Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia

Tahrir Square, Cairo, Egypt. In February 2011, anti-government protestors gather to listen to a speech by President Hosni Mubarak, who says that he will relin- quish some powers but later resigns after continued pro- tests. It is part of what some call the Jasmine Revolution or the Arab Spring. Photo: © Chris Hondros/Getty Images.

chapter 8 Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia

Learning Objectives

After reading the chapter, you should be able to: • Distinguish this world region in terms of similar natural • Explain how the shared colonial legacy of the countries of environments, dominance of Islam, and global significance Northern Africa shapes their economic connections to other of its energy resources. world regions.

• Describe the physical features of the region and explain • Contrast Egypt and Sudan’s populations, economies, and how these are linked to the area’s natural resources and global connections and explain how these two countries environmental problems. differ from the “core” Arab countries of this world region.

• Trace the region’s history from the birth of major civilizations • Identify the different forms of government and development and empires to colonial control and independence, linking paths in the Southwestern Asia subregion, noting in this to the region’s modern Pan-Arabism. particular differences between the wealthy oil producers and those countries with little or no oil. • Contrast the region’s oil wealth with water scarcity and give examples of how the geography of these resources • Explain Israel’s unique place in the world region and contributes to political tensions within and outside the region. understand the current conflicts with its territories and neighboring countries. • Compare population and urbanization characteristics among the different countries of the region. • Explain how Turkey and Iran differ from the other predominantly Muslim countries of the region, and from • Locate the main subregions and countries of Northern each other, in terms of their culture, resources, and political Africa and Southwestern Asia on a map, and describe regimes. how these can be distinguished in terms of their physical, cultural, economic, and political geographies. 321

bra22864_ch08_321-376.indd 321 8/23/11 12:58 PM 8.3 Cultural and Political History within a Wider World 329

desalination plants also is increasing the salinity of water First Civilizations bodies. For example, the Persian Gulf’s salinity in 2010 was 47 percent higher than it was in 1980. The Tigris-Euphrates River Valley of Mesopotamia (mod- The oil industry is a major polluter throughout the ern Iraq) and the Nile River valley formed two of the world, and the concentrations of production and distribu- world’s early culture hearths (see Chapter 1). Early human tion centers in the Persian Gulf area pollute the atmosphere achievements diffused to the surrounding continents. Even and waters of areas around oil wells, surface seepages, and in ancient times of slow and limited transportation, this where unwanted gases are flared off. Leakages pollute the region acted as a hub with constant movements of people to waters near ocean terminals. Particles in the atmosphere and from Northern Africa, Europe, and China. The inter- cause fogs that create or worsen respiratory problems. nal empires of the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Egyptians Even before the Gulf War in 1991, the Persian Gulf had gave way to external control from Persia, Greece, Rome, lost most of its plant and animal life as a result of pollution and then the Byzantines before the AD 600s expansion of since initial oil production began in the early 1900s. At the the Muslim Arabs. end of the Gulf War, the retreating Iraqis set oil wells on fire, adding carbon gases and particles to the atmosphere, but the particles fell on desert sands. They also released a Religions huge oil slick, damaging the plant and animal life, but it had Religion and related traditions contribute greatly to peo- less impact than it would have if the Persian Gulf had not ples’ identities in Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia. already been heavily polluted. The early animist religions had many gods linked to natural phenomena. Some emperors were treated as gods. After approximately 1000 BC, dominance by religions with many Global Environmental Politics gods gave way to religions based on a single god: monotheism. Judaism was the first monotheistic religion. Christianity Countries in Southwestern Asia increased their CO2 emissions by almost 152 percent from 1990 to 2008. Over this grew out of Judaism, and then Islam emerged to become the same period, the United States’ emissions increased about dominant religion, but Judaism and Christianity still exist 15 percent and Europe’s emissions declined. Southwestern in the region today. These three monotheistic religions share common religious figures and religious texts. All three Asia’s CO2 emissions were surpassed during this period only by China’s 192 percent increase. This was the period in diffused from their hearths in Southwestern Asia to Europe, which the Kyoto Protocol (1997) sought to have countries Africa, and Asia (Figure 8.7). on its Annex I list reduce their 1990 greenhouse gas emissions by 5 percent. Though many countries in Northern Judaism Africa and Southwestern Asia ratified the Kyoto Protocol, Judaism is a religion whose adherents worship Yahweh, they were not on the Annex I list and have done little to curb seen as the only God, creator, and lawgiver. It began in

their emissions. When measuring CO2 emissions per person, the area now known as Israel and the Palestinian territo- the top emitters in the world have been Qatar, United Arab ries around 2000 BC, where Abraham and his descendants Emirates, Bahrain, and Kuwait, followed by the United settled after moving from Mesopotamia. Jewish beliefs States and Canada, and then Saudi Arabia. Though China focus on the historic role of family based on the line from

is the world’s largest total CO2 emitter, its emissions per per- Abraham, persecution beginning with slavery in Egypt, son are low compared to many Southwest Asian countries. redemption as Moses led the people out of Egypt, and their occupation of the promised land. Yahweh intervened to support and punish through times of trouble and deporta- 8.3 tion, promising a messiah to save Jews from domination by CULTURAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY others. At the time of Jesus (“Christ” is a Greek translation WITHIN A WIDER WORLD of the Hebrew “messiah”), many Jews expected a military leader messiah to end the Roman occupation. In AD 70, This region was a hearth for early technical developments, the Roman army destroyed Jerusalem and dispersed Jews three monotheistic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and through Southwestern Asia, Northern Africa, and Europe Islam, related to one another through worshipping the God to form a major diaspora. of Abraham), further technical and artistic developments in the medieval Muslim empires, and a focus of geopolitical Christianity strategies by major world powers from the 1800s. Located Christianity stemmed from new interpretations of the beliefs between other world regions, this region has influenced and and teachings of Judaism in the early years AD, beginning has been influenced by neighboring regions. Religion and with the life, teachings, death, and claimed resurrection of language are as fundamental as politics and economics in Jesus of Nazareth. Christians began as Jews who believed this world region. that Jesus of Nazareth was the messiah. Christianity gave

bra22864_ch08_321-376.indd 329 8/24/11 8:50 AM 8.3 Cultural and Political History within a Wider World 329 330 Chapter 8 Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia

desalination plants also is increasing the salinity of water First Civilizations 10° London bodies. For example, the Persian Gulf’s salinity in 2010 was Predominant Religions Kiev The Tigris-Euphrates River Valley of Mesopotamia (mod- 47 percent higher than it was in 1980. Islam ATLANTIC Paris Aral ern Iraq) and the Nile River valley formed two of the Sea The oil industry is a major polluter throughout the Sunni OCEAN Geneva Odessa C a world’s early culture hearths (see Chapter 1). Early human s world, and the concentrations of production and distribu- p Shia° Black Sea ia achievements diffused to the surrounding continents. Even 40 Sarajevo n tion centers in the Persian Gulf area pollute the atmosphere

