the biological and psychophysiological aspects stasis (pH) was evaluated using the Bayer 160 analyser of the young body, especially in regard to school sports. (Germany). Additionally, general and specialized school multi-direc- Anaerobic capacity was evaluated using the Wingate tional scientifi c research, and their multi-parameter analy- laboratory test (Bar-Or, 1987). The test was performed sis might lead to implementation of changes in schools. twice on a Monark (894E, PEAK BIKE, Sweden) cycle The goal of the present study was to estimate and ergometer at baseline and after six months. Before the compare dynamics of physical fi tness indicators in judo 30-second test began, every participant did a standard athletes and non-trained persons age 11-17 during this warm-up for fi ve minutes with the load of 60 rpm (1W/ stage of ontogeny and their importance in the body’s kg). After a two-minute break, each participant per- functional adaptation. formed the proper exercise test consisting of paddling for 60 seconds at a maximal speed, and the load was ad- Material and methods justed according to body mass (0.075 x kg). The follow- ing parameters were assessed during testing: maximal Research involved 47 judo athletes, 11–17 year olds, power (W), maximal relative power (W/kg), relative aver- who were divided into three age groups. The initial tests age power (W/kg), time to attain max power (s), time to were performed in January while follow-up studies were maintain max power (s). conducted six months later. Judo training was carried In order to assess maximal oxygen uptake, the in-
out at a frequency and duration dependent on age. De- direct method of VO2max assessment was utilized (As- tailed anthropometric data are summarized in Table 1. trand, 1992) (Fig. 1).
Table 1. Comparison of average basic anthropometric parameters of the judo athlete (GP) and non-athlete (GK) groups
Indicators Judo athletes (GP) Control (GK)
I group Number of II group III group I group III group n-16 II group n-15 participants n-16 n-15 n-16 n-17
age (years) 11.4 ±0.3 13.5 ± 0.2 15.1 ± 0.2 11.5± 0.4 13.7± 0.4 15.4 ±0.5
height (cm) 155.4 ± 8.2 164.3 ± 4.5 173.4 ± 3.4 152.7 ± 4.3 160.3 ± 5.3 168.7 ± 6.5
body mass (kg) 36.5 ± 4.8 58.7 ± 7.6 67.7 ± 6.9 38.4 ± 8.2 53.5 ± 6.8 65.7 ± 7.2
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Fig. 1. The protocol of indirect assessment of maximal aerobic endurance test (VO2max)
Figure explanation: ses in VO2max and HR were higher in the judo subjects as Before the warm-up, the following parameters were compared to controls. In the groups with the oldest par-
assessed: heart rate (HR), lactic acid concentration (La) ticipants (GP 16-17 and GK 16-17), VO2max was higher and pH in comparison to the youngest group (GP11-13 and GK The warm-up duration was 10 minutes. 11-13). Changes in HR in all groups were not statistically Load was performed on the cycle ergometer until signifi cant (p>0.05), although in the untrained group, HR refusal (exhaustion). tends to decrease with age. The power and heart rate were assessed directly af- In order to assess the physical performance of the ter the exercise, and during post-exercise rest – after 1 school children 600 m (11 years or younger) and, 1,000 minute, 2 minutes and 3 minutes. m (12-15 years) runs, as well as the Cooper test were HR, La and pH were assessed after a 3 minutes rest. performed. In the untrained groups aged 15 to 17 years, Overall aerobic capacity was determined indirectly by the improvement in results of the 1,000 m run were sig- performing the Cooper test for 600 meters (for boys at the nifi cantly lower than in the judo athletes (p<0,05). age of 11) or 1,000 m (for the boys 12 years or older), Heart rate at rest (HR) amounted to 72-85 beats/ and the distance results were also calculated according minute and was within the normal range. Heart rate after to this test. At the end of a six-month judo training period, exercise oscillated between 184 and 192 beats/minute. simulated judo fi ghts were conducted according to the re- During the rest period following exercise, greater HR di- quirements of judo competition rules: for 5 minutes (the versifi cation was observed (after the fi rst minute, 96-164 time of the 1st round). beats/min; after the second minute, 78-138 beats/min; after the third minute, 66-97 beats/min) in both: the fi rst Statistical analysis and the repeated test. Nevertheless, among subjects aged The Mean values (X), mean error (Sx) and standard 16-17, differences between groups were lower (Tab. 3). deviation (SD) were calculated for each group. The statis- Judo athletes aged 12 and 16 years presented sig- tical signifi cance between the groups (p) was estimated nifi cantly higher anaerobic prevalence in comparison to with the Student t-test. The result p<0.05 was considered untrained children (Tab. 4). Thus, the year-long training statistically signifi cant. All calculations were conducted in of judo athletes under the age of 12 did not signifi cantly Microsoft Excel 2000 and Statistica programmes. improve their anaerobic capacity (p>0.05). Whereas, signifi cant differences (p<0.01) in these parameters Results (W max/kg, W max average/kg, t to attain W max (s) and t to maintain W max (s), in comparison to the untrained Comparison of maximal oxygen uptake parameters (l/ children at the same age, were observed in subjects min, mL/kg/min) of judo athletes and untrained children of aged 12 and older however, in 12-year-old judo partici- the same age did not reveal signifi cant differences between pants and untrained children, the increase was non- sig- these groups (p>0.05). Initial results (a) and the results of nifi cant (p>0.05). In all cases, performing the Wingate repeated trials (b) indicate no signifi cance (p>0.05). test resulted in an increase in lactate concentration (La), Despite no statistical signifi cance being found (p> however, in 12-year-old judo participants and untrained 0.05), trials repeated after six months indicate that increa- children, the increase was non-signifi cant (p>0.05).
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 59
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Table 2. Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), heart rate of judo athletes (GP), and untrained children (GK) between the age of 11 and 17 (GK)
VO2max HR beats/min* Subjects 1/min P ml/kg/min P P ab ab ab GP 11-13 3.01±0.8 3.21±0.4 - 52.2±4.6 55.6±4.5 - 184±9 186±11 - GP 14-15 3.90±0.5 3.98±0.5 - 53.4±6.3 56.9±6.7 - 191±18 192±12 - GP 15-16 4.21±0.6 4.33±0.4 - 54.8±4.9 58.12±6.42 - 186±13 190±11 - GK 11-13 2.3±0.84 2.32±0.92 - 54.4±6.4 54.8±5.4 - 192±11 193±9 GK 14-15 3.34±0.48 3.48±0.38 - 57.3±4.8 55.7±4.8 - 190±8 189±11 GK 15-16 3.76±0.74 3.84±0.62 - 55.8±7.1 56.2±6.4 - 187±13 182±8 Explanation: a – preliminary study; b – repeat study.
Table 3. HR dynamics in judo athletes between the age of 11 and 17 during exercise and recovery
Age (years) HR Indicators 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 X 82.42 83.31 81.24 80.42 80.38 78.24 76.36 SD 12.30 11.42 9.31 9.84 9.94 10.21 11.42 At rest max 98 92 91 88 86 82 80 min 68 63 61 58 59 56 54 X 181.32 176.38 182.46 180.42 182.8 188.4 180.2 SD 12.1 18.2 16.3 12.3 11.4 13.4 18.2 After exercise max 192 188 198 196 192 199 188 min 120 110 108 99 102 88 91 X 160.34 142.39 136.48 130.32 120.4 110.8 91.4
1 min after SD 14.2 15.3 18.3 13.4 16.2 10.0 8.8 exercise max 178 164 168 161 142 122 110 min 89 82 90 84 79 68 68 X 126.28 120.81 112.82 100.10 90.2 80.4 74.34
2 min after SD 11.4 14.2 12.3 8.4 0.4 7.6 6.8 exercise max 139 138 128 112 108 94.0 82 min 76 80 81 76 69 68 62 X 92.34 94.5 89.3 80.1 80.4 74.4 70.38
3 min after SD 11.2 9.3 8.2 7.4 9.2 6.9 4.8 exercise max 108 102 98 92 90 88 82 min 71 76 72 70 68 64 64
Before the Wingate test, La concentration in untrained In order to assess the infl uence of specialized loads children amounted to 1.78±0.38 mmol/L, in judo athletes on judo athlete‘s muscle metabolism, simulative judo 1.81±0.41 mmol/L, while after the Wingate test, La con- fi ghts were used. These fi ghts resulted in increased La centration increased to 7.8±1.06 mmol/L and 8.14±1.18 concentrations, pH changes and heart rate alterations, mmol/L, respectively (p>0.05). In the older, untrained whereas the level of changes depended on the age of subjects, at the age of 16, La concentration before the test judo athletes training and experience (Table 5). It should amounted to 1.62±0.38 mmol/L, and in judo athletes – be noted that changes in the aforementioned parameters 1.72±0.81 mmol/L, whereas after the test, it was 9.2±1.2 were more pronounced than those observed after the mmol/L and 11.8±1.4 mmol/L (p<0.05) respectively. Wingate test.
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Table 4. Parameters of judo athletes and untrained children – maximal anaerobic performance at ages 12-16 (according to the Wingate test)
Total work Power Time Number of Max relative average to attain to maintain- Age group cycles of a single total work Max max power max power (years) (n/30 s) cycle (J) ( KJ) (W) (W/kg) W/kg) (s) (s) 12345678 GK11-13 42.3± 4.8 161.8±24.8 7.34±1.2 283.8±52.3 7.38±0.8 6.3±0.48 12.3±2.4 4.45±1.7 GP 11-13 44.1± 5.2 172±23.4 8.26±12 294.4±49.6 8.64±0.7 7.6±0.46 10.8±1.8 5.34±0.9 GK16-17 56.2± 4.1 244.6±34.5 16.32±2 618.4±69.4 9.72±0.6 8.33±0.6 8.49±1.8 4.38±08 GP 16-17 60.8± 4.2 268.2±38.2 18.16±1 649.3±39.4 12.98±0.5* 10.4±0.5 * 5.0±0.5 * 6.28±0.7* Explanation: * – p<0.01.
Table 5. Changes in pH, La concentration and HR of judo athletes before and after simulative judo fi ghts
pH Age Body MASS La (mmol/L) HR (beats/min) (years) (kg) ababab GP 11-13 47.5±4.6 7.41±0.03 7.21±0.09 1.89±0.39 8.34±1.23 82.4±8.6 196.3±23.4 GP 14-15 58.2±6.3 7.38±0.04 7.18±0.02 1.84±0.43 9.09±1.48 76.2±6.3 182.1±24.3 GP 16-17 67.9±6.8 7.36±0.03 7.15±0.04 1.63±0.39 12.92±1.31 66.8±8.2 186.7±26.4 Explanation: a – before the beginning of the fi ght; b – three minutes after simulative fi ght start. The trials were conducted during a period of general physical activity training.
