Geschichte Der Chinesischen Linguistik

Geschichte der chinesischen Linguistik

Chinesische Linguistik in China und im Westen 3. A short outline of Linguistic History

• a) India Panini • b) The Greeks • c) The Medieval Period • d) The 18th Century • e) The 19th Century (Wilhelm von Humboldt) Pānini

• The Vedic religion evolved a science of phonetics and, later, of grammar, which was summed up in the 5th century BC by the grammarian Pāṇini in Aṣṭādhyāyī (―Eight Chapters‖), a book that was to become basic to Sanskrit education. The Astadhyayi of Pānini, codifies what we term as " classical " Sanskrit. • A long series of commentaries have elucidated this over more than 2000 years old text. • In addition to the interest which it generates in itelf, this astonishingly scientific grammar constitutes the first traditional tool of interpretation of the Sanskrit texts. The Greeks

• Most of the developments associated with theoretical grammar grew out of philosophy and criticism. • Greek philosophy: the distinction between that which exists ―by nature‖ and that which exists ―by convention.‖ • The Alexandrians completed the development of the classical Greek grammatical tradition. • Dionysius Thrax, in the 2nd century BC, produced the first systematic grammar of Western tradition; it dealt only with word morphology. • The study of sentence syntax was introduced by Apollonius Dyscolus, of the 2nd century AD. Dionysius called grammar ―the acquaintance with [or observation of] what is uttered by poets and writers,‖ using a word meaning a less general form of knowledge than what might be called ―science.‖ The Medieval Period

• The tradition of grammars of late antiquity influenced basically the Medieval period; i.e. versions based on Donatus and Priscian. • The works of Donatus (4th century AD) and Priscian (6th century AD), the most important Latin grammarians, were widely used to teach Latin grammar during the European Middle Ages. • Certainly the most obviously interesting theorizing to be found in this period is contained in the ―speculative grammar‖ of the modistae, who were so called because the titles of their works were often phrased De modis significandi tractatus (―Treatise Concerning the Modes of Signifying‖). • For the development of the Western grammatical tradition, work of this genre was the second great milestone after the crystallization of Greek thought with the Stoics and Alexandrians. The scholastic philosophers were occupied with relating words and things—i.e., the structure of sentences with the nature of the real world—hence their preoccupation with signification. The Renaissance

• Interesting and significant linguistic and philological developments during this period. • Two new sets of data became available to grammarians during this period: • (1) the newly recognized vernacular languages of Europe, for the protection and cultivation of which subsequently arose national academies and learned institutions that live down to the present day; and • (2) the exotic languages of Africa, the Orient, the New World, and, later, of Siberia, Inner Asia, Papua, Oceania, the Arctic, and Australia, which the voyages of discovery opened up. • Earlier, the only non-Indo-European grammar at all widely accessible was that of the Hebrews (and to some extent Arabic). The 16th and 17th century

• Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) together with Michele Ruggieri, compiled a Portuguese-Chinese dictionary - the first ever European-Chinese dictionary. They developed a consistent system for transcribing Chinese words in Latin alphabet. Unfortunately, the manuscript was misplaced in the Jesuit Archives in Rome, and not re- discovered until 1934. • This dictionary was finally published in 2001. Dicionário Português-Chinês: Pu Han ci dian. Von Michele Ruggieri, John W. Witek, Matteo Ricci, Biblioteca Nacional Portugal, 2001 The 16th and 17th century

• Preëminent as the earliest grammar of Chinese is the Arte de la lengua mandarina (1703) of the Dominican father Francisco Varo (1627-1687). Although he explains the language in terms of Latin grammar, Varo notes that the Latin system of cases and conjugations does not fit Chinese linguistic reality: "no syllable by itself can be fully considered as a real case, or as truly a part of speech;" "just as the nouns are indeclinable, so the verbs are also inconjugable, since the syllable is invariable (in form)." Translations of common Latin and Portuguese words form a substantial part of the book. • Unlike Chinese lexicographers, Varo always mentions word order explicitly. • In France: Port-Royal grammar The 18th century

• Toward the end of the 18th century: the main impetus for the development of comparative philology, when it was discovered that Sanskrit bore a number of striking resemblances to Greek and Latin. • The English orientalist, Sir William Jones, though he was not the first to observe these resemblances, is generally given the credit for bringing them to the attention of the scholarly world and putting forward the hypothesis, in 1786, that all three languages must have ―sprung from some common source, which perhaps no longer exists.‖ • By this time, a number of texts and glossaries of the older Germanic languages (Gothic, Old High German, and Old Norse) had been published, and Jones realized that Germanic as well as Old Persian and perhaps Celtic had evolved from the same ―common source.‖ The 19th century

• Friedrich von Schlegel (1772-1829): comparative grammar • Rasmus Rask (1787-1832): pioneer in historical/comparative linguistics • Jakob Grimm (1785-1863): Grimm‗s law • Franz Bopp (1791-1867): further work on classification of genetic relations amont the Germanic languages • August Schleicher (1821-1868): applies Darwin‗s theory to language: „He regarded the three current language types, isolating, agglutinating, and inflexional, as representing historical stages in the growth of languages to their highest point of organization.― The 19th century: Grimm‗s law

• If there is found between two languages agreement in the forms of indispensable words to such an extent that rules of letter changes can be discovered for passing from one to the other, then there is a basic relationship between these languages. • f>b, b>p, p>f • th>d, d>t, t>th • h>g, g>k, k>h • „aspirates― (Latin f, Greek ph Sanskrit bh) became voiced unaspirated stops, the original voiced unaspirated stops became voiceless, and the original voiceless stops became „aspirates―. The 19th century: The Neogrammarian Hypothesis • 4 Indoeuropeanists: Karl Brugmann (1849– 1919),Berthold Delbrück (1842–1922), August Leskien (1840–1916), Hermann Osthoff (1847–1909) • And four Germanists – Wilhelm Braune (1850–1926), Friedrich Kluge (1856–1926), Hermann Paul (1846– 1921), and Eduard Sievers. • The sound law principle. • The crucial item is the insistence on the need to rethink the methodology for investigation and to make the case for a more rigorous application of the sound law principle: ‗‗Only those who strictly adhere to the sound laws, this fundamental pillar of our entire science, do stand on firm ground in their research‘‘ (Osthoff and Brugmann 1878) The 19th century: The Neogrammarian Hypothesis • According to the Neogrammarians all language changes are attributable to a sound law or the effect of analogy. • Analogy draws in psychological considerations. It involves transferring one particular form item from one member to other members of a grammatical paradigm without regard for historical development. • An example: the Middle High German past tense singular forms of neman – ich nam, du naeme, er nam – did accept, unhistorically, the vowel form of the plural, aˆ . The 19th century: The Neogrammarian Hypothesis • Two principles which are relevant for the Neogrammarian Hypothesis: • Mechanical Principle: A putative principle governing the course of phonological change, formulated by Labov (1994: (603) as follows: the relative progress of a sound change is determined by phonetic factors alone, without regards to the preservation of meaning. In other words, the principle holds that the avoidance of merger is not, in general, a primary force in dictating the course of a sound change. This is one aspect of the Neogrammarian hypothesis, an other is the Regularity Principle. • Regularity Principle: A putative principle of phonological change, formulated by Labov (1994:603) as follows: Sound change is a change in the phonetic realization of a phoneme, without regard to lexical identity. A central component of the Neogrammarian Hypothesis, this principle is falsified by lexical diffusion. The 19th century: Wilhelm von Humboldt • Iconicity in Language: • Wilhelm von Humboldt: language is an activity the character and structure of which express the culture and individuality of the speaker, and he also asserted that man perceives the world essentially through the medium of language. • He thus foreshadowed the modern development of ethnolinguistics, which explores the interrelationship of language and culture. • Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluß auf die geistige Entwicklung des Menschengeschlechts From the 19th to the 20th century: Ferdinand de Saussure • Ferdinand de Saussure: 1857-1913 • Founder of Modern linguistic study • Cours de linguistique générale as the founding document of Structuralism • Language as a system of signs: langue, langage, parole • Arbitrariness of signs Ferdinand de Saussure: Langue and Parole

