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Carl Linnaeus As the Founder of Modern Plant Taxonomy

Carl Linnaeus As the Founder of Modern Plant Taxonomy

Chromosome (2007) 2: 55-61 © Copyright 2007 by the International Society of Botany

Carl Linnaeus as the founder of modern

Elena I. Kurchenko

Research and Training Center of , Moscow State Pedagogical University, Kibalchicha, 6/5 Moscow 129278, Russia

Author for correspondence: ([email protected]) Invited May 23, 2007

ABSTRACT. Brief biography of the outstanding Swedish taxonomist is given. His most important botanical works are analyzed. Immense contribution of Linnaeus to is demonstrated.

KEYWORDS: Carl Linnaeus, Plant taxonomy

On May 23, 2007, the world scientific community dietetics. His gift of lecturer, wit, profundity and thor- commemorates a glorious jubilee-300 years of birth of oughness of judgement, emotionality and sense of humor the outstanding Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus whose has a great success at the university and draw much name inaugurates a separate age in the process of audience of students. The number of students was big, investigation of living world of the Earth. His principles and 89 theses were maintained over a period of 33 years of classification and descriptive method in (1743-1776). Linnaeus created a great school of system- allowed him to systematize vast factual material in the atists. He died on January 10, 1778, at the age of 70, and sphere of botany, , mineralogy, medicine, and was buried in the Uppsala Cathedral. promote their further development. The role of Linnaeus The great contribution of Linnaeus into establishment is especially prominent in botany. His name lives in of scientific plant taxonomy may be evaluated when names of about 10,000 plant . The addressing its level in the first half of the 18th century. was named after him by Gronovius, and L. borealis L. is Great geographical discoveries and colonization of lands present on portraits of Linnaeus and on his coat of arms. led to accumulation of numerous unknown plant species. Recently established family Linneaceae (Backlund and There was no scientific terminology, and each botanist Pyck 1998) is named after Linnaeus, also. In the present described new in his own manner, confusing report, we will take a brief look at main scientific notions of species, genus, variety, form. Plant names achievements of Linnaeus that were of great significance consisted of polynomials to 20 words, being short in establishing of plant taxonomy as a science. diagnoses, in fact. Physiological role of and Linnaeus was born on May 23, 1707, in Råshult, in importance of its characters were not known; sex was the province of Småland in southern Sweden, in the assigned only to . Vast material and chaos in pastor’s family. The surname Linnaeus rose from a linden understanding of species needed adjustment and system- that grew in the rural curacy of Linnaeus’ great- atization. There were repeated attempts to create botanical grandfather and was considered to be a sacred tree. and to elaborate the concept of “species” Linnaeus’ grandfather being a coined himself a (Bauhin, Rivinus, Ray, etc.); they were appreciated by surname Tiliander referring the name of the linden Linnaeus. Tilia, and Linnaeus’ grandfather being also a priest Linnaeus, endowed with phenomenal employability, adopted a surname Linnaeus (Swedish name for linden is fineness of observation, extreme memory, knowing of Lind) in honor of the same family tree. He was an plants and literature, gift of classificator, logical thinking, enthusiastic floriculturist and cultivated a garden at his analytical and synthetical capability for vast material, home. As Linnaeus reminisced, “Just at mother’s knees, create a foundation of modern plant taxonomy. According this garden inflamed me with everburning passion for to him, “Since him, this science began a new epoch”. plants.” Building of “Foundation” began in studentship when Linnaeus studied at the Lund University (1727), then Linnaeus came to a conclusion that and pistils at the University of Uppsala (1728) where he learned are the most important parts of flower, they play the major natural sciences and medicine. In 1735, in the Netherlands, role in formation of . Later, he used the sexual Linnaeus maintained a thesis for the degree of Doctor of principle in classification of plants. Medicine. In 1741, Linnaeus was assigned the Professor The most fruitful period of the life of Linnaeus was of Medicine and Botany at the University of Uppsala the Netherlandish period (1735-1738) that enters the where he worked in this capacity for 35 years and taught as the period of reforms. In the work botany, mineralogy, zoology, pharmacy, , and “” (1735), gone through 12 editions,