Tiranë Istanbul S in ancient times of slow and limited transportation, this Christianity Rome Baku e and waters of areas around oil wells, surface seepages, and a Yerevan where unwanted gases are flared off. Leakages pollute the region acted as a hub with constant movements of people to Eastern Orthodox Seville waters near ocean terminals. Particles in the atmosphere and from Northern Africa, Europe, and China. The inter- Roman Catholic Athens Tehran Nicosia cause fogs that create or worsen respiratory problems. nal empires of the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Egyptians M Protestant Rabat edit Baghdad erranea Beirut Even before the Gulf War in 1991, the Persian Gulf had gave way to external control from Persia, Greece, Rome, Tripoli n Sea 30Other° lost most of its plant and animal life as a result of pollution and then the Byzantines before the AD 600s expansion of Alexandria Jerusalem Persian Gulf since initial oil production began in the early 1900s. At the the Muslim Arabs. Judaism end of the Gulf War, the retreating Iraqis set oil wells on Jewish centers Asyut fire, adding carbon gases and particles to the atmosphere, TropicIndigenous of Medina but the particles fell on desert sands. They also released a Religions Cancerreligion R e d S e a huge oil slick, damaging the plant and animal life, but it had Religion and related traditions contribute greatly to peo- None predominant Mecca 20° less impact than it would have if the Persian Gulf had not ples’ identities in Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia. already been heavily polluted. The early animist religions had many gods linked to natural phenomena. Some emperors were treated as gods. After Gao approximately 1000 BC, dominance by religions with many Khartoum Sanaa Global Environmental Politics gods gave way to religions based on a single god: monotheism. Judaism was the first monotheistic religion. Christianity 10° Countries in Southwestern Asia increased their CO2 emis- 10° sions by almost 152 percent from 1990 to 2008. Over this grew out of Judaism, and then Islam emerged to become the Conakry 20° Addis Ababa same period, the United States’ emissions increased about dominant religion, but Judaism and Christianity still exist 15 percent and Europe’s emissions declined. Southwestern in the region today. These three monotheistic religions FIGURE 8.7 Major Religions in Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia. Beginning in Mecca and Medina, Muslim Arabs conquered the area shown in green after Asia’s CO emissions were surpassed during this period share common religious figures and religious texts. All three Muhammad emerged as a new religious leader around AD 600. Islam also spread over trade routes. Christianity became the religion of the Roman Empire, spreading 2 through Europe. Jews were dispersed at the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70, and the modern country of Israel was not formed until 1948. only by China’s 192 percent increase. This was the period in diffused from their hearths in Southwestern Asia to Europe, which the Kyoto Protocol (1997) sought to have countries Africa, and Asia (Figure 8.7). on its Annex I list reduce their 1990 greenhouse gas emis- a fresh impetus to monotheism against the many gods of creating a series of empires, converting Persians, Turks, sions by 5 percent. Though many countries in Northern Judaism the Greeks, Romans, and Arabs. Christian churches spread and people in India through conquest and trade. It led to Africa and Southwestern Asia ratified the Kyoto Protocol, Judaism is a religion whose adherents worship Yahweh, across Southwestern Asia and into Africa and Europe. In the a Muslim “Golden Age” of artistic and scientific achieve- they were not on the Annex I list and have done little to curb seen as the only God, creator, and lawgiver. It began in late AD 300s, the Roman Emperor Constantine declared it ments alongside further military expansion from the 800s their emissions. When measuring CO2 emissions per person, the area now known as Israel and the Palestinian territo- to be the empire’s official religion. Controversies over how the top emitters in the world have been Qatar, United Arab ries around 2000 BC, where Abraham and his descendants much Jesus was man and how much God resulted in divi- Emirates, Bahrain, and Kuwait, followed by the United settled after moving from Mesopotamia. Jewish beliefs sions within Christianity. A later division occurred between States and Canada, and then Saudi Arabia. Though China focus on the historic role of family based on the line from the eastern (Orthodox) and western (Catholic) groups of is the world’s largest total CO2 emitter, its emissions per per- Abraham, persecution beginning with slavery in Egypt, churches in Europe. From 395 to 1453, the eastern church son are low compared to many Southwest Asian countries. redemption as Moses led the people out of Egypt, and their was centered in Constantinople (modern Istanbul, Turkey). occupation of the promised land. Yahweh intervened to The largest Christian sect in this region today is the Coptic support and punish through times of trouble and deporta- Church, with a pope who resides in Alexandria, Egypt. 8.3 tion, promising a messiah to save Jews from domination by CULTURAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY others. At the time of Jesus (“Christ” is a Greek translation Islam WITHIN A WIDER WORLD of the Hebrew “messiah”), many Jews expected a military Muhammad founded Islam in Arabia, notably in Mecca and leader messiah to end the Roman occupation. In AD 70, Medina, during the early AD 600s. Islam means “submission This region was a hearth for early technical developments, the Roman army destroyed Jerusalem and dispersed Jews to the will of Allah (God)” and the followers of the religion, three monotheistic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and through Southwestern Asia, Northern Africa, and Europe Muslims, are “those who submit to Allah.” Muhammad Islam, related to one another through worshipping the God to form a major diaspora. adopted many Jewish and Christian beliefs such as mono- of Abraham), further technical and artistic developments in theism. Seen as the prophet of Allah, Muhammad is believed the medieval Muslim empires, and a focus of geopolitical Christianity to succeed earlier prophets such as Moses, David, and Jesus. strategies by major world powers from the 1800s. Located Christianity stemmed from new interpretations of the beliefs The Qu’ran (holy book) is believed by Muslims to be the between other world regions, this region has influenced and and teachings of Judaism in the early years AD, beginning word of Allah revealed to Muhammad. has been influenced by neighboring regions. Religion and with the life, teachings, death, and claimed resurrection of After Muhammad’s death in 632, Arabs spread Islam FIGURE 8.8 Islam and Architecture. Mosques are a common feature of urban language are as fundamental as politics and economics in Jesus of Nazareth. Christians began as Jews who believed rapidly westward to Northern Africa and Spain as well as landscapes in Muslim countries. Older (1300s) and more recent (1800s) mosques this world region. that Jesus of Nazareth was the messiah. Christianity gave eastward into central Asia, uniting the Arab peoples and tower over Cairo, Egypt. Photo: © Joseph P. Dymond.

bra22864_ch08_321-376.indd 329 8/24/11 8:50 AM bra22864_ch08_321-376.indd 330 8/23/11 1:07 PM 8.3 Cultural and Political History within a Wider World 331

20°W010°W ° 10°E 20°E30°E40°E50°E60°E70°E

a c k S e C B l a a s p i a ATLANTIC n 40°N 40°N S e a d i OCEAN M e t e r r a n e a ° 35°N 35 N n S e a

30°N 30°N P e r s i a n

G u l f

° 25 N R 25°N

S 20°N 20°N e

15°N Afro–Asiatic Family Indo–European Family Nilo–Saharan Family 15°N Arabic Armenian Nubian Beja (Bedawi) Baluchi Sudanic

10°N Berber Kurdish Altaic Family 10°N Hebrew Farsi (Persian) Turkic INDIAN

0 mi 500 1,000 OCEAN 5°N 5°N 0 km 500 1,000 1,500

10°W0° 10°E 20°E30°E40°E 50°E

FIGURE 8.9 Language Families and Languages of Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia.

