Syllabus, Hebrews ("General Epistles")

Hebrews (PLUS, the “General Epistles and Letters”)

William Blake. Christ Appearing to the Apostles after the Resurrection, 1795. National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.

with

Dr. Bill Creasy

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Scripture texts in this work are taken from the New American Bible, revised edition © 2010, 1991, 1986, 1970 Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, Washington, D.C. and are used by permission of the copyright owner. All Rights Reserved. No part of the New American Bible may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

2 Hebrews

(PLUS, the “General Epistles and Letters”: James; 1 & 2 Peter; 1, 2 & 3 John; Jude)

Traditional Authors: Hebrews (unknown); the rest, their ascribed authors

Traditional Dates Written: A.D. 50-100

Traditional Periods Covered: A.D. 50-100

Introduction

The New Testament consists of twenty-seven books:

Gospels St. Paul’s Letters to Individuals

Matthew 1 & 2 Timothy Mark Titus Luke Philemon John

History Hebrews

Acts of the Apostles

St. Paul’s Epistles to Church Communities General or “Catholic” Epistles and Letters

Romans James 1 & 2 Corinthians 1 & 2 Peter Galatians 1, 2 and 3 John Ephesians Jude Philippians Colossians Apocalyptic 1 & 2 Thessalonians Revelation

In this course, we’ll be covering Hebrews—a book in a category all by itself—and the “general” or “catholic” epistles and letters.

3 Hebrews

Hebrews is by far the most complex book in the New Testament. Written in elegant first- century Greek, it is deeply rooted in the Hebrew Scriptures (the “Old Testament”). One critic observes that the Old Testament is the “bone and marrow” of Hebrews1 and another that from beginning to end Hebrews is an expository “sermon” that rests on careful Old Testament interpretation.2

In his excellent commentary on Hebrews, Gareth Lee Cockerill points out that the author of Hebrews quotes directly from twenty-eight Old Testament passages. He quotes from twenty-five of them twice (Psalm 2: 7; Jeremiah 31: 31-34) and one (Psalm 110: 4) three times. In total, Hebrews includes thirty-two direct quotations from the Old Testament. 3

Clearly, if we’re to understand Hebrews we must have a thorough working knowledge of the Old Testament Scriptures.

In addition, Hebrews relies heavily on Hellenistic Neo-Platonic thought, in which the present ever-changing material world in which we live is but an imperfect reflection of the eternal, immaterial and perfect world of “ideas.” Thus, the world in which we live is but an ever-changing copy of the eternal, unchangeable ideal. In Christian terms, that unchangeable ideal is “heaven,” the supra-natural, eternal realm of God. In Neo-Platonic thought, when we die our souls ascend to that eternal, unchangeable world where they dwell in happiness forever. Hebrews differs from Neo-Platonic thought, however, in that Christianity insists upon a physical, bodily resurrection at some time in the eschatological future; in Neo-Platonic thought, there is no physical, bodily resurrection, simply because the material world—including our physical bodies—is but an imperfect and mutable reflection of the perfect and immutable spiritual realm.

So, who wrote of Hebrews?

Although Hebrews does not claim apostolic authority, its acceptance into the New Testament canon assumed it. Papyrus 46 (P46), one of the earliest New Testament

1 George H. Guthrie, “‘Hebrews’ Use of the Old Testament: Recent Trends in Research,” Currents in Research: Biblical Studies 1 (2003), p. 272.

2 R. T. France, “The Writer of Hebrews as a Biblical Expositor,” Tyndale Bulletin 47 (1996), p. 246.

3 Gareth Lee Cockerill, The Epistle to the Hebrews (New International Commentary on the New Testament). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2012, pp. 41-42. The quotations are: Gen 2:2 (Heb 4:4); 21:12 (Heb 11:18); 22:16–17 (Heb 6:14); Exod 24:8 (Heb 9:20); 25:40 (Heb 8:5); Deut 9:19 (Heb 12:21); 31:6 (Heb 13:5); 32:35 (Heb 10:30a); 32:36 (Heb 10:30b); 32:43 (Heb 6:1); 2 Sam 7:14 (Heb 1:5a); Ps 2:7 (Heb 1:5b; 5:5); 8:4–6 (Heb 2:5–10); 22:22 (Heb 2:12); 40:6–8 (Heb 10:5–10); 45:6–7 (Heb 1:8–9); 95:7– 11 (Heb 3:7–11); 102:25–27 (Heb 1:10–12); 104:4 (Heb 1:7); 110:1 (Heb 1:13); 110:4 (Heb 5:6; 7:17, 21); Ps 118:6 (Heb 13:6); Prov 3:11–12 (Heb 12:5–6); Isa 8:17 (Heb 2:13a); Isa 8:18 (Heb 2:13b); Jer 31:31–34 (Heb 8:7–13; 10:15–18); Hab 2:3–4 (Heb 10:37–38); Hag 2:6 (Heb 12:26).

4 manuscripts (A.D. 175-225), places Hebrews between Romans and Corinthians (fols. 41- 59), including it among the writings of St. Paul:

Romans 16: 23 - Hebrews 1: 7a. P46 (fol. 41r). University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

But St. Paul is clearly not the author of Hebrews. He tells us in Galatians: “I did not receive [the gospel] from any man, nor was I taught it; rather, I received it by revelation from Jesus Christ” (1: 12); whereas, our author of Hebrews says: “This salvation, which was first announced by the Lord, was confirmed to us by those who heard him” (2: 3b). The author of Hebrews received the gospel message second-hand, by those who actually heard it from Christ, presumably one or more of the Apostles. In addition, Hebrews strongly emphasizes the high priesthood of Christ, a priesthood in the line of Melchizedek (Genesis 14); whereas, St. Paul’s epistles and letters make no reference to this line of thought. Also, our author of Hebrews writes a very elegant Greek. Although St. Paul was a master rhetorician, easily adapting his rhetorical style to his audience, nowhere does he reflect the prose style of Hebrews. Indeed, Hebrews uses 169 words that appear nowhere else in St. Paul’s epistles or letters, nor anywhere else in the New Testament, for that matter.4

4 Cockerill, p. 7.

5 For these reasons (and several others), Origen (c. A.D. 185-254) questioned St. Paul’s authorship of Hebrews. Eusebius (c. A.D. 260-340), in his Ecclesiastical History, paraphrases Origen’s position:

If I [Origen] gave my opinion, I should say that the thoughts are those of the apostle [St. Paul], but the diction and phraseology are those of someone who remembered the apostolic teachings, and wrote down at his leisure what had been said by his teacher. Therefore, if any church holds that this epistle is by Paul let it be commended for this. For not without reason have the ancients handed it down as Paul’s. But who wrote the epistle, in truth, God knows. The statement of some who have gone before us is that Clement bishop of the Romans, wrote the epistle, and of others that Luke, the author of the Gospel and the Acts, wrote it. But let this suffice on these matters. (6.25.13-14)

It’s intriguing to think that Luke may have written Hebrews after hearing St. Paul speak about the topics addressed in the epistle, for Luke wrote superb Greek as we know from the introduction to his gospel (Luke 1: 1-4) and he was very close to St. Paul, being his personal physician, traveling companion and biographer. Luke has had few supporters for authorship, however.

