Canadian Military History

Volume 18 Issue 4 Article 5

2009

“A Unique Art” Canadian Anti-Gas Production in the Second World War

Andrew Iarocci

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Recommended Citation Andrew Iarocci "“A Unique Art” Canadian Anti-Gas Respirator Production in the Second World War." Canadian Military History 18, 4 (2009)

This is brought to you for free and open access by Scholars Commons @ Laurier. It has been accepted for inclusion in Canadian Military History by an authorized editor of Scholars Commons @ Laurier. For more information, please contact [email protected]. : “A Unique Art” Canadian Anti-Gas Respirator Production in the Second World War

“A Unique Art” Canadian Anti-Gas Respirator Production in the Second World War

Andrew Iarocci

he anti-gas respirator (gas mask) it has persisted as a versatile prop in objects, such as the Canadian Military Tis a ubiquitous artifact of 20th popular culture. Surplus Pattern trucks that were built en century total war. Introduced in 1915, can found everywhere from the Star masse at Windsor and Oshawa respirators dramatically transformed Wars trilogy (as alien costume props) according to British War Office the appearance of soldiers, replacing to Earth Day marches (as symbols of specifications. The respirators, like the last trace of a man’s unique identity protest against ). with a ghoulish facade that quickly This article considers the Canadian Résumé : Au vingtième siècle, la guerre became a perennial favourite of war development and manufacture of totale fut marquée par la complexification artists and illustrators. Throughout Mark IV anti-gas respirators prior to grandissante de l’équipement et des the 90 years since the First World War, and during the Second World War, armes des combattants. En dépit de la responsabilité gouvernementale anti-gas equipment has remained a tracing the genesis of an artifact from de fournir ce matériel de guerre, le vital part of every soldier’s kit just as the drawing board to the soldier’s processus de sa création et de son kit. The Mark IV pattern, originally développement a souvent été le fruit Abstract: Total war in the 20th century developed in Britain in the 1920s, was d’une association du gouvernement witnessed an ever increasing complexity the standard respirator in Empire and et de l’industrie privée. Le présent in soldiers’ weapons and equipment. article analyse cette relation dans Although the state was responsible Commonwealth service throughout le contexte de la culture matérielle for procuring war material, the design much of the Second World War. liée à la production canadienne de and development process was often a Beginning in the early 1930s, masques à gaz, avant et pendant la joint venture between government and officers realized the Seconde Guerre mondiale. Comme les private industry. This article considers urgent requirement for modern anti- entreprises du pays n’avaient aucune that relationship in the material- expérience dans la fabrication de ce cultural context of Canadian anti-gas gas equipment, but they did not wish type d’appareil respiratoire utilisé respirator manufacture prior to and to depend upon Britain for future comme arme, son développement a during the Second World War. Because supplies. As such, the Canadian nécessité d’importants investissements. domestic industries had no experience army joined forces with domestic Or, le gouvernement a non seulement with military-grade respirators, it was industry to develop a homegrown évité d’en partager les coûts avec les necessary to spend heavily on product manufacturiers, mais il a aussi refusé development. The government not manufacturing capability where tout contrat précis s’y rattachant, only avoided sharing this cost with none had existed before. Ultimately, prétextant les contraintes budgétaires manufacturers, but also refused any the Mark IV development history de l’époque de la Dépression. Il fallut definite contracts, thanks to Depression- sheds light not only on an important attendre que la menace d’une guerre era budget constraints. Only when artifact, but also certaine s’accentue, à la fin des années the threat of war grew more certain 1930, pour que des fonds publics in the late 1930s did eleventh-hour more generally on the manufacturing soient dégagés à la dernière minute public expenditure stimulate the full infrastructure that was developed in et assurent la pleine capacité de development of manufacturing capacity. Canada at the eleventh hour to meet production de l’industrie. Dès 1940 By 1940-41, domestic industry was the massive output requirements of et 1941, les manufactures du pays able to manufacture enough anti-gas furent donc en mesure de fabriquer the Second World War. In this respect, equipment for the Canadian forces, as assez d’équipement contre les gaz pour well as supply various components to the respirator case study shares much les Forces canadiennes et d’autres allied forces. in common with more complex composantes pour leurs alliés.

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the trucks, were not fashioned out were equipped with an even newer Beginning in February 1916, of thin air. Rather, they were the style of respirator known as the tube P helmets were gradually replaced products of joint efforts across the helmet. The tube helmet differed by PH (phenate-hexamine) helmets, Dominion, coordinated at virtually from the earlier smoke helmet in that offering improved protection against the last minute to manufacture it was fitted with a valve tube through . It appears that artillerymen serviceable equipment on a grand which the soldier could exhale – a were among the first soldiers to scale. feature that helped eliminate receive PH helmets in Canadian dioxide build-up inside the hood. service, followed by a general issue CWM20020045-288_p168 (When inhaling, a soldier’s breath to all trades and ranks that spring. Anti-Gas Respirators in was filtered through the fabric of the As the PH helmet was entering British Empire Service, 1915-43 hood itself, which was chemically general service, an entirely novel treated in the same manner as earlier pattern of anti-gas respirator, the he Great War witnessed a steady types.) Improved tube helmets, which large-box type (LBR), was introduced Tevolution in anti-gas equipment, were impregnated with an upgraded to British forces. Like the tube helmets, beginning with the Second Battle of solution that offered protection the LBRs were at first provided Ypres in April 1915. The earliest form against phosgene, were designated only to specialist personnel such as of protection issued to hard pressed as “P” (phenate) helmets.2 Canadian gunners, trench mortar and machine British and Canadian troops at that soldiers were each supposed to gun crews, and field ambulance time was a simple wade of cotton, carry one smoke helmet and one men, in part because the new held between the teeth, beneath a tube helmet as of October 1915.3 apparatus was considered too bulky cloth mask impregnated with an for already overburdened infantry anti-gas solution and tied over the soldiers. However, by October 1916, nose and mouth. As soon as the as Canadian forces went into action attack became a matter of on the Somme, the newer small- public knowledge, the War Office box respirator (SBR) was issued on issued a general appeal for large a scale of one per man across the quantities of these primitive masks, Canadian Corps, reflecting a similar with instructions that they be sent in trend in the British forces. Each man batches of 100 or more to the Chief Ordnance Officer at the Royal Army Clothing Department.1 It was not Canon F.G. Scott, the highly long, however, before mask designs revered chaplain to 1st Canadian reached a level of sophistication that Division, wears a small-box exceeded the sewing capabilities of respirator on the Western Front, various patriotic associations and September 1917. Note how the other local groups. connecting tube leads to the filter container carried within By May 1915, most soldiers in the the haversack on Scott’s had received chest. the simple cotton respirators. At the same time, these were supplemented with the smoke helmet (also known as the hypo helmet), an impregnated bag that covered the entire head, and featured transparent mica or acetoid eye pieces. By August, every man in the division should have received a cotton respirator and a smoke helmet, while certain specialist troops in the division, such as machine gun crews, Canadian War Museum (CWM) 19780093-194 Canadian War