The differences indicate that anaerobic performance [5, 6, 14]. Due to such muscular work, the development potential in older judo athletes (16 years old and above) of hypoxia disrupts muscle metabolism. It should also is increased, which is refl ected by a higher intensity and be mentioned that during the course of judo matches, elevated exercise loads as well as training experience. tactics, intensity, and variability may be forced by the opponent, resulting in specifi c changes in planned fi ght Discussion tactics. Furthermore, intensity, duration and the number of training loads may be higher than the individual physi- Adaptive changes regarding cardiovascular, neuro- ological (biological) extent of the growing body’s adapta- muscular, respiratory, as well as cellular metabolism and tion. It may lead to biological dysfunction of the growing function while under the infl uence of physical exercise body [1, 8, 18, 19]. are relatively well studied in adult athletes. A adaptation Training loads, especially starting loads in judo, are of a young body to training load is not as well under- mostly anaerobic or anaerobic-aerobic with complete stood. During growth, a period during which the body is anaerobic periods due to holding of the breath (e.g. strained in general, an appropriate training load should suffocation). As a result, there is an increase in lac- be chosen in order not to affect the natural maturation tate concentration and acid-alkaline homeostasis. The processes. Due to this fact, the question of how a still- cardiovascular system, as well as the activity of other biologically-forming body will react to the training load systems, is affected, thereby producing signs of fatigue. used in various sports remains unanswered [13]. This These changes make it more diffi cult to perform techni- is addressed in relatively few scientifi c reports, espe- cal elements and implement tactical assumptions, lead- cially with regard to combat sports also called “contact ing to reduced physical effectiveness. Moreover, during sports”, such as judo, wrestling and boxing [14]. tournaments, the participants often fi ght more than one The dynamic changes of aerobic and anaerobic per- combat per day, and the fi ght count may even reach fi ve formance of judo players during adolescence is a good a day. This requires signifi cant aerobic and anaerobic indicator of the functional adaptation of motor organs, prevalence. With such loads, the potential of aerobic per- the cardiovascular system and metabolic processes, etc. formance is especially important for rest after exercise. (Tab. 3-5). Judo training requires fast and powerful elec- Berthoin et al. (2003) indicated that aerobic preva- tive elements and maximum isometric force muscle work lence of adolescent judo athletes and untrained children
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is at a similar level. Research conducted by Åstrand [1] genetically determined quantitative indicators of muscular
determined that VO2max in trained 12-year-old boys fi bre ratios [22], and the level of hormonal changes at par- amounts to 2.5 L/min, for 13-year-olds – 3.04 L/min, ticular ontogenesis periods of the body [9, 17, 21]. Other and 14-year-olds 3.25 L/min. The results of our research factors that affect performance dynamics include: either
indicates that the VO2max of judo athletes and untrained an increased or insuffi cient amount and intensity of train- children of the same age are at the similar level. Based ing load; using training content and biostructure of motion
on the literature [1, 2] VO2max stabilizes at approximate- acts other than those at the start (especially in the period ly the age of 20. According to our own studies, the dif- of targeted specialized preparations) applied without con-
ferences in VO2max between judo athletes aged 16-17 sideration; motor predispositions and performance levels; years and non-sportsmen was not signifi cant. and not using appropriate periods of individual rest after In the discussed period of ontogenesis, the param- exercise during training sessions [16]. This is just a sim- eters of power (W), maximal power and maximal power plifi ed suggestion concerning adolescent athlete training. duration increase in the older subjects undergoing judo training. These results suggest functional adaptation of Conclusions the nervous and muscular systems of young athletes per-
forming specialized motor activity. Furthermore, it is diffi - VO2max indices of judo athletes and untrained chil- cult to compare the results of laboratory studies with those dren of the same age are at a similar level for all the stud- at a fi ghting competition (different motion structure).The ied ages. This data leads to the conclusion that in young answer to this question may be provided under conditions Judo athletes, training the aerobic training process did that closely match the start activity, i.e. specialized exertion not receive enough attention, but it could help during the tests. This can be tested by conducting research that as- recovery period. No signifi cant differences were report-
sesses maximal anaerobic performance of children train- ed in terms of VO2 max between the study groups. ing judo when compared to their untrained peers. Higher The anaerobic performance indicators of children concentrations of lactate in the training subjects suggest training in judo (W/kg, W average/kg, time to attain the specialized training effort used in judo contributes to W max, time to maintain W max were signifi cantly better increased anaerobic metabolism potential. The anaerobic in comparison with untrained peers. performance dynamics of judo athletes occurring in train- The maximum loads (Wingate test, especially in simu- ing and starting cycles depends on multiple factors. First, lative combats) caused a signifi cant increase in La levels the content of judo-specifi c training and start loads (spe- accompanied by a decrease in pH at the chosen period cifi c complexes of motor acts applied during training that of growth. closely match start conditions) is important as well as the The Wingate test is apparently not fully adequate in as- biodynamic of performance, duration and intensity level sessing the anaerobic potential of judo players compared (power) [18, 19]. Individual variability of anaerobic per- to stimulation activity. formance potential may be confi rmed by genetic studies [20, 21]. Performance dynamics also rely on the individual Confl ict of interest levels of aerobic and anaerobic performance regarding The authors declare no confl ict of interest.
References
[1] Astrand PO: Aerobic work capacity in men and women with special reference to age. Acta Physiologica Scand. 2001; 169: 1-62. [2] Boreham C, Riddoch C: The physical activity, fi tness and health of children. Journal Sports Sci. 2002; 19: 915-929. [3] Kalina RM: Teoria sportow walki. Warszawa COS, 2000 [In Polish]. [4] Harro M, Riddoch C: Physical activity. In: Pediatrics Exercise Science and Medicine. New York. Oxford Press, 2002. [5] Doherty D: Field tests and batteries. In: Measurement in pediatric exercise science. Champaign, Human Kinetics.1998. [6] Donohue B, Dickens Y, Lancer K, Covassin T, Hash A, Miller A: Improving Athletes Perspectives of Sport Psychology. Con- sultation. 2004; 28: 182-193. [7] Wolański N: Rozwój biologiczny człowieka. PWN, Warszawa, 2005. [8] Armstrong N, Kieby DJ, McManusi AV: Aerobic fi tness of prepubescent children. Am. Hum Biology. 1998; 22: 427-441. [9] van Praagh E: Pediatric Anaerobic Performance. Human Kinetics. 1998. [10] Dziak A: Zagrożenia dla narządu ruchu u polskich dzieci. In: Aktualne problemy sportu dzieci i młodzieży. Instytut Sportu w Warszawe, 2000. [11] Lutosławska G: Exercise for training of children and youth. Physic. Education. 1997; 3: 13-26. [12] Mleczko E: The environmental differentiation of level and rate of functional development of children in Krakow between the ages of seven and fourteen. Antropomotoryka. 2004; 10: 28-34. [13] Borer KT: The effects of exercise on growth. Sports Medicine. 1998; 20: 357-397.
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[14] Jagiello W: Wieloletni trening judoków. Warszawa; 2000 [In Polish]. [15] Boreham C, Riddoch C: The physical activity, fi tness and health of children. Journal Sports Sci. 2002; 19: 915-929. [16] Di Pampero PE: The concept in critical velocity: a brief analysis. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1999; 80: 162-164. [17] Armon V, Cooper DM, Barstow T: Oxygen uptake dynamics during high intensity exercise in children and adults. J. Physiol. Scand .2001;70 (2): 841-848. [18] Berthoin S, Baquest G, Dupont G, Blondel N, Mucci P: Critical velocity and anaerobic distance capacity in prepubertal children. Can. J. Appl. Physiology. 2003; 28: 561-575. [19] Ahmetov, I. I, Rogozkin V. A: Genes, athlete status and training. In: Genetics and sport. Edited by M. Collins-Karger, Basel, 2009. [20] Cięszczyk P, Sawczuk M, Maciejewska A, Jascaniniene N, Eider J: Do G894T Polymorphisms of endothelial Nitric Oxide Syntase 3 infl uence endurance phenotypes. J. Human Kinetics 2010; 24: 73-80. [21] Jaszczanin N, Kriškoviecas E: The hormonal response of the wrestlers to training and competition performance. Sport Science. 2005; 2: 7-14. [22] Enoka RM, Stuart DA: Neurobiology of muscle fatigue. J. Appl. Physiol. 1992; 72: 1631-1642.
Author for correspondence: Jan Jaszczanin E-mail: [email protected]
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 63
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SECTION – EXERCISE SCIENCES
(1.1) DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0011.6800
ARE LOWER LIMB ELECTROMYOGRAM PROFILES SYMMETRICAL DURING A BARBELL SQUAT? (A CASE STUDY)
Authors’ contribution: Krzysztof Kmiecik1 CF, Henryk Król2 ADEFG, Grzegorz Sobota2 BC A. Study design/planning B. Data collection/entry C. Data analysis/statistics D. Data interpretation 1 Student of scientifi c circle, Department of Biomechanics, Jerzy Kukuczka University of Physi- E. Preparation of manuscript cal Education in Katowice, Poland F. Literature analysis/search 2 Department of Biomechanics, Jerzy Kukuczka University of Physical Education in Katowice, G. Funds collection Poland
Keywords: barbell squat, EMG, muscle symmetry
Abstract
Aim. The action of the central nervous system that controls neuromuscular functions are refl ected by electromyogram (EMG) profi les of muscle activity of those which are basic. However, there seems to be a relationship between the EMG profi les and movement patterns (e.g., values of lower limb joint angles). We would like to fi nd out how EMG profi les and movement patterns changes during the squat movement with increasing loads, and especially, to determine the degree of symmetry of selected ho- mologous muscles. Due to the lack of critical information addressing symmetry, we studied the EMG profi les of six homologous leg muscles (i.e. tibialis anterior, gastrocnemius, rectus femoris, biceps femoris, gluteus maximus and erector spinae) during the squat movement depending on load size. Basic procedures. For this purpose, we checked the usefulness of the multimodular measuring system (SMART-E, BTS). The system consisted of 6 infrared cameras (120 Hz) and a wireless module to measure muscle bioelectric activity (Pocket EMG). The Smart Analyser software was used to create a database allowing the chosen EMG profi les and movement patterns to be com- pared. Eleven healthy men participated in this study; however, two were selected for analysis. The fi rst of subject was 36 years old (body mass 82 kg; body height 180 cm; 1RM in full squat 140 kg). The second was 28 years old (body mass 90 kg; body height 183 cm; 1RM in full squat 110 kg). Results and main fi ndings. The subjects performed consecutive sets of a single repetition of the full squat with increasing load (70, 80, 90 and 100% 1RM of the anticipated maximum weight) until the appointment of one maximum repetition. For analy- sis, however, only samples with moderate and maximal loads (70% and 100% 1RM, respectively) were selected. Conclusions. The mean of the absolute values regarding differences in the amplitude magnitudes of individual pairs of ho- mologous muscles was taken as a measure of symmetry of the EMG profi le. The load increase during the squat contributed to an increase in profi le asymmetry of the lower limb homologous muscles pairs. The slightly lesser asymmetry may have caused worsening movement fl uidity.