• Drei Aspekte der Sprache können unterschieden werden: • Langage: die menschliche Rede, vortheoretischer Phänomenbereich; • Langue: das abstrakte Regelsystem, theoretischer Sprachbegriff, d.h. die sprachwissenschaftliche Perspektive unter der die langage betrachtet wird. • Parole: das Sprechen • Die Befähigung zur menschlichen Rede (langage 2, faculté de langage) sieht Saussure, wie auch Chomsky, als biologisch im Menschen angelegt. 2. Saussure’s model :

Signifier (Signifiant) ------Signified (Signifié) Sign (signe) chose 1. Aristotle’s triangle: Concept (passiones, intellectus)

Word (voces) object (res) The 20th century: Structuralism

• According to the structuralist view language is a self-contained relational structure, the elements of which derive their existence and their value from their distribution and oppositions in texts or discourse. • This principle was first stated clearly, for linguistics, by Ferdinand de Saussure. • Saussurean structuralism was further developed in somewhat different directions by the Prague school, glossematics, and other European movements. The 20th century: Structuralism

• Beginning with Jacobson‘s ‗Prinzipien der historischen Phonologie‘ von 1931, the structuralist concept of the ‗phoneme‘ came to play a key role in diachronic work, a status which it has maintained largely unchallenged to this day. The basic idea was simple enough: the linguistic system is a phonemic one, the contrastive elements of a language are its phonemes, and thus for a change to be of linguistic significance, it must affect in some way the phonemic status of the element involved. The 20th century: Sociolinguistics

• The Sociolinguistics deals with the interrelation between language and society. • - Social-Dialectology: (since the end of the 19th century) deals with different layers in language, with variations of dialect and the standard language that depend on social and other circumstances. • - From the beginning of the 20th century on: investigation of the interrelations between language and the structure of the society, the issue of ‗linguistic relativity‘, linguistics and cultural anthropology, Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, which in a similar way was already conceived by Wilhelm v. Humboldt (1767-1835): linguistic determination • - Science of linguistic contact which deals with sociolinguistic topics besides the purely linguistic topic (domains of employment of language, conservation of language, change of language. • - Sociology of Dialects: social distribution of dialect and standard language; difficulties of dialects in schools and society (theory of language barriers). • - Investigation of Creol- and Pidginlanguages. • - Linguistic of variations: relevant for the investigation of linguistic changes. • - minority languages • - analysis of ‗conservation‘ of language, ‗death‘ of language, ‗reactivation‘ of language. The 20th century: The ‗Sapir-Whorf‘ or ‗linguistic relativity hypothesis‗

• The Structures of language, in addition to providing a vehicle for the expression of thought, also shape thought by casting it in the mold of language-specific patternings. • The ‚Sapir-Whorf‗ hypothesis echoes the views advanced by Wilhelm von Humboldt in the 19th century in his writings on linguistic diversity. • In Whorf‘s words, ‗‗. . . the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds – and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds―. The 20th century: The generative enterprise • turned its attention to the diachronic development of the ‗phonological computation‘ system. • Generative approach: Change is simplification / kæt / phonemic level

Phonological output [khæt] phonetic level

Transduction khæt output level

Transduction process: universal and invariant in nature „No language specific information needed― >> one articulatory process to another >>articulatory adjustment (transition and coarticulation phenomena) are made by the processes regulating the vocal tract. The 20th century: The generative enterprise: Noam Chomsky • Born 1928 in Philadelphia • Chomsky‘s thinking has had a radical influence on grammar theory and the philosophy of grammar, syntax, morphology, language acquisition, phonology, and the historiography of linguistics. • His linguistic work can be divided into four main phases: an early phase (the 1950s); a classical phase (1960s and 1970s); a transitional phase, in the 1980s; and a new phase in the 1990s, in which the ‗minimalist program‘ was introduced. The 20th century: The generative enterprise: Noam Chomsky • Syntactic structures (1957): • A language is ‗‗a set . . . of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements‘‘ (1957: 13), and ‗‗the fundamental aim in the linguistic analysis of a language L is to separate the grammatical sequences which are the sentences of L from the ungrammatical sequences which are not sentences of L . . . The grammar of L will thus be a device that generates all the grammatical sequences of L and none of the ungrammatical ones.‘‘ • ‗Colorless green ideas sleep furiously‘. The 20th century: The generative enterprise: Noam Chomsky • Chomsky set out his theory of transformational grammar in Syntactic Structures (1957), a book that revolutionized the development of theoretical linguistics. In this work he broke with the dominant structural school, which held that language is essentially a system of syntactical and grammatical habits established by means of training and experience. Chomsky, by contrast, argued that human beings have an innate facility for understanding the formal principles underlying the grammatical structures of language. It is this innate capacity that explains how young children, after hearing the speech of their elders, are able to infer the grammatical rules underlying ordinary sentences and then use those rules to generate an infinite number and variety of sentences that they had never heard before. The 20th century: The generative enterprise: Noam Chomsky • In analyzing the innate ability to construct these ―generative grammars,‖ Chomsky distinguished between two levels of structure in sentences: ―surface structures,‖ which are the actual words and sounds used, and ―deep structures,‖ which carry a sentence's underlying meaning. People are able to create and interpret sentences by generating the words of surface structures from deep structures according to a set of abstract rules that, though limited in number, allow for unlimited variation. Chomsky called these rules ―grammatical transformations,‖ or ―transformational rules.‖ He argued that these rules are basically the same in all languages and correspond to innate, genetically transmitted mental structures in human beings. The 20th century: The generative enterprise: Noam Chomsky • ‗Standard theory‘ was followed by ‗extended standard theory‘ (Chomsky, 1973) and ‗revised extended standard theory‘ (Bach, 1977). Revised extended standard theory introduced the concept of ‗core grammar‘ and periphery, and devoted much attention to conditions and filters. It then became ‗government-(and)-binding theory‘ (Chomsky, 1980, 1981), which introduced theta-roles (‗semantic‘ or ‗thematic relations‘). Universal grammar as opposed to grammars of individual languages. The 20th century: The generative enterprise: Noam Chomsky • The theory of principles and parameters • Replacement of Competence and Performance by the (partly overlapping) ‗I-language‘ (internalized language as a property of the human mind) and ‗E-(externalized)- language‘ (speech written or oral). • Principles and parameters are properties of all human languages (part of innate UG), but the principles are invariable whereas the parameters can have different settings. The 20th century: The generative enterprise: Noam Chomsky • The minimalist program (1990s) • The question had now become, ‗How perfect is human language?‘ The minimalist program is driven by the view that human language is maximally simple, and characterised by a striving for economy – economy of representation, economy of principles, and economy of derivation. Word order and some universals of Grammar

Table:

I (VSO) II (SVO) III (SOV) Po-A 0 1 6 Po-N 0 2 5 Pr-A 0 4 0 Pr-N 6 6 0

Po = Postposition Pr = Preposition A = Modifier-head N = Head-modifier bilabial English bilabial sounds include [p], [b], and [m]. labio-dental English labio-dental sounds include [f] and [v]. dental English interdental sounds include [ ] and [ ] alveolar English alveolar sounds include [t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l]. postalveolar English postalveolars include [] and [] retroflex The closest sound to a retroflex that English has is [ ]. palatal The English glide [j] is a palatal. velar English velars include [k], [g], and [].

