LEADERLESS RESISTANCE, RADICAL ENVIRONMENTALISM, AND ASYMMETRICAL WARFARE by James Paul Joosse A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Sociology University of Alberta © James Paul Joosse, 2014 ABSTRACT This dissertation interrogates the concept of ‗leaderless resistance.‘ Traditionally defined as a strategy that allows for and encourages individuals or small cells to carry out acts of violence or sabotage entirely independent of any hierarchy of leadership or network of support, leaderless resistance is most often implemented by weaker actors who are engaged in asymmetrical struggle. The central task here is to problematize the contention found in the counterterrorism literature that leaderless resistance functions primarily to provide clandestine groups immunity to detection, infiltration, and prosecution by state agencies. I argue over the course of a series of papers that leaderless resistance is both more than this and sometimes not this. Two groups inform this research: a) the Earth Liberation Front (ELF), which is responsible for a series of arson attacks against ski resorts, genetic research labs, SUV dealerships, and forestry headquarters, and b) the EnCana Bomber(s), who are responsible for a series of six bombings and three threat letters aimed at the pipeline infrastructure of EnCana corporation, the largest producer of natural gas in North America. I articulate my arguments over the course of four chapters (chapters 2-5). In chapter two I argue that there are benefits additional to clandestinity that the ELF enjoys. By using leaderless resistance, the ELF eliminates all ideology extraneous to the specific cause of halting the degradation of nature. This elimination enables the ELF to mobilize a greater number of ‗direct actions.‘ Chapter three tests a link in the communicative cycle through which leaderless resistance purports to operate, namely the interaction between above-ground spokespersons and the potential saboteurs that they hope to inspire. I find that these spokespersons‘ peculiar role in contexts of leaderless resistance hampers their ii ability to spread their ideological message, and exacerbates the more general problems that counter-hegemonic groups experience in their interactions with mainstream media. Chapter four finds that leaderless resistance is itself at least partly a rhetorical construct, a meaning-conferring ‗ideology of effervescence‘ that lifts the spirits of both movement progenitors who advocate the strategy as well as incipient lone wolves who consider responding to their exhortations. This chapter also articulates leaderless resistance as a forum for the expression of charismatic leadership. Chapter five incorporates leaderless resistance as one element in a larger discussion of ethical considerations as they come to bear on both the antiglobalization and radical environmental movement. Overall, these chapters combine to produce a more robust and multi-faceted vision of leaderless resistance than is currently on offer by terrorism scholarship. iii ACKNOWLEGMENTS I would like to extend my gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Stephen Kent, who has been an invaluable source of encouragement, insight, and guidance throughout my graduate studies, both at the masters and doctoral levels. Without his generosity—with his time and with his research collection, this would have not been possible. Thanks are also due to my committee members, Drs. Harvey Krahn, Zohreh Bayatrizi for shepherding me through his process, and to Drs. Cor Baerveldt and Sveinung Sandberg for their insightful and constructive criticism during the final examination. I would be remiss not to mention also the fine advice and guidance given by Drs. Sandra Bucerius, Dominique Clément, and Gillian Stevens at various points along the way. During my doctoral work, I received generous financial support from Department of Sociology, Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research at the University of Alberta, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, and from Public Safety Canada. I have also benefited from the many dedicated and highly capable people that make the Department of Sociology at the University of Alberta such a fantastic place to be day in and day out. In particular, I would like to thank Nancy Evans, Lynn Van Reede, Cris Whalen, Tara Mish, Curtis Champagne, Flora Webber, Diane Mirth, Drs. Judith Golec and Lisa Strohschein, and Graduate Program chairs Drs. Bill Johnston, Kevin Haggerty, and Sara Dorow. My family –Jim and Alice Joosse, Katie and Ben Joosse-Greidanus – have always been supportive of my education and career choices, and have been a constant source of encouragement. Finally, my most heartfelt thanks go to Iris, who I am unable to thank enough. