The Role of Cult and Feasting in the Emergence of Neolithic Communities

The role of cult and feasting in the emergence of Neolithic communities. New evidence from Gobekli¨ Tepe, south-eastern Turkey ∗ Oliver Dietrich1, Manfred Heun2, Jens Notroff1, , Klaus Schmidt1 & Martin Zarnkow3

Gobekli¨ Tepe is one of the most important archaeological discoveries of modern times, pushing back the origins of monumentality beyond the emergence of agriculture. We are pleased to present a summary of work in progress by the excavators of this remarkable site and their latest thoughts about its role and meaning. At the dawn of the Neolithic, hunter-gatherers congregating at Gobekli¨ Tepe created social and ideological cohesion through the carving of decorated pillars, dancing, feasting—and, almost certainly, the drinking of beer made from fermented wild crops.

Keywords: Turkey, Epipalaeolithic, Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and B, monumentality, congregation, dancing, feasting, drinking, beer, alcohol

Introduction Few ﬁelds of research have undergone such dramatic changes over a relatively short time span as the advent of the Neolithic in the Near East. Since the seminal work of Kenyon at Jericho, the roots of food-producing were sought in the southern Levant (Kenyon 1981). With the inﬂuential research of the Braidwoods at Jarmo, the focus shifted to the north-east 1 Deutsches Archaologisches¨ Institut, Orient-Abteilung, Podbielskiallee 69–71, D-14195 Berlin, Germany (Email: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]) 2 Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O.Box 5003, NO-1432 Aas, Norway (Email: [email protected]) 3 Technische Universitat¨ Munchen,¨ Wissenschaftszentrum Weihenstephan, Weihenstephaner Steig 20, D-85354 Freising, Germany (Email: [email protected]) ∗ Author for correspondence