1. Introduction people with anterior cruciate ligament injury during gait, functional movements and regular rehabilitative exercises Subjects of trails in which a squat with maximum load [1-3]. This may be partly due to temporary sensorimotor is performed often show changed motor patterns com- disturbances. The action of the central nervous system, pared to those trials with moderate loads. Such altered controlling neuromuscular functions, refl ects the profi les patterns have also been demonstrated, for example, in of electrical activity of major muscle contractions (elec-
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tromyograms – EMG), in this case, of the lower limbs. on the movement of a single individual, it is possible Thus, it seems that there should be a connection between to identify such elements of movement technique (i.e. EMG profi les and motor patterns. motor pattern) that are associated with achieving better According to Yang and Winter [4], “... movement is results [12-13]. the effect of interactions between muscle tension, con- Due to the lack of critical information on symmetry, trolled by the central nervous system, and mechanical we examined EMG signals of six homologous lower limb requirements of the motor task”. An understanding of muscles when squatting with a barbell. We would like to how the nervous system responds to changes related to learn how EMG profi les and squat movement patterns the mechanical requirements of the task is necessary to change along with a change in load, and to determine understand motor control. The mechanical requirements the degree of symmetry/asymmetry of six selected ho- of a squat with an increasing load vary considerably. For mologous muscles. this reason, they can be a good example in examining the relationship between these requirements and the behav- 2. Material and methods iour of the nervous system. The electrical activity of a muscle is a refl ection of both 2.1. Characteristics of the subjects the exit from the neuron terminals (from the nervous sys- tem) and the entry into the mechanical system. Hence, This work is a fragment of a doctoral dissertation in the size of EMG amplitudes and their course over time can preparation. Eleven healthy men recreationally perform- provide information on both of these systems. Changes ing strength exercises voluntarily participated in the re- in EMG amplitudes during a barbell squat were examined search conducted at the Biomechanics Department of by, among others, Gullett et al. [5] and Contreras et al. [6], Jerzy Kukuczka University of Physical Education in Ka- but they presented only the results of the global measure- towice. However, since the evaluation and improvement ment – average EMG for all phases: descent and ascent. of the technique (way of performing) sports activities Such a global measure could mask signifi cant differences always refer to a specifi c person, the work presents the in EMG at particular phases. Therefore, there is a real need characteristics of symmetry of homologous muscles to more accurately determine EMG changes in squats with and the motor pattern for two exemplary representatives different loads, both in terms of size of the amplitude and of strength sports. The fi rst of the subjects is 36-year-old time of their occurrence. A.M., who has 15 years of training experience, weighs In order to determine whether the EMG profi le of 82 kg and is 180 cm tall. The second is 28-year-old R.N, a given limb is appropriate, it should be compared with with 4 years training experience, weight 90 kg and height some control, for example the opposite limb, or with the 183 cm. Approval of the University Bioethics Committee profi le of a specifi c population. The opposite limb is a po- for Scientifi c Research at the Jerzy Kukuczka University tentially valuable control, because it is possible to avoid of Physical Education in Katowice was obtained. population variables as well as others (e.g. squat speed). 2.2. Research protocol and procedures However, to ensure that the given homologous muscle profi les are actually different, their symmetry/asymmetry In the measurement session, the subjects squat- should be quantifi ed. ted with a barbell of increasing weight until establishing Robertson et al. [7] presented EMG linear envelopes one maximal repetition – 1RM. In the case of A.M., the as profi les of muscle activity during the entire squatting weights of the lifted bar was 100, 115, 130 and 140 kg, movement, which were normalized for the maximum respectively, and R.N., 80, 90, 100 and 110 kg, respec- contractions of each subject, but did not raise the is- tively. Only the samples of extreme loads (70 and 100% sue of symmetry. In another article, Yavuz and Erdag [8] 1RM, i.e. 100 and 140 kg respectively for the fi rst and did the same, presenting EMG profi les as the average 80 and 110 kg respectively for the second one) were electrical activity of selected muscles at constant time selected for the analysis. intervals. However, Arsenault et al. [9] had already paid The research involved squatting with the “free” bar- particular attention to the problem of symmetry when bell, held in back of the shoulders. In baseline position, they showed the high correlation between shapes of en- the subjects set their feet to the width of their shoulders, tire courses of previously straightened and fi ltered EMG with the toes turned slightly outwards. The squatting signals for the homologous rectus femoris and soleus movements started from an upright position, by bend- muscles in adults during gait. In the opinion of Ōunpuu ing in the hip, knee and ankle joints, then shifting to the and Winter [10], while aggregate data (e.g. global mean lowest lower position. After reaching the desired depth values for entire characteristics [11]) refl ect proper sym- of the squat, the subjects raised themselves back to an metry based on statistical analysis, they cover up the upright position. The lumbar spine was kept in a neu- asymmetry of individuals. In addition, by presenting data tral position throughout the entire ascent period, and the
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trunk remained in an almost vertical position at this time. characteristics of angles in the knee joints (motor pat- The feet of the subjects were stably and fi rmly placed terns) of the two participants examined, which are the on the ground so that during the entire squatting move- subject of our current research. ment, their whole sole adhered to the surface. At the ap- 2.4. EMG data reduction and testing procedure propriate depth of the squat, the thighs slightly crossed the line parallel to the ground, at which time the hip and The raw EMG signal was fi ltered (Butterworth fi lter knee joints were greatly bent. The subjects squatted with band 20-250 Hz), straightened and smoothed using the the barbell in a calm, controlled manner, to the lowest root-mean-square (RMS) method with a 100 ms mobile position (descent phase), and then without stopping, window. The mean value was calculated from RMS EMG smoothly and quickly raised up to full extension of the in millivolts, separately for the descending and ascend- knee and hip joints (ascent phase). Two strong individu- ing phases of each barbell squat. For this purpose, the als with several years of experience in resistance train- Smart Analyzer programme (BTS, Italy) was used. In or- ing, secured (belayed) the subjects in the case of a po- der to compare the activity between homologous (com- tentially incorrect attempt. patible) muscles and obtain biologically important data, normalization of maximal voluntary contractions (MVC) 2.3. Registration of parameters was performed for each muscle, in accordance with the To record the parameters of the athlete and bar- procedures described by Konrad [18]. Measurements of bell movement, while squatting with the barbell on the the 3-second maximal contraction of each muscle were shoulders, the Smart-E measuring system (BTS, Italy) performed in static conditions, and the intervals be- was used, which was simultaneously programmed for tween them were 1 minute long. EMG [% MVC] data for multidimensional motion analysis. In short, the system all muscles were divided into descending and ascending consists of six infrared cameras and a wireless mod- phases. ule for measuring the bioelectric activity of Pocket EMG In order to determine the degree of symmetry of muscles. In addition, the Kistler 9182C force platform homologous muscles, the modulus (absolute value) of (KISTLER, Switzerland) was used. Electrical activity was differences in normalized EMG values between the pair recorded using surface electrodes for muscles on both of homologous muscles at 100 time-normalized points sides of the body (homologous): tibialis anterior (TA), was calculated fi rst. These data were then averaged for the medial part of gastrocnemius medialis (GMed), the the whole squatting movement and for each phase sepa- long head of the biceps femoris (BF), rectus femoris rately. Thus, the symmetry degree of the EMG profi les (RF), gluteus maximus (GMax) and the lumbar section of was determined by means of two measures: the mean erector spinae (ES). The electrodes were placed above of modules of amplitude differences between individual the sites of muscle motor activity, in accordance with the pairs of homologous muscles for the squatting move- European SENIAM recommendations for surface elec- ment (MMAD) and the mean for two phases of move-
tromyography [14]. A full description of the used mea- ment calculated in the same way (descent – MMADdes
surement tools and procedures as well as methods of and ascent – MMADasc, respectively). A larger value of processing the obtained signals were presented in earlier these measures indicates lower symmetry of the EMG works as part of the cyclic Seminars of Sport Biome- profi les of the compared muscles, and vice versa, the chanics and Rehabilitation [12-13, 15-16]. This modern smaller value indicates greater symmetry. All calcula- system allows analysis of motion based on comprehen- tions were performed using an Excel spread-sheet. sive image registration of motor function technique (here a squat), including the measurement of kinematic and 3. Results kinetic parameters (external motion structure [17]) as
well as bioelectric activity of the muscles at work (in- Assuming MMAD, MMADdes and MMADasc as a mea- ternal structure). All measurements, and thus obtained sure of homologous muscle symmetry was justifi ed due characteristics, were temporarily synchronized by using to the great similarity of the EMG profi le shape in particu- a main processor. The research material collected in this lar muscle pairs (Fig. 1 and 2). way will be thoroughly analysed in the preparation of The calculated MMAD measurement values for par- the doctoral dissertation. In this work, the EMG profi les ticular homologous muscle pairs in trials with the 70 and of only selected muscles were analysed, as well as the 100% 1RM loads are presented in Tab. 1 and 2.
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A B
Figure 1. EMG profi les normalized according to amplitude and time [% MVC] for three pairs of homologous lower limb muscles (TB – tibialis anterior, GMed – gastrocnemius mediale, RF – rectus femoris) of subject A.M.. Attempts at squat movement (during the descent and ascent phases) were performed with the following loads: A) 70% 1RM and B) 100% 1RM
Table 1. Mean of modules of amplitude differences – MMAD [% MVC] for the pairs of homologous muscles of lower extremities of A.M. subject. Attempts of squat movement were performed with a 70 and 100% 1RM (one repetition maximum) load. Explanation of followings symbols in the text.
Muscle 70% 1RM 100%1RM TB 15.9 30.5 GMed 3.5 4.0 RF 13.8 17.5 BF 13.2 14.2 GMax 96.5 77.1 ES 32.3 40.8
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A B
cont. Figure 1. – EMG profi les normalized according to amplitude and time [% MVC] for three successive pairs of homologous lower limb muscles (BF – biceps femoris, GMax – gluteus maximus, ES – erector spinae) of subject A.M.. Attempts at squat movement (in the descent and ascent phases) were performed with the following loads: A) 70% 1RM and B) 100% 1RM.
Table 2. Mean of modules of amplitude differences – MMAD [% MVC] for the pairs of homologous muscles of lower extremities of R.N. subject. Attempts of squat movement were performed with a 70 and 100% 1RM load. Explanation of followings symbols in the text.
Muscle 70%1RM 100% 1RM TB 8.1 10.3 GMed 9.2 11.2 RF 11.2 9.5 BF 11.5 10.2 GMax 19.0 28.0 ES 16.1 30.0
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A B
Figure 2. EMG profi les normalized according to amplitude and time [% MVC] for three pairs of homologous lower limb muscles (TB – tibialis ante- rior, GMed – gastrocnemius mediale, RF – rectus femoris) of subject R.N.. Attempts at squat movement (in the descent and ascent phases) were performed with the following loads: A) 70% 1RM and B) 100% 1RM
Table 3. Mean of modules of amplitude differences [% MVC] for the pairs of homologous muscles in descent and ascent phases (MMADdes and
MMADasc, respectively) of squat movement of A.M. subject. Attempts of the squat were performed with a 70 and 100% 1RM load. Explanation of followings symbols in the text.
70% 1RM 100% 1RM Muscle Descent phase Ascent phase Descent phase Ascent phase
MMADdes MMADasc MMADdes MMADasc TA 23.5 8.5 30.0 30.8 GMed 5.2 1.9 5.2 3.0 RF 10.8 16.8 17.4 17.6 BF 4.5 21.8 6.3 20.4 GMaks 38.1 153.7 41.9 104.3 ES 21.1 43.3 30.1 49.0
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A B
cont. Figure 2. – EMG profi les normalized according to amplitude and time [% MVC] for three successive pairs of homologous lower limb muscles (BF – biceps femoris, GMax – gluteus maximus, ES – erector spinae) of subject A.M.. Attempts at squat movement (in the descent and ascent phases) were performed with the following loads: A) 70% 1RM and B) 100% 1RM.
Table 4. Mean of modules of amplitude differences [% MVC] for the pairs of homologous muscles in descent and ascent phases (MMADdes and MMADasc, respectively) of squat movement of R.N. subject. Attempts of the squat were performed with a 70 and 100% 1RM load. Explanation of followings symbols in the text.
70% 1RM 100% 1RM Muscle Descent phase Ascent phase Descent phase Ascent phase
MMADdes MMADasc MMADdes MMADasc TB 9.5 6.5 8.8 11.9 GMed 8.7 9.7 10.5 12.0 RF 10.4 12.1 10.4 8.8 BF 11.6 11.8 6.6 13.8 GMax 20.0 18.0 30.4 26.3 ES 15.4 16.9 39.1 21.9
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Data from Tab. 1 indicate that subject A.M., in the 100% With reference to the squat, Robertson et al. [7] 1RM test, is generally characterized by higher asymmetry presented linear envelope electromyograms as muscle (increase in the MMAD value) than in the squat with a 70% activity profi les. They were normalized for the maximal 1RM load. In the case of the tibialis anterior muscle, the voluntary contractions of each subject. Recently, similar MMAD value was almost twice as high; however, with re- characteristics were obtained for performing a squat with spect to the gluteus maximus muscle, it was smaller. For a barbell by Yavuz and Erdag [8]. The shapes of our RMS the other four muscles, the MMAD value was also higher EMG [% MVC] characteristics, obtained separately for the during the squat with a 100% 1RM load, although not left and right lower limbs (Fig. 1 and 2) also show high as much as for the tibialis anterior muscle (Tab. 1). The agreement with these envelopes. This allowed to deter- second stage of the squat was usually accompanied by mine the symmetry degree of the homologous muscle a larger MMAD increase for individual muscles (Tab. 3, activity.