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………ii Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………….iv Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………v List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………vii Preface…………………………………………………………………………………..viii Chapter One: Introduction Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….1 Leaderless Resistance within the Discipline of Terrorism Studies........................9 Chapter by Chapter Outline...................................................................................23 A Brief Note on Data Collection………………………………………………...29 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………..37 Chapter Two: Leaderless Resistance and Ideological Inclusion: The Case of the Earth Liberation Front Introduction………………………………………………………………………………51 The Development of a Concept: LR in America‘s Radical Right……………….54 Leaderless Resistance in the ELF………………………………………………..58 Radical Environmentalism as a Call to Action…………………………………..62 Factions rather than Actions……………………………………………………..64 Benefits of Leaderless Resistance for the ELF…………………………………..68 Politics as a Contentious Issue Amongst Radical Environmentalists…………....74 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….78 Chapter Three: Elves, Environmentalism, and „Eco-Terror‟: Leaderless Resistance and Media Coverage of the Earth Liberation Front Introduction……………………………………………………………………………...81 Methods………………………………………………………………………….85 A Brief history of ELF Actions……………………………………………….....87 The ELF‘s Organizational Structure……………………………………………..88 Anti-Corporate, Anarchist Ideology in the ELF…………………………………90 How the ELF Tries to ―Make the News‖………………………………………...92 Representations of ELF: Treehuggers, Terrorists, and ‗Dangerous Clowns‘……94 Opposing Stakeholders: The Corporation……………………………………....104 Opposing Stakeholders: The State……………………………………………...108 v Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...112 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………115 Chapter Four: Charisma and the Ideology of Leaderless Resistance Introduction……………………………………………………………………………..123 Study Design........................................................................................................126 Tomslake Background………………………………………………………….131 The Bombings…………………………………………………………………..134 Discursive struggles: Spartacus Vs. the Bush Bunny…………………………..141 Wiebo Ludwig, the Tomslake Bomber(s) and Spartacus………………………147 Charisma, Hoax, and the Hidden Transcript……………………………………151 Meaning and Ideologies of Effervescence……………………………………...156 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...164 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………169 Appendix A……………………………………………………………………………..185 Appendix B……………………………………………………………………………..187 Appendix C……………………………………………………………………………..188 Appendix D……………………………………………………………………………..189 Appendix E…………...………………………………………………………………...192 Chapter Five: Anti-globalization and Radical Environmentalism: An Exchange on Strategic and Ethical Grounds Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….194 The Anti-globalization Movement……………………………………………...198 The Historical Rise of Anarchism and Anti-globalist Sentiments in the Radical Environmental Movement……………………………………………………...200 Anti-Globalism within the ELF………………………………………………..204 Discussion: Criticisms of the Anti-globalization Movement and their Applicability to the ELF………………………………………………..………209 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...216 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………217 Chapter 6: Conclusion Contributions to Knowledge and Directions for Future Research……………………...225 Future Directions……………………………………………………………………….228 Attendant Controversies………………………………………………………………..254 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………258 Appendix F……………………………………………………………………………...265 Appendix G……………………………………………………………………………..267 vi List of Figures Figure 1. The Inspirational and Operational Aspects of Leaderless Resistance…………8 Figure 2. Leaderless Resistance as a Communicative Cycle…………………….............24 Figure 3. Elves to the Masses……………………………………………….…………...26 Figure 4. The Role of the Spokespersons………………………………………………..27 Figure 5. Charisma and the Hidden Transcript………………………………………….28 Figure 6. Leaderless Resistance as Opposed to Other Organizational Forms…………..61 Figure 7. Overlapping Consensuses…………………………………..…………………79 Figure 8. ―Profile of an Oil Pipeline Bomber Bush Bunny‖ ……………...……………144 Figure 9. The Bush Bunny Incarnate…………………..………………...……………..145 Figure 10. Doin‘ the Wiebo……………………………………………………………155 Figure 11. Tilly‘s Typology of Collective Violence…………………………………...241 Figure 12 Points of Connection in Two Models of Collective Framing……………….246 vii Preface This dissertation follows the ‗paper format‘ as specified by the Faculty of Graduate Studies at the University of Alberta. As such, each body chapter contains its own theoretical,