C Antiquity Publications Ltd. ANTIQUITY 86 (2012): 674–695 http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/086/ant0860674.htm 674 Downloaded from http:/www.cambridge.org/core. Technical University of Munich University Library, on 09 Sep 2016 at 11:22:12, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at http:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00047840 use, available at Downloaded from 00 akn 04 cmd 06.C 2006). Schmidt 2004; Watkins 2000; al. et h elo G of tell The G extensive for evidence as well as purposes, 1994; ritual Cauvin buildings scale and 1993; special appropriate communal (Hauptmann and the feasting areas, for workshop at courtyards specialised excavated open and site residential or of every division Nearly spatial unsuspected. a shows quite hitherto was that this Heun to 1996; pinpointed Samuel been & has Nesbitt crops and 1966; domesticated here, Zohary to overlap & wheat crops (Harlan of of area founder species forms Neolithic two wild the other the of the of transition areas and the distribution barley The wheat, of 1). emmer (Figure way agriculture’ and of early einkorn new ‘cradle several the Lev-Yadun the as of and Triangle’ it forms of to ‘Golden wild refer cradle the where Taurus concentrate, the region, the species this of be plant termed foothills domesticated to (2001) the Kozłowski potential and and Tigris the Aurenche and between life. has region Euphrates Mesopotamia, the the that Upper of clear reaches Mountains, become upper has and it Braidwood years & middle (Braidwood recent the flanks’ In ‘hilly 1981). its to 1974, it, Braidwood put 1953; Braidwood as or, Crescent, Fertile the of PB h eodhl ftetnhadnnhmlenaclBC. cal millennia ninth and tenth the of PPNA/early half the second to the date They PPNB, examples. well-known are 2004), (Stordeur 2003, (Mazurowski Ahmar Qaramel el Jerf Mureybet, as (Watkins well Dere as Qermez and C 41–47) 2002: Hallan (Kozłowski 70–78), 1999: 1993, (Hauptmann u sahl acur Shit20,20,21) G 2010). 2006, 2001, (Schmidt sanctuary hill a as but CadD eeecvtdt orlvli h eetcmagsadcnsret iean give to serve can and campaigns G recent at the discovered in architecture level the floor of to and excavated impression rapid were the D) of and result (C use. that the of probable is time very mound some seems The after it 3). circles and A (Figure these site, total of the all. backfilling in over intentional at existed all restricted existed enclosures none but 20 not mound or least were the at enclosures pillars of megalithic part central round specific older, a small the to two that stylised smaller, showed only representing of survey consists sculptures often geophysical PPNB) are middle containing and they early buildings that II, rectangular (layer showing phase hands, later well and A as individuals. arms The birds, human-like and cases, animal 2). ass varied some wild (Figure with gazelle, in decorated aurochs, pillars as, are boars, scorpions, and central snakes, benches taller foxes, stone including pillars and even motifs, T-shaped walls two by huge, interconnected around are with enclosures pillars architecture circle-like monumental in produced arranged which 2011), Dietrich al ae II aigt h PA(for PPNA the to dating (III) layer early ato ag i u ocryottedsrcinwr.B ae-cnigteepieces, these laser-scanning By work. destruction lower the the in out found carry being to pieces dug smashed pit the large times, a ancient of in part destroyed were 4) (Figure bkiTp:aPNcli centre cultic PPN a Tepe: obekli http:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms ¨ ttesm ie hsrgo a ile vdnefradge fsca complexity social of degree a for evidence yielded has region this time, same the At h xaae nlsrsAHhv ennmdi hi re fdsoey w fthem of Two discovery. of order their in named been have A–H enclosures excavated The http:/www.cambridge.org/core 2000; Ozkan ¨ bkiTp nteGermus the on Tepe obekli ¨ tal. et . 02 01 Luo 2011; 2002, Technical University ofMunich University Library . http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00047840 lvrDerc tal. et Dietrich Oliver ag a nottnigrl,nta settlement, a as not role, outstanding an has range ¸ ¸ay tal. et 14 675 Ozdo ¨ tal et m Rsneg&Rdig20) Nemrik 2000), Redding & (Rosenberg emi ¸ on ¨ aacmaeDerc cmd 2010; Schmidt & Dietrich compare data C Shre 90 7–5,Nvl C Nevalı 378–85), 1990: (Schirmer u 2007). ¨ bki h eta ilr fEcoueC Enclosure of pillars central The obekli. ¨ 01,Tl Ar3(ath20)adTell and 2004) (Yartah 3 ‘Abr Tell 2001), . a & gan ˘ tal et bkiTp scaatrsdb an by characterised is Tepe obekli Ozdo ¨ ¨ , on 95 –;Wtis20:7), 2004: Watkins 3–9; 1995: . 09 Sep2016 at11:22:12 tal. et a 98 8–8 Stordeur 583–88; 1998: gan ˘ C 97 08 Lev-Yadun 2008; 1997, niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity , subjectto theCambridgeCore termsof tal. et (2000) ¸ori

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Research The role of cult and feasting in the emergence of Neolithic communities

Figure 5. Pillar 27 in Enclosure C with the sculpture of a predator in high relief (photograph: D. Johannes, c DAI).

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Research The role of cult and feasting in the emergence of Neolithic communities

Figure 7. Arms, hands and elements of clothing reveal the anthropomorphic character of the pillars (pillar 31 in the centre of Enclosure D; photograph: N. Becker, c DAI).