Describing consonant segments A consonant sound can be described completely by specifying each of the parameters for place and manner of articulation. For example, [k] has the following properties:

active tongue body articulator (dorsum) passive soft palate articulator (velum) constriction stop degree

state of glottis voiceless

nasal no

lateral no

airstream normal mechanism bilabial labio-dental dental alveolar postalveolar retroflex palatal velar stop pb td kg fricative fv  sz  nasal M n  approximant ( w) l  j ( w) t affricate d

History of Sino-Tibetan Classification

1. The Indo-Chinese family: (19th century)

INDO-CHINESE:

I CHINESE II TAI III KAREN IV TIBETO-BURMAN V MIAO-YAO ?VI MON-KHMER 2. The Indo-Chinese family: (Conrady 1896)

INDO-CHINESE:

I SINITIC (= CHINESE) II TAI III TIBETO-BURMAN 3. Konow 1909

SINO-TIBETAN :

I SINO-TAI A SINITIC B TAI II TIBETO-BURMAN 4. Li 1937

SINO-TIBETAN :

I SINO-TAI A SINITIC B TAI C MIAO-YAO II TIBETO-BURMAN 5. Benedict 1942

SINO-TIBETAN:

I. SINITIC II. II TIBETO-KAREN A KAREN B TIBETO-BURMAN 6. Shafer 1955

SINO-TIBETAN:

I. SINITIC ?II TAI III BODIC IV BURMIC V BARIC VI KAREN 8. Shafer 1955

TIBETO-BURMAN:

I TIBETIC II BARIC III BURMIC 9. Benedict 1972

TIBETO-BURMAN:

I TIBETAN-KANAURI II BAHING-VAYU III ABOR-MIRI-DAFLA IV BURMESE-LOLO V Kachin VI KUKI-NAGA VII BARIC 11. The Sino-Tibetan family (Benedict 1942, Shafer 1955, and others) SINO-TIBETAN I SINITIC: A BAI B CHINESE II TIBETO-KAREN: A KAREN B TIBETO-BURMAN: 1 TIBETIC 2 BARIC 3 BURMIC: a KUKI-NAGA b KACHIN-LUIC c BURMESE-MOSO: i MOSO ii BURMESE-LOLO: α BURMIC β LOLO The Austro-Tai Family (Benedict 1975)

AUSTRO-TAI:

I MIAO-YAO II TAI-AUSTRONESIAN A DAIC B AUSTRONESIAN

Ruhlen, Merritt 1994. On the Origin of Languages: Studies in Linguistic Taxonomy. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Benedict 1942/72

Benedict, Conspectus (1972):

Tibeto-Karen <<< Tibeto-Burman and Karen stand in opposition to Chinese.

Sino-Tibetan

Chinese Tibeto-Karen

Karen Tibeto-Burmese

Chinese / Karen : SVO Tibeto-Burman: SOV Bodman 1980 ‘Proto-Chinese and Sino-Tibetan: data towards establishing the nature of the relationship’, in Frans van Coetsem and Linda R. Waugh (eds.), Contributions to historical linguistics: issues and materials, Leiden: Brill

Sino-Himalayan

Sino-Tibetan Tibeto-Burman ‘Himalayan’ (or TB)

Chinese Tibetan various TB languages Matisoff 1991 Van Driem 2002

Tibeto-Burman

Brahmaputran Kiranti Qiangic Sinitic Karenic Lolo-Burmese other

Van Driem, G. 2001. Languages of the Himalayas, An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region. Leiden: Brill, 2. vols. Van Driem 2002

Sino-Tibetan

Tibeto-Burman Sinitic

Brahmaputran Kiranti Qiangic Lolo-Burmese Karenic other Chinese Dynasties

• Shang 商 1700-1045 • Zhou 周 1045-221 • Western Zhou 西周 1045-771 • Eastern Zhou 東周 771-221 • Qin 秦 221-207 • Han 漢 206 B.C.-220 A.D. • Western Han 西漢 206 B.C.-23 A.D. • Eastern Han 東漢 25-220 A.D. • San guo 三國 220-280 • Jin 晉 265-420 • Nord- und Süd 南北朝 420-589 • Sui 隋 581-618 • Tang 唐 618-907 • Fünf Dynastien 五代 907-960 • Song 宋 960-1220 • Liao 遼 960-1125 (Khitan) • Jin 金 1115-1234 (Jurchen) • Yuan 元 1271-1368 (Mongols) • Ming 明 1368-1644 • Qing 清 1644-1911 (Manchu) Chronology of the Chinese Language (Peyraube)

1. Pre-Archaic Chinese: language of the oracle bone inscriptions. 14th-11th c. B.C. 2. Early Archaic Chinese: 10th-6th c. B.C. 3. Late Archaic Chinese: 5th-2th c. B.C. (mehr oder minder Klassisches Chinesisch (5.-3.Jh.) 4. Pre-Medieval: 1st c. B.C.-1st c. A.D. (transition period) 5. Early Medieval: 2nd-6th c. 6. Late medieval: 7th-mid-13th c. 7. Pre-Modern: mid 13th-14th c. (transition period) 8. Modern: 15th-mid-19th c. 9. Contemporary: mid 19th-20th c. The history of the Chinese language in its written form starts with the Shang 商-Dynasty (16.-11.c. B.C., traditionally 1766-1123 B.C.). Divinatory texts on bones, the scapula of oxens and the plastrons of turtles are the first written documents, found at the beginning of the 20. century in Anyang 安陽 , the capital of the Shang. These documents are usually quite short and formulary, but there is little doubt that they already show a close connection to the language of the documents of the Zhou period (1050-771 (Western Zhou), Eastern Zhou (770- 256, 249). The language of the Zhou period is transmitted in inscriptions on bronze and in many texts. In its early periods, the areas inhabited by Chinese speakers had been much smaller than today. The centre of the early Chinese language is the Yellow River basin, but already during the Zhou period the Chinese language began to spread beyond this area, and during the subsequent periods the Han Chinese assimilated more and more regions and changed them into Chinese speaking areas. Very likely did the language of the well known texts from the Zhou period, e.g. the Lunyu 論語 , not differ much yet from a cultivated vernacular of the time. The strict distinction between the literary language and the vernacular only started to develop during the Han period and the difference between the two linguistic layers became more considerable from then on. Oracle bone inscription The Chinese script a) Pictograph: a graph which is a depictive representation of a thing ≠ writing. To be writing, the picture must be conventionally and regularly associated with the name of the thing depicted, that is with the word of the thing in question (Boltz: Cambridge History of Ancient China). b) Zodiograph: a graph which represents the name of a thing, a word for the thing = writing

The process of shifting from pictograph to zodiograph is the process of the association of the graph with a pronunciation = phoneticization. Zodiographs cannot be divided into smaller graphic components. c) Logographs: graphs which represent words of which zodiographs are a subclass.

Cambridge History of Ancient China. Article on ‚Language and Writing‘ by William Boltz. Paronomastic (rebus) usage of Chinese zodiographs

• Character Zodiographic use Paronomastic use 1. 足 zú ‘foot’ zú ‘sufficient’ 2. 亦 yì ‘armpit’ (腋) yì ‘also’ 3. 又 (yòu) ‘hand’ (shŏu 手) yòu ‘again’ 4. 自 (zì) ‘nose’ (bí 鼻) zì ‘self’ 5. 象 xiàng ‘elephant’ xiàng ‘image’ (像) 6. 云 yún ‘cloud’ (yùn 雲) yún ‘said’ 7. 其 jì ‘osier basket’ (箕) qí ‘possessive pronoun‘ 8. 舟 zhōu ‘boat’ zhōu ‘encircle’ (周) 9. 莫 mù ‘dusk’ (暮) mò ‘no one’ 10. 栗 lì ‘chestnut (tree)’ lì ‘shivering’ (慄)

<> Polyphonic usage: semantically congruent but phonetically distinct word Determinatives

Semantic determinatives: determine meaning (paronomastic usage)

- Very frequent and productive: mú 模 ‘model, overlay’ (木 ‘tree‘); mó 摹 ‘rub’ (手 ‘hand’); mó 謨 ‘announce’ (言 ‘speech’); mō 摸 ‘stroke’ (手 ‘hand’) = xié shēng 諧聲 ‘phonetic compounds’

Phonetic determinatives: determine pronunciation (polyphonic usage)

- Less easily to determine: míng 名 ‘name, call’ (probably originally written as 口); mìng 命 ‘fate’; míng 鳴 ‘bird-call’

Shuō wén jiĕ zì 說文解字 by Xŭ Shèn 許慎 (100 A.D.)