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An NCO checks the fit of small-box respirators during anti-gas training somewhere on the Western Front.

also continued to carry a PH helmet that German soldiers, not realizing peacetime skills could be applied and one pair of anti-gas goggles as that the seal between face piece and to more productive ends. Harrison precautionary measures. skin had been broken, assumed quickly distinguished himself as The face piece of the SBR was incorrectly that the filter itself was an inventor of anti-gas equipment, made of a rubberized canvas material chemically inefficient, thereby and was promoted to the rank of similar to the type used in some losing confidence in their masks. lieutenant-colonel in 1917. He later German masks. In contrast with Interestingly, cultural determinism became the controller of chemical German models, which featured crept into British intelligence warfare, a post which ultimately cost a directly mounted filter estimates, which suggested that him his life. One week before the canister, the box respirator face piece “the British soldier, being more of war ended, Harrison succumbed to was connected to a corrugated tube, an individualist [than the German], pneumonia aggravated by repeated which in turn mated up with the can better understand the seclusion exposure to a deadly mélange of filter element – known at the time as imposed by wearing a mask,” and chemicals during his respirator a “tower” and later as a “container.” was thus a more effective operator experiments. In 1921 a monument The tower was supported inside the in a chemical warfare environment.4 was unveiled in his honour in the khaki canvas respirator haversack, This dubious theory was probably Hall of the Pharmaceutical Society, which was carried on the soldier’s never tested. at Bloomsbury Square. Newspaper chest. While the German pattern Much of the credit for the reports lauded Harrison as man of mask was more compact, British British development of the box-type whose invention “saved the British authorities considered the box respirator went to the soldier-scientist Army.”6 respirator to be a superior design. The E.F. Harrison. An accomplished Although specific materials weight of the filter was supported by pharmaceutical research chemist and construction were improved the haversack, and thus did not pull in civil life, Harrison joined the considerably, the basic scheme of the the face piece away from the soldier’s Sportsmen’s Battalion as an unlikely box respirator remained unchanged forehead and cheeks. This problem 47-year-old private in 1915.5 After the in British Empire and Commonwealth

Canadian War Museum (CWM) 19780093-194 Canadian War with the German design allowed German chlorine attack against the forces until the middle years of the traces of gas to seep in behind the Ypres salient that April, he transferred Second World War. Indeed, Major face piece. There is some evidence to the Royal Engineers, where his John Ambrose Sadd, Harrison’s co-

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Iarocci - Anti-Gas Respirators.indd 53 1/26/2010 10:23:19 AM Canadian Military History, Vol. 18 [2009], Iss. 4, Art. 5 Table A – Mark IV and V Respirator Variants inventor of the original box respirator Designation Key Features Purpose in 1916, claimed patent rights for Made of red rubber, covered the Mark IV series employed during Mark IV, early issue with khaki stockinet; eye pieces General issue the 1930s and 1940s.7 Like the SBR, permanently installed the Mark IV comprised a face piece, Made of black rubber, sometimes General issue, priority given to Mark IV, later issue with stockinet; eye pieces removable; officers and NCOs because of connecting tube, and container. improved voice-mitter improved voice-mitter The face piece was fashioned of Similar to later issue Mark IV, but Mark IV Special T For personnel wearing eye glasses molded vulcanized rubber with with modifications to the temples separate glass eye piece discs. On As above, but fitted with the capped Mark IV Special T Mic For signals personnel early models, both the face piece and aperture for a microphone plug the corrugated rubber connecting As above, without stockinet, featuring molded cheek boss for For signals personnel and those tube were covered in khaki stockinet Mark V fitting microphone plug, suited for wearing eye glasses fabric. The purpose of the stockinet is personnel wearing eye glasses unclear, but it was later discontinued, As with the Mark IV and V series, but For naval and air force technicians Mark IVA and Mark VA possibly for economic reasons, or fitted with longer connecting tubes and specialist personnel because, as a porous fabric, it was Based on “Respirators, Anti-Gas,” App A, 5 March 1940, HQ 56-23 (vol 14), Vol 5921, RG 24. difficult to decontaminate. The filter container, of ribbed sheet metal, alarm, the face piece was pulled from the Mark IV and Mark V respirators incorporated a simple male fitting the top of the haversack and fitted can be seen in their manufacture which mated with the lower female to the soldier’s head. The container techniques, at least within a Canadian end of the connecting tube. Like the rested in the bottom of the haversack, context. In Canada, the face piece SBR, the Mark IV respirator was as with the SBR. for the Mark IV was crafted in carried in a khaki haversack. When In common with most other pieces hand molds, while the Mark V face not required, the haversack could be of military kit, the Mark IV respirator piece was made in machine press slung over the shoulder. According to was followed by several variants molds. Different types of rubber tactical circumstances, the haversack and sub-variants (Table A). By way were employed in each case. Shortly was to be worn on the chest in the of summary, the Mark IV Special after the outbreak of war, it cost the ready position. In series incorporated an aperture on Canadian government about $7.65 for the event of a gas the left cheek that was fitted with a each Mark IV respirator, including replaceable plastic the haversack and anti-dimming cap for fitting a compound for the eye pieces. A Mark m i c r o p h o n e . V cost about one dollar less.11 Some versions The Mark IV respirators and a l s o h a d subsequent variants were issued to p r o v i s i o n army, navy, and air force personnel, for wearing with the exception that a longer eye glasses connecting tube was fitted to beneath the naval and air force models. This

face piece.8 modification permitted the haversack CWM 19670457_016(1) CWM

A l a t e r to be worn on the sailor or airman/ W.E. Storey Collection variant, the woman’s back when the respirator Mark V, was was deployed, as it was not practical introduced just for specialists and technicians to as the Second World carry the haversack on their chests War broke out.9 In while working on machinery or in the place of a pre-fitted tight quarters of a ship or aircraft. In aperture, the Mark February 1943, however, the number A Canadian Mk IV V incorporated a one- of extended tubes issued to RCAF respirator; the face piece inch cylindrical boss on personnel was reduced as a rubber on this example was made 12 by Gutta Percha & Rubber the left cheek of the face saving measure. It is uncertain if the Limited, Toronto, in 1940. piece. If required, the boss RCN similarly restricted the issue of Note that both the face piece and could be punched out and fitted the longer connecting tubes. the connecting tube are covered with with a plug for a microphone.10 A Beginning in late 1942 or khaki stockinet. second important difference between early 1943 an improved respirator