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Emerging new concepts: the ritual community of Gobekli¨ Tepe Since neither domesticated plants nor animals are known from the site, it is clear that the people who erected this monumental sanctuary were still hunter-gatherers, but far more organised than researchers dared to think 20 years ago. The first time a cult building with T-shaped pillars, comparable to those of layer II of Gobekli¨ Tepe, was uncovered was at Nevalı Ç ori, a settlement site now flooded due to the construction of the Ataturk¨ barrage (Hauptmann 1993). In its immediate vicinity there are three more sites with T-shaped stones visible on the surface (Sefer Tepe, Karahan Tepe and Hamzan Tepe), but no excavations have been carried out there so far. These places form a group of sites belonging to one cult, but their community was not confined to these sites. Observations in the field of iconography are the main argument for the existence of such a cultic community (cf. Figure 9). Shaft-straighteners often bear incised decorations of animals and symbols. Several examples from Jerf el Ahmar (Stordeur & Abbes` 2002: fig. 16/1–3) and Tell Qaramel (Mazurowski & Jamous 2000: 341, figs 7–8; Mazurowski & Yartah 2001: 304, fig. 10; Mazurowski 2003: fig. 12, 2004: fig. 10) feature snakes and scorpions, quadrupeds and birds strongly reminiscent of the iconography of Gobekli¨ Tepe (Figure 10). Similar motifs were incised into the so-called plaquettes of Jerf el Ahmar type (Stordeur & Abbes` 2002: 586–91, fig. 16/1–3) discovered in significant numbers at Tell Qaramel (Mazurowski & Jamous 2000: 341, fig. 8; Mazurowski & Yartah 2001: 304, fig. 11; Mazurowski 2004: 509, fig. 10), Tell ‘Abr 3 (Yartah 2004: 155, fig. 18/3) and Kortik¨ Tepe (Ozkaya¨ & San 2007: fig. 19); several examples have been found so far at Gobekli¨ Tepe. These motifs also occur on thin-walled stone cups and bowls of the Hallan Ç emi type (Rosenberg & Redding 2000: 50, fig. 5). Complete vessels of this group have recently been discovered at Kortik¨ Tepe (Ozkaya¨ & San 2007: fig. 6, 15–18) as part of rich grave inventories. Fragments of such vessels have been found at Gobekli,¨ Çayon¨ u(¨ Ozdo¨ gan˘ 1999: 59), Nevalı Ç ori, Jerf el Ahmar (Stordeur & Abbes` 2002: 583, fig. 12/1–4), Tell Abr´ 3 (Yartah 2004: 155, fig. 18/2, 4–5) and Tell Qaramel (Mazurowski 2003: 369, fig. 11/1–2). Another connection is suggested by the zoomorphic sceptres of the Nemrik type. Their distribution coincides exactly with the so-called ‘Golden Triangle’: they are present at Hallan Çemi,Nevalı Çori,Çayon¨ u,¨ Gobekli¨ Tepe, Abu Hureyra, Mureybet, Jerf el Ahmar and Dja’de (Kozłowski 2002: 77–80). This explosion of images, with few forerunners in Palaeolithic art, offers a view of a symbolic world, which had commonalities shared among the residents of PPN sites in Upper Mesopotamia. They are part of a system of symbolic communication that preceded writing as an essential method of storing cultural knowledge (Watkins 2004, 2010; Morenz & Schmidt 2009). These people must have had a highly complicated mythology, including a capacity for abstraction. Following these ideas, we now have more evidence that Cauvin (1994) was right in his belief that the social systems changed before, not as a result of, the shift to farming. This complex symbolic system continued for millennia. A prerequisite for its long life must have been an extensive network of supra-regional contacts sustained on a regular basis (Watkins 2008, 2010). For the large amount of quarrying, stone-carving and construction

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Research The role of cult and feasting in the emergence of Neolithic communities

Figure 10. Snakes and scorpions are important elements of Gobekli¨ Tepe’s iconography (photographs: C. Gerber, D. Johannes, I. Wagner, c DAI).

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Research The role of cult and feasting in the emergence of Neolithic communities

Figure 11. A barrel- (upper right) and a trough-like (lower right) limestone vessel from Gobekli¨ Tepe (photographs: K. Schmidt, N. Becker, c DAI). Six vessels with capacities up to 160 litres have been so far discovered in situ (left).

