Critical Review of Models, Containing Cultural Levels Beyond the Organizational One

Articles Cultural Levels beyond the Organizational One Critical Review of Models, Containing Cultural Levels beyond the Organizational One

Kiril Dimitrov and tedious endeavors, exerted by local politicians, business leaders and soci- Summary: ety for establishment of an open market The current article traces back the sci- economy with democratic system, but entific interest to cultural levels across the also the beginning of an even more "com- organization at the University of National plex game" within business and political and World Economy, and especially in the contexts of the relations among separate series of Economic Alternatives – an of- member states in the Union. Just like the ficial scientific magazine, issued by this strained post-merger period of two previ- Institution. Further, a wider and critical re- ously separately existed companies, the view of international achievements in this elder member states, on one side (al- field is performed, revealing diverse anal- though there are many differences among ysis perspectives with respect to cultural them), and Bulgaria, on the other side, levels. Also, a useful model of exploring had to adapt culturally to each other, tak- and teaching the cultural levels beyond ing their time to surmount the typical cul- the organization is proposed. tural shock of becoming well acquainted with each other and long held prejudices Key words: globalization, national cul- of each other (Roth, 2012; Lewis, 2006; ture, organization culture, cultural levels, Paunov, 2009). Relying on the axiom "one cultural economics. who pays the bill, orders the music", it is not surprising that Bulgarian politicians, JEL: M14, Z10. business leaders and society are doomed to walk the larger part of the road to "the point of cultural cohesion" (fit), since our 1. Introduction developing country is a beneficiary of ulgaria’s accession to the Euro- pre-accession funds and operative pro- Bpean Union from the 1st of Janu- grams of European social funds for cur- ary 2007 proved to be not only a glori- rent and future program periods, and is ous date, that marked general acknowl- subject to monitoring process by the Eu- edgements of the successful end in hard ropean committee, measuring the results

*Kiril Dimitrov is a Ph.D., chief assistant at the Industrial Business Department of UNWE, e-mail: [email protected]

98 Economic Alternatives, issue 1, 2012 Articles of followed paces in required reforms in considering the accompanying cultural different spheres (business; ecology; leg- context, comes as the inevitable future of islation; judicial power; preventing nepo- Bulgarian business, politicians and soci- tism and corruption practices, financial ety, switching from unprofitable "nominal frauds, money laundering; security, elec- membership" in the EU to real, beneficial tronic government, etc.). In fact the first inclusion in the activities and deliberate five years of country’s membership in the development of the Uniform European "Club of the richest" above all things rep- market. That is why a greater attention is resent a period when: needed to studying of cultural levels be-  Bulgarian business leaders and yond organization. politicians had to redefine their concept 2. Dominating Views to Cultural of internal and external market, accepting Levels Across the Organization the challenges of higher competitiveness Traditionally local scientists at UNWE and social responsibility of the entities in do not put a great emphasis on knowl- the Uniform European market. The last edge and research in the field of cultural undertaking is embodied in necessary awareness and intelligence beyond the changes in the basic assumptions of the organization, excepting (adapted and par- "local players", associated with redefin- tial) reproductions of Hofstede’s survey ing (updating) of their answers to sensi- of national cultures or Trompenaars and tive issues, constituting the contents of Hampden-Turner’s cultural dimensions the main problems in organizational cul- in Bulgarian context, done by Minkov ture, i.e. external adaptation and internal (2002), Genov (2004), Davidkov (2005), integration. Ivanov et. al. (2001), and Kolev et. al.  The World financial and economic (2009a). Outside the academic society, crisis had to be used as an opportunity of in the local business circles and public seamless entering into the regional mar- administration, pervasive negligence is kets of a number of other EU member demonstrated to cultural issues that may states by Bulgarian business entities. be considered with confidence as one of  Bulgarian business and politicians the main sources of the deep, long, local had to further develop their relations with economic and political crisis from the last the other EU member states, and espe- decade in the 20th century. A review of the cially these that are culturally closer to us. articles, oriented to cultural studies, and  Bulgarian state had to accept the published in the issues of the UNWE’s role of an outside boundary for the EU, scientific magazine, confirms this state- diligently performing respective rights and ment because there the research results responsibilities. revealed that the study of the cultural The achieved results on these crite- levels beyond organization has not been ria are far from being excellent, but un- chosen as an investigative question by the dertaking interventions in these spheres, scientists (see table 1).

99 Articles Cultural Levels beyond the Organizational One

Table 1. A List of Articles in the Sphere of Organizational Culture, Published in "Economic Alternatives" Magazine (Previous Name – "Alternatives") at the UNWE1. Subject-matter, representing Article’s author and heading cultural levels (layers) 1. Dimov (2010), Where Are We in the European Virtual - indirect relation to national level Space? - virtual culture 2. Dimitrov (2009), Several Norms and Beliefs, Defining the - indirect relation to national level Attitude to Human Resources in the Industrial Organizations - national level 3. Kolev, Rakadzhiyska (2009), A Tendency toward - the relation between national New Cultural Attitudes of Business Agents in Bulgaria level and organizational one 4. Andreeva (2008), The Cultural Industries in the Countries - indirect relation to national level of Southeast Europe and their Economic Impact and industrial one in the Context of Social Transformation 5. Paunova (2007), How to Characterize and Assess - organizational level the Culture of an Organization 6. Jankulov (2006), Surveying Organizational Culture - organizational level of Trade Firms in Bulgaria - industrial level 7. Milkov (2006), Lecturer’s Information Culture As a Factor, - indirect relation to professional Creating High Quality Educational Service at Higher School culture 8. Todorov (2006), Negotiation Strategies in Multicultural - indirect relation to national level Business Environment and organizational one 9. Alexandrova (2005), Entrepreneurial Orientation - indirect relation to national level in the Context of National Cultural Environment - entrepreneurial culture 10. Dimitrov (2005), Conflictology and Conflictolocical Culture - culture of the specialist 11. Parusheva (2005), Destination Bulgaria in the Context - indirect relation to national level of the Social and Cultural Effects of Eurointegration 12. Spasov (2002), Institutional Change and Economic Transition - indirect relation to national level 13. Stavrev (2002), Bulgaria’s Absurdities are Normal, But - indirect relation to national level Only for Us 14. Chankova (2001), Firm Culture – a Base for Efficient - organizational level Innovation Activity 15. Dimitrov (2000), Individualism of New Elites in Bulgaria - social strata and Development of Civil Society -national level - organizational level 16. Todorov (2000), The Relation Strategy – Structure – - basic assumptions are Organization Culture in Small and Medium Sized Firms described through Schein’s definition of organizational culture 17. Peycheva (1999), Necessity of Ethics Defense - indirect relation in the Firm to organizational level 18. Zlatev (1997), Issues and Challenges, Confronting - indirect relation to national level Industrial Managers in Bulgaria and professional culture

1 The articles are accessible either as hard copies in the university library (i.e. in the periodicals reading room) or as electronic documents through the university sub-site.