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28-year-old Linnaeus formulated principles of taxonomy. theory and methods of plant , as well as He divided the plant kingdom into 24 classes based on interpretation of central questions of natural science. All the number of stamens, number of pistils, their cohesion bases of botany are disclosed: with well- as well as the character of mono-, di-, or polyecy. Recog- defined terminology, theory of species, principles of nizing stamens and pistils as the most significant and the classification and descriptive method. The text is given in most constant parts of flower, he discovered the law of the form of 365 aphorisms that are confirmed by number constancy according to which every plant examples. For instance, #156. “Ariadne’s thread of possesses a certain number of them. Although this system botany is a system whose absence make chaos in was artificial, it was the greatest discovery of the 18th botany”. #155. «The system divides (plants) into five century in the sphere of development of systematics and subordinate categories: classes, orders, genera, species, botany as a whole. The system allowed solving the urgent varieties”. At all times, botanists, natural scientists, and problem of classification of vast number of known and appreciated the book. newly recorded plants. It was a considerable novelty for The most important work “” (1753) this time, that he put the principle of sexual differences being a superlative of Linnaeus’ scientific genius is a in flower into the basis of classification. basis of modern plant nomenclature. For the first time, Linnaeus knew the artificial character if his classifica- plant species were delimited with varieties and forms, tion and work for “Natural method”, i.e., natural system, and a critical revision of all known in the middle of the what he noted many times in his works. “An artificial 18th century plants was conducted. It will be observed system serves only until natural system is not found, the that the book contains no descriptions of plants (with few former instruct only to recognize plants, the latter will exceptions) but there is a list of specific names reformed teach us the plant nature itself.” Building of a natural by Linnaeus. About 7,000 species are clearly characterized system was impossible at that time, because the level of and arranged in accordance with the sexual system anatomical, morphological, geographical, etc., knowledge developed by him. In this work, name of species consisted was insufficient yet. of name of genus and a series of descriptive words, i.e., At the same time, “” (1735) remained a polynomial (or a phrase name). In the case of containing botanical bibliography since antiquity autors, description of a new species, i. e., when new morphological “” (1736), “” characters are found, specific names-polynomials should (1737), “” (1737), “” be changed. In the work, Linnaeus introduced a novelty- (1738) and, later on, conclusive work “Philosophia short names (called also nickname), most often adjectives, botanica” (1751) were published. All these works are that were printed in italics on margin opposite to interrelated, and guidelines formulated in “Systema polynomials. Just these “nicknames” instead of lengthy Naturae” were developed and deepened there. phrase names were found more convenient, and, in the In “Fundamenta Botanica”, Linnaeus presented short run, Linnaeus began to use them and label the cover principles of descriptive botany, developed scientific of specimens with them. And only 50 years ago terminology for the first time by giving about a thousand after publication of “Species plantarum”, these nicknames of distinct botanical terms, explained notions of “Genus” replaced old names step by step and became a basis of and “Species”. modern binary nomenclature, and polynomials turned to In “Critica Botanica”, he changed over a half of diagnoses of species. For analysis and substantiation of generic names. In this work, Linnaeus worked out rules of significance of a taxon, Linnaeus used descriptions and nomenclature and gave recommendations on composition illustrations of plants in works of other authors, his own of plant names and on distinguishing species and varieties. publications, herbarium collections, both his own and Many rules are included into modern botanical nomen- sent by other botanists. clatural codices. A colossal contribution of Linnaeus to taxonomy is In “Genera plantarum”, generative parts of plants are illustrated by short enumeration of his main merits. carefully described, and 994 genera are characterized. He created foundations of classifying in natural “Classes plantarum” represents the second part of science what was an important task in the 18th century. “Fundamenta Botanica”. In this work, 65 classes (now Developed a system based on the characters of gener- families) of plants are listed, distinguished as «the ative organs as a basis of classification. fragments of natural method». Reminiscing three years Developed explicit terminology and introduced about of life in the Netherlands (1735-1738), Linnaeus said 1,000 morphological characters to botany. reasonably that in this period he “wrote more, discovered Established subordination (hierarchy) of systematic more, and made big reforms in botany more than anybody categories: class, , genus, species, variety. else before him in all his born days”. He came to be Introduced in which species named a prince of botany-Princeps Botanicorum. became to be named by one generic name and some “” is one of the most outstanding specific definitive names. generalizing works of Linnaeus. It includes history, Proposed simple names (nicknames) that became a CARL LINNAEUS AS THE FOUNDER OF MODERN PLANT TAXONOMY 57 basis of modern binary nomenclature later