Another intriguing possibility is that Apollos wrote Hebrews. Recall that when Priscilla and Aquila traveled to Ephesus with St. Paul they met Apollos, an Alexandrian Jew who was “a learned man, with a thorough knowledge of the Scriptures” (Acts 18: 24b) and a very eloquent and persuasive speaker. Apollos and Philo of Alexandria were contemporaries, both were deeply schooled in Alexandria in rhetoric and Neo-Platonic thought, and Philo (and we might assume, Apollos, as well) wrote in very eloquent Greek, given their superb education. After leaving Ephesus, Apollos traveled to Corinth with a letter of recommendation from the Ephesian church, and in Corinth “he vigorously refuted his Jewish opponents in public debate, proving from the Scriptures that Jesus was the Messiah” (Acts 18: 28). Of course, Apollos used the Hebrew Scriptures as his proof texts, as does our author of Hebrews. Add to that, St. Paul praises Apollos in 1 Corinthians 3: 6, when he says: “I planted the seed; Apollos watered it, but God has been making it grow.” Apollos was not only an eloquent speaker; he was also a devoted pastor to the Corinthians. Both traits are evident in Hebrews. Apparently, Apollos left Corinth during St. Paul’s conflict with the “Judaizers”—those Jewish Christians who insisted that all believers must observe the Mosaic law and its traditions. In 1 Corinthians 13: 16, which St. Paul wrote in the winter of A.D. 54, he says to the Corinthians: “Now about our brother Apollos: I strongly urged him to go to you with the brothers. He was quite unwilling to go now, but he will go when he has the opportunity.” Apollos stayed away, and he later went to Crete with Zenas. In St. Paul’s letter to Titus (who was finishing up the missionary work on Crete), St. Paul writes: “Do everything you can to help Zenas the lawyer and Apollos on their way and see that they have everything they need” (3: 13). St. Paul writes to Titus from Rome in the mid-60s, during the early days

6 of the persecution that began under Nero (A.D. 64-68). Apparently, St. Paul needs Zenas, the lawyer, and Apollos is traveling to Rome with him. Perhaps, too, Apollos writes Hebrews from Rome to address the ongoing problem of the “Judaizers” in Corinth. That would make sense, since our author of Hebrews writes in his conclusion: “Those from Italy send you their greetings” (13: 24). Tradition holds that Apollos later returned to Corinth, where he became one of the church’s elders.

These are all intriguing possibilities. But the fact is—as Origen stated—only God knows who wrote Hebrews!

It appears that Hebrews was not written as an epistle or letter, but as a sermon meant to be delivered orally, much as St. Paul wrote Ephesians as a circular homily. Hebrews lacks the standard epistolary opening which names the writer, the audience to whom it is addressed and an introductory greeting or prayer. In Hebrews, the personal pronouns are typically plural (we, our, us); verbs of saying and hearing prevail; the writer announces themes ahead of time and then develops them; and Hebrews is replete with periodic sentence constructions, sound repetitions (so important for oral delivery), balanced chiastic structures and word repetitions (anaphora).

Aristotle classifies rhetoric into three categories:

• deliberative, the art of speaking or writing to persuade and audience to take (or not to take) an action;

• judicial, the art of justifying actions or beliefs, particularly within a court of law; and

• epideictic, the art of praise or blame.

Hebrews fits only loosely into these rhetorical categories: it is deliberative in that it seeks to persuade its listeners to follow a particular course of action—to place their faith in Christ, the Son of God and our great High Priest, the sole mediator between God and man; and it is epideictic in that it praises Christ as “the radiance of God’s glory and the exact representation of his being, sustaining all things by the power of his word” (1: 3). Hebrews might be better understood, however, as a homily that interprets the inspired text of the Hebrew Scriptures (the Old Testament), shows its relevance for the present, and urges its hearers to obey its teaching. Indeed, our author describes what he has written as a lovgoß paraklhvsewß, a “word of exhortation” (13: 22), the same phrase used to describe St. Paul’s sermon which he preached at Pisidian Antioch on his first missionary journey, A.D. 46-48 (Acts 13: 15).

7 We might use the following outline, then, to guide us through our study of Hebrews:5

Hebrews Outline

I. Introduction (1: 1-4) II. Higher Than the Angels (1: 5 – 2: 18) III. Jesus, Faithful and Compassionate High Priest (3: 1 – 5: 10) IV. Jesus’ Eternal Priesthood and Eternal Sacrifice (5: 11 – 10: 39) V. Examples, Discipline and Disobedience (11: 1 – 12: 29) VI. Final Exhortation, Blessing and Greetings (13: 1-25)

5 The Hebrews outline is taken from: Donald Senior, et al., eds. The Catholic Study Bible, 3rd edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2016, loc. 153648.

8 James

Yah-ah-kove’]; Greek, jIavkwboß] בֹקֲעַי James” is the English rendering of the Hebrew“ [ee-ah’-ko-bos], rendered “Jacob” in the Old Testament English translations and “James” in the New. There are many men named “James” in the New Testament, however:

• James son of Zebedee and the brother of John (“James the Greater”), one of Jesus’ twelve Apostles who was beheaded by Herod Agrippa in A.D. 42/43 (Acts 12: 2-3). This is the James whose remains rest in the cathedral of St. James in Santiago de Compostela, Spain, the destination of the classic pilgrimage, the Camino de Santiago (“The Way of St. James”);

• James son of Alphaeus (“James the Lesser”), also one of the twelve Apostles. He is mentioned only four times in the Bible, each time in reference to his mother, Mary (Matthew 10: 3; Mark 3: 18; Luke 6: 15; and Acts 1: 13);

• James “the brother of the Lord” [tovn ajdelfo…n touÆ] and the leader of the church in Jerusalem (Matthew 13: 55/Mark 6: 3; Acts 12: 17; Galatians 1: 19);

• James father of the Apostle Judas—not Judas Iscariot (Luke 6: 16); and

• James whose mother was Mary, (Matthew 27: 56; Mark 15: 40, 16: 1; Luke 24: 10). James’ mother Mary was among the women at the foot of the cross.

We hear of “James the brother of the Lord” in the Gospels when people are astounded by what Jesus says and does, exclaiming: “Isn’t this the carpenter’s son? Isn’t his mother’s name Mary, and aren’t his brothers James, Joseph, Simon and Judas” (Matthew 13: 55)? This James is with the family when, fearing for Jesus, they travel to Capernaum “to take charge of him,” saying, “He is out of his mind” (Mark 3: 20). James is also among Jesus’ brothers who urge him to go to Jerusalem at Tabernacles and to “show [himself] to the world,” for “even his own brothers did not believe in him” (John 7: 2-5). After Jesus’ resurrection and ascension, James is with the Apostles, the women, Mary the mother of Jesus and “his brothers” as they “joined together constantly in prayer” in Jerusalem (Acts 1: 14). James is the leader of the church in Jerusalem, when at the Council of Jerusalem, he makes the final decision regarding Gentiles in the church—even though Peter, Paul, Barnabas and others are present (Acts 15: 1-21). And it is this James—a “pillar” of the church in Jerusalem—whom St. Paul visits in Jerusalem after Paul’s conversion and the beginning of his apostolic work as Apostle to the Gentiles (Galatians 1: 18-19).