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The contents of cultural awareness way the Dutchman proposes acceptable ex- courses at UNWE traditionally present the planations to the observed cultural specifics points of view of one or more of the follow- at national level, as follows: ing scientists: Hofstede, Paunov, Trompa-  National cultures show their stability naars and Hampden-Turner, and Todorov. in time, permitting changes in dominating Hofstede (2010a, 2010b) justifies the exist- value set not until occurrence of an evident ence of three levels of culture, influencing shift among generations. to a great extent the formation and evolution  The turbulent influences of the envi- of a target organizational culture, as follows: ronment may cause in most of the cases national level, professional level, and gen- just changes in the practices (symbols, he- der level (see figure 1). roes, rituals), while the underlying values still remain intact. The last ones may under- National (regional) level go certain changes in extreme occasions, such as wars, death of a family member, severe illness, natural disasters, etc.  The cultural unit at national and re- Professional level gional level may not correspond to the established boundaries among different countries. So, not only culturally similar regions may belong to different states, but also big Organizational level countries may consist of culturally differing CULTURAL LEVELS regions. The smaller the country, the greater cultural homogeneity it possesses. Gender level The importance of the professional level stems from individual’s obligatory "mind programming" before his/her entering in a certain Fig.1. Hofsede’s View of Cultural Levels beyond the occupational field. Hofstede views it as a mix Organization. Source: Hofstede (2010a) of national and organizational cultural elements that determine its place in the proposed In his framework of cultural levels Hofst- hierarchy. Occupational cultures possess their ede establishes a hierarchical (vertical) order, sets of specific symbols, heroes and rituals. locating at the highest point the attributes of Hofstede compares the intensity of the national level, followed consecutively by expressed feelings and fears in regard to professional, organizational and gender one. demonstrated behaviors by the opposite According to the scientist national cultures sex to the intensity of people’s reactions differ from each other on the basis of uncon- to clashes with foreign (alien) cultures. He sciously held values, shared by the major- assumes that national culture influences to ity of the respective population. He defines a great extent the established difference a value as a widely preferred state of being between sexes. The existence of two dif- in comparison to other possible ones. In this fering male and female cultures in a given

101 Articles Cultural Levels beyond the Organizational One society provides a plausible explanation of individual, inherited and learned), adhering the reason why the traditional division of to Hofstede’s vertical perspective (1994). gender roles is not amenable to deliberate But Paunov’s interpretation reveals certain changes. Both males and females may pos- nuances (see figure 2). First, the hierarchi- sess required knowledge, skills and capa- cal perspective in studying and organizing bilities to perform a certain job, but the rep- of cultural levels is preserved and a bit en- resentatives of one of the sexes may not be riched, concerning the position, determined in congruence with the traditional symbols, for the individual who is viewed dually as a may not resemble familiar heroes, may not member of civil society and as a perform- share established rituals, or even may not ing employee, contributing to a certain or- be adopted in this different role by the op- ganization. Second, the direct link between posite sex in the organizations. "individual culture" (as a rule considered as Hofstede et. al. (2010b) enrich a bit the the basic cultural unit, not a cultural level) list and descriptions of proposed cultural and "organizational culture" implies author’s levels, as follows: support to the existence of an "overarch-  The national level represents the ing organization culture", consisting in some aggregate of people, living in their mother cases of separate sub-cultures – a notion, country and the immigrants. The culture of shared by the majority of researchers in the the representatives of the last group may cultural field. Additionally, this approach im- be considered as a specific mix of national plies Paunov’s modern concept of career cultures according to the countries these as individual’s portfolio of skills and com- people migrated during their lifetime. petences that may be transferred from one  The regional level is further segment- workplace to another (Arthur, Rousseau, ed to reflect diversity in ethnic and/or reli- 1996). It may be concluded that the author gious and/or linguistic affiliation, since the inherently considers the possibility of hired majority of nations consist in motley groups. laborers’ outliving employer organizations.  The generation level appears to ex- Third, a dashed arrow is constructed to plain potential differences among grandpar- show Paunov’s adhering to Hofstede’s ver- ents, parents and children. tical perspective, revealing the subordina-  The social class level is introduced tion of "organizational culture" to "national to assess potential differences, related to culture". Fourth, Paunov labels all identified available educational opportunities and to a cultural levels beyond the organizational person’s occupation or profession. one with the collective term "other cultural In his turn Paunov (2005) explores the systems". Fifth, diverse criteria for further relation of organizational culture with other segmentation of the elements, belonging to cultural systems, differentiating culture (spe- the identified main cultural levels (in the text cific to group or category and learned) from boxes), are proposed (the right side of the related terms as human nature (universal figure). The greater importance of some of and inherited) and personality (specific to these criteria is underlined by their use in

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CULTURE COMMON TO ALL MANKIND (UNIVERSAL CULTURE) Regions

Races

NATIONAL CULTURE Ethnicity

Religion

Social strata

Microenvironment

INDIVIDUAL CULTURE

Industry

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

Functional features

Product features

Task (technology) features

Sex

Age

Political affiliations, religion

Ethnicity, background

Regions, etc.

GROUP SUBCULTURES Source: Paunov (2005) Fig.2. The Relation of Organizational Culture with Other Cultural Systems more than one cultural system (i.e. a level munications, business culture), although it beyond the organization). Sixth, the "indus- permits making the logical conclusion of the trial segmentation criterion" is located in the existence of a strong relationship between upper right from the organizational culture national and organizational levels. In fact level (text box) to reveal the logic direction Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (2008) of subordination. use in the examples, accompanying the ex- Additionally, Paunov (2008) enriches his planation of the proposed framework, stories perspective on cultural levels beyond the of people’s experiences while entering dif- organization in order to analyze in a better ferent countries and communicating with dif- way business-related cultural issues by pre- ferent ethnical groups (for example Burundi, senting Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s Hutus, Tutsis, Japanese, Eastern Europe, framework of cultural layers (1998). The no- Dutch, Central Americans, etc.). Traditionally tion of hidden from all sides cultural layers for the applied by them "union approach" of is directly illustrated here (see figure 3). But presenting cultural layers, the scientists start again here the analysis inherently goes on their analysis in the direction from outside to national level (cross-cultural business com- inside, because they consider that concrete