Explaining the unit characters and analyzing the compound characters

Liù shū 六書: 1) Zhĭ shì 指事 ‘indicating the matter’, e.g. shàng 上 , xià 下 2) Xiàng xíng 象形 ‘representing the form’, e.g. mù 目 ‘eye’; ĕr 耳 ‘ear’ 3) Xíng shēng 形聲 ‘forming the sound’, e.g. zhēng 征 ‘forming an expedition’ 4) Huì yì 會意 ‘conjoining the sense’, e.g. xìn 信 (combination of rén 人 ‘person’ and yán 言 ‘speech’) 5) Zhuăn zhù 轉注 ‘redirected characters’, (writing of etymologically related words with related, but not identical characters) e.g. kăo 考 and lăo 老 6) Jiă jiè 假借 ‘borrowed characters’ (one character writes a word different from but (nearly) homophonous to it), e.g. líng 令 ‘ command‘ for liáng ‘fine’, usually written 良. Word families in Chinese

1. 安 án < EMC an < *án ‘stability’ 2. 按 àn < EMC anH < *áns ‘press or hold down, make stable’ 3. 案 àn < EMC anH < *áns ‘seat, stool’ 4. 晏 yàn < EMC anH < *ráns ‘at rest, settled’ 5. 鞍 ān < EMC an < *án ‘saddle’ 6. 燕 yàn < EMC nH < *jáns ‘at rest’, ‘banquet’ < ‘seated’ Reflexions on the Chinese language

Xún zĭ 荀子 (3. century BC, probably between 298 and 238 B.C.)

Ĕr yă 爾雅 (3. century BC)

Fāng Yán 方言 (1. century AD) (Yáng Xióng 揚雄 53 BC – 18 AD)

Shuō wén jiĕ zì 說文解字 (2. century AD) (Xŭ Shèn 許慎)

Shì míng 釋名 (200 AD) (Liú Xī 劉熙)

Yù piān 玉篇 (547-549 AD) (Gù Yĕwáng 顧野王)

Qiè yùn 切韻 (601 AD) (Lù Făyán 陸法言 )

A very scattered grammatical analysis (of ‘empty words’) starts only with the 12th century. Rectification of names 正名

• Kong zi, Analects: 13,3 • 子路曰〃〈衛君待子而為政，子將奚先?〉 • 子曰〃〈必也正名乎!〉 • ‗Zi Lu said: ―If the Lord of Wei left the administration of his state to you, what would you put first?‖ • The Master said, ―If something has to be put first, it is, perhaps, the rectification of names.‖‘ Rectification of names 正名

• Confucius: Analects XII, 11 • 齊景公問政於孔子。孔子對曰〃〈君君，臣臣，父父，子子。〉 • ‗Duke Jing of Qi asked Confucius about government. Confucius answered, ―Let the ruler be a ruler, the subject a subject, the father a father, the son a son.‖‘ • This means, every name contains certain implications which constitute the essence of that class of things to which this name applies. Rectification of names: Xun zi 荀子

• Xun zi‗s name was Xun Qing 荀卿 , his personal name Kuang 況 (3. century BC, probably between 298 and 238 B.C). He was a native of the state of Zhao 趙 and served as a magistrate in the states of Qi 齊 and Chu 楚. He appearingly had a long life, maybe was already been born in 335 B.C. One of his pupils was Han Fei 韓非. He was one of the followers of Kong zi (Conficius) 孔子 . The central hypothesis of Xun‗s philosophy is that human nature is bad; this does not mean that the human nature as such is bad, but that the lack of control with regard to human emotions leads to chaos and evil. • The book bearing his name contains 32 chapters, many of them detailed and logically developed essays which probably come directly from his pen. Rectification of names: Xun zi 荀子

• Regarding the origin and use of names: • 故知者為之分別制名以指實，上以明貴賤，下以辨同異。 • ‗Therefore those who know make dinstinctions for them, they determine the names in order to denote actualities, on the one hand so as to make evident the distinctions between superior and inferior [in society], and on the other hand to distinguish similarities and difference.‘ • This is to say, names were originated partly for ethical and partly for logical reasons. Rectification of names: Xun zi 荀子

• As to the logical use of names, Xun zi says: • … 知異實者之異名也，故使異實者莫不異名也，不可亂也，猶使同實者莫不同名也。 • ‗Names are given to things. When things are alike, they are named alike; when different, they are named differently … • The one who knows that different actualities have different names, and who therefore never refers to different actualities otherwise than by different names, will not experience any confusion. Likewise he who refers to the same actualities should never use any other but the same names.‘ Rectification of names: Xun zi 荀子

• The logical classification of names: • 故萬物雖眾，有時而欲無舉之，故謂之物；物也者，大共名也。推而共之，共則有共，至于無共然后止。有時而欲偏舉之，故謂之鳥獸。鳥獸也者，大別名也。推而別之，別則有別，至于無別然后至。 • ‗Although things are innumerable, there are times when we wish to speak of them all in general, so we call them ‗things‘. ‗Things‘ is the most general term. We press on and generalize, we generalize and generalize still more, until there is nothing more general. Then only we stop. There are times when we wish to speak of one aspect, so we say ‗birds and beasts‘, ‗Birds and beasts‘ is the great classifying term. We press on and classify. We classify and classify still more, until there is no more classification to be made, and then we stop.‘ • Thus Xun zi distinguishes two kinds of names, the general and the classifying. The general name is the product of the synthetic process of our reasoning, while the classifying name is that of its analytic process. Rectification of names: Xun zi 荀子

• All names are men-made. When they were on the process of invention, there was no reason why an actuality should be designated by one particular name rather than another. Once, however, certain names came through convention to be applied to certain actualities, they could be attached to these and none other. • 名無固宜，約之以命，約定俗成謂之宜，異于約則謂之不宜。 • ‗There are no names necessarily appropriate themselves. Names were named by convention. But when the convention having been established, it has become costumary, this is called an appropriate name.‘ The theory of naming: Mo zi 墨子

• Mo zi is the corpus of the Mohist school 墨家, the earliest rivals of the followers of Confucius, founded by Mo Di 墨翟 in the late 5th century. The school was a highly organised community of teachers, craftsmen and soldiers which survived until the late 3rd century. The Mohist reject Music, the three year long period of mourning and extravagant funeral rites. One of the central ideas of Mo zi is the concept of ‚all-embracing love jiān ài 兼愛‗ meaning that everyone in the world should love everyone else equally and without discrimination. Mo zi‗s doctrines are characterised by a ‚democratic element‗. The theory of naming: Mo zi 墨子

• No part of the Mo zi text has been written by Mo Di himself, but by his followers. The part of the Mo zi relevant for the theory of naming consists of the ‚Dialectical chapters‗ (ch. 40-45) which are corrupt and difficult writings on the disciplines of logic, ethics, geometry, optics, and mechanics, seldom discussed elsewhere in the Pre-Han literature. The heart of this section is the ‚Mohist Canons‗, i.e. the jīng 經 ‚Canons‗ and the jīng shuō 經說 ‚Explanations of the Canons‗. The theory of naming: Mo zi 墨子