MMADasc), with the exception of the gastrocnemius me- For this purpose, the normalized characteristics of dialis muscle. RMS EMG were compared at points temporally normal- In relation to the second subject (R.N., Tab. 2), the ized. For individual homologous muscle pairs, the mean MMAD value for one of the muscles (erector spinae – of modules of amplitude differences from all points is ES) was almost twice as high during the squat, and the the measure of symmetry of EMG profi les. Taking the second one (gluteus maximus – GMax), almost one and entire squat movement with the 100% 1RM load into ac- a half times higher than obtained in the trial with a mod- count, the subject A.M. is characterized by lower sym- erate load (70% 1RM). There were, however, 2 muscles metry of the profi les of the homologous muscles tested, (rectus femoris – RF, biceps femoris – BF) for which compared to the 70% 1RM load, because the MMAD the MMAD value in the squat with 100% 1RM load was value for these muscle pairs is higher, except for the slightly smaller. Nonetheless, it cannot be said that the GMax muscle (Tab. 1). For subject R.N., in the case of increase in the accepted measure of symmetry occurred two muscles (RF and BF), slightly higher MMAD values mainly during the ascent phase (Tab. 4), it was rather were for the 70% 1RM load (Table 2). Although A.M. was uniform. characterized by a slightly higher increase in the average difference of amplitudes for individual muscles during
4. Discussion the ascent phase (greater asymmetry, Tab. 3., MMADasc), for R.N., the distribution was already more even and the In the past, profi les (graphs) of lower limb electromyo- increase took place during both the 1st and 2nd phases of grams showing muscle activity were used to assess gait the squat (Tab. 4). as a measure of disorders (abnormal) in neuromuscular Nonetheless, there is a relationship between EMG function [19] and when walking at different rates [4]. profi les showing muscle activity and motor patterns in However, we were interested in the profi les of muscle ac- people performing various activities of everyday life. On tivity during a full squat with a barbell on the shoulders the example of people with trauma of the anterior cruci- and with an increasing load. Amplitude values and the ate ligament, Trulsson et al. [20] showed that during gait, temporal EMG profi le were used considering functional specifi c, altered movement patterns are associated with symmetry of homologous muscles of the left and right deviations in muscle activity between the damage and lower limb, i.e. bilateral or two-sided muscles. On the ba- undamaged side. They stated that “... in order to identify sis of such profi les, some differences can be detected, too altered motor patterns, reliable, valid and quantitatively subtle, however, for their direct observation. observable assessments are needed.” However, we To determine whether the EMG profi le of the specifi c believe that “quantitative observation evaluation” is not lower limb muscle is appropriate, it was compared with enough – measurements need to be performed. the profi le of the homologous muscle of the other limb. In this study, as has been mentioned several times, Arsenault et al. [9] quantitatively demonstrated (based a full shoulder barbell squat with moderate and maxi- on correlation coeffi cients) the high degree of symme- mal loads was analysed, and the characteristics of the try in EMG profi les for the population on the example of knee joint angle were considered as the motor pattern. horizontal gait in a strongly differentiated group of sub- Yavuz and Erdag [8] mention the change in hip joint pat- jects, i.e. for the totalled (global) mean values of all the tern along with an increase in trunk inclination during the characteristics (grand ensemble averages [4, 7, 11]) of performance of squats with a maximum load. However, two homologous muscles (rectus femoris and soleus). this has not been verifi ed in our analysis. Nevertheless, In our case, the second limb was a good foundation for large differences were found in the compared temporal comparison, because it was possible to avoid population characteristics of the angle in the knee joint of the two variables, and at the same time, to show the impact of subjects (A.M. and R.N.) with a 100% 1RM load, which load size on symmetry. can be seen in Figure 3 (during the ascent phase).
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This is also confi rmed by the recordings conducted According to Arendt-Nielsen et al. [22], clinical and using an additional digital camera, in which the knee joint experimental results indicate that during gait, this mo- and the hip girdle rotations (once in one direction and tor activity is modulated by musculoskeletal pain, prob- then in the opposite) occur during A.M.’s ascent phase. ably as a refl ex. Perhaps in the case of squatting with The image of these movements is, among others, the a barbell on the shoulders, such a factor modulating the mentioned, irregular angle change (decreases and in- pattern of this movement is the very high load during the creases) in the knee joint. The loss of movement fl uidity 100% 1RM test (high intensity of this exercise). Although [17] visible in the case of subject A.M. may be associat- the technique of movement (sports) is recommended to ed with slightly higher asymmetry of activity (i.e. slightly remain independent of the intensity of the exercise [23],
higher MMADasc values compared to MMADdes), the main from the observation of many coaches, it follows that if muscles propelling and stabilizing the knees and the hip the load reaches the limits of athletes’ ability, they can girdle (RF, BF, GMax and ES). However, similar differ- change the movement pattern of the performed exercise. ences also occurred in A.M. during the trial with the 70% And this is probably the case of the squat examined for 1RM load. A.M.
A B
Figure 3. Temporally normalized [%] knee joint angle-time curves of subjects A.M. (------) and R.N. (- - - - -). Attempts at squat movement (in descent and ascent phases) were performed with the following loads: A) 70% 1RM and B) 100% 1RM.
5. Conclusions a 100% 1RM load (Fig. 3). A.M. rotated his knees and hip girdle several times while ascending with the bar- The increase in the size of the load during the bar- bell (once in one and once in the other direction), which bell squat caused in an increase in the asymmetry of resulted in less smooth movement (uneven change of the selected homologous muscles of the lower limbs. Its angle in the knee joint). Perhaps it is a consequence of expression is the higher MMAD values in both presented greater asymmetry in the key fragments of EMG pro- cases (subjects A.M and R.N.). However, the data for fi les of the main knee and hip girdle muscles involved in the fi rst subject deserve particular attention, in which the squats performed with a maximal load. greater asymmetry occurred mainly during the ascent phase (higher MMAD values in comparison to MMA- des 6. Acknowledgements Dasc). Subject R.N. was characterized by a more uniform MMAD distribution in both phases. The research was possible thanks to the fi nancial The relationship of EMG profi les with motor patterns support of the Ministry of Science and Education as well may be indicated by the characteristics of knee joint of as Jerzy Kukuczka University of Physical Education in both subjects during the ascent phase of the squat with Katowice.
References
[1] Rudolph KS, Snyder-Mackler L: Effect of dynamic stability on a step task in ACL defi cient individuals. J Electromyogr Kine- siol. 2004; 14(5): 565-575. [2] Ingersoll CD, Grindstaff TL, Pietrosimone BG, Hart JM: Neuromuscular consequences of anterior cruciate ligament injury. Clin Sports Med. 2008; 27(3): 383-404. [3] Trulsson A, Garwicz M, Ageberg E: Postural orientation in subjects with anterior cruciate ligament injury: development and fi rst evaluation of a new observational test battery. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2010; 18(6): 814-823.
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[4] Yang JF, Winter DA: Surface EMG profi les during different walking cadences in humans. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1985; 60: 485-491. [5] Gullett JC, Tillman MD, Gutierrez GM, Chow JW: A biomechanical comparison of back and front squats in healthy trained indi- viduals. J Strength Cond Res. 2009; 23(1): 284-292. [6] Contreras B, Vigotsky AD, Schoenfeld BJ, Beardsley C, Cronin J: A comparison of gluteus maximus, biceps femoris, and vastus lateralis EMG amplitude in the parallel, full, and front squat variations in resistance trained females. J Appl Biomech. 2016; 32(1): 16-22. [7] Robertson DGE, Wilson J-MJ, St Pierre TA: Lower extremity muscle functions during full squats. J Appl Biomech. 2008; 24: 333-339. [8] Yavuz HU, Erdag D: Kinematic and electromyographic activity changes during back squat with submaximal and maximal loading. Appl Bionics Biomech. 2017; 2-9. [9] Arsenault AB, Winter DA, Marteniuk RG: Bilateralism of EMG profi les in human locomotion. Am J Phys Med. 1986; 65: 1-16. [10] Ōunpuu S, Winter DA: Bilateral electromyographical analysis of the lower limbs during walking in normal adults. Electroencepha- logr Clin Neurophysiol. 1989; 72: 429-438. [11] Pierotti SE, Brand RN, Gabel RH, Pedersen DR, Clarke WR: Are leg electromyogram profi les symmetrical? J Orthop Res., 1990; 9: 720-729. [12] Król H, Klyszcz-Morciniec M: Kinetic and kinematic characteristics as the base for evaluating the take-off in backward acrobatic jumps. Pol J Sport Tourism. 2017; 24: 139-144. [13] Król H, Garbaciak B: The movement features which describe the fl at bench press. Pol J Sport Tourism. 2017; 24: 79-85. [14] Freriks B, Hermens HJ: SENIAM 9: European Recommendations for Surface ElectroMyoGraphy, results of the SENIAM project. Roessingh Research and Development b.v. (CD-rom); 1999. [15] Król H, Klyszcz M, Sobota G: Kompleksowa analiza wolnego przewrotu w tył z miejsca (studium przypadku). tom I. (W:) Ur- banik C., Mastalerz A., (red.), Wybrane Zagadnienia Biomechaniki Sportu i Rehabilitacji. Warszawa, Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego Józefa Piłsudskiego, 2011; 81-90. [16] Król H, Klyszcz-Morciniec M, Sobota G: Takeoff mechanics of the acrobatic tumbling exercises (case study). (W:) Urbanik C., Mastalerz A. Iwańska D. (red.) Selected Problems of Biomechanics of Sport and Rehabilitation. Vol. II. Warsaw, Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw, 2014; 62-75. [17] Król H, Mynarski W: Cechy ruchu – charakterystyka i możliwości parametryzacji. Katowice, Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego w Katowicach, 2005. [18] Konrad P: ABC of EMG. A Practical Introduction to Kinesiological Electromyography. Version1.0, Noraxon Inc., Scottsdale, Arizona, USA: 2005. [19] Hoffer MM, Perry J: Pathodynamics of gait alterations in cerebral palsy and the signifi cance of kinetic electromyography in evaluating foot and ankle problems. Foot Ankle Intern. 1983; 4(3): 128-134. [20] Trulsson A, Miller M, Mansson G-A, Gummesson C, Garwicz M: Altered movement patterns and muscular activity during single and double leg squats in individuals with anterior cruciate ligament injury. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2015; 16(28): 1-11. [21] Schneider K: Beschleunigungsaufwand als quantitative Beschreibung des Bewegungsfl usses. Sportwissenschaft 2, Schorndorf, Hofmann. 1990; 192-199. [22] Arendt-Nielsen L, Graven-Nielsen T, Svarrer H, Svensson P: The infl uence of low back pain on muscle activity and coordina- tion during gait: a clinical and experimental study. Pain. 1996; 64(2): 231-240. [23] Myer GD, Kushner AM, Brent JL, Schoenfeld BJ, Hugentobler J, Lloyd RS, et al.: The back squat: a proposed assessment of functional defi cits and technical factors that limit performance. Strength Cond J. 2014; 36(6): 4-27.
Author for correspondence: Henryk Król Phone number: +48 32 207 51 73 E-mail: [email protected]
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SECTION – EXERCISE SCIENCES
(1.1) DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0011.6820
THE INFLUENCE OF PLANTAR SHORT FOOT MUSCLE EXERCISES ON FOOT POSTURE AND GAIT PARAMETERS IN LONG-DISTANCE RUNNERS Authors’ contribution: A. Study design/planning B. Data collection/entry 1 ABCDEF 1 ABCDEF 1,2 ABCDEF C. Data analysis/statistics Iwona Sulowska , Anna Mika , Łukasz Oleksy D. Data interpretation E. Preparation of manuscript F. Literature analysis/search 1 Department of Clinical Rehabilitation, University of Physical Education in Krakow, Krakow, G. Funds collection Poland 2 Oleksy Physiotherapy, Łańcut, Poland
Keywords: short foot muscles, foot muscle exercise, Foot Posture Index, gait
Abstract
Aim. The aim of this study was to evaluate the infl uence of exercises of plantar short foot muscles on foot posture and gait parameters in long-distance runners. Basic procedures. The study involved 48 long-distance runners aged 21-45 years. The runners performed short foot muscle exercises daily for 6 weeks. The Foot Posture Index (FPI-6) and gait parameters (G-walk) were measured twice: at baseline and after 6 weeks of exercises. Result. Lower values of the Foot Posture Index (FPI-6) were observed. In the assessment of gait parameters, runners obtained lower cadence, walking speed, stride length and %stride length/height. Gait cycle duration was increased. Conclusions. Exercises strengthening short foot muscles have benefi cial effects on foot alignment by change of foot posture from slight pronation towards a neutral foot. Change of gait parameters may indicate improvement of motor control and shifting natural and comfortable walking speed towards lower values. The short foot muscle exercises should be included as part of the daily training programme of runners.