103 Articles Cultural Levels beyond the Organizational One factors constitute one’s first experience of an values (what is good or bad, an attribute close alien culture, i.e. the level of explicit culture. to shared ideals by group members, "a criteri- The last one is filled up by certain contents, on to determine a choice from existing alterna- as follows: "the observable reality of the lan- tives") and a classification criterion of one of guage, food, buildings, houses, monuments, these terms (formality: formal norms – written agriculture, shrines, markets, fashions and laws; informal laws – social control). The con- art". All these cultural elements are grouped gruence between norms and values is greatly as symbols of deeper cultural levels. The appreciated by Trompenaars and Hampden- great inaccuracy of expressed opinions and Turner who see it as the main source of cul- made conclusions about a given culture, tural stability, the antipode to which leads to based just on these items, is heavily under- "a destabilizing tension" and "disintegration". lined by revealing the impact of individual’s The stability and salience in shared mean- prejudices, reflecting predominantly his/her ings of norms and values in a community are background, not the assessed community. considered as a sufficient condition for their further development and elaboration. Here, it is assumed that dominating norms and values influence group members on both conscious and subconscious level. The core layer of assumptions about existence is used to explain the great diversity among different groups of people in preferred definitions of norms and values, initiating the analysis with defining of survival as people’s most basic value, in terms of "fighting" with nature on a daily basis and giving examples again with the specific problems of different nations and taking into account the specific conditions of different geographic regions Source: Trompenaars, Hampden-Turner (1998), and the available resources to the inhabit- Paunov (2008) ants. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner rely Fig.3. A Framework of Cultural Layers on the axiom that people tend to self-organ- Unbiased observer’s posing direct ques- ize in order to maximize the effectiveness of tions to members of the assessed group, in their problem-solving processes. It seems order to decipher strange and confusing be- these problems are complex and recurring haviors for him/herself, is considered as a nor- (revolving) and require continuous efforts in their daily resolution. The repetitive character mal way in penetrating into a deeper cultural of these actions, undertaken by people, for layer, i.e. the layer of norms and values. Here the sake of achieving short term successes the authors describe traditional definitions in a certain field, causes their gradual disap- and characteristics of norms (what is right or pearance from human consciousness. In this wrong, "how I normally should behave") and way individuals find their ways of coping with

104 Economic Alternatives, issue 1, 2012 Articles anxiety by reacting to environment threats existing relations, application spheres, as- with proven solutions out of their awareness, sumptions of layer contents, orientation to i.e. the set of shared basic assumptions by (re)(ab)solving certain issues, etc. The hi- the group. Discussion is determined to be erarchical perspective in structuring cultural the only one technique that may bring to sur- levels is further elaborated to include the face a basic assumption by posing the right global one (Erez, Gati, 2004; Wilhelms, Sha- questions which provoke as a rule confusion ki, Hsiao, 2009). The option of lateral rela- or irritation among target participants. Then tions among levels is also presented, through surprisingly the authors claim that this is the the lens of Karahanna et.al. (2005) who way how organizations work, explaining even even defines a supranational level as a mild the reason of initiating change programs in equivalent of global one. Hofstede’s work on the entities, i.e. situations when "certain old cultural levels is revealed not only through ways of doing things do not work any more". the criterion of their scope or generality, but The earliest book in the sphere of firm also by the essence of relation between val- culture at UNWE, edited by Todorov (1992), ues and practices, expressed by their differ- is among the most popular sources, cited by ent mixes (Hofstede, 1990; Hofstede, 1991; students in the course works, assigned to Hofstede, 2010b). The multiple attitude to them through the enacted syllabus, but its individual is described, too, outlining three contents does not provide detailed informa- alternatives: (a) as just a product of a cer- tion of cultural levels outside the organiza- tain culture (Wilhelms, Shaki, Hsiao, 2009) or tion (see table 2). So, students have to put (b) as a separate cultural level (Erez, Gati, in additional research efforts, searching for 2004), or (c) as a set of two layers (Espi- related sources in the scientific databases. nar, 2010). Specific sets of cultural levels, Table 2. Todorov’s Penetration into the Firm Culture Sphere. Book Subject-matter, representing cultural levels (layers) - (pp. 22-42) Hofstede’s levels: national culture, organizational culture (symbols, heroes, rituals, values), regions, social strata, professional culture (the Todorov, K., (edi- last two items are not called cultural levels); tor) Firm culture - (pp. 43-59) Henze’s: (а) microculture (firm culture and subcultures); (b) and Firm Behavior, macroculture (national, international and regional); (c) Schein’s framework of Publishing House organizational culture (artifacts, values, assumptions); "VEK22", 1992. - (pp.84-115) Kleinberg’s: social culture, cross-cultural level and international culture;

3. The Broader Horizon of Frameworks, depending on different application spheres Describing the Cultural Levels beyond as higher education (Rutherford, Kerr, 2008), the Organization information technologies (Ali, Brooks, 2009), Scientific databases (EBSCO, Scien- task forces (Schein, 2010), human learned ceDirect, Springer, Scopus and ProQuest) behavior (O’Neil, 2006) are analyzed. Even provide a richer picture on cultural levels as perfunctory attention to cultural levels con- diverse perspectives of analysis, essence of cept is detected (Schein, 2010).

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3.1. Erez and Gati’s Model of Cultural Layers  A society’s shared meanings are accepted to a satisfactory extent by the run- Erez and Gati (2004) propose a five level ning top-down socialization process. In this cultural model, bearing its specific structural way societal values become a part of an and dynamic dimensions (see figure 4). The individual’s personality. model is structured as a hierarchy of layers,  The components of higher rank sys- consecutively nested one in the other. The tems (group, organization, national level) core level in the framework is represented are constructed by value aggregation and by the cultural image of the individual who sharing process. participates in groups, organizations, nations

Source: Erez and Gati (2004) Fig.4. Erez and Gati’s Model of Cultural Layers and global culture. The authors view at cul- Thus, Erez and Gati succeed in defin- ture as a system of shared meanings that ing important cultural characteristics of the may emerge at each of the mentioned levels. mentioned cultural levels: Model’s dynamics is achieved by maintained  Global culture. The contemporary relations among the levels, especially the working environment is totally transformed ways in which they influence each other. The by occurred globalization, expressed last may be summarized, as follows: mostly by the increasing economic inter-