• 名，達、類、私〃 • 名，物，達也，有實必待之名也〃命之馬，類也，若實也者必以是名也〃命之臧，私也，是名也止於是實也〃 • A78 (Canon) “Names. Unrestricted, of the kind, private.‖ • (Explanation) ‗Thing‘ is unrestricted; any object necessarily awaits its name. Naming something ‗horse‘ is of the kind; for ‗like the object‘ one necessarily has the use of this name. Naming someone ‗Tsang‘ is private; this name stays in this object.‖ The theory of naming

• Graham (1993: 141): ―The theory of naming is purely nominalistic, as is the only other in pre-Han literature, that of Hsün-tsu‘s ‗Correction of Names‘. You name an object ‗horse‘ and apply the name to everything which is like it, of its kind; ‗horse‘ is simply a shorthand for ‗like the object‘. The assumption that common naming is by similarity is so deep-rooted that the Mohist excludes from common names not only the proper name which applies to only one obejct but the name ‗thing‘ which applies to any object, irrespective of similarity. Referring and saying merely tell us what an object is like.‖ • Graham, A.C. Disputers of the Tao. Philosophical Argument in Ancient China. LaSalle: Open Court (1989, 1993). • Fung Yu-lan. A Short History of Chinese Philosophy. Edited by Derk Bodde. New York, London …: The Free Press, 1948, 1979. The theory of naming

• Makeham 1991 assumes: • The Mohist proposes that objects can be known on the basis of observation, explanation, or report (A 80). In other words, it is held that provided certain criteria are adhered to, there can be a correspondence between names and the objects which they 'pick out'. Yet although Canon A 80 lists objects (shi) among the four objects of knowledge -- names, objects, how to relate them, and how to act -- more attention is focused on names than objects. • Makeham, John. ―Names, Actualities, and The Emergence of Essentialist Theories of Naming in Classical Chinese Thought.‖ Philosophy East & West, V. 41 No. 3 (July, 1991), pp. 341-363. The theory of naming

• Canon I: Ju (to refer to/pick out by name from others) is to present the analogue for the object. • 舉，擬實也〃 • yĭ 擬 = abschaetzen, ermessen; kalkulieren, spekulieren auf; sich gleichstellen (wollen), gleichtun (wollen) (Unger, Glossar des Klassischen Chinesisch). • Canon 1: Zhī (know). By hearsay, by explanation, by personal experience. The name, the object, how to relate, how to act. • 知，聞、說、親〃名、實、合、為〃 The theory of naming

• Graham (p. 262) shows: A comparison between Xun zi and the Canons shows that the purpose, evidence and pivotal requirements of naming in Xun zi correspond to the three Later Mohist branches of knowledge which concern names and objects, and that they are treated in the same sequence as in the Canons. The theory of naming

• These are (Graham, p. 263): Fallacies Mohist Disciplines The purpose Disordering names by Knowing how to connect of having names confusion in operating names with objects with names (discourse)

The evidence for Disordering names by Knowing objects (the assimilating and confusion in operating sciences) differentiating with objects

The pivotal Disordering objects by Knowing names requirements for confusion in operating (argumentation) instituting names with names Das Er ya 爾雅

• Das Er ya ist das älteste erhaltene Wörterbuch, oder besser Glossar oder Thesaurus. Der Titel bedeutet wahrscheinlich ‚Naheliegend (= Umgangssprachlich) und Gebildet‘. Heutzutage ist die Interpretation ‚ Sich dem nähern was korrekt, angemessen, kultiviert ist‘ allgemein akzeptiert. • Das Er ya ist ursprünglich dem Zhou gong 周公, dem Sohn von Wen wang 文王 und dem jüngeren Bruder von Wu wang 武王, den Gründern der Zhoudynastie zugeschrieben worden. Diese Zuschreibung ist nicht haltbar. • Das Werk stammt mit größter Wahrscheinlichkeit aus dem 3. Jahrhundert, dem letzten Jahrhundert der Zhanguo Zeit (478-221), der zweiten Hälfte der Ost-Zhou Periode (Karlgren) und ist wahrscheinlich von mehreren Autoren verfaßt worden. Das Er ya 爾雅

• Das Er ya 爾雅 umfaßt gut 2000 Einträge, die in 19 Sachgruppen, Kapitel, unterteilt sind, von denen nur 16 Sachgruppen im eigentlichen Sinne behandeln, das sind die Kapitel 4-19, die sich fast ausschließlich mit konkreten Begriffen, vorwiegend Substantiven, befassen. Die ersten 3 Kapitel erklären fast ausschließlich Verben, im ersten werden Synonyma vorgeführt inklusive seltener auch dialektaler Ausdrücke, die durch ein allgemeines Wort erklärt werden; im zweiten Einzelwörter, im dritten Dopplungen und einige andere zweisilbige Ausdrücke. Das Er ya 爾雅

• 1.釋詁 shì gŭ Verben, inklusive Adjektiven oder Adverbien und grammatische Partikeln erklären 2. 釋言 shì yán Verben • 3. 釋訓 shì xùn hauptsächlich statische oder deskriptiven Verben, von denen viele reduplikative Binome sind. Das Er ya 爾雅

• 4. 釋親 shì qīn Verwandtschaftsbezeichnungen 5. 釋宮 shì gōng Architektur 6. 釋器 shì qì Werkzeuge, inklusive Verben, die mit der Verwendung der Werkzeuge zu tun haben 7. 釋樂 shì yuè Musik Das Er ya 爾雅

• 8. 釋天 shì tiān Astronomie (Himmel), Kalender, Meteorologie 9. 釋地 shì dì Geographie (Erde) und Geologie 10. 釋丘 shì qiū Hügel 11. 釋山 shì shān Berge, Namen berühmter Berge 12. 釋水 shì shuĭ Flüsse, Ströme, verwandte Objekte so wie Inseln, Boote Das Er ya 爾雅

• 13. 釋草 shì cǎo kleinere Pflanzen, Gräser, Kräuter, Gemüse 14. 釋木 shì mù Bäume und Stäucher 15. 釋蟲 shì chóng Insekten, Spinnen, Reptilien etc. 16. 釋魚 shì yú Fische, Amphibien, Schalentiere 17. 釋鳥 shì niǎo Vögel 18. 釋獸 shì shòu wilde und legendäre Tiere • 19. 釋畜 shì chù Haustiere Das Er ya 爾雅

• 1. Shì gŭ 釋詁 • 初、哉、首、基、肇、祖、元、胎、俶、落、權，輿，始也。 • 初 chū beginnen, anfangen • 哉 zāi beginnen, anfangen • 首 shŏu Kopf, Anführer, Führer • 基 jī Basis, Grundlage • 肇 zhào beginnen, anfangen, Ursprung haben in • 祖 zǔ Vorfahr, Großvater • 元 yuán erster, Anführer • 胎 tāi Embryo, Foetus • 俶 chù beginnen, anfangen • 落 luò herabfallen, anfangen • 權 quán Macht, Autorität • 輿 yú Wagen, Gefährt, tragen

• 始 shĭ anfangen, beginnen Das Er ya 爾雅

• 4. 釋親 • 父之姊妹為姑。 • fù zhī zǐ mèi wéi gū • Die jüngere und die ältere Schwester des Vaters heißen ‚Tante‗. • Gū 姑 ist auch ‚Schwiegermutter‗ = Mutter des Ehemanns. Das Er ya 爾雅

• ８．釋天穹蒼蒼，天也。春為蒼天，夏為昊天，秋為旻天，冬為上天。四時。 Hoch und blau, das ist der Himmel. • Im Frühling wird er ein blauer Himmel, im Sommer der Sommerhimmel, im Herbst der Herbsthimmel und im Winter der hohe Himmel. • Das sind die vier Jahreszeiten. Fāng Yán 方言 (1. century AD)

