International Conference KNOWLEDGE-BASED ORGANIZATION Vol. XXV No 1 2019

FORMS OF TERRORISM IN ANCIENT

Mădălina STRECHIE

University of Craiova, Romania [email protected]

Abstract: Terrorism is an old phenomenon in human civilization. Terminologically, it comes from , but this scourge also fully manifested itself in Roman civilization, throughout its history. This study seeks to fill a bibliographic gap on this criminal phenomenon, most studies of it starting with the Middle Ages, without any reference to , which is unfair, especially since Rome was confronted with this phenomenon, which it defined terminologically and to which it responded with the necessary force, thus transforming its defence policy. The first forms of terrorism emerged in Rome during the Kingdom, when, at the beginning of its political organization, Rome faced numerous terrorist manifestations, especially from outside the Roman state. The Gauls were, at the beginning of the Republic, genuine agents of terrorism in Rome through their plundering expeditions that caused real terror. Etruscan pirates were terrorists, too, for the Roman trade, the struggle of the and their withdrawal with barricades in order to obtain political rights meant real political terror at that time, then Spartacus’ revolt and his march which spread terror throughout Rome, the civil wars which bled Rome became genuine forms of internal terrorism, especially because of the assassination of Roman state leaders, as well as the corruption masterly unmasked by . The forms of external terrorism were also present, the most notorious episode being the Punic wars, in particular the war of Hannibal, the most effective terrorist for Rome, the Dacians’ plundering expeditions in the Roman garrisons in Moesia, the battles with the Parthians and the Britons are as many forms of the terrorism that Rome faced during its history, which compelled it into creating new forces capable of responding to this new way of fighting. We believe that the , with all its units, was the most effective counter-terrorist force in combating the terrorist phenomenon strongly manifested in Rome. Therefore Rome, knowing the phenomenon, defined it most precisely, a definition that still applies today.

Key-words: Ancient Rome, terrorism, counter-terrorism, essential terminology, attacks.

1. Introduction happiest case, but most of them approach Terrorism has been, over the course of the modern period phenomenon. history, a violent phenomenon which Our study deals with some forms of ancient civilizations, especially the Eternal terrorism that ancient Rome faced during its City, Rome, faced. From a bibliographic history. Moreover, it is Rome that defined point of view, the subject of ancient the phenomenon, while confronting it, the terrorism is either marginally treated or not Roman definition still existing today in mentioned at all, the main works devoted to point of form and especially of content. its study beginning with the study of the Terrorism fully manifested itself in ancient phenomenon in the Middle Ages, in the Rome, both internally and through external agents/enemies of the Roman state,

DOI: 10.2478/kbo-2019-0027 © 2015. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 License.

161 regardless of the stage of the Roman state’s terriculamentum, -ii n. scarecrow, history. Therefore, Rome had to oppose a spectrum, ghost; territio, -onisf. fright and force capable of combating terrorism, the the most complete terror, -orism. 1. fear, being also adapted as a terror (terrorem alicuifacere=to strike counter-terrorist force, in particular through terror into smb’s breast); what was called the Praetorian Guard, but terrorihostibusesse=to be an object of fear not only. Roman counter-terrorism was for the enemies–in ’s work); 2. (fig.) performed not only through effective that causes terror: 3. terrifying news military battles, but also through (rumour); 4. terrifying event.[5]So in the informative, political and diplomatic Latin language terror meant something that methods, as the Romans were the ones who caused extreme, paroxysmal fear, a very successfully used information to combat strong feeling of fear of death, especially terrorist forces, wherever they were, since there was another term to express fear whether internal or external, since Rome in Latin, but to a lesser degree, such as the also defined the concept of information. verb metuo, -ere, -ui, -itumi.v. and t.v. II.to be afraid, to fear, to be worried, to fear an 2. Terminological issues. History of a accusation, to fear a danger; metus, -us, m. word - history of a phenomenon 1. the act of fearing (what might be), fear, The definition of terrorism in different worry, hesitation, fear of the gods, fear of sciences is based on extreme violence, the enemies - metushostilis, in Sallustius’ which has an emotional impact on the work.[6] community. Thus we have selected for this Terrorism in the Roman vision was a study the following definitions: the phenomenon with a strong emotional impact sociological definition: “a political strategy on the Romans, a terror involving the whose principle is based on the systematic disappearance of the Roman state, of the use of acts of violence for the propagation safety and security of the community and of of insecurity.”[1];the military definition: “a the Roman citizen, followed by an method that inspires anxiety through violent imminent, violent, tragic death, without any action.”[2]; the politological definition: “It possibility for the Roman community to is a strategy that is essentially based on the escape, or the impossibility of honourable psychological impact.”[3]The Roman death, in the case of the Roman military definition of the term is the most complex (which was fully manifested during the and complete (it is not accidentally that the Punic Wars, when most of the military etymology of the modern word is Latin), forming the Roman headquarters lost their which relies on the psychological impact. lives at Cannae and Trasimene, the Roman The Latin verbs from which the term victims being counted by the enemies terrorism originates are the following: through cutting their fingers with the sign of Terrifico, -are, -avi, -atumt.v.Ito scare, to the officer’s rank, namely the golden ring, terrify; it occurs in ’ work; and according to Roman historical sources terrificomentes= to terrify the mind, also in there were more than 10,000 Roman officers Vergilterrificoanimos= to terrify the who perished in these two Roman-Punic souls;Terreo, -ere, -ui, -itumt.v. II.1. to confrontations), a feeling which rapidly scare, to terrify; to frighten; 2 (rarely) to propagated over the collective Roman mind make somebody run, to chase, to drive (terror was also boosted by rumour, rumorin away; 3. to prevent out of fear, to Latin) and created a paroxysmal phobia of stop;Territo, -are, -avi, -atumt.v.I.to scare, the community, suppressing its famous to terrify (it occurs in Caesar’s pragmatism, paralyzing all its rational work).[4]There are also nouns from these actions for a certain period of time. verbs: terrificatio, -onis f.fear, terror;