bra22864_ch08_321-376.indd 331 8/23/11 1:07 PM 8.3 Cultural and Political History within a Wider World 331 334 Chapter 8 Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia

to the 1100s. New forms of art and architecture developed. defeated and killed by the Sunni caliph of Damascus in 680. Muslim mosques remain dominant features of town land- Supporters of Ali see Ali as the only imam—authoritative scapes, often doubling as centers of religious and secular interpreter of the Qu’ran—and are known as “partisans of activities (Figure 8.8). One of the oldest is the Al-Aqsa Ali,” “Shi’at ‘Ali,” Shia Muslims, or Shiites. They look to the Mosque in Jerusalem, begun in 692. Islamic visual art, return of the twelfth imam, Ali’s descendant, Muhammad often characterized by abstract patterns that avoid depict- al-Mahdi, who disappeared in 874. For most of their history, ing human forms, ranges from pottery and metalwork to Shia Muslims were known for commemorating and lamenting paintings and textiles. Calligraphy became the most impor- Hussein’s death by flagellation and withdrawal from the world tant form of art because of the religious significance of the as they awaited al-Mahdi’s return. Politically, they were quiet, Qu’ran. Poetry and music were generally more important regarding political control as evil and looking to clerics, sup- than the visual arts but less significant in the landscape. ported by alms, for leadership. Today Shiites comprise large Early divisions within Islam continue to be significant proportions of the population in a few countries, including today. The Sunni Muslims, or Sunnis, are the majority 90 percent of the Iranian population and 60 percent in Iraq. Muslim group and base their way of life on the Qu’ran, From 1979 Shiites governed Iran, tried to establish Iranian iso- (a) (b) supplemented by traditions. Political power was at first given lationism from Western ways, and supported extremist groups Fishing. (a) Mohammad and Nicole. (b) Mohammad and Greg, who is displaying a squid he caught. Photos: Nicole Kessell. to a succession of leaders, or caliphs, descended from the his- such as Hamas (Palestine) and Hezbollah (Iran, Syria). toric Muslim leaders. Many Sunni Muslims are moderates in of the dozen or so other boats in the vicinity to borrow another. The stopped and through the window he handed us a lunch of fish, rice, maintaining traditional Islamic practices. Exceptions include Languages friend was covered in squid ink and his singing could be heard over and vegetables, as well as water, orange soda, and Coca-Colas. the Wahhabi sect that dominates Saudi Arabia and the the whir of our boat motor. The other fishermen were friendly and These men went out of their way to ensure our comfort and safety, Taliban faction that ruled Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001. Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia are linguistically intrigued and would wave to us and say hello in English. When the and their genuine hospitality was overwhelming. It is a trait that has A minority of Muslims also follow the Qu’ran but dispute diverse with numerous languages spoken among four major sun was high it was time to return, and Salim wrote down his address defined the Omani nationality, and it is clear they take pride in their the caliph leadership succession accepted by Sunnis. They language families (Figure 8.9; see also Figure 2.16). The for us in case we returned or our families decided to visit. We thanked reputation. him for the pleasant morning and he headed off for home. Oman is beautifully scenic, delightfully rustic, and surprisingly look to descendants of Ali, the fourth caliph of Islam and a Afro-Asiatic family represents most language speakers of the We ate lunch, lounged around for a while, and decided to pack cosmopolitan all at once. It is a shame that it is situated in a region cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad. His son, Hussein, was region with such languages as Arabic, Berber, and Hebrew. up and head further south into Wahiba Sands. As we were driving that deters Western visitors. Oman has much to offer, from shopping back to the main road from the coast we saw Salim’s truck. We to squid fishing, and its people are keen to impress their guests.

20°W010°W ° 10°E 20°E30°E40°E50°E60°E70°E a c k S e C B l a a s p i a ATLANTIC n 40°N 40°N Arabic is spoken by just under 50 percent of the people in S e a the region. It is also the preferred language in the Qu’ran d i OCEAN M e t e r r a n and Muslim prayers. “Arabs,” who were once defined as e a ° living in the Arabian Peninsula, now include all those using 35°N 35 N n S e a Arabic as their first language. Berber is found primarily in Morocco and Algeria, especially in the Atlas Mountains and the Sahara Desert where it best resisted the spread of Arabic 30°N 30°N P e (Figure 8.10). Hebrew is the official language of Israel. The r s i a n language of the Hebrew Bible and religious services is an G u l f archaic form, superseded in everyday usage by modern Israeli 25°N R 25°N Hebrew. The movement devoted to creating a Jewish state e d from the 1800s, known as Zionism, revived the use of Hebrew, modernizing it for secular usage to provide a common reli- S 20°N 20°N e gious and secular element among Jews from many countries. a

Indo-European languages are also significant in the region. Farsi (Persian) is the official language of Iran. 15°N Afro–Asiatic Family Indo–European Family Nilo–Saharan Family 15°N Kurdish speakers straddle Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran. Arabic Armenian Nubian Their numbers are unknown because the language is at the Beja (Bedawi) Baluchi Sudanic heart of demands for a separate nation-state: non-Kurds 10°N Berber Kurdish Altaic Family 10°N talk in terms of 10 million people, while the Kurds claim Hebrew Farsi (Persian) Turkic INDIAN their numbers to be over 20 million. Turkish is a member of the Altaic family (see Figure 2.16), 0 mi 500 1,000 OCEAN 5°N 5°N which spread westward from Central Asia. Turkish speakers 0 km 500 1,000 1,500 in Turkey use the Roman script, reflecting Europe’s influence

10°W0° 10°E 20°E30°E40°E 50°E on Turkey. The Azeri (or Azerbaijanis) in Iran, who are also Turkish speakers, use the Arabic script. A large number of the FIGURE 8.10 Berbers in Morocco. These two Berber men guide tourists into FIGURE 8.9 Language Families and Languages of Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia. world’s Turkish speakers live in Central Asia (see Chapter 4). the Sahara Desert close to Erfoud, Morocco. Photo: © Heike Alberts.

bra22864_ch08_321-376.indd 331 8/23/11 1:07 PM bra22864_ch08_321-376.indd 334 8/23/11 1:07 PM 338 Chapter 8 Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia

to export revolution, the Saudi princes wished to maintain Syria, and Yemen produce and export modest amounts. the system by which they had grown rich. When Saddam Countries that import oil face the burden of purchasing oil, Hussein of Iraq declared war on Iran in 1981, he had sup- whatever its price, and many go into debt during times of port from the Saudis, other Gulf countries, and Western high prices. countries. However, the war stalled, and after huge losses of life, an armistice was reached between Iraq and Iran in 1989. The 1979 invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet Army Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries generated another jihad financed by the Persian Gulf From the early 1900s, international oil companies kept oil and Western countries. This unified Islamists around the prices low to consumers in the world’s wealthiest countries world as international brigades from Egypt, Algeria, the by paying little to the producing countries. In 1960 Saudi Arabian Peninsula countries, Pakistan, and Southeast Asia Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and Venezuela met in Baghdad, worked together in guerrilla warfare as part of the Islamist Iraq, and founded the Organization of Petroleum Exporting armed struggle. In 1989 the Soviet Army withdrew from Countries (OPEC). OPEC’s main purpose is to work as a Afghanistan, causing Islamists to declare a great victory cartel—an organization that coordinates the interests of and gain immense self-confidence. producing countries by regulating oil prices. It was not The Gulf War of 1990–1991 and subsequent failures to long before other countries joined OPEC: Qatar (1961), impose military solutions in Algeria and Egypt were major Indonesia (1962), Libya (1962), the United Arab Emirates blows for Islamists. Not only did Saddam Hussein fail to (1967), Algeria (1969), Nigeria (1971), Ecuador (1973), unite the Muslim world against the “infidel,” his inva- Gabon (1975) and Angola (2007). Ecuador suspended its sion of Kuwait and his threats to Saudi Arabia brought membership in December 1992 and did not return until American troops to Saudi Arabia, the soil on which so October 2007. Gabon ended its membership in 1995. many Islamic holy places are found. Islamic jihadists then Indonesia suspended its membership in January 2009 when turned their hostilities toward the United States and the it stopped being a net exporter of oil. As of 2011, OPEC Arab kingdoms like Saudi Arabia that had good relations had 12 members. It accounted for 77 percent of the world with the United States. total oil reserves, and the countries of Northern Africa and Islamist failures caused most countries that had sup- Southwestern Asia accounted for 73 percent of OPEC’s ported guerrillas to withdraw from extremist actions. Even total oil reserves. in Iran, a democratic movement is building, supported by OPEC’s oil embargo on wealthy countries during the many young people who prefer peaceful coexistence with Arab-Israeli War in 1973 established OPEC as the control- other countries rather than the radical, isolationalist posi- ling factor in world oil distribution for a few years. Prices tion that Iran’s leaders created. At the same time, extreme rose fourfold. Revenues of the oil-producing countries Islamists became frustrated at their lack of political suc- boomed in the mid- and late 1970s. Countries such as Saudi cess and expanded their terrorist activities. Following their Arabia, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, and Iraq gained actions of September 11, 2001, organizations like al-Qaeda over 90 percent of their export earnings from oil sales. They and individuals like Osama bin Laden gained great inter- invested their money locally in new roads, hospitals, gov- national attention. However, many Muslim countries held ernment buildings, airports, and military hardware, as well memorial services for the victims of 9/11, including Iran in as in projects and banks outside the region. its capital, Tehran. Thus, despite their actions on 9/11 and The world’s wealthier countries that used most of the their support of suicide bombings in Israel, Islamic extrem- oil were affected first by higher oil prices and then by eco- ists have had little success in advancing their goals. nomic recession. It was soon clear, however, that the high oil prices and recession also adversely affected the world’s Oil and Natural Gas Resources poorer countries. Western oil companies opened new oil fields outside the OPEC area, including those in the North The huge oil and gas production from Northern Africa Sea (Europe), that had previously been too expensive to and Southwestern Asia accounts for 36 percent of the develop. Beginning in the 1990s, Russia exported increasing world total. Despite the addition of new producers in Latin quantities of oil and natural gas as its main source of cur- America, Asia, and Africa, this world region accounts for rency. A world oil glut brought very low market prices and almost 62 percent of world total oil reserves (Figure 8.13a, b financial problems to the Arab producers. By the late 1990s, and Figure 8.14). Saudi Arabia alone has 20 percent of the the OPEC oil producers and major industrial countries saw world total. For natural gas, this world region produces that their interests lay in a moderately high, but stable, oil almost 19 percent of world total production and contains price. War, other crises, and increased demand from grow- 45 percent of world total reserves. ing economies like China pushed oil prices to record highs Not all the countries of Northern Africa and South- in the 2000s. Though these prices subsided during the world western Asia, however, are major oil producers. Morocco, recession of 2007–2009, the growth of developing countries Turkey, Israel, and Jordan produce no oil. Tunisia, Sudan, are pushing prices high again.

bra22864_ch08_321-376.indd 338 8/23/11 1:07 PM 338 Chapter 8 Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia 8.4 Global Significance 339