• (1. century AD) kompiliert von Yáng Xióng 揚雄 (53 BC – 18 AD). Originaltitel: Yóuxuān shǐzhĕ juédài yǔ shì biéguó fāngyán 輶軒使者絕代語釋別國方言 ‚Regionale Sprachen aus verschiedenen Ländern und fernen Zeiten von den Botschaftern auf den Leichten Wagen‗. • Yang Xiong war kaiserlicher Sekretär und hat eine Reihe weiterer Werke verfasst. • Ein Dialektwörterbuch aus der frühen Hanzeit. Es registriert, nach Sachgebieten geordnet, dialektal gebundene Wörter und stellt diesen das entsprechende allgemein gebräuchliche Äquivalent gegenüber. Fāng Yán 方言 (1. century AD)

• Das Originalwerk enthält über 9000 Zeichen, weitgehen basierend auf der Aussprache von Leuten, die in die Hankapitale Chang‗an reisten. Es handelt sich um das erste Dialektwörterbuch der Welt. Es besteht aus 12 juan 卷 . • Kein Unterschied wird gemacht zwischen Sprache und Dialekt. • Das Wörterbuch enthält auch eine Reihe nicht chinesischer Wörter hauptsächlich Austro- Asiatischen Ursprungs. Fāng Yán 方言 (1. century AD)

• 第一: 黨、曉、哲，知也。楚謂之黨，或曰曉，齊宋之間謂之哲。 • Kapitel 1: dǎng Partei, xiǎo hell, zhé weise, das ist zhī ‚wissen‗. In Chu (südlicher Dialekt) nennt man es dǎng, manche sagen xiǎo, und zwischen Qi und Song (östliche Dialekte) nennt man es zhé. Fāng Yán 方言 (1. century AD)

• 第三:燕齊之間養馬者謂之娠。官婢女廝謂之娠。 • Kapitel 3: zwischen Yan und Qi (nord- östliche Dialekte) nennt man das ‚Aufziehen von Pferden‗ shēn ‗schwanger‘. Guān bì nyŭ sī ‘eine Regierungssklavin‘ nennt man [ebenfalls] shēn.

Fāng Yán 方言 (1. century AD)

• In Fangyan wird versucht, das reale Wort eines gesprochenen Dialektes zu schreiben auf eine Art und Weise, die über das strikte ‗ein Wort-ein Graph‘ System hinausgeht. Das Fangyan listet alle Arten von binominalen Formen – reduplikative, einfache Komposita von Elementen, die nicht unbedingt ursprünglich miteinander verwandt waren.

• Serruys, Paul M. The Chinese dialects of Han time according to Fang Yen. Berkeley and Los Angeles: The University of California Press, 1959. Fāng Yán 方言 (1. century AD)

• Das Fanyan hat alle chinesischen Region mit vergleichbarem Interesse behandelt. Unter den verschiedene Regionen können die folgenden unterschieden werden: • A) Gegenden mit original chinesischer Sprache und Kultur • B) erweiterte Gegenden, z.B. im Norden (z.B. Yan 燕), die von unterschiedlicher Bedeutung und Assimilation sind • C) Gegenden mit nicht-chinesischer Population (z.B. Wu 吳, Yue 越 ). • Fangyan behandelt die verschiedenen Dialekt entsprechend ihrer historischen Bedeutung, und entsprechend listet es z.B. mehr Worte für Qin 秦 und für Chu 楚 als für einige andere Staaten. • Nicht-chinesisches Material wird auf dieselbe Weise behandelt wie chinesisches ohne daß Unterschiede herausgestellt würden. Das Shuō wén jiě zì 說文解字

Erklärung der einfachen und Analyse der zusammengesetzten Schriftzeichen Das erste umfassende Zeichen- (nicht Wörter-)Buch Chinas, verfasst von Xu Shen 許慎 (30-124), um 100 n.Chr. vollendet. Es besteht formal aus 9353 Zeichen, dazu 1193 Doubletten, die nach 540 Schlüsseln (clés) oder Radikalen angeordnet sind (im Kangxi cidian sind es nur noch 214). Der größte Teil der Zeichen des klassischen Altertums inklusive der Qin und der Han Perioden sind darin erfaßt. Zu bedenken ist, daß keine grundsätzlich Kongruenz zwischen Zeichen und Wort besteht und daß Xu nicht primär die Bedeutung der Wörter erklärt. Er berücksichtigt diese nur insoweit, als er die Gestaltung des Zeichens im Hinblick auf den damit gemeinten Begriff erläutert. Xu Shen versucht, die Intention des Erfinders eines gegebenen Zeichens nachzuvollziehen, wobei ihm durchaus Irrtümer unterlaufen. Ein Beispiel ist das Zeichen für wáng 王 ‚König‗, in dem die drei waagerechten Striche als Symbol für ‚Himmel, Mensch und Erde‗ und der senkrechte Strich als Symbol für ‚König‗ erklärt wird. Das Shuō wén jiě zì 說文解字

Im Nachwort zum Shuowen jiezi wird Cangjie 倉頡 , der Schreiber des mythischen Gelben Kaisers als Erfinder der Schrift genannt. Er soll die Spuren von Tieren beobachtet haben, um ihre Eigenschaften unterscheiden zu können. Zu Beginn, als Cangjie die Schrift erschuf, kopierte er die Formen, indem er sich auf Ähnlichkeiten lèi 類 stützte, daher nannte man sie wén 文 ‚Abbildung‗. Danach, sobald die Aussprache dem Zeichen zugefügt wurde, nannt man sie zì 字 ‚Zeichen‗. Die Abbildungen repräsentieren das Essentielle der Dinge; Zeichen bedeutet, Multiplikation durch Reproduktion. Das Shuō wén jiě zì 說文解字

周禮八歲入小學，保氏教國子，先以六書。 Zhou li ba sui ru xiao xue, bao shi jiao guo zi, xian yi liu shu Nach den Riten der Zhou begannen sie [die Kinder] mit den ‗kleinen Übungen‘, der ‗Protektor‘ unterrichtete die Kinder der Würdenträger, und er begann mit den sechs Shu.

Im weiteren Verlauf des Textes bringt Xu einen Überblick über die überlieferte Geschichte der chinesischen Schrift, referiert auf die Bücherverbrennnung und Schriftreform von Qin Shihuang di 秦始皇帝 und die Abschaffung der ‚alten Schrift‗ gu wen 古文 und die Einführung der lishu 隸書 ‚Schreiberschrift, Kanzleischrift‗. Am Ende seiner Erläuterungen erwähnt er die Quellen, auf die er sich insbesondere stützt und präsentiert die Liste der 540 Radikale in der kleinen Siegelschrift xiaozhuan 小篆, einer vereinfachten Version der großen Siegelschrift dazhuan 大篆.

Shuō wén jiĕ zì 說文解字 by Xŭ Shèn 許慎 (100 A.D.)

Explaining the unit characters and analyzing the compound characters

Liù shū 六書: 1) Zhĭ shì 指事 ‘indicating the matter’, e.g. shàng 上 , xià 下 2) Xiàng xíng 象形 ‘representing the form’, e.g. mù 目 ‘eye’; ĕr 耳 ‘ear’ 3) Xíng shēng 形聲 ‘forming the sound’, Ideophonogramme, e.g. zhēng 征 ‘forming an expedition’ 4) Huì yì 會意 ‘conjoining the sense’, e.g. xìn 信 (combination of rén 人 ‘person’ and yán 言 ‘speech’), Ideogramme. 5) Zhuăn zhù 轉注 ‘redirected characters’, (writing of etymologically related words with related, but not identical characters) e.g. kăo 考 and lăo 老 6) Jiă jiè 假借 ‘borrowed characters’ (one character writes a word different from but (nearly) homophonous to it), e.g. líng 令 ‘ command‘ for liáng ‘fine’, usually written 良.