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was introduced in British and available, but also the most Commonwealth service, known efficient. Witten himself prosaically as the “respirator, anti- had been injured on four A Canadian Mk IV Special T Mic gas, light,” or more simply, the occasions – by small respirator; the face piece on this light respirator. Although beyond arms fire, shellfire, example was made by the B.F. Goodrich the scope of this article, the light mine detonation, Company, Kitchener, respirator employed a face piece and gas. While 1 9 4 1 . N o t e t h e similar to the Mark IV series, t h e g a s s i n g removable plastic cap except that it dispensed entirely incapacitated on the cheek for fitting with the connecting hose. Instead, h i m j u s t a s a microphone plug as required. a cylindrical container not unlike fully as the

the German pattern was screwed other injuries, CWM 19620003 directly to the left cheek of the face Witten claimed piece. The entire assembly was that gassing was carried in the rectangular Mark I far less painful, or II light haversacks.13 This model and produced is mentioned here because its fewer long-term introduction influenced the issue d i s a b i l i t i e s . of Mark IV series respirators and Without citing containers later in the war. any evidence, he applied this general conclusion Gas in the Interwar Years to many other gas victims, claiming it was undoubtedly well he Canadian military neglected its further that gas was the advised.15 Tchemical warfare capabilities and “most effective” weapon known. This Witten was partly vindicated defensive measures during the 1920s, was questionable at best; although during the 1930s as chemical weapons despite the general belief that gas heavily employed between 1915 were in fact employed in limited wars would almost certainly be used in the and 1918 on the Western Front, around the world, including the next major conflict.14 George Witten, few battlefield victories were solely Italian campaign in Ethiopia and the a newspaperman and South African attributable to gas. Yet if Witten Japanese war against China. These war veteran who narrowly survived predicted incorrectly that gas was to cases of gas warfare, combined with four years overseas during the Great be crowned king of the battlefield, the increasing long-range capabilities War, wrote in 1926 that gas was his warning that troops must be of heavy bombers, spread fears not only the most humane weapon equipped and trained to deal with that civilians would be targeted in massive chemical offensives from the air. Horrifying, if also hypothetical, reports on the destructive capacity of gas fed the hysteria. As an American

W.E. Storey Collection military chemist noted in 1937, the matter of chemical warfare “has been the happy hunting ground for sensational newspaper and magazine

Sailors wearing respirator haversacks line up for a refill. As naval personnel, these men have probably been issued Mark IVA or VA respirators, which featured a longer connecting tube than the standard Mark IV or V. This feature permitted the haversack to be carried in knapsack-fashion while the sailor was wearing his mask in the close confines of a ship. The air force also used this type in large numbers.

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writers whose imaginations have diving equipment, had been selling furnished lurid pictures of whole military style respirators on the populations being wiped out at a international market since 1918, a single blow with poison gas dropped practice that was encouraged by His from airplanes.”16 Some gas experts Majesty’s government in order to – and others who claimed to be – keep the industry viable in the event insisted that while gas would be of a national emergency. In 1936, used in future wars, its potential the Bata Company, then based in impact was very much exaggerated Czechoslovakia, purchased licensing in most accounts.17 Yet even if gas rights from the British for the Mark was not to be a decisive weapon or CWM 20070156-014 IV-style respirator. (Like Canada, the an instrument of Armageddon, any Czech government was tooling up for army not prepared to confront it was a possible war with Germany.) Fatra, sure to suffer. a Bata subsidiary, manufactured complete masks based on the British pattern. According to a 1942 Bata Making Respirators in report, Fatra achieved an almost Canada unbelievable production capacity of 25,000 masks per day before the anadian authorities did not war. Many Fatra respirators were Cwait for the outbreak of another even sold back to the British.20 While global war to take action on the Canada could also import respirators gas front. Although the Dominion to fill immediate requirements government was not yet prepared for the mid 1930s, officials at the to commit substantial resources to Department of National Defence defence research and development in (DND) ultimately wanted to develop the midst of a crippling depression, a domestic manufacturing capacity the potential for conflict was enough not unlike the Bata/Fatra model in for policy-makers to explore Canada’s Czechoslovkia.21 ability to manufacture it own military To assist Fuller in his efforts to equipment.18 In June 1932, Major develop a manufacturing scheme G.P. Morrison, an officer for the standard Mk IV respirator, posted to Petawawa Camp, made an Morrison arranged to loan him the exploratory visit to the Safety Supply molds for the respirator valve and Company, a Toronto wholesaler face piece. It would be up to the and manufacturer of mining and Safety Supply Company to determine industrial safety equipment. The the rubber recipe and vulcanization

company’s manager, R.C. Fuller, process. Progress was slow, as Fuller CWM 19920141-014 had taken an interest in the experienced difficulty finding a plant manufacture of anti-gas respirators capable of replicating and molding for industrial applications, but his the correct grade of rubber. Fuller company had not yet developed finally reached an agreement with the any prototype for military use. Part Private Arnold Todd, of the Algonquin Stokes Rubber Company of Welland, Regiment, models his Mark IV respirator of the problem was that Canadian at Port Arthur, Ontario, February 1941. Ontario, but Stokes had little to show rubber companies possessed neither Todd, who survived the Northwest for its efforts in January 1933 when the tooling for molding masks, nor Europe campaign of 1944-45, had this Morrison again touched base with the mixing recipe and vulcanizing photograph taken so that his family him. As Fuller explained, Stokes technique for producing service- could see his appearance in fighting felt that the molding process should equipment and respirator. Note that grade rubber; such trade secrets the Mark IV respirator is worn in the more fully incorporate machine press 22 were closely guarded by the well- same fashion as the earlier small-box molds, in place of hand molding. established British manufacturers respirator. Morrison countered that a complete of respirator components.19 Indeed, set of press molds would be too British companies such as Siebe expensive to create, and that they Gorman, a well known maker of would do a poor job of shaping