Introduction Achilles tendinitis, and medial tibial stress syndrome can be mentioned here. In contrast, damage above the knee Running is one of the most common forms of activ- joint accounts for less than 20% of all trauma suffered by ity. Due to the easy accessibility and positive infl uence runners [2]. on physical condition, the popularity of this discipline is During walking and running, there are three levels constantly growing. However, it can cause injuries and of movement within the lower limb: frontal, sagittal and overloads, especially in the lower limbs [1]. Based on the transverse. During fi rst contact with the ground, three results available in literature on the subject, it is estimated phenomena occur: shock absorption, stabilization of the that from 27 to 70% of people running recreationally and joints and fl exible adjustment of the foot. Shock absorp- professionally suffer trauma per year. Nearly 50% of in- tion is achieved by bending in the hip and knee joints and juries affect the knee joint. The most frequently reported pronation in the ankle joint. This allows to reduce impact complaint is the patellofemoral syndrome, followed by force. Pronation is a combination of dorsal fl exion of the the ilio-tibial band syndrome, meniscus damage and ankle, eversion of the rearfoot (calcaneus) and forefoot patellar tendinitis. Almost 40% of the remaining injuries abduction, and occurs in the fi rst half of the support are in the foot, ankle and lower leg. The plantar fasciitis, phase while walking or running [2]. Pronation causes
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some degree of relaxation between the tarsal bones, Dynamical stability is a key element during move- and then other mechanisms stabilizing the arches of the ment [26]. Resistance to exogenous and endogenous foot, which facilitates the adaptation of the foot to the disturbances of balance is a prerequisite for proper gait. ground and increases its elasticity [3]. This is especially The vestibular organ, the sight organ and the sensorimo- important for long-distance runners, as they are exposed tor system are responsible for the control of stability. to long-term loads. Research indicates that pronation is The latter is created by skin and deep sensory receptors, a favourable phenomenon in running, provided that it particularly from the plantar surface of the foot and the does not go beyond the physiological limits and is not area around the ankle. Therefore, the correct distribu- continued after the middle support phase is over [4]. tion of foot load is an element affecting dynamic stability Both posture of the foot inclining towards excessive control and is a condition for proper gait [27]. pronation or supination are indicated in the literature as In dynamic conditions, such as walking or running, a risk factor for injury [5, 6]. The type of the foot deter- stability allows to continue the functional movement, mines its mobility and affects the kinematics of the lower despite the occurring external and internal destabilizing limb joints. The reduced longitudinal arch of the foot is forces. Dynamic stability analysis should take into ac- associated with its greater mobility than in the case of count the changing moments of muscle strength and pes cavus [7-9]. In most cases, injuries in people with changes in the position of body segments in space [28]. fl at feet are the result of greater susceptibility to tissue Studies to date indicate that the measurement of the vari- damage associated with exceeding physiological ranges ability value in terms of kinematics and temporal-spatial of motion [10] or incorrect compression of the subta- parameters can be used to estimate dynamic stability lar and transverse talar joint [11]. On the other hand, in control [29, 30]. It is assumed that increasing the vari- people with an elevated foot arch, lower mobility rate can ability of these parameters, and thus reducing the repeat- be observed, which predisposes to injuries associated ability of individual strides, reduces stability. The variabil- with weakening cushioning mechanism and increasing ity of these parameters depends on the speed of walking, pressure on the plantar surface of the foot while walking which may suggest the infl uence of speed on stability or running [12, 13]. [31, 32]. Gait speed may depend on many factors – Analysis of foot posture is an important element in the among others, on the age, height or strength of lower comprehensive assessment of runners. The most com- limb muscles. These factors affect maximal gait speed in monly used diagnostic methods include orthopaedic, an- particular [33]. When moving at a comfortable (natural) thropometric, plantoconturographic or functional exami- speed, the variability of the temporal-spatial and kine- nation methods [14-16]. However, one of the more eas- matic parameters of walking is the smallest, and, thus ily available and simple to use tools is the Foot Posture motor-control ability is the largest [34]. Both walking at Index, which provides comprehensive foot assessment higher and lower speeds increases the variability of its in all areas, including the plantar and dorsal surfaces of parameters [32, 35, 36]. There are, however, scientifi c the foot. It has wide clinical application in assessing the reports indicating an improvement in dynamic stability risk of injuries in athletes [17, 18]. The test is carried out while walking at a slower speed, despite the increase in in static conditions – in a standing position, however, its variability. Researchers suggest that the neuromus- research indicates the existence of a strong relationship cular control system is more effective in controlling ex- between the fi nal result of the test and the mobility of ogenous and endogenous balance disturbances during the rearfoot during gait [20]. Analysing individual parts slow gait than in the case of movement at higher veloci- of the FPI-6, the largest correlations with the results of ties [34, 37]. the dynamic study occur in the evaluation of the medial Individuals who practice long-distance running are ex- longitudinal arch of the foot and the assessment of the posed to long-lasting loads, which is why shock absorp- calcaneus in the frontal plane [21]. tion during running and walking is a key mechanism in Comparing kinematics of the lower limbs during this group. The correct posture of the foot is a contributing gait in people with a neutral foot and with a tendency to factor [4]. The results of previous studies by the authors, pronation, greater mobility during the support phase in as well as the works of other authors, indicate that foot the second case can be observed. In particular, these posture is benefi cial for exercise of the short plantar mus- differences are visible in the mobility of the calcaneus cles of the foot surface [38-40]. There are no reports in during propulsion. In the frontal plane, a larger extent of the literature on the relationship between changes in foot the eversion and the total range of mobility of the rear- posture under the infl uence of exercises with dynamic sta- foot are observed [22-24]. Also, metatarsus and fore- bility and changes in the gait pattern. The aim of this study foot mobility in people with a lowered longitudinal arch is was to assess the impact of short foot plantar exercise increased and lasts longer than in the case of a neutral on foot posture and gait parameters in people practicing foot [22-25]. long-distance running at an amateur level.
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Material and methods – from -12 to -5 points – foot with increased supination, – from -4 to -1 points – foot with light supination, 1. Description of the study group – from 0 to +5 points – neutral foot, 48 people (17 women and 31 men) aged from 21 to – from +6 to +9 points – foot with light pronation, 45 years (32.5 ± 6.81), regularly engaging in long-dis- – from +10 to +12 points – foot with increased prona- tance running at an amateur level, took part in the study. tion [19]. The respondents ran from 20 to 100 kilometres per week Studies conducted by Oleksy et al. [19] indicate that (average 42.19 km ± 18.54 km). Runners were qualifi ed this tool is characterized by high repeatability of mea- for testing after meeting the inclusion criteria and taking surements for the same researcher. The value of the the exclusion criteria into account. The following inclusion measurement repeatability coeffi cient R between the fi rst criteria were adopted: age within the range of 20-45 years, and second test for all evaluated parameters was from regular running training with weekly kilometre amount of 0.89 to 0.96. not less than 20 km and consent to participate in the re- 2.1.1. Talar head palpation assessment search. In contrast, the exclusion criteria were: age below 20 years or over 45 years, lack of consent to participate The talar head was examined by touch on the lateral in research, lack of regular running training (less than 20 and medial sides. It was the only measured based on pal- km weekly), deformations within the foot or injuries to the pation assessment and not visual evaluation [19]. musculoskeletal system 6 months prior to testing. 2.1.2. Supra and infra lateral malleolar curvature ob- The study participants performed exercises activat- servation ing the short muscles of the plantar surface of the feet for 6 weeks. During this time, the runners performed their The researcher observed the supra and infra lateral current running training, which was monitored by the re- malleolar curvature. Those which are correct should be searchers and did not change throughout the duration of equal. In the foot with increased supination, the supra lat- the experiment. Measurements of selected parameters eral malleolar curvature is more concave than infra curva- were performed before the start of training and after six ture. In the case of ponation, the opposite occurs. [19]. weeks of exercise. Each runner was instructed on the pur- pose and course of the study and expressed his/her writ- 2.1.3. Inversion/eversion assessment of the calcaneus ten consent to participate in the project. Prior to the study, Inversion/eversion assessment of the calcaneus. the approval of the Bioethics Committee at the Regional This measurement was based on visual assessment of Medical Chamber in Krakow was obtained for conduct- calcaneus in the frontal plane. Angular measurements ing the medical experiment (No. 40/KBL/OIL/2015 dated were not required [19]. 15 April 2015). The study was registered in the Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR) inter- 2.1.4. Prominence assessment in the region of the ta- national database for clinical trials. lonavicular joint 2. Research tools In the neutral foot, the surface of the skin in this area is fl at. This area becomes curved if the head of the talus 2.1. The Foot Posture Index (FPI-6) is adducted, which occurs in the case of pronation. When The Foot Posture Index is used for comprehensive and the foot is in supination, the TNJ area is concave [19]. multi-levelled assessment of the feet. It consists of six parts, 2.1.5. Height and congruence assessment of the me- evaluating the various elements of the fore- and rearfoot: dial longitudinal arch 1) Talar head palpation, 2) Supra and infra lateral malleolar curvature, Assessing the medial longitudinal arch of the foot, its 3) Inversion/eversion of the calcaneus, height and posture were taken into account. In the neutral 4) Prominence in the region of the talonavicular joint, foot, the curvature of the arch is relatively even and re- 5) Height and congruence of the medial longitudinal arch, sembles a segment of the circumference of a circle. When 6) Abduction/adduction of the forefoot on the rear foot the foot is in pronation, the arch is lowered and fl attened [19]. in the medial part. However, in the case of supination, the Each of these elements is evaluated on a scale from curvature is more acute in the rear part [19] -2 to +2. Negative values indicate supination and posi- 2.1.6. Abduction/adduction assessment of the forefoot tive values demonstrate pronation. The neutral position of on the rear foot the foot is classifi ed as 0. The total sum of points allows for overall assessment of foot posture according to the The researcher assessed the forefoot position by look- following classifi cation: ing at the long axis of the heal from the back. In the neu-
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tral foot posture, the forefoot is noticeably even on both 3.1. Exercises sides of the heel. In the case of pronation, lateral toes are Vele’s Forward Lean – consisted of maximal forward more visible, and in supination – the medial ones [19]. inclination from a standing position, with arms along the 2.2. BTS G-walk motion sensor trunk, keeping the body in one line and not detaching the heels from the ground [46,47]. The BTS G-Walk motion sensor (G-Sensor®, BTS Reverse Tandem Gait – consisted of walking back- Bioengineering S.p.A., Italy) was used to assess tempo- wards, setting one foot after the other. First, the metatar- ral-spatial parameters, motion symmetry, propulsion and sus was loaded and then the heel was added [46, 47]. pelvic movements. The belt along with the motion sensor Short Foot Exercise – they consisted in shortening was placed at the height of the fi fth lumbar vertebra. The the foot in the anterior-posterior dimension by bring- tool is a portable system for functional motion analysis, ing the metatarsal bone heads towards the heel, and using three-axis accelerometers, magnetic fi eld sensors then – in shortened foot position – clamping the three and gyroscopes. The assessment of trunk movements support points. The toes remained relaxed during this allows the assessment of individual components of the time, and the foot rested on the ground. Increasing the gait pattern [41-43]. The test results indicate high re- level of diffi culty consisted in changing the position. peatability of measurements using accelerometers (the The fi rst exercise was performed while seated, the sec- intra-class correlation coeffi cient of ICC ranged from 0.7 ond was performed in a standing position, while in the to 0.97) [44]. third exercise, a half-squat was additionally performed For the needs of the present study, the “Gait” proto- [46, 47]. col was used, which determined the gait pattern based Exercises on the sensorimotor cushion – the set in- on a special algorithm analysing heel and toe detach- cluded several exercises in a single and double standing ment as well as normalizing acceleration and pelvic angles during the gait cycle. position. The exercises with the Thera-band type tape – During the test, consisting of walking a 70-meter strengthening the muscular-ligamental apparatus around section, the following parameters were obtained: the ankle joint, took the movements of fl exion and exten- – speed; sion and pronation and supination with resistance into – cadence (strides/min); account. – step and stride length; 4. Statistical analysis – step width; – gait cycle duration; Statistical elaboration was performed using the – support and swing phase duration; STATISTICA 12.0 PL programme. Normality of variable – single and double support phase duration; distribution was checked using the Shapiro-Wilk test. – symmetry index; ANOVA was used to assess the signifi cance of differ- – propulsion; ences among studied variables in the evaluation of gait – pelvic mobility. parameters, while in the case of the Foot Posture Index Data from the device were transferred to a computer (FPI-6), the non-parametric Wilcoxon test was used. Dif- via Bluetooth [45]. ferences were considered statistically signifi cant if the test probability level was lower than the adopted level of 3. The set of exercises signifi cance (p<0.05). Each study participant received a set of exercises activating the short plantar muscles of the feet. After the Results fi rst test, the runners were taught how to perform the ex- ercises correctly. In addition, they received instructions 1. Foot Posture Index (FPI-6) in writing. The set included several exercises that were per- After 6 weeks of exercise, lower values of the Foot formed daily by the subjects, including their performance Posture Index (FPI-6) were observed. These changes under the control of a physiotherapist once a week. The were statistically signifi cant regarding all the compo- exercise programme included progression in the form of nents of the indicator within the left (Fig. 1) and right increased load and level of diffi culty. The following tools foot (Fig. 2). A statistically signifi cant change was also were used: a tennis ball, a sensorimotor cushion and a tape. observed as a result of the overall FPI-6 index. In the fi rst In each exercise, the runners paid attention to the even examination, the median value was 6 in the left foot and loading of three foot support points (head of the fi rst and 5 in the right one. After the implemented training session, fi fth bones of the metatarsus and the heel). Exercises these values decreased to 2 in the left foot (p=0.00000) were performed barefoot. and to 2 in the right one (p=0.00000).