Das Shuō wén jiě zì 說文解字

• 王部: • 王：天下所歸往也。董仲舒曰：“古之造文者，三畫而連其中謂之王。三者，天、地、人也，而參通之者王也。” 孔子曰：“一貫三為王。”凡王之屬皆从王。 • König, das ist wo alles unter dem Himmel sich hinwendet. Dong zhong Shu sagt: ‚Diejenigen, die im Altertum die Zeichen machten, sie machten drei Striche und verbanden sie in der Mitte und nannten es König.‗ Die drei sind ‚Himmel, Erde und Mensch‗, und der dreifach durchgehende ist ‚König‗. Kong zi sagt: ‚Einer verbindet drei und ist König.‗ Alle die König untergeordnet sind, folgen König. Das Shuō wén jiě zì 說文解字

• 元部 : • 始也从一从丌。 • Yuan , das ist Anfang. Es besteht aus yi ‚eins‗ und yuan [für die Aussprache].

• Bottéro, Francoise. Sémantisme et Classification dans l‘Écriture Chinoise. Les systèmes de classement des caractères par clés du Shuowen jiezi au Kangxi cidian. Paris: Collège de France, 1996

Y Kommentare zum Guoyu 國語 von Wei Zhao 韋昭 (3. Jh. n. Chr.)

• Geographische Glossen:

• Text: 武公伐翼殺哀公 . • Wu gong fa Yi sha Ai gong • Wu Herzog angreifen Yi töten Ai Herzog • Herzog Wu griff Yi an und tötete Herzog Ai. • 翼晉國都也. • Yi Jin guo du ye • Yi Jin Staat Hauptstadt FIN(assertorisch, Nominalsatz). • Yi ist die Hauptstadt des Staates Jin. Glossen in literarischen Texten: Kommentare zum Guoyu 國語 von Wei Zhao 韋昭 (3. Jh. n. Chr.) • Lexikalische Glossen: • Text: 君得其賴 • Jun de qi lai • Fürst erlagen sein Vorteil • Der Fürst erlangt seinen Vorteil. • Kommentar: 賴，利也. • Lai, li ye • Lai, Nutzen FIN(assert., Nominalsatz) • Lài ‗Nutzen‘ ist lì ‗Nutzen. Glossen in literarischen Texten: Kommentare zum Guoyu 國語 von Wei Zhao 韋昭 (3. Jh. n. Chr.) • Lexikalische Glossen: • Text: 君忸怩乃趣赦之. • Jun nüni nai qu she zhi • Fürst beschämt dann schleunig entlassen OBJ • Der Fürst war beschämt und entließ schleunigst die Gefangenen. • Kommentar: • 忸怩慙貌 • Nyüni can mao • Schämen schämen Abbildung • Nyù nì ist ein ähnlicher Ausdruck für cán ‗sich schämen‘. • Nach Fang yan ist nyù nì ein Dialektwort aus Ying, der Hauptstadt von Chu: • 第十:忸怩，慚珻也。楚郢江湘之間謂之忸怩，或謂之阕咨。 • Kapitel 10: nyù ní, das ist cán méi. Zwischen Ying in Chu und Jiang-Xiang nennt man es nyù ní, manche nennen es què zī. (Wachturm, konsultieren, diskutieren). Glossen in literarischen Texten: Kommentare zum Guoyu 國語 von Wei Zhao 韋昭 (3. Jh. n. Chr.) • Lexikalische Glossen: • Text: 昔先主文子少舋於難 • Xi xian zhu Wen zi shao xin yu nan • Einst früher Herr Wen zi jung hineingeraten PREP Schwierigkeiten • Vormals, als unser Herr Wen zi noch jung war, war er in Schwierigkeiten hineingeraten. • Kommentar: • 舋猶離 (舋 für 釁 ‚Riss, Spalte‗) • Xin you li • xin wie li • Xìn ist wie lí ‗trennen, sich entfernen von‘, ‗hineingeraten in Widrigkeiten‘. Glossen in literarischen Texten: Kommentare zum Guoyu 國語 von Wei Zhao 韋昭 (3. Jh. n. Chr.) • Grammatische Paraphrasen: • Text: 弗勝致右焉 • Fu sheng zhi you yan • NEG besieigen machen.zu rechts bei.ihm • Er konnte ihn nicht besiegen und machte ihn zum ‚Rechten Mann‗ bei sich. • Kommentar: 致右於談 • Zhi you yu Tan • Machen.zu rechts PREP Tan • Er wurde ‚Rechter Mann‗ bei Tan.

• In diesem Kommentar wird yán 焉, welches allgemein als eine Kontraktion aus yú zhī ‗bei ihm‘ analysiert wird, kommentiert. Glossen in literarischen Texten: Kommentare zum Guoyu 國語 von Wei Zhao 韋昭 (3. Jh. n. Chr.) • Grammatische Paraphrasen: Passivparaphrasen • Text: 晉正於秦五立而後平 • Jin zheng yu Qin wu li er hou ping • Jin korrekt PREP Qin fünf aufstellen CON danach Frieden • Jin wurde durch Qin ins Lot gebracht, fünf wurden aufgestellt und erst danach herrschte Frieden. • Kommentar: 正者為秦所輔正 • Zheng zhe wei Qin suo fu zheng • Korrekt TOP PASS Qin PASS • Ins Lot gebracht meint, dass ihm von Qin geholfen und es ins Lot gebracht wurde. Glossen in literarischen Texten: Kommentare zum Guoyu 國語 von Wei Zhao 韋昭 (3. Jh. n. Chr.) • Grammatische Paraphrasen: Passivparaphrasen • Text: 亦不克救君遂止於秦 • Yi bu ke jiu jun sui zhi yu Qin • Auch nicht imstande helfen Fürst dann stoppen PREP Qin • Auch waren sie nicht imstande, dem Fürsten zu helfen, und daraufhin wurde er von Qin gefangen genommen. • Kommentar: 為秦所獲 • Wei Qin suo huo • PASS Qin PASS gefangen • … von Qin wurde er gefangen genommen.

• In beiden Beispielen wird eine Phrase V Prep 於 NPAgens durch das wéi … suŏ Passiv ersetzt. Ausspracheglossen: fǎn qiè 反切

• Der Ursprung der fǎn qiè 反切 liegt wahrscheinlich in der Hanzeit. Sie finden sich in der Regel in Kommentaren, sind aber meist schwer zu datieren. Aus der Liuchao 六朝 Zeit (3-6. Jh. n.Chr.) sind bereits einige Lexika bekannt, die fǎn qiè 反切 enthielten, z.B. das shēng lèi von Li Deng 李登 und das yùn jí von Lü Jing 呂靜. Von beiden liegen Fragmente vor. Eine weitere wichtige Quelle ist das Jīng jiǎn shì wén 經典釋文 von Lu Deming 陸德明. Ausspracheglossen: fǎn qiè 反切

• 堂 táng EMC da 反切: 徒郎 d[ l]a • 蕩 dàng EMC da‗ 反切: 徒朗 d[ l]a‗ 宕 dàng EMC dah 反切: 徒浪 d[ l]ah • 鐸 duó EMC dak 反切: 待各 d[j‗ k]ak

• Der Konturton hängt an dem Auslaut-Zeichen, der Registerton am Anlaut-Zeichen.

• Die Mittelchinesischen Lautungen nach: Pulleyblank, Edwin G. Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation. Vancouver: UBC Press, 1991 Historical Phonology

• 2. Sources of Middle Chinese: • Most important source of Middle Chinese:

• Qieyun 切韻 compiled by Lu Fayan 陸法言 in 601 AD, earliest surviving example. (no complete text).

• It went through many re-editions and enlargements before it took final shape in the Guangyun 廣韻 or ‗Enlarged Qieyun‘, of 1008 (Norman has 1011, early Song) under the general editorship of Chen Pengnian 陳彭年 which is now taken to represent it.