on. that time), he should not create his classification. Latin binary names of plants and animals became an It ought to be remarked that Linnaeus went to a lot of international system of names and are used till now. trouble to create plant collections at the botanical gardens Defined a notion “Species” and delimited plant species of Hartekamp and Uppsala. They played an important and varieties by clear distinctions. Transferred many role in describing new species. At that time, the paper for varieties described before him to the species. herborization was a problem, and botanists brought seeds Described about 1,200 genera on the basis of generative from other countries to Linnaeus, he sowed them and organs and . then described new species and taught students. Distinguished and described 1,500 new species from The interests of Linnaeus as a naturalist were extremely the species, varieties and forms described earlier. diverse. In Stockholm, he was a highly popular In the book “ Lapponica”, validated an approach and worked out a classification of diseases and plant to writing of works that are named “” now. remedies. Identified many exotic species including South African, He created a classification of insects and described Indian, South American, Japanese, Chinese ones. majority of genera and about 2,000 species. Created extensive plant collections in the botanical Linnaeus developed terminology, nomenclature, and gardens of Hartekamp and Uppsala. classification of animals. For the first time, he included Educated a big school of systematists. humans into the system of kingdom and referred Linnaeus tried to evaluate merits of his own scientific to the family of mammals and the order of primates. activity and reasonably noted that “He built botany from He was engaged in applied mineralogy and created a the basis on the place being in ruins earlier, so that one classification of minerals and crystals, was interested in may say that this science got a distinctly different image , but the main passion of his life was botany. and began a new epoch since his time” (ref. in Bobrov At the present time, thinking and ideas of classification 1957). of the plant world, understanding of species and their As A. K. Skvortsov (2002) notes, “Linnaeus’ name is names, the characters in use changed significantly, associated with establishment of taxonomy as a science however, modern taxonomist should gratefully remember including now development and presentation of a that development of hierarchy of taxons, use of sexual system.” Linnaeus was the first who introduced the character in taxonomy, concept of a species as the main system principle and the notion of “System” itself. He unit in taxonomy, binary name of species, the way of developed the idea of hierarchical system of taxons in describing new species, morphological terminology, the distinction from other ways of classification: lists, principle of selection of characters in composing identifi- catalogues, etc. Each plant has a definite place in the cation keys, obligatory citation of authors of genera and system, and the system as a whole forms certain organized species, presentation of their synonymy, indication of ensemble. Differences between artificial and natural “affinitas”, methods of composing regional floras, and systems lie in the fact that significance of the former is even printing Latin names in italic-all this was worked classification that is used in identification keys till now, out for the first time by Linnaeus 250 years ago. In the and significance of the latter is representation of group works of Linnaeus, we find early approaches to chemo- relationships by hierarchy of taxons. systematics, to genealogical structure of the system, to Linnaeus’ philosophical belief, logic of thinking, diverse biological characteristics of plant species, inconsistency of some opinions, being repeatedly a cause including habitats and economic use. He placed himself for criticism, reflect both the process of formation of on record in botanical geography; he was among the first these concepts of Linnaeus and the standard of knowledge to note the relation between plant and soil and gave in 18th century; to our opinion, this is of historical classification of soils; he was the first who evaluated the importance and do not reduce immense contribution of role of vegetational landscape as a geographical element, Linnaeus to plant systematics. Here, we will deal briefly showed significant interest to vertical zonality of plants only with his well-known inconsistency in understanding in mountains. of stability and variability of species. The whole civilization commemorates the distinguished On the one hand, his affirmation on stability of species scientist naturalist, and his name is perpetuated in names is well known: “There are as many species in nature as of scientific societies, botanical gardens, and monuments. Omnipotent created at the beginning of the world”. On In Japan, the Botanical Society and Scientific Council of the other hand, by means of nature observation, he saw Japan reared in 1957 in Nagasaki a monument to Thun- alterability of species, and moreover, possibility of their berg, a student of Linnaeus, explorer of Japanese flora historical . In late years of his life, he gave and the author of “Flora Japonica.” higher priority to hybridization as a source of formation of new forms. If Linnaeus did not supposed plant species ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The autor would like to thank Prof. being stable in the long term (contrary to opinions on Katsuhiko Kondo of Hiroshima University for opportunity to participate in this edition. The work was partly supported by the permanent transformation of species that took place in Grant of Russian Federation NS-7063. 2006. 4. 58 KURCHENKO