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the complex features of the face Fuller reported in May 1934 that a Such an arrangement would not only piece. In either case, upon visiting couple of examples had finally been distribute the economic fruits of Stokes’s Welland plant in February, completed by Goodrich, and were to government contracts more broadly Morrison deemed the facility entirely be submitted to DND for inspection.25 around the country, but by virtue unsuited for large scale face piece In the meantime, impatient of geographic dispersal, would also manufacturing.23 military officials had contacted protect war production capacity Another year passed before the chief inspector of arms and against the threat of sabotage or Safety Supply once again explored ammunition (CIAA) at Dominion enemy attacks. It would also free the matter of face piece manufacture, Arsenals in Quebec to determine if the plant capacity in government facilities this time in conjunction with the B.F. Mark IV respirator face pieces could such as Dominion Arsenals. For the Goodrich Company of Kitchener, be manufactured in the DA workshops moment, however, manufacturing Ontario. In addition to the face piece, by government employees.26 Given experiments would be limited to the Morrison now also expressed an that Fuller had managed to deliver respirators and connecting tubes. interest in making the corrugated the Goodrich face pieces at the Due to some complexities in the rubber connecting tube that joined eleventh hour, Lieutenant-Colonel container construction, these would the face piece to the container (filter N.O. Carr (then serving as GSO I have to wait until a later date for element or canister). But again, since artillery), intervened, suggesting exploration.27 no hose molds existed in Canada, that individual components of the The prototype masks from it was left up to the manufacturer Mark IV respirator, such as the Goodrich were by no means free of to come up with a procedure that face pieces, should be produced by defects, but they were good enough to would meet specifications.24 As far private companies, only to undergo warrant continued cooperation from as the face pieces were concerned, final assembly at Dominion Arsenals. DND. To this end, Morrison provided

Five members of the Women’s Royal Canadian Naval Service (WRENS) sport what appear to be Mark IVA Special T Mic respirators. This variant of the Mark IV featured a capped aperture for fitting a microphone to the left cheek, as well as a lengthened connected tube, so that the mask could be worn with the haversack carried at the lower side or on the back. Such respirators were issued mainly to naval or air force personnel. Note that the women have stencilled their names on the haversack straps. CWM 19920141-014

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the Kitchener office with additional research and development. Major- batches of 100 and 1,000 pieces. At specifications pertaining to the face General A.G.L. McNaughton, in the same time, detailed arrangements piece, connecting tube, as well as the the post of chief of the general staff for final assembly operations at khaki stockinet material that was (CGS), agreed with Pearkes. The draft Dominion Arsenals should be made used to cover both components. The budget estimates for 1935-36 included with the CIAA.34 complexity of the manufacturing $15,000 for the domestic manufacture It is unclear if the director of process is evident in the fact that of respirators. Ultimately, $10,000 was contracts did in fact immediately about 100 engineering drawings approved for that fiscal year.31 approach the companies with were necessary to illustrate all of the The new funding stimulated pricing requests, but Morrison’s components for the face piece and development work at Goodrich in recommendation vis-à-vis Dominion hose. Further development work Kitchener, and also attracted the Arsenals was indeed pursued at Goodrich was delayed when interest of Gutta Percha & Rubber throughout the summer of 1936. Safety Supply misplaced some of Limited, a Toronto-based company. As late as August, however, the these drawings.28 Canadian military (Safety Supply seems by then to superintendant of Dominion Arsenals officials had little choice but to have fallen by the wayside as a reported that smaller components University of Waterloo Library. Record Photo 1944_135 Photo Record Library. of Waterloo University remain polite, since Safety Supply redundant middleman.) A technical and hardware required to complete and Goodrich were undertaking representative from Gutta Percha the face piece assembly (outlet valves, the development work at their own was confident that his outfit would be head harness components, eye pieces, expense. Without any government able to meet the rubber specifications; and the corrugated connecting tube) funding, there was minimal incentive he even suggested that recently could not be procured from any local for the companies to hurry along their developed synthetic materials might companies.35 Military authorities efforts to develop a product for which be used.32 Government inspection would have to cast a wider net there was, as of yet, no certain mass visits to the Goodrich and Gutta across the country to secure all of demand. Percha plants revealed each to the parts necessary for final assembly In face of limited Canadian be excellently equipped with the at the Dominion Arsenals plant. manufacturing capacity, the necessary machinery and laboratory Within a couple of months, Colonel government had two short term equipment. At present, these Carr, now director of mechanization options. The first was to purchase facilities were dedicated largely to and artillery (DMA), reported that masks from the British, as had been the production of rubber footwear, sources and price quotes for all of the usual practice since the Great but there was no technical reason the necessary face piece components War. The second was to make funding why they could not switch over to had been secured. All together, available for serious research and respirators, once the details of the at least eight different companies development in Canadian industry.29 rubber compounds and molding were required to supply everything Lieutenant-Colonel George Pearkes, techniques were worked out.33 required. It only remained for General then serving as a general staff officer Goodrich and Gutta Percha McNaughton (now president of for the director of military training continued with limited experiments the National Research Council) to and staff duties, estimated in 1934 that throughout the winter of 1935, but approve the rubber samples used in if somewhere between $10,000 and failed to achieve satisfactory results. face pieces and outlet valves.36 Testing $15,000 worth funding was provided Neither company, according to a key in this respect continued throughout during 1935-36, “the production of a April 1936 defence memorandum, the winter of 1936-37. In January Canadian respirator, less container, had quite mastered the molding 1937, initial limited orders for most will be an accomplished fact.”30 The or vulcanizing techniques. Major of the essential components had been catch was that the Canadian army Morrison, the artillery officer who placed (excepting filter containers, needed new masks immediately. had originally visited the Safety which remained to be developed). At the time there were only 1,449 Supply Company four years earlier, Major-General Clyde Caldwell, the serviceable masks in the country, recognized that unless the government master-general of ordnance (MGO), far too few to equip the Permanent offered the companies a true incentive anticipated that 1,000 masks would Force, let alone provide for anti-gas to invest more research time and be completed within four months. training in the Militia. Although effort in the respirator problem, it The War Office had promised to send somewhere between 700 and 2,500 was unlikely that a solution could be along specifications for the containers new masks were needed in the short found in the near future. Accordingly, so that these could also be sourced in run to make up for shortfalls, Pearkes Morrison suggested that the director Canada, but in the meantime, 3,550 recommended that purchases be of contracts approach both companies pieces were ordered from Britain.37 delayed if it meant saving funds for with pricing requests for masks by With the threat of war on the horizon,

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Above: J.L. Ilsley, minister of finance, visits the B.F. Goodrich Company in Kitchener, Ontario in April 1944. Right: Employees at the B.F. Goodrich plant put nails into Hitler’s coffin for this 1942 publicity photograph.