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Fig. 1. The Foot Posture Index – results at baseline and after 6 weeks of exercising for the left lower limb. Values are expressed by median +/- quantile range FPI 1 – Talar head palpation; FPI 2 – Supra and infra lateral malleolar curvature; FPI 3 – Inversion/eversion of the calcaneus, FPI 4 – Prominence in the region of the talonavicular joint, FPI 5 – Height and congruence of the medial longitudinal arch, FPI 6 – Abduction/adduction of the forefoot on the rear foot p * between baseline and 6th week
Fig. 2. The Foot Posture Index – results at baseline and after 6 weeks of exercising for the right lower limb. Values are expressed by median +/- quantile range FPI 1 – Talar head palpation; FPI 2 – Supra and infra lateral malleolar curvature; FPI 3 – Inversion/eversion of the calcaneus; FPI 4 – Prominence in the region of the talonavicular joint; FPI 5 – Height and congruence of the medial longitudinal arch; FPI 6 – Abduction/adduction of the forefoot on the rear foot p * between baseline and 6th week
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2. G-walk inertial sensor parameters in individuals practicing long-distance run- ning at an amateur level. The results obtained indicate After 6 weeks of training, the runners obtained statis- that the six-week training had a positive effect on the tically signifi cantly lower cadence, walking speed, stride foot posture. The applied exercise programme also in- length and stride length/height in the assessment of tem- fl uenced the change of some of the temporal-spatial gait poral-spatial gait parameters (Tab. 1). Gait cycle duration parameters. There are no reports in the literature on link- signifi cantly increased (for the left and right lower limbs) ing the change in the foot posture under the infl uence of (Tab. 1). No signifi cant changes were observed for other exercise with dynamic stability and the change in gait parameters (Tab. 1). pattern. This is the fi rst work to undertake the topic. Among many risk factors for injuries in runners, one Discussion group is those related to the foot. These include disor- ders of biomechanical or anatomical structure of the The aim of the study was to assess the impact of foot, reduced fl exibility, muscular imbalance or weak- plantar short muscle exercises on foot posture and gait ened strength. As external factors, the type of substrate
Table 1. Change of gait parameters after 6 weeks of exercises
Parameters Baseline 6th week *p Cadence [strides/min] 116.42 +/- 10.56 114.18 +/- 9.26 0.028171 Speed [m/s] 1.30 +/- 0.19 1.24 +/- 0.23 0.019630 Stride length [m] 1.34 +/- 0.17 1.30 +/- 0.18 0.022088 Stride length/height [%] 80.66 +/- 20.07 76.31 +/- 16.13 0.006880 Gait cycle duration L [s] 1.04 +/- 0.10 1.06 +/- 0.10 0.018043 Stride length L [% stride length] 50.71 +/- 1.45 50.53 +/- 1.67 ns Support phase duration L [% gait cycle] 63.69 +/- 3.22 63.52 +/- 2.63 ns Swing phase duration L [% gait cycle] 36.31 +/- 3.22 36.48 +/- 2.63 ns Double support phase duration L [% gait cycle] 12.97 +/- 3.04 12.81 +/- 2.42 ns Single support phase duration L [% gait cycle] 37.47 +/- 2.64 37.90 +/- 2.44 ns Gait cycle duration R [s] 1.04 +/- 0.10 1.06 +/- 0.10 0.022126 Stride length R [% stride length] 49.29 +/- 1.45 49.48 +/- 1.67 ns Support phase duration R [% gait cycle] 62.56 +/- 2.72 62.15 +/- 2.48 ns Swing phase duration R [% gait cycle] 37.44 +/- 2.72 37.85 +/- 2.48 ns Double support phase duration R [% gait cycle] 13.20 +/- 2.62 12.74 +/- 2.25 ns Single support phase duration R [% gait cycle] 36.35 +/- 3.18 36.56 +/- 2.55 ns Symmetry index 94.08 +/- 6.23 93.50 +/- 6.54 ns Propulsion L [m/s2] 7.19 +/- 1.94 6.74 +/- 1.95 ns Propulsion R [m/s2] 7.15 +/- 1.95 7.10 +/- 2.17 ns Pelvic fl exion-extension – Symmetry index 16.73 +/- 48.35 18.55 +/- 53.34 ns Pelvic fl exion-extension – range L [o] 2.49 +/- 0.97 2.23 +/- 0.73 ns Pelvic fl exion-extension – R range [o] 2.49 +/- 0.92 2.23 +/- 0.70 ns Pelvic lateral fl exion – Symmetry index 96.87 +/- 7.02 98.15 +/- 1.90 ns Pelvic lateral fl exion – L range [o] 7.26 +/- 2.62 7.80 +/- 2.38 0.046617 Pelvic lateral fl exion – R range [o] 7.37 +/- 2.64 7.88 +/- 2.43 ns Pelvic rotation – Symmetry index 92.83 +/- 15.11 96.21 +/- 6.60 ns Pelvic rotation – L range [o] 8.45 +/- 3.44 8.03 +/- 2.93 ns Pelvic rotation – R range [o] 8.51 +/- 3.33 8.07 +/- 2.94 ns *p – between baseline and 6th week ns – not statistically signifi cant L – left lower limb R – right lower limb
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and footwear can be mentioned [48]. An unfavourable the fi nish line. Researchers observed a reduction in the factor is the foot posture inclining both towards exces- navicular bone of both feet after the run. The value of sive pronation and supination [5,6]. It is connected with the FPI-6 index in the left foot signifi cantly increased (on the infl uence of foot posture on its mobility and kinemat- average by 1.7), and thus, the pronation level increased. ics of the lower limb joints [7-9]. Pronation is a com- In the right foot, this value increased slightly (by 0.3 on bination of dorsal fl exion of the ankle, eversion of the average). rearfoot (calcaneus) and forefoot abduction, and occurs Similar studies have been carried out by Escamilla- in the fi rst half of the support phase while walking or Martinez et al. [51] who assessed foot posture with the running [2]. Proper foot pronation is a mechanism that FPI-6 before and after a run at a moderate speed (3.3 provides shock absorption and adaptation to the uneven- m/s), sustained for sixty minutes. Pressure distribution ness of a surface [49]. In the case of excessive prona- measurements of the plantar foot on the surface were tion, greater mobility in the support phase can be ob- also conducted. The research involved a group of thirty served. In particular, these differences are visible in the regularly training men. The obtained results also indicate mobility of the calcaneus during propulsion. In the fron- a tendency of the feet to change pronation after long- tal plane, a larger extent of eversion and the total range term loading in the form of a running training. The value of mobility of the rearfoot are observed [22-24]. Also, of the FPI-6 index increased on average by two points in metatarsal and forefoot mobility is increased [24, 25] both feet. The pressure on the medial side of the heel and and lasts longer than in the case of a neutral foot [23]. under the head of the second metatarsal bone increased, Injuries in people with excessive pronation and reduced and the longitudinal arch of the foot decreased. The re- longitudinal arch of the foot related to this are most often sults obtained by the researchers confi rm the necessity the result of greater susceptibility to tissue damage due to use exercises activating internal foot muscles on the to exceeding physiological ranges of motion [10] or in- plantar side and strengthening the longitudinal arch of correct compression of the subtalar joint and transverse the foot in runners. talar joint [11]. The effi ciency of the foot muscles on the plantar sur- However, in people with elevated medial longitudinal face of the feet was evaluated by Mulligan et al. [39], arch and tendency towards supination, its smaller mo- who studied the impact of Short Foot Exercise on the bility can be observed, which predisposes to injuries medial longitudinal arch and dynamic functions. A na- associated with weakening the cushioning mechanism vicular drop test was used. After an eight-week training [12] and increasing pressure on the plantar surface of period, the researchers observed improvement – they the foot while walking or running [13]. recorded lower values for navicular bone descent after In this work, the Foot Posture Index (FPI-6) was used shifting to a standing position, and thus, a smaller range to assess foot posture and changes occurring under of pronation. Own research confi rms these results. Al- the infl uence of the training programme, assessing the though the navicular drop test was not used, similar pa- six elements of the fore- and rearfoot. Using this made rameters were assessed (prominence in the region of it possible to classify the foot into one of three types: the talonavicular joint and talar head palpation). In both neutral, pronating or supinating [19]. After six weeks of of them, statistically signifi cant changes were observed training, foot posture improved from pronation towards with a visible tendency towards improvement from pro- a neutral foot. These changes concerned the right and nation towards a neutral position. left foot, showing statistical signifi cance within all as- Jung et al. [38] also evaluated the effectiveness of sessed elements and the total score. In the authors’ pre- exercises activating the short plantar surface of the foot, vious studies, in which the effectiveness of two types of to exercises involving additional long fl exors. The advan- exercises activating the plantar short muscles of the foot tage of the Short Foot Exercise was demonstrated - the in long-distance runners was compared, the FPI-6 was electromyographic activity of the toe abductor muscle also used. Similarly to the present work, improvement in was signifi cantly higher, and the value of the arch angle the posture towards a neutral foot was observed [40]. of the foot was lower in comparison to the results ob- There are also other reports in the literature regard- tained during the second exercise. The results suggest, ing the use of the Foot Posture Index among people therefore, that the Short Foot Exercises have a more ben- practicing long-distance running. Cowley and Marsden efi cial effect on strengthening the toe abductor muscle, [50] assessed the change in this index and the height of which is the largest of the internal muscles of the foot. the navicular bone of the runners who covered the half- The increase in its activity may contribute to the reduc- marathon distance. The fi rst measurement was carried tion of the medial angle of the longitudinal arch, and thus, out a week before the competition. The subjects were to raising the arch of the foot. In our research, a signifi - instructed not to perform training on that day. The sec- cant change in this parameter, which is part of the FPI-6, ond measurement took place after the runner crossed was also observed under the infl uence of exercises.