LITERATURE CITED Linné, C. 1737b. Critica Botanica. Lugduni Batavorum: C. Wishoff: 270. Linné, C. 1737c. Genera Plantarum. Lugduni Batavorum: C. Backlund, A. and Pyck, N. 1998. Diervillaceae and Linnaea- Wishoff: 384. ceae, two new families of Caprifolioides. Taxon 47: Linné, C. 1738. Classes Plantarum. Lugduni Batavorum: C. 657-661. Wishoff: 656. Bobrov, E. G. 1957. Linnaeus, his life and works. Izd. AN Linné, C. 1745. Flora Suecica. Lugduni Batavorum: 419. SSSR. M.-L.: 216. (In Russian). Linné, C. 1751. Philosophia botanica. Stockholmiae: G. Linné, C. 1735. Systema Naturae. Lugduni Batavorum.: Th. Kieserwetter: 362. Haak: 14. Ed.12. (1766-68). 1-3. Holmiae: L. Salvius: Linné, C. 1753. Species plantarum. Holmiae: L. Salvius 1-2. 2500. 11+1200: 31. Linné, C. 1736a. Bibliotheca botanica. Amstelodami: 153. Skvortsov, A.K. 2002. Systematics at the turn of the XXIst Linné, C. 1736b. Fundamenta Botanica. Amstelodami: century. Traditional principles and bases from the Solomon Schouten: 36. modern perspective. Zh. obshch. biol. 63, 1: 82-93. (In Linné, C. 1737a. . Amstelodami: 48. Russian).

Fig. 1. Carl Linnaeus in Laplandic cloths. From a reproduction of a portrait by Hofman (1737) CARL LINNAEUS AS THE FOUNDER OF MODERN PLANT TAXONOMY 59

Fig. 2. Carl Linnaeus, 32 years old. From a reproduction of a portrait by J. H. Scheffel (1739).

Fig. 3. Carl Linnaeus, 64 years old. From a reproduction of a portrait by P. Krafft. 60 KURCHENKO

Fig. 4. Sculpture Carl Linnaeus sculpture by Robert Berks in Chicago , U. S. A. Photograph by K. Shemanaev.

Fig. 5. Carl Linnaeus sculpture by Johan Dyfverman, in the University of Chicago, U. S. A. Photograph by K. Shemanaev. CARL LINNAEUS AS THE FOUNDER OF MODERN PLANT TAXONOMY 61

Fig.6. Graphic presentation of the Lunnaeus system as published in “Systema Naturae”.