of similar size stood in a domestic building with different activity zones, yielding evidence for food processing in the form of grinding stones, saddle querns, plates and two charred seed cakes, containing primarily Brassica/Sinapis seeds (Willcox 2002: 55–56). This and the presence of a hearth encouraged the excavators to interpret the room as a kitchen area. Since the simplest brewing process would need, in addition to cereal processing equipment, only large containers for malting and mashing, this ‘kitchen’ could have produced beer as well. In Gobekli¨ Tepe, the occurrence of beer making is not yet certain, but as signs of habitation are also absent, it is a possibility that not every step of production was carried out there. The grain may have been malted at nearby settlements and been brought there only on special occasions. Genetic analyses have shown that the domestication of single-grained einkorn and emmer wheat took place around the Karacadag(Heun˘ et al. 1997; Luo et al. 2007) in close vicinity to Gobekli¨ Tepe. It is an intriguing thought that brewing and the domestication of wheat might be interrelated. The idea of alcoholic beverages at such an early date is not new. Since the so-called ‘Braidwood Symposium’ in 1953 there has been ongoing discourse on this topic. Based on ﬁnds of several kinds of cereals at Qalat Jarmo in eastern Iraq and encouraged by a remark by paleobotanist Sauer, Braidwood questioned the common assumption that the appearance of domesticated cereals in the Near East was linked with bread making. He and Sauer asked whether the discovery of fermentation (barley for example ferments naturally under certain conditions: Katz & Maytag 1991: 26–27) might have operated as the initial step towards experimental selection and domestication of cereals (Braidwood et al. 1953). However, the C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

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Research The role of cult and feasting in the emergence of Neolithic communities

Figure 12. Overhead view of Enclosure F at Gobekli¨ Tepe, showing the circle of pillars with interconnecting benches (photograph: K. Schmidt, c DAI).

food for these feasts is seen as a possible reason for the start of domestication (Hayden 2003). Regardless which position seems more compelling, ethnographic and archaeological records are abundant for the holding and managing of feasts. Large amounts of food were needed for this purpose and, of course, beverages, the latter often being alcoholic (cf. Everett et al. 1976; Douglass 1987; Hayden 1995; Jennings et al. 2005). Gobekli¨ Tepe adds a new dimension to this discussion. The sediments used to backfill the monumental enclosures at the end of their use consist of limestone rubble from the quarries nearby, flint artefacts and surprisingly large amounts of animal bones smashed to get to the marrow, clearly the remains of meals. Their amount exceeds everything known from contemporary settlements, and can be taken as a strong indication of large-scale feasting. The species represented most frequently are gazelle, aurochs and Asian wild ass, a range of animals typical for hunters at that date in the region. There is evidence for plant-processing, too. Grinders, mortars and pestles are abundant, although macro remains are few, and these are entirely of wild cereals (among them einkorn, wheat/rye and barley) (Neef 2003). The character of Gobekli¨ Tepe makes it clear that these feasts had a strong cultic significance. They can also be attributed to a special category of feast highlighted by Dietler C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

690 Downloaded from http:/www.cambridge.org/core. Technical University of Munich University Library, on 09 Sep 2016 at 11:22:12, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at http:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00047840 use, available at Downloaded from en acn ewe w esn ih elhn ttednes lee tt fcncoses(fe apmn 1999: Hauptmann (after consciousness of state altered dancers’ the at hint well might 16). persons fig. two between dancing being sa dao o aypol ol eatatdt epi osrcinb h rsetof prospect the by construction give in can help to century attracted Schr twentieth be feast. the could lavish on people of a graves many beginning how megalithic the on of idea from erection an dating the us Indonesia, of Records Nias, together. of drawn island be the to had people area buildings, wider monumental a the from construct To events. work collective (1995): Herbich and C Nevalı from bowl a on scene dancing A 13. Figure ot ihaotadznsoefiue rudteprmtrbnh tedn napi of pair a on attendant some bench, of perimeter the assembly centre. around an the figures at represent stone figures to larger dozen seems a pillars about anthropomorphic with G the sort, at and of 12), (Figure setting gatherings for the ready Tepe, walls the along G benches at contain They enclosures places. Outlines the Ahmar. of el Jerf and or buildings 3 ‘Abr Tell these of of buildings communal elaborate the for where especially 53–65). sites, Egypt, 1971: ancient (Helck of beer projects building in partly, big least the at from paid, e.g. were known, is workers events such in beer of f3mt t nllcto ntredy sn odnseg.A G At sledge. wooden a using days three in location final its to 3km of r uhlre u o7 ogwihn 0mti oswt oueo 20m of volume a with tons metric 50 weighing transported long megaliths 7m the to but (up smaller, larger are much enclosures are the and quarries the between distances http:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms h eurmnso olciewr vnshv ob ae noacutas o other for also account into taken be to have events work collective of requirements The http:/www.cambridge.org/core dr(97 oe ht55mnhue eaiho 4m of megalith a hauled men 525 that noted (1917) oder ¨ . Technical University ofMunich University Library . http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00047840 lvrDerc tal. et Dietrich Oliver r hw o elti essmgthv perd h turtle-like The appeared. have might feasts Neolithic how shows ori ¸ 691 bkiTp lutaetercaatra meeting as character their illustrate Tepe obekli ¨ , on 09 Sep2016 at11:22:12 C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity bkiTp,the Tepe, obekli ¨ 3 vradistance a over , subjectto theCambridgeCore termsof 3 .Terole The ). obekli ¨