We read in Scripture that James is the Lord’s “brother” (ajdelfovß, ah-del-fos’). The Lord’s “brothers” are clearly distinguished from any of his followers, including the Apostles: it is not a term used in this context of Jesus’ male followers or disciples. The Lord’s “brothers” were part of Jesus’ biological family, which means there are only three possible interpretations: 1) they were Jesus’ “cousins” [ajeyiovß, ah-nep-see-os’], as St. Jerome proposed, part of Jesus’ larger extended family; 2) they were Jesus’ half-brothers, sons of Joseph who had been widowed; or 3) they were Jesus’ full blood brothers, other

9 sons of Mary and Joseph. For the most part, Roman Catholics adhere to the first alternative (Jesus’ cousins); Orthodox Christians adhere to the second alternative (Jesus’ half-brothers); and Protestants adhere to the third alternative (Jesus’ full blood brothers). All Christians believe in Mary’s virginal conception of Jesus as reported in the Gospels, however the perpetual virginity of Mary is a doctrine that developed somewhat later in the church. St. Jerome claims that St. Irenaeus (c. A.D. 130-202) taught Mary’s perpetual virginity, but no sources have survived to support his claim. It isn’t until the 4th century, however, that the perpetual virginity of Mary moves to center stage, supported by St. John Chrysostom (c. A.D. 347-407), Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335-395) and St. Augustine (A.D. 354-430). The Lateran Council of 649 affirmed Mary’s perpetual virginity and the 6th ecumenical council of 680 reaffirmed it. Today in the Roman Catholic church Mary’s perpetual virginity is believed de fide (as an essential part of the faith).

This James came to be known as “old camel knees” due to all the hours he spent on his knees in prayer. Imagine if you were a member of Jesus’ family and you not only didn’t believe in him, you actually mocked him thinking he was “out of his mind”: then you witnessed his crucifixion, burial, resurrection and ascension. You would become a believer . . . fast!

It is this James who writes the epistle of James, and it is good, common-sense advice for believers, advice from one who understands doubt, weakness, the resolve to correct one’s behavior and to live a life consistent with one’s faith in Christ.

Here is a brief outline that we can follow:6

6 The James outline is taken from: Ralph P. Martin. James (Word Biblical Commentary, Vol. 48). Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2018, p. 104.

10 James Outline

I. Address and Greeting (1: 1) II. Enduring Trials (1: 2-19a) 1. Trials, Wisdom, Faith (1: 2-8) 2. The Reversal of Fortunes (1: 9-11) 3. Testing: Its Source and Mischief—and Rationale (1: 12-19a) III. Applying the Word (1: 19b – 3: 18) 1. The Obedience of Faith (1: 19b-27) 2. Problems in the Assembly (2: 1-13) 3. Faith and Works—Together (2: 14-26) 4. Warning about Teachers and Tongues (3: 1-12) 5. Two Types of Wisdom (3: 13-18) IV. Witnessing to Divine Providence (4: 1 – 5: 20) 1. Community Malaise and Its Antidote (4: 1-10) 2. Community Problems (4: 11-17) 3. Judgment on Rich Farmers (5: 1-6) 4. Call to Patience (5: 7-11) 5. Community Issues (5: 12-18) 6. Final Words and Admonitions (5: 19-20)

1 & 2 Peter

St. Peter was a simple commercial fisherman in business with his brother Andrew; the brothers, James and John; and Zebedee, the father of James and John. They were all from Bethsaida, a fishing village about a mile north of the Sea of Galilee (John 1: 44). During Jesus’ public ministry, Peter and his brother Andrew lived at the home of Peter’s mother-in-law in Capernaum on the northwest shore of the Sea of Galilee (Mark 1: 29). During his three-year public ministry in Galilee, Jesus lived in Capernaum with Peter and Peter’s family (Mark 1: 35).

Peter met Jesus in Jericho during the Jewish feast of Pentecost (John 1: 35-41), around A.D. 30. After traveling back to Galilee and joining Jesus and many others at a wedding in Cana, Jesus, “his mother, [his] brothers, and his disciples went down to Capernaum and stayed . . . a few days” (John 2: 12). Apparently, the wedding’s “after-party” moved from Cana to Peter’s house!

Peter, of course, plays a major role in the gospel story. Jesus calls Peter and Andrew from their fishing business to become “fishers of men” (Matthew 4: 18-19); Peter always appears first in the lists of Jesus’ disciples (Matthew 10: 1-4; Mark 3: 13-19; Luke 6: 12: 16); Peter proclaims Jesus “the Christ, the Son of the living God” (Matthew 16: 13-20; Mark 8: 27-30; Luke 9: 18-20); Peter sits at Jesus’ right hand—the place of honor—at the

11 Last Supper; Peter denies Jesus three times in the courtyard of Caiaphas the high priest during Jesus’ trial before the Sanhedrin (Matthew 26: 31-75; Mark 14: 29-72; Luke 22: 33-66; John 18: 15-27); after Jesus’ resurrection, Jesus “reinstates” Peter and appoints him leader of the Apostles (John 21: 1-23); on the Jewish feast of Pentecost—fifty days after Jesus’ crucifixion, burial and resurrection—the Holy Spirit arrives in Jerusalem, the Church is born, and Peter preaches his first sermon, resulting in 3,000 people being “saved” (Acts 2: 1-41); after St. Paul’s conversion on the road to Damascus, Paul visits Jerusalem to confer with Peter about Paul’s plans to evangelize the Gentiles, and he stays with Peter for fifteen days, seeing none of the other Apostles, only “James, the brother of the Lord” (Galatians 1: 18-19).

We know very little about what Peter did after his escape from prison in Jerusalem around A.D. 44, other than “he went to another place” (Acts 12: 17b). We see him again briefly at the Council of Jerusalem in A.D. 50, and then he more or less disappears, being overshadowed in Scripture by St. Paul. Tradition holds that sometime after A.D. 62, Peter arrives in Rome, and during the persecution under Nero (A.D. 64-68), Peter is arrested and crucified, while St. Paul, as a Roman citizen, is beheaded.

St. Peter does, though, write two epistles: 1 & 2 Peter. Peter addresses his first epistle to the Christian communities in five provinces of Asia Minor: Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia, territories more closely related to St. Paul than to St. Peter. Clearly, it is a time of persecution, for Peter urges his readers to “not be surprised that a trial by fire is occurring among you” (1 Peter 4: 12), and he encourages his readers to “rejoice to the extent that you share in the sufferings of Christ” (4: 13). Peter’s first epistle is sound advice for a persecuted church, sound advice for Jesus’ followers to persevere in the faith.

Although 1 Peter begins—“Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ, to the chosen sojourners of the dispersion . . .”—many have doubted the authenticity of the epistle, based primarily on its elegant Greek prose style, a style well beyond the capabilities of a Galilean fisherman. On the surface that is a sound argument: the Greek is on a par with St. Paul at his very best. But Peter tells us that he had help writing the epistle: “I write you this briefly through Silvanus, whom I consider a faithful brother . . .” (5: 12). “Silvanus” is the Latin name for Silas, one of St. Paul’s companions and ministry partners, and Silas was certainly capable of writing excellent Greek. It seems that Peter wishes to write his epistle sometime during A.D. 64-68, during the persecution under Nero in Rome. Perhaps Peter discussed what he wanted to say, and then enlisted Silas to write it down in a manner fitting for his audience. That would make perfect sense, for Peter surely knew his limitations. Even St. Paul—a master rhetorician—had Tertius, his amanuensis, put into final copy what Paul had dictated or drafted (cf. Romans 16: 22).