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The original training programme designed by the au- at which energy expenditure and variability of gait pa- thors used in this study was aimed at activating the short rameters are the smallest. Oberg et al. [32, 36] assessed plantar muscles of the foot with the smallest activity of changes in selected parameters depending on the speed external muscles. The Short Foot Exercises developed at which the examined person moves. Faster gait was by Professor Janda are commonly known, consisting in associated with lengthening strides and increased rang- shortening the foot in the anterior-posterior dimension by es of motion in the knee and hip joints. However, lower bringing the metatarsal bone heads towards the calca- walking speeds are accompanied by smaller ranges of neus, while the fi ngers maintain relaxed and the foot rests motion in the joints and lower generated moments of on the ground [38]. These exercises restore strength and muscle strength [57-59]. proper muscle tone and strengthen the medial longitudi- 11 young, healthy individuals participated in the study nal arch of the foot, which increases the stability of the by Dingwell and Martin [37]. Prior to the actual test, the ankle [52, 53]. They also have a positive effect on pro- preferred walking speed (PWS) was determined for each prioception and postural stability. It is recommended to participant. The task of the subjects was to move on do barefoot exercises in order to ensure as much stimula- a mechanical treadmill at speeds at 60%, 80%, 100% tion of the sensorimotor system [54]. 120% and 140% of PWS, respectively. Selected param- The sensorimotor system is, next to the eye and ves- eters were evaluated using the VICON system for three- tibular organs, one of the basic mechanisms responsible dimensional motion analysis. It was observed that their for controlling stability and restoring balance. The sys- variability was the smallest when walking at the speed tem is made up of skin and deep sensory receptors, es- preferred by the subject. This variability increased with pecially from the plantar surface of the foot and around the change of walking speed, both in the direction of lo- the ankle. Proper distribution of the load on the feet is wer and higher values. therefore an element affecting the control of dynamic Local dynamic stability was quantitatively determined stability and is a condition for proper gait [27]. using the Lyapunov method [60]. The results obtained by Stability is a key element during movement [26]. In the authors indicate an improvement in dynamic stability dynamic conditions, such as walking or running, it al- during walking at a slower speed, despite the increase in lows an individual to continue the functional movement, its variability. Researchers suggest that the neuromuscular despite the occurrence of external and internal destabi- control system is more effective in controlling exogenous lizing forces. Dynamic stability analysis should take into and endogenous balance disturbances during slow walk- account the changing moments of muscle strength and ing than when moving at higher speeds. changes in the position of body segments in space [28]. A similar study was conducted by England and To estimate dynamic stability control, it is possible to Granata [34]. They assessed the variability of temporal- measure the variability of gait kinematics and temporal- spatial and kinematic parameters of gait when moving spatial parameters [29, 30]. The variability of these pa- at speeds corresponding to 20%, 40%, 60% and 80% of
rameters is the smallest when walking at natural speed, walking speed (VF), calculated using the Froude number, comfortable for a given person. It is assumed that the taking the forces of inertia and gravity into account [61]. increase in variability, which occurs in the case of faster According to available studies, the natural and comfort-
and slower gait, is associated with a decrease in stability able walking speed is 0.42 VF, while running is initiated
[31, 32]. Paradoxically, however, with age, a reduction in at the speed of 0.70 VF [62,63]. Local dynamic stability walking speed is very often observed [55]. In the elderly, was determined, similarly as in Dingwell and Martin’s the perception of sense organs that control the balance study, using the Lyapunov method [60]. The results ob- and stability of the posture is weakened – the organ of re- tained in the England and Granata study confi rmed that sponsible for sight, the vestibular organ and the receptors when moving at a comfortable (natural) speed, the vari- of superfi cial and deep feeling [56]. It seems, therefore, ability of temporal-spatial and kinematic parameters of that moving at a slower speed is aimed at improving the gait is the smallest. Both walking at greater and lower control of dynamic stability, which is in contradiction with speeds increases the variability of its parameters. How- the previously quoted assumptions about the variability ever, the authors suggest that dynamic stability may be of gait. poorly represented by the size of the variation in gait. This paradox is explained in a paper by Dingwell and Lyapunov’s analysis indicated greater local stability of all Marin [37]. The authors compared dynamic stability and joints at a lower speeds. variability of gait parameters depending on its speed. In In this study, a change in some temporal-spatial pa- this research, the starting point were scientifi c reports rameters of gait was observed after the 6-week pro- indicating the relationship between gait speed and its gramme of exercises activating the short plantar muscles variability. Even earlier, Winter [35] observed that there is of the foot surface. In the second examination, signifi cantly an individual variable and individual speed of movement, lower cadence, gait speed, step length and a lower value of
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the index expressing the ratio of stride length to body height Persons who practice long-distance running are were recorded. The duration of the gait cycle signifi cantly exposed to long-lasting loads, which is why this group prolonged. Other parameters did not change signifi cantly. has key mechanisms that absorb shock during running Perhaps this is related to the conditions under which the and walking. Correct foot posture is a contributing factor measurements were carried out. Walking on a fl at sur- [4]. The results of our research confi rm that the short face may not be a demanding task for healthy individuals. plantar muscle exercises of the foot surface improve foot Hence, the lack of registered changes due to training in posture towards a neutral position. The applied exercise percentage distribution of the gait cycle phases or in pro- programme also infl uenced changes in some of the tem- pulsion. poral-spatial parameters of gait. After the applied train- According to the previously quoted research results ing programme, the runners walked slower, took shorter of different authors, when moving at a natural speed, the steps and their cadence decreased. The transfer of natu- variability of temporal-spatial parameters is the small- ral, comfortable gait for a given person towards lower est. On the other hand, walking at both higher and lower values may be the result of improved motor control, ob- speeds increases the variability of its parameters. In our tained through the infl uence of the applied exercises on research, runners walked more slowly, with a shorter the sensorimotor system. steps and smaller cadence after the applied training. Exercising the short plantar muscles of the foot Thus, the preferred walking speed, comfortable for a giv- surface is crucial for athletes, especially those who are en person, changed. No changes in the proportion of the exposed to long-lasting loads. Unfortunately, these exer- swing or support phases indicate that the gait pattern cises are usually overlooked in athletes’ training. There- remained the same as before the workout. fore, more attention should be paid to adequate and op- Slower gait is a common strategy to increase dynam- timal involvement internal muscles of the plantar surface ic stability and reduce the risk of falling, especially in el- of the foot in runners. Further research is recommended der individuals. However, studies conducted by Hak et al. regarding the impact of these exercises, taking differ- [64] indicate that, in this case, the reduction in gait speed ences in the foot posture and among athletes of other is not important. The response to the balance disorder disciplines into account. and the mechanism allowing its preservation is shorten- ing step length, increasing cadence and step width. Conclusions Changes in gait parameters observed in our research may be the result of improved motor control. It can be 1. Lower values of individual components and the total assumed that the applied foot exercises, through their im- result of the Foot Posture Index suggest that the ap- pact on proprioreceptors, contributed to the improvement plied short plantar muscle exercises of the foot sur- of the sensorimotor system as a mechanism ensuring face cause a statistically signifi cant improvement in control of dynamic stability. The improvement of foot pos- their posture from pronation to a neutral position- ture in statics, visible in the form of the FPI-6 index value ing. change, could also translate into improvement in motor 2. The observed changes in temporal-spatial parameters control. Further research in this fi eld is recommended. of gait in the form of a statistically signifi cant reduc- The heterogeneity of the group – the age of the re- tion in its speed, cadence and step length, as well as spondents ranged from 21 to 45 years, and their weekly lengthening the gait cycle, may indicate improvement training ranging from 20 to 100 km, may be indicated in motor control and a shift of the comfortable natural as a limitation of this study. Another factor was the lack walking speed towards lower values. of subjects with feet supination in the study group, and 3. Based on the obtained results, performing exercises therefore, it was impossible to assess what changes in activating the short plantar muscles of foot surface runners with this type of foot posture would be triggered is recommended as a permanent element of daily by the applied training programme. training in long-distance runners.
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 83
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[49] Johanson MA, Donatelli R, Wooden MJ, Andrew PD, Cummings GS: Effects of Three Different Positing Methods on Control- ling Abnormal Subtalar Pronation. Phys Ther. 1994 Feb;74(2):149-158. PMID: 8290620. [50] Cowley E, Marsden J: The effects of prolonged running on foot posture: a repeated measures study of half marathon run- ners using the foot posture index and navicular height. J Foot Ankle Res. 2013 May;24;6:20. PMID: 23705863. PMCID: PMC3668212. DOI: 10.1186/1757-1146-6-20. [51] Escamilla-Martinez E, Martinez-Nova A, Gómez-Martin B, Sánchez-Rodriguez R, Fernández-Seguin LM: The Effect of Mod- erate Running on Foot Posture Index and Plantar Pressure Distribution in Male Recreational Runners. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 2013 Mar-Apr;103(2):121-125. PMID: 23536502. [52] Bilewicz M, Stebel R, Czerkies A: Ankle sprain and treatment consequences [in Polish]. PrzypadkiMedyczne.pl. 2012;23:88-92. [53] Chinn L, Hertel J: Rehabilitation of Ankle and Foot Injuries in Athletes. Clin Sports Med. 2010 Jan; 29(1):157-167. PMCID: PMC2786815. DOI: 10.1016/j.csm.2009.09.006. [54] Page P: Sensorimotor training: A “global” approach for balance training. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies. 2006 Jan;10(1):77-84. DOI: doi.org/10.1016/j.jbmt.2005.04.006. [55] Kerrigan DC, Todd MK, Della Croce U, Lipsitz LA, Collins JJ: Biomechanical gait alterations independent of speed in the healthy elderly: evidence for specifi c limiting impairments. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1998 Mar;79(3):317-322. PMID: 9523785. [56] Borzym A: Falls in old age – reasons, consequences, prophylaxis [in Polish]. Psychogeriatr Pol. 2009;6(2):81-88. [57] Olney SJ, Griffi n MP, McBride ID: Temporal, kinematic, and kinetic variables related to gait speed in subjects with hemiplegia: a regression approach. Phys Ther. 1994 Sep;74(9):872-885. PMID: 8066114. [58] Judge JO, Davis RB 3rd, Ounpuu S: Step length reductions in advanced age: The role of ankle and hip kinetics. 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[59] Kerrigan DC, Lee LW, Collins JJ, Riley PO, Lipsitz LA: Reduced hip extension during walking: Healthy elderly and fallers versus young adults. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001 Jan;82(1):26-30. PMID: 11239282. DOI: 10.1053/apmr.2001.18584. [60] Rosenstein MT, Collins JJ, Deluca CJ: A practical method for calculating largest Lyapunov exponents from small data sets. Phys D. 1993;65:117-134. DOI: 10.1016/0167-2789(93)90009-P. [61] Vaughan CL, Langerak NG, O’Malley MJ: Neuromaturation of human locomotion revealed by non-dimensional scaling. Exp Brain Res. 2003 Nov;153(1):123-127. PMID: 14566445. DOI: 10.1007/s00221-003-1635-x. [62] Ahlborn BK, Blake RW: Walking and running at resonance. Zoology (Jena). 2002;105(2):165-174. PMID: 16351865. DOI: 10.1078/0944-2006-00057. [63] Kram R, Domingo A, Ferris DP: Effect of reduced gravity on the preferred walk-run transition speed. J Exp Biol. 1997 Feb;200(Pt 4):821-826. PMID: 9076966. [64] Hak L, Houdijk H, Steenbrink F, Mert A, van der Wurff P, Beek PJ, et al: Speeding up or slowing down?: Gait adaptations to preserve gait stability in response to balance perturbations. Gait Posture. 2012 Jun;36(2):260-264. PMID: 22464635. DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2012.03.005.
Author for correspondence: Iwona Sulowska Phone number: +48 12 683 11 34 E-mail: [email protected]
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SECTION – EXERCISE SCIENCES
(1.1) DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0011.6799
THE EFFECT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY LEVEL ON BODY BUILD AND PHYSICAL FITNESS OF GIRLS AND BOYS AGED 10-19
Authors’ contribution: Helena Popławska1 ABDEF, Adam Wilczewski1 ABC, A. Study design/planning 1 ABDE 2 BCEF B. Data collection/entry Agnieszka Dmitruk , Wojciech Hołub C. Data analysis/statistics D. Data interpretation E. Preparation of manuscript 1 F. Literature analysis/search Department of Physical Education and Sport in Biała Podlaska, Józef Piłsudski University G. Funds collection of Physical Education in Warsaw, Poland 2 Department of Tourism and Health in Biała Podlaska, Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw, Poland
Keywords: physical activity, physical development, physical fi tness, children and adolescents
Abstract
Aim: The study was aimed to evaluate the somatic build and physical fi tness of children and adolescents aged 10-19 depend- ing on their physical activity. Basic procedures: The survey was conducted in the years 2008-2009 among 925 girls and 1,016 boys aged 10-19 years, attending rural and urban schools in the Biala Podlaska county. The following basic anthropometric measures were taken: body height, body mass, arm and shank circumference, thickness of three skinfolds (over the triceps, over the scapula and over the iliac crest). The Body Mass Index (BMI) was computed from values of body height and mass measurements. Numeric values of somatotypological components were calculated as well; these including: endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy. Physical activity was evaluated based on the trials of the European Physical Fitness Test battery, and was stratifi ed according to a 3-level scale: low activity – up to 1 hour, moderate activity – between 1 and 3 hours, and high activity – 4 and more hours. In groups of the physical activity of girls and boys, values of somatic traits and results of motor tests were normalized with the use of equa- tions indicating dependencies of mean values and standard deviations from age, according to Stupnicki et al. [1]. Signifi cance of differences between the studied groups was evaluated using ANOVA analysis of variance with the “post-hoc” Newman-Keuls test. Results: The surveyed girls and boys with the highest physical activity were characterized by the lowest values of somatic traits, except for body height, and by the best results of physical fi tness. Greater differences between results were observed in the girls. Conclusions: A correlation was demonstrated between the physical activity and somatic build and physical fi tness of the surveyed girls and boys.