efforts to procure mass quantities Kitchener plant was inspected. Only secure the required quantities this of materiel now accelerated. Of 125 of these passed. Flaws included year.”43 Carr underscored the quality the $96,500 allocated for anti-gas defective eye sockets, porosity, control issues that slowed even the equipment during the 1937-38 fiscal and uneven rubber thickness. 40 completion of small batch orders for year, Colonel Carr recommended that Minor flaws continued to surface 1,000 masks. If domestic industry $52,500 be applied to the purchase of throughout 1937, although some of was to meet the rigorous inspection 25,000 containers from the War Office these related to smaller components standards that were required for and $44,000 to buy 6,000 complete and hardware items rather than the anti-gas equipment, it must have face pieces, including their canvas face piece itself.41 In particular, the the opportunity to fill larger volume haversacks, from Canadian sources.38 domestic glass industry experienced orders sooner rather than later. As Just three years short of war, some difficulty manufacturing eye Carr further explained: Canada approached self-sufficiency pieces of sufficient quality to meet in basic anti-gas equipment. There government specifications.42 Respirator production is, in were still, however, many wrinkles T e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s , many respects, a unique art. The to iron out at all stages in the supply unfortunately, were not the only preservation of the art against the chain, including rubber finishing barriers to a viable domestic day when large quantities might and container development. As of manufacturing program in 1937. be required at short notice is a early 1937, Goodrich remained the That June, the government stalled on problem which should receive every only Canadian company capable approval for a relatively large order of consideration… If production ceases, of manufacturing serviceable face 11,000 masks demanded by the CGS as is presently the case, there is great pieces; Gutta Percha, the Toronto- for the 1937-38 fiscal year. As DMA, risk of losing those skilled operators based rubber company, was still Colonel Carr warned in a scathing already trained.44 working to make the grade.39 Yet even memorandum that any further delays the Goodrich face pieces were not in the program would “seriously In other words, if Canadian perfect. In February 1937, an early embarrass all concerned, and will companies did not exercise their sampling of 340 face pieces from the almost certainly result in failure to present capabilities to manufacture

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A Canadian Mark V respirator; the facepiece on this example was made by the B.F. Goodrich Company, Kitchener, 1941. Note the molded boss on the cheek for fitting a microphone plug as required. The khaki stockinet normally used in earlier production has been eliminated entirely from the manufacture of the face piece and connecting tube in this case.

was withdrawn. Mass production including a Ste. Anne Street building would have to wait until 1938.46 formerly occupied by L’Action To a degree, the provision of catholique newspaper.47 Ultimately, funding was a moot point until none of these proved satisfactory, Major Morrison (working on behalf either because the buildings were of the DMA), and the CIAA secured not sufficiently modern, or the rent adequate shop space – at least 3,000 was deemed too high. Finally, in May square feet – for the final assembly 1938, the director of equipment and and inspection of the respirators by ordnance services (DEOS) secured government employees. authority to lease 3,800 square feet It was first planned on the fourth floor of a Rue Varennes to set up shop in building.48 Much of the assembly and the Dominion inspection work of finished product A r s e n a l s was to be carried out by young buildings female employees. At the outset of

19850392_055 (1) a t C o v e production, it was estimated that F i e l d s , the assembly and inspection of 1,000 Q u e b e c . respirators would require “700 girl These premises hours.”49 were presently With Hitler’s grip already o c c u p i e d b y tightening on Germany’s neighbours, ammunition filling Canada’s respirator production operations, but would program was only just kicking be vacated sometime into gear. Immediate respirator over the next year. The next requirements for 1938-39 were t h e best temporary option was to rent pegged at 11,000 for the Militia, 600 precision space somewhere in Quebec City. for the Royal Canadian Navy, and components required for respirators, A number of sites were considered, 4,505 for the Royal Canadian Air their employees would lose the hard won skills developed over long Table B – Canadian Respirator Component Manufacturers months of trial and error. When the Manufacturer Components Supplied matter was brought to the attention Coulter Copper & Brass Company, Toronto eye piece retaining rings, valve guards, fasteners of the deputy minister of defence, Gutta Percha & Rubber Company, Toronto face pieces, eye piece washers Léo La Flèche, he recommended that Dominion Steel & Coal Corp., Montreal binding wire enough respirators be ordered to fill St. Lawrence Steel & Wire Co., Gananoque harness buckles and loops immediate current manufacturing face pieces, connecting tubes, outlet valves, harness 45 B.F. Goodrich Rubber Company, Kitchener capacity. Now that Gutta Percha was pads capable of turning out serviceable Canadian Die Casters, Galt valve holders face pieces, it seemed possible that W.E. Phillips Company, Oshawa eye piece discs Canadian industry might complete Penmans Limited, Montreal khaki stockinette a maximum of between 10,000 and Dominion Rubber Company, Montreal eye piece washers, rubber tape 12,500 masks by the end of fiscal; Woods Manufacturing Co. Limited, Welland haversacks given the limited scale of testing Belding Corticelli, Montreal elastic harness webbing facilities available, the lower figure Russell Manufacturing Company elastic harness webbing was more realistic. Yet just when it Duplate Safety Glass Co. of Canada, Oshawa eye piece discs appeared that production was really about to get underway, the estimated Aluminum Company of Canada, Montreal valve holders $32,000 required to complete the order Byers Company Limited, Toronto harness buckles and loops

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Force.50 By mid-1938, production program. The paper’s editor believed, for all three services.58 Changing finally began to move forward, with mistakenly, that the respirators were circumstances soon dictated that more than a dozen outfits providing being manufactured somewhere in this quantity be increased by a components for the finished product Toronto, and he wanted details and considerable margin. (Table B).51 Notably, the British War photographs. Gutta Percha’s general Office had by then taken a favourable manager, F.A. Warren, evaded view of the Canadian-manufactured repeated information requests, before Containers face pieces.52 writing to La Flèche in desperation. Throughout 1938-39, the number Perhaps, Warren suggested, it he last remaining obstacle to of contractors involved with respirator would be better to issue a guarded TCanadian self-sufficiency was production increased, while some statement to the press rather than the Type E container which served existing contractors began work on fend off repeated inquiries.56 as the filter for the Mark IV system. additional items. For example, when relented, and Colonel Carr drew up It appears that Canadians did not it was anticipated that new machine a release the next day. In essence, embark upon detailed investigation of press moulds were to arrive from it underscored the challenges of the domestic manufacture of the Type Britain for the manufacture of the coordinating Canadian industry to E-series containers until 1938‑39.59 Mark V respirator, DND officials meet the precision manufacturing planned to let contracts for face pieces requirements for respirators. Carr to the Dominion Rubber Company.53 also noted that the Canadian Mark As well, several other companies IV measured up well against the won contracts for accessories such British version (which had already as the haversacks; these included: been in production for many years), S.S. Holden Limited (Ottawa) and for approximately the same cost.57 J.E. Lortie (Montreal). Ultimately, With the production program well project officers at DND preferred that underway by early 1939, requirements more rather than fewer companies be for the 1939-40 fiscal year were involved in production. As Colonel projected at 11,600 respirators Carr noted in April 1939, contracts should be “spread over as many firms as practicable in order to obtain as many potential sources of supply as possible in the event of an emergency programme having to be put into operation.”54 Given the contemporary sensational media reporting on gas warfare, it is not surprising that the press began to take a special interest in Canadian preparations. When The Toronto Star Weekly