106 Economic Alternatives, issue 1, 2012 Articles dependency among countries, caused by  Organizational culture. It is defined international flaws of commodities, ser- as the shared set of beliefs and values by vices, capital, technologies, and people. the members of a certain organization, in- The "western culture" established on this fluencing demonstrated behaviors. The sci- level dominating core values as: freedom entists propose the following basic cultural of choice, free markets, individualism, in- dimensions at this level: orientation to in- novations, tolerance to changes, diversity novations, attention to details, orientation to and interconnectedness. Globalization im- achieving outcomes, attitude to risk-taking, pacts the other cultural levels by means of and focus on teamwork. Additionally, it is top-down processes. Vice versa, the bot- accepted that homogeneity of personnel tom-up processes may bring to the surface members’ perceptions and beliefs to a great of global culture a new characteristic that extent determine the strength of a certain in fact embodies shared behaviors and organizational culture. norms by the members of the lower rank  Group culture. It is reflected by shared cultural levels. In this way the homogeneity values by the members of a certain group. of global culture level increases. Exposing Orientation to shared learning, psychologi- individuals to global culture influence cre- cal safety in the team when expressing one’s ates their global identity. The acceptable own doubts, interpersonal trust and support fit between global and local identity is a are the attributes, constituting the set of the prerequisite for successful adaptation to most important values at this level. both environments. That is why the scien-  Individual level. The scientists con- tists claim that members of national cul- sider at this level the own cultural perfor- tures, characterized by high individualism, mance (disclosure) of the person, struc- low power distance, and low uncertainty- turing it as a mix of collectivistic values avoidance may better adapt to the global and individualistic values, incarnated in work environment in comparison to people the self. with other cultural background. 3.2. Wilhelms, Shaki and Hsiao’s Perspective  National culture. A nation and/or a on Cultural Levels state represent the analyzed cultural unit at this level. Differences among the cho- The standardized model by Wilhelms, sen units are sought with respect to held or Shaki and Hsiao (2009) for classifying professed national values or organizational culture reveals its multidimensional dy- practices and behaviors, event management, namics. By means of extensive review effective leadership characteristics, basic of accessible scientific literature and its axioms, and some social behavior theories. successive logic cataloguing the scien- Additionally, the achievement of consensus tists outline the existence of five cultural on desired and dominating values in a giv- layers, as follows: micro culture, meso en society at least partially establishes the culture, macro culture, meta culture, and boundaries of the unit at national level. global culture (see table 3).

107 Articles Cultural Levels beyond the Organizational One

Table 3. Cataloguing of Scientific Literature, Aiming Subsequent Identification of Cultural Layers

CULTURAL DIFFERENT AUTHORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE EMERGING CONTENTS OF CERTAIN LAYER LAYERS WHICH ARE ORIENTED TO: 1. Study of health care, especially dealing with cultural influences in providing such care. 2. The sphere of organizational culture. 3. Exploring the role of firm constituent interactions. Micro 4. Rethinking Caribbean families in the dimension of extending the links. culture 5. Study of immigrant adolescents who behave as culture brokers. 6. Study of strategic divestments in family firms, especially the role of family structure and community culture. 7. Measuring the impact of values in a concrete company. 1) Study of professional and industry culture. 2) Exploring of the micro, meso and macro terms in marketing context. 3) Study of the pitfalls of family resemblance, especially investigating the reasons why Meso transferring planning institutions between similar countries is delicate business. culture 4) Study of personal and political agendas, pursued by women managers in Hong Kong. 5) Study of subcultures of consumption, especially an ethnography of the new bikers. 6) Exploring the engineer’s perspective in marketing. 7) Exploring clothing stories: consumption identity, and desire in depression-era Toronto. 1) Study of national framework, defined by geographic boundaries. 2) Exploring socio-cultural factors that influence human resource development practices in Lebanon. 3) Study of extending the cultural research infrastructure, especially the rise of the regional Macro cultural consortiums in England. culture 4) Exploring the role of national culture in international marketing research. 5) Study of market orientation and the property development business in Singapore. 6) Exploring the impacts of some organizational factors on corporate entrepreneurship and business performance in the Turkish automotive industry. 1) Study of culture in multinational organizations or the so called cross-cultural patterns. 2) Study of international differences in work-related values. 3) Exploring the levels of organizational trust in individualist versus collectivist societies. 4) Exploring the cross-cultural perspective on artists’ attitudes to marketing. Meta culture 5) Study of institutional panethnicity, especially boundary formation in Asian-American organizations. 6) Exploring the values in the West within the theoretical and empirical challenge to the individualism-collectivism cultural dimension. 1) Study of the biggest and the newest cultural layer. 2) Identifying global and culture-specific dimensions of humor in advertising. 3) Exploring the role of global consumer culture, regarding brand positioning through advertising in Asia, North America, and Europe. Global 4) Exploring young consumers’ perceptions of multinational firms and their acculturation culture channels towards western products in transition economies. 5) Study of international organizations, the "education-economic growth" black box, and the development of world education culture. 6) Exploring the effects of culture and socioeconomics on the performance of global brand image strategies. Source: Wilhelms, Shaki and Hsiao (2009)

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The scientists use the term "cultural face to the individual and from the core to layer" to describe the environment in which the global layer. Inside-out transformation organizations perform. The individual – the occurs in the model when its core is af- smallest structural, cultural element (unit) – fected (influenced) by transmitted informa- is located at the core of the model as a tion. All cultural layers are characterized basic participant in the realization of all cul- by their density and erosion. Each cultural tural layers. By contrast with Erez and Gati layer possesses specific density, corre- (2004), Wilhelms, Shaki and Hsiao (2009) sponding to the achieved extent of struc- deny the existence of specific individual tural complexity, incarnated in the present culture, considering that the individual may social and organizational forms in it. The only belong to (or possess) a certain cul- density of a certain cultural layer is meas- ture, spread at least among the members of ured both by the penetration speed the a certain group. So, it becomes evident that information flows in it and by the ways in culture cannot be classified at "individual which information is being filtered during its level". The proposed cultural layers em- flow. Cultural layer’s density may change body possible locations of the organizations under the influence of external and inter- up and down the established environments nal factors (for example enacted laws and in the model (see figure 5). The content of regulations). The availability of high density the separate layers is constantly changing. in a cultural layer means that information The information may be transmitted across cannot penetrate in it because of enacted the layers in two directions – from the sur- policies, normative acts, etc. In this way the

Source: Wilhelms, Shaki and Hsiao (2009) Figure 5. Wilhelms, Shaki and Hsiao’s Framework of Cultural Layers

