1 Name Not Speak with Assurance Or Eloquence,[8] So God Allowed Aaron, His Brother, to Become His Spokesperson

For other uses, see Moses (disambiguation). based themselves at Mount Sinai, where Moses received the Ten Commandments. After 40 years of wandering in the desert, Moses died within sight of the Promised Land. Modern Moshe , ֹמ ׁשֶה :Moses (/ˈmoʊzɪz, -zɪs/;[1] Hebrew Tiberian Mōšéh ISO 259-3 Moše; Syriac: Moushe; Rabbinical Judaism calculated a lifespan of Moses cor- [9] Arabic: ၊ᄠ७ऄ Mūsā; Greek: Mωϋσῆς Mōÿsēs in both responding to 1391–1271 (120 years) BCE; Jerome the Septuagint and the New Testament) is a prophet in gives 1592 BCE,[10] and Ussher 1571 BCE as his birth Abrahamic religions. According to the Hebrew Bible, he year.[11][lower-alpha 1] was a former Egyptian prince who later in life became a religious leader and lawgiver, to whom the authorship of the Torah is traditionally attributed. Also called Moshe ,(”lit. “Moses our Teacher , ֹמ ׁשֶה ֵּרַבנוּ) Rabbenu in Hebrew he is the most important prophet in Judaism.[2][3] He is also an important prophet in Christianity, Islam, Baha'ism as well as a number of other faiths. The existence of Moses, as well as the veracity of the Exodus story, is disputed among archaeologists and Egyptologists, with experts in the field of biblical criticism citing logical inconsistencies, new archaeological evidence, historical evidence, and related origin myths in Canaanite culture.[4][5][6] Other historians maintain that the biographical details and Egyptian background attributed to Moses imply the existence of a historical political and religious leader who was involved in the consol- idation of the Hebrew tribes in Canaan towards the end of the Bronze Age. According to the Book of Exodus, Moses was born in a time when his people, the Israelites, an enslaved mi- nority, were increasing in numbers and the Egyptian Pharaoh was worried that they might ally with Egypt’s enemies.[7] Moses’ Hebrew mother, Jochebed, secretly hid him when the Pharaoh ordered all newborn Hebrew boys to be killed in order to reduce the population of the Israelites. Through the Pharaoh’s daughter (identified as Queen Bithia in the Midrash), the child was adopted as a foundling from the Nile river and grew up with the Egyptian royal family. After killing an Egyptian slavemaster (because the slavemaster was smiting a Hebrew), Moses fled across the Red Sea to Midian, where he en- countered the God of Israel speaking to him from within a "burning bush which was not consumed by the fire” Moses and the tablets of law, by Jusepe de Ribera. on Mount Horeb (which he regarded as the Mountain of God). God sent Moses back to Egypt to demand the release of the Israelites from slavery. Moses said that he could 1 Name not speak with assurance or eloquence,[8] so God allowed Aaron, his brother, to become his spokesperson. After Moses’ name was given to him by Pharaoh’s daugh- the Ten Plagues, Moses led the Exodus of the Israelites ter: “He became her son, and she named him Moshe out of Egypt and across the Red Sea, after which they (Moses)".[14] This name may be either Egyptian or He- brew. If connected to an Egyptian root, via msy “to be

1 2 2 BIBLICAL NARRATIVE

born” and ms, “a son”, it forms a wordplay: “he became her son, and she named him Son.” There should, however, be a divine element to the name Moses (bearers of the Egyptian name are the “son of” a god, as in Thutmose, “son of Thoth”), and his full name may therefore have included the name of one of the Egyptian gods. Most scholars agree that the name is Egyptian, and that the He- brew etymology is a later interpretation, but if the name is from a Hebrew root then it is connected to the verb “to draw out": “I drew him (masha) out of the water,” states Pharaoh’s daughter, possibly looking forward to Moses at the well in Midian, or to his role in saving Israel at the Red Sea.[15]

2 Biblical narrative

Moses before the Pharaoh, a 6th-century miniature from the Syriac Bible of Paris

Moses rescued from the Nile, 1638, by Nicolas Poussin

2.1 Prophet and deliverer of Israel

The Israelites had settled in the Land of Goshen in the time of Joseph and Jacob, but a new pharaoh arose who oppressed the children of Israel. At this time Moses was born to his father Amram, son of Kohath the Levite, who entered Egypt with Jacob’s household; his mother was Jochebed (also Yocheved), who was kin to Kohath. Moses had one older (by seven years) sister, Miriam, and [lower-alpha 2] one older (by three years) brother, Aaron. Moses strikes water from the stone, by Francesco Bacchiacca Pharaoh had commanded that all male Hebrew children born be drowned in the river Nile, but Moses’ mother placed him in an ark and concealed the ark in the bul- There, on Mount Horeb, God revealed to Moses his rushes by the riverbank, where the baby was discovered name YHWH (probably pronounced Yahweh) and com- and adopted by Pharaoh’s daughter. One day after Moses manded him to return to Egypt and bring his Chosen Peo- had reached adulthood he killed an Egyptian who was ple (Israel) out of bondage and into the Promised Land beating a Hebrew. Moses, in order to escape Pharaoh’s (Canaan).[17] Moses returned to carry out God’s com- death penalty, ﬂed to Midian (a desert country south of mand, but God caused Pharaoh to refuse, and only after Judah). God had subjected Egypt to ten plagues did Pharaoh re- 2.2 Lawgiver of Israel 3

tered into a covenant, by which Israel would become the people of YHWH, obeying his laws, and YHWH would be their god. Moses delivered laws of God to Israel, in- stituted the priesthood under the sons of Moses’ brother Aaron, and destroyed those Israelites who fell away from his worship. In his ﬁnal act at Sinai, God gave Moses in- structions for the Tabernacle, the mobile shrine by which he would travel with Israel to the Promised Land. From Sinai, Moses led the Israelites to the Desert of Paran on the border of Canaan. From there he sent twelve spies into the land. The spies returned with samples of the land’s fertility, but warned that its inhabitants were giants. The people were afraid and wanted to return to Egypt, and some rebelled against Moses and against God. Moses told the Israelites that they were not worthy to inherit the land, and would wander the wilderness for forty years until the generation who had refused to enter Canaan had died, so that it would be their children who would possess the land. When the forty years had passed, Moses led the Israelites east around the Dead Sea to the territories of Edom and Moab. There they escaped the temptation of idolatry, received God’s blessing through Balaam the prophet, and massacred the Midianites, who by the end of the Exodus journey had become the enemies of the Israelites. Moses was twice given notice that he would die before entry to Moses holding up his arms during the battle, assisted by Aaron the Promised Land: in Numbers 27:13, once he had seen and Hur; painting by John Everett Millais the Promised Land from a viewpoint on Mount Abarim, and again in Numbers 31:1 once battle with the Midian- ites had been won. On the banks of the Jordan, in sight of the land, Moses assembled the tribes. After recalling their wanderings he delivered God’s laws by which they must live in the land, sang a song of praise and pronounced a blessing on the people, and passed his authority to Joshua, under whom they would possess the land. Moses then went up Mount Nebo to the top of Pisgah, looked over the promised land of Israel spread out before him, and died, at the age of one hundred and twenty. More humble than any other man (Num. 12:3), “there hath not arisen a prophet since Moses surveys Canaan from West of the Jordan, 1909 illustration in Israel like unto Moses, whom YHWH knew face to face” (Deuteronomy 34:10). The New Testament states that after Moses’ death, Michael the Archangel and the lent. Moses led the Israelites to the border of Egypt, but devil disputed over his body (Jude 1:9). there God hardened Pharaoh’s heart once more, so that he could destroy Pharaoh and his army at the Red Sea Crossing as a sign of his power to Israel and the nations. 2.2 Lawgiver of Israel From Egypt, Moses led the Israelites to Mount Sinai, where he was given ten commandments from God, writ- Further information: Law of Moses, Mosaic authorship, ten on stone tablets. However, since Moses remained a Deuteronomist, Book of Deuteronomy § Deuteronomic long time on the mountain, some of the people feared that code and 613 Mitzvot he might be dead, so they made a golden statue of a calf Moses is honoured among Jews today as the “lawgiver of and worshipped it, thus disobeying and angering God and Israel”, and he delivers several sets of laws in the course Moses. Moses, out of anger, broke the tablets, and later of the four books. The ﬁrst is the Covenant code, Ex- ordered the elimination of those who had worshipped the odus 19–24, the terms of the covenant which God of- golden statue, which was melted down and fed to the idol- fers to Israel at the foot of Sinai. Embedded in the aters. He also wrote the ten commandments on a new set covenant are the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments, of tablets. Later at Mount Sinai, Moses and the elders en- Exodus 20:1–17) and the Book of the Covenant (Exo- 4 2 BIBLICAL NARRATIVE

A Russian Orthodox icon of the prophet Moses, gesturing towards the burning bush; 18th-century (Iconostasis of Transﬁguration Church, Kizhi Monastery, Karelia, Russia)

William Blake's “Moses Receiving the Law”

Moses lifts up the brass serpent, curing the Israelites from poi- sonous snake bites in a painting by Benjamin West