first requested photographs of the collection Storey W.E. Canadian respirators and production facilities in late 1937, the paper was put off by defence officials. This had less to do with secrecy than the fact that no production facilities yet existed; any report on Canada’s homegrown respirator industry would have been entirely underwhelming. 55 Undeterred, An illustration from a 1939 training the Star Weekly approached Gutta manual shows the new Mark V respirator with its haversack. Percha, one of the Toronto-based manufacturers involved with the

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small green dot was painted on the A Type E “green dot” container top of the container.62 Late in the designed to offer improved protection against and war, Lieutenant-Colonel E.A. Flood, . The dime-sized the superintendent of Canada’s green dot is clearly visible on the Chemical Warfare Laboratories, top right side, partly over top of the doubted that the current threat was “GSW” stamping. GSW stands for severe enough to warrant wholesale General Steel Wares, a Canadian company that manufactured pyridine treatment. Given that the a variety of metal products 70,000 green dot containers held in for Canada’s military forces, reserve for the Canadian Army were especially ammunition boxes, no longer required (because of the steel helmets, and canisters general issue of the light respirator for respirator containers. This particular canister was made to the Canadian Army Overseas after at GSW’s MacDonald Plant in 1943), these were made available to W.E. Storey collection Storey W.E. Toronto. the RCAF. Meanwhile, the Canadian Army retained a reserve of 100,000 shop in Quebec.60 (See Table C Mark II green dot containers for the for details on containers.) light respirator.63 Late in the war, chemical warfare experts determined that the conventional Type E filter Conclusion did not afford sufficient protection C o m p a r e d against certain agents. One of these, n the eve of war Canada’s with the face cyanogen chloride (known as CK or Odomestic manufacturing piece development, however, CNCl) was an especially toxic blood capacity was firmly grounded in the containers were relatively agent. Another was prussic acid (AC the chemical warfare sector. The straightforward, given that there or HCN), more properly known as Canadian government felt secure were only four principal components hydrogen cyanide, and now infamous enough with this knowledge to required: the canister, filling for its widespread use in Nazi death refuse offers to purchase British- materials, compression springs, and camps. Although Allied intelligence made respirators in the dark summer inlet valve. On the eve of war, three of reports doubted that the Germans of 1939.64 On the contrary, Canada these four components were already were apt to use CK “in any wholesale would soon be in a position to being manufactured in Canada. manner in the immediate future,” export chemical warfare equipment Ontario Metal Specialties (Bronte, chemical warfare experts felt that to friendly countries, some of which Ontario) was the first company RAF and RCAF personnel who, after had already made enquiries.65 By the to produce the canister, although 1943, were still equipped with the summer of 1940, Colonel Morrison, General Steel Wares later produced Mark IV and V series respirators (as still working for the DMA, was very large quantities. Steele Brothers opposed to the new light respirator) striving for an output rate of 6,000 (Guelph) turned out the springs, might need extra protection.61 One respirators per week. To help meet while Seiberling Rubber Company option was to treat ordinary Type this demand, companies like B.F. (Toronto) handled the inlet valves. E containers with a solvent called Goodrich were turning out face The filling materials, which were pyridine. Another option was to pieces 24 hours a day.66 By early 1941, responsible for neutralizing any war retrofit Mark IV and V respirators Canada had produced in excess of gases inhaled through the container, with the Type E “green dot” high 250,000 respirators (excluding naval were still imported from Britain at performance container, a new variant and air force contracts), and was now this time, at least in part because the that offered better protection than the in a position to export surplus output formula was a strictly guarded War old Type E, and so called because a to allies.67 Taking the Type E container Office secret. The containers were assembled and filled at the National Table C – Container Variants Research Council Annex, at the Type Colour Purpose corner of Sussex and John Streets Type A dull blue For training only in Ottawa, apparently due to space Type E Marks I, II, II, IV brown / red oxide For operational use in Canada only limitations at the respirator assembly For operational use overseas, included an Type E Mark V brown / red oxide improved inlet valve