St. Peter’s second epistle raises no doubt about authorship based upon style, as it is rudimentary Greek, at best: in fact, it has been called “the ugly stepchild” of the New

12 Testament!7 Although it attempts to take rhetorical flight with unusual words, redundant word combinations and inflated language, it does so awkwardly. It’s message, though, is urgent. Peter is imprisoned in Rome, and he knows that he will be executed soon, saying: “I think it right, as long as I am in this ‘tent’ [skhvnwma, skay’-no-mah, “tabernacle”] to stir you up by a reminder, since I know that I will soon have to put it aside, as indeed our Lord Jesus Christ has shown me” (1: 13-14). The end is near . . . at least for St. Peter. And he is sure the apocalypse is fast approaching: Rome burned in the summer of A.D. 64; Nero blamed the catastrophic fire on the Christians and he began the first state- sponsored persecution against the church; the Great Jewish Revolt began in Galilee and spread to Jerusalem in A.D. 66, which would result in Jerusalem and the temple being destroyed in A.D. 70, 1.2 million Jews being killed and the Jewish diaspora reaching epic proportions. Peter urges believers to be rooted in sound teaching, to persevere in the face of persecution and to hold fast to truth. He also paints a dire picture of the end times, which he believes are just over the horizon:

But do not ignore this one fact, beloved, that with the Lord one day is like a thousand years and a thousand years like one day. The Lord does not delay his promise, as some regard “delay,” but he is patient with you, not wishing that any should perish but that all should come to repentance. But the day of the Lord will come like a thief, and then the heavens will pass away with a mighty roar and the elements will be dissolved by fire, and the earth and everything done on it will be laid bare.

(3: 8-10)

St. Peter concludes: “Since you are forewarned, be on your guard . . .” (3: 17).

Here are outlines for 1 & 2 Peter.8

7 Peter H. Davids. The Letters of 2 Peter and Jude (The Pillar New Testament Commentary). Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2006, loc. 1829.

8 The outline for 1 Peter is from: Peter H. Davids. The First Epistle of Peter (The New International Commentary on the New Testament). Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1990, loc. 460.

The outline for 2 Peter is from: The Letters of 2 Peter and Jude, loc. 2113.

13 1 Peter Outline

I. Greeting (1: 1-2) II. The Gift and Call of God (1: 3 – 2: 10) A. Opening Thanksgiving (1: 3-12) B. Call to Holiness (1: 13-25) C. Christian Identity (2: 1-10) III. The Christian in a Hostile World (2: 11 – 4: 11) A. Introduction: Exhortation to an Ethical Lifestyle (2: 11-12) B. Propriety vis-à-vis the State (2: 13-17) C. Propriety of Slaves vis-à-vis Masters ((2: 18-25) D. Propriety of Spouses vis-à-vis an Unbelieving Spouse (3: 1-7) E. Summary Call to Virtue and Suffering (3: 8-22) F. Exhortation to Firmness in the End Times (4: 1-11) IV. Advice to the Persecuted (4: 11 – 5: 12) A. Suffering as a Christian (4: 12-19) B. The Inner-Church Response to Suffering (5: 1-5) C. Final Exhortation on Standing Firm under Persecution (5: 5-11)

V. Conclusion (5: 12-14)

2 Peter Outline

I. Greeting (1: 1-2)

II. Exhortation to Christian Virtue (1: 3-21)

III. Condemnation of False Teachers (2: 1-22)

IV. The Delay of the Second Coming (3: 1-16)

V. Conclusion (3: 17-18)

14 1, 2 and 3 John

After the arrival of the Holy Spirit on the Jewish feast of Pentecost in A.D. 32, the gospel message spread throughout the Roman Empire through the missionary work of the Apostles and others. By the end of the 1st century—the time of the Johannine compositions (John’s gospel; 1, 2 & 3 John; and Revelation)—hundreds of “church” communities had taken root throughout the Roman Empire in the very fertile soil of the gospel message. But the Roman Empire was an extraordinarily diverse population, incorporating a multitude of cultures, languages, customs and religious beliefs. Consequently, although the core gospel message was the same, each community experienced and understood that message differently.

Dissention and conflict inevitably emerged, as autonomous communities contrasted their understanding of the person and work of Christ with other autonomous communities. Indeed, conflict erupted even within communities, fracturing them into opposing factions, each insisting on the “truth” of their understanding. Even the Johannine communities— those founded by or influenced by the Apostle John and his followers—were subject to such dissension.

Tradition attributes 1, 2 & 3 John to the Apostle John, and in his correspondence, he vehemently defends his understanding of Christ, insisting upon it, and demanding that those who teach otherwise be excluded from the community and not permitted to hold leadership positions in the church or to teach.

John’s correspondence includes two very short and personal letters: 2 John is addressed to “the chosen Lady and her children” (only 13 verses), while 3 John is addressed to “beloved Gaius,” whom John loves “in truth” (only 15 verses).

Although 1 John is classified as an epistle, it is more accurately viewed as a theological treatise written to address false teaching within the Johannine communities, false teaching that emerged from Docetism and embryonic Gnosticism.

Here are outlines for 1, 2 and 3 John:9

9 The 1, 2 and 3 John outlines are Dr. C.’s own.

15 1 John Outline

Prologue (1: 1-4).

Topic #1: Fellowship with God as walking in the light and its realization in the world (1: 5 – 2: 17). Topic #2: The present situation of the Christian church (2: 18 – 3: 24). Topic #3 The separation of those who belong to God from the “world” by true faith in Christ and love (4: 1 – 5: 12). Epilogue (5: 13-21).

2 John Outline

Address and greeting (1-3) Topic #1: Living in truth and love (4-6) Topic #2: Beware of false teaching (7-11) Final words and greetings (12-13)

3 John Outline

Address and greeting (1-4) Topic #1: Encouragement to support the brothers (5-10) Topic #2: Encouragement to continue doing good (11-12) Final words and greetings (13-15)

16 Jude

Jude is a brief epistle (25 verses) addressed to “those who are called, beloved in God the Father and kept safe for Jesus Christ” (Jude 1); that is, to all genuine believers. Like John, Jude addresses false teaching propagated by “some intruders, who long ago were designated for their condemnation” (Jude 4).

Interestingly, Jude has much in common with 2 Peter, especially Jude 5-16 and 2 Peter 2: 1-18.

Here is an outline for Jude:10

Jude Outline

I. Salutation (1-2) II. Letter Body (3-23) A. Thematic Statement (3-4) B. Proof of Thematic Statement (5-16) 1. First Proof (5-10) 2. Second Proof (11-13) 3. Third Proof (14-16) C. Body Closing (17-23) 1. Final Prophecy (17-19) 2. Closing Exhortation (20-23) III. Doxology (24-25)

10 The Jude outline is taken from: Peter H. Davids. The Letters of 2 Peter and Jude (The Pillar New Testament Commentary). Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2006, loc. 10.

17 Hebrews (PLUS the “General Epistles and Letters”)

Syllabus

Lesson #1: An Introduction to Hebrews (1: 1-4)

“The Great Chain of Being” (engraving), from Diego Valadés, Rhetorica Christiana, 1579, p. 222.