Death of Moses by Alexandre Cabanel dus 20:22–23:19).[18] The entire Book of Leviticus con- stitutes a second body of law, the Book of Numbers be- gins with yet another set, and the Book of Deuteronomy Moses has traditionally been regarded as the author of another. those four books and the Book of Genesis, which together 4.1 In Hecataeus 5 comprise the Torah, the first and most revered section of The figure of Osarseph in Hellenistic historiography is the Jewish Bible. a renegade Egyptian priest who leads an army of lepers against the pharaoh and is finally expelled from Egypt, changing his name to Moses. 3 Sources 4.1 In Hecataeus Apart from a few scattered references elsewhere in the Jewish scriptures, all that is known about Moses comes The earliest existing reference to Moses in Greek litera- from the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and ture occurs in the Egyptian history of Hecataeus of Ab- [19] Deuteronomy. The majority of scholars date these dera (4th century BCE). All that remains of his descrip- [20] four books to the Persian period, 538–332 BCE. tion of Moses are two references made by Diodorus Sicu- No Egyptian sources mention Moses or the events of lus, wherein, writes historian Arthur Droge, “he describes Exodus-Deuteronomy, nor has any archeological evi- Moses as a wise and courageous leader who left Egypt dence been discovered in Egypt or the Sinai wilderness and colonized Judaea.”[25] Among the many accomplish- to support the story in which he is the central figure.[21] ments described by Hecataeus, Moses had founded cities, established a temple and religious cult, and issued laws:

4 Moses in Hellenistic literature After the establishment of settled life in Egypt in early times, which took place, accord- Further information: Moses in Judeo-Hellenistic litera- ing to the mythical account, in the period of ture the gods and heroes, the ﬁrst... to persuade Non-biblical writings about Jews, with references to the multitudes to use written laws was Mneves [Moses], a man not only great of soul but also in his life the most public-spirited of all lawgivers whose names are recorded.[26]

Droge also points out that this statement by Hecataeus was similar to statements made subsequently by Eupolemus.[26]

4.2 In Artapanus

The Jewish historian Artapanus of Alexandria (2nd century BCE), portrayed Moses as a cultural hero, alien to the Pharaonic court. According to theologian John Barclay, the Moses of Artapanus “clearly bears the destiny of the The Moses Window at the Washington National Cathedral de- Jews, and in his personal, cultural and military splendor, picts the three stages in Moses’ life. brings credit to the whole Jewish people.”[27] the role of Moses, first appear at the beginning of the Jealousy of Moses’ excellent qualities in- Hellenistic period, from 323 BCE to about 146 BCE. duced Chenephres to send him with unskilled Shmuel notes that “a characteristic of this literature is troops on a military expedition to Ethiopia, the high honour in which it holds the peoples of the where he won great victories. After having East in general and some specific groups among these [22] built the city of Hermopolis, he taught the peoples.” people the value of the ibis as a protection In addition to the Judeo-Roman or Judeo-Hellenic his- against the serpents, making the bird the sa- torians Artapanus, Eupolemus, Josephus, and Philo, a cred guardian spirit of the city; then he in- few non-Jewish historians including Hecataeus of Ab- troduced circumcision. After his return to dera (quoted by Diodorus Siculus), Alexander Polyhis- Memphis, Moses taught the people the value tor, Manetho, Apion, Chaeremon of Alexandria, Tacitus of oxen for agriculture, and the consecration of and Porphyry also make reference to him. The extent the same by Moses gave rise to the cult of Apis. to which any of these accounts rely on earlier sources is Finally, after having escaped another plot by unknown.[23] Moses also appears in other religious texts killing the assailant sent by the king, Moses fled such as the Mishnah (c. 200 CE), Midrash (200–1200 to Arabia, where he married the daughter of CE),[24] and the Qur'an (c. 610–53). Raguel [Jethro], the ruler of the district.[28] 6 4 MOSES IN HELLENISTIC LITERATURE

Artapanus goes on to relate how Moses returns to Egypt religion as monotheism and as a pronounced counter- with Aaron, and is imprisoned, but miraculously escapes religion.” It recognized “only one divine being whom no through the name of YHWH in order to lead the Exodus. image can represent... [and] the only way to approach this This account further testifies that all Egyptian temples of god is to live in virtue and in justice.”[34] Isis thereafter contained a rod, in remembrance of that used for Moses’ miracles. He describes Moses as 80 years old, “tall and ruddy, with long white hair, and dignified.” 4.4 In Tacitus Some historians, however, point out the “apologetic nature of much of Artapanus’ work,”[29] with his addition extra-biblical details, as with references to Jethro: the The Roman historian Tacitus (c. 56–120 CE) refers to non-Jewish Jethro expresses admiration for Moses’ gal- Moses by noting that the Jewish religion was monothe- lantry in helping his daughters, and chooses to adopt istic and without a clear image. His primary work, Moses as his son.[30] wherein he describes Jewish philosophy, is his Histories (c. 100), where, according to Murphy, as a result of the Jewish worship of one God, "pagan mythology fell into 4.3 In Strabo contempt.”[35] Tacitus states that, despite various opin- ions current in his day regarding the Jews’ ethnicity, most Strabo, a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher, in of his sources are in agreement that there was an Exodus his Geography (c. 24 CE), wrote in detail about Moses, from Egypt. By his account, the Pharaoh Bocchoris, suf- whom he considered to be an Egyptian who deplored the fering from a plague, banished the Jews in response to an situation in his homeland, and thereby attracted many fol- oracle of the god Zeus-Amun. lowers who respected the deity. He writes, for example, that Moses opposed the picturing of the deity in the form of man or animal, and was convinced that the deity was an A motley crowd was thus collected and entity which encompassed everything – land and sea:[31] abandoned in the desert. While all the other outcasts lay idly lamenting, one of them, 35. An Egyptian priest named Moses, who named Moses, advised them not to look for possessed a portion of the country called the help to gods or men, since both had deserted Lower Egypt, being dissatisfied with the es- them, but to trust rather in themselves, and ac- tablished institutions there, left it and came to cept as divine the guidance of the first being, by Judaea with a large body of people who wor- whose aid they should get out of their present shipped the Divinity. He declared and taught plight.[36] that the Egyptians and Africans entertained er- roneous sentiments, in representing the Divin- ity under the likeness of wild beasts and cattle In this version, Moses and the Jews wander through the of the field; that the Greeks also were in error desert for only six days, capturing the Holy Land on the in making images of their gods after the human seventh.[36] form. For God [said he] may be this one thing which encompasses us all, land and sea, which we call heaven, or the universe, or the nature of things.... 4.5 In Longinus 36. By such doctrine Moses persuaded a large body of right-minded persons to accom- The Septuagint, the Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, pany him to the place where Jerusalem now influenced Longinus, who may have been the author of stands....[32] the great book of literary criticism, On the Sublime, al- though the true author is still unknown for certain. How- In Strabo’s writings of the history of Judaism as he under- ever, most scholars agree that the author lived in the time stood it, he describes various stages in its development: of Augustus or Tiberius, the first and second Roman Em- from the first stage, including Moses and his direct heirs; perors. to the final stage where “the Temple of Jerusalem con- The writer quotes Genesis in a “style which presents tinued to be surrounded by an aura of sanctity.” Strabo’s the nature of the deity in a manner suitable to his pure “positive and unequivocal appreciation of Moses’ per- and great being,” however he does not mention Moses sonality is among the most sympathetic in all ancient [33] by name, but instead calls him “the Lawgiver of the literature.” His portrayal of Moses is said to be sim- Jews.” Besides its mention of Cicero, Moses is the only ilar to the writing of Hecataeus who “described Moses as [33] non-Greek writer quoted in the work, and he is de- a man who excelled in wisdom and courage.” scribed “with far more admiration than even Greek writ- Egyptologist Jan Assmann concludes that Strabo was the ers who treated Moses with respect, such as Hecataeus historian “who came closest to a construction of Moses’ and Strabo.[37] 4.8 In Justin Martyr 7

4.6 In Josephus 4.8 In Justin Martyr

In Josephus' (37 – c. 100 CE) Antiquities of the Jews, The Christian saint and religious philosopher Justin Moses is mentioned throughout. For example Book VIII Martyr (103–165 CE) drew the same conclusion as Ch. IV, describes Solomon’s Temple, also known as the Numenius, according to other experts. Theologian Paul First Temple, at the time the Ark of the Covenant was Blackham notes that Justin considered Moses to be “more first moved into the newly built temple: trustworthy, profound and truthful because he is older than the Greek philosophers.”[42] He quotes him: When King Solomon had finished these works, these large and beautiful buildings, and had laid up his donations in the temple, and I will begin, then, with our first prophet and all this in the interval of seven years, and had lawgiver, Moses... that you may know that, of given a demonstration of his riches and alacrity all your teachers, whether sages, poets, histori- therein; ...he also wrote to the rulers and elders ans, philosophers, or lawgivers, by far the old- of the Hebrews, and ordered all the people to est, as the Greek histories show us, was Moses, [42] gather themselves together to Jerusalem, both who was our first religious teacher. to see the temple which he had built, and to re- move the ark of God into it; and when this invi- tation of the whole body of the people to come 5 Historicity to Jerusalem was everywhere carried abroad, ...The Feast of Tabernacles happened to fall at the same time, which was kept by the Hebrews as a most holy and most eminent feast. So they carried the ark and the tabernacle which Moses had pitched, and all the vessels that were for ministration to the sacrifices of God, and re- moved them to the temple. ...Now the ark contained nothing else but those two tables of stone that preserved the ten commandments, which God spake to Moses in Mount Sinai, and which were engraved upon them...[38]

According to Feldman, Josephus also attaches particular signiﬁcance to Moses’ possession of the “cardinal virtues of wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice.” He also includes piety as an added ﬁfth virtue. In addition, he “stresses Moses’ willingness to undergo toil and his care- ful avoidance of bribery. Like Plato's philosopher-king, Moses excels as an educator.”[39]