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3. Forms of internal terrorism individual and collective heroism, won the Ever since the royal period Rome was cause for the Romans. shaken by terrible fears that paralyzed The Samnites, “a powerful people both Roman society. In the category of because of wealth and weapons”, also paroxysmal fears that shook the Roman terrorized Rome within the Italian Peninsula. community, through the sense of the Roman The anti-terrorist key found by the Romans state’s disappearance, there were many in this episode were the singular heroes such political actions, especially coups. Thus, the as Valerius Corvus, the military penultimate Etruscan king, Servius Tullius, Publius Decius, the consul Decius Mus, and is assassinated and a coupis given in full, the dictator Papirius [9]. Dictatorship and foreign aid is required (Etruscan, by appears as a saving magistracy of Rome, an Tarquinius, the usurper of the throne), which extreme one, as well as the terrorist acts that involved the Roman state in a war with the it was supposed to manage. It had a time Etruscans, very strong commercially and limit of 6 months because it held all the financially, as they dominated the ports of powers of Roman democracy, including the Italy. Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the supreme military command, the dictator Proud) assassinated the rightful king, being seconded by = the Servius Tullius, and led a veritable campaign cavalry commander. The dictatorship of misinformation and manipulation magistracy was the solution that solved spreading “the rumour that the king is ruling many forms of terrorism in Rome, either against the people”, he uses traffic of internal or external. influence and corruption, “he lures the Another episode of internal terrorism young people with all kinds of gifts; and suffered by the Romans was at the beginning thus he increases his influence either by of the Republic through the plebeian issue, promising the moon or by blaming the king which constituted a complex social, civil, openly. Finally, when he found it political and economic phenomenon for appropriate to start, accompanied by a host Rome. Thus, this form of terrorism arose, as of armed followers, Tarquinius dashed into the Roman historian Titus Livius tells us, out the ” [7]. of the “hatred between patricians and The abusive leadership of Tarquinius plebeians” because of some “inner discord” Superbus ends the same as it started, through existing within Roman society, and the a coup d’état that turns Rome from a plebeians’ refusal to enlist in the wars of the monarchy into a Republic. It is also a form Romans with the Etruscans caused “a more of violent action, especially since the Roman terrible panic” besides the “internal worries army played a predominant part in expelling and troubles”. The plebeians decide to the last Etruscan king, who however asked retreat onto the Sacred Mountain of Rome, for the help of the Etruscans led by Porsena, entering into a kind of strike and anarchy, all this leading to the siege of Rome, which after the numerous assassinations of those made the Romans be terrified of the who wanted reforms for the plebs, the result possibility of losing the state: “The Roman was that “Rome was overwhelmed with Senate had never been terribly panic-stricken panic” [10]. Rome settles the disputes with until then ... the senators were afraid not the plebeians by granting civil and political only of the Etruscans, their new enemies, but rights, namely the right to have two also of their own fellow citizens ... the magistrates representing their interests, plebeians” [8]. tribuniplebis, as the most effective Roman The Romans had to struggle hard with the method to combat domestic terrorism, Etruscans, as the Roman army was not a namely to share power and the benefits of professional force at the time, but had the Roman community with those who were patriotic commanders who, through