109 Articles Cultural Levels beyond the Organizational One two-way informational flow between the lay- may be determined to the effect that the ers may be ceased with a set purpose – the culture to a given society is "the same as" flow’s dynamics is blocked, its influence is memories to an individual. decreased and consequences, associated  Micro culture. This layer emerges by with transmitted information, are prevented the formation of small groups (for instance from occurrence. friends, followers, etc.), although great vola- The cultural erosion is an intrinsic, natu- tility in group’s size is possible, limited in the ral process, running in the model. Gener- interval from the number of members in a ally it is perceived as some kind of change. family to personnel’s average annual num- The erosion may come into being at each ber in a company. Subcultures within the cultural layer as a result of influences from organizational culture context are accepted within it, due to the passing inside-out or as "values" in this interval, too. Each group, outside-in informational flow, enacted laws which members hold shared behavioral pat- and policies and natural changes. terns, may be a part of this cultural layer Subculture is another basic attribute in including ethnical groups. Single represent- this model and is identified as a certain so- atives of micro culture are components of cial or organizational group that belongs to a wider cultural constructs and higher rank given cultural layer which may be inhabited cultural systems. At this level the strongest by many subcultures. Wilhelms, Shaki and connection (intimacy) among the members Hsiao (2009) allow comparing different sub- of a group may be achieved. The option of cultures only if the last exist in a single layer cultural segmentation is available here. and there is an acceptable fit between the  Meso culture. It is intended to fill up explored cultural layer and its subcultures. the vacuum between micro and macro cul- Thus, Wilhelms, Shaki and Hsiao (2009) tural layers. The authors share the concept become capable of precisely determining that for sure meso culture differs from sub- the essence of the core and each of the culture. That is why they define precisely identified cultural layers, as follows: cultural groups, typical for the meso layer  The core, i.e. individual. Individuals as larger than the average number of the are products of culture they belong to. They personnel in a company and smaller in have learned to act in specific ways within number than a nation, for example com- the socio-cultural environment. That is why munities, consisting of two or more firms they occupy the core of culture with rela- (consortiums, companies with at least two tion to shared beliefs, attitudes, norms, roles separate business units), or consisting of and values. In this way the shared elements two or more families (entrepreneurial net- of subjective culture emerge and last, being works). The group members of meso cul- transferred between generations as memo- ture are characterized by homogeneity, ex- ries of personal experience including lan- pressed in some behavioral aspects. guage, time, and space (layout). Therefore,  Macro culture. The scientists define the relation between memories and culture it as collective programming of human mind

110 Economic Alternatives, issue 1, 2012 Articles in a specific geographical region with upper tory of two or more continents are labeled limits, coinciding with territories of separate as global. That is why the scientists claim states, i.e. the national framework. Thus that the shared beliefs patterns by global they succeed in restricting spheres and organizations compose the contents of dimensions of undertaken studies at this global culture. The scientists use an appro- layer. The macro culture systems take the priate example to illustrate manifestations shape of clusters from organizations or so- of global culture as functions, performed by cial groups within a target national frame- the World Trade Organization in connection work, for example two or more representa- with development of policies for business tives of meso layer which may not share the organizations on a global scale. The World same attitudes but obligatory belong to a Bank, The International Monetary Fund, given national framework. That is why the The United Nations Organization may be authors conclude that the achieved group accepted as other entities, influencing on a homogeneity here is weaker in comparison global scale. to meta culture layer. Wilhelms, Shaki and Hsiao (2009) guar-  Meta culture. Its structure comprises antee that their framework is not static by of two or more national cultures including considering organizations that may be clas- their social groups, or multinational geo- sified in a given layer at a definite moment graphical region or alliance (for example: as dynamically developing systems whose European Union, North American Free growth strivings may lead them to neces- Trade Agreement, etc.). Meta cultures are sary penetration into other layers. So it characterized by existing behavioral simi- sounds logical that localizations (spheres) larities, discovered in two or more macro within which a given company or industry (national) cultures. Meta cultures are also operates, and the achieved phase of their influenced by mighty organizational alli- evolutionary development are the two crite- ances, functioning within them. The authors ria that predetermine their belonging to a provide the example of regional industries certain cultural layer. That is why the scien- that are presented by two or more national tists ground the design and implementation industry sectors, operating in two or more of a regular monitoring review and assess- countries. ment process, concerning the current per-  Global culture. The whole planet is formance state of each target organization the magnitude of the construct that is wide- at a given cultural layer. ly used by media, academics and business, 3.3. Other Necessary Facets in Hofstede’s marking the made cultural choice on world- Work wide scale. This is the external border of the model. Two or more continents repre- The results from two large scientific pro- sent the smallest inhabitant in this cultural jects, led by Hofstede, help the scientist layer. Large organizations, operating within identify and organize in a sequential order multiple national boundaries on the terri- different cultural levels, based on the crite-

111 Articles Cultural Levels beyond the Organizational One rion of respective weight in "the ratio" be- undergone as an adult (above 18 years, for tween values and practices (symbols, ritu- professionals with higher education at the als, heroes). Thus, the Dutch reaches the age of above 22 years) whose individual set conclusions that national cultures differ to of values is already formed. Third, gender the greatest extent in values, dominating in and nationality are the only two cultural at- each of them (Hofstede, 1991; Hofstede tributes, present at birth in one’s lifetime. et. al., 2010), while organizational cultures Forth, values of founders and leaders in a differ to the greatest extent in practices, given organization may differentiate from the dominating in each of them (Hofstede et. individual value sets of the employees. That al., 1990). In this way it becomes clear that is why founders and leaders may create different mixes of values and practices exist and disseminate only daily practices among at the identified cultural levels beyond the the organization’s members, embodied in organizational one (see figure 6). symbols, heroes and rituals. Since the em-

Source: Hofstede et. Al. (2010) Fig.6. Hofstede’s Cultural Levels and Corresponding Socialization Locations

Hofstede explains the availability of dif- ployees have their personal and social lives ferences in "values – practices" observed out of the organizations, they are not stimu- mixes at separate cultural levels with di- lated or forced to change the items in their verse locations of learning or socialization established individual value sets in contrast of the mentioned couple of attributes. First, to the inhabitants of a prison, a mental hos- values as "mental programs" are acquired pital, an orphanage, a monastery, a nursing mainly during childhood and adolescence in home, etc., where the members are isolated one’s lifetime and in locations as one’s fam- from the wider community for a certain time, ily, neighborhood and school. Second, the reside and/or work on a confined territory organizational culture is learned by a new- and generally are in a similar life situation, comer in a certain entity during the process leading a formally administered way of life. of his/her socialization which is generally It seems evident that membership in a given