Memorial of Moses, Mount Nebo, Jordan 4.7 In Numenius The tradition of Moses as a lawgiver and culture hero of Numenius, a Greek philosopher who was a native of the Israelites can be traced to the Deuteronomist source, Apamea, in Syria, wrote during the latter half of the 2nd corresponding to the 7th-century BCE Kingdom of Ju- century CE. Historian Kennieth Guthrie writes that “Nu- dah. Moses is a central figure in the Deuteronomist ac- menius is perhaps the only recognized Greek philosopher count of the origins of the Israelites, cast in a literary style who explicitly studied Moses, the prophets, and the life of elegant flashbacks told by Moses. The mainstream of Jesus...”[40] He describes his background: view is that the Deuteronomist relies on earlier material that may date to the United Monarchy, so that the bib- Numenius was a man of the world; he was lical narrative would be based on traditions that can be not limited to Greek and Egyptian mysteries, traced roughly to the 10th century BCE, or about four but talked familiarly of the myths of Brahmins centuries after the supposed lifetime of Moses. By con- and Magi. It is however his knowledge and use trast, Biblical minimalists such as Philip Davies and Niels of the Hebrew scriptures which distinguished Peter Lemche regard the Exodus as a fiction composed him from other Greek philosophers. He refers in the Persian period or even later to give hope of return to Moses simply as “the prophet”, exactly as for to Canaan for a Diaspora community, without even the him Homer is the poet. Plato is described as a memory of a historical Moses.[43][44] Given this possible Greek Moses.[41] late composition it would seem that the figure of Moses 8 5 HISTORICITY

may be a composite drawn from a number of different reign of King David, Egypt was at the peak of its glory, sources. with a series of fortresses guarding the borders and check- The question of the historicity of the Exodus (specifi- points watching the roads to Canaan. That means an exodus of the scale of over 600,000 soldiers described in the cally, the Pharaoh of the Exodus, identification of whom [46] would connect the biblical narrative to Egyptological Torah would have been impossible. This implies a to- chronology) has long been debated, without conclusive tal civilian population, with women and children, of over result. There were at least two periods in Egyptian his- a million, which would have numbered between a third tory in which Asiatic Semites were expelled from Egypt. and a half of the total Egyptian population at the time. One was associated with the expulsion of the Semitic While the general narrative of the Exodus and the Hyksos at the beginning of the Late Bronze Age. The conquest of the Promised Land may be remotely second was following the commencement of the reign rooted in historical events, the figure of Moses as of Setnakhte at the end of the 19th Dynasty. Manetho a leader of the Israelites in these events cannot be seems to confuse the two, for instance, in a distorted substantiated.[47][48][49][50] William Dever agrees with the account reported in Josephus, he supposedly states that Canaanite origin of the Israelites but allows for the pos- Moses was originally Osarseph, a renegade priest, who sibility of some immigrants from Egypt among the early led a band of lepers out of Avaris (referred to as Raamses hilltop settlers, leaving open the possibility of a Moses- in the Bible).(Exodus 1:11) Osarseph, may be a mem- like figure in Transjordan c. 1250–1200.[51] ory of a shadowy vizier, originally from Syria (Hurru), Martin Noth holds that two different groups experienced known as Yursu (self-made), who came to prominence the Exodus and Sinai events, and each group transmitted as Chancellor Bay just prior to the second event. Pi its own stories independently of the other one, writing that Ramesses may be the “store city” Ramses mentioned in “The biblical story tracing the Hebrews from Egypt to Exodus, which was the capital of the Egyptian Empire in Canaan resulted from an editor’s weaving separate themes the 19th to end of the 20th Dynasty of Egypt, giving quite and traditions around a main character Moses, actually an a specific date to the Egyptian part of Exodus. obscure person from Moab.”[52] Given the existence of a Some scholars, like Kenneth Kitchen and Frank Yurko Moabite king Mesha, etymologically identical to the He- suggest that there may be a historical core beneath the brew Moshe, it is possible that there was a memory of a Exodus and Sinai traditions, even if the biblical narrative culture hero who was associated with the end of Egyptian dramatizes by portraying as a single event what was more influence at Timna during the late Bronze Age.[53] likely a gradual process of migration and conquest. Thus, The “Kenite hypothesis”, originally suggested by the motif of “slavery in Egypt” may reflect the historical Cornelius Tiele in 1872, supposes that the figure of situation of imperialist control of the Egyptian Empire Moses is a reflection of a historical Midianite priest over Canaan over the period of the Thutmosides down to of Yahweh, whose cult was introduced to Israel from the revolt against Merenptah and Rameses III, after which southern Canaan (Edom, Moab, Midian) by the Kenites. it declined gradually during the 12th century under the This idea is based on an old tradition (recorded in Judges pressure from the Sea Peoples and the general Bronze Age 1:16, 4:11) that Moses’ father-in-law was a Midianite collapse: Israel Finkelstein points to the appearance of priest of Yahweh, as it were preserving a memory of settlements in the central hill country around 1200 as the [45] the Midianite origin of the deity. While the role of the earliest of the known settlements of the Israelites. Kenites in the transmission of the cult is widely accepted, A cyclical pattern to these highland settlements, corre- Tiele’s view on the historical role of Moses finds less sponding to the state of the surrounding cultures, sug- support in modern scholarship.[54] gests that the local Canaanites combined an agricultural William Albright held a more favorable view towards and nomadic lifestyles, particularly under Aramaean and the traditional views regarding Moses, and accepted the Neo-Hittite influence. When Egyptian rule collapsed af- essence of the biblical story, as narrated between Ex- ter the invasion of the Sea Peoples, the central hill coun- odus 1:8 and Deuteronomy 34:12, but recognized the try could no longer sustain a large nomadic population, [46] impact that centuries of oral and written transmission so they went from nomadism to sedentism. Canaan- have had on the account, causing it to acquire layers of ite refugees from the lowlands seem to have fused with accretions.[52] Shasu, nomadic Aramaean elements, using pithoi cisterns for the capture of water, hillside terracing and other ele- Recently Aidan Dodson,[55] M. Georg[56] and R. ments from the Aegean and Western Anatolian “Peoples Krauss[57] all suggest that the story of Moses as a Prince of the Sea”, living in scattered hamlets and avoiding the of Egypt may contain a distorted memory of Pharaoh husbandry of pigs, suggesting a new type of culture in the Amenmesses. In texts written after his disappearance region. Amenmesses “was explicitly denied any royal status – being simply 'Mose' and perhaps also 'enemy'.… Indeed, it However, Finkelstein states in the same book that at the has been suggested that Amenmesses’ memory has sur- earlier time proposed by most scientists for the Exodus, vived in a far more universal way, in that his career was based upon the Biblical chronology 400 years prior to the transmogrified into the Old Testament story of Jewish 6.2 Christianity 9

law-giver, Moses.” Dodson concludes "…this connection is also considered the greatest prophet.[66] is beyond proof and such a survival of Amenmesses into Arising in part from his age, but also because 120 is else- world consciousness remains but an intriguing possibil- where stated as the maximum age for Noah’s descendants ity”. (one interpretation of Genesis 6:3), "may you live to 120" has become a common blessing among Jews. 6 Moses in Abrahamic religions 6.2 Christianity 6.1 Judaism

Main articles: Moses in Hellenistic literature and Moses in Rabbinic Literature

There is a wealth of stories and additional information about Moses in the Jewish apocrypha and in the genre of rabbinical exegesis known as Midrash, as well as in the primary works of the Jewish oral law, the Mishnah and the Talmud. Moses is also given a number of bynames in Jewish tradition. The Midrash identifies Moses as one of seven biblical personalities who were called by various names.[58] Moses’ other names were: Jekuthiel (by his mother), Heber (by his father), Jered (by Miriam), Avi Zanoah (by Aaron), Avi Gedor (by Kohath), Avi Soco (by his wet-nurse), Shemaiah ben Nethanel (by people of Israel).[59] Moses is also attributed the names Toviah (as a first name), and Levi (as a family name) (Vayikra Rab- bah 1:3), Heman,[60] Mechoqeiq (lawgiver)[61] and Ehl Gav Ish (Numbers 12:3).[62] Jewish historians who lived at Alexandria, such as Eupolemus, attributed to Moses the feat of having taught the Phoenicians their alphabet,[63] similar to legends of Thoth. Artapanus of Alexandria explicitly identified Moses appearing at the Transfiguration of Jesus Moses not only with Thoth/Hermes, but also with the Greek figure Musaeus (whom he called “the teacher of For Christians, Moses—mentioned more often in the Orpheus"), and ascribed to him the division of Egypt New Testament than any other Old Testament figure—is into 36 districts, each with its own liturgy. He named the often a symbol of God’s law, as reinforced and expounded princess who adopted Moses as Merris, wife of Pharaoh on in the teachings of Jesus. New Testament writers often Chenephres.[64] compared Jesus’ words and deeds with Moses’ to explain Ancient sources mention an Assumption of Moses and a Jesus’ mission. In Acts 7:39–43, 51–53, for example, the rejection of Moses by the Jews who worshiped the golden Testimony of Moses. A Latin text was found in Milan in the 19th century by Antonio Ceriani who called it the calf is likened to the rejection of Jesus by the Jews that continued in traditional Judaism. Assumption of Moses, even though it does not refer to an assumption of Moses or contain portions of the As- Moses also figures in several of Jesus’ messages. When sumption which are cited by ancient authors, and it is ap- he met the Pharisee Nicodemus at night in the third chap- parently actually the Testimony. The incident which the ter of the Gospel of John, he compared Moses’ lifting ancient authors cite is also mentioned in the Epistle of up of the bronze serpent in the wilderness, which any Is- Jude. raelite could look at and be healed, to his own lifting up To Orthodox Jews, Moses is called Moshe Rabbenu, Èved (by his death and resurrection) for the people to look at HaShem, Avi haNeviim zya"a: “Our Leader Moshe, Ser- and be healed. In the sixth chapter, Jesus responded to vant of God, Father of all the Prophets (may his merit the people’s claim that Moses provided them manna in shield us, amen)".[65] In the orthodox view, Moses re- the wilderness by saying that it was not Moses, but God, ceived not only the Torah, but also the revealed (written who provided. Calling himself the “bread of life”, Jesus and oral) and the hidden (the `hokhmat nistar teachings, stated that He was provided to feed God’s people. which gave Judaism the Zohar of the Rashbi, the Torah Moses, along with Elijah, is presented as meeting with of the Ari haQadosh and all that is discussed in the Heav- Jesus in all three Gospel accounts of the Transfiguration enly Yeshiva between the Ramhal and his masters). He of Jesus in Matthew 17, Mark 9, and Luke 9, respectively. 10 6 MOSES IN ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS

Later Christians found numerous other parallels between the life of Moses and Jesus to the extent that Jesus was likened to a “second Moses.” For instance, Jesus’ escape from the slaughter by Herod in Bethlehem is compared to Moses’ escape from Pharaoh’s designs to kill Hebrew infants. Such parallels, unlike those mentioned above, are not pointed out in Scripture. See the article on typology. His relevance to modern Christianity has not diminished. Moses is considered to be a saint by several churches; and is commemorated as a prophet in the respective Calen- dars of Saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Roman Catholic Church, and Lutheran churches on September 4.[67] He is commemorated as one of the Holy Forefa- thers in the Calendar of Saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 30. Maqam El-Nabi Musa, Jericho.