ROMANIA C UZBEKISTAN to export revolution, the Saudi princes wished to maintain Syria, and Yemen produce and export modest amounts. 20° 10° FRANCE CRO. 30° RUSSIA a BOS. & s 40° ITALY HER. Black Sea p SERB. ia the system by which they had grown rich. When Saddam Countries that import oil face the burden of purchasing oil, n BULGARIA GEORGIA AZORES PORTUGAL MAC. (Port.) ALB. Hussein of Iraq declared war on Iran in 1981, he had sup- whatever its price, and many go into debt during times of AZERBAIJAN TURKMENISTAN ARMENIA S SPAIN e GREECE TURKEY a port from the Saudis, other Gulf countries, and Western high prices. ATLANTIC (Azer.) countries. However, the war stalled, and after huge losses of OCEAN MADEIRA life, an armistice was reached between Iraq and Iran in 1989. CYPRUS AFG. ISLANDS SYRIA IRAN The 1979 invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet Army Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (Port.) Mediterranean Sea LEBANON TUNISIA MOROCCO ISRAEL IRAQ generated another jihad financed by the Persian Gulf 30° CANARY WEST From the early 1900s, international oil companies kept oil ISLANDS BANK (Sp.) Persian Gulf and Western countries. This unified Islamists around the prices low to consumers in the world’s wealthiest countries JORDAN ALGERIA KUWAIT world as international brigades from Egypt, Algeria, the by paying little to the producing countries. In 1960 Saudi WESTERN Arabian Peninsula countries, Pakistan, and Southeast Asia SAHARA BAHRAIN Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and Venezuela met in Baghdad, (occ. by Mor.) EGYPT (Oman) LIBYA worked together in guerrilla warfare as part of the Islamist SAUDI U.A.E. Iraq, and founded the Organization of Petroleum Exporting ARABIA armed struggle. In 1989 the Soviet Army withdrew from Countries (OPEC). OPEC’s main purpose is to work as a Major Oil Fields R e d S e a QATAR Afghanistan, causing Islamists to declare a great victory cartel—an organization that coordinates the interests of Working oil fields and gain immense self-confidence. OMAN producing countries by regulating oil prices. It was not Known oil deposits NIGER The Gulf War of 1990–1991 and subsequent failures to MALI long before other countries joined OPEC: Qatar (1961), YEMEN impose military solutions in Algeria and Egypt were major 0 mi 500 CHAD Indonesia (1962), Libya (1962), the United Arab Emirates ERITREA SUDAN Arabian Sea blows for Islamists. Not only did Saddam Hussein fail to 0 km 750 (1967), Algeria (1969), Nigeria (1971), Ecuador (1973), BURKINA SOCOTRA ETHIOPIA (Yemen) unite the Muslim world against the “infidel,” his inva- Gabon (1975) and Angola (2007). Ecuador suspended its FASO NIGERIA DJIBOUTI sion of Kuwait and his threats to Saudi Arabia brought membership in December 1992 and did not return until (a) American troops to Saudi Arabia, the soil on which so October 2007. Gabon ended its membership in 1995. many Islamic holy places are found. Islamic jihadists then 20 13 Indonesia suspended its membership in January 2009 when 10 140 265 172 turned their hostilities toward the United States and the it stopped being a net exporter of oil. As of 2011, OPEC 138 Estimated Proven Reserves of Oil Reserves by Region, % Arab kingdoms like Saudi Arabia that had good relations at end 2009, billion barrels Northern Africa and Southwest Asia had 12 members. It accounted for 77 percent of the world 120 9 Northern Africa and Latin America 115 with the United States. 8 total oil reserves, and the countries of Northern Africa and 7 Southwestern Asia Russia and Neighboring Countries 100 Islamist failures caused most countries that had sup- 102 Percentage of Southwestern Asia accounted for 73 percent of OPEC’s 98 North America ported guerrillas to withdraw from extremist actions. Even world reserves total oil reserves. 6 Member of OPEC Africa South of the Sahara in Iran, a democratic movement is building, supported by 80 OPEC’s oil embargo on wealthy countries during the 74 East Asia many young people who prefer peaceful coexistence with Arab-Israeli War in 1973 established OPEC as the control- 60 Europe 3 other countries rather than the radical, isolationalist posi- 3 Southeast Asia and South Pacific ling factor in world oil distribution for a few years. Prices 2.8 40 44 2.5 tion that Iran’s leaders created. At the same time, extreme 40 South Asia rose fourfold. Revenues of the oil-producing countries 37 2.1 2 33 Islamists became frustrated at their lack of political suc- 28 27 1 boomed in the mid- and late 1970s. Countries such as Saudi 20 1 1 0.9 0.9 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 cess and expanded their terrorist activities. Following their 15 14 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 Arabia, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, and Iraq gained 13 12 12 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 7 7 6.7 6.5 5.8 5.6 actions of September 11, 2001, organizations like al-Qaeda 1.0 5.5 4.5 4.4 4.4 4.2 3.7 3.1 over 90 percent of their export earnings from oil sales. They 2.7 2.5 2.5 1.7 1.7 1.4 1.1 1.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 and individuals like Osama bin Laden gained great inter- invested their money locally in new roads, hospitals, gov- 0.9 0.9 0.9 national attention. However, many Muslim countries held 0.8 0.1 ernment buildings, airports, and military hardware, as well 0.8 memorial services for the victims of 9/11, including Iran in as in projects and banks outside the region. 0.6 its capital, Tehran. Thus, despite their actions on 9/11 and 0.1 0.1 – The world’s wealthier countries that used most of the 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.1 0.1 their support of suicide bombings in Israel, Islamic extrem- 0.4 oil were affected first by higher oil prices and then by eco- 0.5 0.5 ists have had little success in advancing their goals. nomic recession. It was soon clear, however, that the high 0.2 oil prices and recession also adversely affected the world’s poorer countries. Western oil companies opened new oil 0 n o Oil and Natural Gas Resources lia go Iran Iraq UAE Peru Italy Libya QatarChina Brazil India Egypt Syria Chad fields outside the OPEC area, including those in the North Kuwait Nigeria Angola MexicoAlgeria Sudan Oman Gabon Yeme Brunei Tunisia Canada Norway Ecuador Vietnam Austra Thailand Malaysia Indonesia Argentina Colombia Denmark Romania Venezuela Azerbaijan Uzbekistan The huge oil and gas production from Northern Africa Sea (Europe), that had previously been too expensive to Saudi Arabia Kazakhstan United States Rep. of Con Turkmenistan United Kingdom and Southwestern Asia accounts for 36 percent of the develop. Beginning in the 1990s, Russia exported increasing Equitorial Guinea Trinidad & Tabag (b) Russian Federation world total. Despite the addition of new producers in Latin quantities of oil and natural gas as its main source of cur- FIGURE 8.13 Oil Resources in Northern Africa and Southwest Asia. (a) Map of major oil fields. (b) World oil resources at the end of 2009, showing the continu- America, Asia, and Africa, this world region accounts for rency. A world oil glut brought very low market prices and ing significance of this region. Northern Africa’s and Southwestern Asia’s share is 61.6 percent of world reserves. Note which countries in the region have major oil almost 62 percent of world total oil reserves (Figure 8.13a, b financial problems to the Arab producers. By the late 1990s, reserves and which have little or no oil. Sources: (a) The Economist. (b) British Petroleum. and Figure 8.14). Saudi Arabia alone has 20 percent of the the OPEC oil producers and major industrial countries saw world total. For natural gas, this world region produces that their interests lay in a moderately high, but stable, oil almost 19 percent of world total production and contains price. War, other crises, and increased demand from grow- Water Politics Tigris-Euphrates river valleys were based on irrigation water, 45 percent of world total reserves. ing economies like China pushed oil prices to record highs and many local developments brought water from its source Not all the countries of Northern Africa and South- in the 2000s. Though these prices subsided during the world Much attention is given to oil, but the issue of water in this to areas of use. The renewable supplies that come from rain western Asia, however, are major oil producers. Morocco, recession of 2007–2009, the growth of developing countries arid region of the world has been highly significant through and snowfall feeding rivers are meager over most of this Turkey, Israel, and Jordan produce no oil. Tunisia, Sudan, are pushing prices high again. this region’s history. The major civilizations of the Nile and region. Other sources include underground reservoirs that

bra22864_ch08_321-376.indd 338 8/23/11 1:07 PM bra22864_ch08_321-376.indd 339 8/23/11 1:07 PM 340 Chapter 8 Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia

the dam stored three times Egypt’s annual water usage; Sudan receives only 13 percent of the annual flow. Along with dis- putes they may continue to have with each other, Egypt and Sudan also now contest the use of the water with countries in the upper Nile River watershed such as Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania (see Chapter 9). By 1988, the expecta- tion that the Aswan High Dam would ensure Egypt’s water needs for 50 years was proved wrong, and discharges below Aswan had to be reduced to maintain flow through the year. The Turkish government constructed a series of dams in southeastern Turkey on the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers as a part of a greater plan to irrigate lands to increase agricultural production (Figure 8.15). Because these irrigation projects divert water from Iraq and Syria downstream, tensions have increased between Turkey and these two countries. To provide freshwater, the region’s wealthier countries have invested heavily in desalination plants, which make seawater usable. Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia account for almost half of the world’s desalination capacity. Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates account for about 30 percent of the world’s capacity by themselves and contain the world’s 10 largest desalination plants. Saudi Arabia receives about 70 percent of its freshwater from its desalination plants. Desalinization is very energy intensive and consumes much of the region’s oil supplies. Increasingly, many governments are planning nuclear power plants to supply the energy needed for desalination. Despite high costs, continued investment is increasing desalination capacity by about 10 percent per year. Israel, Gaza, and the West Bank occupy a small area of land between the Mediterranean coast and the Jordan River valley. The terrain includes a coastal plain and mostly hilly FIGURE 8.14 Oil: Iraq. Shaiba oil refinery, 20 kilometers south of Basra. Photo: © AFP/Getty Images. land with lower areas around Lake Tiberias (Sea of Galilee) and along the Jordan River to the Dead Sea. Although Israel receives winter rain, the total rainfall is low, and summer accumulated over millennia, which means they are virtually drought brings water shortages. Great efforts made it pos- nonrenewable. Yet the growth of irrigation farming, the rise sible to supply water to dry areas and to manage the environ- of the oil industry, and rapidly growing populations have led ment efficiently. Despite such careful management, internal to greater demands for water and have resulted in conflicts. groundwater sources are now fully used, and Israel relies on Like oil, however, water is not evenly distributed. external sources for 25 percent of its water. Brackish (slightly Eighty percent of the region’s freshwater is found in the saline) water is used for some farming but can damage the Nile and Tigris-Euphrates River basins. The Jordan River, soils if too much is used over many seasons. Urban water though much smaller, is crucial to countries that depend supply relies increasingly on coastal desalination plants. on it. However, each of these rivers flows through more The water shortage enters politics. Israel retains juris- than one country (see Figures 8.1 and 8.6), creating a need diction over the West Bank and the Golan Heights both for for cooperation between governments and creating or defense and access to water. Peace negotiations with Jordan exacerbating political conflict where agreements cannot be included agreement on the use of the Jordan River basin reached. Conflict may increase because freshwater scarcity waters, which have become central in the negotiations over is becoming more of an issue as populations grow rapidly. the future of the West Bank. Between 1975 and 2001, the amount of freshwater available to each person dropped by more than half. Agriculture In 1959 the Egyptian and Sudanese governments signed the Nile Waters Agreement, which led to the building of the The arid lands of Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia Aswan High Dam to store sufficient water and generate elec- leave little opportunity for farming, requiring most coun- tricity. On completion of the dam in 1970, Lake Nasser behind tries to import food. Most of the arable land extends from