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as an example, Canada had turned and other protective equipment, 8. Refer to “Chemical Warfare Facepieces, Production Generally,” LAC RG 24 vol.81 out more than 600,000 pieces by the but it had been a close call. As late HQ 1173-4-2 (vol.2). end of 1941, of which 175,000 were as Christmas 1939, it appears that 9. See Memorandum by Morrison, 19 supplied to South African troops and there were not enough respirators to September 1939, LAC RG 24 vol.5920 HQ 68 56-23 (vol.9). nearly 60,000 to New Zealanders. go around to all Canadian soldiers 10. MGO to CMHQ London, 16 February This great production capacity was stationed in Britain.71 As with other 1940, HQ 56-23 (vol.13), LAC RG 24 the glad consequence of several years war supplies, this state of affairs vol.5921; CMHQ London to NDHQ, 19 April 1940, HQ 56-23 (vol.14), LAC RG of challenging developmental work gradually changed for the better 24 vol.5921. undertaken by Canadian industries over the next year. Canada not only 11. Morrison to War Supply Board, 5 and a small group of army officers. produced enough equipment for December 1939, LAC RG 24 HQ 56-23 (vol.13). Besides respirators, there were many its own forces, but was also able to 12. According to the RCAF order, only other items in Canadian service supply other Allied nations with anti- personnel in the following trades that followed similarly complex gas components. This manufacturing would require the extended connecting tubes: armourers (bombs and guns), development paths from the drawing program represented only one flight mechanics (airframe and engine), board to the shop floor to the soldier’s small component of Canada’s larger mechanical transport mechanics, all kit. military output. It also underscored wireless and telephone operators, teleprinter operators, armament At the outset of the Second World the reality, all too often overlooked assistants, torpedo technicians, all aircrew War, Allied intelligence estimates in macro-level study of military personnel, medical personnel, and balloon operators and riggers. About 43,300 suggested that if German forces logistics and the Second World War personnel acted in these trades in Canada did resort to gas, they were likely Materialschlacht, that the ability to at the time. As such, approximately to employ tactics similar to those of produce sophisticated equipment 99,000 respirators with the shorter tubes would be required for use by personnel the 1918 spring counteroffensives. does not simply exist in nature, but in other trades. The order apparently did This meant that persistent agents, more often than not, is the result not apply to RCAF personnel overseas. such as Yellow Cross, would be of years of frustrating trial, error, See Memorandum, RCAF Respirator Requirement, 25 February 1943, 5 March used to neutralize strong points, negotiation, and false starts. 1943, 8 March 1943, 452-7-4, LAC RG 24 create physical barriers, or simply vol.5432, Series E-1-b. immobilize basic defences. As the 13. For drill and training details on the light respirator, see Gas Training (War Office, British braced for what seemed a Notes 1951), pp.12-20. likely German invasion of the home 14. See Cook, pp.222-25 on the early postwar islands in 1940, it was anticipated years in Canada. The author wishes to thank Robert 15. George Witten, “Humanizing War,” that aircraft would serve as the McIntosh, University of Ottawa, for his 22 December 1926, 529-30, periodical primary mode of delivery.69 British research assistance for this article. clipping found in GAQ 9-37. Details of assumptions regarding the potential 1. “Murderous Gases – War Office Appeal,” Witten’s Canadian military service can be April 1915, GAQ 9-37, Library and traced only up to January 1915, when he tactical employment of gas by German Archives Canada (LAC) RG 24 Vol.1837. was discharged from the CEF in order to forces were essentially rational, given 2. Tim Cook, No Place to Run: The Canadian accept a commission in the British Army. See George Witten, Vol.10514-57, RG 150, the information available at the time Corps and Gas Warfare in the First World War (: University of British LAC. and the experience of the First World Columbia Press, 1999), p.42. Cook 16. Augusting M. Prentiss, Chemicals in War: War. What if there had been such an provides detailed discussion of the A Treatise on Chemical Warfare (New York: physiological implications of these McGraw-Hill, 1937), vii-viii. attack? Speaking to the Canadian hood-type respirators. For illustrations, 17. “Scientist Debunks Poison Gas Fiction,” Institute of Chemistry at Hamilton, see Simon Jones, Gas Warfare The Ottawa Journal, 30 December 1935. Ontario in June 1942, Lieutenant- Tactics and Equipment (Oxford: Osprey, 18. This applied not only to anti-gas 2007). equipment, but to other types of materiel, Colonel Flood, the superintendent 3. “Gas Protection,” GAQ 9-37. including wheeled transport vehicles, of Canada’s Chemical Warfare 4. “Memorandum, German Respirators, which had been undergoing trials since Laboratories, noted that well trained 1917,” GAQ 9-37. the 1920s. 5. On the Sportsmen’s Battalion, see Michael 19. The War Office did not specify or possess soldiers equipped with anti-gas Foley, Hard as Nails: The Sportsmen’s the formula. It was up to the rubber respirators and protective clothing Battalion of World War One (Stroud: company to devise a formula that met would be more or less invulnerable to Spellmount, 2007). government specifications. Once these 6. “Gas-Mask Inventor,” The Daily Mail, were satisfied, the manufacturer retained gas tactics. Indeed, it would probably 28 October 1921. See also “Treasures ownership of the formula. Of course, be easier to prevent casualties by gas of the Royal Pharmaceutical Society’s the Canadian government did have the than by shot or shell.70 Collections,” The Pharmaceutical Journal, option of purchasing respirators directly 278, no.28 (April 2007), p.508. from British manufacturers, but this At the time of Flood’s speech 7. Sadd’s patent claims appear on drawings would defeat the purpose of developing before the Institute of Chemistry, dating from 1942-43. See “Chemical a domestic capability. See Morrison to NDHQ, 4 October 1934, HQ 56-23 (vol.1), Canadian soldiers were indeed well Warfare Facepieces, Production Generally,” LAC RG 24 vol.81 HQ 173-4- LAC RG 24 vol.5918. kitted out with anti-gas respirators 2 (vol.2).