6.2.1 Mormonism Huston states were “one of the crucial events in Muham- mad’s life,” and resulted in Muslims observing 5 daily [73] Main article: Book of Moses prayers. Moses is mentioned 502 times in the Qur'an; passages Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter- mentioning Moses include 2.49–61, 7.103–160, 10.75– day Saints (colloquially called Mormons) generally view 93, 17.101–104, 20.9–97, 26.10–66, 27.7–14, 28.3– Moses in the same way that other Christians do. How- 46, 40.23–30, 43.46–55, 44.17–31, and 79.15–25. and ever, in addition to accepting the biblical account of many others. Most of the key events in Moses’ life which Moses, Mormons include Selections from the Book of are narrated in the Bible are to be found dispersed through Moses as part of their scriptural canon.[68] This book is the diﬀerent Surahs of Qur'an, with a story about meeting [71] believed to be the translated writings of Moses, and is Khidr which is not found in the Bible. included in the Pearl of Great Price.[69] Latter-day Saints are also unique in believing that Moses was taken to heaven without having tasted death (translated). In addition, Joseph Smith and Oliver Cow- dery stated that on April 3, 1836, Moses appeared to them in the Kirtland Temple in a gloriﬁed, immortal, physical form and bestowed upon them the “keys of the gathering of Israel from the four parts of the earth, and the leading of the ten tribes from the land of the north.”[70]

6.3 Islam The Finding of Moses, painting by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema, Main article: Moses in Islam 1904 See also: Biblical narratives and the Qur'an § Moses In the Moses story related by the Qur'an, Jochebed is (موسى Mūsā) Moses is mentioned more in the Quran than any other commanded by God to place Moses in an ark and cast individual and his life is narrated and recounted more [71] him on the waters of the Nile, thus abandoning him com- than that of any other prophet. In general, Moses pletely to God’s protection.[71][74] Pharaoh’s wife Asiya, is described in ways which parallel the Islamic prophet [72] not his daughter, found Moses floating in the waters of Muhammad, and “his character exhibits some of the the Nile. She convinced Pharaoh to keep him as their main themes of Islamic theology,” including the “moral son because they were not blessed with any children. injunction that we are to submit ourselves to God.” The Qur'an’s account has emphasized Moses’ mission to Moses is defined in the Qur'an as both prophet (nabi) and invite the Pharaoh to accept God’s divine message[75] as messenger (rasul), the latter term indicating that he was well as give salvation to the Israelites.[71][76] According one of those prophets who brought a scripture and law to to the Qur'an, Moses encourages the Israelites to enter his people. Canaan, but they are unwilling to fight the Canaanites, Smith 1991 describes an account in the Qur'an of meet- fearing certain defeat. Moses responds by pleading to Al- ings in heaven between Moses and Muhammad, which lah that he and his brother Aaron be separated from the 7.1 Politics and law 11 rebellious Israelites. After which the Israelites are made to wander for 40 years.[77] According to Islamic tradition, Moses is buried at Maqam El-Nabi Musa, Jericho.

6.4 Baha'i Faith

Moses is one of the most important prophets in the Baha'i Faith. He is considered to be a messenger from God who is equally authentic as those sent in other eras.[78] An epithet of Moses in Baha'i scriptures is Interlocutor of God,[79] or alternatively the One Who Conversed with God.[80] Important figures in the Baha’i religion, such as Abdul’l- Baha, have highlighted the fact that Moses, like Abraham, had none of the makings of a great man of history, but through God’s assistance he was able achieve many great things. He is described as having been 'for a long time a shepherd in the wilderness’, of having had a stammer, and of being ‘much hated and detested’ by the Pharaoh and the ancient Egyptians of his time. He is said to have been raised in an oppressive household, and to have been known, in Egypt, as a man who had committed murder – though he had done so in order to prevent an act of cruelty.[81] Nevertheless, like Abraham, through the assistance of God, he achieved great things and gained renown even beyond the Levant. Chief among these achievements was Statue of Moses at the Library of Congress the freeing of his people, the Hebrews, from bondage in Egypt and leading 'them to the Holy Land.’ He is viewed as the one who bestowed on Israel ‘the religious and the Harry S. Truman, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, Bill civil law’ which gave them ‘honour among all nations,’ and Clinton, George W. Bush and Barack Obama, who re- which spread their fame to different parts of the world.[81] ferred to his supporters as “the Moses generation.”[83] Furthermore, through the law, Moses is believed to have Winston Churchill, in his essay called “Moses—the led the Hebrews 'to the highest possible degree of civiliza- Leader of a People”, published in 1931, used the story tion at that period.’ Abdul’l-Baha asserts that the ancient of Moses to convince the British population of its need Greek philosophers regarded ‘the illustrious men of Is- for strong leadership, and that “human success depends rael as models of perfection.’ Chief among these philoso- on the favor of God.”[84] He saw Moses as more than phers, he says, was Socrates who ‘visited Syria, and took a metaphor, however, rejecting as “myth” the assertions from the children of Israel the teachings of the Unity of that Moses was only a legendary figure.[84] [81] God and of the immortality of the soul.’ He described him as “the supreme law-giver, who re- Moses is further described as paving the way for ceived from God that remarkable code upon which the Baha'ullah and his ultimate revelation, and as a teacher religious, moral, and social life of the nation was so se- of truth, whose teachings were in line with the customs curely founded… [and] one of the greatest human beings of his time.[82] with the most decisive leap forward ever discernable in the human story.”[85] Churchill also noted the relevance of the story of Moses to modern Britain: “We may be- 7 Modern reception lieve that they happened to a people not so very different from ourselves...”[85] 7.1 Politics and law In his essay, Churchill implied that the Ten Command- ments were a primary set of laws, “Here [Mount Sinai] In a metaphorical sense in the Christian tradition, a Moses received from [God] the tables of those fundamen- tal laws which were henceforth to be followed, with occa- “Moses” has been referred to as the leader who delivers [85] the people from a terrible situation. Among the presi- sional lapses, by the highest forms of human society.” dents known to have used the symbolism of Moses were In subsequent years, theologians linked the Ten Com- 12 7 MODERN RECEPTION mandments with the formation of early democracy. Scot- “We considered ourselves the 'New Israel,' particularly tish theologian William Barclay described them as “the we in America. And for that reason we knew who we universal foundation of all things… the law without which were, what we believed in and valued, and what our nationhood is impossible. …Our society is founded upon 'manifest destiny' was.”[92][93] it.[86] Pope Francis addressed the U.S. Congress in 2015 stating that all people need to “keep alive their sense of unity by means of just legislation... [and] the figure of Moses leads us directly to God and thus to the transcen- dent dignity of the human being.[87]

7.1.1 American history

First proposed seal of the United States, 1776 Pilgrims John Carver, William Bradford, and Miles Standish, at prayer during their voyage to America. Painting by Robert Walter Weir. Founding fathers On July 4, 1776, immediately after the Declaration of Independence was officially passed, the Continental Congress asked John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Franklin to design a seal that Pilgrims References to Moses were used by the would clearly represent a symbol for the new United Puritans, who relied on the story of Moses to give mean- States. They chose the symbol of Moses leading the Is- ing and hope to the lives of Pilgrims seeking religious raelites to freedom.[94] The founding fathers inscribed the and personal freedom in America. John Carver was the words of Moses on the Liberty Bell: “Proclaim Liberty first governor of Plymouth colony and first signer of the thro' all the Land to all the Inhabitants thereof.” (Levit. Mayflower Compact, which he wrote in 1620 during the 25) ship’s three-month voyage. He inspired the Pilgrims with a “sense of earthly grandeur and divine purpose,” notes Upon the death of George Washington in 1799, two thirds historian Jon Meacham,[88] and was called the “Moses of of his eulogies referred to him as “America’s Moses,” the Pilgrims.”[89] Early American writer James Russell with one orator saying that “Washington has been the Lowell noted the similarity of the founding of America same to us as Moses was to the Children of Israel.”[95] by the Pilgrims to that of ancient Israel by Moses: Benjamin Franklin, in 1788, saw the difficulties that some of the newly independent American states were Next to the fugitives whom Moses led out having in forming a government, and proposed that un- of Egypt, the little shipload of outcasts who til a new code of laws could be agreed to, they should landed at Plymouth are destined to influence be governed by “the laws of Moses,” as contained in the the future of the world.[90] Old Testament.[96] He justified his proposal by explaining that the laws had worked in biblical times: “The Supreme Following Carver’s death the following year, William Being… having rescued them from bondage by many Bradford was made governor. He feared that the re- miracles, performed by his servant Moses, he personally maining Pilgrims would not survive the hardships of the delivered to that chosen servant, in the presence of the whole nation, a constitution and code of laws for their new land, with half their people having already died [97] within months of arriving. Bradford evoked the sym- observance. bol of Moses to the weakened and desperate Pilgrims to John Adams, America’s 2nd president, stated why he re- help calm them and give them hope: “Violence will break lied on the laws of Moses over Greek philosophy for es- all. Where is the meek and humble spirit of Moses?"[91] tablishing the Constitution: “As much as I love, esteem, William G. Dever explains the attitude of the Pilgrims: and admire the Greeks, I believe the Hebrews have done 7.4 Criticism of Moses 13