Hebrews is by far the most complex book in the New Testament. Written in elegant first- century Greek, it is deeply rooted in the Hebrew Scriptures (the “Old Testament”). One critic observes that the Old Testament is the “bone and marrow” of Hebrews and another that from beginning to end Hebrews is an expository “sermon,” one that depends upon a full and insightful understanding of the Old Testament.

What’s more, Hebrews relies heavily on Hellenistic Neo-Platonic thought, in which the present ever-changing material world in which we live is but an imperfect reflection of

18 the eternal, immaterial and perfect world of “ideas.” Thus, the world in which we live is but an ever-changing copy of the eternal, unchangeable ideal.

Hebrews weaves all this together to create an extraordinary insight into who Christ is and to how we are to relate to him.

In this lesson, we get our foot in the door of Hebrews, asking: “Who wrote it?”; “Who was the audience?”; and “When was it written?” Once we explore those questions, we examine its truly stunning opening sentence (1: 1-4).

Lesson #2: The Incomparable Majesty of Christ, (1: 5 – 2: 18)

Pieter de Grebber. God Inviting Christ to Sit on the Throne at His Right Hand (oil on canvas), 1645. St. Catherine’s Convent Museum, Utrecht, Netherlands.

19 In Lesson #1 we explored Hebrew’s authorship, audience and date of composition, and we also examined closely its opening sentence, 1: 1-4. We found that our author writes in a very eloquent Greek and that he digs deeply into the Old Testament and Hellenistic neo-platonic thought to develop—not a letter or epistle—but a sermon or homily, one meant to be delivered to his audience orally.

In his opening sentence, our author positions Christ as the “Son of God,” co-equal with the Father. Indeed, the “Son” was with the “Father” before the beginning of creation. Through Christ, God created the universe, and through the power of Christ’s word the universe holds together.

In this lesson, we delve more deeply into the incomparable majesty of Christ, something only vaguely hinted at in the rest of Scripture.

Lesson #3: Jesus Is Greater Than Moses (3: 1 – 5: 10)

John Hall (engraver). Moses Showing the Brazen Serpent, after Benjamin West (engraving), 1793. Royal Academy of Arts, London.

20 In Lesson #2, our author announced that God’s revelation in his Son had fulfilled the revelation that God had given to the Israelites through Moses at Mount Sinai. Importantly, Jesus and the Gospel message did not supersede the message at Mount Sinai; rather, it followed in continuity with it, completing and fulfilling it. It’s not surprising then that our author would associate his Christian audience with the Israelites in the wilderness who had accompanied Moses in the Exodus. As Moses was the mediator of the covenant at Mount Sinai, our author views Jesus as the mediator of the post-resurrection covenant, thus making Moses and Jesus parallel figures. As Moses was the agent of God’s revelation at Sinai and the divinely chosen leader of the Israelites, so Jesus is the agent of God’s post-resurrection revelation and the divinely chosen leader of the Church, the completed family of God.

Consequently, our author will argue, Jesus is greater than Moses.

Lesson #4: Jesus Our Great High Priest (5: 11 – 10: 39)

Matthias Stom. Christ before Caiaphas (oil on canvas), c. 1633. Milwaukee Art Museum, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

21 In our previous lessons, we have viewed the utter failure of Israel to embrace their responsibility as God’s covenant people. From their failure to obey God in the Exodus wilderness experience, in which only two of the 603,550 men who left Egypt actually entered the Promised Land. We might add to that the history that followed, in which the northern kingdom of Israel fell to Assyria in 722 B.C. and the southern kingdom of Judah to Babylon in 586 B.C. And why did the nation go into captivity? 1 Chronicles 9: 1b tells us plainly: “Now Judah had been exiled to Babylon because of its treachery.” The experience of Israel, not only in its wilderness experience, but also in the history that followed, is a grim warning that actions have consequences. God stated this clearly in Deuteronomy 28:

Now, if you diligently obey the voice of the LORD, your God, carefully observing all his commandments which I give you today, the LORD, your God, will set you high above all the nations of the earth. All these blessings will come upon you and overwhelm you when you obey the voice of the LORD, your God . . . But if you do not obey the voice of the LORD, your God, carefully observing all his commandments and statutes which I give you today, all these curses shall come upon you and overwhelm you . . .

(28: 1-2, 15)

The blessings are wonderful, but the curses are truly dreadful . . . and they all come to pass. Israel’s failure to obey God’s covenant serves as a lesson to the Church, for if we disobey God, we too will suffer the same fate as Israel. Fortunately, we have Christ as our redeemer, Christ as our great High Priest who is seated at God’s right hand intervening on our behalf. Because he too was fully human, as well as fully divine, he can empathize with us and offer a powerful voice on intercession on our behalf.

22 Lesson #5: A Call to Discipline (11: 1 – 13: 25)

Albrecht Dürer. Adoration of the Trinity, or the Landauer Altar (oil on poplar panel), 1511. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.

As our author of Hebrews moves toward the conclusion of his argument, he encourages his listeners to persevere in their faith and to take their rightful part in the grand narrative of redemption:

“You need endurance to do the will of God and receive what he has promised.

‘For, after just a brief moment, he who is to come shall come; he shall not delay. But my just one shall live by faith, and if he draws back I take no pleasure in him.’

We are not among those who draw back and perish, but among those who have faith and will possess life.” (10: 36-39)

In these final chapters, our author creates a sweeping panorama of redemptive history that begins with creation and concludes with the Last Judgment, highlighting along the way the heroes of faith—a great cloud of witnesses—who offer support and encouragement by their exploits and examples.

24 Lesson #6: An Introduction to James (1: 1 – xx)

James 1: 15-18, Papyrus 23 [P. Oxyrynchus X. 1229], 3rd century A.D. Spurlock Museum, University of Illinois, Urbana.

[This 3rd-century papyrus is one of the oldest manuscripts of James.]

James is something of a puzzling work: it is not a letter, since it is not addressed to any particular person; it is not an epistle, since it lacks the standard epistolary greeting, blessing and conclusion; and it shows no discernable structure, being more like a collection of moral and ethical dictums, drawn primarily from Jewish wisdom literature.

It is odd for a New Testament book, as well, for it never explicitly mentions the gospel; that is, the death, burial and resurrection of Jesus, nor does it mention Jesus’ divine nature. Indeed, in its 108 verses it only mentions Jesus twice (1: 1, 2: 1), and in passing at that.

Martin Luther thought little of James, saying:

25 St. John’s Gospel and his first epistle, St. Paul’s epistles, especially Romans, Galatians and Ephesians, and St. Peter’s first epistle are the books that show you Christ and teach you all that is necessary and salvatory for you to know, even if you were never to see or hear any other book or doctrine. St. James’ epistle is really an epistle of straw, compared to the others, for it has nothing of the nature of the gospel about it.”

And yet, James was an early entrant into the New Testament canon, being quoted by Origen (c. A.D. 184-253) and included as one of the twenty-seven books of the New Testament mentioned by Athanasius of Alexandria in his Thirty-Ninth Festal Epistle (A.D. 367).