bra22864_ch08_321-376.indd 340 8/23/11 1:07 PM 340 Chapter 8 Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia 8.4 Global Significance 341

the dam stored three times Egypt’s annual water usage; Sudan Tigris-Euphrates drainage basin receives only 13 percent of the annual flow. Along with dis- TURKEY ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN TURKMENTISTAN su putes they may continue to have with each other, Egypt and Kara Lake and reservoir Lake Harza t Sudan also now contest the use of the water with countries Keban Mura AZER. Reservoir planned Karakaya Dipni Caspian Silvan in the upper Nile River watershed such as Ethiopia, Uganda, Tohma Sea Intermittent lake Kahta Kraikizi K Batman Kenya, and Tanzania (see Chapter 9). By 1988, the expecta- a Dicle ht Hacihidir Salt pan a Botan Adivaman Tigris tion that the Aswan High Dam would ensure Egypt’s water Cizre Ataturk Devegecidi Ilisu Dilimi Birecik River

KarkamisB needs for 50 years was proved wrong, and discharges below Hancagiz a l Hasakeh i Kayacik k Intermittent river h East Saddam Sajur Suruc Hasakeh Bekhme Aswan had to be reduced to maintain flow through the year. ab Tishreen Z West Sennacherib t Basil a The Turkish government constructed a series of dams Al-Baath e Al-Assad r ab Southeast Anatolia project G Z Dokan Tabaqa e tl in southeastern Turkey on the upper reaches of the Tigris it Dibbis L E m Irrigated land or planned irrigation u i p a h and Euphrates rivers as a part of a greater plan to irrigate r h

a d

la Derbendikhan t A e Tharthar a Dam (existing, under construction, s y lands to increase agricultural production (Figure 8.15). Lake i Al Adhaim D or planned) SYRIA Al-Qadisiyah Baghdadi IRAN Because these irrigation projects divert water from Iraq and Hamrin Garmab n ura Diyala Tang-e-Mashoreh Syria downstream, tensions have increased between Turkey di Ha Saz-e-Boun Wa Ramadi Al Hammar, Central, and Al Hawizeh marshes Fallujah Simareh Pa-Alam D Habbaniyah Lake i e and these two countries. d M z af a e 1973 Wadi Ghad y Karkheh W m Razzaza Al-Hindiyah Do e v Dez

To provide freshwater, the region’s wealthier countries h e Lake T y K Karun 2 h Kut igr r a 2000 i Gotvand

i c id s r iy h k Karun 3 have invested heavily in desalination plants, which make a h b e i U h Karun 5 0 mi 100 200 d Al Amarah Karun 1 a h Karun 4 seawater usable. Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia W is Masdjied- H M b a 0 km 100 200 300 i e-Soleiman ru a Eu K account for almost half of the world’s desalination capac- ph a n h rate

s r S u

JORDAN n Marun Hawr al Hammar S ity. Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates account IRAQ ha ri A l -A for about 30 percent of the world’s capacity by themselves ra b and contain the world’s 10 largest desalination plants. SAUDI ARABIA Saudi Arabia receives about 70 percent of its freshwater KUWAIT

from its desalination plants. Desalinization is very energy n i t Persian t a intensive and consumes much of the region’s oil sup- i B Gulf ad W plies. Increasingly, many governments are planning nuclear Red power plants to supply the energy needed for desalination. Sea Despite high costs, continued investment is increasing (a) desalination capacity by about 10 percent per year. FIGURE 8.15 Tigris-Euphrates Drainage Israel, Gaza, and the West Bank occupy a small area of Basin. (a) Turkey’s southeast Anatolia region land between the Mediterranean coast and the Jordan River has more than 20 dams to divert water from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers for irrigation valley. The terrain includes a coastal plain and mostly hilly FIGURE 8.14 Oil: Iraq. Shaiba oil refinery, 20 kilometers south of Basra. projects, depriving Syria and Iraq of water. Dam Photo: © AFP/Getty Images. land with lower areas around Lake Tiberias (Sea of Galilee) building in Iran also has reduced the flow of and along the Jordan River to the Dead Sea. Although Israel water into wetlands of the lower Tigris River. receives winter rain, the total rainfall is low, and summer In the early 1990s, Saddam Hussein’s regime accumulated over millennia, which means they are virtually drought brings water shortages. Great efforts made it pos- launched a program to drain marshes, partially to drill for oil and partly to eradicate the Marsh nonrenewable. Yet the growth of irrigation farming, the rise sible to supply water to dry areas and to manage the environ- of the oil industry, and rapidly growing populations have led Arabs who opposed him. In Southern Iraq, the ment efficiently. Despite such careful management, internal Central Marshes and Al Hammar Marshes have to greater demands for water and have resulted in conflicts. groundwater sources are now fully used, and Israel relies on completely dried up, and the Al Hawizeh Marsh Like oil, however, water is not evenly distributed. external sources for 25 percent of its water. Brackish (slightly is a fraction of its former size. (b) The Ataturk Eighty percent of the region’s freshwater is found in the saline) water is used for some farming but can damage the Dam on the Upper Euphrates River as it neared completion in 1992. Sources: (a) Data from UNEP; Nile and Tigris-Euphrates River basins. The Jordan River, soils if too much is used over many seasons. Urban water (b) Photo: © Ed Kashi/VII Photo Agency. though much smaller, is crucial to countries that depend supply relies increasingly on coastal desalination plants. on it. However, each of these rivers flows through more The water shortage enters politics. Israel retains juris- than one country (see Figures 8.1 and 8.6), creating a need diction over the West Bank and the Golan Heights both for for cooperation between governments and creating or defense and access to water. Peace negotiations with Jordan exacerbating political conflict where agreements cannot be included agreement on the use of the Jordan River basin reached. Conflict may increase because freshwater scarcity waters, which have become central in the negotiations over is becoming more of an issue as populations grow rapidly. the future of the West Bank. (b) Between 1975 and 2001, the amount of freshwater available to each person dropped by more than half. Agriculture In 1959 the Egyptian and Sudanese governments signed the shores of the Mediterranean (Figure 8.16) and Red on the fringes of the region such as in Turkey (Figure 8.17). the Nile Waters Agreement, which led to the building of the The arid lands of Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia Seas and the Persian Gulf. The Nile and Tigris-Euphrates Indeed, the building of dams in southeastern Turkey has Aswan High Dam to store sufficient water and generate elec- leave little opportunity for farming, requiring most coun- rivers provide irrigation. Interior deserts have given rise to enabled Turkey to increase its production of cotton, soy- tricity. On completion of the dam in 1970, Lake Nasser behind tries to import food. Most of the arable land extends from nomadic herding. Some agriculturally productive areas are beans, grains, fruits, and vegetables.