more to enlighten and civilize the world. Moses did more 7.4 Criticism of Moses than all their legislators and philosophers.[88] Swedish historian Hugo Valentin credited Moses as the “first to pro- Moses’ prominence in religious literature has made him a claim the rights of man.”[98] popular target for biblical critics, most of whom question his reputation as a just and compassionate leader, drawing attention to certain passages in which he appears to dis- 7.1.2 Slavery and civil rights play a more brutal and unforgiving side. Given his holy status in the minds of Jews, Christians and Muslims, crit- Historian Gladys L. Knight describes how leaders who icism of Moses’ life and teachings has been for the most emerged during slavery time and after often personified part by deists, agnostics and atheists. the Moses symbol. “The symbol of Moses was empow- ering in that it served to amplify a need for freedom.”[99] Therefore, when Abraham Lincoln was assassinated in 7.4.1 Thomas Paine and Numbers 31:13-18 1865 after freeing the slaves, black Americans said they had lost “their Moses”.[100] Lincoln biographer Charles In the late eighteenth century, the deist Thomas Paine Carleton Coffin writes, “The millions whom Abraham commented at length on Moses’ Laws in The Age of Rea- Lincoln delivered from slavery will ever liken him to son. Paine considered Moses to be a “detestable villain”, Moses, the deliverer of Israel.”[101] Similarly, Harriet and cited Numbers 31:13–18 as an example of his “un- Tubman, who rescued approximately seventy enslaved exampled atrocities”.[109] In the passage, the Jewish army family and friends, was also described as the “Moses” of had returned from conquering the Midianites, and Moses her people.[102] has gone down to meet it: In the 1960s, a leading figure in the civil rights movement was Martin Luther King, Jr., who was called “a mod- And Moses, and Eleazar the priest, and all ern Moses,” and often referred to Moses in his speeches: the princes of the congregation, went forth to “The struggle of Moses, the struggle of his devoted fol- meet them without the camp; and Moses was lowers as they sought to get out of Egypt. This is wroth with the officers of the host, with the something of the story of every people struggling for captains over thousands, and captains over hun- freedom.”[103] dreds, which came from the battle; and Moses said unto them, Have ye saved all the women alive? behold, these caused the children of Is- 7.2 Literature rael, through the counsel of Balaam, to com- mit trespass against the Lord in the matter of Thomas Mann's novella The Tables of the Law is a Peor, and there was a plague among the con- retelling of the story of the exodus from Egypt, with gregation of the Lord. Now, therefore, kill ev- Moses as its main character. ery male among the little ones, and kill every woman that hath known a man by lying with him; but all the women-children, that have not 7.3 In Freud known a man by lying with him, keep alive for yourselves.[110] Sigmund Freud, in his last book, Moses and Monothe- ism in 1939, postulated that Moses was an Egyptian no- The prominent atheist Richard Dawkins also made refer- bleman who adhered to the monotheism of Akhenaten. ence to these verses in his 2006 book, The God Delusion, Following a theory proposed by a contemporary bibli- concluding that Moses was “not a great role model for cal critic, Freud believed that Moses was murdered in the modern moralists”.[111] wilderness, producing a collective sense of patricidal guilt However, some Jewish sources defend Moses’ role. The that has been at the heart of Judaism ever since. “Judaism Chasam Sofer emphasizes that this war was not fought at had been a religion of the father, Christianity became a Moses’ behest, but was commanded by God as an act of religion of the son”, he wrote. The possible Egyptian ori- revenge against the Midianite women,[112] who, accord- gin of Moses and of his message has received significant [104][105] ing to the Biblical account, had seduced the Israelites and scholarly attention. led them to sin. Rabbi Joel Grossman argued that the Opponents of this view observe that the religion of the story is a “powerful fable of lust and betrayal”, and that Torah seems different from Atenism in everything ex- Moses’ execution of the women was a symbolic condem- cept the central feature of devotion to a single god,[106] al- nation of those who seek to turn sex and desire to evil though this has been countered by a variety of arguments, purposes.[113] Alan Levin, an educational specialist with e.g. pointing out the similarities between the Hymn to the Reform movement, has similarly suggested that the Aten and Psalm 104.[104][107] Freud’s interpretation of the story should be taken as a cautionary tale, to “warn suc- historical Moses is not well accepted among historians, cessive generations of Jews to watch their own idolatrous and is considered pseudohistory by many.[108] behavior”.[114] 14 7 MODERN RECEPTION

7.4.2 Some Mistakes of Moses

In the nineteenth century, the agnostic Robert G. Inger- soll wrote a book entitled Some Mistakes of Moses, which was wholly devoted to discussion of the Torah.[115] In the book, Ingersoll commented on the story of the golden calf, an idol crafted by the Israelites while Moses is receiving the Ten Commandments at Mount Sinai. When Moses returned from the mountain-top, he became an- gry that his people were engaging in idol worship and ordered the Levites to slaughter the sinners, who numbered 3,000. Ingersoll protested that in Exodus narrative the commandment forbidding idolatry had not yet been passed on by Moses to his people, and that “to inﬂict pun- ishment for breaking unknown and unpublished laws is, in the last degree, cruel and unjust”.[116]

7.5 Figurative art

Statue by Michelangelo Buonarotti — in Basilica San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome

Moses appears eight times in carvings that ring the Supreme Court Great Hall ceiling. His face is presented along with other ancient figures such as Solomon, the Greek god Zeus and the Roman goddess of wisdom, Min- erva. The Supreme Court building’s east pediment de- picts Moses holding two tablets. Tablets representing the Ten Commandments can be found carved in the oak courtroom doors, on the support frame of the courtroom’s bronze gates and in the library woodwork. A controver- sial image is one that sits directly above the chief justice’s head. In the center of the 40-foot-long Spanish marble carving is a tablet displaying Roman numerals I through Sculpture in the U.S. House of Representatives. X, with some numbers partially hidden.[120] Moses is depicted in several U.S. government buildings because of his legacy as a lawgiver. In the Library 7.6 Michelangelo’s statue of Congress stands a large statue of Moses alongside a statue of the Apostle Paul. Moses is one of the 23 Michelangelo's statue of Moses in the Church of San lawgivers depicted in marble bas-reliefs in the chamber Pietro in Vincoli, Rome, is one of the most familiar mas- of the U.S. House of Representatives in the United terpieces in the world. The horns the sculptor included States Capitol. The plaque’s overview states: “Moses (c. on Moses’ head are the result of a mistranslation of the 1350–1250 B.C.) Hebrew prophet and lawgiver; trans- Hebrew Bible into the Latin Vulgate Bible with which formed a wandering people into a nation; received the [117] he was familiar. The Hebrew word taken from Exodus Ten Commandments.” means either a “horn” or an “irradiation.” Experts at the The other twenty-two figures have their profiles turned Archaeological Institute of America show that the term to Moses, which is the only forward-facing bas- was used when Moses “returned to his people after see- relief.[118][119] ing as much of the Glory of the Lord as human eye could 15 stand,” and his face “reflected radiance.”[121] In early Jew- as the twelfth of Sicyon, and Criasus as ish art, moreover, Moses is often “shown with rays com- the fifth of Argos, Moses was born in ing out of his head.”[122] Eygpt,...”[12]

Another author explains, “When Saint Jerome translated Orthopolis reigned as the 12th King of Sicyon for 63 years, the Old Testament into Latin, he thought no one but from 1596–1533; and Criasus reigned as the 5th King of Christ should glow with rays of light — so he advanced Argos for 54 years, from 1637–1583.[13] the secondary translation.[123][124] However, writer J. [2] According to Manetho the place of his birth was at the Stephen Lang points out that Jerome’s version actually [16] described Moses as “giving off hornlike rays,” and he ancient city of Heliopolis. [125] “rather clumsily translated it to mean 'having horns.'" [3] This title is held specifically in Islam. It has also been noted that he had Moses seated on a throne, yet Moses was neither a King nor ever sat on such [4] This is a specifically Jewish title. thrones.[126] [5] Moses is commemorated as a forefather, along with the patriarchs, in the Armenian Apostolic Church. 7.7 Film and television Moses was portrayed by Theodore Roberts in Cecil 10 Citations B. DeMille's 1923 silent film The Ten Commandments. Moses appeared as the central character in the 1956 [1] “Moses”. Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictio- DeMille movie, also called The Ten Commandments, in nary. which he was portrayed by Charlton Heston.A television remake was produced in 2006. [2] Deuteronomy 34:10 Burt Lancaster played Moses in the 1975 television [3] Maimonides, 13 principles of faith, 7th principle. miniseries Moses the Lawgiver. In the 1981 comedy film History of the World, Part I, [4] “Press Reviews”. Princeton University Press. 2011-11- Moses was portrayed by Mel Brooks.[127] 06. Retrieved 2012-04-03. Sir Ben Kingsley was the narrator of the 2007 animated [5] The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archeology film, The Ten Commandments. and the History of Early Israel, 2007, Society of Biblical Literature, Atlanta, ISBN 978-1-58983-277-0. Moses appeared as the central character in the 1998 DreamWorks Pictures’ animated movie, The Prince of [6] Van Seters 1994. Egypt. He was voiced by Val Kilmer.[128] [7] Exodus 1:10 Christian Bale portrayed Moses in Ridley Scott's 2014 [129] film Exodus: Gods and Kings which portrayed Moses [8] Exod. 4:10 and Rameses II as being raised by Seti I as cousins. [9] Seder Olam Rabbah

[10] Jerome's Chronicon (4th century) gives 1592 for the birth 8 See also of Moses

• Moses in Islam [11] The 17th-century Ussher chronology calculates 1571 BC (Annals of the World, 1658 paragraph 164) • Mosaic authorship [12] St Augustine. The City of God. Book XVIII. Chapter 8 - • Osarseph Who Were Kings When Moses Was Born, And What Gods Began To Be Worshipped Then. • Passage of the Red Sea [13] Hoeh, Herman L (1967), Compendium of World History • Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions (dissertation) 1, The Faculty of the Ambassador College, Graduate School of Theology, 1962.