Research The role of cult and feasting in the emergence of Neolithic communities

A rich repertoire of PPN dancing scenes (Garfinkel 2003) sheds some light on the nature of early Neolithic feasts. One of the most remarkable examples is the sherd of a limestone bowl from Nevalı Ç ori (Figure 13) depicting two persons with raised arms (Hauptmann 1999: fig. 16). Between them, a turtle-like being is joining the dance, maybe reflecting the altered state of consciousness of the dancers (McGovern 2009: 80). The cemetery of Kortik¨ Tepe, where numerous stone vessels were broken at the gravesite also suggests feasting with an ecstatic aspect. In concordance with Hayden’s thoughts, it seems obvious that repetitive feasts of the amplitude implied at Gobekli¨ Tepe must have placed stress on the economic production of hunter-gatherer groups. Maybe in response to the demand, new food sources and processing techniques were explored. In this scenario, religious beliefs and practices may have been a key factor in the adoption of intensive cultivation and the transition to agriculture. Archaeological and chemical evidence further suggests that this innovation may have been fuelled by alcoholic beverages, giving a new response to Braidwood’s question ‘Did man once live by beer alone?’ Probably not, but beer—and wine—may have played an important role in one of the most significant turning points in the history of mankind.

Acknowledgements We are grateful to the General Directorate of Antiquities of Turkey for kind permission to excavate this important site. The work at Gobekli¨ Tepe is funded by the German Archaeological Institute (DAI) and the German Research Foundation (DFG). Thanks are due to Trevor Watkins for valuable comments on the text; Thomas Gotzelt¨ and Nico Becker assisted with the illustrations.

Technical note on oxalate evidence in samples from Gobekli¨ Tepe The Feigl spot test (Feigl 1960) was performed on samples from two of the vessels. This is a common and recognised method for detecting the presence of these salts (Michel et al. 1993). Approximately 10g of deposit from the bottom of a dry, physically cleaned vessel was scraped free. For each analysis, 0.1g of material was used. The chemicals required for the colour reactions were supplied by Merck/Germany. Naphthalene-2.7-diol (no. 8.20851.0100) and 1.1-binaphthyl-2.2-diol (no. 8.41292.0005) and Sigma-Aldrich (Magnesium no. 31458- 1EA) were employed for the oxalate and tartrate analyses. For the first series of tests comprising five vessel samples (sample nos. 10-115, 10-117, 10-121, 10-122, 10-126), one control sample of distilled water, two samples from the earth surrounding each vessel (sample nos. 10-17, 10-22) and a water sample inoculated with oxalate or tartrate were also analysed. All samples were labelled with codes, which were not known to the laboratory personnel carrying out the analysis. No positive signal for any of the vessel samples was obtained in the first experiment. In a second experiment, sample 10-117 was positive for oxalate. In a third experiment, two samples gave a positive signal for oxalate in one of the replications, but not in the other, whereas sample 10-117 gave no positive signal. As the detection threshold of that spot test is 1μg and assuming that the occurrence of oxalate crystals is very low, creating homogeneous samples is impossible. Under light microscope we could not see any oxalate.

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