So, what are we to make of this rather puzzling work? If we think of each book of scripture as a single piece in a jigsaw puzzle, James doesn’t quite fit into the whole, turn it though we may. Our job in the next couple of lessons then, is to make sense of what many consider to be little more than a lose collection of traditional moral and ethical exhortations, a book sitting—it seems—on the canonical fringe.

Lesson #7: Be doers of the Word and not hearers only (1: 1 – 2: 13)

“The Choosing of Joseph,” Church of Chora, Inner Narthex (mosaic), c. A.D. 1303-1320. Istanbul, Turkey.

[The High Priest entrusts the child Mary to the aged widower Joseph by divination of the rod.]

26 In our introduction to James we learned that James was written by James [IJavkwboß] the brother of the Lord, who was the leader of the church in Jerusalem until his martyrdom in A.D. 62. James directed his message to Jewish Christians in the diaspora [diasporav], those living outside of Palestine, primarily in the major urban centers of the Roman Empire such as Alexandria, Ephesus, Corinth and Rome.

Although many (including Martin Luther) have viewed James as being in conflict with St. Paul’s thesis that we are saved by grace through faith, we resolved that apparent conflict by understanding that St. Paul focuses on how we get into the family of God (by grace through faith), while James focuses on how we live in the family of God (by a life of active love, or good works).

In many ways, James is the red-headed Dutch uncle of Scripture, one who gives us no- nonsense, practical advice about living our day-to-day life in Christ, a life that by definition takes place within community.

Lesson #8: Faith and Works

Jan Victors. Abraham and Isaac before the Sacrifice (oil on canvas), 1642. Tel Aviv Museum of Art, Tel Aviv, Israel.

27 In our last lesson, we explored three topics that James introduced and developed:

• Genuine faith will always be tested, and testing benefits us for it produces strong character; • It requires great wisdom to discern the test and to stand fast under pressure; and • Wealth poses great temptations which must be dealt with carefully.

James will continue developing these topics, but first he makes a detour to address more fully “faith” and “works.”

Lesson #9: An Introduction to 1 & 2 Peter

“Caravaggio. The Calling of Saints Peter and Andrew (oil on canvas), c. 1603-1606. Buckingham Palace, London.

28 Much like the book of James, 1 & 2 Peter have often suffered neglect, sitting in the canon as they do in the wake of St. Paul’s great epistles and letters and in the shadow of the mighty Hebrews. 1 & 2 Peter address Christians enduring persecution in the backwaters of the Roman Empire—not those in the major urban centers—Christians living in what most believers considered to be the “end times.” Yet, 1 & 2 Peter offer sound advice even today for those who struggle with more contemporary forms of persecution, and they call with a clear voice (much as James does) to persevere under “trials.”

In this introduction to 1 & 2 Peter, we’ll examine St. Peter himself, as well as the context for 1 & 2 Peter, how the epistles were written (and under what circumstances), and the audience to whom they were addressed, getting our foot in the door of 1 Peter.

Lesson #10: Letter to the Sojourners (1: 1 – 5: 14)

Bartolome Esteban Murillo. Saint Peter in Tears (oil on canvas), c. 1650-1655. Bilbao Fine Arts Museum, Basque Country, Spain.

29 As we noted in our introduction to St. Peter’s epistles, 1 Peter addresses persecuted Christians in the northern provinces of Asia Minor, encouraging them to remain faithful to their beliefs and moral standards in spite of persecution. Peter’s audience seems to be largely Gentile, although he makes considerable use of the Hebrew Scriptures to support his words of encouragement and admonishment.

As believers, St. Peter’s audience feels alienated and isolated from the society around them, and Peter urges them to remember the suffering and death of Christ as the source of their salvation and as an example they might follow.

Peter’s audience is “in” Christ, and as such, he urges them to be faithful to their new identity and to live according to God’s call at work, at home and in their general conduct. For those “sojourners” in Asia Minor, persecution—a trial by fire—is already underway. For those in St. Peter’s day, suffering is the very essence of a Christian life, and Peter encourages his audience to fidelity, to be rooted in who they are in Christ and to their ultimate goal of the beatific vision in heaven with Christ.

Lesson #11: St. Peter’s Last Will and Testament (1: 1 – 3: 18)

St. Peter and St. Paul, together in the Mamertine Prison in Rome.

Photography by Ana Maria Vargas

30 1 & 2 Peter emerged during a time of great social and political upheaval in the Roman Empire, A.D. 64-73:

• Nero was emperor (A.D. 54-68); • the great fire of Rome (A.D. 64) destroyed much of the city; • Nero blamed the fire on Rome’s Christians, triggering a great persecution (A.D. 64-68); • both St. Paul and St. Peter were martyred (A.D. 64-68); • Nero committed suicide in A.D. 68; • four emperors followed Nero in a matter of eighteen months, two of whom were assassinated and one of whom committed suicide; • the Jews started the catastrophic Jewish War (A.D. 66-73), in which 1.2 million Jews were killed, the second temple was destroyed, much of Jerusalem burned to the ground and the Jews who survived fled Palestine, not to return until 1948, nearly two thousand years later!

At that time, St. Peter (with the help of Silas) wrote an epistle to those Jewish Christians living in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia, the northern provinces of Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), people far removed from the major urban centers of the Roman Empire, but suffering persecution nonetheless. In that epistle, he offered encouragement and he urged his audience to persevere in their faith.

St. Peter writes his second epistle shortly afterward, sometime before A.D. 68 (this time without help from Silas). Peter is in prison, his own execution is imminent and he sees the end approaching quickly, not just his end, but the Lord’s return (the parousia) and the end of all things.

31 Lesson #12: 2 and 3 John

Peter Paul Rubens. St. John (oil on panel), c. 1611. Prado Museum, Madrid.

Dissension and conflict inevitably emerged, as autonomous communities contrasted their understanding of the person and work of Christ with other autonomous communities. Indeed, conflict erupted even within communities, fracturing them into opposing factions, each insisting on the “truth” of their understanding. Even the Johannine communities—

32 those founded by or influenced by the Apostle John and his followers—were subject to such dissension.

Lesson #13: 1 John

Anthony van Dyck. St. Ambrose barring Theodosius I from Milan Cathedral (oil on canvas), c. 1620. National Gallery, London.

33 In 2 & 3 John we read personal letters from “the Presbyter” to “the chosen Lady and her children,” a church community within the Presbyter’s sphere of influence, and to “Gaius,” a member of another such community. In both letters the Presbyter warns about the dangers of deceptive teachers entering their communities, distorting the gospel message and causing dissention and conflict within the churches.

We also learned that the likely content of the deceptive teaching was an incipient form of Gnosticism, and its more extreme expression of Docetism, both of which denied the Gospel of John’s assertion that God appeared in the flesh in the person of Jesus of Nazareth. In both 2 & 3 John our author wishes to discuss the issue in more depth, but he prefers to do so in person, not with paper and ink.

Perhaps he did discuss these matters face to face with the “chosen Lady” and with Gaius, but in 1 John he again takes to pen and paper and he explores the issues systematically in much greater depth. Not technically a letter or an epistle, 1 John is more akin to a theological treatise, an essay or perhaps the text for a sermon or a homily.

Lesson #14: Jude.

“Muratorian Fragment,” Cod. J 101 sup. (7th–8th century Latin translation of a Greek 2nd-century text), c. A.D.170. Bibliotheca Ambrosiana, Milan.