9 Notes [14] Exodus 2:10 [15] Dozeman 2009, pp. 81–82. [1] Saint Augustine records the names of the kings when Moses was born in the City of God: [16] McClintock, John; James, Strong (1882), “Mo’ses”, Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Lit- • “When Saphrus reigned as the four- erature, VI.— ME-NEV, New York: Harper & Brothers, teenth king of Assyria, and Orthopolis pp. 677–87. 16 10 CITATIONS

[17] Schmidt, Nathaniel (Feb 1896), “Moses: His Age and His [44] Meyers, Carol (2005). Exodus. Cambridge University Work. II”, The Biblical World 7 (2): 105–19, esp. 108, Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-521-00291-2. It was the prophet’s call. It was a real ecstatic experience, like that of David under the baka-tree, Elijah on the moun- [45] Finkelstein, I; Na'aman, N, eds. (1994), From Nomadism tain, Isaiah in the temple, Ezekiel on the Khebar, Jesus in to Monarchy, Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. the Jordan, Paul on the Damascus road. It was the perpet- ual mystery of the divine touching the human.. [46] Finkelstein & Silberman 2001.

[18] Hamilton 2011, p. xxv. [47] Dever 2006.

[19] Van Seters 2004, p. 194. [48] Filkenstein & Silberman 2001.

[20] Ska 2009, p. 260. [49] Lazare, Daniel (May 2002). “False Testament”. Harper’s Magazine. New York. Retrieved 2010-10-11. [21] Meyers 2005, pp. 5–6. [50] “Archaeology and the Hebrew Scriptures”. Religious tol- [22] Shmuel 1976, p. 1102. erance.

[23] Shmuel 1976, p. 1103. [51] Dever, William G. (2002). What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?. William B. Eerd- [24] Hammer, Reuven (1995), The Classic Midrash: Tannaitic mans. ISBN 0-8028-2126-X. Commentaries on the Bible, Paulist Press, p. 15. [52] “Moses”, Encyclopædia Britannica (online), 2007. [25] 1989, p. 18. [53] Magnussen, Magnus (1975), BC, the Archaeology of the [26] Droge 1989, p. 18. Bible Lands, BBC Books. [27] Barclay, John M. G. Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE – 117 CE), University [54] DDD (1999:911). of California Press (1996) p. 130 [55] Dodson, Aidan (2010), Poisoned Legacy: The Fall of [28] “Moses”. Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2010-03-02. the 19th Egyptian Dynasty (American University in Cairo Press). [29] Feldman 1998, p. 40. [56] Georg, M (2000), “Mose – Name und Namensträger. [30] Feldman 1998, p. 133. Versuch einer historischen Annäherung” in Mose. Ägypten und das Alte Testament, edited by E. Otto, Verlag [31] Shmuel 1976, p. 1132. Katholisches Bibelwerk, Stuttgart.

[32] Strabo. The Geography, XVI 35, 36, Translated by H.C. [57] Krauss, R (2000), Moise le pharaon [Moses the Pharaon] Hamilton and W. Falconer, pp. 177–78, (in French), Éditions du Roche.

[33] Shmuel 1976, p. 1133. [58] Midrash Rabbah, Ki Thissa, XL. 3-3, Lehrman, p. 463 [34] Assmann 1997, p. 38. [59] Yalkut Shimoni, Shemot 166 to Chronicles I 4:18, 24:6; [35] Tacitus, Cornelius. The works of Cornelius Tacitus: With also see Vayikra Rabbah 1:3; Chasidah p.345 an essay on his life and genius by Arthur Murphy, Thomas [60] Rashi to Bava Batra 15s, Chasidah p. 345 Wardle Publ. (1842) p. 499 [61] Bava Batra 15a on Deuteronomy 33:21, Chasidah p. 345 [36] Tacitus, Cornelius. Tacitus, The Histories, Volume 2, Book V. Chapters 5, 6 p. 208. [62] Rashi to Berachot 54a, Chasidah p. 345 [37] Shmuel 1976, p. 1140. [63] Eusebius, Præparatio Evangelica ix. 26 [38] Josephus, Flavius (1854), “IV”, The works: Comprising [64] Eusebius, l.c. ix. 27 the Antiquities of the Jews VIII, trans. by William Whis- ton, pp. 254–55. [65] Honoriﬁcs for the dead in Judaism.

[39] Feldman 1998, p. 130. [66] “Judaism 101: Moses, Aaron and Miriam”. Jew FAQ. [40] Guthrie 1917, p. 194. Retrieved 2010-03-02.

[41] Guthrie 1917, p. 101. [67] Great Synaxaristes: (Greek) Ὁ Προφήτης Μωϋσῆς. 4 Σεπτεμβρίου. ΜΕΓΑΣ ΣΥΝΑΞΑΡΙΣΤΗΣ. [42] Blackham 2005, p. 39. [68] Skinner, Andrew C. (1992), “Moses”, in Ludlow, Daniel [43] Stead, Michael R.; Raine, John W (2009). The Intertextu- H, Encyclopedia of Mormonism, New York: Macmillan ality of Zechariah 1–8: Ideals and Realities. T&T Clark. Publishing, pp. 958–959, ISBN 0-02-879602-0, OCLC p. 42. ISBN 978-0-567-29172-1. 24502140 17

[69] Taylor, Bruce T. (1992), “Book of Moses”, in Ludlow, [89] Talbot, Archie Lee (1930), A New Plymouth Colony at Daniel H, Encyclopedia of Mormonism, New York: Kennebeck, Brunswick: Library of Congress. Macmillan Publishing, pp. 216–217, ISBN 0-02-879602- 0, OCLC 24502140 [90] Lowell, James Russell (1913), The Round Table, Boston: Gorham Press, pp. 217–18, Next to the fugitives whom [70] The Doctrine and Covenants 110:11 Moses led out of Egypt, the little shipload of outcasts who landed at Plymouth are destined to influence the future of [71] Keeler 2005, pp. 55–66. the world. The spiritual thirst of mankind has for ages [72] Keeler 2005, pp. 55–56, describes Moses from the Mus- been quenched at Hebrew fountains; but the embodiment lim perspective: in human institutions of truths uttered by the Son of Man eighteen centuries ago was to be mainly the work of Puri- “Among prophets, Moses has been described tan thought and Puritan self-devotion. …If their munici- as the one 'whose career as a messenger of pal regulations smack somewhat of Judaism, yet there can God, lawgiver and leader of his community be no nobler aim or more practical wisdom than theirs; for most closely parallels and foreshadows that it was to make the law of man a living counterpart of the of Muhammad', and as 'the figure that in the law of God, in their highest conception of it. Koran was presented to Muhammad above all others as the supreme model of saviour [91] Arber, Edward (1897), The Story of the Pilgrim Fathers, and ruler of a community, the man chosen to Houghton, Mifflin & Co., p. 345. present both knowledge of the one God, and [92] Dever 2006, pp. ix, 234. a divinely revealed system of law'. We find him clearly in this role of Muhammad’s fore- [93] Moses, Adolph (1903), Yahvism and Other Discourses, bear in a well-known tradition of the mirac- Louisville Council of Jewish Women, p. 93, [The pil- ulous ascension of the Prophet, where Moses grims were clearly] animated by the true spirit of the He- advises Muhammad from his own experience brew prophets and law-givers. They walked by the light as messenger and lawgiver.” of the Scriptures, and were resolved to form a Common- wealth in accordance with the social laws and ideas of the [73] Smith, Huston (1991), The World’s Religions, Harper Bible. …they were themselves the true descendants of Is- Collins, p. 245. rael, spiritual children of the prophets.. [74] Quran 28:7 [94] Feiler 2009, p. 35. [75] Quran 79:17–19 [95] Feiler 2009, p. 102. [76] Quran 20:47–48 [96] Franklin, Benjamin (1834), Franklin, William Temple, [77] Quran 5:20 ed., Memoirs (ebook) 2, Philadelphia: McCarty & Davis, p. 504. [78] Historical Context of the Bábi and Bahá'í Faiths, Bahá'i. [97] Franklin 1834, p. 211. [79] Buck, Christopher (1999), Paradise and Paradigm: Key Symbols in Persian Christianity and the Baháí̕ Faith. [98] Shuldiner, David Philip (1999), Of Moses and Marx, Greenwood, p. 35. [80] Effendi, Shoghi (1988). Epistle to the Son of the Wolf. Wilmette, Illinois: Baháí Publishing Trust. p. 104. ISBN [99] Knight, Gladys L. Icons of African American Protest Vol 9780877430483. I, Greenwood (2009) p. 183

[81] Cliﬀord, Laura (1937). Some Answered Questions. New [100] Hodes, Martha (2015). Mourning Lincoln. Yale Univer- York: Baha'i Publishing Trust. pp. 14–15. sity Press. pp. 164, 237.