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Source: Hofstede (2001), Hofstede (1991), Hofstede et. al. (1990) Fig.7. Hofstede’s Concept of Forming Values in One’s Lifetime organization is not the prime criterion of employer is not able to provoke changes in formation and/or changes in an individual’s employee’s values, since the last are formed values (see figure 7). earlier before their encounter, but may only That is why the specialists in the sphere activate already possessed by the subordi- of human resource management are con- nate latent values by allowing manifestation sidered as the main driving force in: of previously forbidden practices in the or-  Maintaining or changing the domi- ganization. nating values in the organization by recruit- 3.4. Karahanna et. al’s Special View of ment and selection of the "right people" for Cultural Levels the organization or laying off "inappropriate people" (gender, nationality, social class, Karahanna, Evaristo and Srite (2005) education, age) and assume that specific individual’s charac-  Ensuring the adequate adoption of teristics account for potentially different the practices (symbols, heroes, rituals) by influences that the separate cultural levels the newcomers through an established for- exert on him. Thus, the scientists succeed mal socialization process. in identifying two streams of cultural level Therefore Hofstede infers that because influence on individual’s behaviors: of practices’ domination over values in the  The national cultural level has the mix, the organizational culture seems to a mightiest impact when demonstrated be- greater extent manageable through man- haviors are socially oriented or dominated agement’s undertaking changes in the by terminal or moral values. sphere of practices, i.e. preferred ways of  The organizational and professional employees’ doing things in the organization, levels have the mightiest impact when dem- including facts about the business, how it onstrated behaviors are task-oriented or im- works, proven cause-effect relationships, plicate competence values or practices. etc. The Dutch points out that as a rule an In this way the scientists support the view

113 Articles Cultural Levels beyond the Organizational One of Hofstede (1991) and Straub et. al. (2002) related to each other. Thus, the researchers that there exists a kind of interaction among reject previously dominated Hofstede’s con- the cultural levels, since manager and em- cept of hierarchical understanding as the ployee behaviors may be affected by diverse only one perspective in analyzing and clas- influences of different cultural levels (nation- sifying cultural levels on generality criterion al, organizational, subculture, etc.). But Kara- within the interval, formed by the upper limit hanna, Evaristo and Srite (2005) not only of a (supra)national level3 and the lower limit think that cultural levels and cultural layers2 of a group one (see figure 8).

Source: Karahanna, Evaristo, Srite (2005) Fig.8. Interrelated Levels of Culture – a Lateral Perspective may impact each person differently, based The logic of scientists’ presumption is on particular situation and individual’s values, supported by the essence of the contempo- but also emphasize the complex essence of rary business relations, as follows: this impact by bringing forth the idea that cul-  The greater part of the multinational tural levels to some extent may be laterally companies operate under specific condi-

2 Hofstede’s et. al. (1990) describe as cultural layers: symbols, heroes, rituals and values. 3 Karahanna, Evaristo and Srite (2005) constitute the supranational level to describe any kind of cultural differences that may cross national boundaries or may be detected to exist in more than one nation, originating from regional, ethnic, religious and linguistic peculiarities.

114 Economic Alternatives, issue 1, 2012 Articles tions in which the overarching organizational easier to transform practices in comparison culture encompasses a number of national, to values which is described as hardly fea- professional and other (sub)cultures. sible undertaking. In this way they pose the  The complexity of collaboration forms issue of property (essence) and quality in among business entities predetermines the "value-practices" relation and outline some increasing number of cases when groups of its important shades, as follows: (task-forces) are created whose members:  Practices make an impact on values (a) may be permanently employed in dif- during the formation period of the last, i.e. ferent organizations; (b) may have different human childhood and adolescence. professions; (c) may derive from different  The practices entirely lose their influ- nations and/or ethnicity; and (d) may pro- ence on values during the later stages in fess different religions. human life. Since each individual is characterized  As a source of potential cultural dif- by certain national, ethnical and language ferences values show greater relative im- affiliations, religious orientation, special portance at the more general cultural levels education, etc. which allow his being clas- (for example the national one), while prac- sified in different subcultures of the society, tices dominate at less general cultural lev- Karahanna, Evaristo and Srite (2005) may els (for example the group one). define the subjective culture of each person  Practices are constantly changing as a compound of at least several cultural because these attributes are to a greater levels. Additionally, if the individual works in extent related to the environment. a given organization, this entity is also pre-  Numerous interruptions in high de- sented in society by its dominating culture gree "values-practices" fit (congruence) are (see figure 8). observed. In fact in many real life cases the Karahanna, Evaristo and Srite (2005) practices simply do not embody the under- share Hofstede’s concept of two types of lying values or are not in congruence with human learning in one’s life – unconscious them, which may be due to a great contra- one, focused on values, and conscious one, diction between the assigned practices at focused on practices, but they go further a given cultural level (for instance organi- to apply the system approach in analyzing zational one) and the values, filling with values, considering their interdependence, contents another cultural level (for instance the potential existence of a relative priority national one). for each item in the set and assuming its 3.5. Rutherford and Kerr’s Framework stability. They leave an open door to chang- of Cultural Levels es in value set over time, due to migration, personal experience and extreme circum- Rutherford and Kerr (2008) also propose stances. Change management perspective a model of some kind of laterally interacting to organizational analysis leads the scien- cultural layers that exist under the specific tists to conclusion that change agents find it conditions of the respective internet culture

115 Articles Cultural Levels beyond the Organizational One in a given educational organization (see forms. Generally, design process of such figure 9). They consider that the success- deliverables flows within a certain cultural ful design of online training environment context whose values and standards get requires taking into account the specific- embodied in the deliverables. Authors’ view ity of certain teaching-related cultural lay- lies on research results, revealing that delib- ers as follows: a national culture, a profes- erate increase in working speed, openness sional-academic culture, dominating culture in communications, levels of informality in among the students in a given educational realized relations and freedom of question- institution, a target classroom culture, the ing dominate in design of communications organizational culture of the analyzed edu- platforms in the region of North-America cational institution and cultures, related to (Reeder et. al., 2004). But Rutherford and international education. By this model the Kerr (2008) assume that the expression of scientists pay great attention to important such values may turn out inacceptable with- cultural aspects in design process of on- in certain cultures. That is why they consid- line learning environments, i.e. educative er the demonstration of intercultural compe- software and online training computer plat- tence as extremely important and outline it

Source: Rutherford, Kerr (2008) Fig.9. Important Cultural Layers in Process of Online Learning Environment Design