163 dissatisfied, to integrate them into its system, foreigners, and abusive and illicit of course where it could be done. accumulation of money intended for the The case of the revolted slaves was the most Roman treasury (state budget), terrorist acts violent and terrible form of domestic that were sometimes inspired by ideology. terrorism that Rome faced, but it defeated it Thus, were the conservatives, the with equally terrible violence, similar to the representatives of traditionalism, the great emotional impact produced. The first revolt landowners of Rome and , the of the slaves was led by Herdonius, who progressists, the representatives of the new caused “awesome fears” in the , those who were mostly from ordo community[11], the second and most striking equester and who relied on personal merits being Spartacus’ march. He was a famous and financial capital. This group of interests gladiator, endowed with a weaponry talent, was also supported by the plebeians, whose accustomed to the unconventional fight, in magistrates were often murdered by order of small, crowded spaces, which brought him Optimates. many victories in front of the Roman armies Rome was also bled by political used to the open field fights. Many other assassinations, corruption for the purchase of slaves, originating from different regions of positions, political plots supported by Italy, joined the march, a fact which foreigners, and abusive and illicit represented a genuine economic terrorism accumulation of money intended for the for Rome, whose economic production Roman treasury (state budget), terrorist acts relied on the slaves’ labour, but also of the that were sometimes inspired by ideology. chaos of the entertainment industry, the Thus, Optimates were the conservatives, the gladiators being a very important link in the representatives of traditionalism, the great maintenance of public opinion by the Roman landowners of Rome and Populares, the state. The emotional shock was terrible for progressists, the representatives of the new the Romans, because it was not only the fear people, those who were mostly from ordo caused by the slaves’ revolt, but also the equester and who relied on personal merits humiliation related to the defeat of the and financial capital. This group of interests Roman citizens’ armies by some all was also supported by the plebeians, whose ogeneous slaves, some belonging to peoples magistrates were often murdered by order of who were the enemies of the Romans. Rome Optimates. sent two generals, Crassus and Pompey, to Cicero revealed many such plots and abuses, defeat this army of slaves. They won the political assassinations, true acts of victory of the Romans, yet not easily [12]. terrorism, treason, and collaborations with But the violence of the Romans was the enemies of the Romans (such as extreme, they crucified and posted the Catilina’s plot and unprecedented abuse, an crucified along Via Appia, the longest road economic terrorism by Verres) [13], the great to Rome, to prove that Roman pride could Latin classic being himself the victim of a not be defeated. To terrorism they responded political assassination. with terrorism, but the Romans learnt from Pompey remains in Roman history with the the defeats before Spartacus and reformed cognomen of Magnus (the Great) after the army, setting up new units, we could defeating the economic terrorists from the even call them anti-terrorist units because Roman seas, the Etruscan pirates, those who they were able to fight in cities, in small “endangered the grain supplies of Rome”, spaces, a kind of troops of intervention that is why he was invested with an between gendarmerie and commando troops. impressive army force of “20 legions and a Rome was also bled by political fleet of 500 vessels”, having “ assassinations, corruption for the purchase of infinitum” [14], to physically eliminate these positions, political plots supported by Etruscan pirates, who threatened the food