[82] McMullen, Michael (2000), The Bahá'í: The Religious [101] Coffin, Charles Carleton (2012) [1893], Abraham Lincoln Construction of a Global Identity, p. 256. (reprint), Ulan Press, p. 534. [83] Ifil, Gwen (2009), The Breakthrough: Politics and Race in [102] Jones, Joyce Stokes; Galvin, Michele Jones (1999–2012), the Age of Obama, Random House, p. 58. Beyond the Underground. Aunt Harriet, Moses of Her Peo- [84] “VII”, A Kind of Dignity and Even Nobility: Winston ple. Churchill’s “Thoughts and Adventures”, The imaginative [103] King, Martin Luther Jr (2000) [1957, 1968], The Papers, Conservative, Aug 2013. Univ. of California Press, p. 155, [85] Churchill 1931. I want to preach this morning from the subject, 'The Birth of a New Nation.' And I would like to use as a basis [86] Barclay, William (1998) [1973], The Ten Command- for our thinking together, a story that has long since been ments, Westminster John Knox Press, p. 4. stenciled on the mental sheets of succeeding generations. [87] “Pope Francis addresses Congress”, Vox, Sept. 24, 2015 It is the story of the Exodus, the story of the flight of the Hebrew people from the bondage of Egypt, through [88] Meacham 2006, p. 40. the wilderness and finally, to the Promised Land. …The 18 11 FURTHER READING

struggle of Moses, the struggle of his devoted followers as [125] Lang, J. Stephen (2003). What the Good Book Didn't Say: they sought to get out of Egypt. Popular Myths and Misconceptions About the Bible. New And I've looked over. And I've seen the promised land. York: Citadel Press. p. 114. ISBN 0-8065-2460-X. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know [126] Boitani, Piero (1999). The Bible and its Rewritings. Ox- tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the promised land. ford: Oxford Univ. Press. p. 126. ISBN 0-19-818487-5. line feed character in |quote= at position 498 (help) [127] “History of the World: Part I”. IMDb. [104] Assmann 1997. [128] “Prince of Egypt”. IMDb. [105] Yerushalmi, Y, Freud’s Moses (monograph). [129] “Exodus: Gods and Kings”. IMDB. [106] “Order of the Aten Temple”. Atenism.

[107] Atwell, James E. (2000). “An Egyptian Source for Gen- esis 1”. Journal of Theological Studies 51 (2): 441–77. 11 Further reading doi:10.1093/jts/51.2.441.

[108] Bernstein, Richard J. (1998). Freud and the Legacy of • Asch, Sholem (1958), Moses, New York: Putnam, Moses. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN ISBN 0-7426-9137-3. 0-521-63096-7. • Assmann, Jan (1997), Moses the Egyptian: The [109] Paine, Thomas (1796) The Age of Reason, part II. Memory of Egypt in Western Monotheism, Harvard [110] Numbers 31:13–18 University Press, ISBN 0-674-58738-3.

[111] Dawkins, Richard (2006). The God Delusion Chapter 7. • Barenboim, Peter (2005), Biblical Roots of Separa- Bantam Press. ISBN 0-59305548-9 tion of Power, Moscow: Letny Sad, ISBN 5-94381- [112] Aliya-by-Aliya Sedra Summary, Torah Tidbits, OU. 123-0.

[113] Grossman, Joel (2008), “Matot”. Temple Beth Am Li- • Barzel, Hillel (1974), “Moses: Tragedy and Sublim- brary Minyan. ity”, in Gros Louis, Kenneth RR; Ackerman, James S; Warshaw, Thayer S, Literary Interpretations of [114] Levin, Alan J. “Some messages are hard to deliver”. My Biblical Narratives, Nashville: Abingdon Press, pp. Jewish Learning. 120–40, ISBN 0-687-22131-5. [115] Brandt, Eric T; Larsen, Timothy (2011). “The Old • Atheism Revisited: Robert G. Ingersoll and the Bible”. Blackham, Paul (2005), “The Trinity in the He- Journal of the Historical Society 11 (2): 211–38. brew Scriptures”, in Metzger, Paul Louis, Trinitar- doi:10.1111/j.1540-5923.2011.00330.x. ian Soundings in Systematic Theology (essay), Con- tinuum International. [116] Ingersoll, Robert G. (1879). Some Mistakes of Moses. Chapter XXIII. C. P. Farrell. • Buber, Martin (1958), Moses: The Revelation and the Covenant, New York: Harper. [117] “Moses relieve portrait”, Architect of the Capitol • [118] “Relief Portraits of Lawgivers: Moses”. Architect of the Card, Orson Scott (1998), Stone Tables, Deseret Capitol. 2009-02-13. Retrieved 2010-03-02. Book Co, ISBN 1-57345-115-0.

[119] Courtroom Friezes: North and South Walls: Information • Chasidah, Yishai (1994), “Moses”, Encyclopedia of Sheet (PDF), Supreme Court of the United States. Biblical Personalities: Anthologized from the Tal- mud, Midrash and Rabbinic Writings, Brooklyn: [120] “In the Supreme Court itself, Moses and his law on dis- play”, Religion News Service (Christian index). Shaar Press, pp. 340–99.

[121] MacLean, Margaret. (ed) Art and Archaeology, Vol. VI, • Cohen, Joel (2003), Moses: A Memoir, Mahwah, NJ: Archaeological Institute of America (1917) p. 97 Paulist Press, ISBN 0-8091-0558-6.

[122] Devore, Gary M. (2008). Walking Tours of Ancient Rome: • Churchill, Winston (November 8, 1931), “Moses”, A Secular Guidebook to the Eternal City. Mercury Guides. Sunday Chronicle (National Churchill Museum), p. 126. ISBN 978-0-615-19497-4. Thoughts, 205. [123] Thomason, Dustin; Caldwell, Ian (2005). The Rule of • Daiches, David (1975), Moses: The Man and his Vi- Four. New York: Random House. p. 151. ISBN 0-440- 24135-9. sion, New York: Praeger, ISBN 0-275-33740-5.

[124] Gross, Kenneth (2005). The Dream of the Moving Statue. • Dever, William G (2002), What Did the Bibli- Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press. p. 245. ISBN 0-271- cal Writers Know and When Did They Know It?, 02900-5. William B. Eerdmans, ISBN 0-8028-2126-X. 19

• ——— (2006) [2003], Who Were the Early Is- • Keeler, Annabel (2005), “Moses from a Mus- raelites, and Where Did They Come From?, Grand lim Perspective”, in Solomon, Norman; Harries, Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Richard; Winter, Tim, Abraham’s Children: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conversation, T&T • Dozeman, Thomas B (2009), Commentary on Exo- Clark, pp. 55–66. dus, William B Eerdmans • Kirsch, Jonathan. Moses: A Life. New York: Bal- • Droge, Arthur J (1989), Homer or Moses?: Early lantine, 1998. ISBN 0-345-41269-9. Christian Interpretations of the History of Culture, • Mohr Siebeck. Kohn, Rebecca. Seven Days to the Sea: An Epic Novel of the Exodus. New York: Rugged Land, • Fast, Howard (1958), Moses, Prince of Egypt, New 2006. ISBN 1-59071-049-5. York: Crown. • Freedman, H, ed. (1983), Midrash Rabbah (10 volumes), Lehman, S.M. (translator), London: The • Feiler, Bruce (2009), America’s Prophet: Moses and Soncino Press. the American Story, William Morrow. • Mann, Thomas (1943), “Thou Shalt Have No Other • Feldman, Louis H (1998), Josephus’s Interpretation Gods Before Me”, The Ten Commandments, New of the Bible, University of California Press. York: Simon & Schuster, pp. 3–70.

• Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001), • Meacham, Jon (2006), American Gospel: God, the The Bible Unearthed, New York: Free Press, ISBN Founding Fathers, and the Making of a Nation, Ran- 0-684-86912-8. dom House.

• ———; ——— (2001b), The Bible Unearthed, • Salibi, Kamal (1985), “The Bible Came from Ara- New York: Simon & Schuster. bia”, Jonathan Cape (London). • • Franklin, Benjamin (1834), Franklin, William Sandmel, Samuel (1973), Alone Atop the Mountain, Temple, ed., Memoirs (ebook) 2, Philadelphia: Mc- Garden City, NY: Doubleday, ISBN 0-385-03877- Carty & Davis. 1. • Van Seters, John (2004), “Moses”, in Barton, John, • Freud, Sigmund (1967), Moses and Monotheism, The Biblical World, Taylor & Francis New York: Vintage, ISBN 0-394-70014-7. • ——— (1994), The Life of Moses: The Yahwist • Gregory of Nyssa (1978), The Life of Moses, The as Historian in Exodus-Numbers, Peeters Publishers, Classics of Western Spirituality, Transl. Abraham ISBN 90-390-0112-X. J. Malherbe and Everett Ferguson. Preface by John Meyendorﬀ, Paulist Press, ISBN 978-0-80912112- • Shmuel, Safrai (1976), Stern, M, ed., The Jewish 0. 208 pp. People in the First Century, Van Gorcum Fortress Press • Guthrie, Kenneth Sylvan (1917), Numenius of Apamea: The Father of Neo-Platonism, George Bell • Ska, Jean Louis (2009), The Exegesis of the Penta- & Sons teuch: Exegetical Studies and Basic Questions, Mohr Siebeck, pp. 30–31, 260, ISBN 978-3-16-149905- • Halter, Marek (2005), Zipporah, Wife of Moses, 0 New York: Crown, ISBN 1-4000-5279-3. • Smith, Huston (1991), The World’s Religions, • Hoﬀmeier, James K (1996), “Moses and the Exo- Harper Collins dus", Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authen- • Southon, Arthur Eustace (1954) [London: Cassell ticity of the Exodus Tradition, New York: Oxford & Co., 1937], On Eagles’ Wings (reprint), New University Press, pp. 135–63. York: McGraw-Hill.