116 Economic Alternatives, issue 1, 2012 Articles as developing a certain attitude to curiosity a target audience, selection of appropriate and openness, accumulating knowledge of appraisal methods, etc. the interactions among people in a society 3.6. Espinar’s Cultural Levels and acquiring skills for critical interpretation of new cultural knowledge. That is why Espinar (2010) applies a framework of the authors claim that the creation of online cultural layers through the lens of internation- training environment, recognizing the influ- al business communications, justifying this ence of dominating cultural dimensions on approach with already proven dependence instructors’ and trainees’ perceptions proves of a company’s successful performance on to be a very difficult task. The scientists try the global market on efficient and effective to resolve this issue by applying Tylee’ set demonstration of communication ability in an of subsequent design process decisions intercultural context. The scientist considers (2002) as a necessary condition in the de- that individuals transfer their cultural values sign process of online training environment, to the communicative process. In this way concerning the acceptable extent of inter- she is able to explain the specific process action among individuals, the appropriate of message filtering through a set of cultural motivational approaches for users, the es- layers, done by each (potential) business tablishment of a healthy balance between partner in cross-cultural business related en- group and individual opinions or one-person counters. Further on the researcher points work and teamwork, assessment of ap- out that demonstrated complexity of human propriate extent of uncertainty avoidance, behavioural modes determines potential suc- choosing an appropriate teaching style for cess of undertaken business initiatives. In

Table 4. Targowski and Metwalli’s Cultural Layers, Influencing the Business Communication Process. Cultural layer Description Globalization is the driving force here, since it is assumed that people from different cultures rely on the same rules and behaviours to ensure a certain Global Culture extent of success during communication process in business contexts, i.e. the participants try to adapt to the intercultural situation setting by deliberately deviating from otherwise their dominating cultural behaviours. It is oriented to traditions, behaviours, feelings, values, etc., that are common to National Culture a nation. Regional Culture It embodies the values that individuals share to some extent within a region. Organizational Its meaning is limited to a management means to control organizational Culture performance. It refers to a group of people, united by a common relationship as work, Group Culture profession or family. Personal Culture It represents an individual’s specific understanding of time, space and reality. Biological It outlines the universal reactions by humans to their physical needs. Culture

117 Articles Cultural Levels beyond the Organizational One fact the applied framework of cultural lay- propose the existence of three components, ers, affecting the communication process, forming human learned behavior patterns is summarized by Targowski and Metwalli and perceptions, starting with the most ob- (2003) who arrange the components in a vious one, as follows: sequential order by diminishing generality,  The specific body of cultural tradi- define the individual as a separate cultural tions for a society. People from separate layer and differentiate the set from already nationalities may be referred to a shared lan- mentioned ones by adding a biological layer guage, specific traditions and beliefs that dif- (see table 4). ferentiate them from other peoples. The ma- But Targowski and Metwalli (2003) go jority of members in a nation have acquired even further to describe the general struc- their culture from their predecessors. ture of a cultural layer, revealing the intrica-  The subculture is the second cul- cy of its contents and relations (see figure tural layer, forming human identity. The 10). The scientists claim that all identified complex, diverse societies are viewed as a elements in the structure are present at compound of immigrant groups from differ- each of the seven levels in spite of the ob- ent parts of the world whose members of- served inequality in their prominence. The ten preserve much of their original cul- researchers specify "communication chan- tures. The specific shared cultural traits nel", i.e. the medium of the message, and allow a certain group to be identified as a "climate", i.e. people’s openness to commu- subculture in the new society its members nicate, as other two equally significant fac- have joined. This classification of cultural tors, concerning the intercultural process. levels uses the society of the USA as an example: Vietnamese Americans, African 3.7. O’Neil’s Cultural Levels Americans, and Mexican Americans, to O’Neil (2006) uses simultaneously the describe differences among these subcul- terms layers and levels in his framework to tures by identity, food tradition, dialect or

Source: Targowski and Metwalli (2003) Fig.10. Structure of a Culture Layer

118 Economic Alternatives, issue 1, 2012 Articles language, and etc., inherited through cousin); (c) raising children in some sort of common ancestral background and ex- family setting; (d) having a concept of pri- perience. O’Neil dwells on a typical situ- vacy; (e) having rules to regulate sexual be- ation in the USA society when the cul- havior; etc. The scientist notes that there is tural differences between a subculture a great diversity in the way of carrying out or and the dominant national culture gradu- expressing cultural universals. For instance, ally blur and eventually disappear. The people with disabilities (deaf and dumb) use scientist outlines the transition of a given the finger alphabet to communicate with the subculture into a group of people who sign language instead of verbal language. identify themselves as citizens of the But both types of languages have their spe- USA first and claim only a common an- cific grammatical rules. cestry (for example German Americans 3.8. Steven Kaminski’s and Irish Americans). View to Cultural Levels  Cultural universals are the attributes, constituting the third cultural level. Kaminski (2006) analyzes cultural lev- O’Neil defines them as learned behavior els as pairs, each one consisting of a patterns, shared by the whole mankind and super-culture and a subculture. A super- proposes a long list of such "human cul- culture is defined as "an even more exten- tural" traits, as follows: (a) communicating sive shared perspective that in some way with a verbal language consisting of a lim- governs the perspective of the subcultures ited set of sounds and grammatical rules within it" (for example American culture for constructing sentences; (b) using age, versus General American business cul- gender, marriage and descent relationships ture), while a subculture is defined as "a to classify people (e.g., teenager, senior shared perspective within a larger culture". citizen, woman, man, wife, mother, uncle, The analysis here is concentrated on the

Fig.11. Kaminski’s View to Cultural Levels Source: (2006)

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Table 5. Alignment of Cultural Levels by Ali and Brooks.

Levels Descriptions National level (macro level, social Culture, shared among the people in a society or a country. level, cross-cultural level) Organizational level Culture, shared among people, working in an organization. Culture, shared among people with similar profession Group level or occupation, or a subculture of people with specific interests (a political party, a social stratum). Subjective culture of the individual – it embodies the extent Individual level to which the individual perceives (absorbs, learns) different (micro culture, subjective culture) cultures the last belongs to. Source: Ali and Brooks (2009). relations between the cultural attributes 3.9. A Framework of Cultural Levels by Ali within a chosen pair of adjacent levels. and Brooks The scientist describes two common char- Ali and Brooks (2009) make a differ- acteristics of subcultures, as follows: ence between cultural levels and cultural  Emerging without any influence or layers (Hofstede’s practices and values). direct leadership, exerted by the overarch- The identified tendency of existing corre- ing super culture. spondence and relations between levels  Modifying and/or ignoring key ele- and layers is similar to Hofstede’s ideas of ments of the overarching super culture. the changing contents in "values – prac- The researcher concludes that better un- tices" mix. The proposed framework of cul- derstanding the levels of super-cultures and tural levels by the scientists is based on a subcultures may be useful to decision-makers number of cultural studies predominantly in in bringing to surface important assumptions the information technologies sphere where that may generate opportunities for exerting individuals are labeled not only as the ba- deliberate influence or may be the targets of a sic cultural unit, but also constitute the change program of a certain business related, least general cultural level (see table 5). social and religious issue (see figure 11).