[The book of Jude appears in the “Muratorian Fragment,” the earliest list of books included in the New Testament canon.]

34 In his commentary on Jude, Peter H. Davids writes:

“Jude is a book that has often been treated with ‘benign neglect.’ Rarely the text for a sermon, even in the university or seminary classroom it is often given only brief treatment at the end of a course on the General Epistles, perhaps as part of the last lecture on the final day of the course.”11

To that, we must plead guilty! Seemingly tacked on to the New Testament canon as something of an afterthought, Jude’s single page of 25 verses (461 words in Greek) is something to skim or skip over on the way to the great and towering book of Revelation, the Apocalypse.

But we won’t skim Jude or skip over it; we’ll pause and take a close look.

11 The Letters of 2 Peter and Jude, The Pillar New Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2006), loc. 323.

35 Bibliography

Hebrews General Commentaries

Harold W. Attridge. Hebrews, A Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews (Hermeneia: A Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible). Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1989.

F. F. Bruce. The Epistle to the Hebrews, rev. ed. (The New International Commentary on the New Testament). Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1997.

Gareth Lee Cockerill. The Epistle to the Hebrews (New International Commentary on the New Testament). Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2012.

Donald A. deSilva. Perseverance in Gratitude: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2000.

Paul Ellingworth. The Epistle to the Hebrews: A Commentary on the Greek Text (New International Greek Testament Commentary). William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1993.

Donald Guthrie. Hebrews (Tyndale New Testament Commentaries, Vol. 15). Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2015.

Mary Healy. Hebrews (Catholic Commentary on Sacred Scripture). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2016.

Luke Timothy Johnson. Hebrews, A Commentary (The New Testament Library). Louisville: John Knox Press, 2006.

Craig R. Koester. Hebrews (The Anchor Yale Bible Series, Vol. 36). New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008.

William L. Lane. Hebrews 1-8; 9-13 (Word Bible Commentary, Vols. 47A, B). Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1991.

Alan C. Mitchell. Hebrews (Sacra Pagina, Vol. 13). Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2009.

Ben Witherington III. Letters and Homilies for Jewish Christians: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on Hebrews, James and Jude. Downers Grove, IL: INP Academic, 2007.

36 Important Monographs and Articles

D. L. Allen. “The Lukan Authorship of Hebrews: A Proposal,” Journal of Translation and Textlinguistics 8 (1996), pp. 1-22.

H. Anderson. “The Jewish Antecedents of the Christology of Hebrews” in The Messiah: Developments in Earliest Judaism and Christianity, ed. by J. H. Charlesworth. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992, pp. 512-535.

Harold W. Attridge. “God in Hebrews” in The Epistle to the Hebrews and Christian Theology, ed. by Richard Bauckham, et al. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2009, pp. 95-110.

_____. “The Psalms in Hebrews,” in The Psalms in the New Testament, ed. by Steve Moyise and Maarten J. J. Menken. London: T&T Clark International, 2004.

David Aune. The New Testament in Its Literary Environment. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1987.

Richard Bauckham. “The Divinity of Jesus Christ in the Epistle to the Hebrews” in The Epistle to the Hebrews and Christian Theology, ed. by Richard Bauckham, et al. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2009, pp. 15-36.

_____. Jesus and the God of Israel: God Crucified and Other Studies on the New Testament’s Christology of Divine Identity. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008.

S. M. Baugh. “The Cloud of Witnesses in Hebrews 11,” Westminster Theological Journal 68 (2006), pp. 113-132.

Ardel B. Caneday. “The Eschatological World Already Subjected to the Son: The Oijkoumevnh of Hebrews 1: 6 and the Son’s Enthronement” in A Cloud of Witnesses: The Theology of Hebrews in Its Ancient Contexts, ed. by Richard Bauckham, et al. (The Library of New Testament Studies, 387). London: T&T Clark, 2008, pp. 28-39.

Ronald E. Clemens. “The Use of the Old Testament in Hebrews,” Southwest Journal of Theology 28 (1985), pp. 36-45.

Garth Lee Cockerill. “The Better Resurrection (Heb. 11: 35): A Key to the Structure and Rhetorical Purpose of Hebrews 11,” Tyndale Bulletin 51 (2000), pp. 214-234.

_____. “Melchizedek without Speculation: Hebrews 7: 1-25 and Genesis 14: 14-24” in A Cloud of Witnesses: The Theology of Hebrews in Its Ancient Contexts, ed. by Richard Bauckham, et al. (The Library of New Testament Studies, 387). London: T&T Clark, 2008, pp. 128-144.

_____. “Structure and Interpretation in Hebrews 8: 1 – 10: 18: A Symphony in Three Movements,” Bulletin for Biblical Research 11 (2001), pp. 179-201.

Michael R. Cosby. “The Rhetorical Composition and Function of Hebrews 11,” Journal of Biblical Literature 107 (1988), pp. 257-273.

N. C. Croy. Endurance in Suffering: Hebrews 12: 1-13 in Its Rhetorical, Religious, and Philosophical Context (Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 98). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

Richard M. Davidson. “Christ’s Entry ‘within’ the Veil in Hebrews 6: 19-20: The Old Testament Background,” Andrews University Seminary Studies 39 (2001), pp. 175-190.

Lala Kalyan Kumar Dey. The Intermediary World and Patterns of Perfection in Philo and Hebrews (Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series 25). Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1975.

Susan E. Docherty. The Use of the Old Testament in Hebrews: A Case Study in Early Jewish Bible Interpretation (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchugen zum Neuen Testament, 2 Reihe). Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009.

John Dunnill. Covenant and Sacrifice in the Letter to the Hebrews (Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 75). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Pamela M. Eisenbaum. “Heroes and History in Hebrews 11,” in Early Interpretation of the Scriptures of Israel: Investigations and Proposals (The Library of New Testament Studies, 148). Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997, pp. 380- 396.

_____. “Locating Hebrews within the Literary Landscape of Christian Origins, in Hebrews: Contemporary Methods—New Insights, ed. by Gabriella Gelardini (Biblical Interpretation Series, Vol. 75). Leiden: Brill, 2008, pp. 213-238.

Gordon D. Fee. “Wisdom Christology in Paul: A Dissenting View, in Way of Wisdom: Essays in Honor of Bruce K. Waltke, ed. by J. I. Packer and Sven K. Soderlund. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000, pp. 251-279.

Joseph A. Fitzmyer. “Now This Melchizedek,” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 25 (1963), pp. 305-321.

Gabriella Gelardini. “Hebrews, an Ancient Synagogue Homily for Tisha Be-Av: Its Function, Its Basis, Its Theological Interpretation,” in Hebrews: Contemporary

38 Methods—New Insights, ed. by Gabriella Gelardini (Biblical Interpretation Series, Vol. 75). Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2008, pp. 107-127.

Harold J. Greenlee. “Hebrews 11: 11—Sarah’s Faith or Abraham’s?” Notes on Translation 4 (1990), pp. 37-42.

George H. Guthrie. “The Case for Apollos as the Author of Hebrews,” Faith and Mission 18 (2001), pp. 41-56.

Scott W. Hahn. “A Broken Covenant and the Curse of Death: A Study of Hebrews 9: 15-22,” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 66 (2004), pp. 416-436.