bra22864_ch08_321-376.indd 340 8/23/11 1:07 PM bra22864_ch08_321-376.indd 341 8/25/11 2:10 PM 8.4 Global Significance 343

Many of the problems in agricultural production stem with falling death rates result in the rapid population growth from the type of economy established by colonial coun- (Figure 8.19). As the population pyramid in Figure 8.20a tries. The colonial system involved land appropriation for indicates, the large groups of young people will produce European settlers and local elites, who used irrigation water continuing high rates of population increase as they reach for intensive commercial farming tied to markets in Europe. childbearing age. In 2010, several countries had high total Consequently, agriculture is geared in many areas to export fertility rates with the highest being Yemen (5.5), Palestinian crops such as citrus fruits, olive oil, and cotton. Iran is still Territory (4.6), Sudan (4.5), Iraq (4.1), Saudi Arabia (3.8), known for its export of nuts, especially pistachios. In recent and Jordan (3.8). In contrast, total fertility rates were decades, governments have encouraged greater cultivation of below 2.1 (the rate necessary to maintain populations at domestically needed crops such as cereal grains, vegetables, their current sizes) in most of the smaller and richer Gulf and dairy and poultry products. Productivity has increased countries: Qatar (1.8), Bahrain (1.9), United Arab Emirates with the introduction of mechanization, the application of fer- (2.0), and Kuwait (2.2). When the Iranian religious leaders tilizers, and double cropping, which allows some areas to har- gained power in 1979, they encouraged more births but later vest two crops within a year. As noted in the “Environmental reversed the policy. They now find that the preponderance Problems (p. 327)” section, improper irrigation techniques in of younger adults is a major source of opposition, both places lead to continual problems of salinization. politically and culturally. In recent years, many of the region’s countries have Population Distribution and Dynamics implemented policies to slow birth rates. For example, Tunisia set a minimum age for marriage and instituted a The population of Northern African and Southwestern successful family planning program soon after it obtained Asia tends to be concentrated near the Mediterranean independence. Morocco and Algeria implemented family and Red Seas, the Persian Gulf, and in the fertile valleys planning and maternal and child services. Egypt’s support for of the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates rivers (Figure 8.18). family planning resulted in a drop in that country’s total fer- Moderate densities are also found in the rest of Turkey and tility rate from over 5 to 3.0 between the 1970s and mid-2010. western Iran. Much of the region is almost empty of people. Variations in immigration make Israel’s population The populations of all the region’s countries continue growth irregular. The annual growth rate fell from 2.8 per- to grow rapidly, and are expected to increase by more than cent in the period 1965 to 1980 to 1.8 percent in the 1980s, one-third over the next 20 years. High birth rates combined but rose again in the mid-1990s to 3.3 percent as a result

30ЊW020ЊW 10ЊW Њ 10ЊE 20ЊE30ЊE40ЊE50ЊE60ЊE70ЊE BULGARIA Istanbul GEORGIA ITALY SPAIN Ankara AZERBAIJAN 40ЊN ATLANTIC PORTUGAL TURKEY TURKMENISTAN 40ЊN e d i t e GREECE M r r Ionian a Sea Adana n OCEAN Strait of Gibraltar e Tunis a n Tehran Gulf of S CYPRUS SYRIA Rabat e a Њ 35ЊN Gabes Beirut Damascus Baghdad AFGHANISTAN 35 N Madeira TUNISIA LEBANON Gulf of IRAN Islands Marrakech MOROCCO ISRAEL Tripoli Sidra Jerusalem Amman IRAQ JORDAN Cairo

30ЊN ALGERIA 30ЊN Canary KUWAIT Islands LIBYA BAHRAIN EGYPT R SAUDI WESTERN QATAR e ARABIA Doha SAHARA G d Riyadh Abu Dhabi ul 25ЊN f o Њ (MOROCCO) Aswan U.A.E. f Om 25 N an S

e Mecca OMAN a MALI 20ЊN MAURITANIA NIGER 20ЊN CHAD

Khartoum YEMEN Number of Persons Cities ERITREA Њ e n Њ 15 N 2 SUDAN A d 15 N (per square mile) (per square km ) Over 10 million inhabitants f o f Socotra G u l Over 2,500 Over 1,000 5–10 million inhabitants Arabian Sea 1,250–2,500 500–1,000 SOMALIA 10ЊN 250–1,250 100–500 10ЊN 62.5–250 25–100 ETHIOPIA 0 mi 500 1,000 CENTRAL 12.5–62.5 5–25 AFRICAN 2.5–12.5 1–5 0 km 500 1,000 1,500 REPUBLIC 5ЊN Under 2.5 Under 1 5ЊN

10ЊW0Њ 10ЊE 20ЊE30ЊE40ЊE50ЊE60ЊE

FIGURE 8.18 Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia: Population Distribution. Note where the highest and lowest densities of population occur.

bra22864_ch08_321-376.indd 343 8/23/11 1:07 PM 8.4 Global Significance 343 8.4 Global Significance 345