164 security of the Roman people and all the prepared by a of the future main Roman maritime trade. combatants, Antonius and Octavianus, the The most terrible forms of internal terrorism future . After violent episodes in ancient Rome were the civil wars, (with involving the loss of Roman lives, Augustus ideological sources confronting the two wins, giving a constitutional blow and groups of interests mentioned above), assuming “unlimited ”, that because Roman anti-terrorist forces, namely “power arising out of respect and prestige” the Roman legions, faced each other for [17].Augustus, paradoxically, is the one who political supremacy. Again, there is a change stopped for a long time the terrorist acts in of the Roman state, which, following the Rome, because he used the army to maintain three civil wars, turns from a Republic into the internal order, which was possible by an Empire. The one who began terrorist holding imperium (with the meaning of hostilities was , who launched the first supreme military command) throughout the civil war through a “coup d’état” imperial territory, and this was “the secret of proclaiming himself a dictator, which no Augustus” [18]. longer respected the Roman salvation magistracy, but was “an exceptional, 4. Forms of external terrorism personal power”, triggering “terrible Rome faced many enemies throughout its collective reprisals and individual existence, which made it wary of anyone assassinations” [15]. So, Sulla was a terrorist who was not its citizen, hence the expression by the manner of expressing his will and by Hospes, hostis (est) = The guest is an enemy. using legions as troops for the assassination In its history, many enemies endangered its of political rivals, which spread terror in the statehood, the life of the community of its Roman community. citizens, who were terrified by the violence Caesar was next by crossing the Rubicon and power with which these enemies had with his legions forged in the 10 years of invaded the Roman territory. wars with the Gauls, the siege of Rome, then The Gauls were the first to make a real the bloody confrontations between him and “invasion” with the purpose of plundering, Pompey, as well as the collateral victims of but also of suppressing the security, the this war. Although they were allies in the safety and physical and legal integrity of any first triumvirate, the two generals, Pompey Roman citizen, Rome facing a “more terrible and Caesar, came to be the actors of a danger than ever”, especially because the political, terrorist act, one wanted to Eternal City became, after this Gallic maintain a system, the other wanted to form invasion, “the city full of enemies, who were a new system. Both looked like two enemies teeming in the streets.”[19]As the Gauls at each other, so Caesar organized the overwhelmed the Romans, they were able to triumph after defeating the Roman citizens negotiate with them, using blackmail and of Pompey, an unimaginable fact, and in the demanding the redemption of Roman Roman provinces, loyal to Pompey, he citizens in gold, by using fake scales and proved cruel [16], so his armed revolution counterfeited weights, including the sword had all the ingredients of a terrorist act. His of the Gallic leader, Brennus, hence the assassination by Pompeian reactive groups Latin expression Vaevictis! = Woe to the continued the terrorist chaos in Rome, his conquered. This slap on the cheek of Roman physical suppression taking place in the pride would be fully paid by Caesar, who temple of the Roman laws, the symbol of the abolished once and for all the Gallic danger Roman state, namely in the Senate of Rome. by conquering the whole Gaul. The second civil war ends with another civil Another terrorist episode with invading war, another terrorist act that disturbed the external forces was the war with Pyrrhus, the Roman state from inside, being also king of Epirus, who at the Caudine Forks,

165 with his army “downed the Roman pride and East, as there were many clandestine stubbornness”, which constituted “a terrible Egyptian, Persian and Christian cults on the disaster”[20]for the Roman community, Roman territory, all of them representing especially as Rome fought for its allies. security issues for the Romans, in their early Here, although it was rather a draw game stages. between Pyrrhus and Rome, the Romans Externally, the Romans also engaged in were humiliated, the senators and the leaders unconventional fights with the Parthians, of the army being put in the yoke, the impact who were never defeated by the great and value of the symbol being much more , through their harassing painful for the existence of the Roman state struggle, with small effective forces, which than the military losses themselves. caused great losses among the Romans and The Carthaginians were those who exerted a maintained a sense of great fear in the secular terror on the Romans, especially Roman community. since the period of the Punic wars spread over the years 264-146 B.C., profoundly 5. Roman anti-terrorist forces harming not only the Roman army, almost Whether they came from within, or they eliminated by the Cannae and Trasimene came from outside, Rome found the disasters, but also the entire defenceless necessary forces to oppose, combat, and community in Rome, with only children and even eliminate the forms of terrorism it elderly people who took their own lives in faced. Thus, inside, it mostly used order not to get into the hands of the enemy, institutions such as dictatorship, an extreme famous for its cruelty, by the expression magistracy under extreme conditions, the crudelitasquampunica. Only one man was plebeian tribunal, a magistracy which able to put the entire Roman state into the attracted the plebeians to the power and the balance, Hannibal, so the last of the three Roman state, the consulate, the ordinary Punic wars was called the war of Hannibal. magistracy with the widest range of The war with Hannibal was an anti-terrorist prerogatives during the Republican period, war, because the existence of the entire capable of combating corruption, political Roman state depended on it, Hannibal ante plots and economic disasters, as well as the portas = Hannibal is in front of the gates (of Princeps of the Imperial era, who was both the city of Rome), it was the time that a dictator, a , and the “caused tremendous fear and disorder supreme consul and supreme . among the people”[21]. Hannibal’s An effective method of combating especially “operational purpose... was to defeat the external terrorism was the foreign policy, and army so categorically... the cohesion power Rome used “alliances” and “annexes” to of Rome.”[22] eliminate external danger by setting up a sort The Dacians and their expeditions for the of Roman “protectorate” with the phrase plundering of the Roman provinces caused “socius et amicus” [24] = ally and friend. terror among the Roman citizens in the Rome thus stopped the terrorist threat, all provinces where the attacks of outrageous roads led to Rome, but not of those who violence were sent out, expeditions produced terror in its city. Thus, it did not described by , the poet of love exiled at hesitate to nominate loyalists in some Pontus Euxinus [23]. The poet is terrorized kingdoms with potential terrorist danger to the by these expeditions and by the way in Romans, or simply to eliminate the problem which they were made, only in winter, in leaders or to annex their countries through terrible, frosty weather, always having a military campaigns, as was the case with the devastating effect on Roman outposts. Punic empire, that of Gaul, Dacia, etc. Rome was also familiar with religious , following foreign policy and fanaticism, especially that coming from the consisting in the integration of the