Dennis Hamm. “Faith in the Epistle to the Hebrews: The Jesus Factor,” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 52 (1990), pp. 270-291.

Stephen R. Holmes. “Death in the Afternoon: Hebrews, Sacrifice, and Soteriology, in The Epistle to the Hebrews and Christian Theology, ed. by Richard Bauckham, et al. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2009, pp. 229-252.

Philip E. Hughes. “The Blood of Jesus and His Heavenly Priesthood in Hebrews, Part 1”: The Significance of the Blood of Jesus,” Bibliotheca sacra 130 (1973), pp. 99- 109.

_____. “The Blood of Jesus and His Heavenly Priesthood in Hebrews, Part 2”: The High-Priestly Sacrifice of Christ, Bibliotheca sacra 130 (1973), pp. 195-212.

_____. “The Blood of Jesus and His Heavenly Priesthood in Hebrews, Part 3: The Meaning of the ‘True Tent’ and ‘the Greater and More Perfect Tent,’”, Bibliotheca sacra 130 (1973), pp. 305-314.

Lincoln D. Hurst. The Epistle to the Hebrews: Its Background of Thought (Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 65). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Luke Timothy Johnson. “The Scriptural World of Hebrews,” Interpretation 57 (2003), pp. 237-250.

Craig R. Koester. The Dwelling of God: The Tabernacle in the Old Testament, Intertestamental Jewish Literature, and the New Testament (Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series, 22). Washington, D.C.: The Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1989.

Barnabas Linders. “The Rhetorical Structure of Hebrews,” New Testament Studies 35 (1989), pp. 382-406.

39 Hermut Löhr. “Reflections of Rhetorical Terminology in Hebrews,” in Hebrews: Contemporary Methods—New Insights, ed. by Gabriella Gelardini (Biblical Interpretation Series, Vol. 75). Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2008, pp. 199-210.

Bruce L. McCormack. “’With Loud Cries and Tears’: The Humanity of the Son in the Epistle to the Hebrews,” in The Epistle to the Hebrews and Christian Theology, ed. by Richard Bauckham, et al. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2009, pp. 37-68.

Scott D. Mackie. “Confession of the Son of God in Hebrews,” New Testament Studies 53 (2007), pp. 114-129.

George W. MacRae. “’A Kingdom That Cannot Be Shaken’: The Heavenly Jerusalem in the Letter to the Hebrews,” Tantur Yearbook (1979-1980), pp. 27-40.

_____. “Heavenly Temple and Eschatology in the Letter to the Hebrews,” Semeia 12 (1978), pp. 17), pp. 179-199.

James C. Miller. “Paul and Hebrews: A Comparison of Narrative Worlds,” in Hebrews: Contemporary Methods—New Insights, ed. by Gabriella Gelardini (Biblical Interpretation Series, Vol. 75). Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2008, pp. 245-264.

David M. Moffitt. “‘If Another Priest Arises’: Jesus’ Resurrection and the High Priestly Theology of Hebrews” in A Cloud of Witnesses: The Theology of Hebrews in Its Ancient Contexts, ed. by Richard Bauckham, et al. (The Library of New Testament Studies, 387). London: T&T Clark, 2008, pp. 80-87.

J. H. Neyrey. “’Without Beginning of Days or End of Life’ (Hebrews 7: 3): Topos for a True Deity,” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 53 (1991), pp. 439-455.

J. C. O’Neill. “’Who Is Comparable to Me in My Glory?’ 4Q491 Fragment 11 (4Q491C) and the New Testament,” Novum Testamentum 42 (2000), pp. 24-38.

David G. Peterson. Hebrews and Perfection: An Examination of the Concept of Perfection in the Epistle to the Hebrews (Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 47). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982.

Nehemia Polen. “Leviticus and Hebrews . . . and Leviticus,” in The Epistle to the Hebrews and Christian Theology, ed. by Richard Bauckham, et al. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2009, pp. 213-225.

Paul A. Rainbow. “Melchizedek as a Messiah at Qumran,” Bulletin for Biblical Research 7 (1997), pp. 179-194.

Victor Rhee. “Chiasm and the Concept of Faith in Hebrews 11,” Bibliotheca sacra 155 (July-September 1998), pp. 327-345.

D. W. Rooke. “Jesus as Royal Priest: Reflections on the Interpretation of the Melchizedek Tradition in Heb. 7,” Biblica 81 (2000), pp. 81-94.

Iutisone Salevao. Legitimation in the Letter to the Hebrews: The Construction and Maintenance of a Symbolic Universe (Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement, 219). London: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002.

Kenneth L. Schenck. “Keeping His Appointment: Creation and Enthronement in Hebrews,” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 66 (1997), pp. 91-117.

J. R. Walters. “The Rhetorical Arrangement of Hebrews,” Asbury Theological Journal 51 (1996), pp. 59-70.

Cynthia Long Westfall. A Discourse Analysis of the Letter to the Hebrews: The Relationship between Form and Meaning (Library of New Testament Studies, 297). London: T&T Clark, 2005.

James General Commentaries

A. K. M. Adam. James: A Handbook on the Greek Text. Waco: Baylor University Press, 2013.

Dale C. Allison, Jr. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle of James (The International Critical Commentary). New York: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2013.

Kelly Anderson and Daniel Keating. James, First, Second and Third John (Catholic Commentary on Sacred Scripture). Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017.

Peter H. Davids. The Epistle of James: A Commentary on the Greek Text (The New International Greek Testament Commentary). Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1982.

Luke Timothy Johnson. The Letter of James: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (The Anchor Bible, Vol. 37A). New York: Doubleday, 1995.

Ralph P. Martin. James (Word Biblical Commentary, Vol. 48). Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2018.

Dan G. McCartney. James (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament). Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2009.

Douglas J. Moo. James, 2nd edition (Tyndale New Testament Commentary, Vol. 16). Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 1987, 2015.

41 1 & 2 Peter and Jude General Commentaries

Richard J. Bauckham. Jude, 2 Peter (Word Biblical Commentary, Vol. 50). Waco, TX: Word Books, 1983.

Peter H. Davids. The First Epistle of Peter (New International Commentary on the New Testament). Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1990.

_____. The Letters of 2 Peter and Jude (The Pillar New Testament Commentary). Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2006.

Gene L. Green. Jude & 2 Peter (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament). Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008.

Douglas Harink. 1 & 2 Peter (Brazos Theological Commentary on the Bible). Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2009.

Thomas R. Schreiner. 1, 2 Peter, Jude (The New American Commentary, Vol. 37). Nashville: B & H Publishing Group, 2003.

1, 2 & 3 John General Commentaries

Kelly Anderson and Daniel Keating. James, First, Second and Third John (Catholic Commentary on Sacred Scripture). Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2017.

Raymond E. Brown. The Community of the Beloved Disciple: The Life, Loves and Hates of an Individual Church in New Testament Times. New York: Paulist Press, 1979.

John Painter. 1, 2, and 3 John (Sacra Pagina, Vol. 18). Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2002.

Stephen S. Smalley. 1, 2, 3 John, revised ed. (Word Biblical Commentary, Vol. 51) Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2008:

_____. The Epistles of John: Translated, with Introduction, Notes and Commentary (The Anchor Bible, Vol. 30). New York: Doubleday, 1982.

_____. The Gospel and Epistles of John: A Concise Commentary. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1988.