Many of the problems in agricultural production stem with falling death rates result in the rapid population growth of immigration. In the early 1990s, over 1 million Russian The Fertile Crescent, which runs along the Tigris from the type of economy established by colonial coun- (Figure 8.19). As the population pyramid in Figure 8.20a Jews moved to Israel. In mid-2010, Israeli natural increase and Euphrates rivers, along the eastern shore of the tries. The colonial system involved land appropriation for indicates, the large groups of young people will produce was 1.6 percent. The mid-2010 resident Israeli population of Mediterranean, and up the Nile River valley, is the location European settlers and local elites, who used irrigation water continuing high rates of population increase as they reach 7.3 million included 18 percent non-Jews, most of whom of some of the world’s oldest and most historically signifi- for intensive commercial farming tied to markets in Europe. childbearing age. In 2010, several countries had high total were Arabs. The fluctuating number of immigrants and cant cities (Table 8.2). These older cities, which were central Consequently, agriculture is geared in many areas to export fertility rates with the highest being Yemen (5.5), Palestinian the higher proportion of older people means that Israel’s crops such as citrus fruits, olive oil, and cotton. Iran is still Territory (4.6), Sudan (4.5), Iraq (4.1), Saudi Arabia (3.8), population structure differs from that of the region’s Arab known for its export of nuts, especially pistachios. In recent and Jordan (3.8). In contrast, total fertility rates were countries (Figure 8.20b). TABLE 8.2 North Africa and Southwestern Asia: decades, governments have encouraged greater cultivation of below 2.1 (the rate necessary to maintain populations at Immigration, nevertheless, plays a significant role in Major Cities and Their Populations domestically needed crops such as cereal grains, vegetables, their current sizes) in most of the smaller and richer Gulf many countries. The booming oil business requires more (in millions) and dairy and poultry products. Productivity has increased countries: Qatar (1.8), Bahrain (1.9), United Arab Emirates labor than many of the oil-producing countries possess. Population with the introduction of mechanization, the application of fer- (2.0), and Kuwait (2.2). When the Iranian religious leaders Much-needed imported labor comes from other parts of tilizers, and double cropping, which allows some areas to har- gained power in 1979, they encouraged more births but later the region (such as Jordan, Lebanon, and Yemen) and from 2025 vest two crops within a year. As noted in the “Environmental reversed the policy. They now find that the preponderance South and East Asia. Foreign labor has made up nearly North Africa 2009 (estimated) Problems (p. 327)” section, improper irrigation techniques in of younger adults is a major source of opposition, both 30 percent of the total labor force since the mid-1980s. Casablanca, Morocco 3.3 4.1 places lead to continual problems of salinization. politically and culturally. Immigrant labor formed large proportions of the popula- Algiers, Algeria 2.8 3.6 In recent years, many of the region’s countries have tion in Kuwait, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, and Saudi Rabat, Morocco 1.8 2.3 implemented policies to slow birth rates. For example, Arabia. Figure 8.20c shows how the presence of male for- Population Distribution and Dynamics Tripoli, Libya 1.1 1.4 Tunisia set a minimum age for marriage and instituted a eign workers affected the age and sex structure of Kuwait. The population of Northern African and Southwestern successful family planning program soon after it obtained The reconstruction of Kuwait after the 1991 Gulf War also Tunis, Tunisia 0.8 0.9 Asia tends to be concentrated near the Mediterranean independence. Morocco and Algeria implemented family depended on immigrant labor. Although the origins of Nile River Valley and Red Seas, the Persian Gulf, and in the fertile valleys planning and maternal and child services. Egypt’s support for foreign labor shifted from other Arab countries to South Cairo, Egypt 11.0 14.0 of the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates rivers (Figure 8.18). family planning resulted in a drop in that country’s total fer- Asia in the 1990s, the total remains high. In 1995, estimates Khartoum, Sudan 5.2 8.0 Moderate densities are also found in the rest of Turkey and tility rate from over 5 to 3.0 between the 1970s and mid-2010. put the number of migrant workers in the Gulf countries Alexandria, Egypt 4.4 5.6 western Iran. Much of the region is almost empty of people. Variations in immigration make Israel’s population at around 1.6 million, over 90 percent coming from India, Arab Southwest Asia The populations of all the region’s countries continue growth irregular. The annual growth rate fell from 2.8 per- Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. Baghdad, Iraq 5.9 8.0 to grow rapidly, and are expected to increase by more than cent in the period 1965 to 1980 to 1.8 percent in the 1980s, Most of the region’s countries have life expectancies one-third over the next 20 years. High birth rates combined but rose again in the mid-1990s to 3.3 percent as a result around 72 years. Israel has the highest with 81 years and Riyadh, Saudi Arabia 4.8 6.2 is followed by Kuwait with 78 years. Life expectancy is the Jeddah (Jidda), Saudi Arabia 3.2 4.1 Aleppo (Halab), Syria 3.1 4.2 30ЊW020ЊW 10ЊW Њ 10ЊE 20ЊE30ЊE40ЊE50ЊE60ЊE70ЊE lowest in Sudan (58 years) and Yemen (63 years). BULGARIA Damascus, Syria 2.6 3.5 Istanbul GEORGIA ITALY SPAIN Ankara AZERBAIJAN Kuwait City, Kuwait 2.3 3.0 40ЊN ATLANTIC PORTUGAL TURKEY TURKMENISTAN 40ЊN Urban Patterns e d i t e GREECE Sana’a, Yemen 2.3 4.3 M r r Ionian a Sea Adana n The natural environment and recent nature of economic OCEAN Strait of Gibraltar e Beirut, Lebanon 1.9 2.1 Tunis a n Tehran Gulf of S CYPRUS SYRIA Rabat e a Њ growth in a globalizing world led to a dominance of urban liv- 35ЊN Gabes Beirut Damascus Baghdad AFGHANISTAN 35 N Mecca, Saudi Arabia 1.5 1.9 Madeira TUNISIA LEBANON Gulf of IRAN ing environments in the region. Today most countries in the Islands Marrakech MOROCCO ISRAEL Tripoli Sidra Jerusalem Amman IRAQ Mosul, Iraq 1.4 2.1 JORDAN region are very highly urbanized (Figure 8.21). The high level Cairo Amman, Jordan 1.1 1.4 reflects the direct shift from nomadism to urbanism in coun- 30ЊN ALGERIA 30ЊN Canary KUWAIT Basra, Iraq 0.9 1.3 Islands LIBYA BAHRAIN tries that lack farmland, changes brought by the oil industry EGYPT R SAUDI WESTERN QATAR Israel and Palestinian Territories e ARABIA Doha in numerous countries, and the development of urbanized SAHARA G d Riyadh Abu Dhabi ul 25ЊN f o Њ manufacturing and government employment. For example, Tel Aviv–Jaffa 3.2 3.8 (MOROCCO) Aswan U.A.E. f Om 25 N an S between 1950 and 2010, Kuwait and Qatar went from Iran and Turkey e Mecca OMAN 50 percent to over 98 and 100 percent urban, respectively. a Istanbul, Turkey 10.5 12.1 MALI 20ЊN MAURITANIA 20ЊN NIGER Saudi Arabia went from 10 to 81 percent urban. The rate CHAD Tehran, Iran 7.2 8.4 of urban expansion means that many cities are dominated Khartoum YEMEN Ankara, Turkey 3.9 4.6 Number of Persons Cities ERITREA by new buildings. Amman, Jordan, lost most of its historic Њ e n Њ 15 N 2 SUDAN A d 15 N Izmir, Turkey 2.7 3.2 (per square mile) (per square km ) Over 10 million inhabitants f o f Socotra small-town character as it grew to be a capital city with over a G u l Over 2,500 Over 1,000 5–10 million inhabitants Arabian Sea million people; land speculation, combined with lack of plan- Meshed (Mashhad), Iran 2.7 3.3 1,250–2,500 500–1,000 SOMALIA ning, replaced the old town with wide avenues and featureless Isfahan (Esfahan), Iran 1.7 2.2 10ЊN 250–1,250 100–500 10ЊN 62.5–250 25–100 ETHIOPIA blocks. In Kuwait City after the destruction of the 1990–1991 0 mi 500 1,000 CENTRAL Bursa, Turkey 1.6 1.9 12.5–62.5 5–25 AFRICAN Gulf War, only the ruler’s palace remained of the old town. 2.5–12.5 1–5 0 km 500 1,000 1,500 REPUBLIC Karaj, Iran 1.6 2.0 As the populations grew and crowded into cities, the 5ЊN Under 2.5 Under 1 5ЊN Tabriz, Iran 1.5 1.8 expanding demand for housing by poorer people was often 10ЊW0Њ 10ЊE 20ЊE30ЊE40ЊE50ЊE60ЊE more than governments could meet. Shantytowns are fea- Adana, Turkey 1.4 1.6 Shiraz, Iran 1.3 1.6 FIGURE 8.18 Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia: Population Distribution. Note where the highest and lowest densities of population occur. tures of cities across the subregion; they are known as bidon- villes in Casablanca, Morocco, and as gourbivilles in Tunis. Source: Data from “Urban Agglomerations (2009),” United Nations.

bra22864_ch08_321-376.indd 343 8/23/11 1:07 PM bra22864_ch08_321-376.indd 345 8/23/11 1:08 PM