Table 6. Edgar Schein’s View on Cultural Levels beyond the Organization. Culture Category Macrocultures Nations, ethnic and religious groups, occupations that exist globally Organizational cultures Private, public, non-profit, government organizations Subcultures Occupational groups within organizations Microcultures Microsystems within or outside organizations Source: Schein (2010).

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3.10. Edgar Schein’s Try in Identification of to outline his contributions within wider cultural Cultural Levels beyond the Organization constructs (see table 6). That is why he labels Traditionally, Edgar Schein’s attention is cultural levels beyond the organization as "cat- directed to deeper study and measurement egories of culture" and analyzes them briefly of culture only at organizational level (Schein, in the introduction of his book (Schein, 2010). 2004; Schein 1999; Schein 1997; Schein The author describes microsystems as small

Perspective of "valuesPerspective - practices" ofmixes across"values the - practices"cultural levels: mixes - presentedacross by G. theHofstede, cultural G. levels: J. Hofstede, - presented byMinkov G. Hofstede, (2010) G. J. Hofstede, Hierarchical perspective: Hierarchical Minkov (2010) Hierarchical perspective: Hierarchical - presented by Wilhelms, Shaki and Hsiao (2009) and Hsiao Shaki Wilhelms, by - presented - presented by Wilhelms, Shaki and Hsiao (2009) and Hsiao Shaki Wilhelms, by - presented

Lateral perspective: Analyzing - presented by Karahanna,Lateral perspective: Evaristo and Srite (2005) cultural levels - presented by Karahanna, Evaristo and Srite (2005) beyond the organization

Fig.12. A Model of Exploring Cultural Levels beyond the Organization.

1988). But lately the professor feels forced to coherent units within the organizations (surgi- take into account the increasing importance cal teams, task forces), possessing a specific of cultural levels beyond the organization and without undertaking a new direction of his "microculture" whose members cut across oc- dominating scientific interest, i.e. the organi- cupational groups which in fact differentiates zation, the researcher takes an additional step these units from occupational subcultures.

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4. Model of Exploring (Teaching) continents, etc. The use of this framework Cultural Levels beyond permits each observer to fill up its struc- the Organization ture with some appropriate contents from The drawn canvas of frameworks is supplementary scientific deliverables in rich enough to be considered as compli- the field by Erez and Gati (2004), Hofstede cated and time consuming to be used in (2010a), Paunov (2005), Trompenaars and daily business, administrative or teach- Hampden-Turner (2008), Espinar (2010) ing activities. That is why a new model of and O’Neil (2006) according to his/her exploring and teaching the cultural levels specific necessities. Additionally, some el- beyond the organizational one is proposed ements in the structure of a target cultural to assist business entities, public sector layer may be identified with the help of and non-governmental organizations in Targowski and Metwalli’s scientific results their continuous efforts in monitoring their (2003) (see figure 10). environments and in searching and main-  Lateral perspective. The analysis taining long-term, predictable partner- is based on Karahanna, Evaristo, Srite ships not only within the EU, but also with (2005), but at appropriate cases the "players" from other important regions of frameworks by Rutherford and Kerr (2008) the world. Also the model may be useful and Kaminski (2006) may be applied, too. to students and employees of Bulgarian This perspective may be exceptionally origin, self-managing their careers, whose useful for exploring multinational organiza- cultural awareness is not satisfactory and tion’s endeavors in our region, because a who inevitably are faced with the motley number of these, operating in Bulgaria, do rag of the European labor market at the not originate from the EU, although some latest from the 1st of January 2014. The are registered there. model consists in elements (concrete  Perspective of varying "values – cultural levels and layers) that may be practices" mixes as proposed by Hofstede analyzed in three perspectives with the et. al. (2010b) in order to reveal some as- potential to provide a detailed snapshot pects of the specific strength of key influ- of target environments (driving forces, key encers on separate cultural levels (layers players, cultural attributes, etc.) and dy- versus levels). namics of the interaction among separate Thus, valuable information, concern- cultural levels and layers (see figure 12), ing complex existence of target organiza- as follows: tions across separate cultural levels may  Hierarchical perspective (tradition- be gathered, appropriately retrieved and al). The analysis is based predominantly wisely used during the timely updating of on Wilhelms, Shaki and Hsiao’ framework leadership decision-making and activities (2009) as the most detailed and corre- in the process of solving the key cultural sponding to Bulgaria’s location at a cross- issues members in the organizations con- road between differing nations, religions, front everyday.

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5. Conclusion Ali M., Brooks L., 2009. A Situated Cul- tural Approach for Cross-Cultural Studies Cultural levels beyond the entity in IS. Journal of Enterprise Information proved not to be a prime interest for the Management 22, No. 5/2009, pp. 548- researchers at UNWE. But a higher cul- 563, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, tural awareness, concerning the cultural DOI 10.1108/17410390910993536, www. levels beyond the organization, is urgently emeraldinsight.com/1741-0398.htm; needed by Bulgarian business leaders in their search for new opportunities not only Andreeva, T., The Cultural Industries in within the Uniform European market, but the Countries of Southeast Europe and also on a worldwide scale, especially dur- Their Economic Impact in the Context of ing the hard times of the World financial Social Transformation, Issue 1EN/2008 and economic crisis. This aim may not be (Andreeva, Ts., 2008. Kulturnite indus- met only with the traditional culture level trii v stranite ot yugoiztochna Evropa i teaching base, implemented at the Univer- tyahnoto ikonomichesko vazdeistvie v sity predominantly through Paunov’s works usloviyata na sotsialna transformatzia. (2005, 2008). The new turbulent and more Br. 2/2008), [online] Available at: http:// complex business conditions require an alternativi.unwe.acad.bg/ [Accessed elaborated approach of analyzing all al- March, 18th, 2012]. ready identified and emerging cultural levels, providing: Arthur M., Rousseau D., 1996. The Bound-  Needed extent of further segmenta- ariless Career: A New Employment Prin- tion for traditionally considered ones. ciple for a New Organizational Era. New  Simultaneously three perspectives York: Oxford University Press. of analysis, i.e. a hierarchical one, a lateral Chankova, L., 2001. Firmenata kultura – one and the dynamics of "values-practic- osnova za efektivna inovatsionna deinost. es" mixes. Br. 7-8 (41-42)/2001, 55-57).  Diverse concepts of individual’s performance and contribution across cultural Davidkov, Ts., 2005. Kultura na organizat- levels. siite v Bulgaria. Sofia: Universitetsko izdatelstvo "Sveti Kliment Ohridski".

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