Introduction Research at the Institute of Mother and Child in War- saw [6] shows that only every tenth student in Polish In the modern world, one can observe a continuous schools meets the guidelines for physical activity. A com- decline in physical activity in favour of passive forms of mon phenomenon is exemption from Physical Education spending free time. This phenomenon applies to people of classes accepted by parents. Young people spend a sig- all ages, including children and adolescents [2-4]. Young nifi cant number of hours on activities related to low en- people’s level of participation in physical activity during ergy expenditure. According to a study by Stankiewicz et their free time is insuffi cient and far from the recommended al. [7], Polish children spend an average of 2 hours a day 60 minutes a day of moderate to high physical activity [5]. in front of a TV screen, and 1.4 hours in front of a com-
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puter screen, i.e. a total of 3.4 hours a day. This exceeds a hand dynamometer), explosive force (standing long the recommended time for these activities which should jump distance), trunk strength (number of performed sits be no longer than 2 hours a day [5]. from lying position), agility (10 x 5 m zig-zag run time), Low physical activity and the prevalence of a sed- speed of the upper limb movements – tapping (alternat- entary lifestyle are the causes of many health problems, ing touching two appropriately spaced discs), fl exibility which are becoming more and more common among (trunk forward bow while seated), balance (number of children and adolescents. There is growing obesity among repetitions needed to stay on a beam for one minute), in younger and younger children, and this causes a sig- functional strength (overhang with arms bent). nifi cant risk of being overweight or obese in adulthood The work also uses the method of diagnostic survey as well. In children and adolescents with excessive body with an original questionnaire, based on which informa- mass, arterial hypertension, type 2 diabetes and postural tion regarding the date of birth of each examined person defects can be observed [8-10], as well as more cases of (enabling calculation of calendar age) and their physical neuroses and behavioural disorders [11]. A low level of activity. In this study, the only information used from the physical activity also has negative effects on the structure questionnaire was the number of hours spent on physical and functioning of some organs and systems [12], reduc- activity per week apart, from Physical Education classes. ing physical fi tness [13]. The level of physical activity was rated on a 3-point scale: The aim of the study was to evaluate the somatic low activity – up to 1 hour, moderate – from 1 to 3 hours, structure and physical fi tness of children and adolescents high activity – 4 hours and more. aged 10-19 depending on their level of physical activity. Statistical calculations were preceded by determination of the distribution value regarding the analysed somatic Material and methods traits and the results of motor tests. Body height belonged to the features with normal distribution. The other parame- The research was carried out between 2008-2009. ters were logarithmically transformed to obtain normal dis- It included 925 girls and 1,016 boys aged 10-19 years tribution. In the physical activity groups of girls and boys, from rural and urban schools of the Biala Podlaska county the age of the subjects was precipitated by normalizing the (north-eastern part of the Lublin province). The schools values of somatic features and the results of motor tests in which the research was conducted were deliberately with the aid of different equations for mean dependencies selected – they were the same schools that were random- and standard deviations from age according to Stupnicki et ly selected for research 10 years earlier (KBN Grant No. al. [1]. When evaluating the statistical signifi cance of differ- P05D02314). The research was carried out in the follow- ences between separate groups, ANOVA analysis and the ing rural schools: in Cicibor, Janów Podlaski, Komarno, Newman-Keuls post-hoc method were used. Konstantynów, Leśna Podlaska, Rokitno and Zalesie, and in municipal schools in Biała Podlaska and Międzyrzec Results Podlaski. Prior to the study, consent informing about the purpose and scope of the research was obtained from the Analysing the percentage distribution of the studied AWF Ethics Committee in Warsaw, school authorities and girls and boys depending on physical activity levels, it was parents or guardians of the children who were involved in noted that the highest percentage of the surveyed girls and the study. boys declared from 1 to 3 hours a week (moderate physi- During the research, basic anthropometric measure- cal activity) spent on physical activity. Only 40% of the ments were conducted in accordance with the require- girls and a quarter of the boys declared low physical activ- ments of the International Biological Research Committee ity levels. Merely 14.5% of the girls and 28% of the boys [14]. They concerned measurements of the following so- spent four and more hours on physical activity (Tab. 1). matic features: body height, body mass, arm and shank Analysing the values of normalized somatic features circumferences, thickness of three skinfolds (above the in groups separated on the basis of physical activity triceps muscle, below the shoulder blade and above the showed that in girls, there were no signifi cant differences iliac crest). The body mass index (BMI) was calculated us- in body height. Among the other analysed somatic fea- ing height and body mass values. In addition, the numerical tures, the group with high physical activity was charac- values of somatotypic components were calculated: endo- terized by the lowest values of body mass, BMI, arm and morphs, mesomorphs and ectomorphs using the Sheldon shank circumference, while between the groups with low method modifi ed by Heath and Carter [15]. and moderate activity, there were no clear differences Physical fi tness was assessed by performing tri- in somatic structure. This is confi rmed by the results als included in the European Physical Fitness Test [16]. of ANOVA: statistically signifi cant differences occurred This work uses the results of measurements defi ning the mainly between groups of girls with low and high physi- following motor skills: static force (measurement using cal activity levels (Fig. 1, Tab. 2).
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Table 1. Number of surveyed girls and boys in groups distinguished on the basis of physical activity level (number/percentage)
1-3 h 4 h and above Up to 1 h (low activity) Sex (moderate activity) (high activity) Total n % n % n % Girls 380 41.08 411 44.43 134 14.49 925 Boys 264 25.98 467 45.97 285 28.05 1,016
Table 2. Results of ANOVA analysis of variance conducted for dependencies between physical activity, somatic build and physical fi tness of girls and boys
Girls Boys Newman-Keuls test Newman-Keuls test ANOVA ANOVA I-II I-III II-III I-II I-III II-III height 0.50 1.34 0.92 0.03 1.44 0.37 1.73 2.34 mass 2.86 0.24 3.05* 3.25 1.70 2.05 2.50 0.74 BMI 3.97 0.44 3.84* 3.57* 4.49 2.33 4.24* 2.43 arm circumference 1.59 0.10 2.31 2.41 1.86 0.59 2.52 2.26 shank circumference 2.81 0.24 3.03* 3.23 1.41 1.88 2.27 0.66 endomorphism 8.35 0.20 5.45* 5.36* 5.33 2.81* 4.61* 2.36 mesomorphism 3.80 0.66 3.81* 3.38* 8.40 2.61 5.74* 3.84* ectomorphism 3.46 0.30 3.56* 3.38* 5.19 2.63 4.56* 2.49 hand strength 3.36 2.01 3.59* 2.18 0.33 0.33 0.71 1.15 balance 4.32 4.13* 1.04 1.90 2.19 1.15 2.89 2.10 tapping 12.53 5.75* 5.95* 1.90 2.69 0.49 2.36 3.19 agility 5.60 3.71* 4.09* 1.48 0.10 0.44 0.13 0.60 long jump 8.78 4.15* 5.46* 2.53 12.05 5.15* 6.78* 2.37 sit from lying 8.49 4.13* 5.34* 2.43 5.05 2.40 4.49* 2.62 overhang 3.58 2.59 3.52* 1.70 5.91 4.16* 4.46* 0.77 10 x 5 m run 7.69 4.23* 4.90* 1.90 2.48 0.21 2.43 3.00 I – group with low physical activity (up to 1 h) II – group with moderate physical activity (1-3 h) III – group with high physical activity (4 h and above) * statistically signifi cant differences at confi dence level of p≤0.05
In boys, it was noticed that subjects with low physi- between the two remaining groups (with low and moder- cal activity obtained the highest normalized values of the ate physical activity) regarding the type of body structure, analysed somatic features with the exception of body which is confi rmed by the Newman-Keuls test results – height. The group with high physical activity, similarly the differences were statistically signifi cant, but only be- to girls, was characterized by the lowest values of body tween the fi rst and third, and second and the third groups mass, BMI, shoulder and shank circumference, but sta- separated on the basis of physical activity (Fig. 3, Tab. 2). tistically signifi cant differences occurred only in the case Boys with low physical activity levels were character- of BMI (Fig. 2, Tab. 2). ized by the highest values of normalized endomorphs and In this work, the type of body structure examined us- mesomorphs, and the lowest ectomorphs. The group with ing the Heath and Carter method was also determined moderate physical activity levels had body component [15]. Girls with high physical activity were character- values close to the average norm of all groups, while the ized by low endomorphism and mesomorphism, and the boys who were physically active, similarly to girls, had the highest values of ectomorphs. Similarly as in the case lowest values of endomorphism and mesomorphism, and of somatic features, there were no signifi cant differences the highest ectomorphs (Fig. 4, Tab. 2).
Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 89
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Fig. 1. Normalized values of somatic traits of girls in groups with various levels of physical activity
Fig. 2. Normalized values of somatic traits of boys in groups with various levels of physical activity
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Apart from somatic build, physical fi tness was as- the fi rst and second, and the fi rst and third groups of girls sessed in girls and boys representing different levels (Fig. 5, Tab. 2). of physical activity. There was a greater variation in the In boys, there was a similar pattern of dependence be- results for girls than the boys. Girls with high physical tween physical activity and fi tness, but the normalized val- activity levels obtained the best results in all analysed ues were lower than in the girls. The smallest intergroup motor trials except for balance. Girls with low physical differentiation was observed in hand strength and fl ex- activity proved to be the least physically fi t. Differences ibility. The statistical signifi cance of differences occurred in the results were statistically signifi cant in all the anal- only in the long jumps, sits from laying and the overhang, ysed physical fi tness tests, and the Newman-Keuls test which mainly resulted from the very low results of boys showed the signifi cance of differences mainly between with low physical activity (Fig. 6, Tab. 2).
Fig. 3. Normalized values of body build components of girls in groups Fig. 4. Normalized values of body build components of boys in groups with various levels of physical activity with various levels of physical activity
Fig. 5. Normalized values of physical fi tness tests results for girls in groups with various levels of physical activity
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Fig. 6. Normalized values of physical fi tness test results for boys in groups with various levels of physical activity
Discussion growth in children and adolescents, strengthens and stabi- lizes joints and has positive infl uence on muscularity while Undertaking physical activity is of particular impor- reducing the amount of adipose tissue. Regularly per- tance during the development of the human body, that is formed physical activity affects pace of development, as during childhood and youth. To ensure physical and men- well as dimensions of the body. Already after a few months tal health during this period, all forms of physical activity of moderate, but regularly undertaken physical exercise, are desirable. In combination with changes in external children performing motor activity classes have greater environment, it is a factor modelling the morphological height and weight gain, they mature earlier and are more and functional state of an organism. Applied for a longer resilient to infections [13]. In our own research, there was period of time, it causes adaptive changes that include no correlation between physical activity and body height. both physical and mental characteristics. Understanding In the other analysed somatic traits (body mass, arm and the determinants of physical activity is the basis for taking shank circumference) and BMI values, the groups of girls action to counteract the decline in its level in children and and boys with high physical activity were characterized by adolescents [17]. the lowest values of these features. In girls with low activity Conducted research shows that about 45% of girls and levels, high values of the analysed somatic features were a similar percentage of boys from Bialski county allocate observed, especially in the case of BMI, while in boys, from 1 to 3 hours per week, and up to 1 hour per week as there were no differences in somatic structure between much as 41% of girls and 26% of boys, to extracurricu- groups with low and moderate physical activity. lar physical activity. Most of the subjects do not meet the Physical activity is closely related to physical fi tness, criteria of recommended physical activity. A similar situa- but the strength of this relationship is seldom studied. In tion was noted in the research carried out at the Institute of our own research, it was observed that girls and boys Mother and Child in Warsaw, concerning physical activity who spend more time on physical activity are charac- of school youth aged 9-17 [6]. Almost a quarter of respon- terized by a higher level of physical fi tness. The above- dents perform moderate physical activity for a minimum of mentioned relationship was observed in the results of all 60 minutes less than 3 days a week, and only about 20% fi tness tests except for balance. Girls and boys with low high physical activity 4 and more hours a week. physical activity turned out to be the least physically fi t. Physical exercise causes many benefi cial changes in Similar relationships are indicated in the case of research the human body. It stimulates general development and among boys aged 13-15 from Radom [18]. The boys determines physical fi tness, which is highly dependent on with a higher level of physical activity obtained better training. Physical activity infl uences, among others, bone results in all attempts included in Zuchory’s Physical Fit-
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ness Index. In turn, in the research by Kubusiak-Słonina Conclusions et al. [19], it was also found that among children aged 11-12 from Rzeszów and Kosina, along with an increase 1. A relationship was found between physical activity in physical activity, the level of physical fi tness assessed and somatic build as well as physical fi tness of the by the Zuchory test also increased. studied girls and boys. The presented results of our research and the studies 2. The boys and girls with high physical activity levels by other authors indicate that physical activity is a factor were characterized by the lowest values of somatic modelling the development of children and adolescents, features except for body height, and had the best re- which is why following nutrition, movement should be sults of physical fi tness. the most important element of a healthy lifestyle for each 3. Greater variation in the results was observed among individual. girls.
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Author for correspondence: Helena Popławska Phone number: +48 83 342 87 38 E-mail: [email protected]
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