• Most of the Tang redactions disappeared or survived only in fragments. Only one of the Tang revised versions, Wang Renxu‘s 王仁煦 Kanmiu buque qieyun 刊謬補缺切韻 , is known in a complete version. This was only found in the 1940th. Historical Phonology

• 2. Sources of Middle Chinese • What did Lu Fayan and his colleagues understand about the phonology of the language?

• The basis clearly was the written language, the character representing a single syllable. • A century or so before the compilation of the Qieyun, an important discovery was made; every Chinese syllable belongs to one of four tonal categories sheng 聲 : • these were called ping 平 , shang 上 , qu 去 and ru 入 . • It was further understood that syllables could rhyme or not rhyme; by definition. • Since alliterative syllables that also rhymed might still not be homophonous, there was also at least an implicit understanding that in some cases different elements could occur between the syllable onset and the rhyme proper which could also serve to differentiate syllables; this element is what we now call a medial. Historical Phonology

• Beispiele für die 4 verschiedenen Töne: 1. ping sheng 平聲 , 2. shang sheng 上聲, 3. qu sheng 去聲 , and 4. ru sheng 入聲:

1. Ping sheng 平聲 Ebenton, in Mandarin 1. und 2. Ton: 堂 táng EMC da 反切: 徒郎 d[ l]a

2. Shang sheng 上聲 , steigender Ton, in Mandarin 3. Ton 蕩 dàng EMC da‗ 反切: 徒朗 d[ l]a‗

3. Qu sheng 去聲 , fallender Ton, in Mandarin 4. Ton

宕 dàng EMC dah 反切: 徒浪 d[ l]ah

4. Ru sheng 入聲 , eingehender Ton, verschiedene Töne in Mandarin

鐸 duó EMC dak 反切: 待各 d[j‗ k]ak Historical Phonology

• 2. Sources of Middle Chinese: The Qièyùn 切韻 • The Qieyun and all its redactions were divided into five volumes (juan 卷 ). The first two contained all the ping tone words; each of the remaining volumes was devoted to one of the other tonal categories. • Each of the tones was divided into a certain number of rhymes yun 韻 ; in many cases rhymes that resembled each other in some way were placed side by side. • In modern terminology the consonantal syllable onset is known as the initial shengmu 聲母 and the remainder of the syllable is referred to as the final yunmu 韻母. • The final can be further analysed into a medial glide yuntou 韻頭 , main vowel yunfu 韻腹 , and syllabic ending yunwei 韻尾. Middle Chinese

Syllable

rhyme yunmu 韻母 Initial shengmu medial vowel final 聲母 yuntou yunfu yunwei

韻頭 (介音 ) 韻腹 (主元音 )韻尾 Ex. jiàn 見: kjian` K j ia n` Historical Phonology

• 2. Sources of Middle Chinese: The Qièyùn 切韻

• Spellings in the Qièyùn are to be read in the following way:

• Characters having the same reading are placed one after another in the dictionary and only the first of them has a fanqie spelling. They are followed by a number indicating how many homophonous characters are to follow.

• Example: dōng 東 : 德紅反 (or 切) 十七. (Example from the first page of the Guangyun 廣韻 .

• This means 德紅 t(k) ()w is a fanqie for dōng 東 and that the sixteen characters that follow have the same pronunciation. •

Historical Phonology dōng 東 twŋ Osten dòng 凍 twŋh frieren tóng 童 dwŋ Junge, Diener tóng 銅 dwŋ Kupfer . . . Historical Phonology zhōng 中 truwŋ Mitte zhōng 衷 truwŋ mittleres Kleid; ernst, loyal zhōng 衷 truwŋh entgegenstehen; treffen, passen chóng 蟲 druwŋ Insekt . . . zhòng 眾 tuwŋh Menge; viele Historical Phonology róng 戎 uwŋ Kriegswaffen, westliche Barbaren; Armee; róng 茙 uwŋ Bohnenart … gōng 弓 kuwŋ Bogen gōng 弓 kuwŋ Palast … xióng 雄 wuw männlich, mächtig qióng 窮 guw Grenze; bis an die Grenze gehen, erschöpfen; erschöpft, arm

Qieyun切韻

• Das Fragment entspricht dem Abschnitt Shangsheng 上聲 10, Reim mu 姥 bis 11, Reim ji薺. Bibliography: Nishiwaki_2001 • 體他禮反五 thj‗ = th[a l]j‗ , fünf

• http://idp.bbaw.de/

Qie yun 切韻

• Das verso Fragment entspricht dem Abschnitt von Shangsheng 上聲 10, Reim mu 姥 bis 14, Reim hui 賄. Zhou(S. 236) bezeichnet dies als Fragment einer erweiterten Version des Qie yun 切韻, und führt [T IV K 75, T IV 70 + 71], zusammen 8 Fragmente an. Bibliography: Nishiwaki_2001 Zhou Zumo 1983 Historical Phonology

• 2. Sources of Middle Chinese: Rhyme dictionaries

• While the Qieyun retained its prestige as the model for rhyming in the civil service examinations and went through various revisions and enlargements´, a new standard of pronunciation based on the Chang‘an dialect soon began to replace it for other purposes.

• By the end of the seventh century, Buddhist transcription practice begins to reflect the new standard. At least one rhyme dictionary was based on this standard, the Yunying 韻英 of Yuan Tingjian 元廷堅 , compiled in the Tianbao period (742-56). Though this dictionary is no longer extant, it was used by Huilin 慧琳 (died 810) in his Yiqie jing yinyi 一切經音義 .

According the the preface of Huilin‘s work, the new standard dialect was called Qin 秦 pronunciation, while the old standard was called Wu 吳 pronunciation.

Yi qie jing yin yi 一切經音義 Taishō 2128 = 54, 19c, 8 - 18

顯揚聖教論第一卷玄應撰 T54n2128_p0619c08(00)║樹杪(彌遶反通俗文樹鋒曰杪杪謂微細也)。 Shù miǎo (mjiaw‗)(mí rǎo m[ji) ]aw‗ fǎn, tōng sù wén shù fēng yuē miǎo miǎo wèi wéi xì yě Shu miao hat den initial m und den Reim aw im steigenden Ton, shang sheng, allgemein entspricht es in der Umgangssprache shu feng ‚Spitze des Baums‗, die heißt miao, miao meint ‚winzig, dünn‗. Miǎo 杪 = tip, end. T54n2128_p0619c09(00)║官僚(又作寮同力雕反爾雅僚官也同官曰僚也)。 T54n2128_p0619c10(00)║或翹(祇遙反廣雅翹舉也)。 T54n2128_p0619c11(00)║蝸虫(古花反說文蝸蝸也)。 T54n2128_p0619c12(00)║ 第八卷 T54n2128_p0619c13(00)║俱[月*互](梵語竹尸反佛本行經作拘致云一百百千名一拘致數當千萬也)。 www.cbeta.org Middle Chinese

• 2.4.1 The thirty-six initials • The 36 initials are found in the ‘Summary of the Seven Sounds’ Qi yin lue 七音略which was included by the Song dynasty scholar Zhèng Qiáo 鄭樵 (1108-1166) in his encyclopedia, the Tongzhi 通志 . This text is a slightly different version of the basic text of the Yunjing 韻鏡 , the earliest rhyme table (10th century), now lost. • The characters given represent the traditional names for the respective sounds. Middle Chinese

• Primary distinction between initial consonants: • Qīng 清 = clear • Zhuó 濁 = muddy • Further distinction between: • Quán qīng 全清 = completely clear: voiceless unaspirated • Cì qīng 次清 = secondary clear: voiceless aspirated • Quán zhuó 全濁 = completely muddy (occlusives) • Cì zhuó 次濁 = secondary muddy (nasals, sonorants) Middle Chinese