• Hamilton, Victor (2011), Exodus: An Exegetical • van der Toorn, K.; Becking, Bob; van der Horst, Commentary, Baker Books. Pieter Willem, Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible. • Ingraham, Joseph Holt (2006) [New York: A.L. Burt, 1859], The Pillar of Fire: Or Israel in Bondage • Wiesel, Elie (1976), “Moses: Portrait of a Leader”, (reprint), Ann Arbor, MC: Scholarly Publishing Of- Messengers of God: Biblical Portraits & Legends, ﬁce, University of Michigan Library, ISBN 1-4255- New York: Random House, pp. 174–210, ISBN 6491-7. 0-394-49740-6. 20 12 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Wildavsky, Aaron (2005), Moses as Political Leader, Jerusalem: Shalem Press, ISBN 965-7052- 31-9.

• Wilson, Dorothy Clarke (1949), Prince of Egypt, Philadelphia: Westminster Press.

12 External links

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: “Moses”. Jewish Encyclope- dia. 1901–1906.

• The Geography, Book XVI, Chapter II The entire context of the cited chapter of Strabo’s work 21

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text

• Moses Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moses?oldid=694273672 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Tobias Hoevekamp, Magnus Manske, Zundark, The Anome, Slrubenstein, Malcolm Farmer, DanKeshet, RK, Christopher Mahan, Deb, SimonP, Panairjdde~enwiki, Ewen, Olivier, Stevertigo, Edward, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Fred Bauder, Ixfd64, IZAK, Sannse, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Kricxjo, Iulianu, Kaplan~enwiki, Angela, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Kingturtle, Irmgard, Usedbook, Cyan, Aragorn2, Andres, John K, Cser- nica, Mxn, Vargenau, JASpencer, Richard Avery, Emperorbma, Charles Matthews, Tacvek, Reddi, Joshuabowman, Jm34harvey, Jay, Jwrosenzweig, Fuzheado, Selket, DJ Clayworth, Haukurth, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Furrykef, Whcernan, SEWilco, Phoebe, Bevo, Lord Emsworth, Stormie, Metasquares, Bloodshedder, AnonMoos, Johnleemk, Francs2000, Slawojarek, JorgeGG, KuatofKDY, Puz- zletChung, Branddobbe, Robbot, DavidA, Waerth, JeMa, SableSynthesis, Dittaeva, Psychonaut, Sparky, Chris Roy, Mirv, Wjhonson, Rursus, Texture, Auric, Gidonb, Humus sapiens, Hadal, UtherSRG, Phthoggos, Wikibot, DigiBullet, Lupo, SpellBott, Dina, Pablo-flores, Albatross2147, Centrx, Johnjosephbachir, Smjg, Andries, Tom harrison, Meursault2004, MathKnight, Marcika, Yak, Everyking, Niteowl- neils, Chinasaur, Jfdwolff, Sdfisher, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Guanaco, Eequor, Golbez, AaronW, Stevietheman, Gadfium, Andycjp, Traumerei, Zeimusu, Yath, Antandrus, Beland, Piotrus, Jossi, Rdsmith4, SmolderingWiki, JimWae, Pacian, Pat Berry, Gary D, Neutrality, Mar- cus2, Joyous!, Wyllium, Robin klein, Clemwang, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Esperant, Mike Rosoft, Timothy Campbell, Kingal86, Jayjg, Freakofnurture, DanielCD, Mindspillage, Discospinster, Brianhe, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Brutannica, Pak21, Cjoshuav, Wclark, Dour High Arch, Dbachmann, JPX7, Nard the Bard, Paul August, Unixslug, Kenb215, Bender235, Sunborn, Kaisershatner, Brian0918, Aranel, MisterSheik, Joanjoc~enwiki, Kwamikagami, Mwanner, Tverbeek, Shanes, Sietse Snel, Dennis Brown, Cacophony, Bookofjude, Aaronbrick, Jpgordon, Bobo192, Mpbx3003, NetBot, John Vandenberg, Shenme, Viriditas, Jguk 2, Guiltyspark, Satyadasa, Nk, Flammifer, Famousdog, Mmansoor, MPerel, Sam Korn, Pharos, Jonathunder, Nickfraser, Marknash, Storm Rider, Mrzaius, Alansohn, Gary, Sherurcij, Tek022, Eric Kvaalen, Wiki-uk, Atlant, Rd232, Moanzhu, Paleorthid, M7, CheeseDreams, Hagnat, SpaceFalcon2001, Yamla, Lightdark- ness, Viridian, YDZ, Ncdoyle, JDV72, Bart133, Zsero, SidP, Evil Monkey, Jheald, Grenavitar, MrLogic, Pookleblinky, Dave.Dunford, Tarakananda, Kusma, Jguk, Lee-Anne, Drbreznjev, Ghirlandajo, Redvers, Tobyc75, HenryLi, Ceyockey, Voldemort, April Arcus, Cheese dreams, Tom.k, Sheynhertz-Unbayg, Crosbiesmith, Mosesroth, Jonnycando, Boothy443, Simetrical, Jeffrey O. 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13.2 Images

• File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MarkusMark • File:Alexandre_Cabanel_-_Death_of_Moses.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Alexandre_ Cabanel_-_Death_of_Moses.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: Oﬃcial gallery link Original artist: Alexandre Cabanel • File:Ambox_question.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Ambox_question.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on Image:Ambox important.svg Original artist: Mysid, Dsmurat, penubag • File:Bacchiacca_-_Moses_Striking_the_Rock.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Bacchiacca_-_ Moses_Striking_the_Rock.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 1. The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publish- ing GmbH. Original artist: Bacchiacca • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Embarkation_of_the_Pilgrims.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Embarkation_of_the_ Pilgrims.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Architect of the Capitol Original artist: Robert W. Weir (photograph courtesy Architect of the Capitol) 13.2 Images 23

• File:FirstCommitteeGreatSealReverseLossingDrawing.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/ FirstCommitteeGreatSealReverseLossingDrawing.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Extracted from PDF version of Symbols of the Great Seal poster, part of a U.S. Diplomacy Center (State Department) exhibition on the 225th anniversary of the Great Seal. Direct PDF URL [1] (18MB)

Scanned from The Eagle and the Shield by Patterson and Dougall, page 21

Original artist: Benson John Lossing • File:Gloriole_blur.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Gloriole_blur.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: Eubulides • File:Kirchenfenster_Böckweiler.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Kirchenfenster_B%C3% B6ckweiler.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/11596438@N00/2435169073/sizes/o/in/ photostream/ Original artist: tiegeltuf • File:Lawrence_Saint_Moses_Closeup.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Lawrence_Saint_Moses_ Closeup.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia by SreeBot Original artist: Captain Phoebus at en.wikipedia • File:MOSES_WENT_UP_INTO_A_HIGH_MOUNTAIN,_FROM_WHICH_HE_COULD_SEE_THE_LAND_HE_WAS_ NEVER_TO_REACH..gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/MOSES_WENT_UP_INTO_A_HIGH_ MOUNTAIN%2C_FROM_WHICH_HE_COULD_SEE_THE_LAND_HE_WAS_NEVER_TO_REACH..gif License: Public domain Contributors: On the shores of Great Seas Original artist: Illustrated by E. M. Synge • File:Memorial_of_Moses,_Mt._Nebo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Memorial_of_Moses%2C_ Mt._Nebo.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Milei.vencel • File:Moses-icon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Moses-icon.jpg License: Public domain Contribu- tors: Iconostasis of Kizhi monastery, Russia Original artist: 18 century icon painter • File:Moses041.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Moses041.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: YorckProject Original artist: José de Ribera • File:MosesRescued_FromTheNile.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/MosesRescued_ FromTheNile.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.bridgemanartondemand.com/art/177264/The_Finding_of_ Moses_1638 Original artist: Nicolas Poussin • File:MosesStrikingTheRock_GREBBER.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/ MosesStrikingTheRock_GREBBER.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://freechristimages.org/biblebooks/Book_of_ Numbers.htm Original artist: Pieter de Grebber • File:Moses_-_Alta-Tadema.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Moses_-_Alta-Tadema.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Artrenewal.org Original artist: Lawrence Alma-Tadema • File:Moses_LOC.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/5f/Moses_LOC.jpg License: PD Contributors: Library of Congress Exhibits;(full size image) Original artist: Carol Highsmith, photographer • File:Moses_bas-relief_in_the_U.S._House_of_Representatives_chamber.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/3/38/Moses_bas-relief_in_the_U.S._House_of_Representatives_chamber.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Sculpture by Jean de Marco; photo by the Architect of the Capitol • File:Nabi_Musa_jerico-Jerusalam.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Nabi_Musa_jerico-Jerusalam.jpg Li- cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: I(Md iet (talk)) created this work entirely by myself. Original artist: Md iet (talk) • File:San_Pietro_in_Vincoli_Rome_2011_14.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/San_Pietro_in_ Vincoli_Rome_2011_14.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Karelj • File:SyriacBibleParisFolio8rrMosesBeforePharaoh.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/ SyriacBibleParisFolio8rrMosesBeforePharaoh.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:The_Brazen_Serpent.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/The_Brazen_Serpent.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: BJU Museum and Gallery Original artist: Benjamin West • File:Transfigurationbloch.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Transfigurationbloch.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: http://www.1st-art-gallery.com/Carl-Heinrich-Bloch/The-Transfiguration.html Original artist: Carl Heinrich Bloch • File:VictoryOLord.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/VictoryOLord.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Originally uploaded on en.wikipedia by Paul Barlow (Transferred by lux2545) Original artist: John Everett Millais • File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This ﬁle was derived from Wiki letter w.svg: Original artist: Derivative work by Thumperward from: • File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? 24 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau • File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs), based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber • File:William_Blake_-_Moses_Receiving_the_Law_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/b/b4/William_Blake_-_Moses_Receiving_the_Law_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 3wHJdwPKniIvjQ at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: William Blake

13.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0