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20. Thomas Bata to Department of Munitions 37. Memorandum to La Flèche, 18 January It is not yet clear when these were first and Supply, 9 January 1942, 1173-4-2 1937, HQ 56-23 (vol.3). manufactured in Canada. See La Flèche (vol.1), LAC RG 24 vol.81. 38. Memorandum to Director of Equipment to Gutta Percha, 14 June 1938, HQ 56-23 21. Morrison report, 21 June 1932; Morrison and Ordnance Services, 20 January 1937, (vol.6). to N.O. Carr, 24 July 1932, HQ 56-23 HQ 56-23 (vol.3). 58. Bode to CIAA, 19 April 1939, HQ 56-23 (vol.1). 39. Carr to Master General of Ordnance, 20 (vol.8), LAC RG 24 vol.5920. 22. It appears that hand molding continued April 1937, HQ 56-23 (vol.3). 59. NRC to Director of Contracts, 15 in Canada throughout production of 40. M e morandum to Director of December 1938, HQ 56-23 (vol.7). the Mark IV. The new Mark V, however, Mechanization and Artillery, 25 February 60. S u ppliers of Components for was probably manufactured entirely 1937, HQ 56-23 (vol.3). Canadian-Made Respirators, July 1939; on machine press molds, which were 41. See, for example, Morrison to Director Memorandum, Director of Contracts, probably received from Britain sometime of Mechanization and Artillery, 17 10 July 1939, HQ 56-23 (vol.8); CIAA to in 1939. See Memorandum, Carr to DEOS, November 1937, HQ 56-23 (vol.5), DND, 31 May 1938, HQ 56-23 (vol.11), 18 December 1936, File 56-23 (vol.4), LAC RG 24 vol.5919. This file goes into LAC RG 24 vol.5920. LAC RG 24 vol.5919, and Director of considerable detail on all of the various 61. An RCAF order of March 1943 shows that Contracts to Dominion Rubber Company, technical deficiencies. only RCAF personnel serving in Canada 30 November 1938, File 56-23 (vol.7), LAC 42. Memorandum by Morrison, 5 June 1937, were to be equipped with the light RG 24 vol.5920. HQ 56-23 (vol.5). respirator. Those proceeding overseas 23. “Visit to the Stokes Rubber Company,” 43. Carr to Master General of Ordnance, 23 were issued the older Mark IV or V types. February 1933, HQ 56-23 (vol.1). June 1937, HQ 56-23 (vol.5). Perhaps this was a measure to maintain 24. Carr to Morrison, 22 March 1934, HQ 56- 44. Ibid. the newer type of mask under Canadian 23 (vol.1). 45. Memorandum to Director of Engineering inventory control as much as possible. 25. Fuller to La Flèche, 23 May 1934, HQ 56-23 and Ordnance Services, 17 July 1937, HQ See Memorandum, RCAF Respirator (vol.1). 56-23 (vol.5). It appears that production of Requirements, 13 March 1945, 452-7-4, 26. Dewar to CIAA, 11 January 1934, HQ Mk II elongated naval pattern connecting LAC RG 24 vol.5432. 56-23 (vol.1). tubes also began at this time, with an 62. Memorandum, Pyradine Treatment of 27. Memorandum, Carr to CGS, 24 October initial quantity of about 500. Type E Containers, 20 January 1945, 452- 1934, HQ 56-23 (vol.1). 46. Pricing of components for Mark IV and 7-4. 28. Morrison to NDHQ, 4 October 1934; IVa respirators; Morrison to DEOS, 20 July 63. Flood to Director of Chemical Warfare Memorandum, Inspector Artillery Stores, 1937; DEOS to Carr, 23 August 1937, HQ and Smoke, 5 February 1945;Containers, 2 October 1934; Safety Supply Company 56-23 (vol.5). Type E, Mark VI, Green Dot, Status of to DND, 3 December 1934, HQ 56-23 47. Cayouette to Department of Public Works, Supply, 4 May 1945, 452-7-4. (vol.1). 30 December 1937, HQ 56-23 (vol.6), LAC 64. Toronto Board of Trade to Ian Mackenzie, 3 29. It is unclear if the Canadians considered RG 24 vol.5919. July 1939, HQ 56-23 (vol.8); Memorandum buying licenses directly from British 48. DEOS to CIAA, 5 May 1938, HQ 56-23 from Morrison, 13 September 1939, HQ manufacturers. Yet even if the rubber (vol.6). 56-23 (vol.10), LAC RG 24 vol.5920. recipes could have been purchased, 49. Morrison to DEOS, 6 March 1937, HQ 65. New Zealand was among the first, in Canadian plants still lacked the skilled 56-23 (vol.7). February 1939. See Wilgress to LaFlèche, workers to mould the masks. As later 50. Carr Memorandum, 7 May 1938, HQ 56- 27 February 1939, HQ 56-23 (vol.10). development work would prove, 23 (vol.6). 66. Morrison Memorandum, 17 July 1940; Canadian industry was also ill equipped 51. List of Canadian Manufacturers of Stafford to Department of Munitions and to provide smaller components for the Components, HQ 56-23 (vol.6); Suppliers Supply, 12 June 1940, HQ 56-23 (vol.15), respirators, such as the glass eye pieces. of Components for Canadian-Made LAC RG 24 vol.5921. 30. Pearkes to CGS, Memorandum on Respirators, July 1939, HQ 56-23 (vol.8). 67. Morrison Memorandum, 3 March 1941, respirators, HQ 56-23 (vol.1). On Pearkes’s 52. High Commissioner to La Flèche, 10 June HQ 56-23 (vol.16), LAC RG 24 vol.5921. role with the in training and staff duties, 1938, HQ 56-23 (vol.6). 68. Inspection Report: Respirator Anti-Gas see Reginald H. Roy, For Most Conspicuous 53. Dominion Rubber Company ended up Containers, 6 December 1941, HQ 56-29-1 Bravery (Vancouver: University of British manufacturing Mark IV face pieces before (vol.1), LAC RG 24 vol.5922. Columbia Press, 1977), pp.115-34. the Mark V molds were available. See 69. “C.W. Counter Measures Against 31. Pearkes to CGS, 4 December 1934; Carr Minister of National Defence to Governor Invasion,” GAQ 9-37. to CGS, 11 April 1935, HQ 56-23 (vol.1). General in Council, 9 June 1939, HQ 70. ‘Defence Against Gas,’ Lieutenant- 32. Morrison to GSO (1) Artillery, 14 March 56-23 (vol.9). It also seems that Dunlop Colonel E.A. Flood, 1 June 1942, HQ 1934, HQ 56-23 (vol.1). The Americans Rubber Company and Kaufman Rubber 1173-1-8, LAC RG 24 vol.81. were developing synthetic rubber that Company manufactured face pieces and 71. DesRosieres to War Supply Board, 18 was gas and oil resistant, and there is connecting tubes after the war broke out. December 1939, HQ 56-23 (vol.13). evidence that the Soviets were doing the See MGO to Director of Contracts, HQ same. 56-23 (vol.9), Vol.5920; Kaufman Rubber 33. Morrison tour report, 13 May 1935, HQ Company to DND, 12 September 1939, Andrew Iarocci is completing a two-year 56-23 (vol.1). HQ 56-23 (vol.12), LAC RG 24 vol.5921. research fellowship at the Canadian War 34. M e morandum to Director of 54. Carr to Director of Contracts, 27 April Museum, Ottawa, where he has also Mechanization and Artillery, 21 April 1939, HQ 56-23 (vol.9). served as Collections Manager for the 1936, HQ 56-23 (vol.2), LAC RG 24 55. Thompson to La Flèche, 14 January 1938; Museum’s Transportation and Artillery vol.5918. Caldwell to La Flèche, 26 January 1938, Collection. His recent book, Shoestring 35. Dominion Arsenal to DND, 13 August HQ 56-23 (vol.5). Soldiers (University of Toronto Press, 1936, HQ 56-23 (vol.2). 56. Warren to La Flèche, 18 March 1938, HQ 2008) reappraises Canadian operations 36. Table of Components for Face Piece No. 56-23 (vol.6). in 1915. He is currently preparing a new 4 for Immediate Order from the Trade 57. Press Release, 19 March 1938, HQ 56- book on Canadian military transport in Canada, October 1936; La Flèche to 23 (vol.6). It is worth noting that as of and logistics during the First World War, McNaughton, 15 August 1936, HQ 56-23 mid 1938, DND had no involvement in and writes more broadly on the material (vol.3), LAC RG 24 vol.5918. the production of civilian respirators. culture of the Canadian Forces during the twentieth century.

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