166 conquered and their transformation into the prevention of terrorism, rather than the Romans, was the most important anti- open struggle with them: food, through terrorist force that acted in the long run and Preaefectura Annonae = the supply service; was never defeated by any terrorist force. communications, thepost, Praefectura a The law was also a good anti-terrorist vehiculis = Roman postal service and control means, with Rome mostly legalizing some of land transport routes; the control of religious cults or offering civil and political foreigners in Rome, but also the population rights to certain social categories in order to movements through Praefectura Urbi; the ensure internal security. safety of the citizens, markets and fire The army was the best anti-terrorist force extinguishing (a kind of ISU), namely that Rome sent every time to face terror, Praefecturavigilum; the managing of both internally and externally. Through its finances through publicani. The Praetorian army, Rome imposed “the imperialism of Guard also had a legal role, especially as the city”, as Eugen Cizek said, moreover, the great jurists of Rome during the this army was “tempered in previous wars, were the commanders of the therefore it was able to bear, in good Praetorian Guard. conditions, any major shock.”[25] There Augustus is the one who forged the Roman were more major shocks for the Roman army as an anti-terrorist force, the army of army. The most important was the Spartacus his time comprising 30 legions that episode, which forced it to form units maintained Pax Augusta, which later became capable of fighting in cities, with techniques , in fact a period of security of adapted to the gladiators’ fight. the Roman state, regardless of its borders, Another shock was represented by civil security ensuring unprecedented prosperity wars, when the army was used by and the integration of non-Romans through politicians. Augustus is the one who shocked Romanization. the Roman army most, but in a way that would not harm it. Augustus shared politics 6. Conclusions with the army, especially the executive, the Rome faced various forms of terrorism and army becoming the government of the retaliated against it with all the means it had, Roman Empire, with forces capable of especially with its army, one of the most maintaining internal security within the efficient armies in the world. The definition boundaries of the whole empire. Moreover, of terrorism was given by Rome, because elite units are formed, the Praetorian Rome was the first major civilization that Guard, Praefectura Praetorii [26] , with all faced this phenomenon. Rome opposed with its services, became a genuine Secret Service its existing forces, the army, or invented of Rome, which prevented any form of others such as information, which terrorism through its subunits (in particular, etymologically comes from Latin, informo, - through the extraordinary troops of equities are, -avi, -atumt.v. I.1 to make by giving a singulars, secret agents, polyvalent in point form, to create, to form, to give rise; 2. (fig) of military training, considered the “cavalry to form; 3. to represent, to figure, to express, wing of the Praetorian Guard [27], whose to describe; 4. to think of an idea (a notion), weapon was different depending on the to conceive [28] and informatio, -oinisf.1. enemy they faced, the best of the best, who sketch, plan, drawing;2.idea, notion, were sent to other kingdoms for coups, for representation, image;3.information, the imposition of Roman interests or the cultivation, instruction [29]. The information killing of the Romans’ enemies wherever in which the army and politics had a they were). The Roman army also controlled dominant role was the anti-terrorist plan of all the services that pertained to Roman Rome. security, while promoting the principle of

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